Please do not destroy or throw away this publication. If you have no further use 

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Hubert Work. Secretary

U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

George Otls Smith. Director

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557

LARGE SPBINGS IN THE UNITED

BY

OSCAR EDWARD MEINZER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1927
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Hubert Work, Secretary

U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

George Otis Smith, Director

Water-Supply Paper 557

LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

BY

OSCAR EDWARD MEINZER

WASHINGTON

GOVEENMENT FEINTING OFFICE 

1927
ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D. C.

,AT

40 CENTS PER COPY
CONTENTS

Pag.

Introduction - 1

Distribution and character of large springs 1

Difficulties in determining relative size of springs 1

Classification of springs with respect to size 2

Distribution of large springs 3 

Relation of large springs to topography, kind of rock, and rock

structure 6

Fluctuation of large springs 7

Quality, temperature, and origin of the water of large springs 7

Springs in Tertiary limestone in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama 8

General features 8

Detailed descriptions _ - ____ 12

Silver Spring -.. 12

Blue Spring, Marion County, Fla 12

Wakulla Spring _ _ ______ 18

Springs in Georgia and Alabama __________ 13

Springs in Paleozoic limestone in States east of Mississippi River 14 

Springs in early Paleozoic limestone in the Ozark region of Missouri and

Arkansas___________________________________ 17

General features ^ __________ 17

Detailed descriptions _________________________ 19

Big Spring ________________________________ 19

Greer Spring : _ ___________________ 20

Mammoth Spring___.______._____ ____________ 21

Meramec Spring ____ _______________ 21

Double Spring- ________________________ 22

Welch Spring-. ____________________^_____ 23

Bennett Spring .._______ ____ 23

Blue Spring _______________________ 23

Alley Spring _ _ ________ ____ 25

Boiling Spring ___________;_________________ 25

Hahatonka Spring >___ _________________ 25

Montauk Spring_-'-__________________________ 26

Bartlett Springs ____________:______________ 26

Roaring River Spring ______________________ 26

Other large springs _______________ 26

Springs in Cretaceous limestone in Texas___________..______ 27

Occurrence of the springs_-______________________________________ 27

Springs in the Balcones fault belt-___________________ 29

General features _______________________ 29

Character of springs _______________________ 29

Origin of springs _ __'___________________ 29

Size of springs.-_________________________ 30

in
IV CONTENTS

Springs in Cretaceous limestone in Texas Continued.

Springs in the Balcones fault belt Continued. Page

Detailed descriptions___ ______ .-_ _ _ _____ 81

Barton Springs and other large springs at Austin, Tex 31

San Marcos Springs__ _ _ _ _ 33

Comal Springs__________ ___ _ __ ___ 36

San Antonio Springs________________________ 37

Las Moras Springs______________.._________ 88

San Felipe Springs_________________________ 39

Goodenough Springs_ _ _ _ 39

Springs in the Edwards Plateau and adjacent country . _____ 40

Springs in Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks and associated deposits in Idaho, California, Oregon, and Washington__________ 42 

Springs in the Snake River basin, Idaho_________-______ 42 

General features_____________________________ 42 

Detailed descriptions__________________________ 43 

Springs along Snake River between Milner and King Hill 43 

Size of the springs______________________ 43 

Fluctuations in discharge __ ____________ 47

Relation of the springs to the canyon walls_ ______ 47

Relation of the springs to rock structure________ 50

Character of the spring water_ ____________ 50

Source of the spring water-_ _ ___ __ 50

Portneuf Springs-_____ __ _ _ _ .51

Other large springs___~ ____ _ _ _ 53

Big Springs___________________________ 53

Buffalo River Springs____________________ 53

Warm River Springs _ _ 53

Mud Lake Springs__ _ _ __ ____ 54

Birch Creek Springs ____ 54

Warm Springs in Big Lost River Valley __ 54

Springs in the Sacramento River basin. California _ ___ 55

General features________ __ _ ___ __ 55

Detailed descriptions _ _ 57

Fall River Springs__ _ _ 57

Rising River Springs___ _ __ 59

Great Springs- __ _ 60

Burney Creek Springs___ _ _ ____ 61

Crystal Lake Springs- _ 61

Dotta Spring and other springs In the Big Meadows 62

Salmon Creek Springs- _ . 62

Sisson Springs _ 62

Springs in the Deschutes River basin, Oregon- _ _ 63

General features__ _ _ : _ __ _ 63

Detailed descriptions-____ __ _ _ __ 64

Large springs near head of Deschutes River _ ____ 64

Sheep Bridge Springs 66

Brown Creek Springs_____ ___ _ ___ ____ 67

Davis Creek Springs__-___-________ _________ 67

Fall River______________________________ 68

Spring River _______1_____________________ 68

Springs on Metolius River___________________ 69

Springs on Crooked River_ _____ ___ ________ 70
CONTENTS V

Springs in Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks and associated deposits in Idaho, California, Oregon, and Washington Continued. Page 

Springs in the Klamath River basin, Oregon and California 71 

General features. _ _ ________ _ 71 

Detailed descriptions____ ___________ 71

Big Spring_____________________________ 71

Spring Creek____________________________ 72

McCready Spring____:_____________________ 72

Wood River Spring. __ 72

Beetle Rest Spring_______________________ 73

Bonanza Springs_________________________ 73

Little Shasta Spring_______________ 74

Springs in the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River basins, Oregon- 74

General features ___ ___ _ 74

Detailed descriptions! - -±____________ 75

Clear Lake Spring ___________________: 75

Spring at Lower Falls of McKenzie River 75

Olallie Creek Springs. ______ _________ _ 75

Lost Creek Spring. __ _ 76

Spring River __________'_________________ 76

Springs on Clearwater River______ _ _ 77

Big Butte Springs ___ _ __._ __ __ 77

Springs in the interior basins of Oregon________________ 77

Ana River Springs . _________ 77

Springs in Warm Spring Valley________j.__________ 78

Springs in Owens Valley, California___________________ 79

Intermittent Spring, Washington._______ 79

Springs in Montana____________________:_!_________ 79

General features______________________________ 79

Detailed descriptions___________________________ 80

Giant Springs ______________________________ 80

Warm Spring______________________________ 82

Lewistown Big Springs. ' 84

Toston Big Spring___________________________ 86

Springs in the Basin and Range province of Nevada and Utah 86

Springs in limestone in southeastern Idaho and northeastern Utah _ 87

Springs in 'glacial gravel in Quincy Valley, Washington_ _ _ 88

Springs in gravel in Pahsimeroi Valley, Idaho_______T_______ 89

Springs in Carboniferous limestone and gypsum in Pecos Valley, N. Mex. 89

Springs in Paleozoic limestone in or near the Grand Canyon of Arizona.. 91

Large springs in other countries________________________ 91

Index________________________________________ 93
ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE 1. A, B, Silver Spring, the largest spring in Florida _____ 8

2. A, Blue Spring, Fla.; B, Wakulla Spring, Fla _ 9

3. A, Water flowing from Big Spring, Mo.; B, Hahatonka Spring,

Mo_____________________________________ 24

4. A, Meramec Spring, Mo.; B, Water from Meramec Spring flowing over dam________ ___ ____ __ 24

5. Discharge of Meramec Spring and daily precipitation at Gano,

Mo., November 21, 1921, to September 30, 1922_________ 24

6. A, Welch Spring, Mo.; B, Water from Mammoth Spring, Ark.,

flowing over dam _____ _ _ 24

7. Daily discharge of Greer Spring and daily precipitation at 

Birchtree, Mo., 18 miles from the spring, November 18, 1921, 

to September 30, 1923_________________________ 24

8. A, Stream from Goodenough Springs, Tex., discharging into

Rio Grande; B, Near view of Goodenough Springs ______ 40

9. A, Sand Springs, Idaho; B, Thousand Springs, Idaho, as seen 

from south side of Snake River; O, Near view of a part of 

Thousand Springs_______________,_______ 48

10. Distant view of Bickel Springs and a part of Thousand Springs,

Idaho _________________________________ 49

11. Map of a part of the drainage basin of Fall River, Calif., showing large springs that form the river._________^_____ 56

12. A, Big Springs, Idaho; B, Big Springs near Lewistown, Mont 04

13. A, View looking down on Wood River Spring, Oreg., from the 

fault escarpment; B, Northern vent of Sheep Bridge Springs, 

Oreg______^_____________________________ 64

14. A, Head of Brown Creek, Oreg., from footbridge in sec. 30, T. 

21 S., R. SB.; B, Spring issuing from Recent lava at -head 

of Davis Creek, Oreg., in sec. 18, T. 22 S., R. 8 B.______ 64

15. A, Crooked River 12 miles above Opal Spring, Oreg.; B,

Crooked River 4*4 miles below Opal Spring___________ 64

16. A, Opal Spring, Oreg.; B, Crooked River Canyon, showing position of Opal Spring________________________ .64

17. A, Giant Springs, near Great Falls, Mont.; B, Near view of

Giant Springs-'-!____________________________ 64 

FIGURE 1. Map of the United States showing springs that have a discharge of 100 second-feet or more_____ _ 5

2. Profiles of the land surface and of the water table in the

vicinity of Silver and Blue Springs, Fla___________ 6

3. Map showing large springs in Florida and Georgia 9

4. Map of the Wakulla drainage system, showing its relation to

.Wakulla Spring, Fla________________________ 13

5. Map showing large springs in the Ozark region of Missouri

and Arkansas_____:______________ ______ 17

VI
ILLUSTRATIONS VH

FIGTJBE 6. Diagrammatic section showing the outlet of Bennett Spring,

Dallas County, Mo ______ ______ ___ 23

7. Discharge of Bennett Spring and monthly precipitation at

Lebanon, Mo., September, 1916, to March, 1920- 24

S. Map showing large springs in the Balcones fault belt of

Texas _____ ___ 28

9. Discharge of Barton Springs, near Austin, Tex., and of . Barton Creek below the springs, and monthly precipitation 

. at Austin, April 25, 1917, to September 30, 1921 ____ 32

10. Minimum monthly discharge of San Marcos and San Antonio 

Springs and monthly precipitation at San Marcos, Tex., 

February, 1915, to September, 1921 ____ ____: 35

11. Map of the drainage basin of Snake River above King Hill, 

Idaho, and adjacent closed basins, that contribute ground 

water to Snake River, showing the general location of the 

largest springs in the basin __________________ 42

12. Map showing location and yield of the large springs on Snake

River between Milner and King Hill, Idaho ___ ___ ___ 44

13. Fluctuations in the discharge of two large springs on Snake

River, Idaho _ __ __ _ ___________ ___ _ ____ __ 47

14. Map of the Biekel Springs, Snake River, Idaho- __ 48

15. Map of the Box Canyon Springs, Snake River, Idaho_ 48

16. Map of the vicinity of Clear Lakes, Snake River, Idaho _ 49

17. Map showing large springs in the region of volcanic rocks in

California, Oregon, and Washington-, __ ___ _ 56

18. Map showing large springs in upper part of Deschutes River

basin, Oreg ___ j. __________ 1 _ _ _____ _ _____ 63

19. Map of Montana showing the location of large springs- _ 80

20. Map of the vicinity of the Giant Springs, Mont, showing their

probable origin ___________________ _ _ 81

21. Map and section of the vicinity of Warm Spring, Mont., showing its relation to the structure of the rocks ___ _ 83

22. Map of the vicinity of the Lewistown Big Springs, near Lewistown, Mont., showing their relation to faults ____ _ ___ _ 85

23. Map of the vicinity of Toston Big Spring, Mont., showing relation of the spring to Sixteenmile Creek and' the bend in 

Missouri River _____________ __ ______ _ ___ ___ 86
By OSCAK EDWARD MEINZEB

INTRODUCTION

What are the largest springs in the United States, how much 

water do they discharge, and what geologic conditions produce them 

are questions of much popular interest and considerable scientific 

and economic importance. Yet the information in regard to large 

springs has been so widely scattered and so difficult to interpret that 

most people have only very vague notions on the subject. The present paper is in a sense a by-product of a more comprehensive investigation of the origin, discharge, and quantity of ground water 

in the United States. It has, however, required, extensive search for 

data and critical analysis of the data that were obtained. The task 

would have been virtually impossible except for the hearty cooperation of the district engineers and other members of the waterresources branch of the Geological Survey, who are really coauthors 

of this paper. I wish to acknowledge especially the help of Kirk 

Bryan, G. C. Stevens, W. E. Hall, W. E. King, E. L. Williams, H. 

C. Beckman, C. E. Ellsworth, C. E. McCashin, C. G. Paulsen, W. 

G. Hoyt, H. T. Stearns, H. D. McGlashan, R. C. Briggs, F. F. Henshaw, W. A. Lamb, G. M. Hall, E. C. LaRue, and A. B. Purton.

DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF LARGE SPRINGS

Difficulties in determining relative size of springs. When an attempt is made to compare the large springs in the United States with 

respect to their size, or the quantity of water that they discharge, 

serious difficulties are at once encountered. First of all, it is very 

difficult to determine what constitutes a unit for comparison. The 

water seldom issues from a single opening and may issue from a 

great many openings, which may be close together or scattered over 

a considerable area. What is called a single spring in one locality 

may be equivalent to what in another locality is regarded as a 

group of springs, each of which has an individual name. This 

difficulty is made especially perplexing by the present lack of de1
2 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

tailed maps or other data regarding most of the large springs. 

Some units are designated in the singular and some in the plural 

for example, " Silver Spring " and " Thousand Springs." The idea 

that underlies this usage is that if the water issues from a single 

opening or from several openings that are close together it forms 

a "spring," whereas if it issues from a number of openings that 

are farther apart it forms " springs." In fact, however, local usage 

is so variable in this respect that there is no consistent distinction 

between " a spring " and " springs," and often there is no uniformity 

in usage even for the same group of openings.

Another serious difficulty in comparing springs results from the 

fact that some springs fluctuate greatly, whereas others are nearly 

constant. Moreover, one spring may be at a high stage when another 

is at a lower stage. Thus the discharge of a spring can be determined with fair accuracy only by establishing a gaging station and 

obtaining a continuous record over a period of years. To compare 

a single measurement of one spring with a single measurement of 

another spring made at an entirely different time may give a result 

that is almost as incorrect as would be obtained by a similar comparison of surface streams. Unfortunately only a few of the large 

springs in the United States have been accurately gaged during a 

period of several years. For some of them not even a single reliable 

measurement is available. Moreover, not all the available records 

specifiy whether the water that was measured was exclusively spring 

water or included other run-off.

The question also arises as to whether a comparison is made according to the minimum, maximum, or average discharge. Thus, if 

the average discharge of a nearly constant spring is about the same 

as that of a spring which fluctuates greatly, the constant spring 

will rank higher with respect to minimum discharge and the fluctuating spring higher with respect to maximum discharge. There is 

some popular interest in the maximum discharge, but the value of 

a spring, whether it is used for a public supply, irrigation, power, 

or other purpose, generally depends more nearly on its minimum 

discharge, or on its discharge at the time when the most water is 

needed. In so far as comparisons are attempted in the following 

discussion, they are based on the average discharge.

Classification of springs with respect to size. What is a large 

spring? This question will be answered very differently in different 

localities. In localities of small springs the designation "Big 

Spring " is doubtless borne by springs that yield no more than 10 

gallons a minute, and in many parts of the United States a spring 

that discharges 1 second-foot that is, 1 cubic foot a second, or 448
DISTRIBUTION AND CHABACTEB 3

gallons a minute, would be regarded as a remarkable spring. Such 

a spring would fill about a dozen barrels in a minute. In the entire 

country, however, there are doubtless thousands of springs that yield 

1, second-foot or more, and hundreds that yield 10 second-feet or 

more. Moreover, according to the incomplete data summarized in the 

following pages, there are 65 springs in the United States that have 

an average yield of 100 second-feet or more, and several springs or 

groups of springs that have an average yield of 500 second-feet or 

more.

A second-foot of water is equal to about 646,000 gallons a day. 

With a daily consumption of 100 gallons for each inhabitant, a 

spring yielding 1 second-foot could supply a city of about 6,500 

inhabitants, and a spring yielding 500 second-feet could supply a 

city of about 3,250,000 inhabitants. In 1922 the average daily consumption of water from the city waterworks in Washington, D. C., 

was about 63,000,000 gallons, or about 98 second-feet. About 65 

different springs in the United States supply this amount of water. 

In 1916 the average daily consumption of New York City, with more 

than 5,500,000 inhabitants, averaged 566,000,000 gallons, or about 

810 second-feet: There are springs or groups of springs in the 

country, each of which supplies this amount.

The following classification of springs according to their yield 

or discharge is suggested as convenient for use in the United States, 

although it is recognized that this classification may be inappropriate 

for countries that have other units of discharge.1

Proposed classification of springs according to discharge

Magnitude

First..........

Third-..-....

Fifth..........

Sixth.. _ .....

Seventh. ......

Eighth........

Average discharge

The descriptions in this paper relate chiefly to springs of the first 

magnitude according to this classification.

Distribution of large springs. The springs of first magnitude 

those having an average discharge of 100 second-feet or more 

occur in several regions in the United States, as shown in the following table and in Figure 1.

1 Melnzer, O. B., Outline of ground-water hydrology, with definitions: TJ. S. Geol. 

Surrey Water-Supply Paper 494, pp. 52-53, 1923.
Regions of springs of the first magnitude in the U

Region

Georgia and Alabama.

areas.

kansas.

Sacramento River Basin, Calif. __

Basins, Oreg.

Ground-water provinces «

lachian Valley.

Lava-covered areas chiefly in the Southwestern 

Bolson province.

Lava-covered areas chiefly in the Southwestern

Bolson province.

Lava Plateau. 

.....do _ -._ _- .- -- _ _ - 

Number 

of first 

magnitude 

springs 

(having 

probable 

average 

discharge 

of 100 

secondfeet or 

more)

11

1

8

4

»15

 7 

8

2

5

1

3

0

65

Number 

of springs 

having 

measured 

or estimated 

maximum 

discharge 

of 100 

secondfeet or 

more

16

1

10

6

15

8 

8

3

5

1

3

1

77

Num

of sp

hav

mea

or 

ma

m

m

disc

of 

sec

fee

m

 U. S. Qeol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 489, pi. 31.

 The Portneuf and Malade are each counted as one unit, but they are groups rather than single units. Th

therefore properly be regarded as the largest spring in this region.

« Counting three springs of first magnitude on Fall River.

d If the several groups of springs that feed Fall River are regarded as separate units, the springs at the head 

in this region.

 The entire group of springs on Crooked River in the vicinity of Opal Spring discharge more than 1,000 seco

basin. They are. however, rivaled as a group by the springs in the upper 10 miles of Metolius River, which als
 Spring that according to available 

information has an average discharge of 100 second-fee? or more.

o Spring that has a maximum but 

probably not an average discharge 

of 100 second-feet or more.

FIGUBB 1. Map of the United States showing springs that have a disch
O LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

Relation of laxrge springs to topography', kmd of rock, <md rock 

structure. The occurrence of large springs depends chiefly on the 

kind of rock that yields the water. Limestone and extrusive volcanic ijpck are the main sources of the very large springs. The limestone must, of course, contain large solution channels produced by 

active and long-continued circulation of ground water. The volcanic rock is chiefly basalt that was greatly jointed and broken at 

the time it solidified, but large springs also issue from obsidian and 

rhyolite and from fragmental volcanic material. The only springs 

included in the foregoing table that issue from gravel are the Portneuf Springs, in Idaho, and these form a group of springs rather 

than a single unit. Their water probably has its source in basalt 

that lies not far below the surface. If full information were at hand 

other gravel springs of the first magnitude might be found, but although gravel yields water in large quantities its discharge is generally not sufficiently localized to be regarded as constituting very

FIGOKB 2. Profiles of the land surface and of the water table in the vicinity -of 

Silver and Blue Springs, Pla. (After E. H. Sellards, Florida Geol. Survey 

Bull. 1, p. 32. Also U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 319, fig. 2.)

large unit springs. Two of the first-magnitude springs issue from 

sandstone, doubtless from large fissures produced by faulting or 

other agency.

Most of the large springs issue in canyons or valleys that extend 

down into the water-bearing rocks or on lowlands at the base of 

escarpments formed in part by the water-bearing rocks (see pis. 3, 

B; 4, A; 6, A), but the large springs of Florida issue on plains that 

do not have much relief (see fig. 2 and pis. 1 and 2). The cavernous 

passages that conduct the water through the limestone in Florida 

were probably formed at a time when the land stood higher than at 

present. In Texas and in Montana faults provide large openings for 

the water to escape. In Idaho dense materials underlying very permeable rocks bring out the water on the side of the Snake Kiver 

canyon, thus forming spectacular cataracts and providing much 

power. Some of the basalt springs issue from ancient valleys that 

have been inundated by lava flows. The alluvial gravel in an ancient 

channel of Missouri Kiver apparently has an important part in producing the Giant Springs in Montana.
DISTRIBUTION AND CHABACTEB 7

of large springs. Fluctuation in discharge is due 

almost entirely to variability in precipitation, atmospheric temperature, and other weather conditions. The amount of fluctuation is 

however, affected by the topography, the rock structure, and especially .the kind of rock, which determines chiefly the size and 

character of the openings through which the ground water passes. 

Springs in limestone are notably variable in their discharge. The 

present study has shown that the fluctuations of the large limestone 

springs, whether in Florida, Missouri, or Texas, are as a rule much 

greater and more sudden than those of the springs in volcanic rock, 

whether in Idaho, California, or Oregon.

There are, however, considerable differences in the behavior of 

limestone springs of different regions, which can be attributed to 

several causes. Probably the chief cause of differences in fluctuation 

is the position of the water table or of the underground and surface 

drainage with respect to the water levels of the past Where the 

land has not subsided and nothing has occurred to raise the level of 

the streams and the water table, a nearly complete and perfect underground drainage system may be developed, with very cavernous rock 

above the level of the underground drainage and very tight rock 

below this level. Such an underground drainage system resembles 

a surface drainage system that is well developed on impervious rock 

without lakes or swamps. It lacks storage capacity and discharges 

its water swiftly after a rain. Its outlets form springs that fluctuate 

violently, in extreme cases discharging torrents of muddy water in 

wet periods and becoming entirely dry in periods of drought.

Where a limestone country has subsided with reference to sea level, 

great systems of caverns may be'submerged beneath the water table 

and may function as huge subterranean reservoirs that equalize the 

spring discharge somewhat as a lake equalizes the discharge of a 

stream that flows through it. Limestone springs of this type are 

perennial and relatively constant, and they discharge clear water 

even at times of heaviest rainfall.

Of the large limestone springs described in this paper, those in 

the Ozark region have somewhat the character of the fluctuating 

type, and those in Florida belong rather to the relatively constant 

type. Extreme examples of the fluctuating type, such as have been 

observed by the writer in Cuba, are, however, very different from 

any springs described in this paper.

Quality, temperature, and origin of the water of large springs. 

As a rule the water of very large springs is not highly mineralized. 

Salt Spring, in Florida, apparently forms an exception. The water 

of most large springs in volcanic rocks is remarkably low in dissolved mineral matter, and even that of the large limestone springs
8 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

is only moderately hard. To produce such large springs the water 

must flow rapidly through large openings and hence is not brought 

into very intimate contact with the rock. The mineral matter that 

is dissolved becomes diluted by the great volume of water.

The very large springs, with few exceptions, have temperatures 

that are not much above the mean air temperatures of the regions in 

which they occur. Obviously where such large quantities of water 

are delivered, free and. direct communication must exist between 

the points of intake and the points of discharge, and the water does 

not generally go to great depths. Moreover, the large amount of 

heat required to raise greatly the temperature of so much water is 

not generally available in the rocks of any locality. Doubtless the 

virtual absence of thermal springs in the lavas of the Snake River 

Plains of Idaho is due to the vast,quantity of water that has percolated through these rocks and has long since cooled them to about 

the normal temperature of the region. In general the water discharged by the very large springs is meteoric water that has not 

reached depths of more than a few hundred feet below the surface. 

Probably Warm Spring, in Montana, and Ana River Spring, in 

Oregon, both of which have temperatures about 20° F. above the 

normal, have the deepest sources among the springs of first magnitude. Some of the springs of second magnitude, such as the large 

thermal springs in Nevada and Utah, must have a deep-seated origin 

and may deliver some juvenile water. Some large springs that are 

fed by streams or lakes probably have seasonal fluctuations in temperature corresponding to those of the surface water.

SPRINGS IN TERTIARY LIMESTONE IN FLORIDA, 

GEORGIA, AND ALABAMA

GENERAL FEATURES

A notable group of very large springs, including several springs 

of the first magnitude, is found in the northern and central parts 

of Florida and adjacent parts of Georgia and Alabama. These 

springs discharge great quantities of water from solution openings 

in soft cavernous limestone of Tertiary age, chiefly in the Vicksburg 

group (Oligocene) and the overlying Chattahoochee and Alum Bluff 

formations (Miocene). (See fig. 3.)

It has been generally believed that this region contains the largest 

limestone springs in the United States, but additional measurements 

will be required to determine the accuracy of this belief. A single 

spring, issuing chiefly from one large opening, may give rise to a 

river that is navigable by good-sized passenger and freight boats. 

The water before reaching the springs passes mainly through large 

channels in the limestone, and at least some of the springs fluctuate
TJ. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE

A. BLUE SPRING, FLA. 

Photograph by Florida Geological Survey

B. WAKULLA SPRING, FLA. 

Photograph by Florida Geological Survey

V .~'T
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 1

- ^ A. GENERAL VIEW 

1 Photograph by Roswell Alien Studios, Ocala, Fla.

JB. NEAR VIEW 

Photograph furnished by Marion County Chamber of Commerce

SILVER SPRING, THE LARGEST SPRING IN FLORIDA

949296 O 51 -2
SPRINGS IN TERTIARY LIMESTONE IN FLORIDA, GEORGIA, ALABAMA 9

greatly with the rainfall. Owing, however, to the low relief of the 

land, the dense vegetation, and the mantle of sandy soil through 

which the water largely enters the limestone, the spring water is 

very clear and does not generally become muddy even at times of 

greatest discharge. The water of many of the springs, although

FIGURE 3. Map showing large springs in Florida and Georgia. The shading shows 

approximately the area in which the Vicksburg group or a Miocene formation is 

at the surface. These formations include limestones that give rise to the large 

springs

very clear, has a beautiful delicate blue hue, and hence the name 

"Blue Spring" is applied to several of the springs in this region. 

Many of the springs issue from large, deep pools, in which the clearness and blue hue of the water are especially impressive. The 

water in some of these pools is so transparent that objects at the
10 LABGE SPEINGS IK THE UNITED STATES

bottom are distinctly visible, and fish can be seen swimming about 

in the water. Although the water comes from limestone it is generally only moderately hard, because it passes rather rapidly 

through large openings and hence does not come into very intimate 

or long-continued contact with the rock. According to an analysis 

given by Sellards,2 the total dissolved solids in eight of the large 

springs of Florida range from only 112 to 333 parts per million and 

average 232 parts per million, the total solids in the water of Silver 

Spring being 274 parts and in the water of Blue Spring, in Marion 

County, 112 parts. Salt Springs, however, were found to have 5,377 

parts of total solids and 2,662 parts of chloride.8 The temperature 

of the spring water is approximately the mean air temperature of 

the region. Some of the springs have become well-known resorts, 

but otherwise not much use is made of their water.-

The fascinating character of these springs is indicated by the 

following vivid description of Silver Spring, abbreviated from a 

description given in a booklet published by the' Marion County 

Chamber of Commerce. (See pi. 1.) ' >

The deep, cool water of Silver Spring, clear as air, flows in great volume 

out of immense basins and caverns in the midst of a subtropical forest. Seen 

through the glass-bottom boats, with the rocks, under-water vegetation, and 

flsh of many varieties swimming below as if suspended in mid-air, the basins 

and caverns are unsurpassed in beauty. Bright objects in the water catch 

the sunlight, and the effects are truly magical. The springs form a natural 

aquarium, with 32 species of flsh. The flsh are protected and have become 

so tame that they feed from one's hand. At the call of the guides, hundreds 

of them, of various glistening colors, gather beneath the glass-bottom boats.

The following table gives information in regard to some of the 

largest springs in Florida. Because of the small number of measurements that have been made on the Florida springs, there is obviously 

much uncertainty as to their maximum, minimum, and average discharge and hence as to which ones rank as springs of the first magnitude and how they compare in size among themselves and with 

springs in other parts of the country. A brief discussion of the 

large springs in adjacent parts of Georgia and Alabama is given on 

pages 13-14. The locations of these springs are shown in Figure 3. 

Most of the discharge measurements were made by B. M. Hall or 

Warren E: Hall. Much assistance was generously given in the 

preparation of this part of the report by Warren E. Hall, who, in 

his long service as district engineer in the Geological Survey, has 

visited nearly all these springs. The assistance of Herman Gunter, 

State geologist of Florida, and of H. L. Smith, secretary of the

* Sellards, E. H.f A preliminary report on the underground water supply of central 

Florida: Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 1, p. 47, 1908.

