Windstorm Impact Reduction Program 

Biennial Progress Report for Fiscal Years 2005-2006 

I. Background 

The National Windstorm Impact Reduction Program (NWIRP) was established by Public Law 

108-360, the National Windstorm Impact Reduction Act of 2004. As required by the legislation, 

an implementation plan1 was developed by the Interagency Working Group (IWG) that provided 

guidance for participating agencies. The legislation also calls for a biennial report to Congress. 

This document is the biennial report for fiscal years 2005 and 2006. 

A. The Significance of Wind Hazards 

The 2005 hurricane season - the most costly in U.S. history - produced storms of unusual 

destruction, causing large-scale damage from wind and water across many states. Hurricanes 

Katrina, Rita and Wilma demonstrated in dramatic fashion how costly these events can be, both 

in lives lost and property destroyed. The expense of wind damage to the built environment from 

wind hazards have been increasing over the past decade, even when adjusted for inflation, as 

human development increases in the vulnerable coastal zones in hurricane-prone regions. These 

devastating events were only the most recent examples of the worldwide impact of windstorms. 

According to a report published by RAND2, windstorms caused almost two-thirds of the $145 

billion in uninsured losses in 2004. Florida alone suffered $42 billion in uninsured losses from 

the damage brought by four hurricanes that year. The RAND report indicates that the destruction 

caused by high winds, storm surges and flooding hurricanes and tornadoes cause throughout the 

United States cost the nation an average of about $6 billion per year. 

Although economic losses have increased over the last decade, improvements in forecasts, 

preparation and mitigation have significantly reduced the number of lives lost during the last 

century. Before Hurricane Katrina, the nation averaged about 100 deaths and 1,250 injuries per 

year. Social vulnerability analysis indicates that demographic subpopulations, including those of 

lower socioeconomic status, are at higher levels of risk from wind events26. 

B. Objectives 

Public Law 108-360, Title II, the National Windstorm Impact Reduction Act of 2004, which 

was signed into law by President Bush on October 25, 2004, is intended to measurably reduce 

the loss of life and property from windstorms. The law states that: 

The objective is to be achieved through a coordinated Federal effort, in cooperation with other 

levels of government, academia, and the private sector, aimed at improving the understanding of 

windstorms and their impacts and developing and encouraging implementation of cost-effective 

mitigation measures to reduce those impacts. 

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• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) shall support research and 

development to improve building codes and standards and practices for design and 

construction of buildings, structures, and lifelines. 

• National Science Foundation (NSF) shall support research in engineering and the 

atmospheric sciences to improve the understanding of the behavior of windstorms and 

their impact on buildings, structures and lifelines. 

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) shall support atmospheric 

sciences research to improve the understanding of the behavior of windstorms and their 

impact on buildings, structures, and lifelines. 

• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) shall support the development of risk 

assessment tools and the effective mitigation techniques, windstorm-related data 

collection and analysis, public outreach, information dissemination, and implementation 

of mitigation measures consistent with the Agency’s all-hazards approach.

C. The Interagency Working Group and Contributing Agencies 

The National Windstorm Impact Reduction Act directed the Director of the President’s Office of 

Science and Technology Policy to “establish an Interagency Working Group consisting of 

representatives of NSF, NOAA, NIST, FEMA, and other Federal agencies as appropriate. The 

Interagency Working Group will be responsible for the planning, management, and coordination 

of the Program, including budget coordination.” 

The Interagency Working Group was reconstituted after the delivery of the NWIRP 

implementation plan to Congress in April 2006. It consists of representatives from the agencies 

mentioned and, in addition, the Department of Transportation’s Federal Highway Administration 

(FWHA) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The FWHA is the only 

agency not mentioned in the Act that contributes to this report. 

D. The Intersection of Agency Missions with Wind Impact Reduction Objectives 

The following agencies have contributed to this report in accordance with the objectives of the 

National Windstorm Reduction Act. 

NSF: NSF supports basic research on the occurrence and effects of most natural hazards. This 

research includes studies of the temporal and special structure of hurricane winds, straight line 

winds and tornados and their effects on the built environment. Engineering studies include 

development of strategies and procedures for assessing and reducing impacts for all types of 

wind environments. Quantifying risk associated with wind loads and developing models for 

economic loss estimation and community impact are also important objectives. Another 

important objective of NSF is to study community preparedness and response to wind events in 

order to develop effective models for improving community resilience and hazard mitigation. 

NOAA: Within NOAA’s mission of understanding the environment, providing environmental 

stewardship, and predicting environmental changes, is the objective of saving lives and property. 

Wind is one of the many environmental parameters that NOAA strives to better understand and 

predict due to its often detrimental effect on lives and property. This includes potentially 

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damaging winds caused by tornadoes, hurricanes, and severe thunderstorms. The Hurricane 

Research Division of NOAA works with NOAA’s National Hurricane Center to improve wind 

forecasts, for example, through the new hurricane wind probability products. The National 

Severe Storms Laboratory helps NOAA’s Storm Prediction Center to improve forecasts of 

tornadic storms and of strong and damaging winds in severe thunderstorms. As part of the 

efforts leading to improved prediction, precise wind measurements are required, understanding 

of the processes producing such winds is improved, as is understanding of the nature (e.g., 

strength and duration) of strong wind events. 

NIST: NIST has a long and effective history in fulfilling its mission of serving the measurement 

and standards needs of the building and fire safety industries through its Building and Fire 

Research Laboratory (BFRL). BFRL is a critical source of metrics, models and knowledge for 

predicting the extent of damage from natural and man-made hazards, mitigating their impact, and 

helping to prevent failures in communities and public infrastructure systems. NIST’s mission in 

the area of wind engineering has historically been twofold: (1) to create the knowledge needed to 

improve code provisions and practices resulting in safer and more economical structures and (2) 

to develop effective tools for use in the prediction and investigation of losses due to wind. 

FEMA: Within FEMA’s National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program legislative authority, 

the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977, as amended, it is recognized in Section 2 

Findings that earthquake mitigation activities provide collateral benefits to mitigate other natural 

hazards, including windstorm events. In addition, under the authority of the Robert T. Stafford 

Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, as amended, FEMA coordinates the National 

Hurricane Program which provides important information, products, and tools to state and local 

governments in hurricane-threatened areas of the country. 

