## Ubi sumus? : the state of naval and maritime history

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# Ubi sumus? : the state of naval and maritime history

Hattendorf, John B.

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UBI SUMUS ?

The State of Naval and Maritime History

edited byJohn B. Hattendorf

Naval War CollegeHistorical Monograph Series

No. 11

The Historical Monograph series are book-length studies of the history ofnaval warfare, edited historical documents, conference proceedings, and bibli-ographies. They are the products of the Naval War College's historical studiesand are based, wholly or in part, on source materials in the College's NavalHistorical Collection. Financial support for research projects, conference supportand printing is provided by the Naval War College Foundation.

Other volumes in the series are:

No. 1. The Writings of Stephen B. Luce, edited by John D. Hayes and John B.Hattendorf(1975).

No. 2. Charleston Blockade: The Journals of John B. Marchand, U.S. Navy,1861-1862, edited by Craig L. Symonds (1976).

No. 3. Professors of War: The Naval War College and the Development of the NavalProfession, by Ronald Spector (1977).

No. 4. The Blue Sword: The Naval War College and the American Mission,1919-1941, by Michael Vlahos (1980).

No. 5. On His Majesty's Service: Observations of the British Home Fleet from theDiary, Reports, and Letters of Joseph H. Wellings, Assistant Naval Attache, London,1940-41, edited by John B. Hattendorf (1983).

No. 6. Angel on the Yardarm: The Beginnings of Fleet Radar Defense and the KamikazeThreat, by John Monsarrat (1985).

No. 7. A Bibliography of the Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan, compiled by John B.Hattendorf and Lynn C. Hattendorf (1986).

No. 8. The Fraternity of the Blue Uniform: Admiral Richard G. Colbert, U.S. Navy,and Allied Naval Cooperation, by Joel J. Sokolsky (1991).

No. 9. The Influence of History on Mahan: The Proceedings of a Conference Markingthe Centenary of Alfred Thayer Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power UponHistory, 1660-1783," edited by John B. Hattendorf (1991).

No. 10. Mahan Is Not Enough: The Proceedings of a Conference on the Works of SirJulian Corbett and Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond, edited by James Goldrick andJohnB. Hattendorf (1993).

The cover illustrations are from the

collections of the Henry Eccles Library,

Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island

Front: Paul Hoste, L'art des Armees Navales

ou Traite des Evolutions Navales (Lyon, 1727).

Back: L'art de Naviguer de M. Pierre de Medine

Espagnol (Rouen, 1607).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ubi sumus?: the state of naval and maritime history/edited by JohnB. Hattendorf.

p. cm.—(Naval War College hisotrical monograph series; no. 11)

Includes bibliographical references

ISBN 1-884733-04-2

1. Naval art and science—History.    2. Naval history.3. Navigation—History.    I. Hattendorf, John B.    II. Series: U.S.Naval War College historical monograph series; no. 11.V27.U23 1994 94-34667

359'.009—dc20 CIP

Contents

Acknowledgements       rx

IntroductionUbi Sumus? What Is the State of Naval and Maritime

History Today?            1

John B. HattendorfNaval War College

1. The Ancient World            9

Lionel Casson

New York University

2. Argentina       15

Captain Guillermo J. MontenegroArgentine Navy, Retired

3. Australia       23

Commander James GoldrickSub-Lieutenant Alison VincentRoyal Australian Navy

4. Belgium       33

Christian Koninckx

President, Royal Belgian Marine AcademyBrussels

5. Britain       41

N.A.M. Rodger

National Maritime Museum, Greenwich

6. Maritime History in Canada: The Social and

Economic Dimensions      59

Lewis R. FischerGerald E. Panting

Memorial University of Newfoundland

7. The Historiography of the Canadian Navy: The State

of the Art       79

Marc Milner

University of New Brunswick

8. Chile      93

Captain Carlos Tromben, Chilean NavyOficina de Historia Naval, Valparaiso

9.  Denmark     103

Hans Christian BjergMilitary ArchivesRigsarkivet, Copenhagen

10. Dominican Republic       Ill

Rear Admiral Cesar A. De Windt LavandierDominican Republic Navy RetiredEscuela Naval, Punta Torrecilla

11. France        115

Herve Coutau-BegarieParis

12. Germany        137

Kapitan zur See Dr. Werner Rahn, German NavyMilitargeschichtliches Forschungsamt, Potsdam

13. India       159

Captain C. Uday Bhaskar, Indian Navy

The Institute for Defence Studies and AnalysesNew Dehli

14. Ireland     163

John E. de Courcy IrelandDalkey, Co. Dublin

15. Israel       169

Meir Sas

Israeli Nautical College, AcreNadav Kashtan

National Maritime Museum, HaifaSarah Arenson

The Man and Sea Society

16. Twentieth Century Italy     175

Brian R. Sullivan

National Defense University, Washington, D.C.

Comments on Brian Sullivan's "Twentieth Century Italy" ....   191James J. Sadkovich

University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg

Contents     vii

17. Japan    213

Mark R. Peattie

Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace

Stanford UniversityDavid C. Evans

University of Richmond

18. Republic of Korea    223

Kim 111 Sang

Naval War CollegeChung Mu Dong, Jinhae

19. The Netherlands        227

Jaap R. Bruijn

Rijks Universiteit Leiden

20. New Zealand    245

Ian McGibbonGavin McLean

Historical Branch

Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington

21. Norway    253

Captain Tore Prytz Dahl, Royal Norwegian NavySjokrigskolen, Ytre Laksevag

22. Pakistan    263

Commodore S. Z. ShamsiePakistan Navy, Retired

23. Peru    269

Commander Jorge Ortiz, Peruvian NavyInstitutio de Estudios HistoricoMaritimos del Peru

24. Poland    275

Jerzy Litwin

Centralne Muzeum Morskie, GdaskCommander Dr. Wincenty Karawajczyk, Polish Navy

Instytut Nauk Humanistycznych

Akademia Marnarki Wojennej, Gdynia

25. Portugal    295

Commander J. A. Rodrigues Pereira, Portuguese NavyAcademia de Marinha, Lisbon

vlii     Contents

26. Singapore       301

Malcolm H. Murfett

National University of Singapore

27. South Africa    313

C.I. Hamilton

University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

28. Spain    325

Carla Rahn Phillips

University of Minnesota

29. Sweden       345

Jan Glete

Stockholms Universitet

30. Chinese Maritime History in Taiwan       353

Vice Admiral Liu Ta-tsai, Republic of China Navy, Retired

Society for Strategic Studies

Republic of ChinaWang Chia-chien

National Taiwan Normal University

31. The State of American Maritime History in the 1990s    363

Benjamin W. Labaree

Munson Institute of American Maritime HistoryMystic Seaport, Connecticut

32. Mahan Plus One Hundred: The Current State

of American Naval History    379

Kenneth J. Hagan

U.S. Naval Academy Museum

AnnapolisMark R. Shulman

National Strategy Information Center

Washington, D.C.

33. Beyond Toddlerhood: Thoughts on the Future

of U.S.Naval History    417

David Alan RosenbergTemple University

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the International Security Studies program at YaleUniversity and the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation for hosting the firstYale-Naval War College conference on naval and maritime history in June 1993.I am especially appreciative of the work and enthusiastic interest of ProfessorPaul M. Kennedy, Mark R. Shulman, and Anne Bitetti, who planted the seedfor this volume.

At the Naval War College, Commander John W. Kennedy, Barbara Priskand Jim Collins played key roles in making preparations for the conference. Fortheir assistance during the final editing of the papers, I am particularly gratefulto Lieutenant-Commander J.T. Dunigan, Barbara Prisk and Commander RogerLerseth in the Advanced Research Department, Pat Goodrich at the Naval WarCollege Press, Ian Oliver, Carole Boiani, Jerry Lamothe and typesetters VickyFlorendo and Allison Sylvia in the Visual Information and Publishing Branch.

The generous support of a donor to the Naval War College Foundationprovided for publication of this book.

J.B.H.

InirodLTiiclt

ion

Ubi Sumus?What Is the State of Naval and Maritime

History Today?

John B. Hattendorf

Navigators need to ask "Where are we?" before they can ask "Where arewe going?" Thus, the purpose of this volume is, to let naval and maritimehistorians ask "Ubi sumus?" rather than "Quo vadimus?"

A number of specialists in the United States have been deeply concerned thatthe serious historical study of man's relationships to and activities at sea has nothad the firm institutional support that we believe it should have. In 1985, a groupof American scholars involved in maritime studies saw that the field was closeto extinction in this country and they suggested a national effort to revitalize andto coordinate work in the field. In response to this initiative, the Council ofAmerican Maritime Museums established a committee on higher education toexamine the issue. In 1989, the committee reported that public education in thefield was disadvantaged and that there was a general lack of awareness of the fieldwithin the academic community. For maritime museums, the lack of academictraining in the subject was a serious, and even a critical, issue. Many shared thecommittee's views and impressions of the situation in the United States and havetried to take steps toward a remedy. In the course of this, we have had little exactknowledge about the situation in other countries; our careful attention to themhad been deflected by the hurdles of language and national boundaries. At best,we have known only what we have gained through fragmentary personalknowledge and our own experience in the course of individual research andreading. This volume is an attempt to take a step toward a broader and morebasic analysis of the field, but in moving in this direction we are faced with adilemma. It is the dilemma that nationality forces upon us. On the one hand,we are organized as scholars in terms of national structures, language, andinstitutions. On the other hand, our topic ranges across national borders as wellas across standard academic boundaries.

Council of American Maritime Museums, Report of the Higher Education Committee: Survey Results,Stuart M. Frank, Chairman (Sharon, Mass.: The Kendall Whaling Museum, April 1989).

More usually than not, it is national governments, national coordinatinggroups, state-funded museums, universities and libraries, foundations and navies,operating within the context of one country, that provide our wherewithal. Ourfirst order of business, therefore, is to analyze the strengths and weaknesses ofmaritime and naval history in terms of scholarship, scope of teaching, supportingorganizations, publishing houses, journals, and any other way in which oursubject organizes itself. Thus, it is appropriate to ask our initial questions innational terms. We have asked the contributors to this volume to answer thefollowing broad questions insofar as they apply to each individual country:

Who is teaching naval and maritime history, where is it being taught, andwhat facets of it are being taught?

Is this being done only in naval and merchant marine academies, govern-ment offices, and museums, or is it being done also in universities?

What organizations bring these studies together, or fail to:    museums,universities, institutes, historical societies, journals?

What are the major intellectual trends in the literature on each country'smaritime and naval history?

What period of history or aspects are covered best, and which are in needof more emphasis?

Is there a gulf between the study of military affairs on the seas and ofnon-military maritime history?

How do ideology and politics shape the debates about maritime and navalhistory?

The answers to these questions provide us with a basis for our enquiry toproceed. Yet, in some cases, these answers are themselves not always easy tofind. As one naval officer in an Asian country wrote, "I seem to be like DonQuixote since such a task does not seem to have been even attempted everbefore."

With a collection of responses on this series of questions, we can begin tocompare and contrast the situation in various countries, and in that process, moveabove and beyond national boundaries, as appropriate to our subject. In doingthis, we must see the subject of maritime and naval history more clearly. Whilewe can not forget its national dimensions, we must be aware that sea history,maritime trade and naval rivalry touch on several nations simultaneously. At thesame time, it is a theme that brings together a wide variety of different vantagepoints and disciplines. Within it, we find a dynamic interaction at a variety oflevels. We can see relationships and trends between technological developmentand industry, the formation and growth of sciences, changing economic trends

and financial instruments, politics, international relations, law, theories ofeconomics and warfare, sociological and anthropological issues, along withreflections of cultural, intellectual, and religious impulses with additionalperspectives to be found through art and literature. All of these are broad subjectsin themselves, worthy of study in their own right, but defining them throughtheir relationship to men and ships at sea provides us with a distinct series ofrelated themes that we can follow over long periods of history. To my mind,this broad perspective justifies the academic pursuit of maritime and naval affairsas a subject. Lest I be misunderstood, I hasten to emphasize that the subject, asI see it, is not a closed category of human activity. Its academic legitimacy is tobe found not in isolation from other types of history but in the breadth and rangeof historical interconnections which one can intelligibly make in following, overtime, the varied developments surrounding ships, sailors, and their relatedenterprises.

At universities and in research institutions, it is appropriate to stress theacademic value of our field and to discuss its state in terms of the highest historicalscholarship. At the same time, however, there is a different level of attention tothe subject that should not be ignored. Here, I want to draw attention to theimportance which seamen themselves place on naval and maritime history. Theirfocus is designed to serve the maritime and naval profession. In this sense, itdiffers somewhat in emphasis and in objectives from that of the academic, whileat the same time it shares much. In one respect, it is a means of maintaining aninstitutional memory for the organizations involved. On a larger scale, however,the history of a profession—for a professional within it—is clearly part of thespecialized body of knowledge relating to its professional skills and practice aswell as a tool for promoting the profession's special interests.

Since the nineteenth century, navies in particular have cultivated this ap-proach. Naval historians such as Sir John Knox Laughton, Sir Julian Corbett,Captain Mahan, and Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond were certainly among thefounding fathers of this method in the Anglo-American world. Illustrating theprofessional mode, Sir Herbert Richmond identified "three classes of individualsto whom an acquaintance of naval history is needful: the general public, thestatesman, and the sea officer."

The general public, he said, needs to understand the navy as an integral partof national and general history. For this audience, he stressed the need to promotean understanding of the Navy's role in maintaining a maritime country's securityat sea.

The statesman, Richmond said, needs to understand how naval power hasbeen employed, applied, and even misapplied. A statesman who understands

H.W. Richmond, "The Importance of the Study of Naval History," The Naval Review, 27 (May1939), pp. 201-18; quote from p. 201. The article was reprinted in The Naval Review 68 (April 1980),pp. 139-50.

these issues in history, Richmond argued, "would be more capable of under-taking the tremendous responsibilities attached to policy, preparation anddirection of war than one to whom naval history is a closed book."

The sea officer will gain several things from a study of naval history. First, hewill find an understanding of the elements of the use of sea power. From this hecan develop a foundation upon which to build up knowledge of naval war,starting from a record of practical experience rather than futuristic speculation.The officer will find naval history a groundwork of strategical study and a mentalstimulant that will serve as a guide to conduct. Moreover, Richmond suggested,a study of tactics from the age of sail could have practical value for the modernofficer in the twentieth century, when naval weapons and equipment changedbeyond recognition. Even though the tactics of earlier times are themselves oflittle practical use to the present, a study of them reveals "the principles of theuse of force and human nature, which expresses itself in its methods ofcommand." For the professional naval officer, the study of naval history bringsout the need for clear thinking on a wide range of professional issues, while atthe same time providing illustration, stimulation, and guidance to officers on thenature and character of naval command.

In other words, from a professional point of view, the general public shouldknow enough about the history of naval and maritime affairs to appreciate andto support public expenditure on current programs; the statesman, to maintain,guide and use it appropriately; the sea officer, to understand the nature of theissues he faces and to absorb the ideals of the profession. Many of these pointsare ones which a professional academic would hesitate to endorse, seekinginstead a broader and more dispassionate understanding of the maritime dimen-sion in human affairs.

This book of essays had its origin in a two and a half-day joint Yale-NavalWar College conference held in New Haven, Connecticut, at the invitation ofProfessor Paul M. Kennedy. This conference was limited by time and resourcesto focussing on the naval and maritime history of only eight countries: Canada,France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, the United Kingdom, and theUnited States. Our thought in organizing this meeting was to have time for anexchange of ideas. Thus, it was convenient to limit both the size of our groupand the number of papers presented. To encourage our discussion, we invitedknowledgeable commentators to stir our thoughts on the issues, perhaps leadingus in directions we had not previously examined. The countries that we chosefor the conference are those where naval and maritime studies are highly active.Yet, maritime and naval history is still so specialized a field that we founddifficulty in finding speakers and commentators for all the countries we wanted

3 Ibid., p. 203.

4 Ibid., p. 212.

to include. At the same time, we found that the division between maritime andnaval studies in North America was so great that many specialists were unwillingto cross their self-imposed boundaries. In order to get a full understanding ofthe issues involved, we doubled the representation of papers from Canada andthe United States.

Nevertheless, despite the practical restraints on what we could achieve, evenin a very intense and busy conference, the papers were only the core of a largerproject. Eight North American and European countries do not represent theworld! To supplement our ideas, we solicited more essays, posing the samequestions, from as many different countries as we could locate maritime andnaval historians. Some did not respond; others, for one reason or another, wereunable to provide essays. Reluctantly, we have had to accept the fact that wecould not have complete representation and still publish a timely volume. Thus,despite the omission of so many African and Middle Eastern countries as well asBrazil, The People's Republic of China, Finland, Greece, Indonesia, Mexico,the Philippines, Russia, and Turkey, all of which have key maritime interests,this volume is large enough to suggest some of the main trends and issues in thecurrent state of maritime and naval history.

As we look across the scope of the present state of maritime and naval history,we find a variety of situations, varying from country to country. In some, thereare only a handful of professional seamen who are doing the heroic work ofmaintaining this field of historical work. Their work tends to center in theprofessional service academies, staff colleges, or in contributions from retiredofficers and merchant mariners. In other countries, the professional seamen havemade links with academics and with research organizations that have helped toraise historical standards and broaden out understanding of events at sea. In otherplaces, it is the museums that have taken the lead in research and writing, as wellis in educating the public on the historical role of sea affairs. In a few places,maritime and naval history has become a subject for research and courses at theuniversity level. Yet, perhaps, nowhere has it reached the highest level at whichwe would like to have it.

Overall, maritime and naval history is an area with tremendous potential forserious historical research, yet as a field, it often lacks methodological standards.Professional seamen have been the first to promote study in this area, finding itvaluable for their own professional concerns. However, when interest in thefield expands, too often it consists initially of only a fascination with ships or insome romantic notion of seafaring, rather than in broader, historical under-standing. In order for the general study of maritime and naval history to reacha higher level, its focus must break out beyond a confined, self-contained andself-referenced view to make links with wider events and with trends of broad,general interest. Indeed, the best studies in naval and maritime history, up to thispoint, are those that specifically use naval and maritime affairs as examples,

6     Introduction

extensions or variations of already established general themes in topics like thehistory of science and technology or economic, social, political, international orintellectual history. Yet, maritime and naval history affairs are more than juststray examples. Man's activities at sea involve complex interrelationships of manystrands in human affairs. When seen together, they constitute a broad themewithin general history that should be neither isolated nor ignored. The develop-ment, over time, in the technologies of ships, the range of the nautical sciences,the skills and character of seamen, form the central strands of this theme as onetraces its interaction with other areas of human activity.

Taken as a whole, the essays in this volume suggest both the strengths andweaknesses in the field of maritime and naval history. As a field, it is generallyunderdeveloped when compared to other historical topics. Nevertheless, somevery important basic work has been done in laying the foundations for properstudy: Significant progress has been made in establishing some key bibliographiesand there are already available some important research guides to manuscriptmaterials. Scholars have begun to publish critical editions of key documents andthey are identifying, where available, the standard works which new researchwork can test and expand upon. Pressures from both within and without themaritime community are slowly opening its closed, self-referenced shell that wasoriginally so valuable for early professional development. The wider contactsand perceptions benefit equally the modern professional seaman as well as thehistorian who wishes to observe them. In order to use them effectively, however,those who work in maritime and naval history must be more fully aware ofprogress that is being made toward improving methodology in the field.

The teaching area is the least developed of all. Aside from professionalacademies which sometimes still deal with the subject only in outmodedhagiographic, romantic, or nationalistic styles, there are only a very a few seriousacademic courses that examine the broad historical implications of the subject.With a few exceptions, university courses have tended to ignore the naturalinternational and comparative perspectives that maritime and naval affairsnaturally involve. Few have attempted to deal in the alternative patterns tonational history that such distinctive features of the subject as ocean currents andthe pattern of maritime trade might suggest. Some of the rare academic chairs,designed to be filled by scholars who should be leading the teaching and workin the maritime and naval field at great research universities, are unfilled ordiverted to specialists in distantly related themes. At universities, both under-graduate and graduate students approaching the broad spectrum of historicalissues often entirely miss the maritime dimension. One hopes that, as methodol-ogy improves and more researchers and writers in maritime and naval history

5 This is the subject of another volume of essays: John B. Hattendorf, ed., Doing Naval History: EssaysToward Improvement (forthcoming).

Hattendorf    7

demonstrate the wider dimensions of the field, they will provide the materialsfor teaching.

Where are we with the field of maritime and naval history? It is among the"youngsters" in the historical profession; it is a field that needs to become moresophisticated. By and large, we need to improve our methodologies andtechniques as well as to consolidate the intellectual foundations for our field. Todo that, we have the materials at hand. The following essays, however incom-plete a collection, provide one basis for moving forward. These essays reportwhere we are now, and with this knowledge, we can begin to look for newapproaches and new linkages to improve the quality of future work in maritimeand naval history.

1

The Ancient World

Lionel Casson

The history of the sea in ancient times is a fledgling discipline. It came intobeing, strictly speaking, only in the twentieth century. To date, it hasdealt almost exclusively with the technical aspects of ships. There are two reasonsfor this. The first is that, in this century, new disciplines were developed, suchas archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, art history, and, most importantly,marine archeology in the latter half of the century, and these have transformedour knowledge of the technical aspects, filling in what hitherto had been blackholes. Inevitably, research has concentrated on these. The second reason is that,for the ancient world, we lack information on which to base meaningful exploration oflarger historical aspects.

Until the dramatic revelations of Near Eastern archaeology, for the manycenturies prior to ca. 1000 B.C., all ancient history, not merely the history of thesea, was a blank. And, for the centuries after that, naval history was hindered bya long-standing argument concerning the oarage of ancient war galleys, whilemaritime history was hindered by widely held misconceptions that the ancientsused only relatively small sailing ships, that they clung to the coasts, that theywere unable to sail against the wind.

Naval History

The first genuinely scholarly contribution to the history of the sea was CecilTorr's Ancient Ships, published in 1895, in which Torr presented all theinformation that could be gleaned from Greek and Latin writers. For maritimehistory it was a notable contribution, since it not only made clear that the ancientshad ships of considerable size but provided details about their rig and equipment.Naval history, however, was another matter.    The standard warship of the

Lionel Casson, The Ancient Mariners, 2nd ed. (Princeton: 1991). A presentation for the general readerof the maritime aspects of ancient history from the earliest beginnings to the end of the ancient world.

L. Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, 2nd ed. (Princeton: 1986). A scholarlypresentation with full documentation of all aspects of naval technology.

Lucien Basch, Le musee imaginaire de la marine antique (Athens: 1987). Over 1,100 figures reproducealmost all the representations of ships that have survived from the ancient world.

C. Torr, Aticient Ships. (Cambridge: 1895). A reprint edition (Chicago: 1964).

'I

William  L.   Rodgers,   Greek  and  Roman   Naval   Warfare.   (Annapolis:   1937;   reprinted   1980).   A

ancient world was a galley called a trieres in Greek and triremis in Latin—a triremein our nomenclature. The first means "three-fitted," the second "having threeoars," and centuries before Torr wrote, authorities had been arguing hotly overhow this was to be understood. Most held that the tri- indicated there were threesuperimposed levels of oarsmen, and, since the evidence from written sourcespointed in this direction, it was the view Torr followed. However, a Britishhistorian, W.W. Tarn, who wielded a skilled pen and was a master at polemics,in the early decades of this century convinced the scholarly world otherwise,that such an arrangement was impossible, that triremes must have had a singleline of oars arranged in clusters of three. The problem was complicated by thefact that, in the fourth and third centuries B.C., ever bigger war galleys bearingsimilar nomenclature came into being, "four-fitteds," "five-fitteds," right up toa brobdingnagian "forty-fitted." The armchair experts of the nineteenth century,preferring logic to maritime reality, were convinced that, since a trireme was aship with three levels of oars, the other names must embody this principle, andso from their drawing boards came reconstructions of ships with four levels ofoars, ships with five levels, and so on up, monstrosities that would hardly standup to a zephyr to say nothing of the rigors of a sea battle. Tarn, of course, insistedthey were all one-level, even though this produced some meaningless arrange-ments.

Tarn's views reigned until 1941, when a British scholar, John Morrison,published a watershed article in which, exploiting not only information fromancient writers but also some representations that he convincingly demonstratedwere of triremes, ended the argument: the trireme did indeed have three levelsof oars, the uppermost of which rowed over an outrigger. The tri- referred tothe three oarsmen in a vertical line: the oarsman in the lowest level, the oarsmanin the middle level seated above him, and the oarsman in the topmost level seatedmore or less over the one in the middle. Four decades later, in the eighties,Morrison, with the aid of naval architect John Coates, directed the building ofa replica of a trireme, the Olympias. It was launched in 1987 and put throughtrials during subsequent years with spectacular success.

comprehensive review of the major sea battles and the strategy and tactics involved. Much of thepresentation requires revision on the basis of the evidence that has become available since the time ofwriting.

Tarn's chief articles have been reprinted in the reprint edition of Torr, Ancient Ships.

5 J. Morrison and R. Williams, Greek Oared Ships 900-322 B. C. (Cambridge: 1968). A fully illustratedstudy of the origin and development of the Greek war galley based on all surviving representations.

6 J. Morrison and J. Coates, The Athenian Trireme. (Cambridge: 1986). A study of all aspects of thetrireme—its development, construction, crews, equipment, use in battle. A chapter is devoted to theprinciples on which the building of the replica was based.

7 J. Morrison and J. Coates, An Athenian Trireme Reconstructed: The British sea trials of Olympias, 1987.BAR [British Archaeological Reports] International Series, 486 (1989). A monograph that presents theresults gained in the earliest trials. See also P. Lipke in Archaeology (March-April 1988), pp. 22-9.

What of the bigger ships, the "four-fitteds" and "five-fitteds" and so on? Theancients never went beyond three levels of oars. The best explanation of thesegalleys is that they had several men to each oar in one, two, or three levels,although exactly how many is a matter of guesswork. A "four-fitted," forexample, may have had three levels with two men to the oar in the topmost andone each in the other two. A "nine-fitted" may have had three levels with threemen to the oar in each, or two levels with five to the oar in the upper level andfour to the oar in the lower. The huge "forty-fitted" was probably a catamaran,with three levels of multiple-rower oars in each hull (e.g., a top level of eight-manoars, middle level of seven-man oars, lowermost level of five-man oars).

These huge war galleys, no doubt about it, did exist and—save for the extraor-dinary "forty"—were by no means display pieces but saw action in many a battle;they were the ancient world's equivalent of dreadnoughts. This has been put beyonddoubt by a recent dramatic archaeological find and the solving of a mystery posedby an earlier find. The dramatic find was the recovery in the waters off Athlit, atown on the coast of Israel near Haifa, of the ram of a warship (ancient war galleyshad a projecting forefoot which was sheathed in bronze; this, the ram as it is called,was the vessel's key weapon). It was a mighty casting with an overall length of justunder seven and one-half feet and weighing somewhat more than a thousandpounds. The mysterious earlier find was a series of curious sockets carved in aretaining wall that formed part of a memorial monument set up by the Romanemperor Augustus to commemorate his naval victory over Mark Antony at theBattle of Actium in 31 B.C. The sockets were roughly graduated in size; the biggestwas almost two meters wide and three-quarters of a meter high. We know thatAugustus had included in the monument a display of rams removed from the enemyships that had been taken. An American scholar, William Murray, noticing that theram from Athlit would fit right into one of these sockets, realized that they musthave held the rams that were displayed as trophies; they varied in size becausethey held rams from warships of different sizes. The socket nearest in size to fitthe Athlit ram shows that this, for all its weight of one thousand pounds, musthave come from a war galley of relatively modest size, a "four-fitted" or a"five-fitted"; the ram that fitted into the largest socket, three times as wide andproportionately bigger all around, must have been gargantuan.

New studies have clarified how warships were manned (never by state-ownedslaves but by free citizens or by hired rowers who were very well paid),    built,

L. Casson and J.R. Steffy, ed., The Athlit Ram. (College Station: Texas A & M University Press,1991). A comprehensive report on the ram found off Athlit.

W. Murray and P. Petsas, Octavian's Campsite Memorial for the Actian War. Transactions of theAmerican Philosophical Society, n.s. 79, pt. 4, (Philadelphia: 1989). Includes a detailed study of thesockets that held the trophy rams.

On the manning of warships, see Casson, Ships and Seamanship (1986), chapter 13; Morrison andCoates, The Athenian Trireme (1986), chapter 7; Chester Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy 31 B.C.-A.D.324, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: 1960), chapters 3-5.

11equipped, and maintained,    as well as the organization of the major fleets, that

1 0

of Athens in the fifth and fourth century B.C. and that of Imperial Rome inthe first three centuries A.D. In addition, the determining of the nature of theoarage of ancient war galleys, together with an appreciation of their size, hasmade possible a better understanding of the nature of naval battles.

Maritime History

The development around the middle of this century of SCUBA diving hastransformed our knowledge of ancient sailing ships, throwing light on criticalareas about which we had hitherto been totally in the dark. It brought into beinga new discipline, marine archaeology, in which archaeologist-divers locate ancientwrecks and dig those that repay excavation as carefully and scientifically as theircolleagues on land dig sites. By now they have identified and studied over athousand ancient wrecks, most in more or less preliminary fashion, but a fewthey have excavated completely. It soon became apparent that if a wreck hadbeen carrying a cargo that could stand up to erosion, such as clay shipping jarsor slabs of building stone or copper ingots and the like, the cargo would preservefrom destruction the portion of the hull it lay over—and these remains havesupplied vital information about an area which hitherto had been a blank, namelyancient shipbuilding. We now know that ancient shipwrights had their ownspecial way of assembling a hull. They did not start with a skeleton of keel andframes and clothe this with planks, as has been Western practice since at least

On equipment and maintenance, see Casson, Ships and Seamanship (1986), chapter 11, part 3, andchapter 16, part 2; Morrison and Coates, Tlie Athenian Trireme (1986), chapters 8-9; Morrison andWilliams, Greek Oared Ships, chapter 8.