8 Sample collected by C. A. Hollaway, Apr. 24, 1924, and analyzed by C. S. Howard In 

the water-resources laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey.
SPRINGS IN TERTIABY LIMESTONE IN FLORIDA, GEORGIA, ALABAMA 11

Marion County Chamber of Commerce, is also gratefully acknowledged. Much of the work by the United States Geological Survey 

has been done in cooperation with the Florida State Geological 

Survey.

Discharge of large springs in Florida

Name of spring

Blue. __ . __ ....

Wakulla ____ . _

Poe ... ...........

White..............

Wekiva __ . .......

Tampa Sulphur ....

water. 

Silver Glen... ......

Salt... .............

 Chassahowitzka ....

Seminole.. _ . ..... 

Blue ..... ..... 

Do. ............

Branch Mill .....

Kissengen. .....

County

.....do........

Levy. . .......

Hillsboro. .....

.....do........

Citrus..... ...

Lake. ......... 

Levy . .......

Polk..........

Temperature 

(°F.)

70

74

70

74

78

72

72

76

72

70

... .

..........

Discharge 

(secondfeet)

822

545 

608 

342

'716 

'847 

'738 «326

403

44 

"342 

300

/220

 145 

/100

86

72

/80 

*65 

/115

44 

/145

<35

fAAH

445

167

/220

/187

'56 

/55 

/55

/48

21

Date of 

measurement

Dec. 20,1898

May 26,1906 

Feb. 11,1807 

Feb. 27,1917 

Dec. 22,1898

Dec. 24,1904 

Feb. 8, 1807 

Feb. 21,1917 

Feb. 13,1917

Dec. 23,1898

Feb. 18,1917 

Feb. 19,1917

( )

Feb. 23,1917

Feb. 19,1917 

Feb. 13,1807

Feb. 21,1917

May'17,1906

Feb. 24,1917 ( )

C)

( )

8

To

( )

Feb. 25,1917

Authorities «

W. 27, p. 45; W. 102, pp. 274-

275; W. 319, pp. 367-369. 

W. 204, p. 50. 

W. 242, p. 132. 

W. 452, p. 61. 

W. 27, p. 45; W. 102, p. 275;

W. 319, pp. 367-369. 

W. 127, p. 182. 

W. 242, p. 133. 

W. 452, p. 61. 

W.452, p. 61. See also W. 102,

pp. 268, 269, 273; W. 319, 

p. 422; B. 32, p. 86. 

W. 27, p. 45; W. 102, p. 275 ;

W. 319, p. 287. 

W. 452, p. 61. 

W. 452, p. 61.

gist. 

W. 319, pp. 317, 319.

W.452, p. 61. 

W. 319, p. 267.

W. 452, p. 61 

W. 242, p. 136; W. 319, p. 314;

unpublished data. 

W. 319, p. 256. 

W. 452, p. 61. 

W. 319, pp. 409, 412.

W. 204, p. 52. 

W. 319, pp. 323-325.

W. 452, p. 61. 

W. 319, pp. 281, 282.

W. 102, p. 267.

Marion County Chamber of 

Commerce, to be larger than 

Juniper Spring. 

Florida Qeol. Survey Bull, l,

p. 86, 1908. 

W. 319, pp. 409, 412.

lished data. 

W. 319, pp. 281, 282.

W. 319, pp. 342, 343. 

W. 319, pp. 355, 356. 

Herman Qunter, State geologist. 

W. 319, p. 406.

W. 452, p. 61.

» W., Water-Supply Paper; B., Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey.

1 Measured about 4 miles downstream from the spring. The now consists of spring water.

" Measured 3 miles downstream from the spring. Nearly all the now is spring water.

* Measured about 3 miles below head of Ichatucknee River, all the flow of which is derived from springs. 

Above the point of measurement there are about six large springs, one of which is Ichatucknee Spring.

* Estimated.

/ Estimated discharge given in Water-Supply Paper 319. The estimates for Weekewachee, Poe, Wekiva, 

Crystal Eiver, Salt, Seminole, Blue (in Levy County near Bronson; see flg. 3), and Branch Mill Springs 

were obtained from Sellards, E. H., Florida Qeol. Survey Bull. 1, p. 86,1908.

<t Measured about 900 feet downstream from spring.

* Measured about one-fourth mile downstream from spring.

< Outlet of spring has been artificially raised 6 feet, which doubtless has reduced the discharge.

Other large springs which have been reported by Herman Gunter, 

State geologist of Florida, but of which no discharge measurements 

or estimates have been made are the Blue Springs, in Madison
12 LARGE SPKINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

County; Green Cove Springs, in Clay County; Deleon Springs, in 

Volusia County; Wacissa Springs, in Jefferson County; and Ponce 

de Leon Springs and Morrison Springs, in Holmes County.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Silver Spring. Silver Spring is generally regarded as the largest 

spring in Florida and it is probably the largest limestone spring in 

the United States (pi. 1). The water emerges through several openJngs into a basin an acre or more in extent and fully 35 feet deep 

and gives rise to a navigable stream. The discharge of the basin 

as measured five times by the United States Geological Survey ranges 

from 342 to 822 second-feet. Daily readings on a gage maintained 

in the basin during a period of about 19 months, from May 25, 1906, 

to December 31, 1907, showed a total fluctuation in the water level 

amounting to 2.50 feet. When the gage read 1.12 feet above the 

lowest observed stage (or 1.38 below the highest) the discharge of 

the basin as measured with a current meter was 545 second-feet, and 

the stream at the point where the measurements was made had a 

width of 110 feet, a maximum depth of 11 feet, and an average 

velocity of about 0.6 foot a second. When the gage read 1.15 feet 

above the lowest stage the discharge was 608 second-feet. Silver 

Spring Kun, which heads in the spring and discharges into Ocklawaha River, is about 9 miles long and increases greatly in volume 

downstream by percolation at many points. Thus on February 27, 

1917, when Silver Spring had a discharge of only about 342 secondfeet, Silver Spring Kun at a point 2^ miles below the spring had a 

discharge of 674 second-feet, almost all of which was derived from 

springs. Comparison of the daily gage height from May 25, 1906, 

to December 31, 1907, with the daily precipitation at Ocala, 6 miles 

from Silver Spring, during the same period shows some unexplained 

anomalies but otherwise seems to indicate that the discharge is not 

greatly affected by single rain storms, even though the precipitation 

is heavy, but increases gradually in rainy seasons and decreases even 

more gradually in dry seasons. The very heavy rains in May, June, 

and July, 1906, persistently raised the gage height. On the other 

hand, the long period of slight rainfall in the autumn of 1906 and 

the following winter produced a slow but very persistent decline.

Blue Spring, Marion County, Fla. Blue Spring, in the same 

county as Silver Spring (figs. 2 and 3), ranks next to it in maximum 

measured discharge (pi. 2, A}. On December 22, 1898, its discharge was found to be 778 second-feet. This was only two days 

after the measurement of Silver Spring that gave a discharge of 

822 second-feet. The water of this spring has a blue hue, in contrast 

to that of Silver Spring, which is said to be virtually colorless.
SPRINGS IN TERTIARY LIMESTONE IN~ FLORID A, GEORGIA, ALABAMA 13

Wakulla Spring. Wakulla Spring, several miles south of Tallahassee, issues from a pool in the limestone reported to be about 4 

acres in area and about 80 feet deep (pi. 2, B). It gives rise to 

Wakulla River, which is large enough to carry good-sized boats, 

and is probably the third largest spring in Florida. On February 

13, 1917, the discharge of the river 3 miles downstream from the 

spring, as measured by the Geological Survey, was 326 second-feet. 

The spring has been described as follows by W. A. McRae,4 State 

commissioner of agriculture:

Wakulla Spring is of punch-bowl shape, with limestone sides covered with 

beautiful water mosses kept in constant motion due to the swift flow of the 

water from its mysterious subterranean source. The water is trans- _TAIAAHASSEE 

parent, and one can see small objects 

on the bottom of the spring. * * * 

Seen from the shore, the central portion of the surface is of an intense 

blue, and the manifold reflections of 

overhanging trees, clouds, and sky 

produce a weird and exquisite picture that is impressed upon the 

memory.

The following description of 

the Wakulla Kiver system by 

Sellards 5 throws much light on 

the origin and character of this 

spring. (See fig. 4.)

The Wakulla River system originates in small surface streams which 

reach northwest to within 1 or 2 

miles of the Ocklocknee River in Leon 

County. These tributaries^ flow as 

surface streams in a general southeast direction until they reach the

limestone area, when they become subterranean streams entering the limestone 

through sinks. After entering the limestone they may occasionally be seen owing 

to the caving of the roof above them. One such view of the stream making its 

way underground is to be had at what is known as the River Sinks in Wakulla 

County. These underground streams make their way, as we may believe, in a 

general southeast direction and reemerge, in part at least, to form the great 

Wakulla Spring, and from that place continue as an open surface stream to the 

Gulf.

Springs in Georgia and Alabama. Many large springs also issue 

in southwestern Georgia and southeastern Alabama from cavernous 

limestones, chiefly of the Vicksburg group and the overlying Miocene

4 McRae, W. A., North Florida: Florida Depfr. Agr. Quart. Bull. Suppl., vol. 33, No. 

4, p. 26, October, 1923.

6 Sellards, E. H., Geology between the Ocklocknee and Aucllla Rivers in Florida: 

Florida Geol. Survey Nineteenth Ann. Kept., pp. 136, 137, 1917.

FIGURE 4. Map of the Wakulla drainage system, showing its relation to Waknlla 

Spring, Fla. (After Sellards)
14 LAEGE SPBINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

deposits (Chattahoochee and Alum Bluff formations). (See figs. 

1 and 3.) Several of these are called "Blue Spring." The Blue 

Spring 4 miles south of Albany, Ga., on the east side of Flint River, 

is believed to be the largest spring in Georgia. Measurements of 

this spring, made by the United States Geological Survey,6 show a 

discharge of 135 second-feet on April 19, 1904; 44 second-feet on 

September 23, 1904; 26 second-feet on November 16, 1904; and 69 

second-feet on April 26, 1905. The water rises under considerable 

pressure from several openings in limestone of the Vicksburg group 

and has a faint bluish hue but is very clear and is said to remain 

clear even when the discharge is increased by rains. The main 

spring opening is 20 to 30 feet deep, and the temperature of the 

water is 69° F.7

Wade Spring, near Withlacoochee River, T miles east of Quitman, 

Ga., was roughly estimated by McCallie 8 in November, 1903, to 

yield 15 million gallons a day (about 23 second-feet). In an extremely dry season, however, this spring is reported to have gone 

dry. It is often called Blue Spring and is a typical " blue spring " 

of this limestone region. It seems to be the outlet of a subterranean 

stream that ascends with considerable force through a large opening. Mclntyre Spring, on the same river near the Georgia-Florida 

line, was estimated by McCallie to discharge about twice as much 

water as Wade Spring.

SPRINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN STATES EAST 

OP MISSISSIPPI RIVER

Numerous large springs issue from the Paleozic limestones in several States east of the Mississippi, but so far as known not any of 

these are springs of the first class except perhaps the Big Spring at 

Tuscumbia, Ala.

In northern Alabama and adjacent areas hundreds of large 

springs issue from solution passages in Paleozoic limestones and 

dolomites, chiefly from the Knox dolomite and limestones of Mississippian age.9 In regard to most of these " big springs " no definite information is available. The Big Spring at Tuscumbia (fig. 

1) discharged ITT second-feet on July 20, 1903, according to a measurement made by the United States Geological Survey.10 On October 25,191T, a measurement at a point about three-quarters of a mile

8 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 127, p. 120, 1905; 168, p. 98, 1906.

7 Stephenson, L. W., Veatch, J. O., and Dole, R. B., Underground waters of the 

Coastal Plain of Georgia: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 341, p. 240, 1915.

8 McCallie, S. W., A preliminary report on the underground waters of Georgia: 

Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 15, p. 58, 1908.

8 Smith, E. A., The underground water resources of Alabama, pp. 49, 73, 79, 100, 

Alabama Geol. Survey, 1907.

10 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 98, p. 293, 1904,
SPRINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE EAST OF MISSISSIPPI BIVEB 15

below the spring, by L. J. Hall, of the Geological Survey, showed a 

flow of 55.9 second-feet, and on October 26, 1917, a measurement by 

Mr. Hall only 800 feet below the spring showed a flow of 55.4 second-feet. Coldwater Spring, about 7 miles southwest of Anniston, 

is estimated to yield from 23 to 28 million gallons a day (about 35 to 

44 second-feet).11 A large spring near Munfordville, Ky., on the 

south bank of Green River, is used to operate a hydroelectric power 

plant. An exceptionally large spring, known, as Big Cave Spring, 

is also reported in Jackson County, Ala.12

The largest spring in Indiana is probably Wilson Spring, in the 

NE. % sec. 19, T. 3 S., R. 3 E., near White Cloud, in the southern 

part of the State. It issues from the cavernous Mitchell limestone 

(Mississippian) and discharges through a stream about a mile long 

into Blue River, a tributary of the Ohio. According to estimates 

made by Tucker in 1910, the discharge of this spring is about 40 

second-feet.13

In the great limestone valley that extends from Virginia to Pennsylvania, including the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, many large 

springs issue from the Paleozoic limestones, but apparently none of 

these are springs of the first magnitude. C. E. Ryder, chief engineer 

of the water resources service of Pennsylvania, states that of 300 

springs in that State of which records of flow have been obtained, 

there are two that discharge more than 25 second-feet. These are 

Boiling Spring, in Cumberland County, with a flow of 30 to 45 second-feet, and Bellefonte Spring, in Center County, with a flow reported at about 31 second-feet. Both of these springs issue from 

limestone of Ordovician or Cambrian age.

The following list of large springs in Pennsylvania was furnished 

by Mr. Ryder. He states that it is not definitely known whether the 

discharge data, as given, are based on actual measurements, except 

those of Boiling, Bellefonte, and Roaring Springs. Ingham Spring, 

 2 miles west of New Hope, is also mentioned as one of the large 

springs of the State, but it is not believed to be as large as ^Boiling 

Spring, which is considered the largest spring in Pennsylvania. According to G. M. Hall, all the springs listed in the following table issue from Ordovician or Cambrian limestone except Rock Spring, 

which probably issues from Pottsville sandstone, and the Big Spring 

in Blair County, which issues from sandstone or limestone of Oriskany or Helderberg age.

11 Unpublished report by A. J. Bills.

12 Personal communication from Warren R. King, district engineer, TL S. Geol. Survey.

" Tucker, W. M., Water power of Indiana: Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Resources, 

Thirty-fifth Ann. Kept., pp. 30-38, 1911. 'Cummings, E. R., The geological conditions of 

municipal water supply in the driftless area of southern Indiana: Indiana Acad. Sci. 

Proc. for 1915, p. 137, 1912.
16 XARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

Discharge, in secon&feet, of certain large springs in Pennsylvania

Name

Boiling Spring. .....

Bellefonte Spring ....

Roaring Springs. .

Big Spring ..........

Falling Spring. .....

Location Reported 

discharge

30-45

31

15

12

12

10

8.5

3.0

The following descriptions of springs in Alabama, by McCalley,14 

give a good idea of the character of the openings from which many 

of these springs issue. The two springs described are more or less 

typical of many others:

Through the hard, capping rocks forming the table-lands down into the 

underlying softer strata there are some immense sinks or basins of several 

miles in circumference. These basins sometimes have a running stream in 

them and are then long and narrow. The water that falls and rises in them 

disappears in smaller sinks, to reappear in big springs along the foot of the 

mountains at the head of coves, etc. In the softer strata of the steep mountain 

sides there are also numerous caves. Some of these caves are of immense'size 

and have beautiful stalactites and stalagmites. They nearly all have running streams of water, and many of them afford vents for big springs. Some 

of them 

******* 

lead back to subterranean lakes.

Madison County is noted for its many big springs of lime water. These 

springs flow from beneath hills and bluffs and boil up from deep well-like 

holes or as numerous small springs over basin-sbaped areas covered by their 

waters (pond springs). In whatever way they occur, they run off as large 

creeks. The Huntsville Spring * * * is a fair sample of these big 

springs, though it does not furnish as much water as some others. It flows 

from under the bluff, some 50 feet high, on which stands the Northern Bank 

of Alabama and other buildings on the west side of the public square. It 

supplies the city with water and formerly furnished its own power for pumping the water up into the reservoir. * * * This spring furnished enough 

water to float cotton boats, by means of a canal, to the Tennessee River in 

anterailroad times. The temperature of its water in the month of June, 

according 

******* 

to Prof. Tuomey, was 60.8° F.

Cave Spring, in Morgan County, is the coming to light, in large rock houses 

or caves, of a good-sized subterranean creek. The cave from which this 

creek flows has two large mouths. The creek runs from the larger or more 

western of these mouths under the partition between the mouths into the 

smaller or more eastern mouth and thence by a race for some 60 to 70 feet 

to the site of an old mill. The mill dam is a pile of rocks across the 

creek in the larger or more western mouth. The mill pond is therefore all 

subterranean.

M McCalley, Henry, Report on the valley regions of Alabama, pt. 1, The Tennessee 

Valley region, pp. 16, 139, 256, 257, Alabama Geol. Survey, 1896.
SPBINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN OZARK BEGION 17

SPRINGS IN EARLY PALEOZOIC IJMESTONE IN THE 

OZARK REGION OF MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS

GENERAL FEATURES

The Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas is essentially a structural dome w,ith a northeast-southwest elongation. The underlying 

formations are mainly of Cambrian and Ordovician age and consist 

chiefly of cherty dolomitic rocks. The region reaches a maximum

93° 92 91°

 o

Spring that according -to the information Other large spring mentioned inthe 

available has an average discharge text or tables, 

of 100 second-feet or more

0 26 SO 78 100 MILKS

FIGDKH 5. Map showing large springs in the Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas

altitude of about 1,800 feet above sea level and has a rugged topography, with deep canyon-like valleys. According to available information ,it contains seven springs which have discharges ranging 

from 100 to several hundred second-feet (fig. 5) and which therefore rank with the very large springs of the country, although not 

quite equaling the largest springs in Florida or the largest springs 

in the areas of volcanic rock in the Northwest. In addition to these 

springs of first magnitude there are many other large springs in the
18 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

region. Thus the Geological Survey has measured 30 springs in, 

Missouri which have discharges ranging from 20 to 100 second-feet. 

These great springs issue from large crevices or caverns in the limestone and are situated, for the most part, .in deep valleys near the 

borders of the uplift. It is a region of sink holes, with many deep 

valleys that contain no streams except in very wet weather, all the 

water going underground. All the springs have marked fluctuations 

in discharge and often rise promptly after heavy rains or melting 

snows. This region has much greater relief than the big-spring 

region of Florida and Georgia, and consequently the subterranean 

circulation is, it seems, more vigorous, resulting in somewhat greater 

and prompter effects of rainfall on the discharge of the springs. 

On account of the greater relief and the smaller amount of sand 

mantling the surface, the water is more likely to become turtjid or 

muddy in the springs of this region than in those of Florida and 

Georgia. In the latter region the volume of water stored in the 

crevices of the limestone at any given time is doubtless much greater.

The information in regard to. the large springs of this region was 

obtained chiefly from brief descriptions and miscellaneous discharge 

measurements in water-supply papers of the United States Geological Survey, a report by T. J. Kodhouse,13 of the Missouri Engineering Experiment Station, and unpublished records of the Geological 

Survey and the Missouri State Bureau of Geology and Mines, furnished by E. L. Williams and H. C. Beckman, district engineers. 

Good records of several of the springs were obtained in recent 

years through cooperation between the United States Geological 

Survey and the State Bureau of Geology and Mines.

The range in discharge and the average discharge of some of the 

largest springs in the region are given in the following table. The 

discharge data for different springs are, however, not entirely comparable, because for some springs they include estimates that were 

probably too large, and because the measurements were made at 

different times and, therefore, represent different stages of the 

springs. Until continuous records of discharge of all the springs 

have been obtained for a period of several years it will be impossible 

to determine which of them actually have an average discharge 

of as much as 100 second-feet or how they rank in maximum, 

minimum, and average discharge.

l6 Rodhouse, T. J., Study relating to the water-resources of Missouri: Missouri Eng. 

Bxper. Sta. ser. 22 (Missouri Univ. Bull., vol. 21, No. 35), 1920.
SPRINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN OZABK BEGION 19

Discharge, in second-feet, of large springs in the Ozark region of Missouri

and Arkansas

Spring

Big....................

Welch _ ......- ....

Blue ........ ........

Alley.-l...............

Boiling................

Length of record

.....do _ .......... --. - .._. 

..... do -... .. .- -.....- ...... .......

.....do.. ................ .. ... .. ......

Lowest

344

204

150

76

136

115

69

84

75

65

54

63

Discharge

Highest

589

835 335

600

136

115

168

133

85 150

"250

63

Approximate 

average

428

392

250+

182

110

> Estimated.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Big Spring. Big Spring, which has also been called Van Buren 

Spring, is about 4 miles south of Van Buren, in Carter County, 

Mo., in sec. 6, T. 26 N., E. 1 E. The water issues with considerable 

velocity from cavernous holes in the rock at the base of the high 

cliff on the west side of the Current Eiver valley and flows swiftly 

eastward about 1,000 feet into the river (pi. 3, A). The spring is 

only 6 feet above the mean stage of the river and is flooded by the 

river in high stages.

On August 27, 1912, the discharge was 345 second-feet, according 

to measurements by T. J. Eodhouse. A gaging station with a staff 

gage was established at the spring by the United States Geological 

Survey in cooperation with the Bureau of Geology and Mines on 

January 8, 1922, and semidaily records were obtained for parts of 

1922 and 1923. On account of the effects of back water of Current 

Eiver the results obtained during high stages of the river are somewhat uncertain. As shown in the following table, the discharge 

during nearly 11 months of record ranged from 344 to 840 secondfeet and averaged 428 second-feet. The maximum discharge measured with current meter was 589 second-feet, and only on three days, 

in May, 1923, was the discharge as "determined from the gage height 

greater than this. The maximum is therefore given as 589 secondfeet in the table above. Apparently this spring does not fluctuate 

as greatly as many of the large limestone springs. If the irregularities shown by the record are not due to inaccuracies they seem 

to occur without close relation to the precipitation or with a lag of a 

number of days.

19 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 547, pp. 41-43, 1925; 567, pp. 41-43, 1925. 

Rodhouse, T. J., op. cit., pp. 21, 22.
20 IAKGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

Monthly discharge, in secant-feet, of Big Spring, Mo.a

1922

March ______

April......... ...

May- - 

Lowest

144

358

424

404

446

404

Highest

372

500

578

534

578

446

Average

358

414

469

460

490

413

1923 

April.... - 

May 

July. ....

Lowest

424

424

388

384

344

344

Highest

534

840

472

472

380

353

Average

493

499

413

416

364

347

 The complete record is given In U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 547, pp. 

41-43, 1925; 567, pp. 41-43, 1925.

Greer Spring.17 Greer Spring is in Oregon County, Mo., about 

iy2 miles northeast of Greer post office and about the same distance 

south of Eleven Point Kiver, in the SW. % sec. 36, T. 25 N., E. 4 W. 

About one-fourth of its water issues from a cave lined with stalactites and stalagmites, at the head of a deep ravine cut in Ordovician 

rocks, mainly cherty dolomite, with a few irregular beds of sandstone. The remaining three-fourths comes from a so-called " boil" 

100 feet distant and 7 feet lower, the source of which is invisible.

The stream heading in the spring flows through a beautiful gorge 

cut in limestone, a (distance of about 1% miles, to Eleven Point 

River, and has a total fall in this distance of 72 feet. The water 

is colorless except where contaminated by sediment washed in below 

its source in time of storm. It has no odor or taste and has a 

temperature of 54° F. In 1904 the spring furnished power for a 

large gristmill, but no other use was made of the water. Considerable additional water power could be developed.

At a gaging station maintained at Greer Spring by the United 

States Geological Survey from August 9 to December 31, 1904, a 

record of daily gage heights was obtained, with some interruptions, 

and two current-meter measurements were made. During this period there was not much rainfall, although there were a few moderate rains. The gage height declined very gradually and regularly 

from an arbitrary reading of 1.00 foot at the beginning of the period 

to 0.60 foot at the end. The discharge was 362 second-feet on August 9, when the gage height was 1.00, and 265 second-feet on October 1, when the gage height wa's 0.72. On July 30, 1919, the discharge as measured by T. J. Eodhouse was 338 second-feet.

A new gaging station, with staff gage read daily, was established 

by the United States Geological Survey November 18, 1921, and was 

maintained continuously to September 30, 1923. During this period 

of nearly two years the discharge ranged from 204 to 835 second-feet

lT Shepard, E. M., U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 102, pp. 416, 422, 423, 435, 

1904. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 131, pp. 178-179, 1905. Puller, M. L., 

Notes on certain large springs of the Ozark region, Mo. and Ark.: U. S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 145, p. 208, 1905. Rodhouse, T. J., op. cit., p. 25. U. S. GeoL 

Survey Water-Supply Papers 547, pp. 44-46, 1925; 567, pp. 44, 45, 1925.
SPBINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN OZABK BEGION 21

and averaged 392 second-feet. The fluctuations are closely related 

to the precipitation at Birchtree, 18 miles distant, as recorded by the 

United States Weather Bureau. (See pi. 7.) A heavy rain is 

usually followed within a day by a conspicuous rise in the spring, 

and even a rainstorm of moderate intensity produces a noticeable increase in discharge. The large persistent rise in March and April, 

1922, was due to the accumulative effect of a rainy season.

Mammoth Spring. Mammoth Spring is one-eighth of a mile 

north of Mammoth Spring post office, in Fulton County, Ark., near 

the line between sees. 5 and 8, T. 21 3ST., K. 5 W. It issues as a 

subterranean stream near the base of a high bluff of cherty limestone. The course of the subterranean river that feeds the spring 

is thought to be marked, 8 miles northwest, by a sink hole threefourths of a mile long known as the " Grand Gulf." The spring 

pool is 64 feet deep at its mouth, and the water apparently issues 

from a large cavern and from other large crevices in the limestone. 

The water is described as having a bluish tinge but as being odorless and tasteless and having a temperature of 58° or 59° F. in summer. The water is hard, having about 158 parts per million of lime 

and 139 parts of magnesia.

The discharge was estimated by Purdue at about 150,000 gallons 

a minute, or about 335 second-feet, but in 1904 it was, according to 

Fuller, as low as 150 second-feet. On December 13, 1922, the discharge was 258 second-feet, according to a measurement by F. H. 

Davis, of the United States engineer office at Memphis, Tenn. The 

Morgan Engineering Co., made a number of approximate measurements of this spring and concluded that the discharge at low stages 

is about 250 second-feet. The water from the spring is now used to 

operate a modern hydroelectric plant, which, according to the owners, develops 1,100 horsepower and supplies electric energy for the 

town of Mammoth Springs and for several towns in Missouri. (See 

pi.. 6, £.)

 Meramec Spring. Meramec Spring, also called Messamer Spring, 

is about 6 miles southeast of St. James, in Phelps County, Mo., in 

the SE. 14 sec. 1, T. 37 N., R. 6 W. The water issues from a circular 

pool about 100 feet in diameter, at the base of a precipitous cliff, and 

flows northward into Meramec River (pi. 4). Its temperature is. 

reported to be 58° F.

18 Purdue, A. H., U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 102, pp. 385-387, 1904. 

Adams, G. I., Summary of the water supply of the Ozark region in northern Arkansas: 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 110, p. 182, 1904, Fuller, M. L., op. cit., p. 210. 

Unpublished information of the U. S. Army Engineers and the Morgan Engineering Co., 

Memphis Tenn.

19 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 99, pp. 235-237, 1904. Shepard, E. M., op. 

cit., p. 416. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 131, pp. 123-125, 1905; 173, p. 

17, 1906; 209, pp. 21-22, 1907; 547, pp. 14, 15, 1925; 567, pp. 12, 13, 1925. Rodhouse, 

T. J., op. .cit., pp. 25-29. Unpublished records of the U. S. Geol. Survey and the 

Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines.
22 LABGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

A gaging station was maintained at the spring by the United States 

Geological Survey from February 28, 1903, to July 21, 1906, and 

since November 21, 1921. Up to September 30, 1923, a total of 42 

current-meter measurements had been made, and nearly complete 

daily records of gage heights were obtained for a total of 37 months. 

There is some uncertainty as to the interpretation of gage heights 

at high stages, owing to the backwater effects on Meramec Kiver. 

The records, however, indicate that during these 37 months the discharge ranged from 76 to about 600 second-feet and averaged about 

182 second-feet. The largest measured discharge was 467 secondfeet. The relation of the spring discharge to the precipitation is 

shown in Plate 5. The record indicates that here, as in the Greer 

Spring, the discharge increases greatly and quickly after rainstorms 

in winter and spring but that in summer and autumn there is less 

response to rains and the flow of the spring is much more regular. 

In this as in other Missouri springs there was a pronounced increase 

in discharge during the cool rainy season of early spring. At high 

stages following heavy rains the water may become turbid and carry 

some debris, showing that it has rather direct connection with sink 

holes that receive surface water.

Monthly discharge, In second-feet, of Meramec Spring, Jfo.°

Month

1903 

March

May...............