 

FWHA: The mission of the Bridge Safety, Reliability, and Security Initiative is to effectively 

deal with natural and manmade hazards to existing and new bridges as well as other highway 

structures. One of the objectives of the Bridge Program Strategic Plan is to ensure that highway 

structures provide a high level of safety and service under all conditions. Highway structures 

shall provide a high level of service under normal conditions and shall provide specified levels of 

reliability when subjected to natural and manmade hazards (extreme events). 

E. Areas of Focus of the NWIRP implementation plan 

As prescribed by Public Law 108-360, Title II, the National Windstorm Impact Reduction Act of 

2004, the Interagency Working Group was established in 2004 and delivered the Windstorm 

Impact Reduction Implementation Plan1

 for the National Windstorm Impact Reduction Program 

(NWIRP) in 2005. The NWIRP implementation plan organized the body of wind hazard 

research into the following four major themes with sub-themes: 

1. Understanding, predicting, and forecasting 

a. Enhancing knowledge, information and data on severe winds 

b. Improving prediction of hazardous wind events 

c. Understanding and quantifying wind loading 

d. Understanding the perception of wind hazard risk 

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e. Mapping wind hazards 

2. Assessing impacts 

a. Investigating wind resistance of buildings, structures and critical infrastructure 

b. Developing improved tools for component- and structure-level simulation and 

numerical modeling of wind effects 

c. Developing improved tools for loss assessment of wind hazards 

d. Assessing social costs 

3. Reducing impacts 

a. Assessing and communicating risk 

b. Developing prototype structural requirements 

c. Demonstration, education, training and outreach on improved codes and building 

guidelines 

d. Guidance on retrofitting 

e. Innovative technologies 

f. Land use measures and cost effective construction practices 

4. Preparedness and Enhancing Community Resilience 

a. Developing tools for community preparedness to wind hazards 

b. K-12 and college education needs 

c. General public awareness and outreach 

d. Evacuation planning 

e. Enhancing disaster-resistance of building codes and standards 

f. Building public and private partnerships 

g. Conducting emergency response exercises 

The progress in each sub-theme, if any and as appropriate within each agency’s mission, is 

presented in the next section. 

Within the four research themes, the NWIRP implementation plan identified eight high priority 

research topics to be addressed by agency programs: 

• Assessing individual and community capability to respond to wind events, including 

vulnerability analyses, risk perception, risk communication, risk management, 

communication of wind warnings and public response, evacuation capability, and public 

knowledge of appropriate protective actions for wind events, especially among 

vulnerable populations 

• Evaluating the response of the built environment and critical infrastructure to wind events 

by investigating aerodynamic response, load path, ultimate capacity and the performance 

of the building envelope 

• Assessing the impact of wind and windborne debris or wind and water/ice/snow 

• Examining the interaction between wind and storm surge to determine the impact on 

building foundations and critical infrastructure 

• Exploring the near-ground and channeling/shielding effects of winds on buildings 

through testing and instrumentation 

• Developing new technologies and ground, airborne and satellite based observing systems 

to improve knowledge and understanding of windstorms and the wind variability within 

those storms 

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• Measuring the response of bridges and other highway structures to wind events, including 

stability, serviceability and functionality leading up to and through extreme events 

• Developing and implementing technologies for rapid repair and restoration of critical 

infrastructure and critical services. 

II. Progress in Fiscal Years 2005 and 2006 

A. Reports by Agency 

National Science Foundation 

NSF Program Directors receive unsolicited proposals for research on a broad range of topics 

related to hazard mitigation. The programs range from atmospheric sciences programs that are 

concerned with physics-based topics related to formation of hurricanes and thunder storms to 

engineering programs focused on improving the performance of structures against wind loads, to 

social science programs devoted to societal response to natural disasters. Although these 

proposals are selected through the peer review process under programs intended to advance 

research in myriad areas and not just hurricanes and winds, the NSF portfolio of projects have 

collectively made important progress in each of four focus areas and many of the sub-areas 

defined above. 

Understanding, Predicting and Forecasting: 

Over the past two years, research in atmospheric sciences was begun to develop a better 

understanding of atmospheric dynamics of straight-line winds and to improve understanding of 

fundamental physics that control hurricane intensity; wave dynamics during hurricanes; 

collaborative research on the impact of externally and internally modulated convection on 

tropical cyclone evolution 

(http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0514199). Understanding the 

hazard risk associated with extreme hurricane events is also being studied. Detecting synopticscale precursors of tornado outbreaks 

(http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0527934) is the objective of 

one investigation. Another project is studying tornadic storms with Doppler Polarimetric Radar 

(http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0532107). 

Assessing the impacts of wind hazards

Shortly after Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf States, 29 small grants were awarded for 

reconnaissance studies aimed at documenting the effects and preserving highly perishable data. 

Two of these studies on the performance of the levee system were expanded in scope to include 

engineering analyses of failed sections of the levees and proposed repair and replacement 

strategies. Development of instrumentation for the observational studies of the effects of 

atmospheric winds on structures near the ground was also undertaken. Another of these projects 

investigated large coastal bridge performance in a hurricane environment. Collection of 

perishable data on wood-frame residential structures in the wake of Hurricane Katrina was also 

undertaken. Studies were conducted to better understand the response of typical bridges to 

hurricanes and to assessing risk for long-span bridges. The determination of storm surge effects 

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on levees and the simulation of non-linear water waves during hurricanes were the subjects of 

other investigations. In order to better understand the impacts of hurricane disasters, 

construction material requirements for rebuilding New Orleans are being investigated and 

documented. Improving glass performance during wind storms and the modeling response of tall 

buildings to straight line winds are important for understanding the impacts to wind hazards. 

Social science topics under investigation include evaluating preferences for rebuilding plans 

post-Katrina, assessing public health impacts of disasters, and decision making in displaced 

populations. In particular, one project is examining factors associated with compliance to 

Katrina mandatory hurricane evacuation orders in seven coastal Louisiana parishes. 

Reducing Impacts of Wind Hazards

Resistance of existing wood roof structures and retrofit schemes is currently being studied to 

better understand how best to construct more resistant structures in the future. This type of 

damage accounts for a significant proportion of the damage caused by hurricanes and straight 

line winds each year. In addition, we also need to better understand the impact of hazard events 

on soils, infrastructure, and the submerged environment. A project entitled “The Effect of 

Katrina on Submerged Geotechnical Systems - Underwater Evaluation of Sediment-StructureStorm Interaction” will provide important data on these important parts of the urban 

infrastructure. Another project that is vital to the energy supply is focusing on assessment of 

damage to underground tanks in New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Electric 

Utility Damage from Hurricane Katrina is also under investigation. 