B. Jordan, The Athenian Navy in the Classical Period. Classical Studies, vol. 13 (Berkeley: Universityof California Publications, 1975). A presentation of what is known about the organization of Athens'fleet and its administration.

Starr, Roman Imperial Navy. A masterly study of the administration and organization of the majorfleets based in Italy and the provincial fleets based around the Mediterranean and elsewhere. In addition,Starr reviews the history of each.

On the nature of sea battles, see Morrison and Coates, The Athenian Trireme (1986), chapters. 3-5;Casson and Steffy, Athlit Ram, chapter 7; Murray and Petsas, Octavian's Campsite, chapter 6 on the battleof Actium.

P. Gianfrotta and P. Pomey, Archeologia Subacquea (Milan: 1981). A comprehensive review of thetechniques of marine archaeology and the nature of their findings. See also International Journal of NauticalArchaeology. This journal, started in 1972, specializes in the publication of articles dealing with marine archaeology.

16 G. Bass, ed., A History of Seafaring Based on Underwater Archaeology. (London: 1972). A review ofunderwater finds in both the Old and New World.

A. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean & the Roman Provinces. BAR International Series,580 (1992). An invaluable catalogue of over 1,250 wrecks found so far, giving for each all known detailsand a comprehensive bibliography. A series of terse introductory chapters summarizes marinearchaeology's key findings to date.

G. Bass and F. van Doorninck, Jr., Yassi Ada. I, A Seventh-Century Byzantine Shipivreck (CollegeStation: Texas A & M University Press, 1982). A comprehensive report of the results of a full-scaleexcavation of a small freighter that went down off the southwest coast of Asia Minor about A.D. 625.

Casson     13

the Middle Ages. They started with the creation of a shell of planks by fasteningeach plank to its neighbors by multiple mortise and tenon joints transfixed bydowels, and then strengthening the shell with the insertion of frames. Theprocedure goes back certainly to the fourteenth century B.C., and very likelyearlier, and lasted throughout ancient times. During the best period, from at leastthe fourth century B.C. through the first A.D., the procedure was carried out withrigorous care: the mortise and tenons were set so closely that at times they werebut a centimeter or so apart, the tenons fitted snugly in the mortises, each partabove and below the seam was transfixed by a dowel to keep the joint from evercoming apart, and into this sturdy shell of planking was inserted a complete setof frames. One wreck, of a small coastal freighter that had gone down around300 B.C. off Kyrenia on the north shore of Cyprus, was so well preserved thatits excavators were able to construct a full-scale replica, Kyrenia II; in a series ofvoyages it demonstrated excellent sailing qualities, including the ability to makegood progress against the wind. Not only merchant vessels but war galleys werebuilt in this fashion, as was revealed by the bow timbers that were found encasedin the Athlit ram.

After the second century A.D., the workmanship gradually got more careless:the joints were placed further apart, the tenons fitted loosely, and the frameswere set further apart. A wreck of the seventh century A.D. clearly reveals changesin the direction of skeleton-first construction; a wreck of about A.D. 1025 showsthe last step, full skeleton-first construction.

Marine archaeologists have been busy as well in the investigation of ancientharbors and have provided welcome information about their shape, orientation,and construction.

Europe and the British Isles

The discovery in western Europe and the British Isles of remains of boats inor along lakes and rivers has supplied firsthand evidence of the craft used therefrom early times through the period of Roman domination. Finds in Britainreveal that as early as the second millennium B.C., skilled boatbuilders wereconstructing planked craft at least 16 m long. Finds in Europe indicate thatboatbuilders there may have been using a form of skeleton-first construction byat least the first century A.D.

On ancient shipbuilding, see Casson, Ancient Mariners (1991), chapters 3, 14; Casson, Ships andSeamanship (1986), chapter 10; Casson, "Greek and Roman shipbuilding: New Findings," The AmericanNeptune, 45 (1985), pp. 10-9. On Kyrenia II, see Casson, Ancient Mariners (1991), p. 113 withbibliography, p. 227 and illustration, fig. 30. On the wreck of the 7th century A.D., see Bass and vanDoorninck, YassiAda. On the wreck of A.D. 1025, see F. van Doorninck and J. R. Steffy in InternationalJournal of Nautical Archaeology, 11 (1982), pp. 7-34; on pp. 26-8, StefFy provides a brief, but invaluable,survey of the gradual change in the ancients' method of shipbuilding.

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On harbors, see Casson, Ships and Seamanship (1986), chapter 16.

E. Wright, The Ferriby Boats: Seacraft of the Bronze Age (London: 1990). A detailed report on the

14    The Ancient World

Sea Power

As the above reveals, the emphasis in this century has been upon the technicalaspects of maritime history: shipbuilding, harbor construction, naval tactics, fleetorganization, etc. These subjects had hitherto been either totally or imperfectlyknown, and the emergence of fresh evidence provided by the newly developedtechnologies understandably gave them a leading role in scholarly research. Butthe larger historical issues have not been ignored. A recent study, following inMahan's footsteps, surveys the influence of sea power on ancient history. A smallbook, it says just about all that one can currently and safely say on the subject.

remains of several boats dating ca. 1300 B.C., including one that was 16 m long, that were foundalong the Humber River. They were made in skilled fashion of massive oak planks, bound edge to edgeby lashings of yew withes.

P.Johnstone, The Sea-craft of Prehistory (Cambridge, Mass.: 1980). A worldwide survey, with chapters11 and 12 dealing with the British Isles and Europe.20  Chester G. Starr, The Influetice of Sea Power on Ancient History (New York: 1989).

Argentina

T

Captain Guillermo J. MontenegroArgentine Navy, Retired

he state of naval and maritime history in Argentina is characterized by twogeneral features:

First, research and publication on Argentine naval and maritime historyhas had, and still has, a strong emphasis on early nineteenth century navalhistory.

Second, naval and maritime history has remained mainly inside the realmof the sea-oriented community and with only a limited projection into theoutside world.

There are several reasons for the preeminence of studies on early nineteenthcentury naval history:

• A long period of Argentine noninvolvement in international wars,between the Wars of Independence and the War against Brazil (1810—1828), and ending in 1982 with the Falklands/Malvinas War. In this longperiod, the only exceptions were the Anglo-French interventions in the1830s and 1840s and the so-called War of the Triple Alliance, involvingBrazil, Uruguay, and Argentina against Paraguay in 1864—70.

• A national sense of naval success in the early nineteenth century wars.

• A very limited naval participation in the civil wars that harried Argentinalater in the nineteenth century.

• A very limited maritime development in the merchant marine, fishingand shipbuilding industries until the 1940s.

In spite of Argentina's geographical location and strong dependence on seacommunications, Argentineans were not, and still are not, strongly sea-minded

4

people. Using Mahan's concepts,    Argentina has a large, fertile territory, acomparatively small population, but the lack of natural harbors has worked

1     Alfred T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (Boston: Little Brown & Co.,1890), pp. 35-39.

against a smooth, self-sustained maritime development. This has led to the navy'sinitiatives, or navy-sponsored initiatives, to try to educate the public about thesignificance of sea power. The initiative in using naval and maritime history asa means of giving an overall view of early Argentine naval history came from acivilian, Anjel Justiniano Carranza, whose four volume work was published in1914—16. It covered the Wars of Independence and the War against Brazil. Itwas, and perhaps still is, the main reference work on that period. Later on,Teodoro Caillet-Bois, a retired naval officer working on an individual initiativebasis wrote his well-balanced summary of Argentine naval history, with somehints on the maritime field, covering the period from colonial times up to thelate 1920s. A third pioneer was Hector R. Ratto, also a retired naval officer,who published some works on early nineteenth century naval heroes. VillegasBasavilbaso, a former naval officer who went into the practice of law, made animportant contribution in a small booklet of 35 pages, putting a Mahanian touchon the history of the wars of Argentine Independence. In parallel with theseefforts, the Centro Naval (Naval Club), published some firsthand accounts byparticipants in early nineteenth century wars. There was an American author,Lewis W. Bealer, who also made a contribution to early Argentine naval historyby writing about the corsairs of Buenos Aires.

The mid-1930s also witnessed the publication of the first significant work thatfocused on late nineteenth and early twentieth century Argentine naval history:

o

Los Viajes de la "Sarmiento," depicting the twenty-nine round-the-worldmidshipmen training cruises performed by the well known square-rigger, ARAPresidente Sarmiento, between 1899 and 1931.

In addition to these publications, the Naval Museum, settled in 1892 indowntown Buenos Aires and later moved to El Tigre, on the outskirts of BuenosAires in the early 1940s, gave an increasing momentum to spread the knowledgeof naval and maritime history.

Besides researching, publishing, and spreading Argentine naval and maritimehistory, there was a deep interest within Argentine naval circles in foreign,

Anjel J. Carranza, Campanas Nauales de la Republica Argentina, 4 vols. (Buenos Aires: Ministerio deMarina, 1914-16).

Teodoro Caillet-Bois, Ensayo de Historia Naval Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1929).4    Hector R. Ratto, Hombres de Mar en la Historia Argentina (Buenos Aires: Circulo Militar, 1934);Hector R. Ratto, Historia de Browti, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires: Facultad, 1939).

Benjamin Villegas Basavilbaso, La Injlueticia del Dominio del Mar en las Guerras de EmancipaciSn Argentina(Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Marina, 1935).

6 Antonio Somellera, La Ultima Campana de la Guerra con el Brasil (Buenos Aires: Centro Naval, 1930);Memorias del Almirante Guillermo Broiim sobre las Operaciones Nauales de la Escuadra Argentina de 1814 a1828 (Buenos Aires: Centro Naval, 1936).

Lewis W. Bealer, Los Corsarios de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Imprenta Coni, 1937). The originalis a Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 1935.

Los Viajes de la Sarmiento (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Argentinas, 1931).

contemporary naval history. The Russo-Japanese War and the First World Warprovided the subject for a massive amount of foreign literature which, in manycases, was translated and published either by the Centro Naval (Navy Club), theNaval War College (which was founded in 1934), or the Navy General Staff.In addition to purely historical works, contemporary authors dealing with navaland maritime strategy, such as Mahan, Corbett, Wegener, Groos, Di Giamber-

nardino, and Castex, were also translated and published by the same naval-related

9presses.

Two main naval-related periodicals were publishing, and still publish, areasonable amount of historical work. One is the Boletin del Centro Naval (NavalClub Bulletin), founded in 1882, which publishes primarily original works andis a good source of Argentine naval and maritime history, as well as foreign navalaffairs. The second periodical is the Revista de Publicaciones Navales (NavalPublications Review), founded in 1902. It is published by the Navy GeneralStaff and is intended primarily for reproducing translations of significant articlesappearing in foreign periodicals. As the reader may imagine, the 1920s and 1930swere full of essays about the First World War (including translations of somechapters of Corbett's Naval Operations).

Historical literature about the Russo-Japanese War deserves special mention.On the eve of the war, Argentina sold to Japan two armored cruisers that werebeing built in Italy for the Argentine Navy. The ships became HIJMS Nisshinand HIJMS Kasuga. Commander Manuel Domecq Garcia, senior Argentineofficer supervising construction in Italy, traveled to Japan and was present inseveral actions, including the battle of Tsushima. Domecq Garcia wrote afive-volume report which was printed by the Argentine Navy as classified matterand distributed amongst serving officers in the mid-1910s; and, it still remainsone of the most interesting reports by a qualified, neutral witness.

Another impulse came from the Navy League, founded in 1933, whichworked hard to acquaint the general public with concepts such as sea power, seainterests, the navy itself, naval traditions and, of course, maritime history. The

Alfred T. Mahan, Injluencia del Poder Naval en la Historia. 1660-1783, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires: Escuelade Guerra Naval, 1935); Alfred T. Mahan, Estrategia Naval, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires: Escuela de GuerraNaval, 1935); Julian S. Corbett, Algunos Principios de Estrategia Maritima (Buenos Aires: Escuela de GuerraNaval, 1936); Wolfgang Wegener, La Estrategia Naval en la Guerra Mundial (Buenos Aires: Estado MayorGeneral, 1935); Otto Gross, ha Doctrina de la Guerra Maritima segun las Ensehanzas de la Guerra Mundial(Buenos Aires: Estado Mayor General, 1935); Oscar Di Giambernardino, El arte de la Guerra en el Mar(Buenos Aires: Estado Mayor General, 1940); Raoul Castex, Teorias Estrategicas, 5 vols. (Buenos Aires:Escuela de Guerra Naval, 1938-1942).

Julian S. Corbett, "La Batalla de Las Malvinas" (Chaps. 28 and 29 in Naval Operations, vol. 1) Revistade Publicaciones Navales (Buenos Aires), 440 (July-September 1937), pp. 409-43; Julian S. Corbett, "LaBatalla de Coronel" (Chap. 25 in Naval Operations, vol. 1), Revista de Publicaciones Navales (Buenos Aires),441 (October-December 1937), pp. 677-91.

Manuel Domecq Garcia, Guerra Ruso-Japonesa 1904-05, 5 vols. ([Buenos Aires: Ministerio deMarina], 1917).

Navy League started its own periodical, Marina, in 1934, which deals with bothnaval and maritime affairs, and, given its life span, it provides an interesting recordfor prospective researchers.

The Second World War produced a massive array of foreign naval historicalworks, but this time the Argentine Navy's participation was less significant intranslating and publishing this literature than it was after the First World War.The "classic" periodicals, (i.e., Boletin del Centro Naval and Revista de PublicacionesNavales) kept on printing a large number of papers relating to the Second WorldWar, some by Argentine authors. On the naval side, Muratorio Posse's historyof naval operations during the war was the main work, intended primarily as atextbook for the Naval War College.

The Navy-sponsored Instituto Browniano was founded in 1948. Its main task

1 'K

is to improve the knowledge about William Brown, his deeds and his times.This Institute started publishing its own periodical, Boletin del Instituto Browniano,in 1950. Later on, in 1953, its name was changed to Revista del Mar. Thecommemoration of the centennial of Admiral Brown's death in 1957 led to thecreation of a Naval Historical Center. This office started a long line of publica-tions. Among the first we may cite a new edition of Carranza's CampanasNavales, as well as Burzio's Armada Nacional-Resefia Historica de su Origen yDesarrollo Organico and Historia del Torpedo y sus Buques en la Armada Argentina,Entraigas' Piedra Buena-Caballero del Mar, and Lenzi's Carlos Maria Moyano-Marino, Explorador y Qobernante. The Naval Historical Center not only central-ized historical research and publishing, but also took charge of the Navy Museumand two historic ships: The aforementioned ARA Presidente Sarmiento (formermidshipmen training square-rigger) and the corvette ARA. Uruguay (a sail andsteam-propelled vessel which rescued the Swedish Nordenskjold expeditionfrom the Antarctica in 1904).

*2 See Guillermo J. Montenegro, "Research about the History of the Second World War in Argentina"in Neue Forschungen zum Zweiten Weltkrieg, ed. Jiirgen Rohwer and Hildegard Muller (Koblenz: Bernardund Graefe Verlag, 1990), pp. 10-12.

William Brown was an Irish Catholic who came to the Argentine service in the early 1810s anddistinguished himself as a leader and fighter in the Wars of Independence and in the war against Brazil.He settled in Argentina, serving his adopted country loyally until his death. He is regarded as Argentina'schief naval hero.

14 Anjel J. Carranza, Campanas Navales de la Republica Argentina, 4 vols., 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires:Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, 1962).

Humberto F. Burzio, Armada Nacional-Resefia Historica de su Origen y Desarrollo Organico(Buenos Aires: Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, 1960); Humberto F. Burzio, Historia delTorpedo y sus Buques en la Armada Argentina 1874-1900 (Buenos Aires: Departamento de EstudiosHistoricos Navales, 1968); Raul A. Entraigas, Piedra Buena. Caballero del Mar (Buenos Aires:Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, 1966); Juan H. Lenzi, Carlos Maria Moyano: Marino,Explorador y Gobernante (Buenos Aires: Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, 1962). Luis PiedraBuena and Carlos Maria Moyano were two pioneers involved in nation-building on the Patagonia area,the southern tip of Argentina, during the second half of the nineteenth century.

Works dealing with maritime history are not so numerous as the naval ones.Some focus on subjects such as the merchant marine and harbors, givinghistorical information as a by-product. In this first group, we may cite works byRusso and Ortiz. A second group is of purely historical works, such as thoseby Pinasco, Madero, and Gonzalez Climent.

The Naval Historical Center undertook a significant effort to commemoratethe Centennial of the Escuela Naval Militar (Naval Academy) in 1972. Twomajor works deserve mention: Historia de la Escuela Naval Militar and Apuntes

18

sobre los Buques de la Armada Argentina. As the reader may imagine, both dealtextensively with late nineteenth and twentieth century naval history. The late1970s and early 1980s gave way to a series of works dealing with special aspectsof twentieth century Argentine naval history. Among them were two articlespublished in German, "Latin American Dreadnoughts," by the Americanhistorian, Robert Scheina, as well as this author's "The Argentine Navy since1945,"' and Arguindeguy's history of naval aviation. The Naval HistoricalCenter started a massive work in 1980: the ten-volume Historia MaritimaArgentina, covering both naval and maritime fields since early Spanish dis-coveries up to current times..

Among the periodicals, there are two more sources of interest to the historian.The first is the "Foreign Navies' Section" in the March issues of U.S. NavalInstitute's Proceedings. This section has been published since 1980 and regularlycarries references to the Argentine Navy. The second is Boletin de la Escuela deGuerra Naval, started by the Argentine Naval War College in 1969 (later on, in1979, its name was changed to Revista de la Escuela de Guerra Naval). In the samestyle as the U.S. Navy's Naval War College Review, it has a varying portion of itspages dealing with historical issues, both Argentine and foreign. Anotherbroad-scope work edited by the then Director of Naval History was published

Luis A. Russo, La Marina Mercante Argentina (Buenos Aires: Facultad de Ciencias Economicas, 1938);Ricardo M. Ortiz, Valor Economico de los Puertos Argentinos (Buenos Aires: Losada,1943).

1 7

Eduardo H. Pinasco, El Puerto de Buenos Aires: Contribucion al Estudio de su Historia 1536-1898(Buenos Aires: L. Lopez y Cia., 1942); Guillermo Madero, Historia del Puerto de Buenos Aires (BuenosAires, 1955); Aurelio Gonzalez Climent, Historia de la Industria Naval Argentina (Buenos Aires: Astillerosy Fabricas Navales del Estado, 1973); Aurelio Gonzalez Climent and Anselmo Gonzalez Climent,Historia de la Marina Mercante Argentina, 19 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1972—74).

1 ft

Humberto F. Burzio, Historia de la Escuela Naval Militar, 3 vols. (Buenos Aires: Departamento deEstudios Historicos Navales, 1972); Pablo E. Arguindeguy, Apuntes sobre los Buques de la Armada Argentina,7 vols. (Buenos Aires: Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, 1972).

Robert L. Scheina, "Lateinamerikanische Dreadnoughts" Marine Rundschau, 9 (1979), pp. 571-80.

Guillermo J. Montenegro, "Die Argentinische Marine seit 1945," Marine Rundschau, 6 (1978), pp.375-97.

Pablo E. Arguindeguy, Historia de la Aviacion Naval Argentina, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires: Departamentode Estudios Historicos Navales, 1980).

'  Laurio H. Destefani, ed., Historia Maritima Argentina, 9 vols, to date, vol. 10 in press (Buenos Aires:Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, 1980-1993).

20    Argentina

in 1984. It is essentially an illustrated summary of Argentine history, depictingthe contemporary naval participation.

The naval side of the Falklands/Malvinas War (1982) provided a large amountof British and American published works, but Argentine production has notbeen so significant. The main sources for the Argentine side of the naval war areseveral papers published by participating naval officers in Boletin del CentroNaval, plus Busser's book on "Operation Rosario." Other good sourcesshowing an Argentine viewpoint are Scheina's article on "The Malvinas Cam-paign" and the chapters in his general history Latin America. In addition, volume10 of Historia Maritima Argentina has a chapter on the Argentine navalparticipation in the war.

Scheina's Latin America: A Naval History gives very good coverage of twentiethcentury Argentine naval history, including the navy's intervention in Argentineinternal politics in the mid-1950s. A recently begun project is going to fill animportant gap in modern Argentine naval history: a history of the Naval WarCollege. As mentioned before, the college was founded in 1934 and itsdevelopment and its up and downs, have paralleled the Navy itself.

Naval and maritime history in Argentina is taught mainly at the navy'sacademies and schools. The institutions at which it is taught are: the Naval WarCollege, the Naval Postgraduate School, the Naval Academy, and four navy-runhigh schools (called "Liceos Navales" in Argentina). A word should be said aboutthe focus of this teaching. Due to the fact that, with the exception of theFalklands/Malvinas War, there was no actual Argentine war experience duringthis century, the analysis of World War II campaigns receive a good deal ofattention, especially at the War College and Postgraduate School level. As the

Enrique Gonzalez Lonzieme, ed., Evocation hacia el Futuro. La Armada en la Vida de los Argentinos(Buenos Aires: Instituto de Publicaciones Navales, 1984).

Luis Anselmi, "La Aviacion Naval en las Malvinas" Boletin del Centro Naval, 735 (April-June 1983), pp.117—38; Rodolfo Castro Fox, "La Tercera Escuadrilla de Caza y Ataque durante el Conflicto del AtlanticoSur (1982)," Boletin del Centro Naval, 734 (January-March 1983), pp. 1-9; Jorge Colombo, "Operacionesde aviones navales Super Etendard en la guerra de las Malvinas," Boletin del Centro Naval, 17>2>(October-December 1982), pp. 319—30; Carlos Molteni, "Malvinas . . . Asi lo vivi yo," Boletin del CentroNaval, 736 (July-September 1983), pp. 223—42; Norberto Pereiro, "La Segunda Escuadrilla Aeronaval deSosten Logistico Movil. Campana Aerea en Malvinas" Boletin del Centro Naval, 739 (April-June 1984), pp.185—95; Miguel Pita, "Operaciones en la Guerra del Adantico Sur en 1982. Intervention de la Brigada deInfanteria de Marina No. 1," Boletin del Centro Naval, 739 (April-June 1984), pp. 117-54; Carlos Robacio,"El Batallon de Infanteria de Marina No. 5 en las Malvinas," Boletin del Centro Naval, 735 (April-June 1983),pp. 139—62; Cesar Trombetta, "Ocupacion de las Islas Georgjas durante el conflicto del Atlantico Sur en1982," Boletin del Centro Naval, 735 (April-June 1983), pp. 107-15.

Carlos Busser, ed., Operation Rosario (Buenos Aires: Atlantida, 1984).26  Robert L. Scheina, "The Malvinas Campaign" USNI Proceedings, 109 (May 1983), pp. 98-117;Robert L. Scheina, Latin America: A Naval History, 1810-1987 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1987),Chapters 14 and 15.

"El Conflicto Armado de 1982 con Gran Bretana por las Islas Malvinas," Chapter 18 in HistoriaMaritima Argentina, ed. Laurio H. Destefani, vol. 10 in press.

Montenegro    21

reader may imagine, the Falklands/Malvinas War is also a principal field of studyfor those colleges. For both World War II and the Falklands/Malvinas War, thenaval schools and colleges emphasize "the lessons," and not only "the facts." Inrecent times there has been a promising departure from this state of affairs: In1990, the Catholic University of Buenos Aires and the Navy League started ajointly sponsored, two-year postgraduate course on "Sea Sciences." One of thesubjects of the curriculum in this course is "Naval and Maritime History" (thisis the word-by-word translation of the actual name in Spanish). The course isgiven at the Catholic University to students who are mainly civilians. Perhapsthis is a short step, but it is a positive one towards moving naval and maritimehistory a little closer to the academic community.

As the reader may recognize, when approaching the end of this paper, navaland maritime history has remained mainly inside the realm of the sea-orientedcommunity and has had a limited projection into the outside world. At the sametime, research and publication on Argentine naval and maritime history is stilldominated by a strong emphasis on the early nineteenth century. There is stilla long way to go to fill the gaps in Argentine naval and maritime history, tointegrate both of them, and to take naval and maritime history out of theprofessional, sea-oriented world and on to the general public. This is a significantchallenge facing current and future Argentinians, as well as motivated foreignnaval and maritime historians.

Two main references for future researchers are: Robert L. Scheina, "Unexplored Opportunities inLatin American Maritime History," The Americas, XLVIII (January 1992), pp. 397-406, and Hector J.Tanzi, "Historiografia Naval" Chapter 15 in Historia Maritima Argentina, ed. Laurio H. Destefani, vol.10 in press.

/\USircMlcl

Commander James Goldrick and Sub-Lieutenant Alison Vincent

Royal Australian Navy

This paper aims to examine the status of naval and maritime history inAustralia. Its scope extends not only to the research and teaching activitiesof tertiary institutions, but to work conducted under the auspices of the RoyalAustralian Navy and other government organizations, by maritime museums,and by societies and individuals, both professional and amateur. This surveyhighlights matters of importance rather than attempting a comprehensivecoverage of the field and seeks to suggest the likely directions of further activityin the field.

The Navy and Naval History

The attitude of the Royal Australian Navy to historical studies tends toambivalence. Although the RAN derives from the Royal Navy, and in tradition,organization, and culture is closely related to it, the RAN has long beenuncomfortable with the apparent inconsistencies between much of the navalethos and the developing Australian identity. This discomfort has been magnifiedby the fact that most of the active operations of the RAN were conducted onthe basis of integration into the Royal Navy's or the United States Navy'soperations, without a specific national identity above the level of individual ships

About the authors: James Goldrick is a warfare specialist commander in the RAN,presently in charge of the Navy's warfare officer training and tactical development atHMAS Watson. Having earned a BA (UNSW) and MLitt (University of New England),he has contributed articles to a variety of journals on contemporary and historical navaltopics. His first book, The King's Ships Were at Sea: The War in the North Sea August1914-February 1915, was published by the U.S. Naval Institute in 1984. Edited worksinclude With the Battle Cruisers (1987), and co-editor of Reflections on the Royal AustralianNavy (1991), and Mahan Is Not Enough (1993). Alison Vincent is a Sub-Lieutenantpresently completing seaman officer training at HMAS Watson. She graduated BA(Honours) from University College of the University of NSW (the Australian DefenceForce Academy) in 1991, her thesis being "Women are Here to Stay: The Reintroduc-tion of the Australian Women's Services, 1942-1955."

or small squadrons. Thus, anniversaries which could be claimed by the RAN assignificant to its history—such as the Battle of Cape Matapan (1941), LingayenGulf (1945), or the Korean War (1951—53)—are more often seen as belongingto the larger navies with which the RAN operated.

The history of the RAN has also been one of mixed success. Much of theNavy's effort in both wars went to trade protection work in subsidiary theaterswhich, while extremely important, was hardly glamorous or exciting. When theRAN was involved in first-line operations, particularly during the Second WorldWar, this came at a time when naval forces were hard-pressed and heavy losseswere experienced in holding the line against the Germans and the Japanese.Although there have been considerable efforts in recent years to focus thetraditions of the Navy on events such as the sinking of the Emden and thesuccessful passage by HMA Submarine AE2 of the Dardanelles in 1915, thereremains a certain reticence on the subject.

The other factor which has tended to overwhelm official support for navalhistory has been the deliberate concentration of the Australian War Memorial(AWM) on the activities of the First and Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF).Charged with both a memorial role and a duty as a museum and center for theproduction of the country's official war histories, the AWM was set on its pathby the remarkable C.E.W. Bean, a journalist who was the official historian of theFirst AIF. The slant towards the Army was not unreasonable, considering thescale of Australia's contribution to the land conflict in both world wars, and itwas certainly in proportion to the number of men and women involved.

Unfortunately, the fact that the official history task went in its entirety to theAWM prevented the RAN—and the other services-—from developing a histori-cal branch in the sense understood in the United States or Canada. Competent

1 9

and comprehensive histories of the RAN in the First  and Second World Wars

were produced in good time, but these were commissioned works and theauthors' formal involvement with naval historical studies ended with publicationof their books. Since the RAN lacked the internal capacity to produce staffhistories, there was never any development of a historical analyses section.Significantly, there was never any significant attempt to supplement the Britishnaval staff monographs with the Australian perspective of operations in theIndian and Pacific Oceans.

Small and undermanned, the Directorate of Naval History within NavyOffice came to function as a source of information, not a center for analyses. Asuccession of historical officers became highly expert in their ability to locate

1 A. W. Jose, The Royal Australian Navy, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914-1918,series ed., Robert O'Neill, vol. 9 (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press in association with theAustralian War Memorial, 1987). Reprint edition with minor corrections.

2 G. Hermon Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939-1945, The Official History of Australia in the Warof 1939-1945 (Canberra: Austrailian War Memorial, 1957, 1968), 2 volumes.

and distribute responses to specific questions of fact, but there were never theresources to do more. There were some attempts to centralize the historicaleffort within the Department of Defence, but the reality of the Directorate'srole is now recognized by its incorporation as a section of the Directorate ofPublic Information.