IQfU

January

April...... ........

1905 .

July. ............

1906

January........ ....

1921

Lowest

237 isn

180

112

76

136

212

160

114

154

96

105

114

114

177

120

Highest

404 m

570(?)

494

418

AIM(V\

185

570

646(?)

560?

360 ?

595 ?

525 ?

525 ?

525(?)

560(?)

283

Average

405

245

271

181

204

160

367

271

235

210

201

235

190

258

274

167

Month

1922 

Jftnjifiry .....

March . . ...

July................

October _ . ....

1923

January ^........

March .............

April...............

June ________ 

July................

August.... .........

Lowest

100

98

118

200

127

104

104

95

85

81

79

79,

95

95

100

100

100

114 

97

85 

83

76

Highest

152

197

352

406

266

124

152

120

120

140

87

203

162

299

420

316

282

334 

137

147 

114

420+

Average

119

127

225

309

164

116

115

103

98

93

83

100

112

138

205

145

148

163 

112

98 

89

182

 Discharges in 1903-1906 are based on records in Water-Supply Papers 99,131, 173, and 209, recomputed 

by H. C. Beckman with allowances for backwater at high stages of Meramec River. Discharges in 

1921-1923 are derived from daily and monthly records published in Water-supply Papers 547 and 567.

Double Spring. Double Spring is about 20 miles west of West 

Plains, in Ozark County, Mo., in sec. 18, T. 23 N., E. 11 W., on the 

west side of the narrow valley of North Fork Eiver. The water 

issues with a great rush from holes in the rock at the base of the cliff

"Rodhouse, T. J., op. cit., p. 29.
SPRINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN OZABK REGION 23

along the west side of the river and flows away in two brooks, one 

toward the south and the other toward the north. The name of the 

spring is due to this division of the water after it has come to the 

surface. The spring is about 8 feet above the river level. The temperature of the water was reported to be 60° F.. The discharge 

on August 8, 1919, as measured by T. J. Rodhouse, was 136 secondfeet.

Welch Spring. Welch Spring, in sec. 14, T. 31 N., R. 6 W., 

near Cedar Grove, Shannon County, Mo., is tributary to Current 

River (pi. 6, A). On October 2,.1923, it was measured by the United 

States Geological Survey and found to have a discharge of 115 

second-feet.

Bennett Spring.2 * Bennett Spring, which has also been called 

Brice or Bryce Spring, is near the east boundary of Dallas County, 

Mo., in sec. 1, T. 34 N., R. 18 W. 

It issues from a circular basin in 

gravel about 30 feet in diameter 

and gives rise to a stream that is 

about iy2 miles long and that 

empties into Niangua River at a 

level about 22 feet below the spring. 

The spring furnishes power ior a 

mill in the village of Brice. The 

temperature of the water is about 

58° F. The spring was visited in 

1903 by Shepard,22 who states that 

at that time it boiled up with great force from a vertical cavelike 

opening through the Ihnestone into a large oval basin (fig. 6).

A gaging station was maintained at this spring by the State 

Engineering Experiment Station from September 3,1916, to the end 

of March, 1920. During this period of nearly four years the discharge ranged from 69 to 168 second-feet and averaged 110 secondfeet (fig. 7). A measurement made by the Geological Survey September 18, 1923, showed a discharge of 80 second-feet. The discharge is increased promptly and greatly by rainfall and melting 

snow, and the water sonietimes becomes muddy at high stages.

Blue Sprmg.zs Blue Spring is southwest of Deslet, in the 

SE. 14 sec. 21, T. 29 N., R. 2 W., in Shannon County, Mo., about 

a quarter of a mile from Current River, into which it discharges.

"Rodhouse, T. J., op. cit., pp. 14-19. Shepard, E. M., op. cit., pp. 416, 418, 419; 

Spring system of the Decaturville dome, Camden County, Mo.: U. S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 110, pp. 117-119, 1904. Unpublished records of the U. S. Geol. Survey 

and the Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines.

* Shepard, E. M., Spring system of the Decaturville dome, Camden County, Mo.: 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 110, pp. 117-119, 1905.

83 Unpublished notes by Josiah Bridge, geologist, Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines, 

and unpublished records furnished by H. C. Beckman, district engineer, U. S. Geol. 

Survey.

FIGURE 6. Diagrammatic section showIng the outlet of Bennett Spring, Dallas County, Mo., according to Shepard

!)4!I2!><; <) 51 n
INCHES IN PRECIPITATION SECOND-FEET IN DISCHARGE 

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TT. S. GEOLOGICAL STTRVEY WATER-STTPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 3

A. WATER FLOWING FROM BIG SPRING, MO. 

Photograph by H. C. Beckman

B. HAHATONKA SPRING, MO. 

Photograph by E. L. Williams
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PtATE 4

A. GENERAL VIEW

B. WATER FROM SPRING FLOWING OVER DAM

MERAMEC SPRING, Mo.

Photographs by E. L. Williams
U. & GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

1921 1922

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 657 PLATE 5

DAILY DISCHARGE OF MEBAMEC SPRING AND DAILY PRECIPITATION AT GANO. MISSOURI 949296 O 51 (Face p. 24b)
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 6

A. WELCH SPRING, MO. 

Photograph by H. C. Beckman

B. WATER FROM MAMMOTH SPRING, ARK., FLOWING OVER DAM 

Photograph by E. L. Williams
SPRINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN OZARK REGION 25

The water issues from a basin at the foot of a bluff of dolomite 

25 to 40 feet high. The basin is approximately circular and about 

75 feet in diameter, and, according to soundings made by Bridge, 

it has a maximum depth of 45 feet. The water is very clear and has 

a temperature of 54° F. The discharge was 133 second-feet when 

measured August 1, 1923, and 84 second-feet when measured October 

11, 1923.

Alley Spring?* Alley Spring is at Alley, in sec. 25, T. 29 N., 

R. 5 W., in Shannon County, Mo. The water emerges from a deep 

pool, about 1 acre in extent, at the base of a dolomitic limestone 

cliff 150 feet high on the side of the broad valley of Jacks Fork, a 

tributary of Current River. The spring branch is about half a mile 

long and empties into Jacks Fork at a level about 17 feet below that 

of the spring. It furnishes power for running a grist and saw mill. 

The water is reported to be very clear and to be odorless, tasteless, and 

somewhat hard. Its temperature was observed to be 53° F. The 

discharge was 85 second-feet when measured by the Geological Survey October 2, 1904, 75 second-feet when measured by T. J. Rodhouse August 23, 1912, and 82 second-feet when measured by the 

Geological Survey September 25, 1922. All these measurements 

were made at times when the spring was probably at a low stage,

Boiling Spring.25 Boiling Spring is on Gasconade River 6 miles 

upstream from Arlington, Mo., in T. 36 N., R. 10 W., Pulaski County. 

The water issues largely from the bed of the river but partly near 

the base of a high limestone bluff that borders the river. It has a 

bluish color and a reported temperature of 60° F. Its discharge was 

roughly estimated in 1904 at 150 second-feet. A measurement on 

September 21, 1923, showed a discharge of 65 second-feet.

Hahatonka Spring.26 Hahatonka Spring, which was formerly 

known as Gnnter Spring, is in Camden County, Mo., in sec. 2, T. 

37 N"., R. 17 W. The water issues from the Gasconade limestone 

at the base of a cliff 250 feet high (pi. 3, B), flows nearly 1,000 

feet through a narrow canyon 300 feet in maximum depth, and then 

forms a lake of about 40 acres in the Niangua River valley. The 

lake discharges into the river, the length of the entire course of the 

spring branch from the spring to the point of discharge into the 

river is about three-fourths of a mile. The fall from the spring

21 Fuller, M. L., op. cit., p. 209. Rodbouse, T. J., op. cit., p. 21. Unpublished records 

of the IT. S. Geol. Survey and Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines.

25 Fuller, M. L., Notes on certain large springs of tbe Ozark region, Mo. and Ark.: 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 145, p. 210, 1905. Unpublished records of the 

U. S. Geol. Survey and the Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines.

soShepard, E. M., U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Taper 102, pp. 416, 418, 426, 

1904; Spring system of the Decaturville dome, Camden County, Mo.: U. S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 110, p. 120, 1905. Rodhouse, T. J., op. cit., p. 21. Unpublished 

records of the U. S. Geol. Survey and Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines.
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

1921 1922 1922 1923

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 657 PLAT1 T 

1923

5 K> IE 20253)6 K> * 20 IS X

DAILY DISCHARGE OF GREER SPRING AND DAILY PRECIPITATION AT BIRCHTREE, MISSOURI

04029B o Til (Face y. 24cl)
26 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

to the river is about 18 feet. The scenery is very beautiful. The 

temperature of the water was reported by Shepard to be 57° F. The 

spring opening has been sounded to a depth of 40 feet, where it 

bends to the south. The erosive work of the spring is described 

by Shepard as follows:

The district in the vicinity of this spring possesses great interest both 

from a scenic and a geological standpoint. Evidence of great erosion from 

underground waters, showing former outlets of this great spring, are everywhere seen. At one time it doubtless had its outlet at the Big Bed Sink, 

one-half mile to the southwest. A few hundred feet on the other side of the 

bluff from which the spring now issues is a sink, 150 feet deep and 600 feet 

long, which is open at one end and spanned by a great natural bridge. This 

undoubtedly marks an old cavernous channel of the great spring. In fact, 

most of these sinks and canyons mark the site of ancient cavernous outlets.

According to Shepard, independent estimates of the discharge by 

several engineers at different times ranged between $30 and 250 

second-feet, but a measurement made by Rodhouse July 4, 1913, 

gave only 54 second-feet.

Montauk Spring. Montauk Spring is in sec. 22, T. 32 N., R. 7 

W., at Montauk, Dent County, Mo., and is tributary to Current 

River. On October 2, 1923, when it was measured by the United 

States Geological Survey, it had a discharge of 63 second-feet.

Bartlett Springs.-1 The Bartlett Springs issue along Gasconade 

River, 7 miles northwest of Waynesville, in Pulaski County, Mo. 

They constitute a group of five springs within a distance of threefourths mile of one another. They were measured by Rodhouse in 

August, 1914, when the discharge of Bartlett Spring proper was 12 

second-feet, that of Creasy Spring was 21 second-feet, and the 

total discharge of the other three was about 25 second-feet.

Roaring River Spring. Roaring River Spring, the data for 

which are given in the table on page 27, is described as follows by 

Beckman: 28

Roaring River Spring emerges from beneath a limestone cliff and is the 

source of Roaring River. The surrounding scenery is very pretty and forms 

the setting of an attractive summer resort. A dam has been built on the 

spring branch to form an artificial lake, which is used as a hatchery for rainbow trout. The water is colorless and odorless and is used for drinking at 

the resort.

Other large springs. The measured or estimated discharges of 

some of the many second-magnitude springs in the Ozark region 

are given in the following table. Sweet or Big Blue Spring, in 

Laclede County, Mo., issues from a pool that is said to have been

27 Rodhouse, T. J., op. clt., p. 22.

** Beckman, H. C., district engineer, U. S. Geol. Survey, unpublished notes.
27

sounded to a depth of 150 feet.29 The temperature of the water is 

reported to be 58° F. in Sweet Spring, 56° F. in Ella Spring, and 

54° F. in Bound Spring.30

Discharge of certain springs of second magnitude in Missouri

Name

WetOlaize __

Pulltight.-... 

Ella (West)......

Roaring River. ..

Sweet (Big Blue)

Waynesville ..... 

Bartlett--. 

Mill.............

County

Barry.....

Laclede...

Pulaski ... 

 do. 

Location

NE. % sec. 24, T. 37 N., R.

15 W. 

Sec. 4, T. 30 N., R. 5 W....

NE. % sec. 6, T. 36 N., R.

14 W.

Sec. 20, T. 30 N., R. 4 W...

Sec. 27, T. 22 N., R. 27 W..

NE. % sec. 30, T. 36 N., R. 

17 W.

Waynesville. 

West bank of Black River,

near Keener. 

East bank of Roubidoux 

River, near Waynesville.

Waynesville. 

Sec. 36, T. 28 N., R. 3 E_...

Discharge 

(secondfeet)

60

31

30

23

31 

22 

23

28 

23

21

91

14

12 

19

10

10

Date of

measurement

(»)

Oct. 3, 1923

(»)

Oct. 3, 1904

July 28,1923 

July 15,1923

July 16,1923 

July 1, 1913

( )

A 11 ir A. 1Q14

Aug. 18,1913

Aug. 11,1914 

Aug. 4,1914

(»)

Oct. 4, 1922

Authority «

W. 110, p. 121.

U. S. Oeol. Survey.

W. 110, p. 121.

W. 145, p. 209

U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Do. 

Do.

Do. 

Rodhouse, T. J., 

op. cit., p. 21. 

W. 110, p. 119.

op. cit., p. 22.

op. cit., p. 25. 

Ro&house, T. J., 

op. cit., p. 22- 

Do.

op. cit., p. 25. 

U. S. Geol. Survey.

« W stands for U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper.

» General estimate.

 Earlier measurement or estimate.

The traveler going from Austin through San Antonio to Del 

Rio, Tex., sees two very different physiographic provinces. On the 

right is a succession of low, flat-topped hills, which form the Balcones escarpment, or southeast front of the Edwards Plateau (fig. 8) ; 

on the left is the gently undulating Coastal Plain. The Edwards 

Plateau is underlain for the most part by Lower Cretaceous (Comanche) limestones, which dip toward the southeast and in that direc 

tion pass beneath the younger formations of the low-lying Coastal 

Plain. The Coastal Plain is underlain near the Edwards Plateau 

by Cretaceous formations (chiefly Upper Cretaceous) and farther 

seaward by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits. Along the general 

course of the Balcones escarpment the rocks are broken by a complicated system of faults.

Two kinds of large.springs are found in this region those at 

the edge of the Coastal Plain, in the fault zone, near the base of

29 Shepard, E. M., Spring system of the Decaturville dome, Camden County, Mo.: 

IT. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 110, p. 119, 1904.

80 Idem, pp. 119, 121. Fuller, M. L., Notes on certain large springs of the Ozark 

region, Mo. and Ark.: U. S. Geol,; Stirvqy Water-Supply Paper 145. p 2OO. 19<v>.
28 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

the escarpment, and those at the heads of streams in the Edwards 

Plateau or wherever the stream valleys cut the water-bearing limestones. The springs in the fault zone issue, at least in part, from

fault fissures and are regarded as largely artesian springs; those in 

the Edwards Plateau are essentially gravity springs, the water generally appearing where the valleys reach down to the water table.
SPRINGS IN CRETACEOUS LIMESTONE IN TEXAS 29

Both the artesian springs of the Balcones fault zone and the 

gravity springs of the Edwards Plateau appear to be less flashy 

than at least some of the large springs of the Ozark region. Their 

fluctuations occur more gradually and with greater lag and have a 

somewhat more moderate range. So far as information is available, 

their water is always clear, whereas that of some of the springs of 

the Ozark region becomes turbid or even muddy after freshets. 

On the whole, the Texas springs seem to resemble the Florida springs 

more nearly than those of the Ozark region, although the controlling 

structure and topography in the two regions are dissimilar.

In compiling the data for the large springs in Texas much valuable 

assistance was given by C. E. EILsworth, district engineer of the 

Geological Survey, and C. E. McCashin, also of the Geological Survey. The work of measuring the springs and streams in Texas in 

recent years has been carried on in cooperation with the State 

through the Board of Water Engineers.

SPBINGS IN THE BALCONES FAULT BELT 

GENERAL FEATURES

Character of springs. The largest and most definite springs in 

the Texas region are those which occur along the fault belt on the 

Coastal Plain near the Balcones escarpment, chiefly between Austin 

and Del Rio. They do not break out from bluffs or fall in cascades 

but appear as extensive pools, some of them in the level prairie. 

The water is very clear but has a slight bluish or greenish color. 

The pools contain fish and abound in aquatic plants. Some of the 

springs are at the very foot of the Balcones escarpment; others are 

out on the plain, many miles from the edge of the plateau. A few 

of the largest and best known springs are described on pages 

31-39, in the order in which they occur southwestward from Austin,

Origin »f springs. The large springs in the Balcones fault belt 

are believed to be artesian springs whose water rises through fissures 

produced by faulting. This origin is indicated by the general relation of the springs to the fault belt, by the fact that in some springs 

the water can be seen emerging from the fault fissures, and by the 

fact that at San Antonio the flow of the springs is affected by the 

discharge of the artesian wells. However, the wide fluctuations in 

the flow of these springs produced by wet and dry years and to some 

extent by heavy and prolonged rainstorms indicate that the water 

does not come from any very deep or distant source. Moreover, 

according to the meager data at hatid, the temperature of the water 

is not appreciably higher than the normal temperature for shallow 

ground water in the region and is less than that of the deep wells.
30 LABGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED

Thus, the mean annual air temperature at Austin, New Braunfels, 

and San Antonio is about 68° F., the temperature of the Comal 

Springs, at New Braunfels, has been variously reported at 68° and 

75°; and the temperature of the water in a 600-foot well at Austin 

is reported to be about 70°; whereas the temperature of water from 

a 1,420-foot well 20 miles east of Austin is reported to be 93°, and 

that of a 1,900-foot well at San Antonio 106°.S1 The origin of the 

spring water is discussed as follows by Hill and Vaughan: 82 "

From the similarity of color, taste, temperature, etc., of this chain of springs 

extending in a continuous line 250 miles between Austin and Del Rio, and 

from their association with the line of Balcones scarp and faults, there 

can be no doubt that they are all of similar nature and origin. The temperature of the water brought by the springs from their subterranean source, about 

75°, does not differ greatly from the mean annual temperature of the air in 

this part of Texas 68° to 69°; and as the normal downward temperature 

change requires only 50 or 60 feet of depth for 1° of temperature, the formation from which the water comes can not be many hundred feet below the 

surface. The great volume of the springs shows their chief source to be a 

formation transmitting water freely. Their freedom from sulphureted hydrogen and other ingredients that would be detected by taste or smell excludes 

from consideration the higher water horizons of the Edwards limestone as 

sampled by artesian wells. These various facts leave no reasonable doubt 

that their water is derived from. either the " sweet water" horizon of the 

Edwards formation or the Travis Peak sands that is, they have the same 

source as the purer waters of the artesian wells.

The fact that the flow from the springs is slow in showing sympathetic 

variation with drought or rainfall is evidence that the reservoir supplying 

them is of vast extent. * * *

When the wells of the city waterworks are allowed to flow the springs 

diminish in volume and the river is greatly lowered, being at times almost 

completely emptied. On the other hand, when the wells are stopped by 

valves the springs furnish their usual flow.

It is also an interesting fact that although the waters of the fissure springs 

of the Rio Grande Plain and the gravity springs of the Edwards Plateau, 

respectively, differ in mode of outflow, they are both derived from the same 

geologic horizons the rock sheets of the Edwards beds and Trinity division. 

The difference in mode of outburst is due to the difference in structural 

arrangement which these horizons present in the regions of their occurrence.

Size of springs. The following table gives the best available data 

as to the lowest, highest, and average discharge of the largest 

springs in the Balcones fault belt. For the springs on which only 

a few measurements have been made the figures given may, however, 

be far from the actual minimum, maximum, and average.

81 Hill, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., Geology of the Edwards Plateau and Rio Grande 

Plain adjacent to Austin and San Antonio, Tex., with special reference to the occurrence 

of underground waters-: U. S. Geol. Survey Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 279-312, 

1898.

11 Idem, pp. 312-313.
SPRINGS IN CRETACEOUS LIMESTONE IN TEXAS 31 

Discharge, in second-feet, of large springs in the Balcones fault belt of Texas

Springs Locality

of Comstock.

Length of record

laneous measurements.

laneous measurements.

Lowest

267

181

75

85

0

11

12

Discharge

Highest

400+

256

300+

150

200+

60

139

Approximate 

average

350

222

135

115

90

34

40

 The total discharge of all springs in the vicinity of Austin is much greater. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Barton Springs and other large springs at Austin, Tex.S3 There 

are several groups of large springs in the vicinity of Austin Tex., 

at the edge of the Edwards Plateau. None of these have as great a 

discharge as most of the large springs described on subsequent 

pages, but their aggregate discharge is very large. They are believed 

to issue from fissures in the fault belt that passes through that 

locality.

The Barton Springs, which are among the best known and largest 

of these groups of springs, were measured 20 times by the United 

States Geological Survey in the period from 1894 to 1917. From 

April 25, 1917, to September 30, 1918, a gaging station was maintained just below the springs, and a daily record of the flow of the 

springs during this period was obtained. From October 1, 1918, 

to September 30, 1922, a total of 75 measurements were made of the 

stream just below the springs, and whenever these measurements 

were made the stream above the springs was also measured if it was 

 iot dry. Figure 9 shows the flow of the springs and of the stream 

into which they discharge for the period from April 25, 1917, to 

September 30, 1921. It is assumed that there was no water in the 

creek above the springs during the dry period, April 25, 1917, to 

September 30, 1918, in which the gage was operated. For the period 

beginning October 1, 1918, the discharge of the springs was obtained 

by subtracting the flow, if any, above the springs from the flow 

below the springs. For this later period the diagram was constructed by connecting the points representing measurements, and 

this part of the diagram is therefore only approximately correct.

ss Hill, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. cit., pp. 307-308. U. S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Papers 132, pp. 43-45, 1905; 210, pp. 41-42, 1907; 438, p. 104, 1917; 458, pp. 

55-56, ]919; 478, pp. 57-58, 1922; 508, pp. 63-64, 1922; 528, pp. 50-51, 1923; 548, pp. 

60-61, 1925.
SECOND-FEET IN DISCHARGE 

W 

o o 

N> 

000

o 

INCHES IN PRECIPITATION 

0> ff) 

l<-

J.5.

APR.

JULY

MAY

JUNE

AUG.

SEPT.

OCT.

NOV.

DEC.

JAN.

FEB.

MAR.

APR.

MAY

JUNE

00 JULY

AUG.

SEPT.

OCT.

NOV.

DEC.

_OJ_

CD

-5--J

n

JAN.

FEB.

MAR.

APR.

MAY

Jgfl&

JUNE

JULY

AUG.

469?

SEPT

OCT.

NOV.

DEC.

JAN.

FEB.

MAR.

APR.

MAY

JUNE

JULY

AUG.

SEPT

OCT.

NOV

DEC.

JAN.

FEB.

MAR.

APR.

MAY

JUNE

JULY

AUG.

SEPT

NI anx aaxisrn saivxs 
SPRINGS IN CRETACEOUS LIMESTONE IN TEXAS 33

In the following table are given the measurements made prior to 

April 25, 1917. In so far as the records show, the discharge from 

1894 to 1922, inclusive, has ranged from 12 to 139 second-feet and has 

averaged about 40 second-feet.

Measured discharge, in second-feet, of Barton Springs, Austin, Teas., 1894-1917

1894....._._._ 17

1895______-...__ 25

March 26, 1898.. _ 20

May 3, 1898_______ 30

December 23, 1898 19

December 24, 1898 19

August, 1900__.__" 69

December, 1900____ 33

June, 1902_____ 19

August, 1902___ 19

June, 1903______ 69

June, 1904_____._ 43

July,1905_________ 65

June, 1906_______ 24

August, 1910____ 19

August 29, 1916_ _ _ _ 33

August 31, 1916____ 30

September 2, 1916__ 30

September 6, 1916__ 28

February 23, 1917__ 17

The relations shown in Figure 9 are very instructive. In April, 

1917, after a very dry year, the springs were discharging only about 

15 second-feet. Their flow continued very low during the dry years 

of 1917 and 1918, being increased only slightly in such relatively 

rainy months as May, 1917, and April, 1918. The abundant precipitation in the fall of 1918 and in. the following winter, however, 

gradually took effect and increased the discharge notably in the 

early part of 1919. In the year 1919 the precipitation at Austin was 

about 32 inches above the normal, and as a result the discharge of 

the springs averaged close to 80 second-feet and reached a maximum 

of more than 100 second-feet. In 1920 and 1921 the precipitation 

was also above the normal and the spring discharge was above the 

average, although not as high as in 1919. The heavy precipitation in 

May and October, 1919, January and May, 1920, and April, 1921, 

produced great and prompt increases in the discharge of the springs. 

As the discharge measurements at the high stages were generally 

made several days after the heavy rains, it is impossible to say 

whether the measurements represent the peak discharge and whether 

a rise in the springs lagged several days behind the rains that caused 

it or occurred more promptly. Evidently the summer rains affect 

the springs less than the rains in late fall, winter, and spring. Thus 

the rainy months of June and July, 1919, June, 1920, and June, 

1921, had no effects comparable with those produced in the similarly 

wet months of October, January, April and May already cited.

San Marcos Springs.3* The San Marcos Springs issue at San 

Marcos, Tex., from many openings at the foot of a line of bluffs 

that form the Balcones escarpment in this locality. The water forms 

a lake nearly half a mile long which gives rise to San Marcos River. 

According to measurements made by the United States Geological

34 Hill, B. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. cit., p. 308, 1898. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

140, p. 83, 1896. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 210, p 44, 1907; 438, pp. 

54-56, 1917 ; 458, pp. 61-64, 1919 ; 478, pp. 67-68, 1922 ; 508, pp. 76-79, 1922 ; 528, pp. 

58-60, 1923.
34 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

Survey, the discharge of these springs was approximately 150 secondfeet on November 14, 1894, and 89 second-feet on December 19, 1895. 

It was reported when these measurements were made that the discharge fluctuates from year to year'and also from season to season, 

generally increasing from March to about the middle of May, remaining nearly constant from May to September, and then gradually 

declining. Both of these measurements were made during low stages. 

It was also reported that the springs did not rise during 1892, 1893, 

and 1894 but did rise during the spring of 1895. Measurements made 

by T. U. Taylor gave 150 second-feet in 1900,153 second-feet in 1903, 

and 145 second-feet in 1906.

Only miscellaneous measurements were made until about July 1, 

1915, when the Geological Survey established a gaging station on 

San Marcos River at San Marcos. From that time till September, 

1921, a continuous record of the discharge was obtained except for 

a few interruptions.35 As the river is supplied entirely by these 

springs during ordinary stages, the measured discharge is believed 

to represent the flow of the springs except in the brief periods of 

unusually large discharge, when storm water was probably added to 

the flow of the springs. During 1915 and January, 1916, a staff gage 

was used, but in March, 1916, an automatic gage was installed, 

and this was used during the rest of the period of observation. The 

many minor fluctuations shown by the record are believed to be due 

to regulation of the stream from day to day at a dam between the 

springs' and the gage.

During the period of more than six years covered by this record 

the discharge of the springs fluctuated from 75 to probably 300 second-feet or possibly more, the average being considerably over 100 

second-feet. The record shows that the discharge is usually largest 

in the spring and as a rule remains fairly constant during the rest 

of the year, with a slight tendency to decline in the fall. During 

this period the discharge varied greatly from one year to« another, 

as is indicated by figure 10, which by showing only monthly minima eliminates storm waters. In July, 1915, the discharge was great, 

apparently averaging about 300 second-feet, but it declined rapidly. 

In 1916 the precipitation was below the normal, and during February and March no rain or snow fell at San Marcos. The discharge 

of the springs accordingly declined to about 125 second-feet by 

March, 1916, and remained between 100 and 150 second-feet during 

the rest of the year. In 1917, which was a very dry year, the discharge declined gradually from about 125 second-feet to about 90 

second-feet. During 1918, in which the precipitation was also below the normal, the discharge was generally less than 100 second55 See water-supply papers cited for daily records to Sept. 30, 1921.
! IIEz

s i^ !

Q.

^150

1915

,111 ~! Tf C

^i$!

1916

UJ v H 

K >: ? 5 O o-.

M^ =

1917

Ul N. K

: a > z 5 sot t^ :> 6

^^DODaoOui

>«§&a

1918

!i

FIGOBE 10. Minimum monthly discharge of San Marcos and San Antonio Springs and monthly p

tember, 1921. For the months of March and December, 1919, and January, 1920, the precip

obtained for Sap Marcos in these months 
36 LABGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATER

feet and in the summer went down to about 75 second-feet the 

lowest stage reached by the springs during the period. In the winter of 1918-19, however, the springs rose notably. The year 1919 

was one of the wettest on record, and the discharge of the springs 

was maintained at about 125 to 150 second-feet until September, 

when it increased'. In the two months of September and October, 

1919, about 15 inches of rain fell at San Marcos, which was about 

10 inches more than the normal for these two months. It is not certain just how much of the discharge shown by the record in October and November, 1919, is spring water. As there was no precipitation at San Marcos in February, 1920, it is probable that the discharge of about 250 second-feet in the later part of the month all 

came from the springs. During the later part of 1919 and the early 

part of 1920 the springs were at their highest stage since 1915, the 

discharge being approximately 200 second-feet during much of 1920. 

In the tall of 1920 the discharge declined to about 150 second-feet. 

The heavjr precipitation in March, April, and June, 1921, increased 

the discharge notably, but during the summer there was a gradual 

decline to about 125 second-feet in September, when the record ends.

Comal Spring8. The Comal Springs, which are regarded as the 

largest springs in Texas, are near New Braunfels, Comal County. 