Preparedness and Enhancing Community Resilience

Instructional materials for K-12 are being developed to enhance preparedness among children. 

Also, information technologies are being developed to assist individuals in adapting to 

evacuation. Social networks are being studied to understand the role they might play in early 

warning strategies and subsequent compliance. Improving hurricane intensity forecasting is 

important to increase societal compliance and evacuation plans and orders, but the public must 

also be educated to understand risk and appropriate behavior to ensure their safety. Two studies 

are underway to better understand and improve evacuation procedures. Two projects have been 

funded for analyzing multi-organizational networks and their roles in hazard mitigation. Ten 

projects are underway that are investigating various tools that might be useful for building 

community resilience to wind hazards. One of these projects is examining how preferences for 

rebuilding plans are being made after Hurricane Katrina

(http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0554987). Another one is 

studying “The Parallel Strengths and Weaknesses of the Civil Society and the State: The 

Example of Katrina Survivors” 

(http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0555113). 

“Cyberinfrastructure Preparedness for Emergency Response and Relief: Learning the lessons 

from Hurricane Katrina” is the focus of another investigation 

(http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=0638561). 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

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NOAA activities and progress during the past two years can be divided into six categories: 1) 

development of plans, 2) provision of data of use for wind hazard reduction, 3) development of 

decision support tools and analyses of relevance to wind hazards, 4) understanding and 

predicting weather conditions producing wind damage, 5) creation of new facilities for 

improving our knowledge and prediction of wind hazards, and 6) education and outreach. 

Development of plans: 

NOAA developed a budget initiative for fiscal years 2009 to 2013 addressing the creation of 

resilient coastal communities of which resilience to wind hazards is a component. NIST and 

NOAA jointly developed a cooperative plan on Hazard-Resilient Communities. NOAA is 

represented on the U.S.-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects. This panel encourages 

exchange of information between the two countries and has initiated a joint project on bridge 

stay flutter. It proposes work on urban canopy wind modeling and verification and coupling of 

meteorological and computational fluid dynamic models to be used by wind structural engineers. 

Providing data of use for wind hazard reduction: 

During FY2004, several extreme turbulence (ET) probes3, 4 were developed and successfully 

tested in actual hurricanes. These probes hold promise for very high spatial and temporal 

resolution measurements of winds on the immediate exterior of structures. In cooperation with 

NOAA, the Florida and South Carolina Sea Grant deployed portable towers measuring winds 

during Hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan, Katrina, and Rita. These data are useful for 

“nowcasts” of the winds and to duplicate wind tunnel measurements. The Shared Mobile 

Atmospheric Research and Teaching Radars (SMART-R), the result of a cooperative effort 

between the University of Oklahoma and NOAA, have been used in hurricane landfall 

deployments, and have been upgraded to deliver their data directly to forecast offices in real 

time5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The stepped frequency microwave radiometer is now deployed on both research 

and operation aircraft for much improved surface wind and vertical wind profiles over water 

within hurricanes and they are now used in NOAA’s operational hurricane model and for realtime hurricane intensity analysis. 

Decision support tools and analysis for wind hazards: 

NOAA has been working with the state of Florida on a Public Hurricane Loss Projection Model 

to develop wind-dependent vulnerability functions for building retrofit guidance. The NOAA 

hurricane wind (H*WIND) analysis was used to validate this model. A stochastic model is being 

used to simulate 55,000 years of hurricane tracks for a wind demonstration project, conducted 

with NIST, to test wind and storm surge risk maps in a few selected coastal areas. The U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers and NOAA completed a post-Hurricane Katrina, Charley, Frances, 

Ivan, and Jeanne 1-km resolution wind field analysis using the H*WIND product and data that 

were not available in real time. NOAA’s National Hurricane Center introduced its new 

experimental wind-speed probability forecast in time for the 2006 hurricane season to map out 

several predicted wind-speed thresholds. 

Understanding and predicting weather conditions producing wind damage: 

NOAA continues to gather field data on hurricane inner core dynamics to better understand 

intensity changes. During the past two hurricane seasons, NOAA, with the Office of Naval 

Research, has been measuring the heat and momentum exchange between the atmosphere and 

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ocean within hurricanes to better parameterize this exchange in hurricane prediction models10, 11. 

Preliminary testing of these new parameterizations in NOAA’s operational hurricane model has 

improved hurricane intensity predictions. NOAA tested a new hurricane model during the 2006 

hurricane season for operational application next season. It is coupled with an ocean model and 

has a nested and movable grid. 

Creating new facilities for improving our knowledge and prediction of wind hazards: 

The new National Weather Center in Norman, Oklahoma opened its doors during the summer of 

2006. It consists of the South Research Campus of the University of Oklahoma, the NOAA 

Norman forecast office, the Storm Prediction Center, and the National Severe Storms 

Laboratory. This facility also features the Hazardous Weather Testbed, which performs research 

and development to improve prediction of hazardous winds. This year, Congress appropriated 

$2M to NOAA to promote collaboration among the University of Alabama/Huntsville’s Earth 

System Science Center, NASA’s Short-Term Prediction Research and Transition Center, 

NOAA’s National Severe Storms Laboratory, and the Hazardous Weather Testbed. This 

collaboration will lead to improved prediction and monitoring of severe storms and their 

associated hazardous winds. 

Education and outreach: 

• NOAA’s Louisiana Sea Grant program has developed fact sheets that include 

information on building codes, where and how to rebuild, and how to determine if 

a contractor is following state and federal regulations. It has been distributed to 

parishes and is available on the Internet. The program has also sponsored 

seminars on storm preparedness and has provided information on building codes 

and zoning practices. 

• NOAA’s Texas Sea Grant Program (Texas A&M) has been evaluating the Texas 

Mitigation Plan, which includes construction codes. 

• The North Carolina Sea Grant (North Carolina State in collaboration with Oregon 

State) developed a break-away wall design for 125-mph winds and 1.5-ft waves, 

which has been adopted by the American Society of Civil Engineers. 

• The South Carolina Sea Grant (Clemson) has developed low-cost methods for 

reducing storm damage, including strengthening roofs and shutters which have 

been adopted by a Sun City developer. 

• There is now a “hazards house” in Charleston, SC, that helps educate the public 

on hazard-resilient building and retrofitting techniques, including those that 

mitigate wind effects. 