More coherent interest in historical studies began to emerge with theformation of the Australian Naval institute in 1975 by a group of naval officers.While concerned primarily with contemporary issues, the institute resulted froman increasing belief within the Navy that the service required the developmentof a more active intellectual life. It accompanied moves within the RAN toextend the nascent degree program to more junior officers and to allow morearts degrees within a training scheme which had hitherto naturally emphasizedtechnical studies. It was in the 1970s, too, that naval history became a formalpart of the diploma-level Creswell Course which was undertaken by careerseamen and supply officers not chosen for degree studies. This elective withinthe course did not, however, lead to further courses, and it remained a purelyin-house activity until the end of the diploma program a decade later. Morerecent efforts in this area fall more properly within the frame of the followingdiscussion of Australian tertiary institutions.

What did occur within the Journal of the Australian Naval Institute was thepublication of a small but steady stream of articles with historical focus. It wasnot the articles themselves that were so greatly important, but the interest inhistory that they generated within the Service. When a Maritime StudiesProgram was created within Navy OSice under the direction of CommodoreW.S.G. Bateman in the late 1980s, this included naval historical studies withinits charter as part of an attempt to improve the RAN's "corporate memory." Atthe same time, the Australian Naval Institute embarked on a small oral historyprogram, which is now beginning to bear fruit.

Efforts by a number of naval officers and the support of the then Chief ofNaval Staff in combination with the staff of the Australian War Memorialbrought about a Naval History Seminar in 1989. This combined effort enjoyedinternational participation and the proceedings were published in 1991. Shortlyafterwards, a naval history workshop on the future of naval historical studies wasstaged in Sydney.

It is too early to assess the direct results of this workshop, which canvassed arange of issues. The key gap that has been identified, however, is the Navy's

Published quarterly. Membership in the Australian Naval Institute is available by writing to:The Secretary, Australian Naval Institute, PO Box 18, Campbell ACT 2601, Australia

The oral history has so far concentrated on former Chiefs of Naval Staff and interviews have beenconducted with Admiral Sir Victor Smith and Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peek.

T.R. Frame, J.V.P. Goldrick, and P.D. Jones, Reflections on the Royal Australian Navy (Sydney:Kangaroo Press, 1991).

lack of a historical section that can focus not on public information services buton research and advice to policymakers. At the time of this writing, the subjectremains under discussion within Navy Office. One project that is in hand is ahistory of Australian naval policy since Federation. Sponsored by the Chief ofNaval Staff, this work is intended to provide a comprehensive treatment of thefactors and considerations which have driven the development of policy in thelast eighty years.

Non-Government Organizations-—Naval

The Naval Historical Society of Australia was incorporated in Sydney in 1968and included several state chapters. Formed by a band of retired officers, sailors,and naval enthusiasts, the Society did much to highlight interest in RAN historythrough its association with several memorials, a museum at Garden IslandDockyard, and the publication of a series of ships' histories, as well as a regularjournal—the publication of which continues to this day. The early promise ofthe Society to become a focus for naval historical studies was not, however,fulfilled, largely because the organization remained preoccupied with the inter-ests of veterans and enthusiasts. Australia's small population and the greatdistances between its chapters stifled initiative for joint action. Thus, the Societynever acquired a substantial membership and therefore lacked the funds necessaryto realize professional standing.

The same difficulties apply to the various naval museum ships such as theRiver-class frigate Diamantina in Brisbane and the Bathurst-class corvetteCastlemaine in Melbourne. The small societies of enthusiasts who have done theremarkable work in preserving and displaying these ships are too small to conductor sponsor other historical activity and their focus remains very much upon theships and their crews.

A number of efforts have been made by professional associations to producehistories of their branch or specialization. They, too, have suffered from a lackof resources. Unable to employ professional researchers or writers, these semi-official histories have tended to be produced in a form that is of interest only toassociation members. For the naval historian, there is much good material butlittle more than that.

Non-Government Organizations—Maritime

The leading organization in Australian maritime historical studies is undoubtedlythe Australian Association for Maritime History, formed in May 1978. This bodyof over four hundred members has strong academic connections and is affiliatedwith the International Commission of Maritime History. Apart from sponsoring

6 A history of the Radar branch has been written but not published, while the Anti-SubmarineOfficers' Association is in the course of producing a 1939-45 history of HMAS Rushcutter and theantisubmarine warfare branch.

many historical studies, the Association publishes the internationally circulatedjournal, Great Circle, which has achieved a sound reputation in historical circlesand functions as the public forum for Australian maritime history, garnering highquality contributions from both Australia and overseas. The subject matter coversa wide spectrum of maritime affairs, although it has—to the chagrin of the editor,Dr. Gray don Henning of the University of New England—enjoyed relativelylittle support in the way of articles on Australian naval history. The Associationpublishes a quarterly newsletter and has sponsored several books, includingShipping Arrivals and Departures, Sydney, and the essay series, Minor Ports ofAustralia.

The Association's intent, which is to improve the status of maritime historystudies, is demonstrated by its sponsorship of a conference on "New Directionsin Maritime History" held in Fremantle, the port of Perth, in December1993—the focal point of a week of activities staged under Western Australia'sMaritime Year 1993 program. The organizers noted that the conference "isproposed to provide a full coverage of all major aspects of maritime history."

The Australian branches of the World Ship Society also deserve mention.This organization enjoys a healthy membership across the nation. While its focusis very much on the ships themselves, the Society has published a number ofvery useful monographs and represents a largely untapped source of data, bothin the records and photographs held and in the membership itself.

Government Organizations

The Australian War Memorial holds responsibility for official histories andfor the preservation and display of war relics. Official histories that address thenaval component in the Vietnam War and the confrontation with Malaysia arenow in the course of preparation. The bias towards the Army in the Memorial'sdisplays has steadily declined, putting the roles of both the RAN and RoyalAustralian Air Force into perspective, and the Memorial sponsors naval researchprojects whenever it can. The truth is that few scholars have offered substantial

"7

proposals to the Memorial,   and there has been little more success with amateur

Q

efforts, several of which have been funded. Apart from the 1989 Naval HistorySeminar, the annual history conferences of the War Memorial have enjoyed onlyvery limited participation by naval historians.

The Australian National Maritime Museum at Darling Harbour in Sydneywas long in gestation and was also the subject of some controversy because ofcost over-runs in the construction of the museum buildings. Since its recentopening, however, the museum has definitely proved to be a public success. It

The major success has been Where Fate Calls, the book on the Voyager disaster of 1964 written byTom Frame as the product of his PhD thesis at the Australian Defence Force Academy.

Projects on the World War II career of the cruiser Australia (1985), the earlier Pioneer (1986), andAustralia in the Boxer Rebellion (1980) have not produced concrete results.

has succeeded in producing an exhibit program that reflects a fair balance in bothtraditional and more recent historical studies and covers both naval and maritimeissues. The museum's interest in naval matters was displayed by its support forthe 1989 Naval History Seminar and its sponsorship of a 1992 conference onthe Battle of the Coral Sea. Several recent publications of works on maritimesubjects reflect the broad approach taken by the museum, which will likelybecome a center for historical work in the future. A particularly encouragingsign is the museum's readiness to cooperate with other government organizationsand with bodies such as the Australian Association for Maritime History.

Tertiary Institutions

Maritime historical studies are in a generally healthy but limited state inAustralia. Maritime history is quite often included as an aspect of study ineconomic, colonial, and Asian history, reflecting the nature of Australia's originsand environment. While few universities run complete courses, many teachmaritime history as a component of other areas, although far fewer are active innaval history.

The topics that the various history departments teach tend, naturally, to reflectthe specialties and interests of the academics concerned, and there is wide varietyin the approaches adopted by the six institutions, which do place emphasis onmaritime or naval history within their teaching programs; they are the AustralianDefence Force Academy (University College of the University of New SouthWales)(ADFA), the Australian National University (ANU), the University ofSydney, the University of Western Australia (UWA), the University of NewEngland (UNE) and Bond University.

Although it has an obvious interest in defence-related subjects, ADFA attemptsa balanced approach to naval and maritime history. In 1994, the academy'shistory department will introduce Australia's first undergraduate course onspecifically naval history. This will be taught by Dr. Malcolm Murfett, a visitinglecturer from the University of Singapore and is to be a survey of the age ofsteam, covering the international naval history of the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies. Naval history is also used as a component of politics units, notably inthe undergraduate course on the "Politics of Australian Defence Policy."Postgraduate courses include several for the Master of Defence Studies program,such as "Seapower and Australian Society" (Dr. Anthony Bergin and Com-modore W.S.G. Bateman), "Australian Defence Since Vietnam" (Dr. GraemeCheeseman), "Armed Forces and Society" (Dr. Hugh Smith) and "Problems inthe History of Australian Defence and Foreign Policy" (Professor John Mc-Carthy). Some undergraduate courses include a component of foreign naval andmaritime history, such as Dr. Stuart Lone's courses on Japanese and Chinese

In the case of the latter, the museum and the AAMH are cooperating to produce an index to vesselillustrations within The Illustrated London Neivs in the nineteenth century.

Goldrick and Vincent    29

history. A purely maritime course is offered on the maritime history of SoutheastAsia from the eighteenth to the early twentieth centuries under the tutelage ofDr. Charles Glynn-Daniel.

The other universities place more emphasis on maritime history. The Univer-sity of New England, however, teaches some naval history components in itscourses and will increase its coverage with the introduction of a Master ofDefence Studies course in 1994. The University of Sydney conducts under-graduate courses such as "Technology and Imperialism under the SouthernCross" (Dr. Macleod), "The Sea and History" (Associate Professor S.M.Jack)and "Australia and the World" (Associate Professor Meaney), while TheAustralian National University offers "Whaling History" (H.C. Forster). AtBond University, Dr. Ian Cowman conducts an undergraduate course on"Strategic Policy in Australia's Relations," which has a naval component.

Perhaps most prominent is the University of Western Australia, due largelyto the energies of Professor Frank Broeze, who can fairly be described as a drivingforce in Australian maritime historical studies. Until 1988, Professor Broezetaught a full-year course that incorporated three areas: the British Empire, Britainbeing overtaken by the USA, and the American Empire. The course coverednaval development and merchant shipping, set within a framework of interna-tional political, technological, and economic change. Due to changes in univer-sity rules, Professor Broeze now teaches a semester-long course on "MaritimeAustralia." This study covers a wide variety of subjects, from ports and port citiesto overseas trade and the Australian "surf culture."

Research and Publication

The extent of academic research and publication within Australia is ratherwider than indicated by the availability of undergraduate and postgraduatecourses. In a survey of maritime history in Australia, published in the AustralianHistorical Association Bulletin in late 1990, Frank Broeze noted that the numbersof active researchers are increasing rapidly. Broeze suggested that ProfessorGeoffrey Blainey's book, The Tyranny of Distance (Melbourne, 1966), wasseminal in focusing attention on the significance of the maritime element inAustralia's development; his thorough survey of works in the field since that dateindicates that exploration, shipping, and ports have been his primary topics.

Broeze also suggested that "gaping holes" in both maritime and naval historyexist in regard to social and cultural history and that much work remains to bedone in these areas. Australian historians need to continue the limited effortsmade so far to connect Australian maritime history with that of the greaterPacific, Indian Ocean, and Southeast Asian regions.

The authors note their debt to Professor Broeze for his assistance with compilation of this paper.

Frank Broeze, "Maritime History in Australia," Australian Historical Association Bulletin, Numbers64-65, October-December 1990. pp.43-53.

That research activity has increased is indicated by the fact that other journalsin addition to Great Circle are publishing maritime material. In September 1992,the Australian Economic History Review published an issue entitled "Land and Sea,"which featured five articles on shipping in Australia and New Zealand. Fivemore articles were published on maritime topics in Studies in Western AustralianHistory.

There is, however, a dearth of research in non-military academic circles intonaval subjects. The Australian Historical Association annually prints a bulletinshowing topics under research in universities. In 1992, there were virtually nonaval projects listed. Perhaps the only university faculty member working in thefield without direct professional connections to the Defence Force is Ian

1 *K

Cowman of Bond University, who is researching a history of the RAN.

Books

The distinction between professional academic publications and those ofamateurs becomes less discernible when the focus shifts from articles to books.Apart from the healthy number of authors within the universities themselves,several retired academics continue to produce good work, and this is supple-mented by authors who, although not possessing formal training, are, nonethe-less, highly capable historians. An attempt to recite a complete history ofmaritime publications in the last two decades would necessarily be incomplete,but a few are worth mentioning. Professor John Bach's two books areimportant works, as is Frank Horner's study of French exploration, andMarsden Horden's acclaimed study on Stokes. Professor Oskar Spate com-pleted his three-volume history of the Pacific    in 1988. Alan Frost produced

1R ■

his study on the early settlement    in 1980, a work complemented by Margaret

Steven in 1983.    Tom Frame's study of the Melbourne- Voyager collision    was,

by any standards, a best-seller and is shortly to appear in paperback. Other naval

12 Volume 13 (1992).

Ian Cowman presented a paper at the Institute of Historical Research in London in February 1991entitled "Indecent Obsession: Australia's Search for a Blue Water Navy."

John P.S. Bach, A Maritime History of Australia (Melbourne, Australia: Nelson, 1976); John P.S. Bach,The Australia Station: A History of the Royal Navy in the South West Pacific, 1821-1913 (Kensington,N.S.W.: New South Wales Univ. Press, 1986).

F.B. Horden, The French Reconnaissance: Baudin in Australia 1801-1903 (Carlton, Vic: MelbourneUniv. Press, 1987).

Marsden Horden, Mariners are Wanted! John Lort Stokes and HMS Beagle in Australia 1837-1843(Carlton, Vic: Melbourne Univ. Press, 1989).17   O.H.H. Spate, The Pacific Since Magellan (Canberra: Australian National Univ. Press, 1979-1988).

Alan Frost, Convicts and Empire: A Naval Question 1116-1811 (Melbourne and New York: OxfordUniv. Press, 1980).

Margaret Steven, Trade, Tactics and Territory (Carlton, Vic: Melbourne Univ. Press, 1983).

T.R. Frame, Where Fate Calls: The HMAS Voyager Tragedy (Sydney: Hodder and Stoughton, 1992).

Goldrlck and Vincent    31works of interest include Robert Hyslop's two volumes on naval adrninistra-

01 00

tion as well as Ray Jones' work, which covers the development of Australiannaval aviation up until 1944 and which nearly constitutes a history of operationalpolicy in the inter-war years.

These scholarly books are supplemented by a number of more or less popularworks. While the majority of academic publications within Australia are essen-tially maritime in nature, it is ironic that the "popular" effort tends more towardsnaval subjects, either dealing with ships or war history. The retired journalistFrank Walker has produced books on the Australian involvement in midgetsubmarine attacks on the Tirpitz and the sinking of HMAS Armidale. Other recent

works have dealt with subjects such as the Japanese submarine campaign against Australia

23and the disastrous battle of Savo Island.

Enthusiasts such as Ross Gillett and John Bastock have produced a number

of beautifully illustrated and comprehensive guides to Australian warships, useful

reference material for any historian. This emphasis on pictorial work is a feature

of the Australian popular scene, and, although a maritime and naval photographic

data base has yet to be assembled, the country is particularly rich in such material.

Facing the Future

The striking feature of any survey of the maritime and naval historical scenesin Australia is the fragmentation of activity and the division between militaryand civil spheres. The Australian Association for Maritime History has donemuch good work to bring together the maritime historians, and both its workand that of the National Maritime Museum will continue this process. It is nottoo much to assert that maritime history is now a thriving section of the disciplineand is gaining increasing attention. Its broad appeal will continue to draw interestfrom special interest groups ranging from economists to conservationists tomerchant mariners.

The difficulty will be to bring naval history into the mainstream of historicalwork. One of the obstacles to this process may be ideological; there are stronganti-military sentiments within much of Australian society and within intellec-tual circles in particular. The growth of conservation and peace organizationshas led to increased interest in related topics, such as whaling and, for many, anaversion to military history as a whole. Such aversions can be overcome only ifnaval historians produce a far greater volume of substantial work than has

21 Robert Hyslop, Australian Naval Administration 1900-1939 (Melbourne: Hawthorne Press, 1973)and Robert Hyslop, Aye Aye, Minister: Australian Naval Administration 1949-1959 (Canberra: AGPS,cl990).

Ray Jones, Seagulls, Cruisers and Catapults: Australian Naval Aviation, 1913-1944 (Hobart: Pelorus,cl989).

Denis and Peggy Warner with Sadao Seno, Disaster in the Pacific (Sydney: Allen & Unwin andAnnapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1992).

32    Australia

occurred to date. The gaps in social and cultural studies which Professor Broezehas noted are particularly acute in the history of the Royal Australian Navy andefforts will have to be made to supplement the present activity, albeit limited,in the areas of naval policy and technical development. The process is beginningin a small way, largely under the auspices of the Australian Defence ForceAcademy, and there remains much to be done. Critical to this process will bethe support that the Royal Australian Navy itself can give to historical studies.

Belgium

Christian Koninckx

To present and comment on a survey of maritime historiography, the veryleast one needs at one's disposal is an inventory summing up, preferablyin a methodic way, monographs, articles, and reference works. Only then doesa first evaluation of the printed output on maritime history become possible.Without a minimum of quantitative data, even the slightest analysis is unthink-able if it is to avoid being criticized as impressionable or unscientific. In short,an adequate and reasoned bibliography has to be available.

When a scientific committee was set up in November 1979 within the RoyalBelgian Academy of Sciences to promote research into Belgium's maritimehistory, one of the most important tasks facing it was to draw up a bibliographyof published literature relating to all aspects of shipping, with special referenceto Belgium, from the earliest times to the present day. In so doing, the committeewas carrying on the tradition of the series, Bibliographie de l'histoire des grandesroutes maritimes, which had already appeared. Apart from the practical ad-vantages of such a bibliography to research fellows and people interested inmaritime history in general, once completed, it would make it possible todetermine just how far research had progressed. Gaps could be traced and futureresearch could be stimulated and pushed in new directions in order to fill thosegaps. It is perhaps not superfluous to note that a bibliography really does offer apossibility for evaluation, although it is all too often neglected. In addition, all

Wetenschappelijk Comite voor Maritieme Geschiedenis van de Koninklijke Academie voor WctenschappenLetteren & Schone kunsten van Belgie (Brussels). This Committee represents Belgium in the InternationalCommission for Maritime History. In fact, the Committee was not the only one and even not the firstto promote maritime historical research in Belgium. The Royal Belgian Marine Academy, founded in1935, includes a section for Maritime History & Archeology, which has been active since that time, ifnot the most active of the Marine Academy's five sections.

Bibliographie de l'Histoire des Grandes Routes Maritimes, edited by Charles Verlinden:

Tome I: Allemagne, Danemark, Frame, Pologne by H. Kellenbenz, K. Glamann, M. de la Ronciere, R.Herve and M. Malowist in Boletin International de Bibliografia Luso-Brasileira, vol. IX, nos. 2 and 3 (1968).

Tome II: Etats-Unis d'Amerique by Philip Lundeberg in ibid., vol. X, no. 4. (1969) and vol. XI, no. 1,(1970).

Tome III: Espagne, Greceby F. Perez-Emid and F. Morales Padron in ibid., vol. XIII, nos. 1 and 2 (1972).

Tome W.Grande Bretagne by W.E. Minchinton in ibid., vol. XIV, nos. 1, 2, and 3 (1973).

Tome V: Ocean Indien by M. Roda (Saint-Denis-de-la-Reunion, 1976).

of us  who  are  involved in maritime  history must take  advantage  of theconclusions of workshops or seminars.

Methodology

As happens whenever a historical bibliography is compiled, a number ofmethodological problems arise. From the very beginning, one must set limitson the time span and geographical areas to be covered, as well as to consider theclassification and the types of publications to be included. Where a maritimebibliography is concerned, one has to cope with similar methodologicalproblems. Because of Belgium's general history, the case of Belgian maritimehistoriography is certainly not an easy one.

In fact, the problem of the delimiting periods of time is very closely connectedwith the geographical frame of reference. Throughout the ages, the provincesconstituting present-day Belgium—call them regions, if you please—havefrequently formed part of larger political entities. However, we consider his-toriography as Belgian, even when it deals with history before Belgium becamea sovereign and independent state in 1830, as a result of the Congress of Viennain 1815. But this does not make it any easier to evaluate the specific role playedby Belgians among all the activities within and contributions to the domain ofshipping, even though they may have been "Belgians" avant la lettre. To mentiononly a few, albeit very significant examples, the "Belgian" world of shipping andthat of these foreign powers were closely interwoven as part of the Burgundianempire (1419—1477), subsequently under the rule of the Austrian (1477—1555)and Spanish Habsburgers (1555—1716), for a long time unified with the northernNetherlands, later still under Austrian regime, then called Austrian or SouthernNetherlands (1716-1795), under French domination (1796-1814), and then,once again united, for the last but very short time, with the Northern Netherlands(1815—1830), and finally, under German occupation in the two world wars.

Consequently, it was not always possible to draw a clear distinction betweengenuinely local aspects and influences from abroad with a view to making aninventory of everything in print. In doubtful cases, therefore, it was wiselydecided to include the publications.

Regardless of the foreign rulers—in some circumstances the interpretationgiven to the term "foreign" may be open for discussion—we may not overlookthe fact that the Belgian provinces were not always the same entities as thoserecognized today. For many a year, our provinces, or part of them, were ceded,removed, or annexed. While this may be of less importance regarding themaritime history of the inland provinces—except in the case of inland naviga-tion—the case is quite different with regard to the coastal areas. For example,one need look no further than to Zeeland Flanders and French Flanders or toDunkirk in the South. The same kind of problem arises when considering theformer colonies and overseas territories. Accordingly, the bibliography also

includes literature relating to these areas, including the independent Congo,subsequently the Belgian Congo (1909) and, from 1960, the Republic of theCongo (called Zaire from 1971 onwards), the mandated territories of Rwandaand Burundi (1923—1962), the short-lived 18th century Banquibazar factory inBengal, the polar stations in Antarctica (1897— ), and so on.

In short, literature on the whole world of ships and shipping was taken intoconsideration, so long as there was some clear relation with our part of the globe,either as a collective entity or through the presence of individuals from ourregions. Because it is clear that maritime activities, in general, develop beyondnational frontiers, there will be a great difficulty in the future in supporting theidea of a national historiography.

Classification

Another methodological aspect is related to the classification of the printedworks on maritime history. The committee classified them under thirteenheadings, convinced that this could be done in other ways too. No classificationcan give complete satisfaction, and ours is no exception to the rule. But thesystem finally adopted is modelled partly on that used for the catalogue in thelibrary of the National Maritime Museum in Antwerp, and partly on that of thecontents of the monumental Maritieme Geschiedenis der Nederlanden (Bussum,1976—1979, 4 vols.). This major work stressed precisely how difficult it is towrite Belgian maritime history without considering together the southern(Belgium) and northern Netherlands (Holland).

The main headings of the bibliography are as follows:

I. Generalities; II. Shipbuilding; III. Merchant shipping; IV. Naval shipping;V. Fisheries; VI. Inland navigation; VII. Ports and harbours; VIII. Seafarers; IX.Voyages of discovery and shipping routes; X. Navigation; XI. Maritime law;XII. Education—science—culture; XIII. Personalia.

Of course, there is a measure of overlap among certain of the main sections.For instance, merchant and naval shipping were for a long time closely linked;it is only in more recent times that the distinction has become clearer. The samecan be said of inland and oceangoing shipping proper. In former times especially,though it is true even today, it was not always possible to make a clear distinctionbetween the two. Coastal vessels can penetrate deep into inland waterways, justas inland vessels occasionally sail in coastal waters. This is closely bound up withthe type of vessel used, but also with the depth of navigable waterways and withthe increased dredging of ship canals to allow oceangoing ships deeper into thehinterland. Canal-building started under Grand-Duke Albert of Austria, at thebeginning of the 16th century, to link the major cities with the North Sea,circumventing Dutch obstruction of the Scheldt.

For example, Rio Nunez in Guinea (1848-1852) and Belgian occupation forces in the Rhincland(FRG) from 1945 on.

The problem of overlap is even more acute in connection with overseasterritories. This is especially true of the Belgian Congo, since, in its dealings withthe homeland, just about all the strongest and most important links were builtup through maritime activity.

Evaluation of the Maritime Historiography

In processing the items for the bibliography, the committee discovered thatBelgian maritime historiography has mainly focused on ports and harbours,accounting for close to 30 percent of the total production. This is not surprisingperhaps, since Belgian ports have always played, as they still do, a continuingrole in the maritime activity of the country. Even when foreign powers wereruling the country controlling or supervising the maritime traffic, ports andharbours were free to a greater or lesser extent to develop their activities. Notinfrequently, the existence of Belgian ports, serving a wide hinterland, madethem keenly pursued objectives if not targets.

The bibliographic heading "Ports and Harbours" includes port policy, portauthority, infrastructure and equipment, port activities and pilotage as well.Because of their important networks, inland waterways and inland ports wereincluded here, too. The particular attention paid to the history of ports is notsurprising at all, since Belgium's economy was and still is highly dependent onits maritime traffic and on its easy connections with neighbouring countries.Thanks to a favourable topography, facilitating the development of inlandnavigation on the Scheldt and the Meuse, which are linked in turn by adequatecanals, it is possible to reach from the sea, the Ruhr in Germany, the Swiss bordervia the Rhine, and, closer to home, the coal mines in Wallonia, where theindustrial revolution started on the Continent. It is not necessary, perhaps, tounderline the fact that the port of Antwerp was studied in depth; but Bruges inthe Middle Ages, Zeebrugge in more recent times, and Ghent, too, were notoverlooked. Attention was paid to Liege, which, like Antwerp, is located at oneof the extremities of the well-known Albert Canal, Unking the sea, the Scheldt,and the heavy industrial areas inland. Studies were also made of Matadi, the outerharbour of Leopoldville-Kinshasa, although its historiography cannot be com-pared with the research carried out on the metropolitan ports.

The arguments presented to explain the interest shown by historians in portsand harbours are reinforced by quantifying the historiography: Studies onmerchant shipping comprise 11.2 percent of the total, with 9.85 percent devotedto inland navigation. This illustrates, once more, the evidence of Belgium'sdependence on a maritime economy, based on a well-developed network ofinland waterways that in turn have stimulated inland navigation for twocenturies. One can, perhaps, observe the paradox more clearly if inland naviga-tion is included in maritime historiography. Indeed, there are arguments for andagainst doing so. We have taken this into consideration in the present paper,

because the heading appears in the already mentioned bibliography, althoughpersonally we believe that inland navigation is not part of maritime history, ina strict sense, and subsequently it is hard to insert it in the framework of maritimehistoriography. It is true, as we have already pointed out, that in earlier timesthe distinction between inland and oceangoing shipping was sometimes unclear.But when looking at what is listed under the heading "Inland Navigation,"focusing as it does on inland shipping during the last century, on inland shippingto neighbouring European countries on the Rhine and in the colonies, repre-senting all in all the majority of the items, we feel bound to assert that theterminology of maritime historiography is no longer appropriate. Once again,we are convinced that inland navigation would fit far more neatly into theframework of economic history.

One cannot make the same remark when speaking about merchant shipping.It is not surprising that a large quantitiy of publications deal with shipping duringthe 19th and 20th centuries. Navigation on the Scheldt became free from 1863on—we recall that the Scheldt had been officially obstructed by the Dutch since1648—and the gate to the seven seas opened only gradually for Antwerp. Thisdevelopment was amplified by the colonial era, starting from the end of the 19thcentury as far as Belgium is concerned.

It is appalling, however, to note the exaggerated interest historians haveshown in the history of the 18th-century East India Company at Ostend, calledthe Ostend Company even though its Board of Trade was located in Antwerp.Appalling, because this company was very short-lived. It is little wonder, then,that its historiography should exaggerate its significance a little, compared to thegreat East India companies, abroad. However, the Ostend Company remainsimportant for the country, and the huge interest shown in it can be explainedby the availability of sources, since the archives are still preserved. However,interest in this topic contributes to the fact that maritime economic historiog-raphy is dominant.

Looking at the other categories of Belgian maritime historiography: ship-building (4.57 percent), naval shipping (4.97 percent), seafarers (4.75 percent),discoveries (4.88 percent), navigation techniques (4.5 percent), maritime law(3.9 percent), we observe that historical research seems to have been directlyproportional (see the diagram: Belgian Maritime History). Somewhat greaterattention has been paid to the study of fisheries (6.29 percent) and to the topicof education, science and culture (5.89 percent). The minor role played bynaval history is self-explanatory due to the many foreign rulers; privateering wasincluded here, also. In fact, a genuine Belgian Navy did not exist before the end

Percentages are related to the number of publications. If not the most ideal method, the approachis quite valuable as offering indications. Publications published from the 19th century until the eightiesof the 20th century were considered.

Although we do not mention the subheadings here, all bibliographical items have been computed.

38     Belgium

BELGIAN MARITIME HISTORY

EDUCATION/SCIENCE/CULTURE

MARITIME LAW    589%

3 90%NAVIGATION4.50%DISCOVERY & SAILROUTES 4.88%

SEAFARERS

4.75%

NAVAL SHIPPING4.97%

FISHERIES6.29%

INLAND NAVIGATION9.85%

GENERALITIES7.03%

SHIPBUILDING/SHIPS

4.57%

MERCHANT SHIPPING11.20%

PERSONALIA2.58%

PORTS & HARBOURS29.60%

of the Second World War. Concerning Belgian participation in discoveries, thesame remark can be made; maritime history in this category is principally limitedto the contemporary period.