The Edyards Plateau ends in an escarpment about 1 mile northwest 

of New Braunfels, and many large springs issue from fissures in the 

Cretaceous limestone at the foot of the escarpment. The principal 

group is about a mile northwest of the town and includes one magnificent spring that was esthnated to yield fully 100 second-feet. 

The water from all the springs in the vicinity flows together to form 

Comal Lake and Comal River, which empties into Guadalupe River 

just below the town. The water is very clear and supports much 

aquatic vegetation. Its temperature has been reported at 75° F.

A measurement of Comal River was made Dece'mber 20, 1895. by 

C. C. Babb, of the United States Geological Survey, at a bridge a 

quarter of a mile from New Braunfels, about iy2 miles below the 

largest spring at the head of the river, and about 1 mile above the 

point where Comal River empties into the Guadalupe. The current 

at this point was very swift. The discharge was found to be 328 

second-feet, and this was considered the normal flow of the springs. 

A mVmber of miscellaneous measurements have been made by the 

Geological Survey since 1895, with the results shown in the following 

table. Apparently these springs do not fluctuate as much as some 

other Texas springs.

88 Hill, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. dt., pp. 30S-309. V. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 140. 

p. 84, 1S9G. Taylor, T. U., The water powers of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 105, pp. 32-35. 1904. U. S. Geol. Water-Supply Papers 132, pp. 49-50, 

1905 ; 210, p. 44, 1907 ; 308, p. 106, 1913 ; 408, p. 108, 1917,
SPRINGS IN CRETACEOUS LIMESTONE IN TEXAS 37 

Discharge, in second-feet, of Comal Springs, New Braunfels, Tex.

December 20, 1895 328

1898 _________ 320

1899 __________ 310 

December 25, 1900 374 

March, 1902____ 343

August, 1902_. _ 333

1903 "______..__ 412

1904 _________ 375

1905 _______._ 390

1906 _______. _ 386

1910 __________ 299

1911 __________ 267 

March 26, 1915___ 407 

February 7, 1921__ 329 

September 7, 1921 316

San Antonio Springs?* The San Antonio Springs, in the vicinity 

of San Antonio, Tex., rank among the largest and most interesting 

springs in the State. Like the other springs that have been described, they issue from openings in the Cretaceous limestone. The 

principal springs of the group are 3 miles north of the city and 

form San Antonio River, which flows through the heart of the city. 

At this group of springs was situated one of the most ancient Indian 

settlements or pueblos in Texas. Between 1718 and 1731 the Spaniards established a military post and five missions in this vicinity. 

The natives were employed in the cultivation of farms and gardens 

irrigated by the spring water. The streets of the old town followed 

the ancient irrigation ditches, or acequias, and some of these streets 

are still in existence. The San Pedro Springs are about 2 miles 

southwest of the San Antonio Springs. They give rise to San 

Pedro Creek, which naturally discharges into San Antonio Kiver 

below the city.

The San Antonio Springs fluctuate greatly from year to year or 

through a cycle of years in response to series of dry and wet years 

(fig. 10, p. 35). It appears that the springs were at a high stage 

about 1885, but declined from that time until about 1899. In December, 1895, when the first measurement of these springs was made 

by the Geological Survey, they discharged 49 second-feet, but in 

parts of 1897, 1898, and 1899 they ceased flowing entirely. This 

decline was attributed to the flowing artesian wells with large discharge that had been drilled in the vicinity, for it was demonstrated 

that these wells affected the spring discharge notably. By September, 1900, however, the discharge had increased to 103 second-feet, 

and since that time it has gone both up and down. The San Pedro 

Springs fluctuate less than the San Antonio Springs. They are 

reported to have had a discharge of about 9 second-feet at the times 

when the San Antonio Springs ceased to flow, though later measurements showed minimum discharges of only 2 or 3 second-feet. The 

discharge of San Antonio River below the mouth of San Pedro Creek

87 Measurement made soon after rains. The record does not state whether the discharge is all from the springs or includes storm water.

»Hill, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. cit, pp. 309-310. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

140, p. 84, 1896. Taylor, T. U., op. cit., pp. 23-25. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 

Papers 132, p. 50, 1905; 210, p. 45, 1907; 288, p. 135, 1911; 308, p. 106, 1913; 408, 

pp. 25-26, 1917; 438, pp. 58-61, 1917; 458, pp. 66-70, 1919; 478, pp. 71-76, 1922; 

508, pp. 82-84, 1922; 528, pp. 63-65, 1923,; 548, pp. 73-75, 1925.
38 LARGE SPRINGS lw THE UNITED STATES

was 41 second-feet in October, 1901; 65 second-feet in March, 1904 ; 

61 second-feet in June, 1904; 117 second-feet in September, 1905; 

54 second-feet in June, 1906; 18 second-feet in September, 1910; and 

16 second-feet in November, 1911.

On January 26, 1915, a gaging station was established by the 

Geological Survey on San Antonio River at the Commerce Street 

Bridge, in the city, 3 miles below the San Antonio Springs but 

above the mouth of San Pedro Creek. At this station daily records 

of discharge were obtained. The station was still in operation at 

the end of September, 1921. An automatic gage was installed April 

18, 1920. The normal flow covered by the record came from the 

San Antonio Springs, but two tributaries furnished considerable 

run-off at times of heavy precipiation. Variations in discharge during low stages are believed to be due in part to pumping from 

deep wells for the city water supply and using flowing wells for 

irrigation.

In Figure 10 the lowest discharge in each month from February, 1915, to September, 1921, is indicated.39 Thus the curve eliminates all storm waters and represents somewhat less than the true 

spring discharge. The figure shows that in this period the springs 

have undergone very great fluctuations, comparable to those reported in earlier years. It also shows that the fluctuations were 

closely correlated with those of the San Marcos Spring, though they 

were more extreme. The fluctuations of both groups of springs were 

determined by the weather, the high stages coming as a result of 

wet, years and the low stages as a result of dry years. During the 

period from February, 1915, to September, 1921, the spring discharge ranged from 10 to more than 200 second-feet and averaged 

approximately 90 second-feet.

Las Moras /Springs.40 The Las Moras Springs are near Brackett, 

Tex., about 125 miles west of San Antonio. They break out through 

the Eagle Ford shale (Upper Cretaceous) in large pools and give 

rise to Las Moras Creek, which flows into the Eio Grande. Their 

discharge fluctuates in a manner similar to that of the other large 

springs. Five measurements made by the Geological Survey are 

shown below. They averaged 34 second-feet.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Las Moras Springs, near Brackett, Tex.

December 24, 1895__________ 21 

June 30, 1899_____________ 60 

September, 1900____________ 51

September, 1902_____-. _________ 11

March 14, 1904____________ 28

39 For the daily records see the water-supply papers already cited.

*°H111, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. cit., pp. 310-311. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

140, p. 85, 1896. Taylor, T. U., op. cit., p. 21. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

132, p. 126, 1905. .
SPRINGS IN CRETACEOUS LIMESTONE IN TEXAS 39

San Felipe Springs** The San Felipe Springs are 2 miles northeast of Del Rio, Tex., and about 5 miles from the Rio Grande. They 

break out at the edge of the Edwards Plateau in a large pool. The 

following is a description, by Hill and Vaughan, of the springs 

about 1898:

From the deep-seated rock at the bottom of the pool the water can be seen 

welling up in a great' column and has the same peculiar greenish-blue color as 

that of the other streams of this class. No trees surround it; it is alone a 

fountain in the desert. . The rocks from which it bursts Fort Worth limestone (Cretaceous) have the same kind of joints and faults as are found at 

San Antonio and Austin. The outflow of the pool forms a bold, rushing stream 

that runs off to the Rio Grande, some 5 miles distant.

The discharge of the San Felipe Springs has been measured several times by the Geological Survey, with the results shown below. 

These measurements averaged 115 second-feet.

Discharge, in second-feet, of San Felipe Springs, near Del Rio, Tex.

December 24, 1895__________ 99 

June 29, 1899____________ 113 

1900___________________ 149 

1901__________________ 150

1902__________________ 115 

March, 1904______________ 118 

October 5, 1921____________ 85 

October 25, 1922___________ 92

Goodenough Springs.*- The Goodenough Springs are in Val 

Verde County, about 12 miles southeast of Comstock, Tex. They 

should perhaps be classed with the gravity springs of the Edwards 

Plateau rather than with the artesian springs of the Balcones fault 

zone. As described by McCashin, the water issues at the bottom of a 

canyon about 50 feet deep, from the base of one of the canyon walls, 

into a lake about half a mile long and 200 feet wide, which discharges 

into the Rio Grande, about 1 mile away. (PI. 8.) The water in the 

lake has a deep-blue appearance. The results of five measurements 

made by the Geological Survey are given below. These measurements averaged 222 second-feet, apparently making these springs 

rank next in size to the Comal Springs among the large springs of 

Texas.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Goodenough Springs, about 12 miles southeast

of Comstock, Tex.

October 9, 1921____________ 197 

November 18, 1921__________ 181 

October 27, 1922__________ 256

February 18, 1923__________ 240 

July 1, 1923______________ 238

«llill, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. cit., p. 311. U. S. Gcol. Survey Bull. 140, 

p. 85, 1896. Taylor, T. U., op. cit., pp. 20-21. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

548, p. 121. 1925. Unpublished data.

48 Unpublished data furnished by C. E. 'Ellsworth and C. E1 . McCashin. U. S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 548, p. 121, 1925.
40 IAEGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

SPRINGS IN THE EDWARDS PLATEAU AND ADJACENT COUNTBY

The following extract is taken from a description of the gravity 

springs in the canyons of the Edwards Plateau by Hill and 

Vaughan: 43

Such springs usually occur in all the streams of the plateau from the 

Llano to the Pecos. Wherever the streajm, in descending the summit of the 

plateau through the canyons to the Coastal Plain, cuts into a water-bearing 

bed the water drains out into the stream way. In many cases this forms 

large, deep pools of clear running water. Of thia character are the so-called 

headwater holes of the various forks of the Llano, Pedernales, Guadalupe, 

Comal, Medina, Frio, Nueces, and Devils Rivers. The constant waters of all 

these 

*******

streams are derived from springs of this character.

About 17 miles north of Leakey is the great headwater hole of the Frio, 

which occurs at the very head of the flat-bottomed canyon, just below where 

the steep ascent to the summit region begins. These springs break out from 

cavernous, slightly arenaceous layers in the Edwards limestone, about 300 

feet below its summit. Between this point and Leakey there are many large, 

deep, and long pools of water in the stream way.

From Leakey the east prong of the Frio was ascended in a northeast direction. Fine springs burst out from the Glen Rose and Edwards beds and 

supply the river with much water. About 12 miles northeast of Leakey there 

are some springs the tufaceous deposits of which make a number of hemispherical concentric pools, arranged in descending series, resembling very 

much the illustrations of Gardner's Springs, in the Yellowstone Park. Below 

Leakey and thence to the mouth of the canyon the Glen Rose beds afford a 

large number of gravity springs. There are four large ones at Van Pelt's 

ranch, and at Rio Frioj about 5 miles south of Leakey, many acres of land 

are irrigated with spring water.

The Guadalupe and its several tributaries derive the abundant water which 

they contain above Kerrville from various strata in the Glen Rose and 

Edwards beds. At Kerrville the springs can be seen draining out of the 

Glen Rose beds. At Spencers Hole the water breaks out of a horizon high 

up in the Edwards limestone.

The various forks of the Llano, the East Fork of the Nueces, and its 

principal tributary, Hackberry Creek, reveal the same wealth of gravity-spring 

water in the upper portion of their flat-bottomed canyons, the water breaking 

out from various horizons of the Edwards and Glen Rose beds.

The waters of the Pedernales are largely derived from the basement beds 

of the Cretaceous. Many fine springs break out in the course of the stream 

and its tributaries, as seen around and below Fredericksburg.

Devils Kiver as described by Taylor 44 is instructive as an example 

of the spring-fed streams that flow out of the Edwards Plateau:

Devils River is an illustration of the effect of the large springs of the 

Edwards Plateau. The river rises in Pecan Spring, about 45 miles north of 

the mouth and about 60 miles from Del Rio. This spring is on the old mail 

route from San Antonio to El Paso, which followed the course of the springs 

on the southern edge of the plateau. The river is only about 50 miles long,

43 Hill, R. T., and Vaughan, T. W., op. cit., pp. 267-270, 1898.

44 Taylor, T. U., The water powers of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

105, p. 19, 1904.
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE

A. STREAM FROM SPRINGS DISCHARGING INTO RIO GRANDE 

Rio Grande in background

B. NEAR VIEW 

GOODENOUGH SPRINGS, TEX.

Photographs by C. E. EUsworth
SPRINGS IN CRETACEOUS LIMESTONE IN TEXAS 41

and yet, of all the rivers of Texas, it has the largest minimum flow. This, 

as determined by semiweekly measurements, 1900 to 1903, is slightly over 380- 

second-feet.

Daily records obtained by the Geological Survey of the discharge 

of Devils River from 1900 to 1913 support in general the description 

given by Taylor. They show that except for occassional floods the discharge is very uniform but changes gradually from year to year in response to differences in annual precipitation. During this period theminimum discharge was 245 second-feet. In nine different months 

the minimum discharge was between 245 and 300 second-feet, in 99 

months it was between 300 and 500 second-feet, and in 53 months it. 

was more than 500 second-feet.45

West of Pecos River, in Pecos and Reeves Counties, there are several large springs, none of which, however, are of the first magnitude. The largest of these springs for which records are available 

are the Comanche Springs,48 at Fort Stockton. The water of theComanche Springs is reported to rise through fissures, presumably 

in limestone of the Comanche series, and to flow into a pool about 

100 feet wide and half a mile long. At these springs was established 

one of the first Government forts in the region and the oldest irrU 

gation system in trans-Pecos Texas away from the Rio Grande.. 

The following measurements of discharge have been made by th& 

Geological Survey:

Discharge, in second-feet, of Comanche Springs, at Fort Stockton, Tex.

Summer, 1899______-______ 66 

July 26, 1904______________ 64

April 8, 1922______________ 46; 

October 22, 1922____________ 42

August 21, 1919____________ 44

Other large springs in Pecos County are the Santa Rosa, Monument, Leon, Escondido, Agua Bonita, and Sulphur Springs.

Toyah Creek 47 rises in large springs in the vicinity of Toyahvale, 

Reeves County, Tex., about 55 miles west of Fort Stockton. No adequate data are at hand as to the geologic source of the springs. 

Phantom Lake, in the same vicinity, is described by Beede as due to 

the collapse of a solution channel in Lower Cretaceous (Comanche), 

limestone. According to measurements made by Taylor, the discharge of the principal spring was 46 second-feet both on September 5, 1900, and on July 21, 1904. A measurement of San Solomon, 

Springs, in this vicinity, made by the Geological Survey indicated 

a discharge of 37 second-feet.

** D. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 358, pp. 616-617, 1915.

46 Taylor, T. U., op. cit., pp. 13-15. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 132, pp. 

121-122, 1905; 508, p. 134, 1922; 548, p. 121, 1925. Unpublished data.

47 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 105, pp. 13, 14. Unpublished data. Beede* 

J. W., The cycle of subterranean drainage as illustrated in the Bloomington (Ind.> 

quadrangle: Indiana Acad. Sci. Proc. for 1910, p. 106, 1911.
42 LAEGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

SPRINGS IN TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY VOLCANIC 

ROCKS AND ASSOCIATED DEPOSITS IN IDAHO, CALIFORNIA, OREGON, AND WASHINGTON

SPRINGS IN THE SNAKE RIVER BASIN, IDAHO 

GENERAL FEATURES

The drainage basin of Snake Eiver is notable for the numerous 

very large and spectacular springs which it contains (fig. 11). These 

springs issue chiefly from volcanic rocks or closely related deposits.

FIGUKH 11. Map of the drainage basin of Snake River above King Hill, Idaho, and 

adjacent closed basins that contribute ground water to Snake River, showing the 

general location of the largest springs in the basin. E&shed line shows border of 

Snake River Plain

The water-bearing volcanic rocks are largely basalt, but they also 

include jointed obsidian and rhyolite. A large part of the basin 

of Snake Eiver above King Hill, Idaho, was inundated with basaltic 

lava during the Tertiary and Quaternary periods, and the lava 

rock is in many parts so broken or vesicular that it absorbs and 

transmits water very freely. Hence, much of the water that falls 

as rain or snow on the extensive lava plain or that flows upon this 

plain from the numerous streams that rise in the bordering mountains finds its way into the lava rock and percolates to localities at 

lower levels, where it reappears in large springs. In a stretch of 

about 40 miles along the canyon of Snake Eiver below Shoshone Falls, 

where the river has cut through the water-bearing lava beds, an
SPEINGS IN VOLCANIC ROCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OREG., WASH. 43

aggregate of more than 5,000 second-feet of ground water is discharged. In this stretch occur eleven springs of the first magnitude 

and four that yield more than 500 second-feet each. Farther up the 

Tiver are the Tortneuf Springs, which altogether discharge about 

1,400 second-feet. There are also many other large springs in other 

parts of the drainage basin of Snake River or in adjacent country, 

the largest of which are the Big Springs, at Big Springs, Idaho, the 

only springs of first magnitude that are known to issue from rhyolite 

and obsidian.

In the preparation of the section relating to springs in Idaho 

much help was received from C. G. Paulsen, district engineer, United 

States Geological Survey, under whose supervision many of the measurements were made; also, from H. T. Stearns and W. G. Hoyt, 

of the Geological Survey. Thanks are especially due to the officers of 

£he Twin Falls North Side Land & Water Co. for their generosity in 

znaking available the large amount of information in their possession.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS 

SPRINGS ALONG SNAKE RIVER BETWEEN MILNER AND KING HILL «

Size of the springs. Many large springs issue on the north side 

of Snake River between Milner and King Hill, Idaho, nearly all of 

them in the canyon below Shoshone Falls or in short tributary

-canyons (fig. 12). According to the measurements that have been 

made the total discharge of these springs was 3,885 second-feet in 

1902, before any irrigation developments had been made on the 

.north side, and averaged 5,085 second-feet in 1918, after the northside irrigation project had been developed.

The great volume of water discharged by these springs can 

perhaps be better appreciated by recalling that in 1916 the aggregate 

consumption of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, 

Boston, and St. Louis, with more than 12 million inhabitants, averaged only 1,769 million gallons a day (2,737 second-feet), or only 

slightly more than one-half of the yield of these Snake River springs 

in 1918.49 In fact, these springs yield enough water to supply all

48 Information in regard to the yield of these springs was obtained chiefly from the 

Twin Falls North Side Land & Water Co., which has very generously made all its 

valuable data available for publication. The information regarding the geology was 

obtained chiefly from U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 199, by I. C. Russell, but in part from

 observations by the writer and by H. T. Stearns. Use was also made of a paper by 

Lynn Crandall, entitled "The springs of Snake River canyon" (Idaho Irr., Eng., and 

Agr. Societies Joint Conf. Proc., 1918 and 1919, pp. 146-150) ; an unpublished paper 

on the water-power resources of Idaho, prepared, by W. G. Hoyt for the U. S. Geol. 

Survey; the maps of the profile survey of Snake River (U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 

Paper 347) ; unpublished maps and diagrams of the Twin Falls North Side Land & 

Water Co.; and unpublished records of measurements of spring discharge by the U. S. 

<5epl. Survey and the Idaho Power & Light Co. The discharge records for 1902 were 

obtained by the Twin Palls North Side Land & Water Co. from A. J. Wiley, Boise, Idaho. 

40 The municipal water supply system of the city of New York, Table 7, New York 

Dept. Water Supply, Gas, and Electricity, 1917.
44 LAKGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

the cities in the United States of more than 100,000 inhabitants with 

120 gallons a day for each inhabitant.

As shown in Figure 12 and in the following table, there are 11 

springs or groups of springs that yield more than 100 second-feet,

of which 1 yields more than 1,000 second-feet, 3 yield between 

500 and 1,000 second-feet, and 7 yield between 100 and 500 

second-feet. Moreover here are 5 springs that yield between 50 

and 100 second-feet and numerous so-called " small" springs which; 

would be considered huge in most localities.
"SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OREG., WASH. 45

^Discharge, m second-feet, of the larffe springs alonff SnaJce River between Mttner

and King Hill, Idaho

Spring

Devils Washbowl. ......

Do 

Do..................

Do..... .............

Do.... ..............

Do ... ... ... ... ...

Ho _ 

Do

Do .

Do . . .

Do. .. __ . .

Do

Do

Do

Do. 

Do

Do- _____ - .

Do. __ ... 

Do ..... 

Do. __ ......

Do.. 

Do.. __ 

Do

Do __ .

Do __

Do __ .... 

Do __ .. __ ... _ .

Do... . ...

Do ___ . _ ...

Blue Lakes.

Blue Lakes.

Springs. 

 Crystal Springs (6 

springs at fish hatch-

^o ..........

Niagara

Do. .... .... .... .

Do. ... .....

Do .... .

Clear Lakes ______

Do... ... ... .... .....

Do. ......... ... .

Do .... ... ... ...

Do. ... .......

Do. .... ... ...

Do ...... ... ......

Do... ..... ......

Do ...... .....

Do. ....... 

Do. ... ........ ...

Do. ..... 

Location

Above Twin Falls __

Falls. 

Sec. 28; T. 98., R. 17 E.

 _do-_ . ...... ....

.....do. __

 do .

 do- 

 do- 

 .do.. ...

..... do.. ...

... ..do.. ... ..... ...

 do-.- 

.....do. _ .. __

 do- 

 . do.. ......

 do... ... 

 do.. ... ......

... ..do.. ... .......

 .do.. ..... ....

 . .do.. ......

__ .do.. ... ...

 do.. .... 

.... .do.. ... ...

..... do.. 

 do- . __

 do-. 

 . .do... 

 .do.. ..... ... ...

 do- ... .....

__ _do- 

-...do-. ....

 . .do.. ....

... -do.. 

Sec. 12, T. 9 S., R. 15 E. 

 do.................

Sec.lO,T.9S.,R.15E.

 do.... ......

..... do........ ..... ....

 ..do.... .........

Sec. 2, T. 9 S., R. 14 E.

... ..do.... ....

..... do.......... 

 do.... .....

..... do.... 

.... .do....... ..... .....

.... . do...... .......... .

 do..... .......

 .do.... ...

Sec. 3, T. 9 S., R. 14 E.

 do........ ......

__ do....... 

 do.......... .......

Date of 

measurement

Aug. 20,1923

Aug. 6,1923

Sept. 7,1913

Aug. 6,1914

Sept. 7,1917

Oct. 26,1917

 , 1917

Apr. 26,1918

Oct. 7, 1918

 , 1918

Apr. 19,1919

July 2, 1919

July 12,1919

July 27,1919

Sept. 18, 1919

Nov. 5,1919

 , 1919

Feb. 4, 1920

Apr. 26,1920

June 10,1920

July 20,1920

Aug. 8,1920

Sept. 8,1920

 ,1920

Mar. 30, 1921

July 25,1921

Aug. 12,1921

Sept. 19, 1921

Apr. 30,1922

Aug. 12,1922

Apr. 14,1923

May 5, 1923

July 23,1923

Oct. 9, 1917

..... do- 

 .do. __ .

Oct. 11-12, 

1917.

Sept. 22, 1919

Sept. 8,1917

Sept. 1,1918

Sept. 23, 1919

Sept. 16, 1920

Sept. 13, 1917

 , 1917

Apr. 28,1918

Oct. 8, 1918

 , 1919

Sept. 12, 1919

Sept. 19, 1919

 , 1919

Aug. 5, 1920

Sept. 13, 1917

Sept. 30, 1918

Sept. 12, 1919

Sept. 17, 1920

Measured 

discharge

19.7

8.4

191

199

143

192

136

140

209

124

192

202

202

196

192

187

187

194

213

197

192

]93

190

200

198

185

209

192

210

16.5

5.5

10.9

536

475

242

322

250

252

,523

504

457

510

497

542

480

484

479

128

130

128

122

Remarks

Includes diversions.

Estimated total 205 secondfeet. 

Estimated total 220 secondfeet. 

Average daily, May to September, 1917. 

Estimated total 200 secondfeet. 

Estimated total 218 secondfeet. 

Average daily for 1918.

Estimated total 196 secondfeet. Estimated total 209 secondfeet. 

Does not include diverted

water.

Estimated total, 204 secondfeet. Estimated total, 185 secondfeet. 

Average daily for 1919.

Includes diversions.

Does not include diversions.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Average daily for 1920.

Does not include diversions.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Measurement at mouth of

spring branch. Includes 

14 second-feet of diverted 

water. 

Includes 125 second-feet of

diverted water. 

Measurement at mouth of

spring branch. Includes 

10 second-feet diverted. 

Measurement at mouth of

spring branch. Does not 

include diversions. 

Includes diversions.

Average daily for 1917.

Average daily for 1918.

Measurement not considered reliable. 

Includes diversions.

Average daily for 1919.

Does not include diversions.

Measurement at ford above

ranch house. 

Do.

Do.

Do.
46 LARGE SPRINGS IN" THE UNITED STATES

Discharge, in second-feet, of the large springs along Snake River between Milner 

and King Hill, Idaho Continued

Spring

Do..... . ........... .

Do. ...... .......

Do..... .............

Do..........-. ..

Do...... ......... ...

Do. ..........

Do.............. ...

mile below Box Canyon. 

Blue (at outlet).... _ ..

Do . . .

Riverside Ferry.

Do- ..... .......

Do.. .... .......

Do.. ........ ...

Do.. ..... ... .....

Do. ... .... ... ....

Do. .... ......

Do .... ..... ..... -

Springs.

Do ... ... ... ..... .

Do...... ...... ......

Do.. ..... .... ..

Bickel's house. 

Do ............. -

ranch. 

Do 

Do-. ..... .

Kearns _ . ___ __ ...

State highway bridge) 

Do ... _ ....-

ingsley Creek and 

Malade River.

Do ........ ...

Do. ..............

man and Malade 

River.

River and Bliss. 

Do ..... .... ..... 

Woodworth. ............

Bliss----..--...'-... ..

Location

Sec. 33, T. 88., R. 14 E,

... -do-... ... ..... ..

 do.... 

See.28,T.8S.,R.14E.

... -do_... ..... .....

Sees. 27, 28, T. 8 S., R.

14 E. 

... ..do..... ..... ...

 do.......-. ...

 do ... ...

 .- do... ...... .... .

Sec 17 T 8 S R 14 E

.... -do... ......

.... .do ... ... 

 -do.... ... .....

.. do.... ... ... .... ..

 do-... 

 do...- 

 do. ..... .....

Sec. 8, T.8S., R. 14 E.

 do - 

... -do-.- ...... ...

 do. ........

Sec. 6, T. 8 S., R. 14 E.

 do. ...... ...... .

Sec. 36, T. 7 S., R.13E..

13 E. 

..... do...... ... ...

.. do........ .... . - 

::::::::::::::::::::::::

Date of 

measurement

Sept. 14, 1917

Sept. 13, 1919

Sept. 17, 1920

Oct. 13,1917

Sept. 19, 1919

Sept. 14, 1917

Sept. 30, 1918

Sept. 13, 1919

Sept. 15, 1920

July 13,1921

Oct. 13,1917

Oct. 13,1917

Sept. 19, 1919

Oct. 13,1917

Sept. 15,1917

Apr. 8, 1918

Sept. 30, 1918

Sept. 6,1919

Oct. 21,1919

Oct. 19,1919

Sept. 21, 1920

July 13,1921

Oct. 13,1917

Sept. 15, 1917

Sept. 19, 1918

Sept. 6,1919

Aug. 9, 1920

Sept. 17, 1917

July 13,1921

Sept. 17, 1917

July 13,1921

Sept. 17, 1917

July 13,1921

Sept. 17, 1917 

Sept. 17, 1917

Sept. 24, 1919

Sept. 17, 1917

Aug. 28, 1913

Sept. 18, 1917

__ do.... ....

Sept. 24, 1919

Sept. 18, 1917

Sept. 24, 1S19 

July 11,1921

July 11,1921

Measured 

discharge

124

108

117

11.8

8.5

341

338

302

308

356

61.5

61.0

13.2

80.4

81.9

94.5

75.9

71.9

66.6

80.7

66.5

629

656

515

864

112

114

69.0

71.4

62.4

45.9

91.8 

159

128

6.5

1,060

600

1,133

..........

2.0

Remarks

Measured at mouth of springbranch. Includes 4 secondfeet diverted. 

Measured at mouth of springbranch. Includes 3 secondfeet diverted. 

Measured at mouth of spring

branch. 

Measurement at mouth of

spring branch. 

Do.

Measured below falls, % mile

from Snake River. Flow 

into canyon between point 

of measurement and mouth 

estimated 120 second-feet. 

Measured below falls, % mile

from Snake River. 

Do.

Do.

Do.

Estimated 90 second-fe t.

diverted water. 

Includes 3 second-feet of diverted water. 

Includes 11.2 second-feet of

diverted water. 

Includes 12.2 second-feet of

diverted water. 

Does not include diversions.

Measured at head.

Includes 8 second-feet of diverted water. 

Does not include diversions .