• NOAA has prepared material for a documentary on how to stay safe in high 

winds, including how to improve housing construction to resist damage and the 

appropriate design for safe rooms. The documentary will be featured on the 

Discovery Channel. 

• NOAA held its first Weather Partners open house in Norman, OK, for 

approximately 1000 visitors. Wind risk to structures was a prominent theme for 

discussion. 

• NOAA organized a training session at the National Hurricane Conference on 

hurricanes and public health. During the session, a representative from the 

Institute of Building and Home Safety delivered a presentation on the resilience of 

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public health facilities against structural hazards. Key structural components 

included window strength, exterior cladding, roof edging, and vulnerability of 

roof type and roof mountings. The participants then critically evaluated a 

simulated hurricane scenario. 

National Institute for Standards and Technology 

NIST research over the past two years has focused on two areas: (1) to gain an understanding of 

wind hazards to the built environment; and (2) to develop predictive technologies and mitigation 

strategies to enhance disaster resilience to wind hazards. 

Understanding Wind Hazards to the Built Environment 

Extreme Wind Databases: To facilitate use of Automated Surface Observing Station (ASOS) 

wind data for structural engineering purposes, NIST developed procedures and software for (a) 

extraction of peak gust wind data from archived ASOS weather reports, (b) extraction of 

thunderstorm observations from archived weather reports, (c) classification of wind data as 

thunderstorm or non-thunderstorm to enable separate statistical analyses of these distinct types of 

winds, and (d) construction of data sets separated by specified minimum time intervals to ensure 

statistical independence. Estimates showed that, at these stations, thunderstorm wind speeds 

dominate the extreme wind climate to the extent that non-thunderstorm wind speeds can be 

disregarded in the analysis12. Using such records it is possible to obtain realistic probabilistic 

descriptions of the wind climate at stations where both types of wind occur. The software, data, 

and literature are available at www.nist.gov/wind.

Advanced Computational Tools for Determining Realistic Wind Loads in the Built Environment 

NIST has developed software for analyzing wind effects on rigid, gable-roofed buildings, and 

flexible high-rise buildings using the database-assisted design methodology 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. 

Database-Assisted Design (DAD) is a unified framework for analysis and design of buildings for 

wind loads that makes direct use of pressure-time histories measured at a large number of 

pressure taps on wind tunnel models. Local climatological information can be used in 

conjunction with the measured pressures to obtain estimates of peak wind effects with specified 

return periods for use in structural design. DAD offers more accurate estimation of peak wind 

effects than simplified procedures that are now used, which paves the way for more riskconsistent designs. The software, data, and literature are available at www.nist.gov/wind. 

Methodologies for Predicting Ultimate Structural Capacities and Estimating Safety Margins 

The design of many low-rise metal buildings in the U.S. is based on the ASCE 7-93 Standard 

and the use of Allowable Stress Design (ASD). NIST used the nonlinear database-assisted 

design technique to assess the degree of safety of a typical low-rise portal frame industrial 

structure designed in accordance with ASCE 7-93 and ASD as compared to the provisions of the 

ASCE 7-02 Standard. We have found that the frame being considered satisfies all ASCE 7-02 

requirements with respect to wind loading but that its safety level is relatively low and could be 

improved substantially at very low cost20. 

Assessing the Performance of Structures in Wind Disasters 

NOAA’s National Weather Service implemented the enhanced Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale on 

an operational basis in February 2007. The enhanced Fujita scale is based upon observations by 

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a NIST researcher as part of a reconnaissance team deployed following the 1997 Jarrell, TX 

tornado and subsequent technical work performed by Texas Tech University with funding and 

technical oversight by NIST. The more realistic wind speeds associated with the enhanced scale 

will allow the use of routine standard provisions for the safe design of buildings under most 

tornadoes occurring in the U.S. 

After Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, NIST assembled a team of experts to conduct a 

reconnaissance of the status of buildings, physical infrastructure, and residential structures in the 

New Orleans area, coastal Mississippi, and Southeast Texas. NIST documented its findings on 

the environmental conditions (e.g., wind speeds, storm surge elevations, and flooding) and on the 

performance of structures in the study areas in its final report issued in June 2006. The report 

includes 23 recommendations in three groups: 1) immediate impact on practice for rebuilding, 

2) standards, codes, and practices, and 3) further study of specific structures or research and 

development21.

Technical Basis for Improved Codes and Standards 

Estimates of the World Trade Center (WTC) towers’ response to wind by two North American 

wind engineering laboratories differed from each other by almost 50 percent. A recent NIST 

investigation indicated that those differences reflected discrepancies between the respective 

estimates of the wind speeds and the respective modeling of directional interaction between wind 

speeds and aerodynamic/dynamic response of the building22, 23.

NIST analyzed the role of risk-consistent probabilistic definitions of peak wind effects in 

developing safety margins for inclusion in codes and standards. 

U.S.-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects 

NIST chairs the US-Japan Joint Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects and NIST staff actively 

participates in the Panel and its wind engineering task committee. The Panel provides an 

effective mechanism for the exchange of technical data and information, the exchange of 

researchers, and the coordination of joint research on topics of mutual interest to the US and 

Japan. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FEMA activities and progress during the past two years can be organized in the following 

categories: 1) risk assessment; 2) windstorm-related data collection and analysis; 3) public 

outreach; 4) implementation of mitigation measures consistent with the Agency’s all-hazards 

approach; and 5) hurricane program coordination. 

Risk Assessment 

Hazards US – Multi-Hazard, or HAZUS-MH, is a risk assessment program developed by FEMA 

for analyzing potential losses from floods, hurricane winds and earthquakes. In HAZUS-MH, 

current scientific and engineering knowledge is coupled with the latest GIS technology to 

produce estimates of hazard-related damage before, or after, a disaster. HAZUS-MH estimates 

include: physical damage to buildings and infrastructure; economic loss, including lost jobs, 

business interruptions, repair and reconstruction costs; and social impacts, including shelter 

requirements, displaced households, and population exposed to the disaster. HAZUS-MH MR2, 

the second maintenance release of the HAZUS-MH software program, became available from 

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FEMA in April 2006. HAZUS-MH MR2 produces loss estimates based on state-of-the-art 

scientific and engineering knowledge and software architecture. These estimates are essential for 

decision-making at all levels of government, and are a basis for developing mitigation plans and 

policies, emergency preparedness, scenarios used to conduct exercises, and response and 

recovery planning. 