This very brief survey of Belgian maritime historiography cannot be con-cluded without a word about the heading "generalities," which includes suchworks as encyclopedias, reference works, dictionaries, bibliographies, inven-tories, catalogues, and so on; these works are the necessary tools for successfulhistorical research. However, only Belgian production was taken into accounthere. We do not intend to analyse every subheading, but something has to besaid about the inventories of records.

Looking at these, we observe that many important record collections hadalready been inventoried, even those of foreign repositories. This is the case ofrecords kept in Paris concerning Belgian maritime history, as well as in Genoa,Venice, Florence, and Simancas, to cite just a few examples. But limitingourselves to records kept in Belgium, we have to conclude that there is still agreat many records available.

Nevertheless, we are inclined to state that maritime historical research has notmade much progress in Belgium, in relation to what has been achieved in theNetherlands, a country of comparable size. But, it can be stressed that there isnow a Belgium maritime bibliography, which is not yet the case in the Netherlands.

Koninckx    39

Perhaps, there is a lack of enthusiasm for maritime history, in general. Further,we have to point out the striking lack of maritime history in the programmes ofBelgian universities and even in that of the Nautical College at Antwerp. Whenone considers scientific research in this area, it has to be said that it is very muchlimited to associations outside the universities, such as the Royal Belgian MarineAcademy at Antwerp and the Scientific Committee for Maritime History inBrussels. However, the people involved are often members of both associations,simultaneously. In addition, there is, of course, the National Maritime Museumat Antwerp, housing in fact the Maritime Academy, and from which historical

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maritime research is also promoted.

In view of these facts, it is hardly surprising that maritime history in Belgiumis stagnating and still in its infancy. If this is a quite pessimistic view, oursurvey—and by the way, the bibliography, itself—offered the opportunity tomake this statement.

Since 1935, the Academy has published a yearbook dealing mainly with maritime history.The Committee established a series, entitled Collectanea Maritima, in which five volumes have alreadybeen published:

Vol. I: Bibliography of Belgian Maritime History (Brussels, 1984), on which the present paper is based.

Vol. II: Source Material for the History of Antwerp Shipping Particularly the England Trade 1404-1485, byG. Asaert (Brussels, 1985).

Vol III: Nautisch en Hydrografische kennis in Belgie en Zaire. Historische Bijdragen (Brussels, 1987), withEnglish summaries.

Vol. IV: Bijdragen tot de intemationale maritiemegeschiedenis (Brussels, 1988), with English summaries.

Vol. V: Proceedings of the international colloquim: "Industrial Revolutions and the Sea" (Brussels, 1991).

o

Nationa Scheepvaartmuseum, Antwerpen, by A. de Vos, Coll. Musea Nostra, vol. 17, (Brussels, 1989).

Britain

N.A.M. Rodger

The most important single fact about naval and maritime history in Britaintoday is conveyed by the awkward form of words which it is necessary toadopt as a title. "Naval and maritime" history is widely conceived as an amalgamor an uncomfortable hybrid of two distinct subjects, and not everybody wouldaccept that the connections between the two are or ought to be very close. Thisseems to be a peculiarity of the English-speaking world, and it can be difficultto find words in English to express the unified subject of maritime history as itis understood in most European countries, or to translate into Europeanlanguages the distinctions implied in English academic usage by "naval" andmaritime.This problem of definition is the key to the present state of the subject. Allhistorians can agree that in principle history is a seamless web in which everycountry, every subject, and every period is bound closely to its neighbours; butfor the practical purposes of study in school and university, it is necessary todivide it. Any subject that does not form one of the accepted divisions is at riskof becoming fragmented if not ignored. This has been the fate of naval andmaritime history in Britain. Probably few historians, if pressed, would actuallydeny the significance of the sea in British history, but many of them wouldassume that it belonged naturally in someone else's department. The result hastended to be that particular aspects of maritime history have received attentionin circumstances that tended to isolate them. Economic historians have studiedthe history of overseas travel and fisheries, but have ignored anything to do withwarfare. Naval historians have studied battles and campaigns but supplied verylittle historical context in which to locate them and establish their significance.Military historians have in theory admitted the importance of the sea in warfare,but in practice very often ignored it. Students of strategic studies have plunderedthe recent past for case studies without penetrating far below the surface. The

I am very grateful for the comments and suggestions of Dr. Michael Duffy, Dr. Stephen Fisher, Dr.R.J.B. Knight, Dr. A.D. Lambert, Dr. H.M.Scott, Professor Geoffrey Till, and Mr. David Williams.

French histore maritime, German Seegeschichte, Dutch Zeegeschiedenis, Italian storia marittima, Spanishhistoria marltima, all refer to the history of man's use of the sea in general; in all these languages the wordmarine or marina is not limited to the fighting service alone.

result has been that naval and maritime history, especially in universities, hastended to be reduced to a number of disconnected minority interests in differentdepartments, often departments which themselves are regarded as peripheral tothe main business of the university.

In this context the breadth of the subject may be a practical disadvantage. Ithas been well said of naval history, and might be as well said of maritime historyat large, that it is "a microcosm of national history; it is not a subject with itsown particular technique, but an application of different subjects, each with itsown technique, to a particular field. It has its own economic and constitutionalhistory, its own legal problems and its own relations with diplomacy and politics.If national history may be compared to a cake, the different layers of which aredifferent aspects of national life, then naval history is not a layer but a slice of thecake."" The breadth of the subject and the multitude of connections it has, orought to have, with many areas of history, explain much of the importance andthe excitement of the subject, but they also explain the difficulty of treating itin its entirety and the ease with which it can be parcelled out among manyhistorians or history departments whose central interests lie elsewhere. Howeverdesirable it may be in theory to abolish academic demarcation lines, in practicethere is no better way to get a neglected subject studied than to establish coursesand departments dedicated to it.

It is only possible to explain how and why English-speaking historians havecome to perceive the subjects of naval and maritime history as distinct by dippingbriefly into the history of history as a serious scholarly pursuit in Britain. For ourpresent purposes we may begin exactly a century ago in 1893, with thefoundation of the Navy Records Society, which shows most of the characteristicfeatures of its time. This was a period in which history was overwhelmingly therecord of great men and of the state; it was the history of gentlemen, forgentlemen. Maritime history therefore naturally became naval history, and it wasnaval history with a purpose. The founders of the N.R.S. included someacademics, notably its moving spirit, Professor J.K. Laughton, but most of themwere naval officers and civilians closely connected with the Navy who regardednaval history as directly relevant to their professional concerns. The study ofhistory as a means of rediscovering the fundamental verities of naval strategy andtactics was a key element in the institutional and intellectual reforms which werethen affecting the Navy. Young officers who thought seriously about theirprofession were likely to be interested in history, and they conceived of navalhistory as a source of guidance as well as inspiration, both in their own careersand in the reform of the Service at large. It is also probable that the foundationof the Society in 1893, just as Mr. Gladstone was fighting his last great political

3 John Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III: Its State and Direction, 1689-1697 (Cambridge:1953), p. xxii.

Professor of Modern History at King's College London, formerly a Naval Instructor.

battle to cut the Navy Estimates, was not without political intent; the formerConservative First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord George Hamilton, wasprominent among its founders, and the then First Lord, Earl Spencer, whosesponsorship of some of the admirals' demands did so much to drive the PrimeMinister from office, accepted the presidency. Naval history was highly relevantto the Navy of the day, and at times it had a radical, even subversive flavour, themore so as many of the naval historians came to oppose the "materiel" schoolof Sir John Fisher. They were prominent among the officers who in 1912founded The Naval Review "to promote the Advancement and Spreading withinthe Service of Knowledge relevant to the Higher Aspects of the Naval Profes-sion," and the Review continued for many years to publish historical scholarshipof a high standard amongst papers on the current professional concerns of theNavy.

The subject which interested these early naval historians was essentially thehistory of naval operations, often studied in close detail. Many of them—notably

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Sir Julian Corbett and the then Captain H.W. Richmond —were keenlyconcerned to trace the relationship of the Navy to strategy and diplomacy: TheNavy as an Instrument of Policy, to use the title of one of Richmond's books. Theywere not much interested in other aspects of naval history which did not echotheir current professional concerns, nor in the history of merchant shippingexcept as an aspect of the defence of seaborne trade. Few of them were academichistorians, indeed there were still few teachers of history in British universities,but in spite of this the subject enjoyed the same high public esteem as the Navyitself. The Council of the Navy Records Society in the first twenty years of itslife included King Edward VII and two royal princes, five Cabinet ministers,eleven peers, twenty-seven admirals, four generals, and a variety of otherluminaries including two distinguished novelists (Kipling and Erskine Childers),

I owe this suggestion to Dr. Michael Duffy; it is also made by W.M. Hamilton, The Nation and theNavy: Methods and Organisation of British Navalist Propaganda 1889-1914 (New York: 1986).

6 The Red Earl: The Papers of the Fifth Earl Spencer 1835-1910, ed. Peter Gordon (NorthamptonshireRecord Society Vols. 31 and 34, 1981-86) II, pp. 28-32, gives the background.

For example the studies of eighteenth-century campaigns by Commander J.H. Owen printed in the1930s. It still prints historical articles, but would no longer claim to be a vehicle for original historicalscholarship.

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Corbett's life has been written by Donald M. Schurman: Julian S. Corbett 1854-1922: Historian ofBritish Maritime Policy from Drake tojellicoe (Royal Historical Society Studies in History No. 26: 1981).Richmond has no less than three biographies: Arthur J. Marder, Portrait of an Admiral (London: 1952);D.M. Schurman, "Historian in Uniform," in The Education of a Navy: The Development of British NavalStrategic Thought, 1867-1914 (London: 1965); and Barry D. Hunt, Sailor-Scholar: Admiral Sir HerbertRichmond, 1871-1946 (Waterloo, Ontario: 1982). See also, James Goldrick and John B. Hattendorf,eds., Mahan Is Not Enough: The Proceedings of a Conference on the Works of Sir Julian Corbett and AdmiralSir Herbert Richmond (Newport: 1993).

But the few were eminent; besides Laughton, the Society's early editors included S.R. Gardiner andSir Charles Firth.

two Directors of Naval Construction, two Princes of the Holy Roman Empire,

the Secretary of the Admiralty, and the Lord Provost of Glasgow. No academic

discipline, then or now, could boast of such social prestige.

After the First World War naval history tended to suffer from the public's

disenchantment with all things military.    The Vere Harmsworth Chair in Naval

history at Cambridge, endowed by Lord Rothermere in 1911, was converted

to one of Imperial and Naval History in 1932; since then only one naval historian

has held it, Sir Herbert Richmond, who was appointed in 1934 and was later

elected Master of Downing College. Richmond's election was applauded by a

previous holder of the chair as a signal that naval history would not be "pushed

11into the background," but that is exactly what happened.     In Cambridge, as

also in Oxford and London, naval history continued to be regarded as a serious

subject, but it was not a popular one. King's College London, which had agreed

to found a department of naval history in 1913, was unable to find a scholar to

19continue Laughton's interests.     At the same time it ceased to be the mark of

1 ^the intellectual naval officer to engage in serious research.    Richmond himself,

who had written part of one of his most important books    while commanding

HMS Dreadnought, had no successors in this respect. The Second World War

had surprisingly little effect in changing this. Though the importance of sea

power had again been convincingly demonstrated, weariness and distaste for war

was hardly less marked in 1945 than it had been in 1918. In the 1940s several

British university historians with interests in maritime history began their careers,

notably C.N. Parkinson and A.N. Ryan at Liverpool, but the subject could not

be said to have established itself as a subject in British universities. It was

characteristic of the postwar years that while some maritime or naval historians

rose to become professors (notably John Bromley at Southampton and JCenneth

Andrews at Hull), scholars of ability were more likely to begin their careers as

naval historians, but to advance by moving rapidly into other areas.      In

10   John B. Hattendorf, "The Study of War History at Oxford, 1862-1990," in The Limitatiotis of MilitaryPower: Essays presented to Professor Norman Gibbs on his eightieth birthday (London: 1990), pp. 3—61, at pp. 26—7.

Hunt, Sailor-Scholar, p. 217.12  Ex inf. Dr. A.D. Lambert.

1 ^

And not only naval officers: A.W. Tedder (the future Air Marshal) was a young official in the ColonialService when he published The Navy of the Restoration (Cambridge: 1916).14   The Navy in the War of 1739-48, eventually published in 1920.

John Ehrman (The Navy in the War of William III) is a notable example, though he also abandonedacademic life for private scholarship. Others are Professor C.J. Bartlett of the University of Dundee(Great Britain and Sea Power 1815-1853, Oxford: 1963), Professor H.T. Dickinson of EdinburghUniversity ("British military and naval operations: Catalonia and Valencia, 1701-11," Durham M.A.thesis, 1963; his Ph.D. thesis was on "Henry St. John and the Struggle for the Leadership of the ToryParty 1702-14," Newcastle, 1968), Professor C.S.L. Davies ("Supply services of the English armedforces, 1509-50," Oxford D.Phil, thesis: 1964), Professor Bernard Dietz ("Privateering in North-WestEuropean waters, 1568 to 1572," London Ph.D. thesis: 1959), and Professor Norman Hampson of theUniversity of Newcastle-upon Tyne (La Marine de VAn II, Paris: 1952).

Cambridge Captain S.W. Roskill, the official historian of the Royal Navy inthe Second World War, and undoubtedly one of the most distinguished navalhistorians of this century, was offered a fellowship at Churchill College, but wasnever elected to the Harmsworth Chair for which he was so well qualified.

The half century since the end of the Second World War has been markedby a rapid growth in the size and number of British universities, and an equallysharp decline in the size of the Royal Navy. For much of this period the studyof warfare in any form attracted little interest in universities. The largest researchinstitutions, with room for all sorts of minority interests, continued to producesome work, and in Oxford the Chichele Chair in the History of War sustainedcourses in military history and grand strategy which contained a naval element,but until the late 1960s, naval history in universities had become almostinvisible. The period was, however, fruitful for the new subject of maritimehistory. Its practitioners were predominantly economic historians by training,appointed to positions in departments of economic history, and perhaps anxiousto demonstrate the superior scientific rigour of a numerate discipline comparedto the amiable vagueness of traditional historical scholarship. They did not feelthey had much in common with naval history as it had generally been studied.Part of the problem here was that naval history was by this time being studiedlargely by people outside university departments, people who were by definitionamateurs in the sense of not earning their living by scholarship, and also (it wasoften implied) in the sense of not matching professional standards. The deroga-tive implications of the term "amateur" were not entirely unjustified, for navalhistory in the postwar years did indeed fall behind the professional standards ofthe academic world, as well as losing touch with its fashions. It was until recentlya stronghold of the nationalist and triumphalist tradition, and it was late to bemarked by such academic fashions as social history. It is still almost untouchedby the spread of quantitative history, in spite of the existence of sources ofunequalled richness. This made it easier for university historians to ignore thesubject, and contributed to generations of history books which overlookedmaritime, and especially naval, history or accorded it brief and embarrassedmention before turning to more agreeable matters. Another factor here mayhave been fear of the complex technology of the sailing ship: to tackle it was torisk making a fool of oneself before those who understood it, and perhaps alsoto risk lowering one's status before those historians for whom real history wasthe history of high politics and policy, and who shared the traditional English

16 John Ehrman, "Stephen Wentworth Roskill, 1903-1982," Proceedings of the British Academy, LXIX(1983), p. 579-94, at pp. 589-91. His deafness would admittedly have hampered him in the chair, butit did not stop him teaching for the History Tripos.

17 Hattendorf, War History at Oxford.

18 Table 1.

view that technical expertise was what distinguished the player from thegentlemen.

All this continued to be true throughout the 1950s and 1960s when Britishuniversities were expanding and creating new posts and departments. It onlybegan to change in the 1970s, and was soon overtaken by a deepening crisis inuniversity finance and morale. Faced with public hostility towards students andtheir teachers, dependent for funds on a government which identified univer-sities as a cause of economic decline and talked seriously of closing some or evenmany of then as superfluous, academics entered a prolonged and uncomfortableperiod of change which shows no signs of ending. Among the many consequen-ces have been departments and whole institutions closed, merged or strugglingfor survival; a collapse of morale in some quarters; the departure of some of theablest and most ambitious for early retirement or the United States; and the lossof a generation of younger scholars unable to enter or make a career in theacademic world. This has meant that there has been little money to spare fornew ideas and new subjects. University departments have devoted all theirattention to survival, meaning in practice the survival of their existing courses.Always conservative and bureaucratic institutions, difficult to steer onto newcourses, British universities have until recently been in a particularly poorposition to respond to new intellectual currents.

Among these has been the revival, change, and even to some extent themerging of naval and maritime history. By the 1980s the political climate inuniversities, following somewhat behind that of Britain as a whole, was turningmore conservative, and both naval and military history were regaining somedegree of respectability. The Department of War Studies established at King'sCollege London in 1965 had a notable influence on military history? and inparticular on the new theme of "war and society," which linked the hithertoold-fashioned world of military history with the post-war interest in socialhistory. "Just as some thought war too serious a matter to be left to the generals,"wrote Professor Geoffrey Best,

so the history and scientific analysis of war seemed too serious a matter to be leftto the military men and war enthusiasts who did most of the writing about it. Notthat they had the whole of the field. The study of war has attracted, and still attracts,the attentions of scholars of the finest kind. But such men were to be found, nodoubt reluctantly, in company with a huge crowd of narrower-minded writers,for whom "military historian" was the most complimentary title that could befound, military enthusiast or even war maniac often the more apposite. War andsociety studies began largely in reaction against that kind of stuff Sometimes

It is not irrelevant to note here that books on ship design are published in Britain not by academicpresses but by specialist houses like Conway Maritime Press or Arms and Armour Press, whose productsare associated by publishers and much of the learned public with the world of model-makers,train-spotters and collectors of all sorts of memorabilia, and are not reviewed in academic journals.

sinking to uniforms, badges and buttons, it rarely rose above campaigns and battles;it viewed them from the professional soldier's angle; it tended to extract thefighting side of war from its total historical context; and it usually meant a viewof an army, navy or air force from within, little concerned about the nature oftheir connections with the society on whose behalf war was, nominally, beingfought. Much might be learnt from such books about the way an army did thejob set for it and, especially from between the lines, about the ways soldiers viewedthemselves; little, however, about how soldiers got to be like that, and nothing atall about how armed forces fitted into, emerged from, and perhaps in their turnmade impressions upon the societies to which they belonged.

The election of Professor Michael Howard, former head of the Departmentof War Studies at the University of London, and subsequently Chichele Professorof the History of War at Oxford, to the Regius Chair at Oxford in 1980 didmuch to enhance the respectability of the new military history. So did the skillwith which Sir Michael handled the History Faculty at Oxford, still on hiselection inclined to be suspicious of a former soldier. At the same time someuniversity scholars, notably Paul Kennedy, were making their names in navalhistory, or at least the naval aspects of economic history and high policy. Thesetrends gathered pace in the late 1980s, with substantial contributions to navalhistory by established university scholars who had made their reputations in otherfields. During this decade the proportion of doctoral and other theses in navalhistory completed in British universities rose for the first time to a substantialfraction of those in "maritime" history. ~ What did not happen was anysignificant number of new appointments to university departments of scholarswith such interests. When so few posts were being filled anyway, a department'smajor interests always took priority. The renewed vigour of the subject wasindicated by the interest shown in it by established scholars rather than by newappointments. Only the King's College Department of War Studies could besaid to have a continued, if not central concern for the subject, and in 1992 itappointed its first naval historian to a lectureship.    By contrast, the position of

20  "Editor's Preface" toJ.R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissatice Europe 1450-1620 (Leicester: 1985), p.7.

It should be noted that the Regius Chair is in the gift of the Crown, not the University.

David Loades, The Tudor Navy: An Administrative, Political and Military History (AJdershot: 1992);Bernard Capp, Cromwell's Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution 1648-1660 (Oxford: 1989); Loadesis Professor of History at the University College of North Wales, Capp is Reader in History at theUniversity of Warwick; they represent the schools of Sir Geoffrey Elton and Christopher Hillrespectively. One might also cite the eminent military historian John Terraine's Business in Great Waters:The U-Boat Wars 1916—1945 (London: 1989), though he has never held a university post.

See Table 1: doctoral theses on naval subjects represented 18 percent of those in maritime historyin general in the 1950s, 40 percent in the 1960s, and 42 percent in the 1970s and 1980s.

Hitherto, the subject had been sustained by the volunteer and part-time efforts of two successiveProfessors from the P^oyal Naval College Greenwich, Bryan Ranft, and Geoffrey Till. It is also worthmentioning that on filling each of the last two vacancies in the Harmsworth Professorship, the electorswere instructed not to ignore the claims of naval historians, though the chair was advertised in termscalculated to discourage them, and none was appointed.

maritime history, like that of all minority subjects in universities, tended to weaken.Several of its leading practitioners retired or died during the crisis years and werenot replaced. Possibly it also suffered from a reaction against economics, by no meansthe most admired and respected academic discipline of the 1990s. The maritimehistorians had always been interested especially in the economics of trade and thebusiness history of shipping firms, and had tended to see history from the perspectiveof the boardroom rather than the forecastle or the quarterdeck. They were notperfectly placed to profit from the post-war interest in social history.

University historians in general, preoccupied with survival in the 1980s, weretaken somewhat by surprise by the rise in the popularity of history as a subject amongthe general public. At the very time when professors of history were publiclyagonising over the future of their discipline, amateur historians of every age andcondition were tackling a remarkable range of subjects with skills ranging from thenegligible to the sophisticated, but with an enthusiasm which some academics hadlost for ever. One engine driving this movement was the growth of local historyamong adults, and of school "projects," often in local history, among children.Another was the rapid rise in genealogy, which has been the route by which manybeginners have advanced to historical knowledge of some sort, often no more thanantiquarianism, but in some cases attaining the level of serious scholarship. Navaland maritime history has certainly participated in this popular revival. One inter-esting symptom of public enthusiasm has been the revival of the naval historicalnovel. Originally a product of the early nineteenth century, rediscovered in the1940s by OS. Forester, it has become a phenomenon of modern publishing and inPatrick O'Brian has produced one of the best modern English novelists.Another symptom has been the increase in the number of maritime museumsand of people eager to visit them. The Merseyside Maritime Museum, theScottish Maritime Museum, the Royal Naval Museum, the SubmarineMuseum and Chatham Historic Dockyard are among the best-known estab-lished within the last twenty years, and there are many smaller institutions.Coupled with them has been the rapid increase in the number of historicships preserved and open to the public. Where a generation ago there waslittle more than the Victory and the Cutty Sark, there are now literally scoresof preserved ships large and small. Among the most notable recent additionsare the Tudor warship Mary Rose, the sailing frigates Unicorn and Trincomalee(ex-Foudroyanf), Brunei's Great Eastern, Scott's Discovery, the cruiser Belfast,the Royal Navy's first submarine Holland No. 1, and its first ironclad battleshipthe Warrior. It is still an open question whether maritime history benefitted anymore than, say, military history, country houses, or industrial museums from theboom years of the 1980s, and it is already clear that there is now a serious problemin generating sufficient income to support the number of ships    which has grown

And museums: some of the smaller maritime museums, notably the Exeter Maritime Museum, areknown or rumoured to be in serious financial difficulties.

even faster than public enthusiasm, but on the most pessimistic assessment thereis now a large public interest in maritime history which did not exist twentyyears ago.

Until very recently, university history departments lacked the money and thefreedom of manouvre to respond to it. Only now is this beginning to change,and one reason for the change is the growing tendency for university financesto be to some extent "market-driven." Universities are being obliged, somemore reluctantly than others, to recruit growing numbers of students from awider range of ages and qualifications than before and to compete for them ona basis on the range and quality of their teaching. Specialist post-graduate courses,until recently unusual in British university history, are proliferating, and it isbecoming common for departments to be credited with part of the fees theybring to the university by recruiting people onto their courses. This gives theman incentive to identify and promote popular subjects and to tap the enthusiasmof amateur historians with the time (and, most importantly, the money) toengage in serious study. Among the fruits of this new situation is the Centre forMaritime Historical Studies at Exeter University, established in 1991, whichcombines existing lecturers from the separate departments of Economic andSocial History, and History and Archaeology. It is still necessary to establish a

Oft

special institution to associate naval and maritime historians, but the earlyindications are that the Centre is drawing substantial numbers of students to itscourses.

Maritime history is also attracting attention at other universities. At St.Andrew's, the Institute of Maritime Studies teaches an M.A. course in maritimearchaeology and runs a seminar in maritime history. The University College ofNorth Wales at Bangor now offers a B.A. degree in History and MarineArchaeology, which draws on Professor Loades's interest in naval history. TheEconomic and Social Research Council has funded two large studies of the Portof London by Professors Roseveare and Minchinton and Dr. Sarah Palmer ofQueen Mary College London. But these new projects do not yet have an assuredfuture, and it is not clear that departments and universities entering the field aredoing more than balancing the loss of others. The pattern for many years hasbeen of interest in maritime history generated by individual scholars, but thatinterest does not survive their departure. Southampton in Professor Bromley'stime, Liverpool for much of the post-war period, were centres of maritimehistory and are so no longer. The same may easily happen to other universitiesand colleges, and the same observation could be made of other minority subjects,such as diplomatic history, whose fortunes have depended on individual scholarsrather than established departments. Indeed there is an obvious connection

In Exeter, as in many universities, economic and "traditional" historians are in separate departments andbuildings.

Table 2 shows this quite clearly.

between foreign policy and naval history, and a number of historians areprominent in the recent revival of both. Underwater archaeology has provideda notable intellectual stimulus to maritime history in recent years, but it has not donemuch to bridge the traditional division between historians and archaeologists,so that here again maritime history suffers from fragmentation.

It is a mistake, however, to concentrate on universities alone, for much ofwhat institutional support the public enthusiasm for maritime history hasreceived, has come from other institutions. This has been notably the case withthe maritime museums. The National Maritime Museum has expanded itsactivities to run a range of lectures and courses, to support research fellowshipsin naval and maritime history, and to run a (heavily over-subscribed) conferencefor new researchers in maritime history. To some extent these are intended toreplace the major scholarly projects for which curators nowadays seldom havetime, as well as to provide a home for serious scholarship in subjects notsupported by university departments. Other public institutions, notably thePublic Record OfEce and the record offices of counties and cities, have providedfacilities for a large increase in interest in naval and maritime history. At thePublic Record Office, where amateur historians make up more than three-quarters of the readers, naval and military records are the single most popularcategory of records used. Much of this use is not very sophisticated, but theamateur researchers, who include a significant minority of children, display anenthusiasm for research (and a respect for the archives) which are by no meansuniversal among professionals. Moreover there is evidence that they arewilling to explore a wider range of sources than professional historians, whoseresearch tends to be confined to the record classes cited in other people'sfootnotes.

Public institutions concerned to train officers for either the Navy or themerchant service have not made a notable contribution to naval and maritimehistory. The training of merchant navy officers ashore takes place in departmentsunconnected with history, by lecturers brought up as seafarers, engineers or navalarchitects, and there are only a few who maintain a serious interest in history.The former Naval Historical Branch of the Ministry of Defence is too small andoverworked to undertake scholarly projects of significance, and in recent yearshas been somewhat isolated from both academic and amateur historians. Youngofficers under training for the Royal Navy now spend only six months at the

28 Such as Dr. Jeremy Black of Durham, Dr. Michael Duffy of Exeter, and Dr. Hamish Scott of St.Andrew's.

But not necessarily with enthusiasm.

P.R.O. statistics from the early 1980s suggest that amateur researchers consult about three times asmany record classes as professionals, including many of value to the serious historian.

Dr. Ian Buxton, Reader in Marine Transport at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, is a notableexception.

Royal Naval College Dartmouth before going to sea, and no serious attemptis made to cram history into a curriculum already grossly overloaded. Thoseofficers who attend courses at the Royal Naval College Greenwich later in theircareer have some opportunity to make contact with naval history, but untilrecently it was unusual for them to take advantage of it. The Staff Course,however, has now been accredited as an M.A. degree, including options to studymaritime history, and in this, the first year of the new course, about a score ofofficers have chosen to study some history. The Professor of History andInternational Affairs at Greenwich, a historian of repute, is now teaching asignificant amount of history (as distinct from strategic studies) for the first timesince his appointment.

Outside public institutions, interest in naval and maritime history is sustainedby several historical societies, notably the Navy Records Society, which stillflourishes, and the Society for Nautical Research. The S.N.R. originally repre-sented the amateur and antiquarian interest, especially in medieval shipping,which the Navy Records Society did not accept as respectable, or at least useful.Throughout its history it has acted both as a society of (in most cases) amateurenthusiasts, and as a vehicle for scholarship of a high standard. It is not alwaysan easy balance to achieve, and for much of the past thirty years its journal, TheMariner's Mirror, has not been regarded in universities as a scholarly publicationof the first rank, but under its present editor, the quality of its articles has beenexcellent. At the same time it has not abandoned its original, not to say eccentriccharacter, which has retained the loyalty of a society with a membership of overtwo thousand. Unusually, among either academic or amateur bodies, the S.N.R.has never accepted the division between "naval" and "maritime" history, andhas always published material on an electric variety of "nautical" subjects andperiods, but it is perceived by many "maritime" (meaning economic) historiansas biased towards naval history, and this is certainly true of the interests of itsmembership. Undoubtedly the recent revival of The Mariner's Mirror owessomething to healthy competition from the new International Journal of MaritimeHistory.