Estimated 4.2 second-feet.

power, including Snowbank Spring. 

Do.

Do.

Includes springs below power

plant shown in Figure 14'. 

Main channel.

Do.

Estimated total, 84.5 secondfeet. 

Estimated total, 87.6 secondfeet. 

Estimated total, 65.4 secondfeet. 

Not including diversions.

second-feet. 

Not including diversions.

Above upper dam.

Including inflow between

upper dam and mouth. 

Estimated 20.5 second-feet.

Estimated 33 second-feet.

Estimated 14.8 second-feet. 

6H miles below Hagerman. !

7 miles below Hagerman.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC ROCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OEEQk , WASH. 47

Fluctuations in discharge. The 

flow of these springs is relatively 

constant, and in this respect they 

differ notably from most of the 

large limestone springs. Thus the 

combined discharge of Blue and 

Clear Lakes during a period of 

more than 3^ years, from June 1, 

191T, to December 30, 1920, ranged 

only between about 660 and 760 

second-feet (fig. 13), and the combined flow of all the large springs 

on Snake River between Milner 

and King Hill from. May 1, 1917, 

to December 30, 1918, ranged only 

between 4,827 and 5,377 secondfeet.50 Moreover, it is evident from 

Figure 13 that even these moderate 

fluctuations are due largely to irrigation, and that prior to irrigation 

the flow must have been even more 

nearly constant.

Relation of the springs to the 

canyon walls. At most of the 

springs the water issues at considerable heights above river level. 

Thus the Blue Lakes lie about 160 

feet above river level, Niagara 

Springs and the springs that feed 

the Clear Lakes issue at points 

about 125 feet above river level, 

most of the water in the Box Canyon issues at the head of the canyon 

about 200 feet above river level, the 

Sand Springs issue near the top 

of the canyon nearly 200 feet above 

river level, Thousand Springs issue about 30 feet below the rim 

rock and 195 feet above river level, 

most of the Bickel Springs issue 

140 to 150 feet above river level, 

and much of the water of the 

Malade Springs also issues far 

above the level of Snake River.

80 Crandall, Lynn, op. cit.

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48 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

On account of the notable height above the river at which most 

of these springs issue, together with the great volume of water 

which they discharge, they are capable of developing a great amount 

of water power. Large power plants have already been installed at 

.Malade Springs and at Thousand and Sand Springs, and other large

loop soq

14. Map of the Bickel Springs, along Snake River, Idaho, including springs 

tfiat were regarded as belonging to Thousand Springs when the latter were measured August 9, 1920. The numbers show altitudes of springs, spring outlets, and 

the river, in feet above sea level. Numerous springs occur between the escarpment 

and the river throughout the area, but only those for which altitudes are given are 

shown on the map. Surveyed by Warren Oakey, U. S. Geol. Survey, in 1921

plants could be installed at other springs, especially at Clear Lakes, 

Box Canyon, and Bickel Springs.51

The most spectacular feature of these springs is the cataracts which 

they form, or which they formed before they were harnessed to develop electric energy (pis. 9 and 10). Thousand Springs formerly

15. Map of the Box Canyon Springs, along Snake River, Idaho. The numbers show altitudes of the water surface of the creek and river, in feet above sea 

level. Surveyed by Warren Oakey, U. S. Geol. Survey, in 1921

'gave rise to a strikingly beautiful waterfall 2,000 feet long and 195 

feet high. Snowbank Spring, which discharges 150 to 160 secondfeet, is at the east end of the Thousand Springs and is included with 

them in Figure 12. Formerly its water dashed over the rough talus 

slope, forming a cataract of great beauty that suggested a snow61 Unpublished manuscript by W. G. Hoyt.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 9

A. SAND SPRING, IDAHO 

Photograph by C. F. Bowett

B. THOUSAND SPRINGS, IDAHO, AS SEEN FROM SOUTH SIDE OF SNAKE RIVER 

Photograph by C. F. Bowen

C. NEAR VIEW OF A PART OF THOUSAND SPRINGS, IDAHO

Photograph by C. F. Bowen 

!)4929C O 51 5
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 10

DISTANT VIEW OF BICKEL SPRINGS AND A PART OF THOUSAND SPRINGS, IDAHO 

Photograph by W. G. Hoyt. Compare map of Bickel Springs (fig. 14)
SPEIFGS IF VOLCANIC BOOKS IF IDAHO, CALIF., OEEG., WASH. 49

bank. The Niagara Springs, which issue from the canyon wall 125 

feet above the river level, also form a spectacular cataract. At some 

of the springs, however, the water emerges from the bedrock behind 

great talus slopes and can be heard descending through the talus.

Some of the springs, such as Thousand, Bickel, Crystal, and Niagara Springs, issue sheer from the canyon wall or occupy only slight 

alcoves; others, such as Blue Lakes, the Box Canyon Springs, and 

Malade Springs, occupy 

deep, narrow branch 

canyons, of considerable 

length, with precipitous 

walls at their sides and 

head. These branch 

canyons were apparently 

formed by the action of 

the springs themselves, 

though the precise process of excavation is difficult to explain.52

Some of the relations 

of the springs to the river 

and to the canyon wall 

are illustrated by the 

sketch maps in Figures 

14, 15, and 16, which 

were furnished by W. G. 

Hoyt. The Bickel 

Springs (fig. 14), which 

are a downstream extension of the Thousand 

Springs, issue at many 

points along the side of 

the canyon. The main 

group of springs begins 

about 800 feet downstream from the north 

end of the collecting basin for the Thousand Springs power plant 

and extends for nearly a mile. Most of the springs apparently issue 

at 140 to 150 feet above the river.

The Box Canyon Springs (fig. 15), like the better-known Blue 

Lake Springs, issue in a precipitous blind canyon that opens into 

the canyon of Snake Eiver. The uppermost springs issue at the 

head of the branch canyon, nearly 3,000 feet long, and give rise to a

1000 Feet

FIGURE 16. Map of the vicinity of Clear Lakes, along 

Snake River, Idaho, which are fed by large springs. 

Numbers show altitude of water surfaces, in feet 

above sea level. Surveyed by Warren Oakey, U. S. 

Geol. Survey, in 1921

62 See explanation by I. C. Russell, op. cit., pp. 127-130.
50 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

stream that descends through the canyon to the river. Springs 

contribute to the flow of the stream throughout its length, but most 

of the water comes from the upper part of the canyon.

The Clear Lakes (fig. 16) are fed by numerous springs that issue 

from the lava rock about 125 feet above river level. They cover an 

area 2,500 feet long and 1,600 feet wide and lie 80 to 100 feet above 

the river. They discharge into the river through a stream about 2,000 

feet long, but some of the water is used for irrigation. Considerable 

money has been expended in developing a summer resort at this 

point, and the lakes are well stocked with trout.

Relation of the springs to rock structure. At the Thousand 

Springs the water can be seen gushing from innumerable openings 

in the exposed edge of a scoriaceous zone below a more compact sheet 

of lava rock. At Sand, Box Canyon, and Blind Canyon Springs the 

water, according to Russell,53 comes from a stratum consisting largely 

of white sand which is overlain by a thick sheet of lava. At most 

of the springs there is so much talus that the true source of the 

water can not be observed, but it probably issues chiefly from the 

large openings in scoriaceous or shattered basalt where the basalt 

overlies more dense rocks. The fact that most of the springs are 

confined to rather definite localities and issue at points far above the 

river indicates that the flow of the ground water to the springs is 

governed by definite rock structure. The great body of ground 

water is obviously held up in the very permeable water-bearing rocks 

by underlying impermeable formations. It may be that the underlying surface which holds up the water is a former land surface 

and that the principal subterranean streams which supply the springs 

follow down the valleys of this ancient surface.

Character of the spring water. The water of these springs does 

not contain much mineral matter. It is generally very clear, although 

the water of some, of the springs, such as the Blue Lakes, has a 

beautiful blue color and a slight opalescence due to minute particles 

in suspension. So far as is known, all the springs have about normal 

temperatures. The following temperatures were observed 54 in June, 

1921: Blue Lakes, at main road crossing, 61.5° F.; Crystal Springs, 

58.5° and 59°; Niagara Springs, 56.5° and 57.5°; Sand Springs, 

57.5°; Thousand Springs, 58° and 58.5°. The Banbury Springs 

mentioned in this report should not be confused with the Banbury 

Hot Springs, which are small springs on the opposite side of the 

river. At the Crystal Springs the clear, cold water is utilized in a 

fish hatchery, where great quantities of trout are raised.

Source of the spring water. The lava plain lying north and 

northeast of these large springs extends over a few thousands of

68 Russell, I. CV, op. cit., p. 165.

M Unpublished notes by O. E. Meinzer.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC ROCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OREG., WASH. 51

square miles and receives the drainage of a few thousand square 

miles of bordering mountainous country. (See fig. 11.) The great 

capacity of the broken lava rock to take in surface water is well established and is, moreover, shown by the fact that in the entire 

stretch of more than 250 miles from the head of Henrys Fork of 

Snake River to the mouth of Malade River no surface stream of 

any consequence enters Henrys Fork or the main river from the 

north. (The greater part of this vast lava plain discharges no surface water into the Snake, and a number of rather large streams 

that drain the mountain area to the north lose themselves on this 

lava plain. A part of the water that falls on the plain and adjoining mountains is lost by evaporation and transpiration, but a large 

part percolates into the lava rock and thence to the large springs. 

Contour maps of the water table in parts of this region show to some 

extent the course of the ground water, but when the entire region 

has been studied the limits of the area contributing water to these 

springs will be better known. It was computed by Crandall 55 that 

the normal discharge of these springs, exclusive of the part supplied 

by the irrigation water on the North Side project, amounts to 42 per 

cent of the discharge of Snake River at American Falls and is equal 

to the run-off from nearly 7,000 square miles of drainage area as 

productive as the drainage area of the Snake above that point (fig. 

11). These facts are very impressive and show that even with so 

large an area contributing ground water to these springs the percentage of precipitation that is absorbed and eventually discharged 

through thje springs must be large. It is not improbable that the 

Snake, in parts of its upper course, itself contributes water to the 

lava beds, and that in this way water from the east side of the river 

gets into the rocks on the west side and eventually reaches these 

springs.

PORTNEUF SPRINGS M

About a hundred miles upstream from Shoshone Falls there is a 

large group of springs which together furnish nearly all the water 

of Portneuf River, a tributary of the Snake. These springs issue 

at many points, from gravel or from underlying lava rock, in a belt 

of bottom lands fully 10 miles long. Their flow is reported to be 

relatively constant, and together they contribute about 1,400 secondfeet to Portneuf River. According to four current-meter measurements and daily gage heights from July 30 to September 17, 1910, 

the discharge of Portneuf River during this period ranged between 

1,440 and 1,700 second-feet.

58 Crandall, Lynn, op. cit.

58 Based on an account by W. B. Ileroy in U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 713 (Geography, 

geology, and mineral resources of the Fort Hall Indian Reservation, Idaho, by G. R. 

Mansfield),, pp. 127-140, 1920, and on data furnished by H. T. Stearns; also maps by 

the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation.
52 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

The topographic and geologic Conditions are evidently such that 

ground water is contributed in large quantities to this spring area 

from an extensive region on the southeast, east, and northeast. This 

catchment area probably includes not only the large undrained area 

of permeable lava rock in the region about Bancroft, but also Soda 

Springs Valley and the valley of Bear River above the bend. Apparently Bear Eiver once flowed into the Portneuf and was diverted toward the south by a lava flow that dammed its valley in 

the vicinity of Alexander. Ground water probably follows the ancient lava-filled valley westward to the large springs along the 

Portneuf. Large quantities of ground water are doubtless also 

contributed by Blackfoot River and its tributaries. Moreover, the 

contour map of the water table along the Snake River, prepared -by 

the United States Bureau of Reclamation, indicates that the Snake 

may itself make large contributions of ground water to the spring 

area.

The following notes were furnished by H. T. Stearns on the basis 

of a few days of field work in this region in September, 1925:

Batise Springs are on the west bank of Portneuf River, near Batise sidin.g 

of the Oregon Short Line Railroad, about 4 miles northwest of Pocatello. 

The largest of these springs is pumped to supply the railroad shops in Pocatello. The water issues from basalt at the base of a stream-laid terrace. . On 

September 14, 1925, the springs had a temperature of 57° F. and Portneuf 

River a temperature of 56° F. The total discharge of the springs on this 

date, according to a rough measurement, was 42 second-feet. There is one 

other spring below the section that was measured which would probably bring 

the total flow of this group to 50 second-feet.

About 1% miles downstream from Batise Springs there are large springs 

owned by C. B. Ross and utilized by W. S. Meeder for a fish hatchery. The 

water issues from basalt at the base of the same gravel terrace as is found 

at Batise Springs and comes out of two well-defined vents about 10 feet above 

the river. The water flows northward a quarter of a mile before it enters the 

river. On September 14, 1925, these springs had a temperature of 54° F. and 

a discharge of about 75 second-feet.

Between the Fish Hatchery Spring and the mouth of Portneuf 

River the river receives two large spring-fed tributaries from the 

north. The upper of these is Ross Fork, which receives most of its 

water from Clear Creek, and the lower one is Spring Creek. Clear 

Creek rises in a number of springs on the bottom lands close to 

the base of the Gibson terrace, which is underlain by volcanic sand 

and alluvium. No measurements of its flow are recorded, but W. B. 

Heroy has estimated the flow at 100 to several hundred second-feet.

Large springs occur near the south base of Big Butte, in or near 

the NW. % sec. 5, T. 4 S., R. 34 E. A large volume of beautifully 

clear water wells up in a pool about 50 feet in diameter and flows 

southward through a marsh. The stream from these springs was
SPBINGS IN VOLCANIC BOOKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OBEG., WASH. 53

measured on March 17, 1916, at a point about one-eighth mile below 

the springs and on that date had a flow of 195 second-feet.57 The 

available maps are conflicting as to the outlet of this stream, some 

indicating that it discharges directly into Snake River and others 

that it discharges into Clear Creek. According to Heroy, however, 

this stream is the head of Spring Creek, which discharges into the 

Portneuf a few miles below the mouth of Ross Fork. Heroy states 

further that at the bridge on the road from Fort Hall to Tilden 

Bridge Spring Creek is a deep, swift stream with a flow of perhaps 

500 second-feet.

OTHER LARGE SPRINGS

Big Springs. The Big Springs, at Big Springs post office (fig. 11), 

issue at the foot of a high cliff which consists of rhyolite and spherulitic obsidian. This cliff marks the edge of an extensive timber-covered 

plateau with little run-off. Most of the water of these springs issues 

from several large vents within a distance of less than a quarter of 

a mile, between the pool shown in Plate 12, A, and the cliff immediately to the right of the pool. Water can be seen flowing in 

large volume from both obsidian and rhyolite. The temperature 

of the water on July 22, 1921, was 53° F. The combined flow of the 

springs was 190 second-feet when measured on June 25, 1922, about 

1 mile downstream from the springs, and 184 second-feet when measured on August 29, 1922, about 400 feet below the highway bridge 

shown in the view.68

Buffalo River Springs. Buffalo River heads about 4 miles south 

of Big Springs, in sec. 21, T. 13 N., R. 44 E., in a group of springs 

that issue from alluvium at the foot of the rhyolite plateau of 

the Yellowstone. (Fig. 11.) The stream of remarkably clear water 

from these springs flows westward about 8 miles and discharges 

into Henrys Fork of Snake River. In a measurement made September 9, 1903, the flow of Buffalo River near its mouth was 183 secondfeet, all of which was doubtless spring water.159

Warm River Springs. Warm River, in northeastern Idaho, is a 

large constant stream of clear water which is fed by perennial 

springs that issue chiefly from lava rocks balsalt, rhyolite, and 

obsidian. Owing to the permeable character of the rocks, it receives 

very little direct run-off even at times* of heavy rains or melting 

snow. No perennial stream enters Warm River in its course of 

about 20 miles, yet where it discharges into Henrys Fork it has a 

large and remarkably constant flow, most of which is received in a

67 TJ. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 443, p. 181, 1919.

58 The first measurement was made by L. L. Bryan and the second by Berkley Johnson, botfe of the U. S. Geological Survey.

68 TJ. S. G*oL Survey Water-Supply Paper 100, p. 461, 1904.
54 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATEb

stretch of about 6 miles in the lower part of its course, in T. 10 N., 

K. 44 E. (fig. 11).

In the 35 months from 1912 to 1918 for which complete records 

have been obtained,60 the flow of Warm River has ranged from 192 

to 900 second-feet; in 25 of these months the flow has been between 

200 and 400 second-feet, and in 18 months between 200 and 300 

second-feet. From August 10, 1913, to April 9, 1914, the discharge 

ranged between 201 and 309 second-feet; from April 9 to May 4 it 

increased from 309 to T25 second-feet; from May 4 to June 23 

it declined to 291 second-feet; and from June 23, 1914, to March 

22, 1915 (when the record was interrupted), it ranged between 297 

and 215 second-feet.

Mud Lake Springs.61 Mud Lake, which lies in a closed basin in 

northeastern Idaho, between Snake River and the sink of Big Lost 

River (fig. 11), is largely fed by a group of springs in a marshy 

area of several square miles near Hamer, Idaho, in T. 7 N., Rs. 35 

and 36 E. The water issues from basalt and from overlying gravel 

and sand. These springs came into existence about 35 years ago as a 

result of irrigation on the so-called Egin Bench, about 20 miles to 

the east. The flow has increased from year to year but has a 

seasonal variation determined by the height of the water level in 

Mud Lake. In 1923 the aggregate flow of tihis entire group of 

springs averaged about 67 second-feet and probably reached a maximum of about 100 second-feet.

Birch Greek Springs. Birch Creek, which terminates in the same 

sink as Big Lost River (fig. 11), also obtains most of its water from 

a group of springs and consequently has a remarkably constant flow. 

During the entire year from April 1, 1921, to March 31, 1922, its 

discharge a few miles below the springs ranged only between 68 and 

95 second-feet, virtually all of which was doubtless derived from the 

springs.62

Warm Springs in Big Lost River valley. One of the tributaries 

of Big Lost River is Warm Creek, which is formed by the Upper 

and Lower Warm Springs, in T. 8 N., R. 22 E. These springs issue 

from crevices in limestone that crops out below a rhyolite formation 

at the edge of the valley and from gravel that is doubtless fed by 

water from the limestone. The water of these springs, like that of 

Warm River, is not warm, as the name would imply, but has a temperature that is normal for the region or only slightly above normal.

40 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 332, p. 316, 1916; 362, p. 51, 1917; 413, 

p. 49, 1918; 483, p. 71, 1922.

ei Stearns, H. T., and Bryan, L. L., Preliminary report on, the geology and water 

resources of the Mud Lake basin, Idaho: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 560, 

pp. 118, 119, pi. 2, 1925; also unpublished records of the U. S. Geol. Survey. 

,.! M Daily records are published in U. S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Papers 533, pp. 

96-98, 1925; 553, pp. 102-103, 1926. Earlier records are published in Water-Supply 

Papers 312, pp. 307, 308, 1915, and 332, pp. 338, 339, 1916.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OREG., WASH. 55>

According to measurements made by Lynn Crandall 63 in 1920, the 

combined flow of these two- springs was 55 second-feet on June 3 r 

65 second-feet on July 30, 65 second-feet on August 26, 58 secondfeet on October 15, and 54 second-feet on December 1.

SPRINGS IN THE SACRAMENTO RIVER BASIN, CALIFORNIA 

GENERAL FEATURES

The great region of Tertiary basalt and related volcanic rocks in 

which are found the large springs of Idaho extends into northern 

Nevada and northeastern California and includes most pf Oregon 

and fully half of Washington. Large springs similar to those in 

Idaho occur in other parts of this region, especially in California 

and Oregon (fig. 17), and some o'f these rival the large springs on 

Snake River. In the following table are given summary data on 

the discharge of the largest springs in the Sacramento River basin,. 

California:

Discharge, in second-feet, of large springs in Sacramento River basin, Calif.

Spring

River (including Bear Lake).

Rising River ______________ - __

Length of record

19 months in 1912 and 1913~

.. do __ . .... . .

44 months, corrected for

estimated overflow of Hat 

Creek.

20 months __________

mate.

Lowest

1,240

385

275

 111

114

50

Discharge

Highest

1,590

399

300-

 257

'160

122

Approximate 

average

1,400

392

376

161 300 

 170

150

90

50

27

20

» Complete information is lacking as to possible diversions or contributions between the springs and 

the gaging station. 

» Identity not certain.

As a rule the large springs in this region fluctuate much less than 

the large limestone springs of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Missouri,. 

Arkansas, and Texas. In this respect they have a distinct family 

resemblance to the large springs in the volcanic rocks of Idaho. 

Thus the Fall River Springs have an average discharge of about 

1,400 second-feet and in a period of more than two years their 

discharge did not depart from this average more than 10 or 15 

per cent.

88 Crandall, Lynn, Report on water distribution and ground-water Investigations In 

Lost .River valley, Idaho, during the season of 1920 (unpublished manuscript).
56 LARGE SPRINGS IF THE UNITED STATES

In compiling the data on these springs much valuable help was 

given by H. D. McGlashan, district engineer in the United States

 o.

Spring which according to the Other large spring mentioned

information ntiur iiicJLiun available avcniauie has nas> an an in the text

average discharge of 100 second- feet or more

FIGURE 17. Map showing large springs in the region of volcanic rocks in California, 

Oregon, and Washington

Geological Survey, and by R. C. Briggs, also of the Geological 

Survey. Especial thanks are due to E. A. Garland, of the Pacific
V. ft. GJBOLOOICAI. 

R.3 E.

WATBR-8UPPLT PAPJ3R 557 PLATE 11 

R.5 E.

EXPLANATION 

Flume 

Canal 

Ditch /.

P Pump

W Waterwhed

Figures along streams 

represent amout of flow in secondfiset admeasured in August or 

SepDember,l922

MAP OF A PART OF THE DRAINAGE BASIN OF FALL RIVER, CALIF., SHOWING LARGE SPRINGS THAT FORM THE RIVER

ConptMtonmapfiieBMlMMlby K. A, G«b«d. of Pacific G*s * Etertrfo Co.

949296 O 51 <F»ce p. 66)
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OBEG., WASH. 57

Gas & Electric Co., for his interest and hearty cooperation and for 

the large amount of specific information which he furnished in 

regard to the Fall River and other springs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Fall River Springs. Nearly all the water of Fall River comes 

from numerous large springs that occur in a belt about 10 miles 

long at the south margin of an extensive lava field, as is shown in 

Plate 11. Only a small amount of direct run-off is supplied by Bear 

River, which flows into Fall River from the northwest.

Early measurements made near the mouth of Fall River, at Fall 

River Mills, represent substantially the discharge of the springs,64 

but the measurements in the last few years doubtless represent less 

than the total spring flow because of the many small diversions that 

were made for irrigation, chiefly by pumping from the river or its 

tributaries.

The following measurements were made by the Geological Survey 68 near the mouth of the river prior to 1912: September 9, 

1901, 1,447 second-feet; September 16, 1902, 1,543 second-feet; September 11, 1903, 1,510 second-feet; September 23, 1910, 1,470 second.- 

feet. A gaging station was established on this river near its mouth on 

January 19,1912, and daily records of discharge were obtained until 

August 10, 1913, when the station was discontinued.66 During this 

period of nearly 19 months the discharge ranged between 1,240 and 

1,590 second-feet and averaged about 1,400 second-feet, indicating 

that the springs do not fluctuate greatly. Owing to the deficient 

precipitation in 1912 and 1913 there was a general decline in discharge- during the period, but with some fluctuations.

In addition to the record for 1912-13, daily gage-height records 

are now available for Fall River near Glenburn, just below the 

junction of Fall River and Tule River, from January 4 to September 

30, 1922, and daily-discharge records for Fall River at Fall River 

Mills from May 14, 1921, to September 30, 1922. These later records 

show considerably less water than the earlier ones, owing partly to 

general conditions of low run-off and partly to diversions for irrigation. The gravity diversions from Tule River have a capacity of 

about 500 second-feet, and there are numerous small pumping plants 

along the banks of Fall River. Beginning October 23, 1922, the 

Pacific Gas & Electric Co. has diverted practically the entire flow 

of Fall River at a point about 1^ miles northwest of Fall River 

Mills as shown on Plate 11.

«* U. S. Geol. Survey. Water-Supply Papers 177, p. 133, 1906; 298, p. 16, 1912. 

85 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 298, p. 387, 1912. 

*U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 361, pp. 274-276, 1916.
58 . IAEGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

On Plate 11 is given the flow of the principal springs and spring 

branches as measured by E. A. Garland, of the Pacific Gas & Electric Co., in August and September, 1922.

. The springs at the head of Fall River, chiefly in sec. 19, T. 38 N.t 

R. 4 E., had a combined flow of 385 second-feet, according to one 

measurement, and 399 second-feet, according to another. This flow 

was contributed chiefly by five groups of springs, which yielded 163, 

44, 54, 51, and 14 second-feet. The springs that yielded 163 secondfeet are regarded as forming the head of Fall Kiver. The flow of 

44 second-feet was measured on Mallard Creek and included the 

discharge of Beaver Creek.

Spring Creek, which is a spring-fed body of water a little over 

a mile long, ,in sees. 21 and 28, T. 38 N., R. 4 E., had a discharge 

of 161 second-feet. The springs at the head of Fall Kiver and those 

on Spring Creek together produced a flow, as measured in sec. 2, 

T. 37 K, R. 4 E., of 543 second-feet, or approximately half of the 

total discharge of Fall River.

The springs at the head of the East Fork of Tule River, chiefly 

in sec. 22, T. 38 K, R. 4 E., had a total flow of 234 second-feet, as 

measured just above Bear Lake. All this flow except 81 second-feet 

came from springs in the SE. 14 sec. 22. One of the most remarkable features is Bear Lake, or the " Big Hole," into which 

the springs at the head of East Fork discharge. Here the stream 

widens to about a quarter of a mile and, according to soundings 

that have been made, reaches a depth of about 100 feet. There 

is no visible inflow, but at the time of measurement the quantity of 

water increased by 142 second-feet, as shown by the flow of 234 

second-feet just above the hole and a flow of 376 second-feet less 

than a mile below it.

On August 29, 1922, the discharge of Fall River was 1,180 secondfeet near its mouth, 1,050 second-feet at a point just below the mouth 

of Tule River, and 543 second-feet just above the mouth of the 

Tule. Hence the discharge of Tule River at its mouth was computed to be 507 second-feet. As the flow a short distance below 

Bear Lake about this time was 376 second-feet, it follows that about 

131 second-feet entered Tule River from other sources, chiefly on 

the East Fork. The largest of these East Fork sources is a group of 

six springs that form Squaw Creek. Fall Lake, which discharges 

into the East Fork through Lake River, lies at the edge of the 

lava and has an area of more than 1 square mile. It has no large 

visible inflow, but apparently it furnishes a considerable part of 

the flow of the East Fork.

Any decision as to the number of springs that supply Fall River 

is obviously an arbitrary matter. The entire group are comparable 

to the Portneuf Springs, in Idaho, in regard to size and dispersion.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OBEG., WASH. 59

They are somewhat larger and scattered over a much larger area 

than the Malade Springs. In comparison to the springs on Snake 

River it would be logical to consider that there are on Fall River 

three springs of first magnitude and many smaller ones. The three 

springs of first magnitude are those at the head of Fall River, which 

discharge about 385 to 399 second-feet; those at the head of the 

West Fork of Tule River, including Bear Lake, which discharge 

about 376 second-feet; and Spring Creek, which discharges about 161 

second-feet. Springs of second magnitude are Squaw Creek andFall Lake.

The source of the large quantity of water discharged by these 

springs is discussed as follows by Waring: 67

The springs rise at the southern border of an extensive lava field. They are 

locally considered to be the outlet of Tule or Rhett Lake at the northern border of the State. The water may, however, be furnished by the precipitation .on 

the lava fields to the north, for much the greater part of the water that falls 

on these fields sinks into the crevices and caverns in the rock, and there is 

very little direct surface run-off. A continual flow of 1,500 second-feet would 

be furnished by an annual run-off of about 1 second-foot per square mile, or 

13% inches a year in depth of water over an area of 1,500 square mitas. This 

is not excessive for the region under consideration, where the annual precipitation is 20 to 40 inches, for it represents both a normal run-off and the 

amount that usually sinks into the ground. There is an area of nearly 2,000 

square miles of lava beds extending from northeast to northwest of Dana, and 

the topography of this area is favorable to the theory that it may furnish the 

water of the springs at the head of Fall River. The temperature of the 

water, 53° to 54° F., indicates that it is of essentially surface origin.

Rising Rvuer Springs, Rising River is a spring-fed stream about 

2 miles long which flows into Hat Creek from the east at a point 

just south of Cassel, Calif. It is described by Waring 68 as follows:

The water rises in the lake and adjacent meadow, and its flow, which in 

July, 1910, was approximately 250 second-feet, is nearly uniform. * * * 

The source of the springs of Rising River is not so evident as is that of the 

springs on Burney Creek, but the water is locally (and plausibly) believed to 

be derived from Butte or Lost Creek, which flows from Lake Bidwell or Butte 

Lake to Porcupine Flat, where it sinks about 12 miles southeast of the head of 

Rising River.