Windstorm-related data collection and analysis 

FEMA conducts Mitigation Assessment Team (MAT) studies of building performance after 

hurricanes. During the year since the catastrophic devastation of Hurricane Katrina, the 

Mitigation Division has made significant strides in helping the residents of the Gulf Coast 

rebuild by providing unprecedented levels of support and resources. After Katrina, FEMA 

deployed a MAT to evaluate and assess damage from that storm and provide observations on the 

performance of structures impacted by flood and wind forces along with recommendations for 

improved disaster resistant construction. The team released a comprehensive report earlier this 

year. Key findings from the report include: 1) Lack of adequate building codes in the affected 

states greatly compounded the effect of Hurricane Katrina on building performance; 2) Storm 

surge and wave crest elevations from Hurricane Katrina exceeded the mapped base flood 

elevations in many coastal areas of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi and flood damage was 

severe in these areas; and 3) Hurricane Katrina was less than a design-level storm for wind in 

most areas; however, wind damage was widespread and was severe in some areas. Buildings 

that experienced substantial structural damage typically were built before wind effects were 

adequately considered in building design and construction. 

Implementation of mitigation measures consistent with the Agency’s all-hazards approach 

As part of the MAT effort, the team developed first-of- its- kind construction guidance that 

provides coastal residents with engineering guidance and complete foundation solutions for 

rebuilding in the Gulf. In great demand, the MAT experts have delivered nearly 40 briefings and 

presentations on Katrina to local, regional, state and national audiences. By using better building 

practices now, Gulf Coast communities will be strengthened and more resilient when the next 

hazardous storm occurs. FEMA 550 Residential Construction for the Gulf Coast: Building on 

Strong and Safe Foundations provides homeowners, builders and design professionals with 

prescriptive, pre-engineered foundation solutions, cost information and guidance on choosing 

and constructing disaster-resistant foundations. Another publication receiving widespread 

dissemination and usage is FEMA 499 Homebuilders Guide to Coastal Construction - Technical 

Fact Sheet Series. This publication is a series of 31 colorful and graphic fact sheets that detail 

critical components of successful coastal building construction. To date, over 20,000 copies have 

been ordered and provided.

Public Outreach 

The FEMA web site, www.fema.gov, serves as the nation's portal to emergency and disaster 

information. During the month that followed Hurricane Katrina's landfall along the Gulf Coast, 

more than 14 million visits and 400 million hits were logged on the Web site. 

Hurricane Program Coordination 

FEMA and NOAA worked together to improve evacuation planning for hurricanes. Improved 

hurricane intensity predictions resulting from NOAA’s research are used to improve evacuation 

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decision-making and limit evacuations to only those who absolutely need to evacuate, thereby 

reducing congestion on the highways. 

Over the past two years, FEMA has worked in coordination with NOAA to improve planning 

based on improved data and Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes (SLOSH) modeling 

parameters. The NOAA SLOSH hurricane storm surge model is used nationwide to predict the 

storm surge magnitude for all categories of storms along the coastal regions. Since Hurricane 

Isabel, NOAA has conducted reviews and examinations of the SLOSH data and has made 

adjustments to the model for future real time predictions. 

Federal Highway Administration24, 25

Understanding, Predicting and Forecasting Wind Hazards 

The FHWA Office of Infrastructure R&D continuously monitors winds at the sites of three major 

long-span, cable-supported bridges to establish and characterize site-specific wind conditions 

and the responses of the bridges. All sites are relatively near the coastline with one in Louisiana, 

another in Delaware, and the third in Maine. The engineering data collected at these sites 

provides valuable input into design of new structures. 

Assessing the Impact of Wind Hazards 

The FHWA Office of Infrastructure R&D has continuously monitored the wind environment and 

detailed response of three major long-span, cable-supported bridge structures to evaluate their 

wind performance and wind resistance. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model 

UABRIM is being enhanced by implementation of unstructured and adaptive grids for use in 

simulating the interaction between wind and structures such as large bridges. Tests have been 

completed in our small wind tunnel using evolving Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technology 

to study wind flow fields around and compute wind forces on several representative bridge deck 

sections. 

The FHWA Office of Operations continued activities under the Road Weather Management 

Program, which seeks to develop and promote effective tools for observing and predicting the 

impacts of weather on the roads, and to alleviate these weather impacts. As part of the program, 

the Claris Initiative has continued to conduct activities to develop and demonstrate an integrated 

surface transportation weather observing, forecasting and data management system, and to 

establish a partnership to create a Nationwide Surface Transportation Weather Observing and 

Forecasting System. The Initiative Coordinating Committee (ICC) held its annual meeting in 

August 2006. 

 

Reducing the Impact of Wind Hazards 

The FHWA Office of Infrastructure R&D has initiated research to prepare a synthesis report on 

Wind Load Criteria for Cable Supported Structures. Complementary research has also been 

initiated to prepare a synthesis report on User Comfort and Serviceability Criteria for Wind 

Loading. Research has continued on the issue of wind- and wind/rain-induced vibration of 

bridge stay cables. A draft guidelines document is under development for the aerodynamic 

design of bridge stay cables. 

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13

 

Preparedness and Enhancing Community Resilience 

The FHWA Office of Infrastructure R&D, together with the Missouri Department of 

Transportation, organized and held the 2nd National Workshop on Wind-Induced Vibration of 

Cable-Stayed Bridges in April 2006. This workshop served to disseminate the latest information 

on the mitigation of wind-induced vibrations to state bridge engineers and design consultants. 
B. Table of Agency Progress (FY2005 and FY2006) in the Four Impleme

NIST NSF NOAA FEMA 

1. Understanding, Predicting and Forecasting Enhancing knowledge, information and data on severe winds 

Developed procedures and software for extraction of peak gust wind data and thunderstorm observations from archived ASOS weather reports; classification of wind data as thunderstorm or nonthunderstorm; and construction of data sets separated by specified minimum time intervals to ensure statistical independence. 

Better understanding of atmospheric dynamics of straight-line winds; modeling and measuring of rotor effects 

Developed extreme turbulence probe. Deployed portable towers in hurricanes at landfall. Deployed stepped frequency microwave anemometer. Improvements in mobile radars. These instruments provide much improved and robust wind measurements near the ground and, therefore, improved understanding of the forces experienced by structures in actual hurricanes. 

Conducted Mitigation Assessment Team (MAT) evaluations following Hurricanes Charlie and Ivain 2004 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005 

Improving prediction of hazardous wind events 

Developed procedure for statistical estimation of extreme wind speeds in mixed non-thunderstorm/ thunderstorm wind climates. 