The institutional division, and consequently the weakness, of naval andmaritime history in Britain is in contrast to the situation in many other countries,and it is worth mentioning contacts with other countries to illustrate aspects ofthe subject in Britain. The biennial Anglo-French Naval Historians' Conferen-ces, of which the fifth took place at Lorient in 1994, are now established andsuccessful, but it is noteworthy that the initiative came from the French Service

But engineer officers spend four years at R.N.C. Manadon, where they take a degree which includessome non-technical courses.

33  Professor Geoffrey Till.

Dr. Michael Duffy of the Exeter Centre for Maritime Historical Studies, who has started the practiceof "peer-review" of articles. The Review Editor, Dr. David Starkey, is also from the same Centre.

Historique de la Marine, which has published all the proceedings so far, and thatno public or private body could at first be found to take responsibility fororganising them in Britain, though the Society for Nautical Research has nowassumed the burden. Neither the Royal Navy nor any British university hasshown interest. When the Dutch Navy organized a conference on the occasionof the third centenary of the 1688 revolution, British historians were invitedand the British government was represented diplomatically, but the onlyinstitutional response was made possible by the generosity of a commercialsponsor. There appear to be no significant institutional links with maritimehistorians in Germany, Spain, or Italy, other than through the InternationalAssociation of Maritime Museums. The Association of North Sea Societies,"which organises a biennial conference, provides an important connectionbetween Britain, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, and the Netherlands,but it is largely confined to maritime historians in the narrow sense, particularlyhistorians of the fisheries. The International Commission for Maritime Historyat its international level does not appear to regard naval history as forming partof its subject, though the British Committee (in conjunction with the S.N.R.)organises a lively and eclectic lecture series covering every aspect of the subject.In international relations, where institutional coherence matters, the picture isone of disorganisation and division.

If we turn from the question of who organises research, to what subjects arebeing studied and how, we find that naval and maritime history is in manyrespects flourishing. It is true that maritime history in the narrow sense is sufferingfrom a smaller university base, but it remains strong, particularly in thenineteenth and twentieth centuries, the periods for which the materials survivefor economic and quantitative analysis and for business history. It has moreoverbeen enriched by contact with imperial historians, who have long been interestedin the economic causes and consequences of empire, and have lately noticedthat it was ships which bound the British Empire together. The result has beensome notable studies of merchant shipping in relation to wider issues.    A good

The first British conference of the series, at Portsmouth in 1988, was organised by an ad hoc committeewith much support from Hampshire County Council and Portsmouth City Council, but none at allfrom the Royal Navy.

At the Koninklijke Instituut voor de Marine at Den Helder: its proceedings were published as Naviesand Armies: The Anglo-Dutch Relationship in War and Peace 1688-1988, ed. G.J.A. Raven and N.A.M.Rodger (Edinburgh: 1990).

1688: The Seaborne Alliance and the Diplomatic Revolution, the proceedings of a conference sponsoredby Shell International Petroleum (National Maritime Museum: 1989).38  The last was at Aberdeen in 1993.

Table 1 shows that the number of theses produced in maritime history has declined in recent years,but no more than the decline in university research in all subjects.

For example Andrew Porter's Victorian Shipping, Business and Imperial Policy: Donald Currie, the CastleLine and Southern Africa (Royal Historical Society: 1986).

deal of valuable work is being undertaken, much of it by amateurs, in the historyof the coasting trades and fisheries. For earlier periods it is more difficult to findevidence for commercial shipping, but there is a long and eminent tradition ofextracting the history of medieval shipping and overseas trade from the CustomsPorts Books. It is particularly interesting to observe that historians of thesixteenth and early seventeenth centuries—a period in which it always madeparticularly little sense to distinguish naval and maritime history—are nowtreating overseas trade, exploration, piracy, privateering, and naval warfare as acommon subject. There is still a tendency for scholars to stick to the recordsthey are familiar with—the naval historians with the State Papers, theprivateersmen with the High Court of Admiralty and so on—but themovement is in the right direction, and it is to be hoped that it will be imitatedin other periods in which the academic demarcation lines have not been muchcrossed.

Naval history has undoubtedly suffered from its isolation from the academicworld, but it has at least preserved an electric variety and profited from theexplosion of popular interest in all aspects of history. The present century,especially the Second World War and more recent naval wars which are withinliving memory, continue to attract immense public enthusiasm and to justifylarge numbers of publications of varying levels of scholarship. The eighteenthand nineteenth centuries are attracting strong interest again, especially in suchareas as the technical history of warships, where our understanding has beentransformed by recent research. A number of outstanding younger scholars areworking in seventeenth century naval history. Naval administration has receiveda good deal of attention, and such important auxiliary subjects as naval medicinehave been attacked from various directions. "The Navy as an instrument ofpolicy" is once again receiving serious attention and figures prominently inrecent books on grand strategy and diplomacy, as well as in the studies ofeconomic historians interested in the relationship between Britain's maritime,colonial, and economic expansion. The social history of the Navy, however,and of seafarers in general, remains largely unexplored, and the naval andmaritime history of the Middle Ages is very much neglected. Moreover the studyof actual warlike operations remains much less popular than hitherto, and studyof tactics in battle is now completely abandoned.

Dr. Wendy Childs of Leeds University is the best-known scholar now working in this field.

Such as H.M. Scott's British Foreign Policy in the Age of the American Revolution (Oxford: 1990).

Notably Professor P.K. O'Brien, now Director of the Institute of Historical Research of LondonUniversity.

The recent publication of Brian Tunstall's Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail: The Evolution of FightingTactics 1650-1815, ed. Nicholas Tracy (London: 1990), is an apparent rather than a real exception, asthe book was largely written in the 1930s.

A valuable collaborative work, The New Maritime History of Devon, combinesthe work of a large number of maritime and naval historians. It is particularlyencouraging not only that it attempts to span the full width of the subject, butthat the editors have chosen contributors from a variety of institutions and walksof life other than universities. Moreover, it was supported by the LeverhulmeTrust and the British Academy as well as other national and local sponsors. Thisis one approach which evidently has the potential to heal many of the damagingdivisions and weaknesses within the subject. It is, however, a complex,expensive, and unwieldy one, and not likely to be suitable for general application;nor does the assembling of contributions, from many hands, on everything todo with the sea necessarily define the subject.

There remain many areas and periods of maritime history which have beenneglected, but it may be suggested that the most urgent wants are less thecoverage of neglected topics than the definition of the subject. At present,maritime history suffers from a lack of coherence. It is neither clearly identifiedas a discrete subject nor properly integrated into national and internationalhistory at large. It may seem paradoxical to suggest that a subject fragmentedamong many departments is yet not properly connected with any of them, butin practice it is easier to ignore a minority subject on the periphery of your owninterests than a subject of major importance to others. If the importance ofmaritime history is to be recognized, it must be understood as forming anessential element in all sorts of history, but the best way of demonstrating thatit does is to define it as a coherent subject in itself. Naval and maritime historywould be stronger if it had more practitioners with the ability and the self-con-fidence to write big books, which would both define and project the subject.Here the lack of institutional base tells, for few historians outside universities(and fewer and fewer within them at present) have the time to write books ona grand scale. Many excellent books and articles on diverse aspects of the subjectare being written, but we need historians able to take a large view and presentthe sweep of maritime history, both to a public hungry to read it and to thelearned readers who need to be educated in its importance. At present journalistsrush in where historians fear to tread, not always with happy results. In thisconnection it matters that no body in Britain giving grants for historical research,with the limited exception of the Leverhulme Trust, will accept applicationsfrom persons not holding full-time university posts. No other institution, not

Vol. I, From Early Times to the Late Eighteenth Century, eds. Michael Duffy, Stephen Fisher, BasilGreenhill, David J. Starkey and Joyce Youings (London: 1992); Vol. II is not yet published. This workwas begun before the formal institution of the Centre for Maritime Historical Studies but is closelyassociated with it.

The contributors to the first volume are as follows: thirteen university historians, three universityscholars of other subjects, two lecturers in other institutes of higher education, six museum staff, threeofficials of other public institutions, and five others.

The possibility of a similar work on Cornwall is now being investigated.

even the British Museum, is regarded as a home of respectable scholarship.Without financial backing, few people will have the luck or ingenuity to supporta big book.

It must also be said that not all historians are completely qualified to doso. Parochialism is a real weakness of both naval and maritime history inBritain, which is too often vigorous but narrow. This is a natural weaknessin the self-taught amateur, and not as rare as it should be among people withan academic training. It is especially unfortunate that a subject which by itsvery nature is an international one, the history of the sea which brings menof different nations together in war and peace, is usually written from anational if not from a nationalist perspective. Though many British historiansstudy the history of other countries, very few are interested in foreignnavies. Comparative studies of one nation with another are extremely rare,and much published work is still more or less monoglot. " This is not aproblem confined to Britain, or to maritime history, but it is a serious flawin any sort of scholarship.

So the state of naval and maritime history in Britain is in many respectsvigorous and hopeful, but there remain notable weaknesses. The subject hasnever been more popular among the general public, and its inclusion in thenew National Curriculum for English schools ought to ensure that it remainsso. University departments that recognize and exploit this popularity oughtto profit by doing so as well as strengthen the subject in process. At the sametime it would be rash to ignore the existence of prejudice against it amongacademics of an older generation, meaning the generation now at the headof their profession. At a time when university departments are being gradedon the quality of their research by committees of their peers, departmentsfear that exploiting vulgar popularity will earn them a low mark and losethem research funds. This matters, because no institutions outside universitiesare likely to be able to provide the support the subject needs if its importanceis to be recognised. The national museums, especially the National MaritimeMuseum, are hard-pressed to cover their core responsibilities and unlikely tobe able to increase their backing. The Navy sees almost no value in the studyof history for its officers and is indifferent to the rise of popular interest innaval history, which, with imaginative handling, might do much for theNavy's popular constituency. Maybe the Navy's decision to participate in thecelebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of the Atlantic in May

48 An exception is R.A. Stradling of the University of Wales, Cardiff, author of The Armada of Flanders:Spanish Maritime Policy and European War 1568-1668 (Cambridge: 1992).

Capp's Cromwell's Navy recently offered an unfortunate example; the author was unaware ofHans-Christoph Junge's Flottenpolitik und Revolution: Die Enstehung der englishchen Seemacht wahrend derHerrschaft Cromwells (Stuttgart: 1980), which had already covered much of the same ground.

56     Britain

1993 marks a change of heart, but we are still very remote from any officialsupport for naval or maritime history.

Of all the desiderata, it may be suggested, the most to be wished for issome large books, conceived of with breadth and imagination, written witha skill to attract the general public, founded on scholarship which will compelacademic acceptance, and sold too widely to be ignored. This may seem atall order, but it has been done in our own day by historians, including onewho made his name in naval history, and it could be done again. Whatmaritime history needs is essentially the same as history in general needs—astrong scholarly base linked to wide popular interest. A good deal of that isin place already, but the situation will remain unsatisfactory until the subjectis better recognized in universities.

Table 1: University Theses by Subject, 1900-1990

1900-091910-191920-291930-391940-491950-591960-691970-791980-90Totals

Source: A Select Bibliography of British and Irish University Theses about Maritime History, 1792—1990,eds. David M. Williams and Andrew P. White, International Maritime Economic HistoryAssociation, Research in Maritime History No. 1 (St. John's: Newfoundland, 1991).

The figures in table 1 are for doctoral theses plus masters' theses (includingB.Litt. and B.Phil.). In this table "Naval" includes combined operations,grand strategy and war planning; "Maritime" includes commercial shipping,overseas trade, fisheries and ports (other than dockyard ports); "Both"includes piracy, privateering, seaborne trade in wartime, and the connectionsbetween commerce, strategy, and policy. Economic geography, maritimelaw, and tourism are not included. Theses dealing with periods less thantwenty years earlier than the date of submission have been excluded as dealingwith current affairs rather than history. The classifications are based on thethesis titles and are inevitably subjective, so the figures should be taken asindicative only.

| Naval  | Maritime | Both  | Total   |
|--------|----------|-------|---------|
| 0      | 4+5      | 1 + 1 | 5+6     |
| 0+5    | 1 + 12   | 2+1   | 3+18    |
| 1+5    | 5+39     | 4+4   | 10+48   |
| 6+12   | 36+50    | 4+8   | 46+70   |
| 5+3    | 11+20    | 5+0   | 21+23   |
| 6+11   | 55+40    | 6+5   | 67+56   |
| 29+17  | 58+37    | 9+3   | 96+57   |
| 56+14  | 96+61    | 14+9  | 166+84  |
| 50+12  | 86+41    | li+2  | 147+55  |
| 153+79 | 352+305  | 56+33 | 561+417 |

)  Paul M. Kennedy, author of The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery and The Rise and Fall of theGreat Powers.

Rodger     57

Table 2: Theses of Selected Universities, 1900-1990

|         | Liverpool | Exeter | London | Oxfor |
|---------|-----------|--------|--------|-------|
| 1900-09 | 0         | 0      | 5      | 3     |
| 1910-19 | 1         | 0      | 11     | 1     |
| 1920-29 | 1         | 0      | 22     | 6     |
| 1930-39 | 6         | 0      | 45     | 27    |
| 1940-49 | 1         | 0      | 12     | 5     |
| 1950-59 | 6         | 0      | 51     | 17    |
| 1960-69 | 11        | 4      | 65     | 15    |
| 1970-79 | 16        | 19     | 59     | 32    |
| 1980-90 | 6         | 6      | 48     | 22    |

Cambridge   St. Andrew's Wales

0

0

4

4

413192412

| 0 | 1 |
|---|---|
| 0 | 3 |
| 0 | 7 |
| 0 | 8 |
| 0 | 2 |
| 0 | 5 |
| 1 | 6 |
| 5 | 9 |
| 7 | 4 |

48 29 318 128 80 13 45

In this table the theses are those listed in table 1 from the three most prominent"research universities" and some others with interests in maritime history.

6Maritime History in Canada

The Social and Economic Dimensions

Lewis R. Fischer and Gerald E. Panting

Canada is a nation with a significant maritime heritage. The aboriginalpeoples who first occupied the land were overwhelmingly maritime inorientation. The earliest Europeans to visit the shores of the "New Found Land"were attracted principally by the lure of maritime resources, and they built therichest fishery in the world. The non-aboriginal portion of the population wascomprised overwhelmingly of intra-continental migrants, most of whom arrivedby sea. Until the coming of the railways in the middle of the nineteenth century,settlements almost always abutted water, and the penetration of the great NorthAmerican landmass utilized the system of rivers and lakes that cut deeply intothe continent. In the nineteenth century Canada built upon its comparativeadvantages to amass the third largest merchant fleet in the world. In the currentcentury, offshore resources, especially oil, offer the promise of the latest in aseries of resource booms that have shaped much of the Canadian experience.

Given the importance of marine features to its history—and as one of the fewcountries in the world to border on three oceans—it might be imagined thatmaritime topics would occupy a central place in the national consciousness. Suchan assumption, however, would be erroneous. That maritime interests havealways been peripheral to Canadians reflects a reality similar to that in the UnitedStates: the main currents of our historical thought have always been concernedwith the dramatic saga of filling what Europeans perceived to be an "empty"continent. As in the U.S., the North American landmass has been associatedwith progress and opportunity; the sea, on the other hand, has been a moatwhich protects us from the depravity from which our ancestors fled in the old

world. Moreover, as a non-imperialist nation, Canadians have never seen the

•i

sea as a route to expansion, as have the people of many other nations.

Canadian expansionism has assumed an economic rather than a political character. In particular, thishas been reflected in the penetration by Canadian banks into certain parts of the Caribbean and Canadianresource companies into various parts of Latin America. But as a nation which has traditionally beenmore concerned with protecting its sovereignty from the American leviathan, the activities of Canadianbusinesses overseas remain virtually unknown to the majority of the population.

As a result, maritime history in Canada has not been blessed with a surfeit ofpublic support. To make matters worse, the subject has been largely ignored inCanadian universities. While in part this reflects the state of public interest, muchof the responsibility for this state of affairs rests with those who have chosen tostudy maritime subjects. Many of the questions posed by maritime historianshave not been illuminated by mainstream scholarly ideas or debates, and a gooddeal of maritime history in Canada—as in most of the rest of the world—hasbeen compromised by an unhealthy dose of antiquarianism. These characteristicshave often made it difficult for the bulk of the historical profession to takemaritime history seriously.

Fortunately, there is evidence that the constraints which have preventedmaritime history from being central to the way we think about the past are beingovercome. A new awareness of the importance of the maritime past has beenreflected in the past two decades by the construction of major new maritimemuseums in Halifax and Kingston, Ontario, as well as the opening of a spate ofsmaller museums elsewhere. As well, many of our more established museums,such as the Maritime Museum of British Columbia, are undergoing significantfacelifts and expansions, even in a time of general fiscal restraint. Maritimeheritage organizations and societies for marine enthusiasts grew substantially inthe 1980s and show no signs of stagnation in the 1990s.

The scholarly community has also been part of this ferment. A new generationof scholars is finally asking questions of interest to other historians, who areconversely beginning to comprehend the way that the fruits of maritimehistorical research can illuminate their own scholarship. These relatively newphenomena have led to an expansion in the number of scholars willing to identifythemselves as maritime historians as well as to growth in the number of coursesand programs offered.

All of this makes us reasonably optimistic about the state of maritime historyin the Dominion. This paper presents evidence to support this assessment. Ourconcern is with the state of non-naval maritime scholarship in Canada. Despitethe intellectual artificiality of separating naval and non-naval maritime scholar-ship, as a heuristic tool this division has some justification. This is because inimportant ways the Canadian contribution to the study of the social andeconomic aspects of maritime history has been relatively greater than in many

To refer to the non-naval side of the topic, we will generally use the term "maritime history." Thisconforms to the distinction between naval topics and the remainder of the historical study of man'srelationship to the sea first suggested by the Robert G. Albion in his series of bibliographies; see Maritimeand Naval History: An Annotated Bibliography (Cambridge, Mass.: 1951). This semantic convention wasenunciated even more clearly by Robin Craig in his editorial in the first issue of the journal MaritimeHistory, I (1971), pp. 1—3, and by the late Ralph Davis in his review essay, "Maritime History: Progressand Problems," in Sheila Marriner ed., Business and Businessmen: Studies in Business, Economic andAccounting History (Liverpool: 1978), p. 169. We are grateful to David M. Williams for drawing thesereferences to our attention.

other nations. While this is certainly not true if measured by the quantity ofscholarly output, the judgement is defensible when Canadian scholarship isplaced in international perspective. Although space does not permit us to set outthe complete international context, a careful comparison of the Canadiancontribution with what is described elsewhere in this volume will, we believe,sustain this point.

We make no pretence in this essay to being complete, and we apologize thatso much of importance has necessarily been omitted. Our focus is on Canadianscholars and scholarship, and we have little to say about maritime history in itsmore "popular" manifestations. This same caveat extends to our discussion ofhistorians, university programmes, and historiography. For the most part weintend to focus on those areas in which we believe Canadians have madeparticularly significant contributions and to a lesser extent on areas in whichCanada has been especially weak; we generally exclude the great middle groundfrom consideration. Likewise, we will have little to say about non-historianswho probe the maritime past except where they have had a demonstrableinfluence on the work of historians. Although we recognize the legitimate roleof those from other disciplines, to make the subject manageable requires us tosharpen our focus.

We begin by examining the Canadian scholarly community with an interestin maritime history. The place of maritime history in Canadian universities isdealt with in the second part. The third section discusses scholarly organizationsand journals dealing with maritime history. The final part of the paper focuseson some important Canadian contributions in the realm of scholarly publishing.Although our focus will be on scholarship about Canada written by Canadians,it would be parochial to ignore the contributions of non-Canadians who havewritten about this country or the achievements of those who have focused onthe historical experience elsewhere. Because our purpose is to present a pictureof the state of maritime scholarship in Canada today, we will limit our discussionin the last section to works written since the mid-1970s, with a particularemphasis on what has been produced in the last decade.

Canadian Maritime Scholars

One of the authors present has conducted several surveys in the past few yearsof Canadian maritime scholars. They are worth citing here, both as an introduc-tion to the Canadian maritime scholarly community and as a context in whichto place it. In 1987 the Canadian Nautical Research Society (CNRS), theCanadian sub-commission of the International Commission for Maritime His-tory (ICMH), published a research directory in its newsletter, ARGONAUT A. A

While the term "scholarly community" in this paper includes historians employed not only inuniversities and community colleges but also in archives and museums, we do not intend in this essayto discuss the state of Canadian museums and archives.

breakdown of the directory shows that approximately two-thirds of the scholarlymembership had a primary focus on maritime rather than naval topics.4 Ananalysis of an updated directory published in 1990 yielded similar results. Whilethe membership of CNRS is not perfectly representative of Canadian maritimescholars, we estimate that about 90 percent of the historians who have mademaritime topics a significant part of their research are included in one or theother of the directories. The naval to non-naval ratio underscores the relativeimportance of non-naval topics in Canada. This is in stark contrast to findingselsewhere. A breakdown of the U.S. membership in the North AmericanSociety for Oceanic History (NASOH) shows that the relationship between navaland non-naval scholars is almost exactly the obverse of Canada. And a publishedstudy of German maritime historians shows that the vast majority have navalrather than maritime interests. Canada is thus somewhat unique in having sucha high proportion of maritime specialists.

A spatial analysis of the interests of Canadian maritime scholars suggests itsstrengths and weaknesses. The largest concentrations were concerned withthe East Coast and the Great Lakes—St. Lawrence system; together, theycomprised the geographic foci of about two-thirds of Canadian maritimescholars. The Arctic and the West Coast account for almost a quarter,although the proportions would be higher if we included scholars interestedin contemporary events in the Arctic and non-historians for the West Coast.About 10 percent of Canadian maritime scholars are interested in internationalmaritime history. The international component is certainly higher than inmost European countries, although it is not clear if it is higher than in the U.S.Nonetheless, it reflects a condition to which we will return later in the paper:the fact that some Canadian scholars have attempted to study maritime historyin a larger, less place-specific context than is the case in many other nations.Not surprisingly, the largest components of this international group have beeninterested in topics such as merchant shipping and exploration.

In a nation which by world standards has a relatively short history, it is notsurprising that the vast majority of Canadian maritime historians have focusedon the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Those scholars who study earlier

4 For a full discussion of the interests of members, see Lewis R. Fischer, "Maritime History aroundthe World: Canada, ARGONAUTA, V, no. 2 (March 1988), pp. 2-4. The directory appeared inARGONAUTA, IV, no. 4 (October 1987). For an opposing view, see Eric W. Sager, "Counterpoint,"ARGONAUTA, V, nos. 2-3 (June-September 1988), pp. 6-7.

5 ARGONAUTA, VII, Special Supplement (October 1990).

This estimate is, of course, somewhat arbitrary, since maritime history cuts across a variety of othersub-disciplines. We make this estimate based upon our knowledge of the field rather than on any preciseempirical criteria.

See Rolf Walter, "Maritime History in Germany," Maritime Economic History Group Neivsletter, I, no.2 (September 1987).

periods tend to be concentrated in exploration, ethno-history, and the fisheriesof the East Coast and the St. Lawrence Paver.

The vast majority of Canadian maritime historians writing scholarly worksare employed in universities. Unlike in many European nations, Canadianmaritime museums have not traditionally funded research posts only tangentially

Q

related to the mounting of exhibits. A similar survey taken twenty or thirtyyears ago would likely have found a larger contribution from archives, but theprofessionalization of archival work has reduced the number of historiansemployed in such repositories who are able to devote a significant amount oftime to scholarship. Since maritime scholarship in Canada has clearly beenconcentrated in universities—and since it is in the universities that new maritimehistorians are being trained—an examination of the place of maritime history inacademe is essential for comprehending the state of the field.

Maritime History in Canadian Universities

At an international congress in the mid-1980s, an informal poll was taken amongthe maritime historians in attendance concerning their training. Not surprisingly,the overwhelming majority indicated that their graduate preparation was in some-thing other than "maritime history." On one level, this is not surprising. After all,the techniques of business history can be applied equally well to studying a steelcompany or a shipping firm; the insights of social history are applicable to bothlandward and maritime-oriented groups; and so on. Indeed, maritime historiansneed to admit that their field has no discrete boundaries to separate it from otherhistorical experiences and no particular set of insights or approaches which mark itas a distinct historical sub-discipline. Yet it is also true that a focus on the relationshipbetween man and the sea provides a clear distinction from which to build asub-discipline. Moreover, maritime history has spawned a literature which, if notwholly separate from other realms of history, at least contains some commoncharacteristics. This suggests that it ought to be possible to develop undergraduateand graduate programs in maritime history and hence to produce a body of graduateswith unique perspectives and knowledge. Such programs will of course not beisolated from other parts of the discipline; rather, they will borrow insights andapproaches where necessary.

If we accept that it is legitimate to offer programs in maritime history, wemust also concede that Canada has been slow to develop identifiable courses andprograms in the field. This does not make the country unique; indeed, a survey

Q

Although some European museum people might take exception to this characterization, it must beassessed comparatively. It is unquestionable that relative to conditions in North America museumemployees in Europe (at least outside Britain) in general have more time for research.

Another argument for providing training in maritime history is that traditional preparation, organizedas it is for the most part around national histories, may not be the most appropriate approach forunderstanding what is, after all, one of the most international of phenomena.

of the state of the teaching of maritime history in most other countries wouldproduce strikingly similar results. It is therefore safe to say that the majority ofthe next generation of maritime historians will be trained in more or less thesame way as were their predecessors.

But this will not be true for the entire new generation of Canadian maritimehistorians. The number of universities which offer regular courses in maritimehistory is increasing gradually and currently includes Dalhousie and Queen'sUniversity, as well as the Universities of Calgary, British Columbia, and Victoria.A number of others offer maritime courses on an irregular basis. But the school withthe greatest commitment to maritime history is Memorial University of New-foundland, which is the only institution in North America to offer a regular program

of both undergraduate and graduate courses in the field. Indeed, to our knowledge,

1 nonly the University of Leiden in the Netherlands offers comparable training.

Memorial's core undergraduate program is not all-inclusive. Instead, it focuseson the maritime history of the North Atlantic since 1450. In addition, there area series of advanced seminars in specific aspects of maritime history and a varietyof supplemental cognate courses. On the graduate level, Memorial offers a seriesof seminars leading to both the MA and PhD degrees. Since the program isrelatively new, it is too early to judge its success with any degree of confidence.But it does represent an acceptance of the significant role that maritime historyhas to play in the training of undergraduate and graduate students.

In early 1991 we did a survey of graduate theses currently in progress in maritimehistory at Canadian universities. To compile this overview, we contacted everydirector of graduate history programs at all Canadian universities. Although somefailed to respond, most did. At the time there were seventeen theses underway, nineof which were on non-naval topics. Of the latter group, six were being pursued atMemorial (four PhDs and two MAs); the others were being written at theUniversities of Guelph, New Brunswick, and York.

It is clear that regardless of how the Memorial program evolves, many (andperhaps most) future Canadian maritime historians will be trained in traditionalways. Basically, this means that they will write maritime theses at a variety ofuniversities. Although many will be supervised by maritime historians, they willnot be trained specifically in maritime history.

Canadian Maritime History Organizations and Journals

In most nations in which maritime history has a reasonably high profile, thereare a variety of organizations to encourage and promote its study. Many such

10 In the U.S., the Williams College program may develop similarly, as may East Carolina's program,if that school is ever granted approval to offer the PhD. Texas A&M offers a similarly comprehensiveprogram in nautical archaeology.

11 The graduate student research directories appeared in ARGONAUTA, VIII, No. 1 (January 1991)and no. 2 (April 1991).

Fischer and Panting     65

groups, such as the World Ship Society and the Steamboat Historical Society,are unabashedly popular in orientation, providing a home for enthusiasts andonly occasionally promoting what we recognize as scholarship. Others, such asthe Society for Nautical Research (SNR) in Britain, are umbrella organizationswhich cater to both enthusiasts and scholars. There are relatively few maritimeorganizations which are devoted solely to scholarly work.

Canada has some of each type of organization. Those that have enjoyed themost rapid growth in the past two decades are almost certainly the support groupswhich have evolved around maritime museums and heritage societies. Whilethey deserve recognition for the important work they have done in helping toalter the public consciousness, their accomplishments fall outside the purviewof this paper. In keeping with the focus enunciated in the introduction, wewould like to concentrate here on the second two categories.

Canada's equivalent to the SNR, or to NASOH in the U.S., is the Canadian

Nautical Research Society (CNRS), which is also the Canadian national commission

19of the International Commission for Maritime History.    Current membership is

approximately three hundred, about one-third of whom are actively engaged inscholarly research and writing. While CNRS is far from the largest of the twenty-three national commissions that comprise ICMH, a reflection of its success is that it

has roughly twice the membership of NASOH, although Canada's population is

1 ^only one-tenth that of the United States.     CNRS seeks to promote interest in

maritime history through an annual conference, a series of awards for books andarticles to honour excellence in Canadian maritime history, and by publishing botha quarterly newsletter, ARGONAUTA, and a quarterly scholarly journal, TheNorthern Mariner/Le Marin du nord. CNRS members also frequently are membersof other marine organizations, although the goals of many of these societies tend tobe popular rather than scholarly. Many Canadian maritime historians are alsomembers of NASOH. Indeed, NASOH's immediate past president, Barry Gough,is a distinguished Canadian maritime historian.