A gaging station was maintained on Rising River by the Geological Survey from August 15, 1911, to September 30, 1913, at the 

highway bridge in sec. 8, T. 35 N., R. 4 E., about 114 miles south of 

Cassell and about half a mile above the mouth of the stream. The 

daily records show a discharge during this period of 251/2 months 

that ranged between 275 and 490 second-feet and averaged about 370 

second-feet.69

87 Waring, G. A., Springs of California: TJ. S. Geol. Surrey Water-Supply Paper 338, 

pp. 326-327, 1915.

^Idem, p. 328.

88 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 298, pp. 115-117, 387, 1912; 361, pp. 

282-283, 1916.
60 LAEGE SPEINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

The following additional information has been furnished by R. C. 

Briggs, of the Geological Survey.:

Daily discharge records of Rising River are now available from March 10, 

1921, to September 30, 1922. They indicate the normal flow of the springs to 

be between 275 and 300 second-feet. Hat Creek carries considerable snow 

run-off in addition to its spring flow. At high stages it overflows into Rising 

River about 3 miles above the junction of the two streams, and it is very 

probable that disclu<%es of Rising River in excess of 300 second-feet are due 

to the excess Hat Creek water.

Great Springs. The Great Springs are near the middle of the east 

boundary of T. 32 N., R%4 E., on the west side of Hat Creek, at the 

base of a southward-facing fault scarp in basalt that crosses the creek 

at this point. Apparently the ground water, percolating in the direction of the creek, is forced to the surface when it reaches the fault. 

The springs are described by Waring T0 as follows:

Great Springs issue for a distance of about a quarter of a mile along the 

southwestern bank of Hat Creek, at the northern base of the mountain mass 

that culminates in Lassen Peak. The greater part of the headwaters of Hat 

Creek is conducted westward by a power ditch, so that in July, 1910, there 

was a flow of only about 2 second-feet in its channel above Great Springs. 

Below the springs the stream was 50 to 75 feet wide and 2 or 3 feet deep and 

a float measurement indicated a discharge of 280 second-feet.* * * The 

water of Lost Creek normally sinks at a distance of about a mile above its 

junction with Hat Creek, or about 2% miles in a direct line west of south 

from Great Springs, and it is locally believed that the creek reappears in the 

springs. The position of the springs at the northern base of slopes that rise 

to Lassen Peak and the fact that the water issues almost entirely on that 

bank of Hat Creek which is toward the mountains indicate, however, that the 

supply comes mainly from melting snow on the slopes to the south, though a 

part is perhaps derived from Lost Creek. The yield of the springs is said to 

vary somewhat with the season, a characteristic of springs that have near-by 

sources of supply.

A gaging station was maintained by the Geological Survey from 

August 15, 1911, to August 9, 1913, on Hat Creek at the Hawkins 

ranch, in sec. 5, T. 33 N., R. 5 E., about 8 miles downstream from the 

Great Springs. During this period the discharge at the Hawkins 

ranch ranged between 111 and 257 second-feet and averaged about 

170 second-feet. Some water was diverted between the spring and 

the gaging station, and there is no information as to whether there 

was any flow from above the Great Springs or from springs or tributary streams between the Great Springs and the gaging station. 

The daily records, however, indicate relatively uniform discharge 

such as is characteristic of springs rather than of streams that carry 

much direct run-off. Measurements made by E. A. Garland on November 1, 1923, showed that the flow of Hat Creek was 9 secondfeet above the springs and 134 second-feet at the road crossing about

70 Waring, Q. A., op. cit., pp. 328-329.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC KOCKS IN IDAHO, CALJF., OREG., WASH. 61

half a mile below the springs, indicating a flow of 125 second-feet 

from the springs. On July 19, 1926, when the springs were visited 

by the writer, the temperature of the water was 44° F.

Bumey Creek Springs. The Burney Creek Springs are described 

by Waring 71 as follows:

During periods of normal and low water Burney Creek ginks at a point 

6 or 6 miles north of Burney Valley (Burney post office), but a short distance 

above Burney Falls, which are about 1% miles above the junction of the 

creek with Pit River, the water issues agsiin as large springs. The greater 

part of the water goes over the falls, but a large part also . issues from 

fissures in the lava cliff, some distance below the crest of the falls. Although 

the water is apparently only that of the creek, which sinks below Burney 

Valley and rises again farther down the course of the stream, it may be 

properly considered to issue as a spring, whose chief difference from similar 

springs in the lava region is that the immediate source of the water seems 

to be evident.

Burney Creek was measured below the falls by the Geological Survey on (September 9, 1903, when it had a discharge of 210 secondfeet, and on September 25, 1910, when it had a discharge of 246 

second-feet. On September 25, 1910, the flow of the creek iy2 miles 

above Burney post office and several miles above the falls was only 

20 second-feet, indicating that the flow of 246 second-feet below 

the falls came chiefly from the springs. However, complete information as to the source of the water that was measured is not available.

The following information was recently furnished by Mr. Briggs:

Discharge records for Bnrney Creek at Burney Falls, near Burney, are now 

available from April 1, 1921, to November 24, 1922. They show that the 

increased flow in Burney Creek at the falls, due to sprint? flow, is about 

150 second-feet. This record is very reliable and would seem to indicate 

n considerable falling off from the flow as measured in 1903 and 1910.

Crystal Lake Springs. Crystal Lake is a spring-fed body of 

water about 1% miles northwest of Cassel, Calif., and is tributary to 

Hat Creek. It is described by Mr. Briggs as follows.

Crystal Lake is in sec. 31, T. 36 N., R. 4 E., about 1% miles northwest of 

Cassel, and is tributary to Hat Creek between the power houses of the Pacific 

Gas & Electric Co. known as Hat Creek No. 1 and Hat Creek No. 2. On 

March 14, 1922, the outlet of this lake was measured by G. C. Green, of the* 

Pacific Gas & Electric Co., and was found to carry 114 second-feet, entirely 

spring flow. F. G. Baum, consulting engineer, upon whose property this 

spring is located, states that it ordinarily flows about ICO second-feet. The 

water can be seen bubbling up in several places around the margin of the 

lake, which is about one-fourth mile in diameter and similar to Rising River 

Lake. It narrows to a, stream about 200 f.eet wide at the outlet, where the water 

falls several feet over a lava dike. A few hundred yards beyond these falls 

the stream joins Hat Creek. Mr. Baum has a small hydroelectric plant at

:i Idem, p. 328.
62 LARGE SPBINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

the falls. He stated that there are two other springs tributary to Hat Creek 

near Crystal Lake, flowing between 20 and 25 second-feet each.

Dotta Spring and other springs in the Big Meadows. There are 

many large springs in the lava-covered areas in the upper parts of 

the Feather River basin. Perhaps the largest are found in the Big 

Meadows, near Plattville, Calif., and are tributary to the North 

Fork of the Feather. Large springs at the northeast edge of the 

Big Meadows, about 5 miles northeast of Plattville, are described by 

Waring 72 as follows:

The water issues from basaltic lava, a few feet above the meadow level,- in 

an area of willows and quaking aspens about 100 yards in diameter. After 

flowing down over riffles of coarse lava gravel it forms a sluggish stream 100 

yards or more in width in the meadow. A very rough float measurement 

at the riffles indicates that the .discharge is about 56 second-feet. The water is 

cold (46° F.) and of very good quality.

' It is not evident from the descriptions whether these are the same 

as Dotta Spring which is described by McGlashan and Henshaw 73 

as being about 3 miles east of Plattville, near the mouth of the Big 

Meadows. The following nine measurements of Dotta Spring, made 

by the Geological Survey in 1902, 1905, and 1906, give an average 

discharge of about 90 second-feet.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Dotta Spring, Galif.

September 9, 1902_________ 109 

June 12, 1905____________ 50 

July 3, 1905______________ 99 

August 5, 1905____________ 84

October 18, 1905__________ 90 

December 14, 1905_________ 77 

June 21, 1906__-__ _______ 122 

August 3, 1906____________ 94

September 2, 1905_________ 8:

Springs that were estimated to yield perhaps 20 second-feet issue 

from a small basalt escarpment about 2 miles east of Bock Creek 

and not very far from Dotta Spring.7*

Salmon Creek Springs. Salmon Creek, also called Fish Creek, is 

tributary to Pit River on the left bank, about 12 miles below Fall 

River Mills, in the SW. % sec. 2, T. 36 N., R. 3 E. It is only about 

half a mile long and has its source in two large springs which 

plunge out of the lava rock at the foot of the bench land bordering 

.the Pit. The noise of the rushing water can be heard for about half 

a mile. A measurement of this creek by the Pacific Gas & Electric 

Co. in August, 1921, showed a flow of about 50 second-feet.

Sisson Springs. About 1 mile north of Sisson, at the western base 

of Mount Shasta, are two springs, about 400 feet apart, which yielded 

about 27 second-feet when examined by Waring. These springs

w Op. cit., pp. 330-331.

73 Hoyt, J. C., McGlashan, H. D., and Henshaw, F. F., Water resources of California, 

Part I, Stream measurements in Sacramento River basin: U. S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 298, pp. 21-22, 1912.

74 Waring, G. A., op. cit., p. 331.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC KOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OREG., WASH. 63

form the largest tributary at the head of Sacramento Kiver and 

are sometimes referred to as its source.76 .

SPRINGS IN THE DESCHUTES RIVER BASIN, OREGON 

GENERAL FEATURES

The Deschutes Kiver basin, Oreg., is underlain mainly by very 

permeable volcanic rocks. The river is fed chiefly by large perennial

R6E. R.7 E. R.8 E. R.9 E. R.IO E. R. II E. R.I2 E.

KLAMATHCO. LAKE CO

Spring which according to available 

information has an average discharge 

of 100 second-feet or more

Spring which is mentioned in the text 

but which has a discharge 

of less than 100 second-feet

FIGUEB 18. Map showing large springs In upper part of Deschutes River basin, Oreg.

springs, and, according to Henshaw and Dean,76 its flow is more nearly 

uniform than that of any river in the United States comparable 

with it in size, its maximum discharge being only about six times 

its minimum. Evidence of this uniformity of flow is presented by 

the low grass-grown banks between which the river runs. The fol7B Idem, p. 332.

 Henshaw, F. F., and Dean, H. J., Surface water supply of Oregon, 1878-1910: 

tJ. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 370, pp. 304-305, 1915.

!)4!rJ!i»; (I -.">!
64 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

lowing description of the large springs tributary to the Deschutes is 

compiled almost entirely from manuscript furnished by F. F. Henshaw and H. T. Stearns. Many of the discharge measurements in 

the Deschutes and Klamath River basins were made by E. O. Hokanson, of the United States Geological Survey. The available discharge 

data of the principal springs and spring-fed streams in the basin are 

summarized in the following table. (See also figs. 17 and 18.)

Discharge, in seconfcfeet, of large springs in the Deschutes River basin, Oregon

Spring

lake).

creek). 

Cultus River (measured less than 1 mile 

below springs at head of river).

at bead of river. 

Sheep Bridge:

Davis Creek;

Fall River:

Spring River:

Black But te.. __ . _____________

Roaring Creek _______________

Heising .. ___________

Metolius River (water practically all derived from large springs) :

below head of river.

of river.

low practically all tributaries. 

Gilcbrist _ .- .................

stretch above mouth, including Opal 

Spring).

Length of record

 ..do..-. 

Summers of 2 years and part 

of another. 

.... . do.. - ... ... 

measurements.

 ..do.-- 

. _ do... ... ... ... ... .

 doLowest

52

43

8

278

23

174

113

142

100

45

90

307

1,040

1,330

970(7)

Discharge

Highest

213

70 

36

348

47

258(7)

126

299

122

54

128

566

1,100

Approximate 

average

95

28

54 

, 18

300

323

35

201

223

103

119

125

197

111

50

109

376

25

139

1,000+

In the Deschutes River basin, as in other regions, the magnitude 

assigned to many of the springs depends on their grouping, which is 

based on insufficient information, and would necessarily be somewhat arbitrary even if complete information were available. The 

springs in this basin that are tentatively recognized as springs of 

the first magnitude are the Opal, Sheep Bridge, Davis Creek, Spring 

River, Fall River, Little Lava Lake, Black Butte, and Heising.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Large springs near head of Deschutes River. The stream that is 

considered to form the head of Deschutes River rises in Little Lava
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 12

A. BIG SPRINGS, IDAHO 

Photograph by O. E. Meinzer

B. BIG SPRINGS, NEAR LEWISTOWN, MONT. 

Photograph by W. R. Calvert
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 13

A. VIEW LOOKING DOWN ON WOOD RIVER SPRING, OREG., FROM THE 

FAULT ESCARPMENT

Photograph by H. T. Stearns

B. NORTHERN VENT OF SHEEP BRIDGE SPRING, OREG. 

Discharge about 45 second-feet. Photograph by H. T. Stearns
TT. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 14

A. HEAD OF BROWN CREEK,.OREG. 

View from footbridge in sec. 30, T. 21 S., R, 8 E. Photograph by H. T. Stearns

IB. SPRING ISSUING FROM RECENT LAVA AT HEAD OF DAVIS CREEK, OREG. 

In sec. 18, T. 22 S., R. 8 E. Discharge about 50 second-feet. Photograph by H. T. Stearns
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 15

A. CROOKED RIVER 12 MILES ABOVE OPAL SPRING, OREG. 

At this point the stream is nearly dry

B. CROOKED RIVER 4| MILES BELOW OPAL SPRING, OREG.

Here the stream flows more than 1,000 second-feet, practically all derived from large 

springs. Photographs A and S taken on same day by W. W. Laxton
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 PLATE 16

A. NEAR VIEW 

Discharge about 130 second-feet

B. CROOKED RIVER CANYON, SHOWING POSITION OF SPRING (X)

The cliff back of the spring consists of alternating beds of permeable basalt and relatively 

impermeable sedimentary rocks. In most of the canyon this series of beds is covered by 

more recent lava, which forms the cliff on the opposite side of the river

OPAL SPRING, OREG.

Photographs by H. T. Stearns
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 557 'PLATE 17

A. GENERAL VIEW 

Missouri River in background

B. NEAR VIEW 

GIANT SPRINGS, NEAR GREAT FALLS, MONT.

Photographs by C. A. Fisher
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CAME., OBEG., WASH. 65

Lake, in sec. 22, T. 19 S., R. 8 E. Willamette meridian. This .lake, 

which, according to the United States Forest Service map, has an 

area of about 80 acres, has almost no surface inflow and is, therefore, 

in a sense a large spring pool. North of this spring is an area of 

exceedingly permeable lava and volcanic debris which has rather 

copious precipitation jbut virtually no surface drainage. The water 

that falls in this area is largely absorbed and percolates underground 

to Little Lava Lake or other large springs. In its underground 

course the Water appears in a number of lakes that have no considerable surface intake and no surface discharge. One of these is 

Lava Lake, which discharges into Little Lava Lake underground. 

(See fig. 18.)

In the following table is given a summary of the discharge of 

Deschutes River recorded at a gaging station maintained by the 

United States Geological Survey at a point about 6 miles below Little 

Lava Lake, above Snow Creek and other important.tributaries. The 

record, which covers the period from June, 1922, to September, 1924, 

shows a discharge ranging from 5$ to 213 second-feet and averaging 

95 second-feet. There is an annual fluctuation in discharge, the high 

stage of the stream lagging a few months behind the period of 

maximum annual intake from rains and melting snow. The high 

stage of the river occurs during the summer with a peak coming 

about the middle of August. Thereafter the flow decreases gradually 

until April or early in May, thus giving a minimum at a time when 

most streams are approaching their highest stage of the year.

Snow Creek, the uppermost tributary of Deschutes River, rises 

in large springs about 2 miles south of Little Lava Lake (fig. 18). 

It flows nearly parallel to the D.eschutes and not more than half a 

mile from it for almost its entire course of about 6 miles. Its flow, 

as measured during the summer months of 1922-1924 at a gaging 

station near its mouth, is nearly constant and averages about 28 second-feet. (See table below.) It showed little reduction even during the low-water year of 1924, when the discharge of Little Lava 

Lake decreased notably.

Cultus River has its source in a group of large springs in the 

SW. *4 sec. 17, T. 20 S., R. 8 E. (fig. 18). Its discharge, as measured at a gaging station less than a mile below the springs (see 

table below), has ranged from 43 to 70 second-feet and averaged 

54 second-feet. The Cultus River Springs have a variation in discharge similar in character to that of Little Lava Lake but much 

less in degree.

Quinn River is a short stream that is supplied entirely by springs 

at its head (fig. 18). The discharge as measured during the summer months of 1922-1924 at a gaging station just below the springs 

has ranged from 8 to 36 second-feet and averaged 18.4 second-
66 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

,feet. Thus these springs fluctuate in discharge even more than 

Little Lava Lake.

Monthly mean discharge, in second-feet, of large springs at or near the head

of Deschutes River

Month

1922 

June. w

July.. .-........................._......_...._...__.......-...

August _____ . ..............................................

October............................................. .. .........

1923

July...........................................................

August .........................................................

September .....................................................

October... _______________________ . .......

1024 

June.. _ . ________________________ . .....

July...........................................................

August..... ....................................................

Deschutes 

River 

about 6 

miles below Little 

Lava 

Lake and 

above 

mouth 

of Snow 

Creek

135

145

204

187

140

107

115

151

175

152

56.9

67.0

72.6

62.1

Snow 

Creek

29.4

27.7

26.9

27.9

28.5

29

29

29

29

29

28

27

27

27

Cultus 

River 

less than 

a mile 

below its 

source

70

67

69

69

65

62

46

46

46

46

Quinn 

River

 20

 26

.27

 24

 20

29.4

35.2

34.7

32.5

31.5

14.6

13.6

12.2

9.2

« Estimated.

Sheep Bridge Springs. A large flow of water enters Deschutes 

River from springs about 4 miles below the mouth of Quinn River, 

in the vicinity of the so-called Sheep Bridge, near the southeast 

corner of sec. 20, T. 21 S., R. 8 E. (fig. 18). The water issues from 

coarse glacial morainal debris, but its true source is undoubtedly 

the underlying basalt. On November 19, 1925, the discharge of the 

north vent was found to be 38 second-feet (pi. 13, B) and that of the 

south vent 51 second-feet. On August 30 the water from the north 

vent had a temperature of 40° F., and that from the south vent 

38° F. On the east side of the river there are several springs 

with a temperature of 45° F. and a combined discharge of about 

50 second-feet. This temperature, which is a few degrees above 

the normal for the region, suggests that the water of the eastside springs comes largely from the leaky Crane Prairie Reservoir. This reservoir lies less than 2 miles upstream from the) 

springs. Durjng the summer its water is much warmer than normal 

ground water. The total spring inflow to the river at the bridge is 

about 300 second-feet. A group of small springs issues from a thick 

pumice bed overlying basalt in the SE. !/£ sec. 12, T. 22 S., R. 7 E., 

the largest of which flows about 15 second-feet. On August 30,
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC ROCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OBEG., WASH. 67

1925, the water of these springs had a temperature of 39° F. Conditions are such that the discharge of the entire group can not be 

measured directly, but it can be estimated closely by deducting from 

the flow of Deschutes River at Graft's bridge (about 4 miles below 

the Sheep Bridge Springs), the flow of the river at the Orane 

Prairie Dam (about iy2 miles above the Sheep Bridge Springs), 

and the flow of Brown Greek, which discharges into the Deschutes 

between the Sheep Bridge and Graft's bridge. The flow of the entire 

group of Sheep Bridge Springs, according to estimates based on 

seven sets of measurements recorded in the following table, has 

ranged from 278 to 348 second-feet and averaged 323 second-feet.

Discharge, in second-feet, at three stations near Sheep Bridge Springs, and 

discharge of the springs computed from these records

Date

July 28, 1915

July 10, 1922. _ ... __ .._,--. .. _ ......

July 17, 1922... _ . ___ . _ . ___ .. _ ..__._._

Nov. 21, 1922 _ ....... _ ... . ... _ ... ...... .........

Apr. 25, 1923................ ...'.... ...........

Sept. 17, 1923.... ...... ....... _ ..__ .. _._....

Deschutes 

River at 

Crane 

Prairie 

Dam

160

348

337

337

196

4

20

Brown 

Creek

 40

40

41tf>

42 39

44

Deschutes 

River at 

Graft's 

bridge

478

732

699

717

581

334

412

Other

inflow

between

Crane

Prairie

Dam and! 

Graft's 

. bridge, 

chiefly 

that of

BridgeSprings

(calculated)

278

344

321

338

343 >291

34R

« Estimated.

Brown Creek Springs. Brown Creek, which is less than 3 miles 

long, flows into the Deschutes from the west. It has its source in a 

group of springs that issue from crevices in basalt in sec. 30, T. 21 S., 

R. 8 E. Its measured discharge has ranged from 23 to 47 second-feet 

and averaged 39.3 second-feet in 1923 and 30.4 second-feet in 1924. 

On August 30, 1925, the spring water had a temperature of 40° F. 

(See pi. 14 A.)

Davis Creek /Springs. Davis Creek, which is about 6 miles long, 

rises in a group of springs, the largest of which are in sec. 18, TV22 

S., R. 8 E. The springs issue from the base and margin of a bed of 

barren Recent andesitic lava which in this vicinity fills the ancient 

valley and has formed the dam that has given rise to Davis Lake. 

(Fig. 18.) These springs are obviously the outlet of an underground 

stream that rises in Davis Lake. At several places on the lava it is 

possible to hear the water running underground, and cold air issues
'68 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

from crevices in the lava at these places. On November 17, 1925 (see 

pi. 14, #), the largest single spring was discharging 54 secondfeet and ha^ a temperature of 48° F. This temperature, which is 

about 10° F. kbove the average of springs in this region, furnishes 

additional evidence that the springs are fed from Da vis Lake, in which 

the water warms up somewhat during the summer. Other large 

springs enter Davis Creek from the north. On November 20 a 

spring entering about 1 mile below the head discharged 79 secondfeet and another a little farther downstream discharged 68 secondfeet. The temperature of both was 39° F. Davis Creek, although 

generally receiving all its water from springs, fluctuates considerably 

in discharge. It has been measured from time to time at Graft's 

ranch, near its mouth, in sec. 10, T. 22 S., K. 8 E., but only during 

1924 has a complete year of record been obtained. In that year its 

minimum flow was 174 second-feet and its average flow 203 secondfeet.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Davis Creek at Graft's ranch

November 2, 1914_ 208 

July 1, 1922_____ 258 

July 13, 1922____ 250

August 4, 1922____ 255 

August 24, 1922___ 251 

November 21, 1922__ 237

April 25, 1923____ 228 

June 25, 1923__r 249 

September 24, 1923__ 224

Fall River. Fall River heads in a group of springs, the largest 

of which issue from crevices in basalt in sec. 10, T. 21 S., R. 9 E. 

The discharge from the two vents at the fish hatchery on November 

21, 1925, was found to be 103 second-feet. The temperature of; the 

spring water on that date was 41° F. The operator of the hatchery 

stated that the temperature does not vary throughout the year.

From the head springs Fall River flows about 6 miles in a fairly 

straight course to the falls and thence tortuously to its mouth. 

Measurements made of this stream near the falls from time to time 

since 1912 indicate a remarkable regularity of discharge. In the 10 

measurements recorded below the flow ranged only from 113 to 126 

second-feet and averaged 119 second-feet.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Fall River near Pringle Falls

July 19, 1912______________ 118 

June 7, 1913_____________ 122 

August 23, 1913___________ 113 

June 1, 1914_____________ 121 

May 5, 1922______________ 126

May 28, 1922_____________ 126 

August 7, 1922____________ 114 

August 30, 1922___________ 113 

November 20, 1922_________ 117 

June 26, 1923_________.__ 120

Spring River. Spring River rises in a group of springs in the 

SW. 1/4 sec. 1, T. 20 S., R. 10 E., about 1 mile west of Deschutes 

River and 10 feet above the river. All the water of this group issues from three main vents in an area of about 100 square feet.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OEEG., WASH. 69

On August 28,1925, these springs were discharging about 125.seeondfeet, The temperature of the water from all vents on that date wa? 

45° F. The springs issue from basalt, the water probably being collected at this place by a lava tube or lava tongue.

Spring River has been measured at intervals for nearly 20 years 

at a point near its mouth, in the NW» ^4 sec- 6, T. 20 S., R.. 11 E. 

Its discharge varies, much more widely than that of Fall River, 

ranging from 142 to 299 second-feet and averaging 197 ,seeond-feet in 

the 22 measurements .recorded in the following table:

Discharge, in second-feet, of Spring River near its mouth, in the NW. % *<&..

6, T. 20 S., R. 11 E.

April 13, 1907____________ 299 

March 26, 1908____________ 271 

April 23, 1909____________ 228 

February 25, 1912__________ 194 

October 21,1912__________ 158 

June 9, 1913_____________ 226 

August 23, 1913_____________ 248

October 29, 1913___________ 167 

April 2, 1914_____________ 224 

June 1, 1914_________1___ 204 

August 15, 1914___________ 195

November 2, 1914__________ 222 

December 16,1914_________ 182 

February 1, 1915________1_ 188 

February 18, 1915__________ 176 

July 30, 1915_____________ 155 

October 1, 1915___________ 163 

August 11, 1916___________ 200 

August 28, 1920 __________ 149 

October 27, 1920__________ 142 

August 7, 1922_______.__:__ 150 

February 7, 1924_____'. _______ 189

Springs on Metolius River. Metolius River is fed by a great 

number of large springs. It rises in Black Butte Springs, at the 

base of Black Butte, which is a large volcanic cone about 10 miles 

east of the main Cascade Range. On August 24, 1908, the flow of 

this spring was 100 second-feet, and on November 24, 1925, it was, 

122 second-feet. The volume of the river is augmented rapidly 

downstream by inflow from other springs. A gaging station was 

maintained for several years.at the Allingham ranger station, 3 miles 

below the head of the river and below the mouth of Lake Creek. 

At this station the flow of the river ranged in 1911 and 1912 between 

307 and 566 second-feet and averaged 376 second-feet.

Jack Creek, which enters the river about 2 miles below the ranger 

station, has a low-water flow of about SO second-feet, mostly from 

one spring. Canyon Creek, which enters less than a mile below the 

mouth of Jack Creek, has a flow which is practically never less than 

50 second-feet, derived from a series of springs. Roaring Creek,(the 

largest of these springs, had a discharge on June 22, 1915, of 44.5 

second-feet, and on November 25,1925, of 54 second-feet.

Heising Spring enters the river near the mouth of Jack Creek. 

It flowed 128 second-feet on March 26, 1912, and 90 second-feet On 

November 24,1925. At Alien's ranch, about 3 miles below the mouth 

of Canyon Creek and abdiit 10 milesA below the head of the riverv
ro LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

the flow was 1,040 second-feet on March 26, 1912, and 1,100 secondfeet on June 22, 1915. Below this point enter Jefferson Creek, with 

100 second-feet or more, and other creeks with large low-water flow. 

The resulting flow of Metolius River, as measured at the Riggs and 

Montgomery ranches, below practically all tributaries, has never been 

less than 1,300 second-feet. The minimum for the four years of 

record at the Riggs ranch was 1,330 second-feet. As the area apparently tributary to the river at this station covers about 347 square 

miles, the discharge amounts to an average of 3.83 second-feet per 

square mile.

Springs on Crooked River. Crooked River, the principal eastern 

tributary of the Deschutes, rises in a group of warm springs in a belt 

about 2 miles long at the north end of Gilchrist Valley, in Oregon. 

These springs have temperatures ranging between 60° and 87° F., 

and their combined discharge was roughly estimated by I. C. Russell at 20 to 25 second-feet. In its upper course the stream grows 

rapidly by inflow from springs, but farther down it loses by seepage 

Into the lava and also by diversions for irrigation, and below Prineville it frequently becomes dry in late summer.77 The flow at the 

bridge on the Dalles-California highway, generally known as Trail 

Crossing, is reduced in summer and fall to the amount contributed 

by return waters from irrigation along the river and from Ochoco 

Creek, near Prineville. In the 15 miles below this crossing, however, the river receives a flow of more than 1,000 second-feet from 

springs. (See pi. 15.) On November 28, 1925, the flow was 110 

second-feet at Trail Crossing, above Opal Spring, 841 second-feet 

below Opal Spring, and 1,190 second-feet near the mouth of Crooked 

River.

Monthly mean discharge, in second-feet, of Crooked River near its mouth,

1918-1924

Year

1918 

1919. __ .....

1920..........

1921 ___ ...

June

1,130

1,110

1,060

1,300

July

1,100

1,080

1,060

995

Aug.

1,110

1,100

1,060

970

Sept.

1,100

1,110

1,090

1,030

Oct.

1,110

1,060

1.120

1,100

Year

1922..........

1923 

1924 _ - __ .

June

1,210

1,200

1,110

July

1,110

1.240

1,110

Aug.

1,110

1,130

1,110

Sept.

1,120

1,150

1,110

Oct.