Tornado genesis and tornadic vortex structure 

Studied hurricane inner core dynamics. Improved air-sea exchange parameterizations. Tested improved hurricane model for operational use. Established new National Weather Center in Norman, Oklahoma to improve research and development related to the prediction of hazardous winds. 

Understanding and quantifying wind loading 

Developed methods for utilizing database, assisted design for rigid and flexible buildings and implemented the methods in software. The database assisted design method uses pressure-time histories measeured at a large number of pressure taps on wind tunnel models. Evaluated the procedure for estimating extreme wind effects by the directional sector-by-sector approach. 

Improved understanding of fundamental physics that control hurricane intensity; wave dynamics during hurricanes; effects of convection on cyclones 

Conducted MAT evaluatio(see above) and worked withe International Code Council (ICC)to develop a Wind Shelter Standard 

Understanding the perception of wind hazard risk 

Anticipation of extreme hurricane winds 

Conducted MAT evaluatio(see above) and worked withe International Code Council (ICC)to develop a Wind Shelter Standard 

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Mapping wind hazards 

Provided surface wind analysis for Florida building retrofit guidance. Provided hurricane track statistics for wind and storm surge risk maps. Assisted Army Corps of Engineers with high resolution wind maps of recent significant hurricanes. 

2. Assessing ImpactsInvestigating wind resistance of buildings, structures and critical infrastructure 

NOAA’s NWS implemented the enhanced Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale operationally in February 2007. The enhanced Fujita scale is based upon observations by a NIST researcher following the 1997 Jarrell, TX tornado and technical work performed by Texas Tech University with funding and technical oversight by NIST. NIST led a reconnaissance of the performance of buildings, physical infrastructure, and residential structures affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. 

Development of instrumentation for the observational study of atmospheric winds; Bridge response to hurricanes; documentation of wind effects; workshop on wind effects; performance of tanks and industrial facilities during Katrina (2 projects); performance of underground structures during Katrina; response of submerged geotechnical systems and buried infrastructure (3 projects) reconnaissance studies(12 projects) 

Conducted MAT evaluatio(see above) 

Developing improved tools for component- and structure-level simulation and numerical modeling of wind effects 

Developed wind engineering software, data, and literature, which is described at 

www.nist.gov/wind . 

Improving glass performance; response of tall buildings to straight line winds, response and repair of levee systems for Katrina 

Developing improved tools for loss assessment of wind hazards 

Assessing risk for long-span bridges; determination of storm surge on levees; simulation of non-linear water waves during hurricanes; construction material requirements for rebuilding New Orleans 

Developed low-cost methods for reducing storm damage, including strengthening roofs and shutters, from NOAA Sea Grant. 

Completed development anrelease of HAZUS-MH MR and MR 2 updates for Hurricane Winds and methodology for Hurricane Storm Surge Model 

Assessing social costs 

Evaluating preferences for rebuilding plans post-Katrina; assessing public health impacts; decision making in displaced populations; Electric utility damage from Katrina; impact of Katrina and storm surge on human and built environment 

Completed a major study through the National Institutes of Building Sciences (NIBS) on the Benefits of mitigation whicdetermined a 4:1 return on mitigation investment 

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3. Reducing Impacts

Assessing and communicating risk 

Improving hurricane intensity forecasting 

Introduction of experimental wind speed probability product. 

Completed HAZUS-MH M1 and MR 2 releases; Ongoing Hurricane Evacuation Studies and Planning; conducted over 5briefings on the results of tHurricane Katrina MAT 

Developing prototype structural requirements 

Resistance of wood roof structures 

Participated in standards development committees: ASCE 7 Wind Loads Task Committee; the ICC Wind Shelter Standard; and the NFPA Manufactured HousFoundations Standard 

Demonstration, education, training and outreach on improved codes and building guidelines 

Participated in the ASCE 7 Standard Committee on Wind Loads; trained future wind engineers (post-doctoral researchers, graduate and under-graduate students). 

Conducted over 50 HurricaKatrina MAT briefings; HAZUS Hurricane Module training to over 500 peoplenumerous presentations anspeeches at conferences 

Guidance on retrofitting 

Developing an electronic tassessment and retrofit for wind, flood and earthquake for residences 

Innovative technologies 

Developed breakaway wall 

design for 125 mph winds and 1.5 ft waves from NOAA Sea Grant. 

Land use measures and cost effective construction practices 

Ongoing evacuation plannstudies with the US Corps Engineers and coastal Statein hurricane-prone regions 

4. Preparedness and Enhancing Community Resilience Developing tools for community preparedness to wind hazards 

Developing tools for preparedness for hurricanes and wind storms (8 projects); response of Texas school systems to Katrina; emergency preparedness planning and on-line evacuation of large buildings; 

“Hazards house” in Charleston, SC, developed by NOAA Sea Grant. 

Ongoing efforts to improve and develop tools for effective State and local evacuation and sheltering plans 

K-12 and college education needs 

Trained future wind engineers (post-doctoral researchers, graduate and undergraduate students). 

Development of instructional materials on disaster preparedness; Tracking Katrina: algebra project instructional materials using stories by displaced New Orleans students 

Delivered hurricane mitigation training to University professors thru MBDSI Summer Institute thru presentations to conferences where educatoare present 

16
General public awareness and outreach 

Conducted initial series of briefings to state and local building officials and emergency managers on the findings and recommendations of the Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita reconnaissance. 

Development of social networks for early warning 

Developed fact sheets on building codes, rebuilding, and contractor issues from NOAA Sea Grant in Louisiana. Held session at National Hurricane Conference on public health facility resilience to winds. Prepared material for Discovery Channel program on wind safety and Weather Partners open house. 

Delivered hurricane mitigation training to University professors thru MBDSI Summer Institute thru presentations to conferences where educatoare present 

Evacuation Planning 

Study on adapting to evacuation: information technology; Evacuation studies (2 projects) 

Ongoing activity and improvements informationproducts, and tools for effective State and local hurricane evacuation and sheltering plans 

Enhancing disaster-resistance of Building Codes and Standards 

Determined that differences in estimates of the World Trade Center (WTC) towers’ response to wind by two North American wind engineering laboratories were due to discrepancies between the respective estimates of the wind speeds and the respective modeling of directional interaction between wind speeds and the response of the building.