To achieve its goal of promoting Canadian maritime scholarship, the publi-cation of The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du nord is probably the most significantactivity of CNRS. TNM/LMN, which began in 1991, accepts both naval andmaritime articles. Its first ten issues have contained a variety of essays on maritimehistorical subjects, including Canadian whaling, fishing, harbour development,shipbuilding, merchant shipping, and the Arctic. Especially significant has been

Like CNRS, NASOH is a national commission affiliated with ICMH. SNR, on the other hand, isnot the British national commission.

1 "\

Lest the comparison prove offensive, we should admit that about 10 percent of the CNRSmembership is drawn from abroad, with the U.S. providing the largest component. But it is also thecase, as we suggest below, that many Canadians are members of NASOH.

Both of these publications are published at Memorial University of Newfoundland and edited byLewis R. Fischer, Gerald E. Panting, and Olaf U. Janzen.

the development of what is arguably the most comprehensive maritime bookreview section in the world. TNM/LMN has been averaging about sixty reviewsper issue; its policy is to attempt to review all books on Canadian maritimehistory and the most important volumes published elsewhere, including anumber written in languages other than English.

Also important for promoting the scholarly study of Canada's maritime pastare the Keith Matthews Awards, presented annually to the best book and bestarticle either on a Canadian marine subject or by a Canadian on a foreign topic.There are also honourable mentions awarded at the discretion of the committee.The book award, which was inaugurated in 1984, has gone to non-naval booksabout half the time. The article award, which began in 1985, has been dominatedby non-naval essays.

Canada also occupies a key role in the umbrella organization of which CNRSis a part, the International Commission for Maritime History. The Secretary-General of ICMH is currently Canadian, which means that the secretariat of thelargest international maritime and naval organization is in Canada. ICMH'snewsletter, ICMHNews, is edited at Memorial University of Newfoundland.Moreover, the next quinquennial congress of the ICMH, traditionally the largestmaritime history conference in the world, will be held in Montreal in 1995 andis being organized by a Canadian. This prominent role in ICMH helps to ensuregreater visibility for Canadian scholarship in international circles.

Canadians also play significant roles in the only international maritime historyorganization solely for scholars. This is the International Maritime EconomicHistory Association (IMEHA), which is concerned principally with theeconomic and social aspects of maritime history. Founded in 1986, one of thetwo Vice-Presidents is a Canadian, as are both the Secretary and the Treasurer.As with the ICMH, the secretariat of the IMEHA is located at Memorial.

The IMEHA also sponsors an international scholarly congress every fouryears. The First International Congress of Maritime History, held in Liver-pool, England, in August 1992 attracted more than one-hundred scholarsfrom over thirty nations. Fifteen percent of the papers were presented byCanadians.

In addition, the IMEHA publishes the leading scholarly journal in maritimehistory, the International Journal of Maritime History. Although the IJMH, whichbegan publishing in 1989, has an international focus, it has included a respectablesample of Canadian maritime writing. The IMEHA also publishes monographs,

It is worth noting, however, that Marc Milner, who contributes an essay on Canadian naval history to thisvolume, was a winner of the article award in 1989 for his essay "The Implications ofTechnological Backwardness:The Royal Canadian Navy: 1939-1945," Canadian Defense Quarterly, DC, no. 3 (Winter 1989).

The Second International Congress of Maritime History will be held in Amsterdam in 1996; thethird will be in Esbjerg, Denmark, in the year 2000.

Fischer and Panting    67bibliographies and reprints in a regular series entitled Research in Maritime

17

History. Both are edited and published at Memorial.

There is one other Canadian maritime journal that publishes a reasonableproportion of scholarly essays. FreshWater, a journal of Great Lakes maritimehistory published at the Marine Museum of the Great Lakes in Kingston, has ina short time attained a reputation for scholarly publishing at least equal to itsAmerican counterpart, Inland Seas. But because its subscription list is heavilyweighted toward museum supporters, it is unlikely that Fresh Water will everbecome primarily a scholarly journal.

On balance, we feel safe in asserting that Canadian maritime historians arewell-served by the existing maritime organizations and journals in the country.Although precise comparisons are difficult, given the size of the community wewould judge that Canadian maritime scholars are served at least as well as anycomparable group in the world.

Recent Canadian Contributions to Maritime Historical Scholarship

Any judgement about the state of Canadian maritime history scholarshipdepends on the approach adopted. For example, within the country somegeographic regions, such as the East Coast, have been reasonably well-servedwhile others, such as the West Coast, have been studied less adequately byscholars. Canadians have made major contributions in the histories of merchantshipping, methodology, fishing (including whaling and sealing), and maritimesocial and economic history, but have been relatively neglectful of topics suchas the history of shipping firms and the impact of technological change. AmongCanadian scholars whose focus has been outside the country, it is more difficultto discern any particular specialties.

Ultimately, though, a balanced evaluation depends on the choice of criteria.If we assess their contribution to national scholarship, Canadian scholars farebetter than if we use international recognition as a standard. This should not betaken as a criticism, however, since there is little doubt that a similar verdictcould be made about maritime historians virtually anywhere. Our view is thaton balance the Canadian contribution has been above average. To support thiscontention we examine below some of the main trends in recent Canadianmaritime scholarship.

The Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Maritime History is Lewis R. Fischer, who also isseries editor of Research in Maritime History.

1 ft

FreshWater is edited by a board including Maurice D. Smith, M. Stephen Salmon, Walter Lewis,Ken Macpherson, and Gordon D. Shaw.

The organization below is based loosely on a number of topics. The discerning reader will recognizethat many of the works discussed could have been included in two or more categories. To avoidrepetition, however, we have discussed particular books and articles only once.

One of the topics in which Canadians have made internationally recognizedcontributions is the history of merchant shipping, especially on the East Coast.Twenty years ago the recognized authority on the subject was still Frederick WilliamWallace, whose romantic and often antiquarian books dated from the 1920s. Thatthis has changed is largely, but not entirely, due to the work of individuals associatedwith the Atlantic Canada Shipping Project (ACSP) at Memorial University ofNewfoundland. Since both of the present authors were associated with thisproject, we feel compelled to admit that its reputation and output were at leastas much a function of the resources available as the people involved. This is notto deny that the ACSP benefitted from the talents of some exceptional scholars,especially the late Keith Matthews, who conceived of the study in the first place;the late David Alexander, who provided much of the intellectual direction; andEric W. Sager, who has gone on to become one of the most prolific and insightfulmaritime historians not only in Canada but also in the world. Yet without thebenefit of six years and more than $1 million, this project to examine the riseand decline of the eastern Canadian shipping industry in the nineteenth centurywould never have produced the results it did.

The best place for a neophyte to begin to understand the contributions of theACSP is with Eric Sager and Gerry Panting's Maritime Capital, which not onlysummarizes many of the project's conclusions but also extends the analysis in newdirections. Yet a full appreciation of the topics investigated by those associatedwith the project requires more comprehensive reading. The micro-level workof the ACSP can be found in six volumes of essays, which include not onlycontributions from project members but also papers by a wide range of nationaland international scholars for context. In addition, there are a series of otherpublications which contain material and insights not found in Maritime Capital.

See Frederick William Wallace, Wooden Ships and Iron Men (London: 1924); Wallace, In the Wakeof the Wind Ships (Toronto: 1927); Wallace, Record of Canadian Shipping (London: 1929).

Eric W. Sager with Gerald E. Panting, Maritime Capital: The Shipping Industry in Atlantic Canada,1820-1914 (Montreal: 1990).

Keith Matthews and Gerry Panting, eds., Ships and Shipbuilding in the North Atlantic Region (St. John's:1978); Lewis R. Fischer and Eric W. Sager, eds., The Enterprising Canadians: Entrepreneurs and EconomicDevelopment in Eastern Canada, 1820-1914 (St. John's: 1979); David Alexander and Rosemary Ommer,eds., Volumes not Values: Canadian Sailing Ships and World Trades (St. John's: 1979); Rosemary Ommer andGerald Panting, eds., Working Men Who Got Wet (St. John's: 1980); Lewis R. Fischer and Eric W. Sager,eds., Merchant Shipping and Economic Development in Atlantic Canada (St. John's: 1982); and Lewis R. Fischerand Gerald E. Panting, eds., Change and Adaptation in Maritime History: The North Atlantic Fleets in theNineteenth Century (St. John's: 1985).

Chief among these are a series of works by Eric W. Sager and Lewis R. Fischer, including "Patternsof Investment in the Shipping Industries of Atlantic Canada, 1820-1900," Acadiensis, IX, no. 1 (Autumn1979), pp. 19-43; "Atlantic Canada and the Age of Sail Revisited," Canadian Historical Revieiv, LXIII, no.2 (June 1982), pp. 125-50; and Shipping and Shipbuilding in Atlantic Canada, 1820-1914 (Ottawa: 1986).See also David Alexander and Gerald Panting, "The Mercantile Fleet and Its Owners: Yarmouth, NovaScotia, 1840-1889," Acadiensis, VII, no. 2 (Spring 1978), pp. 3-28; Rosemary Ommer, "Anticipating theTrend: The Pictou Ship Register, 1840-1889," Acadiensis, X, no. 1 (Autumn 1980), pp. 67-89; Ommer,

Given the complexity and cost of the ACSP, it is not surprising that it hasfailed to stimulate comparable studies of other Canadian fleets. This pointnotwithstanding, it is nonetheless disappointing that scholarly research onmerchant shipping in other parts of the country has been disappointing. The best recentwork on the St. Lawrence has been done by Jean Leclerc. On Canadian merchantshipping on the Great Lakes the contributions by Steven Salmon, Walter Lewis, andKenneth Mackenzie have been first-rate, but merchant shipping on the Lakes has by andlarge been left to the popularizers. For the west coast, there is no comprehensive work,although the recent volume by Ken Coates and Bill Morrison and a preliminary essayby Eric Sager give a good feel for what might be done. If the approach of the ACSPto merchant shipping has not been emulated for other parts of the country, it has beenapplied to Norway and the international economy by Lewis Fischer in collaboration

97

with Helge Nordvik.

But aside from the ACSP, the most important work on merchant shipping doneby Canadians has been on foreign fleets. Richard W. Unger is an acknowledgedauthority on medieval shipping, concentrating mostly on the Low Countries. JakeKnoppers, a pioneer in applying computer-assisted analysis to maritime history, haswritten a seminal work on the shipping involved in eighteenth-century Dutch trade

on

with Russia.    And David Eltis has made important contributions to the ongoing

-irv

debate about shipping in the slave trade.

"The Decline of the Eastern Canadian Shipping Industry, 1880-95," Journal of Transport History, V,no. 1 (March 1984), pp. 25-44.

24 Jean Leclerc, Le Saint-Laurent et ses pilotes 1805-1860 (Montreal: 1990).

See, for example, M. Stephen Salmon, "'Rank Imitation and the Sincerest Flattery': The DominionMarine Association and the Revision of the Canadian Coasting Regulations, 1922—1936," The NorthernMariner/he Marin du nord, I, no. 3 (July 1991), pp. 1-24; Kenneth S. Mackenzie, "C.C. Ballantyne andthe Canadian Government Merchant Marine, 1917—1921," The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du nord, II,no. 1 (January 1992), pp. 1-13.

Ken Coates and Bill Morrison, The Sinking of the Princess Sophia: Taking the North Down with Her(Toronto: 1990); Eric W. Sager, "The Shipping Industry in British Columbia from 1867 to 1914," TheNorthern Mariner/Le Marin du nord, III, no. 3 (July 1993), pp. 45-50.

See, for example, Lewis R. Fischer and Helge W. Nordvik, "A Crucial Six Percent: NorwegianSailors in the Canadian Merchant Marine, 1863-1913," Sjefartshistorisk Arhok, 1984 (Bergen: 1985), pp.139-59; "Myth and Reality in Baltic Shipping: The Timber Trade to Britain, 1863-1908," ScandinavianJournal of History, XII, no. 2 (Summer: 1987), pp. 99-116; and "Finlandere i den KanadensiskaHandelsflottan, 1863-1913," Historisk Tidskriftfor Finland, LXXIII, no. 3 (1988), pp. 373-94. As withthe ACSP, much of their work is based on large-scale data sets.

See, for example, Richard W. Unger, The Art of Medieval Technology: Images of Noah the Shipbuilder (NewBrunswick, N.J.: 1991); Unger, "The Tonnage of Europe's Merchant Fleets, 1300-1800," AmericanNeptune, LII, no. 4 (Fall 1992), pp. 247-61; Unger, "Marine Paintings and the History of Shipbuilding,"in David Freedberg and Jan DeVries, eds., Art in History, History in Art: Studies in Seventeenth Century DutchCulture (Los Angeles: 1991), pp. 75-93; Unger, "Integration of Baltic and Lower Countries Grain Markets,"Interactions of Amsterdam and Antwerp with the Baltic Region, 1400-1800 (Leiden: 1983), pp. 1-10.

Jake V.T. Knoppers, Dutch Trade with Russia from the Time of Peter I to Alexander I: A QuantitativeStudy of Eighteenth Century Shipping (2 vols., Montreal: 1976).

See, especially, David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Oxford: 1987).

The other contribution of the ACSP was in pioneering techniques in the

computer-assisted quantitative analysis of large masses of historical material.

Indeed, some of its data sets remain among the largest yet created by historians.

Here the spin-offs have been slightly more encouraging; the software and

techniques developed by the project have been used in Canada by the Marine

Museum of the Great Lakes and abroad by the National Maritime Museum in

-i-i

the United Kingdom and the Bergen Maritime Museum in Norway. LewisFischer has also used ACSP material as part of the data base for an internationalstudy of maritime wages in the nineteenth century.

Fishing has also attracted a good deal of recent Canadian interest. Althoughno one has yet expanded on the seminal work of the late Keith Matthews onthe seventeenth and eighteenth-century migratory fishery from the west of

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England, there has been a flurry of work on the French period on the EastCoast, in particular by Jean-Francois Briere, OlafJanzen, and Laurier Turgeon.

The best introduction to the project's methodology is Lewis R. Fischer and Eric W. Sager, "AnApproach to the Quantitative Analysis of British Shipping Records," Business History, XXII, No. 2 (July1980), pp. 135-51.

2 For some examples of the study of international wages, see Lewis R. Fischer, "International MaritimeLabour, 1863-1900: World Wages and Trends," The Great Circle, X, no. 1 (Spring 1988), pp. 1-21; "Seamenin a Space Economy: International Regional Patterns of Maritime Wages on Sailing Vessels, 1863-1900,"in Stephen Fisher, ed., Lisbon as a Port Town, the British Seaman and Other Maritime Themes (Exeter: 1988),pp. 57-92; "Seamen in the Industrial Revolution: Maritime Wages in Antwerp during the ShippingTransition, 1863-1900," Collectanea Maritima, V (1991), pp. 331-42; "Around the Rim: Seamen's Wagesin North Sea Ports, 1863—1900," in Lewis R. Fischer et ah, eds., The North Sea: Twelve Essays on the SocialHistory of Maritime Labour (Stavanger: 1992), pp. 59—78. In collaboration with Helge W. Nordvik, Fischerhas also completed a number of wage studies of the Norwegian maritime sector; see, for example, Fischerand Nordvik, "From Namsos to Halden: Myths and Realities in the History of Norwegian Seamen's Wages,1850-1914," Scandinavian Economic History Review, XXXV, no. 1 (1987), pp. 41-65; "Wages in theNorwegian Maritime Sector, 1850-1914: A Re-Interpretation," in Lewis R. Fischer, Helge W. Nordvikand Walter E. Minchinton, eds., Shipping and Trade in the Northern Seas, 1600-1939 (Bergen: 1988), pp.14-35; "Regional Wages in the Age of Sail: The Price of Sailing Ship Labour in Towns along the Oslofjord,1899-1914," Norsk Sjofartsmuseum Arsberetning 1987 (Oslo: 1988), pp. 159-86; "Salaries of the Sea: MaritimeWages in Stavanger, 1892-1914," Stavanger Historisk Arbok 1987 (Stavanger: 1988), pp. 103-32;"Norwegian Matroser. Seafarers and National Labour Markets in Norway, 1850-1914,"Scandinavian-Canadian Studies, IV (1989), pp. 58-81; "The Regional Economy of Late Nineteenth CenturyNorway: Maritime Wages as a Measure of Spatial Inequality, 1850-1914," in Illka Nummela, ed., SitaKuusta Kuulenincn (Jyvaskyla: 1990), pp. 89-112.

33 Keith Matthews, "A History of the West of England-Newfoundland Fisher" (unpublished D.Phil,thesis, Oxford University, 1968).

Among Briere's most important contributions are La Pechefrancaise en Amerique du Nord au XVIII siecle(Montreal: 1990); "The Safety of Navigation in the 18th Century French Cod Fisheries," Acadiensis, XVI,no. 2 (Spring 1987), pp. 85-94; "Le commerce triangulaire entre les ports terre-neuviers francais, lespecheries d'Amerique du nord et Marseilles au XVIIIe siecle," Revue d'Histoire de VAmerique Francaise, XL,no. 2 (September 1986), pp. 193—214; and "Peche et politique a Terre-Neuve au XVIIIe siecle: la Franceveritable gagnante du traite d'Utrecht?" Canadian Historical Review, LXIV, no. 2 (June 1983), pp. 168—87.Olafjanzen's meticulous work can be sampled in "'Une Grande Liaison': French Fishermen from lie Royaleon the Coast of Southwestern Newfoundland, 1714—1766—A Preliminary Survey," Neivfoundland Studies,III, no. 2 (Fall 1987), pp. 183-200; "The American Threat to the Newfoundland Fisheries, 1776-1777,"American Neptune, XLVIII, no. 3 (Summer 1988), pp. 154—64; "'Une Petite Republique' in Southwestern

For the nineteenth century there are recent books by Shannon Ryan andRosemary Ommer, the former focusing on the marketing of Newfoundlandcod overseas and the latter on the rise and decline of Jersey-dominated fishingin the Baie des Chaleurs. Sandy Balcom's study of the Lunenburg fishery,which originated as graduate thesis at Memorial, also has much to recommendit. The sociologist Peter Sinclair has produced a string of books and articleson the nineteenth and twentieth-century Newfoundland fishery and its com-munities. A recent superb collection of essays puts the credit system whichbound labour to the fisheries in international perspective. For the more recentNewfoundland fishery, the magnum opus is David G. Alexander's The Decay ofTrade.

While the Great Lakes fisheries have received much less attention fromhistorians, the West Coast has been better served. Of particular importance isthe collaborative volume written by Patricia Marchak, Neil Guppy, and JohnMcMullan, which not only examines the history of the industry but also advancesimportant theoretical considerations. Several works by Dianne Newell haveadded to our understanding of the Pacific salmon fishery. The most importantCanadian contributions to foreign fishing history have unquestionably beenLaurier Turgeon's work on France and Daniel Vickers' series of studies oncolonial Massachusetts.

Newfoundland: The Limits of Imperial Authority in a Remote Maritime Environment," in LewisR. Fischer and Walter Minchinton, eds., People of the Northern Seas (St. John's: 1992), pp. 1-33; and"'Bretons . . . sans scruple': The Family Chenu of Saint-Malo and the Illicit Trade in English Cod duringthe Middle of the 18th Century," in Proceedings of the Fifteenth Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society(Lanham, Md: 1992), pp. 189-200. Turgeon's best essay on the Canadian east coast fishery is "Colbert etla peche francaise a Terre-Neuve," in Roland Mousnier, ed., Un Nouueau Colbert (Paris: 1985), pp. 255-68.

35 Shannon Ryan, Fish Out of Water: The Newfoundland Saltftsh Trade, 1814-1914 (St. John's: 1986);Rosemary E. Ommer, From Outpost to Outport: A Structural Analysis of the Jersey-Gaspe Cod Fishery,1767—1886 (Montreal: 1992). Nicolas Landry, "Les peches canadiennes au XIXe siecle," The NorthernMariner/Le Marin du nord, II, No. 4 (October 1992), pp. 23—30, is a recent review essay which puts thewritings on the nineteenth-century eastern Canadian fishery in perspective.

B.A. Balcom, History of the Lunenburg Fishing Industry (Lunenburg: 1987).

The most historically-minded of these is Peter R. Sinclair, From Traps to Draggers: Domestic CommodityProduction in Northwest Newfoundland, 1850-1982 (St. John's: 1985).

Rosemary Ommer, ed., Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies in Historical Perspective (Fredericton:1990).

David Alexander, The Decay of Trade: An Economic History of the Newfoundland Saltftsh Trade,1935—1965 (St. John's: 1977. Many of Alexander's seminal essays on the fishery and other matters werecollected posthumously in Eric W. Sager, Lewis R. Fischer and Stuart O. Pierson, comps., AtlanticCanada and Confederation: Essays in Canadian Political Economy (Toronto: 1983).

An exception is A.B. McCullough, The Commercial Fishery of the Great Lakes (Ottawa: 1989).

Patricia Marchak, Neil Guppy, and John McMullan, Uncommon Property: The Fishing andFish-Processing Industries in British Columbia (Toronto: 1987).

See, for example, Dianne Newell, ed., The Development of the Pacific Salmon-Canning Industry: AGrown Man's Game (Montreal: 1989).

Turgeon's most important work is "Le temps des peches lointaines, Permanences et transformations

In recent years there has also been a flurry of publications dealing with whalingand sealing. On the east coast, Chesley Sanger and Anthony Dickinson havevirtually re-written the history of shore-based whaling in Newfoundland. Inaddition, they have made important contributions to our understanding of thisactivity on the Pacific coast and Sanger has also written on internationalwhaling. The West Coast has also been blessed with a superb history of whalingby the American scholar, Robert Lloyd Webb. ' While less scholarly—butironically more popular—a work that has appeared in recent years on the Arctic,a book by Dorothy Harley Eber, has deepened our understanding of the humandimension of this important industry. The most impressive body of work ona non-Canadian topic has been Danny Vickers' magnificent work on Nantucketwhalemen.

On sealing, the place to begin is with Tony Busch's The War against the Seals,a comprehensive account of the development of this important, if currentlyunpopular, occupation. Jim Candow's study of the development of theNewfoundland seal fishery is the standard source on the topic, but should

(vers 1500-1850)," in Michel Mollat, ed., Histoire des Piches Maritimes en France (Toulouse: 1987).For a flavour of Daniel Vickers' achievements, see "Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies in the CodFishery of Colonial Massachusetts," in Ommer, ed., Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies in HistoricalPerspective, pp. 36—48; and '"A Knowen and Staple Commoditie': Codfish Prices in Essex County,Massachusetts, 1640-1775," Essex Institute Historical Collections, CXXIV (1988), pp. 186-203.

Their key essays include "The Origins of Modern Shore Based Whaling in Newfoundland andLabrador: The Cabot Steam Whaling Co. Ltd., 1896—98," International Journal of Maritime History, I, no.1 (June 1989), pp. 129-57; "Modern Shore-Based Whaling in Newfoundland and Labrador: Expansionand Consolidation, 1898-1902," International Journal of Maritime History, II, no. 1 (June 1990), pp.83-116; and "Expansion of Regulated Modern Shore-Station Whaling in Newfoundland and Labrador,1902-03," The Northern Mariner/Le Mann du nord, I, no. 2 (April 1991), pp. 1-22; "ModernShore-Station Whaling in Newfoundland and Labrador: The Peak Season, 1904," International Journalof Maritime History, V, no. 1 (June 1993), pp. 127-54.

C.W. Sanger and A.B. Dickinson, "They Were Clannish as Hell": Origins of Modem Shore-StationWhaling in British Columbia—The Newfoundland Factor (Halifax: 1991); and "Newfoundland Involvementin Twentieth -Century Shore-Station Whaling in British Columbia," Newfoundland Studies, VII, No. 2(Fall 1991), pp. 97-123; Sanger, "'On Good Fishing Ground but Too Early for Whales I Think': TheImpact of Greenland Right Whale Migration Patterns on Hunting Strategies in the Northern WhaleFishery, 1600-1900," American Neptune, LI, No. 4 (Fall 1991), pp. 221-40; Sanger, "'Saw Several FinnersBut No Whales:' The Greenland Right Whale (Bowhead)—An Assessment of the Biological Basis ofthe Northern Whale Fishery during the Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,"International Journal of Maritime History, III, No. 1 (June 1991), pp. 127-54.

46 Robert Lloyd Webb, On the Northwest: Commercial Whaling in the Pacific Northwest, 1790-1967(Vancouver: 1988).

47 Dorothy Harley Eber, When the Whalers Were up North: Innuit Memories from the Eastern Arctic(Montreal: 1989).

48 See Vickers, "Nantucket Whalemen in the Deep-Sea Fishery: The Changing Anatomy of an EarlyAmerican Labor Force," Journal of American History, LXXII (1985), pp. 277-96; and "The FirstWhalemen of Nantucket," William and Mary Quarterly, Third series, XL (1983), pp. 560-83.

49 Briton C. Busch, The War against the Seals: A History of the North American Seal Fishery (Montreal:1985).

be supplemented by several works by Shannon Ryan and Chesley Sanger.Anthony Dickinson has published several works on sealing outside ofCanada.

Another area which has received attention is maritime social history. Bor-rowing insights from the social sciences, some talented scholars are beginning touse them to illuminate previously dark corners of the maritime experience. Anydiscussion of the writing of maritime social history by Canadians must beginwith books by Eric Sager and Judith Fingard. Sager's Seafaring Labour, whichappeared in 1989, is a pathbreaking analysis of life at sea which does for thenineteenth century what the American historian Marcus Rediker did for theeighteenth and the British historian Nicholas Rodger did for the Royal Navy.Judith Fingard'sjdc/e in Port is a penetrating study of the "sailortowns" in Halifax,Saint John and Quebec. Both have been widely cited and emulated overseas.We suspect that the same will be true for Sager's new book, Ships and Memories.

Sager and Fingard have not, however, made the only significant contributions.Gilles Proulx, for example, has written an under-rated volume on conditions atsea in the trade between France and New France. And of special note is arecent collection of essays which brings many of the best Canadian and Americanscholars into the field.    Canadian social historians also have had a special interest

50 J.E. Candow, "Of Men and Seals": A History of the Newfoundland Seal Hunt (Ottawa: 1989); ShannonRyan, Seals and Sealers: A Pictorial History of the Newfoundland Seal Fishery (St. John's: 1987); Ryan, "TheIndustrial Revolution and the Newfoundland Seal Fishery," International Journal of Maritime History, IV,no. 2 (December 1992), pp. 1-44; Ryan, "Newfoundland Sealing Disasters to 1914," The NorthernMariner/he Marin du nord, III, no. 3 (July 1993), pp. 15—43. Ryan is currently writing a history of theseal fishery which should supersede previous works. See also Chesley W. Sanger, "The 19th CenturyNewfoundland Seal Fishery and the Influence of Scottish Whalemen," Polar Record, XX (1980), pp.231-52; Sanger, "Dundee Steam-Powered Whalers and the Newfoundland Harp Seal Fishery,"Newfoundland Studies, IV, no. 1 (Spring 1988), pp. 1-26; Sanger, "Changing Resources and HuntingGrounds of Scottish Whaling-Sealing Vessels in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," ScottishGeographical Magazine, CVII, no. 3 (1991), pp. 187-97.

See especially Anthony Dickinson, "Some Aspects of the Origin and Implementation of theEighteenth-Century Falkland Islands Sealing Industry," International Journal of Maritime History, II, no.2 (December 1990), pp. 33-68.

52 Eric W. Sager, Seafaring Labour: The Merchant Marine of Atlantic Canada, 1820-1914 (Montreal: 1989);Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-AmericanMaritime World, 1700-1750 (Cambridge: 1987); N.A.M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy ofthe Georgian Navy (London: 1986). The importance of the Sager and Rediker books can be seen mostclearly by consulting the "Roundtable" feature in the International Journal of Maritime History. This formatfeatures six to eight analyses of the book under consideration, with a response by the author. Theroundtable on Sager's book appeared in International Journal of Maritime History, II, no. 1 (June 1990),pp. 227-74, while the roundtable on Rediker was in I, no. 2 (December 1989), pp. 311-57.

Judith Fingard, Jack in Port: Sailortowtis of Eastern Canada (Toronto: 1982). For a perspective thatdissents from some of her main conclusions, see Richard Rice, "Sailortown: Theory and Method inOrdinary People's History," Acadiensis, XIII, No. 1 (Autumn 1983), pp. 154-68.

Eric W. Sager, Ships and Memories: Merchant Seafarers in Canada's Age of Steam (Vancouver: 1993).

Gilles Proulx, Between France and New France: Life aboard the Tall Sailing Ships (Toronto: 1984).

Colin Howell and Richard Twomey, eds., Jack Tar in History (Fredericton: 1991).

in labour relations, and a spate of books have appeared in the past few years on

en

the histories of Canadian maritime unions. Internationally, the work by TJ.A.LeGoff on eighteenth-century French mariners and Lewis Fischer on Nor-wegian seamen is part of this same trend.

The history of maritime exploration has also enjoyed a rebirth in recentyears, particularly on the West Coast. Although the Columbia quincentenarydid little to inspire a renewed interest in exploration history on the EastCoast, the two hundredth anniversary of George Vancouver's voyage anda series of anniversaries of Spanish exploration had a more important impactin the West.