1,150

1,180

Opal Spring is in the NE. % sec. 33, T. 12 S., R. 12 E., on the 

east bank of Crooked River, at 1,969 feet above sea level. Its discharge was estimated at about 130 second-feet. On August 24, 

1925, the spring water had a temperature of 54° F. Part of the 

spring issues from' talus about 5 feet above the river, and the ren Russell, I. C., Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central 

Oregon: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 252, pp. 18, 19, 55, 56, 1905.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OREG., WASH. 71

mainder rises in a pool at the edge of Crooked River (pi. 16). The 

true source of the water has not been definitely determined, but there 

are good reasons to believe that the water comes from a bed of basalt 

interstratified with tuffs and partly consolidated sediments. Opal 

Spring is said to derive its name from the fact that it brings up 

grains of opal from the basalt."*

SPRINGS IN THE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN, OREGON AND

CALIFORNIA

GENERAL FEATURES

The upper part of the Klamath River basin is underlain chiefly 

by permeable lava rock and f ragmental volcanic debris. The streams 

tributary to the Klamath are to a great extent fed by large springs 

that issue from these permeable materials. The following table summarizes the discharge data in regard to the springs that are described. Two of these, Spring Creek (near Chiloquin) and the 

spring at the head of Wood River, are doubtless springs of the first 

magnitude. The following descriptions are based chiefly on data 

furnished by F. F. Henshaw, H. T. Stearns, and E. O. Hokanson.

Discharge, in second-feet, of large springs in the Klamath River basin, Oregon

and California

Spring

spring-fed creek).

Little Shasta ... .....................

Record

ment.

Lowest

12

279

46

24

14

Discharge

Highest

62

£00

67

26

20

Approximate 

average

35

330

66

208

25

67

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Big Spring. Big Spring Creek enters Williamson River from the 

west in that part of the river's course where it flows through 

Klamath Marsh. The creek rises in large springs only a short distance from the edge of the marsh, and measurements of its discharge 

have been made from time to time in sec., 22, T. 30 S., R. 8 E., at a 

point just within the marsh.

" Idem, p. 19.
72 LABGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

Discharge, in second-feet, of Biff Spring Greek, on Lens ranch, in sec.

SO 8., R. 8 E.

T.

April 24, 1914____________ 61 

August 12, 1914___________ 62 

June 28, 1915____________ 57 

May 30, 1916____________ 58 

October 13, 1916__________ 50 

June 15, 1917____________ 52 

April 30, 1918____________ 44. 7 

August 27, 1919___________ 33.5 

July 5, 1920______________ 27. 8 

August 20, 1920___________ 24.0

October 29, 1920__________ 21.1 

April 29, 1921____________ 30.3 

June 23, 1921____________ 31. 0 

September 1, 1921_________ 25.9 

October 31, 1921__________ 30.2 

August 9, 1922___________ 26.4 

May 3, 1923_____________ 27. 9 

June 27, 1923___=_________ 24.9 

September 3, 1923_________ 22.4 

November 10,1925________ 11.6

Spring Creek. Spring Creek is about 2^2 miles long and also 

empties into Williamson Eiver. It has its source in a beautiful pool 

of clear blue water a few miles from Chiloquin, Oreg. Numerous 

springs bubble up in the pool from crevices in lava rock, which is 

either basalt or andesite. Not far east of these springs there is 

a 400-foot fault scarp. The flow of Spring Creek has been measured 

several times in the last 20 years. In the 16 miscellaneous measurements recorded in the following table the flow ranged between 279 

and 500 second-feet and averaged 330 second-feet. Most of this 

water comes from the big spring at the head of the creek, but the 

flow is augmented by other springs in the bed of the creek, nearly 

all of which are within about half a mile of the head. The temperature of the water on November 6,1925, was 42° F.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Spring Creek near Chiloquin, Oreg.

August 16, 1920_________ 301

August 30, 1921_________ 291

August 12, 1922_________ 300

May 3, 1923___________ 293

October 19, 1923,.________ 294

February 18, 1924____1___ 279

May 20, 1924___________ 290

October 10, 1924__________ 282

August 13, 1905_________ 362

September 27, 1908_______ 473

October 1, 1909_________ 500

October 27, 1914________ 337

June 27, 1915___________ 320

June 2, 1916____________ 343

June 2,6, 1917__________ 315

August 23, 1919_________ 297

McCready Spring. Measurements on Sprague River show that its 

flow at low stages would be about 300 second-feet if no water were 

diverted for irrigation. Practically all the tributaries of Sprague 

River are fed by springs. The largest of these springs is in the vicinity of the McCready ranch, in sec. 30, T. 34 S., R. 9 E. A measurement of this spring on August 13, 1920, showed a flow of 67 

second-feet, and one on October 31,1925, showed a flow of 46 secondfeet. The temperature of the water on October 31, 1925, was 52° F.

Wood Rwer Spring. Wood River rises in spring pools a few 

miles north of Fort Klamath, in sec. 26, T. 32 S., R. 7% E. These 

pools are fed largely by two groups of springs about 1,500 feet apart. 

On November 7, 1925, they discharged 208 second-feet. The temper-
SPBINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IK IDAHO; CALIF., OBEG., WASH. 73

ature of the water was 42° F. at the north group of springs and 48° 

at the south group. The water is clear and very blue so that the 

spring is known locally for its beauty. The water bubbles up from 

glacial gravel and pumice at the foot of an andesite fault scarp which 

trends north (pi. 13, A). Discharge records have been obtained since 

1911 at a gaging station at Fort Klamath, below the mouth of Sun 

and Anna Creeks. Anna Creek has been measured since 1922 and has 

a low-water flow of about 40 second-feet, largely from springs within 

the Crater Lake National Park. Sun Creek is a similar but smaller 

stream. The flow at the gaging station has probably been materially 

reduced in June and July of each year by diversions for irrigation. 

The mean flow during five summer months of each year, so far as 

records are available, is given in the following table:

Mean monthly discharge, in second-feet, of Wood River at Fort Klamath, Oreff.

Year

1911

1913 .......

1914

1915 ....

1916 __ ..

1917

1918.

June

315

345

OK7

 270

253

212

July

334

.295

265 325

274

189

Aug.

320

313 280

256

293

260

199

Sept.

291

290 275

282

282

232

205

Oct.

280

293 290

245

231

237

Year

1919 

1920 

1921 

1922 . 

1923 

1924 

June

222

170

»255

188

July

228

163

310

229

146

Aug.

225

168

294

189

146

Sept.

240

183

276

 218

158

Oct.

256

219

305 300

 340

 Estimated. » Partly estimated.

Beetles 'Rest Spring. The Beetles Rest Spring, on the Klamatl^ 

Indian Reservation half a mile north of the Klamath Agency, is 

typical of a large number of springs of the second magnitude in the 

Klamath River Basin. The water issues in one well-defined spring 

.that has been walled up with brick. The country around the spring 

is covered with pumice. No rock is exposed near the spring, but the 

water probably comes from shattered lava. On September 1, 1925, 

the water had a temperature of 49° F. The spring has been measured by the Geological Survey 78 with the following results: August 

7, 1907, 25 second-feet; March 23, 1908, 26 second-feet; April 27, 

1908,25 second-feet; October 1,1909, 24 second-feet.

Bonanza Springs. Lost River discharges into Tule Lake, whjch 

lies on the Oregon-California State line. Tule Lake is only a few 

miles east of Lower Klamath Lake, which forms a part of the Klamath River system, but it has no surface outlet. Lost River derives 

its flood flow from a large area, but its low-water flow comes almost 

entirely from copious springs rising in the vicinity of Bonanza, 

Oreg. Bonanza Springs issue from numerous vents in basalt, in the 

S. y2 sec. 10, T. 39 S., R. 11 E. On September 2, 1925,'the springs

78 Henshaw, F. F., and Dean, H. J., op. cit., p. 818. 

949296 0 51 7
74 LABGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

had a temperature of 59° F., and on November 4, 60°. On November 

4, 1925, Lost River was measured by Mr. Hokanson at points about 

4 miles below and 2 miles above Bonanza Spnngs. The lower measurement showed 68.2 second-feet, and the upper only 1.4 second-feet, 

indicating an increase in flow of 66.8 second-feet, mainly from vents 

;in an area about 1,200 feet long. These vents together constitute 

the Bonanza Springs.

Measurements have been made of Lost Eiver near Merrill and 

Olene for the last 20 years, but since about 1918 the records convey 

no adequate idea of the natural flow because of extensive diversions 

by pumping for irrigation not far below the Bonanza Springs. The 

flow for the five low-water months of each year up to 1918 is given 

in the following table:

Mean monthly discharge, in second-feet, of Lost Ri/ver near Merrill and

Olene, Oreg.

Year

1905..........

1906... __ ...

1907 

1908.... ...

1909 

1910.... ..

1911 ____ ~

June

138

240

227

126

119

97.5

110

July

125

113

142

96.0

104

89.5

94.4

Aug.

125

93 7

109

101

107

89.5

109

Sept.

102

87 fi

117

96.0

116

103

105

Oct.

102

87.0

128

110

109

103

108

Year

1912.......... 101?

1914 

1915..........

1916 

1917. ,.

1918.. 

June

144

111

117

103

72.7

144

95.1

July

101

123

115

81.2

7&8

98.8

82.8

Aug.

87.3

120

88.7

87.7

80.2

90.7

87.8

Sept.

98.9

110

95.0

91.9

63.2

89.2

 85.0

Octt

114

102

104 90

121

92.6

124

 Estimated.

NOTE. Discharge measurements beginning May, 1912, include Lost River diversion canal and "O" 

Oanal and have been reduced by an amount diverted from Upper Klamath Lake into Lost River.

Little Shasta Spring. Several large springs issue near the head 

of Little Shasta River, in California. One of these, about 13 miles 

east of Montague, rises from basalt and has a relatively constant flow 

of about 14 second-feet, according to Waring.79 This is probably 

the same as the "Little Shasta Spring," which, according to a 

measurement made by the Geological Survey, yielded 20 second-feet 

on August 29,1905.80

SPBINGS IN THE WILLAMETTE, TJMPQTJA, AND BOGTJE EIVEB

BASINS, OBEGON

GENERAL FEATURES

A number of large springs are found in the lava-covered region 

on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon, of which five 

are apparently springs of the first magnitude. The first-magnitude 

springs are Clear Lake Spring, Lower Falls Spring, Olallie Creek 

Springs, and Lost Creek Spring, which discharge ,into McKenzie 

River, a tributary of the Willamette, and Spring River, which dis-

»Waring, G. A., op. clt., p. 331.

80 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 177, p. 245, 1906.
SPRINGS IN VOLCANIC BOOKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OEEG., WASH. 75

charges into the North Umpqua. The information that is given in 

regard to these springs was furnished by H. T. Stearns, K, N. PhilUps, and B. E. Jones, all of the United States Geological Survey, 

who have recently made a reconnaissance survey of the water 

resources of the region.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS

Clear Lake Spring. Clear Lake, which was visited by Mr. Stearns 

on September 5, 1926, lies in T. 14 S., E. 7 E., near the head of 

McKenzie Eiver. It is a beautiful green lake about a mile long and is 

reported to be 190 feet deep at one place. A gaging station is maintained at the outlet of the lake. On September 5 the discharge was 

approximately 200 second-feet, all of which rose in the bottom of 

the lake except about 20 second-feet that issued from Great Spring, 

100 feet from the east shore of the lake, and about half a secondfoot that entered through a tributary creek. According to Mr. 

Stearns, the lake owes its origin to a basalt flow that entered the 

valley of McKenzie Eiver and formed a dam in the valley. On September 5, 1926, the temperature of the water of Great Spring was 

39° F., and that of the lake was 50° to 52° F.

Spring at Lower Falls of McKenzie River. K beautiful spring 

pool occurs at the foot of the Lower Falls of McKenzie Eiver, in 

sec. 81, T. 14 S., E. 7 E. This pool discharges about 250 second-feet 

of water at times when there is no surface flow in the river above the 

pool. A few springs issue from crevices in the basalt about 10 feet 

above the water surface, but most of the water rises ,in the pool below 

the water level. Mr. Stearns reports that the spring is due to a recent 

basaltic lava flow that entered the gorge of the McKenzie'in sec. 

29 and flowed down the gorge. In normal stages the .entire river 

sinks into this basalt, and the water reappears about V/2 miles farther 

down the gorge in the spring pool.

OlaUie Creek Springs. Olallie Creek discharges into McKenzie 

Eiver, in sec. 13, T. 15 S., E. 6 E. The entire flow at low stages 

comes from springs about V/2 miles above its mouth, which issue from 

basalt. The information in regard to these springs was furnished 

by Mr. Jones, who examined them in July, 1926.

Nearly all the water comes from three spring areas. Two of these 

are on the creek about a quarter of a mile apart and have a difference of altitude of 30 to 40 feet. Their combined flow was estimated 

at about 60 second-feet. The third spring issues at somewhat lower 

altitude, at the head of a branch a quarter of a mile long that discharges into the creek a short distance below the other two. It also 

discharges approximately 60 second-feet. The flow of the creek below 

the.spring branch was 137 second-feet, according to a measurement
76 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

by Mr. Jones on July 20, 1926. Practically all the water came from 

these three springs and several smaller springs in the same locality. 

As the flow of streams in this region was exceptionally low in the 

summer of 1926, the discharge of these springs was probably also 

below the average. It appears, therefore, that the Olallie Creek 

Springs may be regarded as a spring of the first magnitude.

Lost Creek Spring. Lost Creek Spring rises chiefly from one large 

irregular pool at the end.of a,basalt flow in sec. 24, T. 16 S., R. 6 E. 

The water flows northeastward through Lost Creek into McKenzie 

River. The temperature of the water on September 7, 1926, was 

42° F. According to measurements made by Mr. Jones 3 miles below 

the spring the flow was 175 second-feet on August 9,1926,172 secondfeet on September 6, and 166 second-feet on September 22. This 

spring owes its origin to the burial of an ancient stream channel 

by a lava flow.

Spring River. Spring River, which is only a mile or two long 

and discharges into North Umpqua River, forms the outlet for two 

large springs which may together be regarded as a spring of the first 

magnitude. These springs are situated near the west boundary of 

the unsurveyed T. 26 S., R. 6 E., in Douglas County, Oreg. . The 

two springs are less than a mile apart. The western one, which is 

somewhat the larger, issues from the base of a lava bed about 100 

feet thick. The water is clear and had a temperature of 40° F. on 

July 29, 1926. In the bed of the stream where the spring issues 

Mr. Stearns observed waterworn cobbles, which suggest that the 

water issues from the bed of an ancient river that was buried by the 

lava flow. The eastern spring issues from the same lava bed. Its 

water on the same day had a temperature of 42° F. This slightly 

higher temperature may be due to relatively warm water from 

Thirsty Creek, near by, that may percolate to the spring. Evidently 

tlje water of Spring River is the underground drainage of a large 

area of permeable rocks in the Cascade Mountains, to the southeast. 

The flow of Spring River below both springs was 177 second-feet 

on May 20, 1926, and 174 second-feet on July 17, 1926, according 

to measurements made by Mr. Phillips.

About a mile north of the eastern spring, on the north bank of 

North Umpqua River, is a spring known as Cold Spring, which on 

July 29, 1926, according to Mr. Steam's estimate, discharged about 

25 second-feet from openings in basaltic rocks. On the same day the 

temperature of the water was 39° F.

Me& surements made by Mr. Phillips showed that the flow of North 

Umpqua River just below the mouth of Spring River was 284 secondfeet on May 21, 1926, and 248 second-feet on July 17, 1926. A measurement at the same place by J. N. Partridge on September 12, 1924, 

indicated a flow of 251 second-feet. All the water measured on July
SPBINGS IN VOLCANIC BOCKS IN IDAHO, CALIF., OEEG., WASH. 77

17, 1926, is known to have come from springs. It was estimated 

that more than 200 second-feet of spring water issued from an area 

of 1 square mile.

Springs on Clearwater River. Clearwater River, which discharges 

into the North Umpqua some miles below Spring Kiver, is fed by 

large springs near its source. The flow of a group of springs in Toolbox Meadows, at the head of the Clearwater, was estimated by Mr. 

Stearns on July 28, 1926, at 25 second-feet, and the flow of Lava 

Creek, a spring-fed tributary, at 20 second-feet. Several measurements have been made on the river about 4 miles below the head 

springs. Flows of 112 second-feet on October 18, 1924, and 128 

second-feet on July 18, 1926, consisted almost exclusively of spring 

water that issued in the upper 4 miles of the river valley.

Big Butte Springs. The Big Butte Springs consist of a number 

of springs within several hundred feet of one another, in sees. 20 and 

21, T. 35 S., R. 3 E., Jackson County, Oreg. The water issues from 

openings in basalt and flows into the South Fork of Big Butte 

Creek, a tributary of Rogue River. Some of the water is to be 

diverted as a supply for the city of Medford. In 16 measurements 

made from 1923 to 1926 the discharge of the largest group of springs 

ranged between 12.2 and 16.9 second-feet. In 7 measurements in 

1925 and 1926 the total spring flow below the junction of the spring 

branches ranged between 43 and 59 second-feet and averaged about 

53 second-feet.

SPRINGS IN THE INTERIOR BASINS OE OREGON

Ana River Springs. Ana River rises in springs in sec. 6, T. 30 S., 

R. 17 E., and is the principal feeder of Summer Lake, which it enters 

from the north through a channel about 5 miles long.81 There are 

five vents close together that are now at times flooded by water 

impounded by a v dam. They issue from Pliocene lake beds at the 

north end of the great fault valley occupied by Summer Lake. The 

origin of the springs has not been definitely determined, but, as 

suggested by Waring, the water probably comes from permeable lava 

rock and is brought to the surface through the agency of the fault. 

A temperature of 66° F., reported by Waring, suggests a deep origin 

of the water.

On July 27, 1925, Mr. S. Mushin, of Lakeview, Oreg., measured 

these springs and found them to be discharging 130 second-feet. 

Ana River has been measured from time to time for the last 22 years 

at a .point below the lowest of the large springs. In the 29 measurements recorded in the following table the flow has ranged from 106 

tc 165 second-feet. The discharges of 106 and 109 second-feet were

81 Waring, G. A., Geology and water resources of a portion of south-central Oregon : 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 220, pp. 54, 56, 1908.
78 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

measured at times when a diversion dam constructed just above the 

measuring section had raised the water to a height of 30 or 40 

feet above the bed of the stream. The minimum measured before 

this dam was constructed or thereafter when the water was not 

impounded behind the dam has been 114 second-feet. The flow of 

the springs in the 27 measurements exclusive of these two has, therefore, ranged from 114 to 165 secondrfeet and has averaged about 135 

second-feet.

The measurements show that in addition to small seasonal 

variations there has been a moderate secular fluctuation due to a 

cycle of relatively wet and dry years. From a maximum measured 

flow in 1904 there was a more or less persistent decline to 1920, 

followed by a partial recovery in the next five years.

Discharge, in second-feet, of Ana River near Summer Lake, Oreg.

July 17, 1904____________ 165 

July 18, 1904____________ 155 

March 28, 1905___________ 148 

April 6, 1905_____________ 149 

June 8, 1905_____________ 148 

April 8, 1906_____________ 141 

January 14, 1909___________ 134 

May 2, 1909_____________ 150 

September 25, 1910_________ 141 

February 7, 1912__________ 140 

August 2, 1914____________ 137 

December 12, 1914_________ 131 

May 17, 1915____________ 134 

October 3, 1915___________ 132 

April 20, 1917_____________ 132

April 29, 1918 124

March 28, 1919 ___________ 120 

August 31, 1919 ___________ 121 

May 24, 1920 ____________ 115 

August 6, 1920 ___________ 114 

March 7, 1921 ____________ 131 

August 23, 1921 ______ - _______ 122

October 19, 1921 __________ 128 

April 4, 1922 _____________ 130 

August 17, 1922_^ _________ _a 10ft 

January 29, 1923 ______ _ __ __« 109

July 10, 1923 ____________ 129 

September 20, 1924 _________ 130 

July 27, 1925 _____________ 130

Springs in Warm Spring Valley. A group of rather large springs 

is situated in Tps. 26 and 27 S., R. 29 E., near the Double O ranchr 

In Warm Spring Valley, just west of Harney Lake, Oreg. (fig. 17). 

They rise in the lowland, at or near the bordering bluffs of lava. 

Waring 82 states that in those places where the immediate source of 

the spring was seen the water issues from coarse tuffaceous material 

that is interbedded with the lava rock. The temperature of several 

springs in this group ranges, according to observations, from 53° 

to 73° F., which is somewhat above the normal. Eleven measurements of the main Double O Spring, in sec. 34, T. 26 S., R. 28 E., 

made between 1916 and 1924 show a discharge ranging between 8.4 

and 16.4 second-feet, and five measurements of the Hughet Spring, 

in sec. 10, T. 27 S., R. 29 E., in 1916 and 1917, showed a discharge

 Water raised by dam above measuring section.

ss Waring, G. A., Geology and water resources of the Harney Basin region, Oreij. : 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 231, pp. 35, 39, 40, 63, .1909.
SPRINGS IN MONTANA 79

ranging between 12 and 14.5 second-feet. In six sets of measurements, three made in 1916 and three in 1917, the discharge of the 

entire group of springs ranged from 39.7 to 44.4 second-feet and 

averaged about 42 second-feet.

SPRINGS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

The Fish Springs are at the west edge of Owens Valley, about 

3^ miles south of Big Pine, Calif., or 27 miles north of Independence. They form a large pond at the side of a lava ridge that 

extends for some distance into the valley.88 Measurements made on 

these springs by the Geological Survey gave 29 second-feet on 

December 4,1905, 36 second-feet on December 7,1906, and 25 secondfeet on February 8,1907.84

Black Kock Spring, about 9 miles north of Independence, is the 

largest of a group of springs in this part of Owens Valley. Its 

water rises in a pool 30 to 50 feet in diameter, at the base of a low 

lava ridge. The water comes out of the lava or possibly out of the 

alluvium just above the lava. Its temperature is reported to be 56° 

or 57° F. The yield of the spring was reported to be 21 second-feet 

by Waring 8e and 23 second-feet by Lee.86

INTERMITTENT SPRING, WASHINGTON"

Near Trout Lake, Wash., in the drainage basin of White Salmon 

Kiver, in the SW. *4 sec. 13, T. 5 N., K. 10 E., is a spring known as 

Intermittent Spring, which had a discharge of 50 second-feet when 

it was measured on July 1, 1913, and 33 second-feet when it was 

measured on July 3, 1914, but was dry on September 16, 1914. This 

spring is in the region underlain by basalt, but no description of it is 

available. Its behavior does not appear to be that of typical basalt 

springs.

SPRINGS IN MONTANA

GENERAL FEATURES

Four springs of unusual size are known to occur in Montana 

the Giant Springs, near Great Falls; the Big Springs southeast 

of Lewistown; Warm Spring, north of Lewistown; and the Big 

Spring near Toston (fig. 19). The Giant Springs, which discharge 

about 600 second-feet, rank among the very largest springs in the 

United States; Warm Spring and the Lewistown Big Springs are 

also springs of the first magnitude; the Toston Big Spring, which

88 Waring, G. A., op. cit., p. 322.

84 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 300, p. 393, 1913. 

« Waring, G. A., op. cit., p. 320.

88 Lee, C. H., An -intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley,. 

Calif.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294, p. 45, 1912.

87 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 362, p. 749, 1917; 394, p. 174, 1917.
80 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

in a single measurement discharged 64 second-feet, is apparently 

the fourth largest spring in the State.

These springs are in different parts of the State, issue from different formations, and are due to different structural features. The 

Giant Springs, Warm Spring, and the Lewistown Big Springs issue from sandstone; the Toston Big Spring doubtless issues from 

limestone. Warm Spring, the Lewistown Big Springs, and possibly 

also the Giant Springs are related to faults. The Giant Springs and 

the Toston Big Spring are believed to derive their large flows

FIGURE 19. Map of Montana showing the location of large springs. The Giant Springs, 

Warm Spring, and the Lewistown Big Springs are springs of the first magnitude; the 

Toston Big Spring discharged 64 second-feet when measured, and is therefore rated 

as a spring of the second magnitude

as a result of natural diversions from Missouri River at points upstream from the springs.

DETAILED DESCBIPTIONS

Giant Springs. The Giant Springs,88 on the south bank of Missouri River about 3 miles below Great-Falls, Mont. (fig. 20), were 

discovered by Capt. Meriwether Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark 

Expedition, 1804, .and in his description were spoken of as the 

"largest fountain in the United States."

The water appears at the surface through large joints in a medium 

to coarse grained sandstone belonging to the Kootenai formation 

(Lower Cretaceous). It boils up with considerable force, is clear

88 Fisher, C. A., Geology and water resources of the Great Falls region, Mont.: U. S. 

Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 221, pp. 37-39, pi. 6, 1909. Letter by W. A. Lamb, 

district engineer, U. S. Geol. Survey.
SPRINGS IN MONTANA 81

and blue, contains only a moderate amount of dissolved mineral 

matter, and has a temperature of about 50° F. No spring deposits 

are found in the vicinity of the springs.

There is one large spring on the right bank near the edge of the 

river which discharges about 200 second-feet (pi. IT). It discharged 

202 second-feet according to a measurement made September 11,1904, 

and 192 second-feet according to a measurement made September 14,. 

1912. On both sides of the main spring for a short distance are 

smaller springs flowing from the joints, and directly opposite it in

FIGURE 20. Map of the vicinity of the Giant Springs, Mont., showing their probable 

origin. (After Fisher)

the bed of the river there is a large spring which can be seen during 

low stages of the river. According to measurements made by Nettleton 89 in 1891, the flow of Missouri River was 3,885 second-feet above 

the springs and 4,523 second-feet below the springs, giving a calculated discharge of 638 second-feet from all the spring openings in 

this locality. In recent years the Montana Power Co. has made 

measurements which have determined that in the vicinity of the

^Nettleton, E. S., Artesian and underflow investigations (final report): 52d Cong., 

1st sess., Ex. Doc. 41, pt. 2, p. 77, 1892.
82 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

springs there is an increase in the flow of the river of about 600 

second-feet, all of which must come from the springs.90

The following explanation of the origin of the Giant Springs is 

given by Fisher:

It is believed that the water of Giant Springs is derived from the subriver 

flow of the Missouri which leaves the valley of that stream near the mouth of 

Sand Coulee as an underflow and passes down its preglacial channel, which 

extends up Sand Coulee, into Gibson Flat, an oxbow in the old river channel 

(fig. 20). From here by a subterranean passage through porous Cretaceous 

sandstone and sandy shale, which dip in a favorable direction for its transmission, it makes its escape to the present .Missouri River, where it appears 

in the form of Giant Springs. It is further believed by the writer that the 

jointing, which is here well developed, with the major joint planes extending 

in a north-south direction, is an important factor in the underground movement 

of the water. It is also possible that a fault in this vicinity further facilitates 

the underground passage of the water, but no positive evidence of this was 

seen. Well borings in lower Sand Coulee and Gibson Flat demonstrate that 

the materials filling the old valley are largely coarse river sediments, well 

adapted for rapid percolation of water.

"Warm Spring. Warm Spring is about 12 miles north of Lewistown, in the NE. % sec. 19, T. 17 N., B. 18 E., and is the principal 

source of Warm Spring Creek, a tributary of Judith River. Calvert,91 who made a geologic survey of the region in 1907, reported 

that the spring has a nearly constant flow of about 140 second-feet, 

but according to later information obtained by George M. Hall, who 

examined the spring in 1923, measurements made by the Barnes-King 

Development Co., indicate a flow of 180 to 190 second-feet. The 

water has a temperature, as observed by Hall on July 24, 1923, of 

68° F., and contains 647 parts per million of dissolved solids, as 

shown in an analysis by H. B. Riffenburg. It has deposited practically no mineral matter. The water is used in part by the BarnesKing Development Co. for power in mining and milling operations. 

Some of the water is also used for irrigation.

This large spring apparently owes its existence to a fault, as is indicated in the following quotation from Calvert.92 (See fig. 21.)

Structural relations in the vicinity of the Warm Spring make it evident 

that the spring issues on a fault line which to the east seems to follow the 

valley, curving around into Moccasin Creek, and to the west gradually passes 

to the north of the stream. Just to the southwest of the spring a few 

feet of sandstone is exposed in the cut bank, which appears to be the sandstone overlying the coal [Kootenai]. To the northwest and below the spring 

the top of the Ellis sandstone is exposed, and in the immediate vicinity of 

the spring the varicolored shales of the Morrison form the north bank. The 

downthrow of the fault, therefore, is on the south side, and the vertical dis90 Information furnished by W. A. Lamb, district engineer, U. S. Geol. Survey.

91 Calvert, W. R., Geology of the Lewistown coal field, Mont,: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

390, p. 55, 1909.

92 Idem, pp. 54, 55.
SPRINGS IN MONTANA 83

placement is the same as the interval between the base of the Morrison and 

the top of the massive sandstone just above the coal about 200 feet. Onehalf mile below the spring a second fault meets that described above. This 

has a downthrow on the west, extends northeast, and is finally concealed beneath the travertine of The Park.