Analyzed the role of riskconsistent probabilistic definitions of peak wind effects in developing safety margins for inclusion in codes and standards. 

Code analysis and studies of enforcement 

Participated in ASCE 7 WiLoads Task Committee; ICWind Shelter Design Standard development; Proposed successful code changes to improve wind resistance of national modebuildings codes 

Building public and private partnerships 

Working cooperatively witUS Dept of Housing and Urban Development (HUDAmerican Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE); US Coof Engineers and others 

Conducting emergency response exercises 

Analyzing emergent multiorganizational networks (2 projects) 

Conducted major catastropplanning activity for a hurricane exercise in New Orleans and began planninfor a Cat 5 Miami hurricanexercise 

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III. Summary 

One of the primary goals of the National Windstorm Impact Reduction Program is to increase 

the effectiveness of existing program efforts through better coordination among agencies. 

Improved coordination can frequently produce improvements in existing research with little or 

no additional expense. During fiscal years 2005 and 2006, NWIRP agencies improved 

communications and collaborations among Federal programs in the following ways: 

• Enhanced knowledge, collected data and shared information on severe winds 

• Investigated wind resistance of buildings and structures (in particular, bridge 

structures) 

• Developed improved tools for assessment of losses from wind hazards 

• Increased general public awareness and outreach on specific wind-related topics 

• Assisted in the development of evacuation planning and guidance 

In addition, improved communication revealed several research areas in the Windstorm Impact 

Reduction Implementation Plan that deserve further attention or development: 

• Understanding the perception of wind hazard risk 

• Mapping wind hazards 

• Assessing and communicating risk 

• Developing prototype structural requirements 

• Guidance on retrofitting 

• Innovative technologies for assessment and mitigation 

• Land use measures and cost effective construction practices 

• Conducting emergency response exercises 

ussions and planning, and 

ill be factored into subsequent prioritization of research needs. 

agency 

l provide 

 on where resources are needed to accomplish the goals of the 

plementation plan. 

ch of 

and the effects of high winds on buildings, bridges, and natural systems. The following list is a 

• Building public and private partnerships 

These areas of research will be re-examined during subsequent disc

w

In some sectors of wind research, the delivery of existing research results to users would provide 

high value for resources invested, and this will be emphasized during the next year. Inter

coordination is improving through the work of the Interagency Working Group. Strong 

interagency coordination and collaboration allows for more efficient use and leveraging of 

existing resources. Under the auspices of the National Science and Technology Council, the 

NWIRP Interagency Working Group will continue to perform gap analyses, which wil

more detailed guidance

im

One of the focusing events of the historic 2005 U.S. hurricane season was the landfall and 

resulting unprecedented disaster caused by Hurricane Katrina. Although dozens of Federal 

agencies responded to the massive damage caused by this hurricane and the subsequent brea

the New Orleans levees, the science agencies of the National Windstorm Impact Reduction 

Program used this destructive storm as an opportunity to expand our knowledge of hurricanes 

18
partial summary of science activities in the NWIRP agencies, some conducted individually, some 

conducted collaboratively: 

NIST 

• Led a reconnaissance of the performance of buildings, physical infrastructure, and 

residential structures affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. 

• Conducted initial series of briefings to state and local building officials and emergency 

managers on the findings and recommendations of the Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane 

Rita reconnaissance. 

 

NSF 

• Development of instrumentation for the observational study of atmospheric winds; 

Bridge response to hurricanes; documentation of wind effects; workshop on wind effects; 

performance of tanks and industrial facilities during Katrina (2 projects); performance of 

underground structures during Katrina; response of submerged geotechnical systems and 

buried infrastructure (3 projects) reconnaissance studies (12 projects) 

• Improving glass performance; response of tall buildings to straight line winds, response 

and repair of levee systems for Katrina 

• Assessing risk for long-span bridges; determination of storm surge on levees; simulation 

of non-linear water waves during hurricanes; construction material requirements for 

rebuilding New Orleans 

• Evaluating preferences for rebuilding plans post-Katrina; assessing public health impacts; 

decision making in displaced populations; Electric utility damage from Katrina; impact of 

Katrina and storm surge on human and built environment 

• Developing tools for preparedness for hurricanes and wind storms (8 projects); response 

of Texas school systems to Katrina; emergency preparedness planning and on-line 

evacuation of large buildings; 

• Development of instructional materials on disaster preparedness; Tracking Katrina: 

algebra project instructional materials using stories by displaced New Orleans students 

NOAA 

Although NOAA’s role in Katrina was largely operational, many of its activities informed 

subsequent scientific investigations by other agencies. 

• NOAA National Climatic Data Center provided storm meteorological data (rain, wind, 

and pressure) and social and economic impact data. 

• Aircraft missions into Katrina, satellite images from various sources, tropical cyclone 

surface wind field analyses, radar data from aircraft and land-based stations. 

• National Ocean Service provided water levels for Hurricane Katrina, including observed 

versus predicted water levels. 

• The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and NOAA completed a post-Hurricane Katrina, 

Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne 1-km resolution wind field analysis using the 

H*WIND product and data that were not available in real time. 

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• NOAA’s Louisiana Sea Grant program has developed fact sheets that include information 

on building codes, where and how to rebuild, and how to determine if a contractor is 

following state and federal regulations. It has been distributed to parishes and is 

available on the Internet. The program has also sponsored seminars on storm 

preparedness and has provided information on building codes and zoning practices. 

FEMA 

• Conducted Mitigation Assessment Team (MAT) evaluations following Hurricanes 

Charlie and Ivan in 2004 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005 

• Completed HAZUS-MH MR 1 and MR 2 releases; Ongoing Hurricane Evacuation 

Studies and Planning; conducted over 50 briefings on the results of the Hurricane Katrina 

MAT 

• HAZUS Hurricane Module training to over 500 people; numerous presentations and 

speeches at conferences 

Although the tragic toll of human life and property damage resulting from Hurricane Katrina and 

associated events is indisputable, it reveals the importance of collecting perishable scientific data 

in a timely manner. Expert observations and data collection during and immediately after such 

an event informs the research that is intended to reduce our vulnerability to wind-related hazards. 

The National Windstorm Impact Reduction Program agencies responded quickly and well to this 

scientific opportunity. 

IV. References and Publications During FY2005 and 2006 

1. The Windstorm Impact Reduction Implementation Plan, 2005, a report of the National 

Science and Technology Council is available at www.sdr.gov. 