Finally, we would like to draw attention to an approach in whichCanadians have taken a particularly important international role. This is theattempt to treat maritime history in its broad international context. Althoughmaritime history has almost always been studied in particular local, regional,or national contexts, it has an equally important international dimension. OneCanadian scholar who has chosen this approach is the economic historian C.Knick Harley, who has contributed important analyses on such subjects astrends in maritime productivity and international freight rates. The imperialhistorian, Ian K. Steele, who has written a superb book on seventeenth and

5 Among the most influential have been John Stanton, Life and Death of a Union: The Canadian Seamen'sUnion (Toronto: 1978); Jim Green, Against the Tide: The Story of the Canadian Seamen's Union (Toronto:1986); William Kaplan, Everything that Floats: Pat Sullivan, Hal Banks and the Seamen's Unions of Canada(Toronto: 1987); Sue Calhoun, A Word to Say: The Story of the Maritime Fishermen's Union (Halifax:1991).

See, for example, T J .A. LeGofF, "Le rerecrutement geographique et social des gens de mer bretonsa la fin de TAncien Regime," in La Bretagne, uneprovince h I'auhe de la Revolution (Brest: 1989); LeGofF,"Les gens de mer devant le systeme des classes, 1755—1763: resistance ou passivite?" Revue du Nord, I(1986), pp. 463-78; LeGofF, "L'impact des prices efFectuees par les Anglais sur la capacite en hommesde la marine francaise pendant le guerres de 1744—1748, 1755-1763, 1778-1783," in Martine Acerraet al., eds., Les marines de guerre europeennes XVII-XVIIIe siecles (Paris: 1985), pp. 103—22; Fischer, "Fishand Ships: The Social Structure of the Maritime Labour Force in Haugesund in the 1870s,"Sjofartshistorisk Arhok, 1986 (Bergen: 1987), pp. 139-70; Fischer, "The Sea as Highway: Maritime Serviceas a Means oFlnternational Migration, 1863—1913," in Klaus Friedland, ed., Maritime Aspects of Migration(Koln: 1990), pp. 293-307.

An exception is J.C.M. Oglesby, "In Search of Christopher Columbus," The Northern Mariner/LeMarin du nord, II, no. 4 (October 1992), pp. 37-41.

See, for example, Christon I. Archer, "The Voyage of Captain George Vancouver: A ReviewArticle," BC Studies, No. 73 (Spring 1987), pp. 43-61; Archer, "The Voyages of the Columbia to theNorthwest Coast, 1787-1790 and 1790-1793," BC Studies, no. 93 (Spring 1992), pp. 70-81; JohnKendrick, The Voyage ofSutil and Mexicana, 1192: The Last Spanish Exploration of the Northwest Coast ofAmerica (Spokane: 1991); Kendrick, The Men with Wooden Feet: The Spanish Exploration of the NorthwestCoast (Toronto: 1985); Barry Gough, The Northwest Coast: British Navigation, Trade and Discoveries to1812 (Vancouver: 1992).

61 C.K. Harley, "Ocean Freight Rates and Productivity, 1740-1913: The Primacy of MechanicalInvention Reaffirmed, "Journal of Economic History, XXVIII, no. 4 (December 1988), pp. 851-75; Harley,"Coal Exports and British Shipping, 1850-1913," Explorations in Economic History, XXVI, no. 3 (July1989), pp. 311-38.

eighteenth-century trans-Atlantic communication 'would also fall into thiscategory. So, too, would much of Lewis Fischer's work on nineteenth-centuryinternational shipping.

Despite all the scholarly activity in recent years, there are some rather largegaps in our knowledge of Canadian maritime history. One which can beinferred from this brief survey is the maritime history of the West Coast,which has by and large been the preserve of popular historians rather thanscholars. Another is the business history of shipping. Aside from some of thework cited previously by Gerry Panting, there are virtually no scholarlystudies of Canadian maritime businesses. But some Canadians have adopteda business history perspective to delve into non-Canadian topics. The bestand most prolific of these scholars is William D. Wray, whose work hasbecome the standard interpretation on late nineteenth and twentieth-centuryJapanese shipping, especially the NYK. Also important is the contributionof Jack Bosher, who has written an important book on the structure of theLa Rochelle business community that traded with Canada in the first half ofthe eighteenth century. Lewis Fischer has recently begun a project toexamine the business history of modern shipbroking.     And J.D. Alsop has

Ian K. Steele, The English Atlantic 1675—1740: An Exploration of Communications and Community(New York: 1986).

See especially Lewis R. Fischer and Helge W. Nordvik, "Maritime Transport and the Integrationof the North Atlantic Economy, 1850-1914," in Wolfram Fischer, R. Marvin Mclnnis, and JiirgenSchneider, eds., The Emergence of a World Economy, 1500-1914 (Wiesbaden: 1986), pp. 519-44; Fischer,"A Flotilla of Wood and Coal: Shipping in the Trades between Britain and the Baltic, 1863—1913." InYrjo Kaukiainen, ed., The Baltic as a Trade Route: Competition between Steam and Sail (Kotka, Finland:1992), pp. 36—63. Many of his works cited previously also fit this description.

Wray's most important work is Mitsubishi and the N. Y. K., 1870-1914: Business Strategy in the JapaneseShipping Industry (Cambridge, Mass.: 1984), which is the first of a projected three-volume set. See alsohis "The NYK and World War I: Patterns of Discrimination in Freight Rates and Cargo SpaceAllocation," International Journal of Maritime History, V, no. 1 (June 1993), pp. 41-63; "Kagami Kenkichiand the N.Y.K., 1929-1935: Vertical Control, Horizontal Strategy, and Company Autonomy," inWray, ed., Managing Industrial Enterprise: Cases from Japan's Prewar Experience (Cambridge, Mass.: 1989),pp. 183-227; "NYK and the Commercial Diplomacy of the Far Eastern freight Conference,1896—1956," in Tsunehiko Yui and Keiichiro Nakagawa, eds., Business History of Shipping: Strategy andStructure (Tokyo: 1985), pp. 279-311; and "'The Mitsui Fight,' 1953-1956: Japan and the Far EasternFreight Conference," in Lewis R. Fischer and Helge W. Nordvik, eds., Shipping and Trade, 1750-1950:Essays in International Maritime Economic History (Pontefract: 1990), pp. 213—34.

65 J.F. Bosher, The Canada Merchants 1713-1763 (Oxford: 1987). See also Bosher, "The ImperialEnvironment of French Trade with Canada, 1660-1685," English Historical Review, CVIII, No. 1(January 1993), pp. 50-81.

Lewis R. Fischer and Anders M. Fon, "The Making of a Maritime Firm: The Rise of Fearnley andEger, 1869-1917," in Lewis R. Fischer, ed., From Wheel House to Counting House: Essays in MaritimeBusiness History in Honour of Professor Peter Neville Davies (St. John's: 1992), pp. 303-22; Fischer andHelge W. Nordvik, "The Growth of Norwegian Shipbroking: The Practices of Fearnley and Eger asa Case Study, 1869-1914," in Fischer, ed., People of the Northern Seas, pp. 135-55. Fischer and Nordvik,"From Broager to Bergen: The Risks and Rewards of Peter Jebsen, Shipowner, 1864-1892,"Sjefartshistorisk Arbok, 1985 (Bergen: 1986), pp. 37-68, also adopts a business history approach.

76     Maritime History in Canada

shed a good deal of light on the business practices of traders during the slavetrade period. A third topic which remains relatively untouched is technologicalhistory. Most of what has appeared have been narrow studies of single vessels ortypes of ships. Nonetheless, there has been some important recent work on thehistory of canal technology on the Great Lakes. Also worth consulting is BillWray's essay on the transition from sail to steam in Japan and Knick Harley'spaper on the same topic in Britain.

Despite these lacunae, in general the state of Canadian maritime scholarship ishealthy. Indeed, the exponential increase in published works in the past two decadeshas gone far to alleviate gaps in our knowledge. If the trend continues—and thereis no reason to believe that it will be reversed—it may be that even some of theneglected topics identified here will find their scholars in the near future.

Conclusion

This essay has rendered some positive judgements on the state of Canadian maritimehistory. A mere two decades ago it would have been difficult to make such optimisticassessments. But the state of Canadian maritime history is much healthier today thanany realistic observer would have predicted. The principal reason for this improvementis not funding, because Canadian universities have hardly been immune from thecutbacks and retrenchment that have haunted post-secondary institutions around theworld in the past few years. Instead, the impetus behind the advance of the disciplinehas come from people. The increased awareness of the importance of maritime heritageby the general public has been part of this. But most of the credit must go to themaritime historians who, through hard work, have built respectable programs andorganizations as well as a world-class body of scholarly literature. They are to be foundin colleges and universities from coast to coast.

In the late 1970s, an eminent British maritime historian could identify theessence of what we believe has underpinned this resurgence of scholarly interestin maritime history in Canada. Robin Craig, then of University College,London, reminded participants at the Third Conference of the Atlantic CanadaShipping Project that the most recent ACSP volume was entitled The EnterprisingCanadians. Noting the impressive work that was being done not only in St.John's but also elsewhere in Canada, he exclaimed "I will say Amen to that." It

See, for example, J.D. Alsop, "The Career of William Towerson, Guinea Trader," InternationalJournal of Maritime History, IV, no. 2 (December 1992), pp. 45-82.

68 Brian S. Osborne and Donald Swainson, The Sault Ste. Marie Canal: A Chapter in the History of GreatLakes Transport (Ottawa: 1986); Robert W. Passfield, Technology in Transition: The "Soo" Ship Canal,1889-1985 (Ottawa: 1989).

William D. Wray, "Shipping: From Sail to Steam," in Marius Jansen and Gilbert Rozman, eds.,Japan in Transition: From Tokugawa to Meiji (Princeton: 1986), pp. 248—70; C.K. Harley, "The Shift fromSailing Ships to Steamships, 1850-1890: A Study in Technological Change and Its Diffusion," in C.N.McCloskey, ed., Studies on a Mature Economy: Britain after 1840 (London: 1971), pp. 215-34.

Fischer and Panting     77

is indeed by their enterprise that Canadian maritime historians have earned thepositive evaluation in this paper.

The Historiography of the Canadian Navy

The State of the Art

Marc Milner

Of all the nations under discussion in this volume, Canada scarcely ranksas a naval power in the historical sense. The Canadian Navy dates onlyfrom 1910, and although it had flexed its nascent "sea power" muscle duringconvoy duty in the First World War, only in the Second World War and theCold War did it show strength of any international importance. As a nationCanada has fought no wars on its own, nor have its armed forces been the objectof particular enemy attention. Indeed, one might say that Canada has noindependent national naval history at all. Moreover, as a distinct field ofscholarship, Canadian naval history is a very recent phenomenon. It is also, atpresent, a sub-field of Canadian military history, and as such is poorly integratedinto the wider maritime history of the country. Not surprisingly, the brevity andpeculiar nature of Canada's naval history have profoundly shaped its historiog-raphy and the extent to which Canadian naval history is taught.

For these reasons, any discussion of the state of Canadian naval history mustbe prefaced by a short discourse on the nature of that history. Perhaps more thanother nations, Canada's naval history is but a thin thread in a much larger tapestry.This situation is somewhat paradoxical, since by the end of the nineteenthcentury Canada had become a very considerable maritime state, as ProfessorsPanting and Fisher demonstrate. But Canada—like its antecedents, the BritishNorth American colonies—rested secure in the bosom of British sea power.With the mother country as the predominant naval power in the world, it wouldhave been absurd for the new self-governing Dominion of Canada to even tryto develop its own navy in the nineteenth century. Quite apart from the factthat Britain retained responsibility for Canadian foreign affairs, the metropolitanpower, whether French or British, had always been responsible for the maritimesecurity of its North American colonies. It was the colonists' task to defend theland frontier, and so it remained after 1867 when the new Dominion's militaryefforts were devoted to the raising of militias. Paradoxically then, Canada was a

I am especially grateful to J. A. Boutilier, W.A.B. Douglas, M. Hadley, R. Sarty, and D. Zimmerman fortheir comments on the draft of this paper. The final conclusions, errors or omissions remain entirely my own.

"British" nation, dependant upon the sea for her well-being. Though many of herpeople followed the sea, her military heritage was decidedly continental in flavour.

The founding of the Royal Canadian Navy in 1910 did little to alter thatsituation. The debate over the establishment of a naval service reflected theincreasing ambiguity over Canada's constitutional position: should Canadasimply give money to Britain to support her naval armaments race withGermany, or establish a Canadian branch of the Imperial Navy. A CanadianNavy might keep problems at arm's length, it was argued, but conversely, it alsomight draw Canada into confrontations which might otherwise be avoided.Something also had to be done about policing Canada's fishing grounds. It is amoot point whether it was German hostility in war or the American threat tothe fisheries that was more responsible for the establishment of the RCN. SirWilfrid Laurier's Liberal government prevailed and the RCN was born on 10March 1910. The issue of a tiny local navy—too small to fight and big enoughto get into trouble—was so contentious that the 1911 federal election was foughtpartly around it. The Conservatives, who favoured direct financial aid to Britain,won the election. But Robert Borden's government could not bring itself eitherto nurture the new navy or abolish it entirely.

The RCN's tenuous existence in the defence firmament lasted for the nextthirty years. The First World War did nothing to salvage it from obscurity. Thefleet in 1914 consisted of two aged cruisers acquired for training purposes. Oneof these, Rainbow, was at sea off Vancouver Island when war was declared. Slow,tired, under-gunned and equipped only with sand-filled training rounds, Rain-bow was ordered to search for von Spee's powerful East Asiatic squadron ofmodern cruisers off the U.S. coast. Admonished by Ottawa to "RememberNelson and the British Navy," she got by all accounts to within fifty miles of atleast one German ship (Leipzig), but the enemy "escaped." What Edwardianwriters would have made o£Rainbow's valiant and utterly futile end at the handsof such powerful ships we can only guess. But no gallant tradition of death and

For a discussion of this issue see, Roger Sarty, "Canadian Maritime Defence, 1892—1914," CanadianHistorical Review, vol. LXXI, December 1990, pp. 48-73.

The debate over German naval armaments and the need to assist the Mother Country is the traditionalcontext for the Canadian naval debate of 1909-1910, for example in Gilbert Tucker's The Naval Serviceof Canada, volume I (Ottawa: King's Printer 1952). The problem of fisheries protection—although notto the exclusion of the German problem—has been the focus of much recent debate, as in RichardGimblett's '"Tin Pots' or Dreadnoughts?: The Evolution of the Naval Policy of the LaurierAdministration, 1896—1910," unpublished MA thesis, Trent University, 1981. And then there is the"Sarty Thesis": the little known, but sophisticated and sound, view that the development of a smallCanadian navy in the early 20th century was crucial to the perfection of Canada's existing system ofcoast defence based on long range gunnery—what might be called, "the Navy as an outgrowth of coastartillery theory" of the origins of the RCN. See Roger Sarty, "'There will be trouble in the NorthPacific': The Defence of British Columbia in the early Twentieth Century." B.C. Studies, 61, Spring,1984, pp. 3-29.4    Tucker, I, pp. 261-79.

glory befell the fledgling service. Instead, Canada poured troops onto the westernfront, where the Canadian Corps earned an enviable reputation for its fightingeffectiveness. The First World War also produced a number of internationallyfamous Canadian airmen, with the likes ofBishop, Collishaw, and Barker householdnames within Canada and throughout the Empire by 1918. Nothing in the RCN'swartime experience compared; most of it was a dreary war of patrols. Even the U-boatoperations of 1918 off the east coast failed to feed the public imagination with imagesof Canadian naval heroes. Quite the contrary, newspapers unfairly maligned the RCNfor its supposed bungling and post-war critics accused the Navy of incompetence,"culpable negligence" and worse.

The Navy nearly disappeared in the inter-war years despite some attempts toput the RCN on a firmer footing after the war. At the height of the Depression,the General Staff, dominated by the Army and the Air Force, voted to reducethe RCN to care and maintenance status; ships laid-up, recruiting and traininghalted, and bases all but closed. Though it was ultimately saved, the RCN neverforgot its brush with extinction and came to see that its principal enemies wereperhaps those closest to home.

As another major war loomed on the horizon in the late 1930s, another Liberalgovernment, this time under W.L.M. King, saw the RCN as a marvelous vehiclefor contributing to imperial security without sending thousands of troopsoverseas again. Although King could not forestall public clamouring for anotherbig Canadian army on the western front once the war got underway, he diddevelop a very large navy (and a large air force as well). The Navy, in particular,suited King's desire to involve Canadian industry in war production, becausemany of the basic ships needed for the escort fleet could be built in Canada. By1943 fully half of the Allied escorts in the main theatre of the Atlantic war wereRCN, and by the end of the Second World War Canada—for a brief moment—had the third largest navy in the world.

The wartime fleet was overwhelmingly small-ship and reservist in flavour.The ships themselves were almost all war-built for basic escort roles and hadlittle long-term value to the post-war Navy. Their crews too were "hostilitiesonly." Only 5,000 of the Navy's wartime personnel strength of nearly 100,000belonged to the professional naval service. Not surprisingly, the tiny fraternityof professional RCN officers used the war to secure the basic elements of abalanced post-war Navy and kept most of its own personnel in "proper"warships: fleet class destroyers, cruisers, and the like. This dichotomy of wartimeexperience between the reservists in small ships battling U-boats and the RCNwaging a struggle for long-term viability coloured not only the conduct of thewar itself, but also much of the writing that followed.

See M. Hardley and R. Sarty, Tin-Pots and Pirate Ships (Kingston/Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press,1991), p. 301.

See for example W.A.B. Douglas' seminal piece, "Conflict and Innovation in the Royal Canadian

The expansion of the RCN during the Second World War was a remarkableaccomplishment—truly staggering by Canadian standards and a significant eventin naval history in general. For the RCN, however, it was a precarious victory,and the Navy's fortunes were salvaged only by the advent of the Cold War.Under King's successor, Louis St. Laurent, post-war Liberal governments builta large and capable navy in the 1950s. To a considerable extent this early ColdWar fleet was simply an outgrowth of the wartime experience. Moreover, thewave of new construction and modernization of reserve vessels that followedthe Korean War was part of a general military expansion. While the Navy waslarge and modern by the early 1960s, in terms of budgets and personnel the RCNremained clearly in third place within the Canadian defence establishment. Littlenew was added after the early Cold War building boom, and by the 1980s theNavy faced block obsolescence. The last deep freeze in the Cold War producedorders for a new fleet in the mid-1980s, which is just now being completed.None of the new ships saw service in the Gulf War, where the Navy foughtlargely without incident and without loss. It is too early to tell just how the Navywill fare in the new world order.

Several key points affecting the development of Canadian naval historicalwriting emerge from this very brief survey. The first—and most obvious—isthat the history itself is only some eighty years old. It is difficult, although by nomeans entirely impossible, to push the antecedents of the RCN much furtherback than 1900. Secondly, much of that history is uneventful. Apart from theSecond World War and the early years of the Cold War, the RCN has lived alow-key, often marginal existence. The third point is that since the Navy'sfounding in 1910, Canada has acted within the confines of much largerinternational organizations, initially the British Empire and latterly NATO andthe UN. This has left little scope for distinctly Canadian naval operations andnone whatever for distinctly Canadian wars. Where other nations might wellhave resorted to gunboat diplomacy abroad to secure their national interests,Canada has been able to rely on collective action. After all, who was Canadalikely to fight—on her own—in the twentieth century? Canadian naval his-tory—as presently structured—is, therefore, drawn from a very narrow base inspace and time. Ironically, the only uniquely Canadian naval missions in defenceof Canadian sovereignty have been typically directed at our friends in peacetime.The final point is that for the first sixty years of its existence the RCN defineditself within a largely British context. Until 1939 the RCN was simply a flotillaof the Imperial Navy; training, uniforms, equipment, ships, tactics, doctrine wereall British, and Canadian officers appeared on a combined Empire and Com-monwealth seniority list. This was much less so after 1945. But the notion of

Navy 1919—1945," in G. Jordan, ed., Naval Warfare in the Twentieth Century: Essays in Honour ofArthur Marder (New York: Crane Russack, 1977), pp. 210—32, for a discussion of the tension betweenfighting the war against the Germans and the battle for long-term viability at home.

the RCN as a direct descendant of Nelson's Band of Brothers survived in theRCN until the full effects of armed forces unification were felt in the early 1970s,and even now Nelson's ghost surfaces on occasion.

It is important to understand, therefore, the very restricted nature of the Canadiannaval experience, its very "British" character, and the importance of Canada's powerfulmilitia tradition when assessing the development of Canadian Navy historiography.

While many recent works on the origins and early days of the RCN take theiraccounts back into the latter stages of the nineteenth century, the colonial periodand great age of sail have not been embraced as part of Canadian naval heritage. Inpart this is because the Canadian military establishment has been loath to adopt anyof the military or naval traditions of the French era. The work of Guy Freqault onthe first distinctly Canadian naval hero, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville, and JacquesMathieu's work on French naval building in Quebec in the eighteenth centuryremain solidly part of Canadian colonial history. D'Iberville, a native son of NewFrance, sailed his lone ship Pelican into Hudson's Bay in 1697 and in a brilliant actionwith three English ships sank two and secured command of the area, a feat

o

unremembered in the myths and culture of the Canadian navy. In fairness, though,the British colonial period also stands outside of mainstream Canadian naval history,despite the efforts of W.A.B. Douglas, Faye Kert, Richard Wright, and others. Eventhe substantial body of work done by Barry M. Gough on naval activity in BritishNorth American waters during the nineteenth century, such as his The Royal Navyand the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810-1914 (1971), fall into imperial,colonial or maritime history, not naval.

The failure of the often desperate and typically disparate naval efforts of thecolonists of New France and British North America to find resonance withinCanadian naval history remains enigmatic. Among academics this disconnectionis almost certainly due to the fact that the study of history itself is subdividedinto fields which often do not talk to one another—like military and colonialhistory. But the Navy, too, cleaving first to its Royal Navy lineage and involvedin a constant battle to maintain its blue-water capability, finds little of value inthese puny antecedents. The result is that Canadian naval history as presently

Guy Fregault, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville (Montreal/Paris: 1968), and Jacques Mathieu, La ConstructionNavale Royale a Quebec, 1739-1759 (Quebec: 1971).

A replica of Pelican was launched in Montreal in 1993.

W.A.B. Douglas, "The Anatomy of Naval Incompetence: The Provincial Marine of Upper Canadabefore 1813," Ontario History, LXXXI, 1979, pp. 3-26, and "Nova Scotia and the Royal Navy,1715-1766," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Queen's, 1973; Faye Kert, "The Fortunes of War:Privateering in Atlantic Canada in the War of 1812," Unpublished MA Thesis, Carleton University,1986, Richard J. Wright, "Green Flags and Red-Coated Gunboats: Naval Activities on the Great Lakesduring the Fenian Scares, 1866-1870," Inland Seas, XXII, no. 2, Summer 1966, pp. 91-110.

Barry M. Gough, 77ie Royal Navy and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1810-1914 (Vancouver:UBC, 1971) and Gunboat Frontier: British Maritime Authority and Northwest Coast Indians, 1846-90(Vancouver: UBC, 1984).

constituted derives none of its traditions from the age of sail—the key formativeperiod for many of the navies of the world.

Moreover, nothing occurred in RCN history prior to 1939 to save it fromobscurity, particularly when set against the deeply entrenched national militiatradition and the tremendous accomplishments of the Canadian Corps in theFirst World War. Prior to 1939 legitimacy for the RCN derived from itsconnection with the RN. But set against the RN standard—the only measuresuitable among Canadians until a generation ago—there was not much to say ofCanada's experiment in naval power before the Second World War.

The first thirty years of RCN history were thus seen as something of awasteland; little but policy and unfulfilled dreams. By contrast, the scope andscale of the RCN's Second World War accomplishment captured the imagina-tion of the first generation of post-1945 historians—and with good reason. TheRCN rose from utter obscurity to a global standing in a few short years. Andwhile the wartime fleet had not been a balanced one in the traditional sense, theacquisition of heavy cruisers and light fleet carriers at the very end of the wargave promise that one day it would be. Further, Canada had demonstrated hernaval potential in time of crisis, and the myriad of small ships required of modernnaval warfare gave Canada tremendous leverage. Not surprisingly, the RCN'spost-war official histories, Gilbert Tucker's The Naval Service of Canada (twovolumes, 1952) and, more especially, Joseph Schull's The Far Distant Ships (1950,reprinted in 1990), were celebrations of Canadian accomplishment. Tucker'sfirst volume covered naval developments up to 1939 and seemed to say all thatwas needed about that colourless period. His second volume, on naval ad-ministration ashore between 1939 and 1945, chronicled the growth of the RCN'sinstitutions as they coped with the rapid expansion of the fleet. Tucker planneda series of three operational volumes on the war, but these were axed by theNaval Staff and a Minister of Defence, who were not interested in a detailed

19

accounting of the exploits of reservists in small, hastily built escorts. What theNavy wanted, and what it commissioned Schull to write, was a popular historywhich would foster support for post-war naval expansion plans. Schull's delight-fully written The Far Distant Ships was therefore long on colour and short onanalysis or context. To what extent it helped in the building boom of the RCNduring the 1950s is an interesting—and unexplored—historical question.

What is clearer is that the combination of Tucker and Schull—both officialhistories—satisfied the need for information on the wartime RCN for a genera-

G.N. Tucker, The Naval Service of Canada: Its Official History, volume I, Origins and Early Years andvolume II, Activities on Shore during the Second World War (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1952), and JosephSchull, The Far Distant Ships: An Official Account of Canadian Naval Operations in the Second World War(Ottawa: King's Printer, 1950), reprinted by Stoddart of Toronto in 1990.

See C.P. Stacey, "The Life and Hard Times of an Official Historian," Canadian Historical Review,LI, no. 1, March 1970, pp. 21-47.

tion. Two other monographs on RCN history appeared over that period, ThorThorgrimsson and E.G. Russell's Canadian Naval Operations in Korean Waters,1950-1955 (1965), and J.D.F. Kealy and E.C. Russell's A History of CanadianNaval Aviation (1967). These too were official histories, and it is possible to seethem both as celebrations of Canadian naval maturity and broadsides in theon-going budgetary battles of the 1960s. Until the 1980s these official historiesconstituted the total of scholarly monographs on RCN history.

The lack of scholarly monographs on the Navy—or even wider academicinterest in the RCN by non-government historians in the twenty-five yearsfollowing the war—is hard to explain. It may be that the RCN's wartimeexperience failed to capture anyone's imagination. Certainly the notion ofCanada as a sea power was a new—and perhaps transitory—experience, and fewCanadian academics were interested in the subject. Gerald Graham, a Canadianwho became a distinguished historian of imperial Britain, had served briefly asan official historian during the war, but he preferred to concentrate on theintellectually more rewarding delights of the British Empire. So, too, did DonaldSchurman. A veteran of the RCAF, Schurman was drawn to naval historythrough an interest in the intellectual roots of twentieth-century British maritimestrategy. Both of these men, Graham and, perhaps more so Schurman (whosecareer has been spent at the Royal Military College of Canada and Queen'sUniversity, both in Kingston), profoundly influenced the way in which aspiringCanadian academic naval historians viewed their field. Both foreswore theparticular in favour of breadth and depth, emphasising the larger context of navalhistory. It seems fair to say that the very recent nature of Canada's expression ofsea power and Tucker and Schull's emphasis on the uniqueness of the Canadianexperience failed to stir them. Moreover, while the Army's historical sectionunder C.P. Stacey nurtured a coterie of young historians who went on toacademic posts—Reg Roy, George Stanley, Jack Hyatt, Don Goodspeed toname a few—the collapse of Tucker's project in the late 1940s left Canadiannaval history in the hands of a few devoted amateurs in the naval historicalsection.     In the end, however, perhaps the most compelling reason for the

Thor Thorgrimsson and E.C. Russell, Canadian Naval Operations in Korean Waters, 1950-1955(Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1965) and J.D.F. Kealy and E.C. Russell, A History of Canadian Naval Aviation,1918-1962, (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1965)

Schurman's influence has been unquestionable; among his former pupils was the late Barry Hunt,who taught naval history at RJV1C for twenty years and Schurman's friend and former colleague at RMCW.A.B. Douglas, has for the last twenty years been writing the official history of the Canadian ArmedForces. Gerald Graham's influence has been perhaps less direct, but no less profound. Much of recentacademic activity on the RCN has been at the University of New Brunswick, where one of Gerald Graham'sformer students, Dominck S. Graham, ran the military history program until 1986. Milner and Zimmermanwere products of that program, which Milner now runs. The latest UNB naval historian, MichaelHennessey, has taken the late Barry Hunt's position in the History Department at PJV1C.

J.M.S. Careless left the naval historical section to pursue a career in Canadian history at Toronto.

dearth of published material on the RCN in the generation after 1945 is that thefiles were still closed to everyone except the official historians.

It was possible, therefore, until 1970, to count the number of monographson RCN history on the fingers of one hand-—and all of them were governmentpublications. There were a few memoirs of note, a few articles, some passageson the RCN in Don Goodspeed's The Armed Forces of Canada, 1867—1967(1967), and some wartime public relations publications. But apart from theofficial histories, the only thing that passed for serious scholarship on the RCNwere the sections in James Eayrs' first two volumes of In Defence of Canada (1964and 1965).17

Several things conspired to alter this complacency during the 1970s. Perhapsthe most important was that sometime between 1960 and 1980 Canada cast offits colonial mentality and Canadians started measuring the RCN in its own right,as the service of an independent, sovereign state. This was facilitated by armedforces unification, announced in 1964 and put into effect on 1 January 1968.With that the Royal Canadian Navy ceased to exist, becoming "MaritimeCommand" of the new Canadian Armed Forces and adopting the new standardgreen uniform of the combined forces. Unification shook the navy to its verycore, forced a process of redefinition, and forced the retirement of many of thelast wartime veterans who either did not or could not accept Canadianizationof the Navy. The Navy, which had seen itself in 1960 as more Royal thanCanadian, was by 1980 distinctly Canadian in outlook—right down to its greenuniforms and the replacement of Trafalgar Day in favour of Battle of the AtlanticSunday as the feast day of the Canadian fleet. The Navy has since gone backinto distinctive naval uniforms, derived—appropriately enough given its new"imperial" orientation—largely from those of the United States Navy. Con-current with this altered state within the Navy and the nation was the openingof wartime archive material which allowed non-official historians a more criticallook at the Navy's most significant experience—the Second World War.