The Park, mentioned by Calvert,93 is the largest of several areas 

in this region that are underlain by travertine. It covers about 6 

square miles and extends within half a mile or so of Warm Spring

R.I8 E. EXPLANATION

21. Map and section of the vicinity of Warm Spring, Mont., showing its relation to the structure of the rocks. (After Calvert, op. cit., pi. 1.)

(fig. 21). The travertine, which is estimated to have a maximum 

thickness of about 250 feet, is believed by Calvert to have been deposited in early Quaternary or possibly in pre-Quaternary time by 

hot springs which owed their origin to laccolithic intrusions of the 

Moccasin Mountains. " Heated waters, probably charged with carbonic acid a most natural solvent for calcium carbonate may have

""Idem, pp. 35-40.
84 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

passed through the Madison limestone and, finding means of access 

through fractures developed in the process of doming, deposited the 

travertine at the surface upon release of pressure and decrease of 

temperature." Calvert does not believe, however, that Warm Spring 

represents the last phase of general hot-spring activity, but rather 

that it is due to artesian structure, which carries the water to sufficient depths to raise its temperature moderately, and to the fault, 

which provides the artesian water with a natural means of escape. 

His discussion of the subject is in part as follows:

If the spring does represent the last phase of such [igneous] activity, it 

wtmld seem highly improbable that it should be the only one in the entire 

district whose temperature is noticeably above the average. Likewise, it 

would seem strange that not even this spring is depositing lime. In fact, 

field analysis of its waters shows-that they contain no more than, the average 

of carbonates for that region. It might also be argued that the temperature 

is a -result of recent faulting, and the fact that the spring is directly on a 

fault line gives weight to that assumption. However, numerous other faults, 

apparently contemporaneous, occur in the region, and since springs near them 

are not affected as regards temperature, it would seem that some other cause 

should be sought to account for the exceptional temperature of the water of 

Warm Spring.

A much more probable theory regarding the elevated temperature of the 

spring water is that it has come from a considerable depth. The drainage 

area of Warm Spring Creek is largely a structural basin, the underground 

waters of which would find an outlet through the syncline between North 

Moccasin and South Moccasin Mountains and find access to the surface ou 

the plane of the fault. The principal water-bearing stratum of this region 

is the massive sandstone which overlies the coal and which is exposed along 

the flanks of the Judith and Moccasin Mountains on the rim of the structural 

basin. A mile southeast of the spring this sandstone is buried by practically 

the entire thickness of the Colorado shale, which, in addition to the 400 feet 

of Kootenai sediments that comprise the interval between the sandstone in 

question and the Colorado formation, would fix the depth to the water zone in 

the above locality at about 1,800 feet. Since the temperature of the spring 

water is about 70° F., and that of the average spring of the district about 

50° F., an increase of 1° for each 90 feet of depth will account for the temperature of the water in question.

Leiowtown Biff Springs. The Lewistown Big Springs are in sec. 

5, T. 14 N., R. 19 E., about 7 miles southeast of Lewistown, on Big 

Spring Creek, a tributary of Judith River. They furnish the water 

supply for the city of Lewistown. The water has a temperature, as 

observed by George M. Hall on September 2, 1922, of 52° F., and 

contains 446 parts per million of dissolved solids, as shown in an 

analysis by H. B. Riffenburg. According to Calvert,94 they have a 

nearly constant flow and yield about 140 second-feet, as measured 

by Robert Follansbee, of the United States Geological Survey. 

They issue from the Ellis formation, a massive sandstone of Juras84 Calvert, W. R.. Geology of the Lewistown coal field, Mont.; IT. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

390, p. 53, 1909.
SPRINGS IN MONTANA 85

sic age, and are believed by Calvert 95 to be due to the damming 

effect of a fault, as is explained in the following quotation (see 

fig. 22) :

It appears that the Big Springs owe their origin to the faults above described. South of the fault block the strata dip to the northwest, away from 

the Big Snowy uplift, and underground waters naturally follow this dip. On 

meeting the fault plane, however, their tendency would be to flow to the northEXPLANATION

PIGOKB 22. Map of the vicinity of Lewistown Big Springs, near Lewistown, Mont., 

showing their relation to faults. (After Calvert, op. cit., pi. 1.)

east along the fault, since the throw is such as to bring the massive Ellis 

sandstone, the most likely water-bearing stratum in this vicinity, against the 

more impervious shales in the lower part of the Kootenai. On reaching the 

cross fault which ends the block the water could readily pass across to the 

Ellis sandstone again, then follow the dip, which is here westward, and find 

a vent where the sandstone is cut by the stream valley. The springs probably 

represent, therefore, the underground water which is stopped by the fault 

block.

«Idem, p. 53.
86 LAKGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

Toston Big Spring. The Toston Big Spring, known also as 

Mammoth Spring, is situated on the right bank of Missouri Eiver 

about 5 miles south of Toston (fig. 23). Its flow, which is said to 

remain fairly constant throughout the year, amounted to 64 secondfeet when it was measured on May 18, 1922, by W. A. Lamb, of the 

United States Geological Survey. The following description of this 

spring is given by Pardee 96 (see also fig. 23) :

Big Spring, which includes the water escaping at several places along a 

distance of 200 feet or more, issues from talus and gravel below a steep 

slope and collects in a beautiful transparent blue pool alongside the track 

of the Northern Pacific Railway. * * * Jn July, 1921, the temperature of

the water discharged at 

one of the larger openings was 59° F. By 

means of a concrete dam 

and a canal, part of the 

water is diverted to irrigate lands near Toston; 

the remainder falls directly into Missouri 

River. The talus and 

gravel from which the 

water escapes evidently 

form a shallow deposit 

that overlies limestone 

belonging to the older 

group [Madison limestone, Carboniferous]. 

Doubtless the water is 

discharged from an extensive solution channel 

in this rock. The spring 

is at the lower end of 

a horseshoe bend in Missouri River, the upperend of which is at Lombard, a distance of 1*4 miles in a straight line, or 5% 

miles following the course of the river. At Lombard is the mouth of Sixteenmile Creek, which drains the country back of the spring. Beds of limestone 

occur in the area between the spring and Lombard and extend into the area 

crossed by Sixteenmile Creek. At Lombard Missouri River is about 30 feet 

higher than the spring. These relations suggest that most of the water discharged by this spring may come through underground channels that tap the 

river or Sixteenmile Creek in the neighborhood of Lombard.

SPRINGS IN THE BASIN AND RANGE PROVINCE OP 

NEVADA AND UTAH

In Nevada and western Utah, which lie in the Basin and Eange 

province, there are numerous large springs, many of which yield

FIGURE 23. Map of the vicinity of Toston Big Spring, 

Mont., showing relation of the spring to Sixteenmile 

Creek and to the bend in Missouri Kiver

99 Pardee, J. T., Geology and ground-water resources of Townsend Valley, Mont.: 

D. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 539, pp. 46-47, 1925.
SPKINGS IN LIMESTONE, IDAHO AND UTAH 87

warm or even hot water, but they do not rank with the very large 

springs that have been described in this paper. Some of them issue 

from limestone, lava, or other bedrock, and others issue from the 

valley fill. Many of these springs are related to large faults, and 

some of those that issue from valley fill probably have their source 

in the faulted bedrocks.

Good examples of these springs are the Hiko, Crystal, and Ash 

Springs, in Pahranagat Valley, Nev.,9T which issue from limestone 

along the east side of the valley. The water of Hiko Spring and 

probably also of the others is warmer than the normal for the region. 

According to estimates made by Carpenter in 1912, Hiko Springs 

discharged about 9 second-feet, Crystal Spring about 7 second-feet, 

and Ash Spring about 20 second-feet, but according to estimates 

made by A. D. Ryan, of the United States Geological Survey, in 

1921, Crystal Spring discharged 20 to 30 second-feet, and the three 

springs together discharged about 65 second-feet.

The Big Spring 98 just west of the Nevada-Utah line, at the head 

of Lake Creek, about 10 miles up the valley from Burbank, Utah, 

issues from gravel, but its ultimate source is probably the limestone 

that crops out not far away. The temperature of the water is 63.5° 

F., which is somewhat above the normal for the region. The flow 

of this spring together with smaller ones that issue farther downstream was reported in 1908 to be about 18 second-feet, but in 1921 

the flow was estimated by Ryan at about 27 second-feet.

SPRINGS IN LIMESTONE IN SOUTHEASTERN IDAHO 

AND NORTHEASTERN UTAH

A number of large springs j.ssue from limestone in southeastern 

Idaho and northeastern Utah. Some of these are very variable in 

their flow. According to the best information that is available, none 

of them has an average flow of as much as 100 second-feet. The 

information in regard to these springs was obtained from H. T. 

Stearns, A. B. Purton, C. G. Paulsen, G. R. Mansfield, and William 

Peterson.

Several large springs .issue from limestone at the base of the Aspen 

Range, near the town of Soda Springs, Idaho. The largest are 

Woodall Spring, or Tule Lakes, in the S. y2 sec. 27 and N. % sec. 34, 

T. 7 S., R. 42 E., and Formation Spring, near the line between sees. 

28 and 29, T. 8 S., R. 42 E. Both of these springs issue from carboniferous limestone, apparently along fault lines. , The water is 

very clear but has a distinctly bluish color and has deposited great

OT Carpenter, Bverett, Ground water in southeastern Nevada: D. S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 365, pp. 26, 56, 1915.

88 Meinzer, O. E., Ground water in Juab, Millard, and Iron Counties, Utah: U. S. 

Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 277, p. 129, 1911.
88 I/AKGE SPKINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

quantities of travertine. The entire flow of Formation Spring 

comes out of the base of a hill in one channel. According to measurements made by C. G. Paulsen, the discharge of Woodall Spring 

that is, the total discharge from the Tule Lakes was 23.5 secondfeet on June 1, 1923, and 29.0 second-feet on July 18, 1923. According to measurements made in 1923 by C. G. Paulsen, A. G. 

Fiedler, and Berkeley Johnson, all of the Geological Survey, the 

discharge of Formation Spring was 23.9 second-feet on June 3, 26.4 

second-feet on June 25, 24.9 second-feet on July 17, and 25.4 secondfeet on August 30.

Several large springs issue on the west side of the Bear River 

valley, among which are the springs at the head of Paris and Bloomington Creeks, in Idaho, and the spring at the head of Swan Creek, 

in Utah. They probably issue from limestone of Cambrian age. 

According to measurements by the Utah Power & Light Co., the 

flow of Swan Creek Spring ranges from 30 or 35 second-feet in the 

w,inter to 200 second-feet or more in May.

A large spring on Ashley Creek, about 10 miles northwest of 

Vernal, Utah, in sec. 1, T. 3 S., R. 20 E., was measured by the Geological Survey on January 23, 1922, when it had a flow of 30.5 second-feet, and on September 5, 1922, when it had a flow of 50 secondfeet. The minimum flow of the Ashley Creek Spring is probably 

not over 20 second-feet, as records on Ashley Creek show the creek 

to have a minimum flow of 26 second-feet or less.

Purton also mentions a large spring on the South Fork of Ogden 

River, a large spring on the upper Blacksmith Fork, and a large 

and well-known spring, called Ricks Spring, on the upper Logan 

River. Ricks Spring has, however, at times gone absolutely dry.

SPRINGS IN GLACIAL GRAVEL IN QUINCY VALLEY,

WASHINGTON "

Many large springs in various parts of the country issue from deposits of sand and gravel. The Portneuf Springs, near Pocatello, 

Idaho, issue largely from gravel and may be the largest gravel 

springs in the country, but the source of their water is probably 

the basalt underlying the gravel (p. 51). In so far as information 

is at hand, the other sand and gravel springs do not belong to the 

class that yield more than 100 second-feet. This is probably due 

to the fact that the ground water is more generally distributed in 

sand and gravel than in limestone or volcanic rock, and hence its 

discharge is less localized.

99 Schwennesen, A. T., and Meinzer, O. E., Ground water in Quincy Valley, Wash.: 

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 425, pp. 153-155, 1919. U. S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply PaperS 292, pp. 146-148, 1913; 312, pp. 170-171, 1915; 332, pp. 195- 

196, 275, 1916.
SPK1NGS IN LIMESTONE AND GYPSUM, PECOS VALLEY, NEW MEXICO 89

Rocky Ford Creek, in Quincy Valley, east of Ephrata, Wash., is 

fed by springs in T. 21 N., R. 27 E., that issue from coarse glacial 

outwash gravel, into which the waters of Crab Creek sink. A gaging 

station was maintained on Rocky Ford Creek by the Geological 

Survey during parts of 1910-1913 at a point in sec. 8, T. 20 N., R.

27 E., where essentially all of the stream consists of water derived 

from these springs. According to measurements made at this gaging 

station the discharge fluctuates at least between 38 and 88 second-feet 

and averages about 60 second-feet. Drumheller Spring, about 4 

miles south of Moses Lake, in Quincy Valley, in sec. 32, T. 18 N., R.

28 E., also issues from unconsolidated sand or gravel. According to 

several measurements its discharge is about 15 to 20 second-feet.

SPRINGS IN GRAVEL IN PAHSIMBROI VALLEY,

IDAHO

A good example of large springs that issue from gravel is afforded 

by the springs of Pahsimeroi Valley, Idaho.1 According to the 

water master, in the high stage of August, 1921, a total of about 140 

second-feet of water issued from the gravel along a 25-mile stretch of 

Pahsimeroi River, of which 85 second-feet issued along a stretch of 

about 8 miles. The average discharge is not known but is also large.

SPRINGS IN CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE AND 

GYPSUM IN PECOS VALLEY, NEW MEXICO 2

Several springs of the pool type occur near Roswell, N. Mex., in 

the valley of Pecos River, about 75 miles north of Carlsbad. These 

springs, which are known as Berrendo Springs (sees. 9, 14, 16, and 

17, T. 10 S., R. 24 E.), North Springs (JSTE. y± sec. 36, T. 10 S., R. 

23 E.), and South Springs (S. % NE. % sec. 22, T. 11 S., R. 24 E.), 

issue from valley fill underlain by Permian gypsum and limestone. 

They were formerly springs of the first magitude or nearly, of that 

size, but their flow has declined greatly as a result of the extensive 

use of artesian water in the Roswell basin.

1 Meinzer, O. E., Ground water in Pahsimeroi Valley, Idaho; Idaho Bur. Mines and 

Geology Pamphlet 9, pp. 28-29, 1924.

2 The information regarding the springs near Roswell. N. Nex., was obtained from 

Newell, F. EL, Hydrography of the arid regions: U. 8. Geoi. Survey Twelfth Ann. Rept., 

pt. 2, p. 285, 1891; Fisher, C. A., Preliminary report on the geology and underground 

waters of the Roawell artesian area, N. Mez.: U. S. Geol. Surrey Water-supply Paper 

158, 1906; and unpublished data furnished by W. A. Wilson, county surveyor of Cbaves 

County, N. Mez.. and by A. G. Fiedler, hydraulic engineer, U. 8. Geological Survey. The 

information in regard to the Major Johnson and Carlsbad Springs was obtained from 

Meinzer, O. E., Renick, B. C., and Bryan, Kirk, Geology of the No. 3 Reservoir site of 

the Carlsbad irirgatlon project with respect to water-tightness: TJ. 8. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 580-A, 1926.

!)492!)6 O 51 8
90 LARGE SPRINGS IN THE UNITED STATES

The combined flow of all the openings of the Berrendo Springs 

prior to the drilling of the artesian wells was doubtless more than 

100 second-feet, according to W. A. Wilson, county surveyor of 

Chaves County, and was estimated at 50 second-feet in February, 

1889, according to Newell. In 1926, however, the North Berrendo 

Spring flowed only 5 second-feet and the Middle Berrendo Spring 

only 3 second-feet, while the South Berrendo Spring was entirely 

dry.

The North Springs had an estimated discharge of about 50 second-feet in February, 1889, according to Newell, and 77 second-feet 

November 6, 1901, according to a measurement made by Mr. Wilson. 

In 1901 a distribution of the water of North Spring Eiver was made 

on a basis of 70 second-feet. Mr. Wilson estimated that prior to the 

drilling of any artesian wells the discharge of these springs was between 100 and 150 second-feet. In 1926 the North Springs were entirely dry.

The original discharge of the South Springs was probably between 60 and 75 second-feet, according to the estimate of Mr. Wilson. 

The discharge in February, 1889, was 73 second-feet according to 

Newell's report. The flow failed rapidly after the drilling of artesian wells had begun. A measurement made in February, 1902, 

showed a flow of only 28 second-feet, and the springs practically 

went dry between 1902 and 1904.

The Major Johnson Springs occur along Pecos Eiver, about 15 

miles northwest of Carlsbad, N. Mex., chiefly in sec. 16, T. 20 S., 

R. 26 E. The water comes from one large opening in the bed of the 

river and from numerous smaller openings on the river banks or in 

its bed. The springs issue from crevices in a limestone member of 

the Chupadera formation, which is of Permian age. The discharge 

of these springs has been measured for many years by the United 

States Bureau of Reclamation and has been found to range from 

about 40 to at least 272 second-feet. The average discharge was 

estimated to be about 140 second-feet in the period from 1912 to 1915, 

about 100 second-feet in 1918, and about 230 second-feet in the 

period of 1921 and 1922. It has been demonstrated that the flow 

in excess of the minimum of 40 second-feet is due chiefly to leakage 

from the McMillan Reservoir, a few miles upstream, into sink holes 

in a bed of gypsum that underlies the limestone. On account of this 

artificial augmentation of the flow, the Major Johnson Springs are 

not included in this paper with springs of the first magnitude.

When all the water of Pecos River is stored or diverted at the 

Avalon Reservoir, several miles upstream from Carlsbad, about 80 

second-feet of ground water appears in the river bed in a stretch of 

about 3 miles immediately above Carlsbad, between the large flume
LARGE SPRINGS IN OTHER COUNTRIES 91

and the Tansel power dam. Several second-feet of this flow is contributed by the Carlsbad Spring proper, which is a beautiful spring 

of clear water. The water of this entire group of springs evidently 

issues from the same bed of limestone that supplies the Major 

Johnson Springs.

SPRINGS IN PALEOZOIC LIMESTONE IN OR NEAR THE 

GRAND CANYON OF ARIZONA

The tributaries of Colorado Kiver in the vicinity of t the Grand 

Canyon have cut deep through Carboniferous limestone and other 

Paleozoic rocks, and they receive much of their perennial flow from 

large springs that issue from the limestone. The following table 

gives the results of measurements of tributaries of the Colorado 

made by E. C. La Rue, hydraulic engineer, of the Geological Survey 

party that descended Colorado Kiver in 1923. Mr. La Kue states that 

no doubt all these streams are spring-fed, although there is no information available as to the size of any individual springs except 

those at Lava Falls Rapids. None of the streams were affected by 

storms at the time they were measured, and therefore the measurements represent the low-water flow, which is no doubt the amount 

furnished by the springs.

Discharge, in seconds-feet, of spring-fea streams tributary to Colorado River in

Arizona

[Measurements made by E. C. La Rue]

Nankoweap Creek. ...........

Bright Angel Creek _____

Tapeats Creek ____ ' .......

Kanab Creek _________

Date 

(1923)

Aug. 12

Aug. 25

Sept. 3

Sept. 11

Discharge

3.13

32.8

15.3

93.9

8.21

3.84

Group of Springs at Lava

Date 

(1923)

Sept. 13

Sept. 20

Oct. 4

Oct. 11

Discharge

74.5

"15.0

2.24

4.43

o Estimated.

A spring of first magnitude has been reported near the mouth of 

Little Colorado River, but this report has not been verified. Unfortunately the Little Colorado was in flood in August, 1923, when 

the Geological Survey party passed its mouth, and hence it was 

impossible to obtain any information as to the amount of ground 

water that it discharges.

LARGE SPRINGS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Large springs in other countries are beyond the scope of this 

paper. However, it is interesting to compare the famous Fontaine 

de Vaucluse,.the largest spring in France, with the springs in the
92 LAKGE SPRINGS I1ST THE UNITED STATES

United States. It issues almost from a single opening in a cliff of 

limestone at the head of a valley. According to Pochet,3 the discharge of this spring ranged during a period of 10 years (1894- 

1903) from about 160 to about 5,300 second-feet and averaged about 

800 second-feet. Thus its maximum discharge is probably much 

larger than that of any spring in the United States, and its average 

discharge is larger than that of any limestone spring in the United 

States. It fluctuates, however, through a wider range than any of 

the American springs for which data have been given, and hence 

with respect to minimum yield a number of American springs rank 

above it. According to computations by Keilhack* it discharges 

about 60 per cent of the water that falls as rain or snow upon its 

catchment area of 1,650 square kilometers, or 637 square miles.

8 Pochet, L£on, fitudes sur les sources, p. 424, Paris, Ministere de 1'Agriculture, 1S95. 

*Keilback, Konrad, Lehrbuch der Grundwasser und Quellenkunde, p. 317. Berlin. 1912.
INDEX

Alabama:

Big Cave Spring . . 16 

Big Spring__............__....___ 14-16

Cave Spring...__..__ __ ... 16 

Coldwater Spring __ _.. _ 15 

Huntsville Spring ___ ..... _ 16

Arizona:

Colorado River Springs..._______ 91

Arkansas:

Mammoth Spring.______ 19,21, PI. 6, B

California:

Black Rock Spring..______ __ 79 

Burney Creek Springs..._____.__ 55,61 

Crystal Lake Springs________ 55,61-62 

Dotta Spring._______________ 55,62 

Fall River Springs..__..._ 55,67-69, PI. 11 

Fish Springs... .. 79 

Great Springs. _____________55,60-61 

Little Shasta Spring..................... 71,74

Rising River Springs______._ 55,59-60 

Salmon Creek Springs_ ________ 65,62 

Sisson Springs______^______ 55,62-63

Florida:

Blue Spring (Jackson County) 11 

Blue Spring (Levy County) 11 

Blue Spring (Marion County). 10,11,12, PL 2, A 

Blue Spring (Volusia County).. 11 

Blue Springs (Madison County) . 11-12 

Branch Mill Spring... _ 11 

Chassahowitzka Spring... .. 11 

Crystal River Spring._ 11 

Deleon Springs__ _ ... . 12 

Green Cove Springs___________ 12 

Itchatucknee Spring.. . 11 

Juniper Spring.. .. . 11 

Kissengen Spring. .. .. 11 

Morrison Springs. . 12 

Newland Spring.. . . 11 

Ponce de Leon Springs 12 

Poe'Spring __.... . 11

Salt Springs..__ . .. 10,11 

Seminole Spring 11 

Silver Glen Spring___ __ ... 11 

Silver Spring.................. 10,11,12, PI. 1

Suwannee Spring.. 11- 

Sweetwater Spring... 11 

Tampa Sulphur Spring. . 11 

Wacissa Springs_____________ 12 

Wakulla Spring.. ....... 11,13, PL 2. £

Weekewachee Spring_______.__ 11 

Wekiva Spring_____________ 11 

White Spring.....____...__ .... 11

Blue Spring.._...._ .... 14

Mclntyre Spring_________...... 14

Wade Spring 14

Idaho: Page 

Batiste Springs.. .... __ 52

Banbury Springs. __ __.____ 50 

Bickel Springs_...____ 46,47,48,49,PI. 10 

Big Springs....______.._ 43,68, PI. 12, A

Billingsley Creek Springs. .... 46

Birch Creek Springs r .............. 54

Blind Canyon Springs. 46,50 

Bliss Spring _______________ 46 

Blue Lakes_. _. ________. 45,47,49,50 

Blue Spring.. 46 

Box Canyon Springs 46,48,49,60 

Briggs Spring. 46 

Buffalo River Springs__.__ __. 53 

Clear Lakes.._________... 45,47,48,50 

Crystal Springs.____...__ .. 46,49,50 

Devils Corral Spring. 46 

Devils Washbowl Spring..... 45

Fish Hatchery Spring. ~ . 62 

Formation Spring...... . 87-88

Kearns Spring_ 46 

Lower Warm Springs.. 54-65 

Malade Springs....... . . 46,47,48,49

Mud Lake Springs___..__ . 54 

Niagara Springs- . . . - 45,47,49,60 

Portneuf Springs...__..... 43,61-53,88

Riley Creek Springs.__.... 46

Sand Springs_______ 46,47,48,50, PI. 9, A 

Snowbank Spring.._ 48 

Thousand Springs.... 46,47,48,49,50, Pis. 9,10

Tule Lakes.........__............. 87-88

Unnamed springs . 45,46 

Upper Warm Springs 54-56 

Warm River Springs 63-54 

Woodall Spring.... ... 87-88

Woodworth Spring .46

Indiana

Wilson Spring.. .. 16

Missouri:

Alley Spring............- ......... 19,26

Barttett Springs. . . 26,27 

Bennett Spring... 19,23 

Big Blue Spring. . 26-27

Big Spring- ... . - 19, PI. 3, A 

Blue Spring........ . ... 19,23,26

Boiling Spring______________ 19,25 

Creasy Spring.. 27 

Double Spring....___.. - 19,22-23

Ella Spring... 27 

(JreerSpring. ...... 19,20-21, PI. 7

Hahatonka Spring.. . . 19,25-26, PI. 3, B 

Keener Spring_ . 27 

Meramec Spring...... 19,21-22, Pis. 4,6

Mill Spring.___... 27 

Montauk Spring- 19,26 

Pulltight Spring. 27

93
94 INDEX

Missouri Continued. Page 

Bearing River Spring.___._____ 26,27 

Round Spring . __ ____ 27 

Sweet Spring ..___.'...____ 26-27

Waynesville Spring_ __"._______ 27 

Welch Spring. __._.__. 19,23, PI. 6, A 

West Spring. __ __ 27 

Wet Qlaize Spring___ ________ 27

Montana:

Giant Springs.....______ 79,80-82, PI. 17

Lewistown Big Springs.. 79,80,84-85, PL 12, B 

Toston Big Spring........._....... 79-80,86

Warm Spring..... ...___ 8,79,80,82-84

Nevada:

Ash Spring 87 

Crystal Spring... 87 

Hiko Spring..____....________ 87

New Mexico:

Berrendo Springs __.. ___ 89,90 

Carlsbad Spring ___ 91 

Major Johnson Springs ... 90 

North Springs . .. 89,90 

South Springs . _ . .. 89,90

Oregon:

Ana River Springs_ ___________ 8,77 

Beetles Rest Spring__. ________ 71,73 

Big Butte Spring.______..____ 77 

Big Spring -.. ..-____._____ 71 

Black Butte Spring.__ _.. _ 64,69 

Bonanza Springs.. . 71,73-74 

Brown Creek Springs..___ 64,67, PL 14, A 

Clear Lake Spring .....__ ._.. 74,76

Clearwater River Springs_.... _ 77

Crooked River Springs ..... 64, 70-71, PL 16

Davis Creek Springs____ 64,67-68, PL 14, B 

Double O Spring_____.-._______ 78 

Fall River-__........___._____ 64,68

Qilchrist Spring....____________ 64

Heising Spring._._______.__ 64,69-70 

Hughet Spring....________.r__ 78

Little Lava Lake.. ___ _____ 64,65 

Lost Creek Spring.___________ 74,76 

Lower Falls Spring..__._ _... 74,75 

McCready Spring . 71,72 

Metolius River Springs..,______ 64,69-70 

Olallie Creek Springs.....__ ___ 74,75-76

Opal Spring......_.._ .64,70-71, PL 16

Oregon Continued. Pag* 

Roaring Creek______________ 64,69 

Sheep Bridge Springs____ 64,66-67, PL 13, B 

Snow Creek Springs___________ 64,65 

Spring Creek_______________ 71,72 

Spring River (Deschutes County)..- 64,68-69 

Spring River (Douglas County).... 74-75,76-77 

Warm Spring Valley Springs______ 78 

Wood River Spring......... 71,72-73, PI. 13, A

Pennsylvania:

Bellefonte Spring..___.________ 15,16 

Big Spring... ........................ 15,16

Boiling Spring_______________ 15,16 

Crystal Spring.._____________ 16 

Falling Spring..._____________ 16 

Ingham Spring..__________ 15 

Roaring Springs. ___________ ._ 15,16 

Rock Spring________________ 15,16

Texas:

Agua Bonita Spring____________ 41 

Barton Springs_____________.. 31-33 

Comal Springs..____________ 31,36-37 

Comanche Springs..__________ 41 

Escondido Spring._._______..... 41

Qoodenough Springs._____... 31,39,P1.8 

Las Moras Springs_._______ 31,38 

Leon Spring__.. ...... _.. 41

Monument Spring . . 41 

Pecan Spring____ ___._ 40 

Phantom Lake Springs_______ 41 

San Antonio Springs.....______. 31,37-38

San Felipe Springs...._______ 31,39

San Marcos Springs. ..___... 31,33-36 

San Solomon Springs ..... 41

Santa Rosa Spring.-....______ 41

Sulphur Spring_.________ 41 

Toyah Creek Springs________..... 41

Utah:

Ashley Creek Spring. ........ 88

Big Spring.._ 87 

Ricks Spring... . ___.__.._ 88 

Swan Creek Spring_________ 88

Washington:

Drumheller Spring. 89 

Intermittent Spring..._______ 79 

Rocky Ford Creek Springs..___..... 89

 £ U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : O 1951