2. Meade, C. and Abbot, M., “Assessing Federal Research and Development for Hazard 

Loss Reduction”, RAND Report, 2003, 65pp. 

3. Eckman, R. M., R. J. Dobosy, T. W. Strong, and P. G. Hall, 2006: In-situ measurements 

of 3D turbulence in Hurricanes Frances and Ivan using a pressure-sphere anemometer. 

Extended Abstract, 27th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, 

Monterey, CA, American Meteorological Society, paper 10C.4. 

4. Eckman, R. M., R. J. Dobosy, D. L. Auble, T. W. Strong, and T. L. Crawford, 2006: A 

pressure-sphere anemometer for measuring turbulence and fluxes in hurricanes. Journal 

of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology (submitted). 

5. Knupp, K. R., J. Walters, and M. Biggerstaff, 2006: Doppler profiler and radar 

observations of boundary layer variability during the landfall of Tropical Storm 

Gabrielle. J. Atmo. Sci., 63, 234-251. 

6. Biggerstaff, M. I., L. J. Wicker, J. Guynes, C. Ziegler, J. M. Straka, E.N. Rasmussen, A. 

Dogget IV, L. D. Carey, J. L. Schroeder, and C. Weiss, 2005: The Shared Mobile 

Atmospheric Research and Teaching (SMART) Radar: A collaboration to enhance 

research and teaching. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 86, 1263-1274. 

7. Curry, R. and M. I. Biggerstaff, 2005: Dual-Doppler analysis of Hurricane Isabel at 

landfall: A Research Experience for Undergraduates. Preprints, 32nd Conf. on Radar 

20
Meteor., 24-29 Oct. 2005, Albuquerque, NM, Amer. Meteor. Soc., paper JP2J.2, CDROM. 

8. Biermann, N. S., M. I. Biggerstaff, G. D. Carrie, N., R. Ramig, T. L. Wiegman, M. L. 

Sessing, D. R. MacGorman, W. D. Rust, L. D. Carey, P. R. Krehbiel, W. R. Rison, and T. 

Hamlin, 2005: The role of storm dynamics on lightning activity for the 19 June 2004 

Mesoscale Convective System during TELEX. Preprints, 32nd Conf. on Radar Meteor., 

24-29 Oct. 2005, Albuquerque, NM, Amer. Meteor. Soc., paper P14R.8, CD-ROM. 

9. MacGorman, D. R., W. D. Rust, C. L. Ziegler, T. J. Schuur, E. R. Marshall, M. I. 

Biggerstaff, J. M. Straka, E. C. Bruning, K. M. Kulhman, N. R. Ramig, C. D. Payne, N. 

S. Biermann, P. R. Krebiel, W. Rison, T. Hamlin, and L. D. Carey, 2005: Lightning 

relative to storm structure, evolution, and microphysics in TELEX, Preprints, 32nd Conf. 

on Radar Meteor., 24-29 Oct. 2005, Albuquerque, NM, Amer. Meteor. Soc., paper 10R.7, 

CD-ROM. 

10. French, J.R., Drennan, W.M., Zhang, J., and Black, P.G., 2006: “Turbulent Fluxes in the 

Hurricane Boundary Layer, I. Momentum Flux”, submitted to J. of Atmos. Sci.

11. Moon, I.-J., Ginis, I, and Hara, T., 2006: “Physics-based parameterization of air-sea 

momentum flux at high wind speed and its impact on hurricane intensity prediction”, 

Mon. Weather Rev., submitted. 

12. Lombardo, F.T. and Main, J.A. (2006). “Automated extraction of wind data from 

archived ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System) weather reports.” Proc., 2006 

Structures Congress, St. Louis, MO, May 18-21, 2006. 

13. Main, J.A. and Fritz, W.P. (2006). “Database-assisted design for wind: concepts, 

software, and examples for rigid and flexible Buildings.” NIST BSS 180. 

14. Duthinh, D. and Fritz, W.P.: “Nonlinear Database-assisted Design Leads to ‘Greener’ 

Steel Buildings,” ASCE Structures Congress, St. Louis, Mo., May 18-20, 2006. 

15. Duthinh, D. and Fritz, W.P. (2005). “Nonlinear database-assisted design improves wind 

resistance of low-rise buildings.” Proc., APCWE-VI, Seoul, Korea. 

16. Main, J.A. (2005). “Combining wind pressure databases with structural analysis to 

predict peak responses for rigid buildings.” Proc., APCWE-VI, Seoul, Korea. 

17. Venanzi, I., Fritz, W.P., and Simiu, E. (2005). “Structural design for wind of tall 

buildings with non-coincident mass and elastic centers: a database-assisted design 

approach.” Proc., APCWE-VI, Seoul, Korea. 

18. Main, J.A. (2005). “Interpolation issues in the estimation of peak internal forces using 

wind pressure databases.” Proc., APCWE-VI, Seoul, Korea. 

19. Duthinh, D. and Fritz, W.P., “Safer and ‘Greener” Low-rise Steel Structures under Wind 

Loads through Nonlinear Database-assisted Design,” ASCE Journal of Structural 

Engineering (in review). 

20. Duthinh, D., Fritz, W.P., “Ultimate Capacities of Steel Portal Frames Under Wind 

Loads,” Proc. of the 5th International Stochastic Computational Mechanics Conference, 

June 2005.

21. Performance of Physical Structures in Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita: A 

Reconnaissance Report, National Institute of Standards and Technology Technical Note 

1476, June 2005. 

22. Sadek, F., Fritz, W.P., Simiu, E., (2006). “Wind Speeds for the Estimation of World 

Trade Center Towers’ Response,” Proc. ASCE/SEI Structures Congress, St. Louis, MO. 

21
23. Fritz, W.P., Bienkewicz, B., Flamand, O., Ho, T.C.E., Kikitsu, H., Letchford, C.W., and 

Cui, B. (2005). “A round robin study of wind tunnel estimates of wind effects on a 

building model: test-related uncertainties.” Proc., APCWE-VI, Seoul, Korea. 

24. WIST – National Needs Assessment Report – published by NOAA (report number: 

FCM-R18-2002) in Dec., 2002 (http://www.ofcm.gov/wist_report/wist-report.htm) 

25. RWIS ESS Siting Guidelines – FHWA-HOP-05-026, published in Apr. 2005 

(http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/ess05/index.htm) 

26. World Bank (2001) Helping Poor People Manage Risk: World Development Report 

2000-2001, p. 133-159. 

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