The need to look more closely at the RCN's Second World War ex-perience—and the inadequacies of Tucker and Schull on the subject—had beenevident for some time. The only critical assessment of the RCN's contributionto the actual fighting to appear in the generation after 1945 came from the pen

16 See Alan Eastern's superb wartime memoir 50 North (Toronto: Ryerson, 1963), William Sclater'sexcellent Haida (Toronto: Oxford UP, 1946), and W.H. Pugsley's two volumes on the lower deck,Saints Devils and Ordinary Seaman (Toronto: Collins, 1945) and Sailor Remember (Toronto: Collins, 1948).

James Eayrs, In Defence of Canada: From the Great War to the Great Depression (Toronto: Univ. ofToronto, 1964) and In Defence of Canada: Appeasement and Rearmament (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto,1965).

Much of the old RN tradition still survives, however, as evidenced by the practices outlined inLt.(N) Graeme Arbuckle's Customs and Traditions of the Canadian Navy (Halifax: Nimbus PublishingLtd., 1984). Indeed, one is hard-pressed to find anything distinctly Canadian in the customs and traditionswhich Arbuckle describes.

of Captain Donald Macintyre, RN. One of the war's best escort commandersand a naval historian of note, Macintyre savagely attacked the RCN's wartimeoperational efficiency in his memoir U-Boat Killer (1956). Macintyre chargedthe RCN with bungling incompetence, described its fleet as "travesties ofwarships" and accused the Canadian naval staff as bent on nothing more thanplacing the maximum number of RCN ships on operational plots.

The issue of the fleet's efficiency was addressed briefly in C.P. Stacey's officialvolume on Canadian defence policy during the war, Arms, Men and Governments(1970). However, by the 1970s the conventional wisdom on the wartime RCNwas a blend of both the Canadian and Macintyre themes; the Navy had beenbig, but probably misguided. The difficulties of such a limited Canadian literatureand its concentration on the peculiarly Canadian exploits of the war years weredemonstrated in 1979 with the publication of John Swettenham's Canada'sAtlantic War. Swettenham, one of Canada's best known military historians,produced a very conventional account of the war at sea into which heattempted—without much luck—to integrate the Canadian story. What heachieved in the end was the standard British interpretation of events, punctuatedby Canadian incidents. In that sense, Canada's Atlantic War accurately reflectsthe state of the art—at least with respect to Second World War history—at theend of the 1970s. It was hardly Swettenham's fault.

By the 1970s, however, Canadians were beginning to awaken to their navalhistory largely, although by no means exclusively, through the experience of theSecond World War. Several major research projects were underway and thevoice of veterans began to be heard in the first of what has become a fairly steadystream of memoirs and nostalgia. In 1972 the first postwar graduate master'sthesis in RCN history was completed, and another followed by the end of thedecade. By the end of the 1970s two doctoral dissertations were underway,and the appearance of two new wartime naval memoirs, James Lamb's TheCorvette Navy (1977) and Hal Lawrence's A Bloody War (1979) marked thebeginning of a series of books by these two writers and the commencement ofa significant memoir phase in the field.     The decade also brought the first

Captain Donald Macintyre, U-Boat Killer (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1956).

C.P. Stacey, Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939-1945 (Ottawa:Department of National Defence, 1970).

21 W.G. Lund, "Command Relationships in the North West Atlantic, 1939-1943," unpublished MAthesis, Queen's University 1972 and M. Milner "Canadian Escorts and the Mid Atlantic, 1942-1943,"unpublished M.A. thesis, University of New Brunswick, 1979. See W.A.B. Douglas, "Canadian NavalHistoriography," Mariner's Mirror, 70, no. 4, November 1984, pp. 349-62, for a list of other theses anddissertations in related fields, such as imperial maritime history.

22 Marc Milner, "No Higher Purpose: The Royal Canadian Navy 's Mid-Atlantic War, 1939-1943,"University of New Brunswick, 1983 (and published by University of Toronto Press in 1985 as NorthAtlantic Run) and Thomas Richard Melville, "Canada and Sea Power: Canadian Naval Thought andPolicy, 1860-1910," unpublished Ph.D., Duke University, 1981.

James B. Lamb, The Corvette Navy: True Stories from Canada's Atlantic War (Toronto: Macmillan, 1977) and

serious, scholarly questioning of the Navy's wartime policy in the form of W.A.B.Douglas' seminal article in Arthur Marder's festschrift.

If the 1970s was the decade of gestation, the birth of modern Canadian navalhistorical writing (it cannot truly be called a renaissance) dates from a historicalconference convened in 1980 at Royal Roads Military College, Victoria BC. Theconference was the work of Dr. Jim Boutilier, a member of the RRMC Departmentof History and Political Economy. Boutilier was spurred by what he saw as theastonishing failure of both historians and naval personnel to analyze RCN history.His solution was to get the Navy and a few scholars together to think and writeabout the subject for a conference convened in March 1980, the first on RCNhistory. It brought together many—if not most—of the surviving senior officers ofthe RCN, who dominated the program. Of the nineteen speakers during the threeday conference, eleven were "Old Salts" speaking largely within their own sphereof expertise. Among the more innovative elements of Boutilier's conference werepapers on RCN history prior to 1939, especially its origins. Significantly, no paperdealt with operations in the First World War.

"The RCN in Retrospect" Conference was not an academic tour de force,but it met Boutilier's expectations; the Navy awoke to its history. Thepublication of the conference proceedings in 1982 marked a watershed in RCNhistoriography. When Alec Douglas produced his review of Canadian navalhistory for the Mariner's Mirror in 1984, he could count the five volumes of officialhistory, the proceedings of Boutilier's conference, a few more memoirs (includ-ing the first of a series of collective reminiscences published as Salty Dips by theNaval Officers Association of Canada (Ottawa Branch)), "a half dozen theses,"a number of scholarly articles, and the first volume of Jeff Brock's two-volumememoir, The Dark Broad Seas (1981) and The Thunder and the Sunshine (1983),the only memoir of any substance—however fanciful—by a senior RCNofficer. Douglas tactfully omitted reference to another memoir and the onlybiography ever written on a Canadian naval officer. H.N. Lay's Memoirs of aMariner (1982) had potential to make a major contribution to the field, but spokemore to his family than to those interested in the Navy. J.M. Cameron's Murray:The Martyred Admiral (1980), was a seriously flawed attempt to vindicate thecareer of the RCN's most famous operational commander, R.Adm. L.W.

Hal Lawrence, A Bloody War: One Man's Memories of the Canadian Navy 1939-45 (Toronto: Macmillan,1979).

For a full reference see footnote 6.

The conference proceedings were published as The RCN in Retrospect (Vancouver: Univ. of BritishColumbia Press, 1982). The table of contents is unaltered from the list of speakers.

The model was used later by Commander James Goldrick, RAN, to spur interest in Australian navalhistory. The proceedings were published as Reflections on the Royal Australian Navy, T.R. Frame, J.V.P.Goldrick and P.D.Jones, eds. (Kenthurst, NSW: Kangaroo Press, 1990).

As discussed in W.A.B. Douglas, "The prospects for Naval History," The Northern Mariner, vol. 1,no. 4, October, 1991, p. 19.

Murray, who moved to England in 1945 after rioting servicemen destroyedmuch of downtown Halifax. Cameron's hagiographic account of Murray's lifeis notable only because it remains the only biography ever published on aCanadian naval figure. Douglas' 1984 listing also neglected two substantialrecent books on RCN history, Fraser Mckee's The Armed Yachts of Canada andMacpherson and Burgess' Ships of Canada's Naval Forces, 1910-1980.

Alec Douglas gave this burgeoning field a push in 1985 with his ownconference commemorating the 75th anniversary of the founding of the RCN.He filled the program with a largely academic crowd. Among their contributionswere the first serious scholarship on the First World War since Tucker's VolumeOne and the first serious academic work on the post-1945 period to emergesince Eayrs' earlier material in the 1960s.

The proceedings of "The RCN in Transition" Conference were published

in

in 1988, when the stream of publications in Canadian naval history had—touse Douglas' words—"turned into a torrent." By 1991 Douglas was able to listas many substantial publications in the seven short years since his Mariner's Mirrorarticle appeared as had been published in the previous 74 years of RCN historycombined. The first scholarly monographs on Canadian naval history byacademic historians were published in 1985, both dealing with the SecondWorld War: Michael Hadley's U-Boats Against Canada and Marc Milner's NorthAtlantic Run (the latter was one of the two Ph.D. dissertations completed onRCN history up to that point). David Zimmerman's The Great Naval Battle ofOttawa (1989) had also begun as a Ph.D. dissertation (the third in RCN history)at the University of New Brunswick. Amid this torrent of new publicationswere more memoirs and David Perkins' monograph on Canadian submarinersin the First World War, Alan Snowie's history of the carrier Bonaventure, andsome popular and privately published histories of individual ships and shiptypes.     Indeed, there was enough scholarship available by the late 1980s to

28 Rear-Admiral H. Nelson Lay, OBE, CD, RCN (Retd), Memoirs of a Mariner (Stittsville, Ontario: Canada'sWings, 1982) and James M. Cameron, Murray: The Martyred Admiral (Hantsport, NS: Lancelot press, 1980).

Fraser McKee The Armed Yachts of Canada (Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills, 1983), and Ken Macphersonand John Burgess The Ships of Canada's Naval Forces, 1910-1981 (Toronto: Collins, 1981).

30 W.A.B. Douglas, ed., The RCN in Transition (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 1988).

31 See Douglas, "The Prospects for Naval History," The Northern Mariner, vol. 1, no. 4, October 1991.Michael   L.   Hadley,   U-Boats  Against   Canada:   German   Submarines   in   Canadian   Waters

(Montreal/Kingston: McGill-Queen's, 1985), Marc Milner, North Atlantic Run: The Royal CanadianNavy and the Battle for the Convoys (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1985), and David Zimmerman,The Great Naval Battle of Ottawa (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1989).

33 Gordon W. Stead, A leaf Upon the Sea: A Small Ship in the Mediterranean (Vancouver: UBC, 1988),James B. Lamb, On The Triangle Run (Toronto: Macmillan, 1989), Hal Lawrence's Tales of the NorthAtlantic (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1989) and Victory at Sea (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart,1990), Salty Dips volumes I and II, Anthony Law, White Plumes Astern (Halifax, NS: Nimbus Publishing,1989) and Frank Curry, The War at Sea (Toronto: Lugus, 1991).

34 David Perkins, Canada's Submariners, 1914-1923 (Erin, Ontario: The Boston Mills Press, 1989),

permit the writing and publication of Tony German's The Sea Is at OurGates, the first popularly written comprehensive one-volume history ofthe RCN.35

The 'eighties, then, mark a major watershed in the historiography ofthe RCN. Since then the pace has not slackened. There is no space hereto list all of the new work, but some key works warrant mention. In 1991the first scholarly monograph on pre-1939 RCN history appeared: Tin-Pots & Pirate Ships: Canadian Naval Forces & German Sea Raiders 1880—1918, by Michael Hadley and Roger Sarty. The heavy emphasis on theSecond World War has continued apace, and many new, young scholarsare entering the field. In recent years substantial scholarly articles on theRCN have appeared in The Mariner's Mirror, The Northern Mariner, TheCanadian Historical Review, The Canadian Defence Quarterly, Military Af-fairs, Canadian Military History, The Naval War College Review, and TheRUSI Journal. Many of these new historians are working on the Cold Warera, for which the documents are becoming available. Others arepushing their research back into the pre-1939 period, and volume I ofthe forthcoming new official history of the RCN will go a long way tofilling that crucial gap. Work is underway at the University of Victoriaon the social history of the pre-1939 Navy and an official account of theGulf War is forthcoming from the Department of National Defence.

Alan Snowie, The "Bonnie" (Erin, Ontario: the Boston Mills Press, 1987) and, for example, TomBlakely's privately published Corvette Cobourg: The Role of a Canadian Warship in the Longest Sea Battlein History (Cobourg, Ontario: Royal Canadian Legion Branch No. 133, nd), and Ken Macpherson'sRiver Class Destroyers of the Royal Canadian Navy (Toronto: Charles Musson, 1985), and Frigates of theRoyal Canadian Navy (St. Catharines, Ontario: Vanwell, 1989).

Commander Tony German, The Sea is at Our Gates: The History of the Canadian Navy (Toronto:McClelland and Stewart, 1990). German's book was accompanied by a video tape as part of the attemptto popularize the Navy's history among a younger generation. See also Jack Macbeth's Ready, Aye,Ready: An Illustrated History of the Royal Canadian Navy (Toronto: Key Porter Books, nd).

Published by McGill-Queen's Univ. Press of Montreal and Kingston.

See for example Peter T. Hay don's, The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis: Canadian Involvement Reconsidered(The Canadian Institute of Strategic Studies, 1993), which contains new information on the RCN'srole, as does his chapter, "The RCN and the Cuban Missile Crisis," in M. Milner, ed., Canadian MilitaryHistory (Copp Clark Pitman, 1993), pp. 349-67.

See BJ.C. McKercher, "Between Two Giants: Canada, the Coolidge Conference and Anglo-AmericanRelations, 1927," in Anglo-American Relations in the 1920s, BJ.C McKercher, ed., (Edmonton: Univ. ofAlberta Press, 1990), pp. 81-124, Michael J. Whitby, "In Defence of Home Waters: Doctrine and Trainingin the Canadian Navy during the 1930s," Mariner's Mirror, May 1991, pp. 167—77, and a series of works byRoger Sarty; "The Naval Side of Canadian Sovereignty, 1909—1923," The Niobe Papers, volume rV, F.W.Crickhard and K. Orr, eds. (Halifax, NS: Nautical Publishing, 1993): "The Origins of Canada's SecondWorld War Maritime Forces, 1918-1940, papers of the 1990 Society for Military History AGM(forthcoming), '"Entirely in the hands of the friendly neighbour': The Canadian Armed Forces and theDefence of the Pacific Coast 1909-1937," in D. Zimmerman, ed., Redirection: Defending Canada, the PacificPerspective (forthcoming), and "Mr. King and the Armed Forces, 1939," paper to the Canadian Committeefor the History of the Second World War, Elora, Ontario 1989. Sarty is also the principal author of thepre-1939 volume of the new official history of the RCN.

Milner     91

Ships, too, remain a source of interest, especially Second World War escortvessels and two major books on Canadian corvettes appeared in 1993. If thereis a major gap in the current state of Canadian naval historiography, it wouldbe on the role of individuals. At present only one biography, that of EngineerRear Admiral G.L. Stephens, is in the wind, as are a couple of memoirs by retiredsenior officers.

A complex and comprehensive Canadian naval historiography is, therefore,a very recent phenomena. Probably for that reason there is little evidence thatCanadian naval history is yet widely seen as a viable field of instruction foracademic credit in Canada. Military history, of which naval history in Canadais a part, is offered as a bona fide academic subject at only a few Canadianuniversities and within the three military colleges. The emphasis in such coursesis usually on Canada's military past or on the broader international militaryexperience, approaches which are strongly biased towards land warfare. Few ofthose who teach military history in Canada have either the expertise or theinterest to separate Canadian naval history from the general pattern of thenation's military history. In that sense, the Canadian Navy's experience remainsan aberration even in Canadian military history courses; an obligatory referencein an otherwise traditional survey of Canada's long and colourful army heritage.

Those, like this writer, who teach both Canadian military history and coursesin the history of sea power, also invariably set the Canadian naval story in a muchwider context. It forms a piece, sometimes bigger, usually quite small, of a muchlarger tapestry. Perhaps surprisingly, Canadian naval historians accept such anapproach as a given. They do not see an independent existence for the RCNoutside of the large context of either the empire or the collective securityorganizations joined since 1945. In that sense, Canadian naval history is alwayssubordinated to another mainstream military or naval (sea power) field. In onlyone instance—from what could be determined—has the focus been reversedand a Canadian naval history course been given for academic credit. In 1991,Michael Hadley, of the Germanic Studies Department at the University ofVictoria, gave a one-time term-length honours seminar on naval history fundedby the university's Military and Strategic Studies Program. Hadley was given theliberty by the Department of History to do whatever he wished in a seminar onsea power, so he turned it into a case study using the RCN as the model. Thecourse, "The Canadian Navy and the Major Powers," has since became a regularundergraduate offering.    Apropos of the comments made earlier here, there is

John Harland and John Mackay's The Flower Class Corvette Agassiz (Anatomy of the Ships Series)(London: Conway, 1993) and Ken Macpherson and Marc Milner's Corvettes of the Royal Canadian Navy(St. Catharines, Ontario: Vanwell, 1993).

Information courtesy of Michael Hadley, who, in addition to being an accomplished historian inhis own right, is also a retired naval reserve captain.

92    The Historiography of the Canadian Navy

no indication that Canadian naval history is ever taught within the context ofCanadian maritime history.

It remains to be seen whether Hadley's course itself is an aberration or areflection of the maturity of Canadian naval historical writing. In 1980 it waspossible to conduct a couple of individual seminars on aspects of Canadian navalhistory, especially its origins and the controversy over fleet efficiency, as part ofa course on naval or Canadian military history. But it would have been difficultto do more. Hadley demonstrated that by 1990 it was possible to mount at leasta term length course for academic credit on Canadian naval history. It is ironic,and indicative of the strong contextual bias evident among naval historians (writlarge) within Canada, that many of them consulted for this paper could still notsee the merit in offering a course in Canadian naval history. Maybe they areright, since much remains to be done. Important new scholarship on the earlyCold War will emerge within the next few years with Ph.D. theses from MikeHennessey and Shawn Cafferky. Hennessey's work, in particular, draws togethermany of the elements of national naval and maritime policy and will help bridgethat gap between naval history proper and the wider fields of which it is a part.There are now a number of substantive articles available on the inter-war yearsand a new and thorough volume of official history in the wings. Hadley andSarty's Tin-Pots and Pirate Ships seems to have satisfied interest in the First WorldWar for the time being. However, despite their efforts a comprehensivemonograph on the Navy prior to 1914 is still needed. So too is some way ofbridging the gap between the events of the twentieth century and all that wentbefore. Perhaps when the Navy finds its roots in the age of sail and in the largercontext of Canadian history, Canadian naval history will truly have come of age.

See for example his, "Canada, The Navy and the Shipbuilding Industry: Plus ca Change?" in MichaelA. Hennessey and Kenrick G. Hancox, eds., Canada, the Navy and Industry (Toronto: Canadian Institutefor Strategic Studies, March 1992); "The State as Innovator: Controlling Command Technology forWarship Production in Canada, 1949—1965," in Peter A. Baskerville, ed., Canadian Papers in BusinessHistory, vol. II (Victoria, BC: Public History Group, University of Victoria, 1993); and "Post-WarOcean Shipping and Shipbuilding Policy in Canada: An Agenda for Research," The Northern Mariner,vol l,no. 3, July 1991.

Chile

Captain Carlos Tromben, Chilean Navy

Chile's naval and maritime history can be traced in a vast bibliography whosemain titles are included in this paper. This history is the result of the workof Chilean and foreign researchers and authors, who through the years haveshown their interest in describing, documenting, and analyzing the facts andideas related to these topics.

The period before Ferdinand Magellan discovered Chile's southern tip in1520 and Diego de Almagro explored the central zone in 1536, has not beenthe subject of in-depth studies, probably because the major source materials arein Spanish archives. The aboriginal civilizations were less developed, if comparedwith the degree reached by the people of what is today Peru, Mexico, andCentral America. In spite of this, Chile's native inhabitants were skilled coastalnavigators, due to the fact that they obtained an important part of their foodfrom the sea.

Likewise, Hispanic presence in Chile is a subject that has not been thoroughlyinvestigated. Only recently, with Spanish support in connection with thecelebration of the quincentenary of Columbus's arrival in America, one of theinteresting aspects of this period, the Hispanic forts at Valdivia and Corral, arebeing studied and restored. For Chilean scholars, the major problem is that mostof the related documentation is in Europe.

The war for independence, which took place intermittently between 1811and 1826, was full of naval events. These naval events were at the forefront of

Histories that include general aspects of Chilean maritime affairs are:

Francisco Antonio Encina, Historia de Chile desde la prehistoria hasta 1891 (Santiago: Nascimento,1940-1952); Jaime Eyzaguirre, Historia de Chile (Santiago, 1965); Jay Kingsbruner, Chile, a historicalinterpretation (New York: Harper Torch Book, 1973); Jose M. Martinez-Hidalgo y Teran, Enciclopediageneral del mar (Barcelona: Garriga, 1968), 8 volumes; Benjamin Subercaseaux, Tierra de oceano (Santiago,nd); Gonzalo Vial, Historia de Chile 1891-1973 (Santiago: Santillana, 1984).

Early naval histories and chronicles of Chile include:

Luis Novoa de la Fuente, Historia naval de Chile (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada, 1944); FranciscoRojas M., Administracion naval de Chile comparada: su desarrollo, evoluciSn y organization 1817—1932(Santiago: Imp. Chile, 1934); Carlos Sayago, Cronicas de la Marina militar de Chile (Copiapo: Imp. de laUnion, 1864); Alberto Silva Palma, CrSnicas de la Marina chilena (Santiago: Talleres del estado MayorJeneral, 1913); Horacio Vio Valdivieso, Manual de historia naval de Chile (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada,1972).

opening the Chilean economy to international trade, spawning the birth of astrong maritime activity. The new state that emerged out of the far off and,probably, the poorest of the Spanish colonies, with its particular geography ofextended and fragmented coasts, attracted the attention of many Europeans andAmericans, who registered their experiences in memoirs or narratives that havebecome the main historical source for this period. Among the many authorswas Mary Graham, a dynamic and learned British woman, who arrived inValparaiso on board a ship commanded by her husband, who passed away a fewdays before their arrival. She stayed in this country for a prolonged period anddepicted the facts, people, and customs of the period between 1822—23 in a veryinteresting book.

Another important author of this era is John Miller, who penned the memoirsof his brother, General William Miller, who held a high command post in whathas become the Chilean Marine Corps.

Famous for his memoirs on the Chilean independence period is AdmiralThomas Alexander Cochrane, who came to Chile from England at the invitationof General Bernardo O'Higgins. In the four years that Admiral Cochraneremained in command of the fleet—created with great effort by Chile—he wasable to eliminate completely the Spanish naval presence in the American Pacific.While in command, he proposed several initiatives that failed to come to fruitiondue to the internal conflicts that were present during General BernardoO'Higgins' term of rule. His memoirs, published in London several decadeslater, are interesting, detailed, and valuable, allowing historians to understandthis distinguished mariner and his times.

Another important source on this period is the papers of General BernardoO'Higgins, a thirty-three volume work, edited by the Chilean Government andpublished in 1950, containing many letters and documents related to thefounder of the Chilean Navy, who was an important ruler of those initial days.

Fernando Campos Harriet, Los defensores del rey (Santiago: Andres Bello, 1958); Brian Loveman, Chilethe legacy of Spanish capitalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).

J.F. Coffin, Diario de unjoven norteamericano detenido en Chile durante elperiodo revolucionario 1817—1819(Santiago: Imp. Elzeveriana, 1898); Coleccion de Historiadores i de Documentos relativos a la Independencia deChile (Santiago: varios impresores, 1900-1937), 30 volumes.

Maria Graham, Diario de mi residencia en Chile en 1822 (Santiago: Del Pacifico, 1956).

John Miller, Memorias del general Miller al servicio de la Republica del Peru (Santiago: Imp. Universitaria,1912), 3 volumes.

Books on the subject viceadmiral Thomas Alexander Cochrane:

James Blakwood, The life and daring exploits of Lord Cochrane (London: Paternoster Row, 1861);Enrique Bunster Tagle, Lord Cochrane (Santiago: Zig-Zag, 1942); Francisco Garcia Reyes, La primeraescuadra nacional (Santiago, 1860).

Thomas Cochrane, Earl of Dundonald, Autobiography of a Seaman (London, 1860); Narrative of Servicein the Liberation of Chile, Peru and Brazil from Spanish and Portuguese domination (London: James Ridway,1859), 2 volumes.

Archivo Nacional, Archivo de Don Bernardo O'Higgins (Santiago: Nascimento, 1946-50), 33 volumes.

-?These volumes abound in material related to the difficulties of creating a fleetand merchant navy in a country that lacked resources and was worn out by war.

Admiral Cochrane returned to England at the end of Spanish dominion ofwhat was then Chile and Peru. The Chilean Navy experienced a period ofneglect. Nevertheless, foreign travellers and scientists still kept coming, and theyleft impressions on a variety of different matters, particularly about Chileanmaritime geography.

The next conflict involving the Chilean Republic was the war against thePeru-Bolivian Confederation, but the actors involved in this war left no booksdescribing the maritime campaign in particular, in spite of its importance indismantling the Confederation.

Something similar happened in Chile and Peru's joint war against Spainbetween 1865 and 1866. However, many years later, the commander of theChilean-Peruvian naval force, Rear-Admiral Juan Williams Rebolledo, wroteabout the events in which he participated.

In contrast, the War of the Pacific, 1879—1883, inspired many books ofnarrative, documents, and analysis on the most serious foreign conflict thatChile had faced since its independence. The writers were either civilianhistorians or members of the Navy.     Among the first were Diego Barros

Eugenio Pereira Salas, Las actuaciones de los ojiciales navales norteamericanos en nuestras costas, 1813—1840(Santiago: 1935); Eduard Poepping, Testigo en la alborada de Chile: 1826-1829 (Santiago: Zig-Zag, 1960);William Bennet Stevenson, A Historical and Descriptive of Twenty Years of Residence in South America(London: Hurst, Robenson & Co., 1825), 3 volumes.

Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, Historia de laguerra de Chile con Espana (Santiago: 1883); Juan WilliamsRebolledo, Guerra del Pacifico: Breve narracion historica de la contienda de Chile y Peru contra Espana(1865—1866) (Santiago: Imp. Elzeveriana, 1901); Herbert W. Wilson, Ironclads in action (London: MarstonLow, 1896); Pedro Novo y Colson, Historia de la Guerra contra Espana en el Pacifico (Madrid: 1882).

Books about the war between Chile, Peru and Bolivia started in 1879:

Correspondencia de Don Antonio Varas sobre la Guerra del Pacifico (Santiago: Imp. Universitaria, 1918);Arturo Cuevas, Estudio estrategico sobre la campana maritima de la guerra del Pacifico (Valparaiso: Imp. de laArmada, 1901); Miguel Grau, Correspondencia general de la Comandancia de la 1 Division Naval (Santiago:Imp. de la Libreria de "El Mercurio," 1880; Joaquin Larrain Zanartu, El 21 de Mayo. Homenaje de "LaPatria" a los heroes de "La Esmeralda" y "La Covadonga", en el primer aniversario delglorioso combate de Inquique(Valparaiso: Imp. de "La Patria," 1880; Jacinto Lopez, Historia de laguerra del guano y del salitre; o Guerradel Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y Peru (New York: De Laisne and Rossboro, 1931); Francisco A. Machuca,Las cuatro campanas de la Guerra del Pacifico (Valparaiso: Imp. Victoria, 1927); Clements Markham, Historyof the War between Peru and Chile (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle Rivington, 1883); LieutenantW.T.B.M. Mason, USN, War on the Pacific Coast (Washington: 1883); Nicanor Molinari, Asalto y tomade Pisagua, 2 de noviembre de 1879 (Santiago: Imp. Cervantes, 1912); Nicanor Molinari, Asalto y toma dePisagua, 2 de noviembre de 1819 (Santiago: Imp. Cervantes, 1912); Pedro Nolasco Prendez, La Esmeralda(Santiago: Imp. de la Repiiblica de Jacinto Nunez, 1879); Juan Williams Rebolledo, Guerra del Pacifico:Operaciones de la escuadra mientras estuvo a las ordenes del contra-almirante Williams Rebolledo, 1819 (Valparaiso:Imp. del Progreso, 1882); Herbert W. Wilson, Battleships in Action (London: Marston Low, 1927).

Much writing on this period focuses on Arturo Prat:

Arturo Prat I El Combate Naval De Iquique (Santiago: Imp. Gutenberg, 1880); Jose Toribio Medina,Arturo Prat (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada, 1952); Marfisa Munoz Yurazeck, Arturo Prat (Santiago: Imp.Universitaria, 1914); Juan Peralta Peralta, Arturo Prat Chacon: Hkroe del Mar (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Escuela

Arana and Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna. Others include the already men-tioned Admiral Juan Williams Rebolledo, who wrote another book about hisparticipation as commander of the fleet in the early part of the war, andVice-Admiral Luis Uribe Orrego, who was a lieutenant at the beginning of theconflict. The latter's works refer not only to this war, but to the completehistory of the Chilean Navy and Merchant Navy. Pascual Ahumada Moreno

17.

and Justo Abel Rosales compiled documents that are an interesting source forconsultation about this period.

In spite of the Chilean victory in the War of the Pacific, some logistic andorganizational weaknesses were acknowledged. These facts, together with therapid evolution of navies, gave way to a stage of great intellectual and professionaldevelopment within the Chilean Navy. At the same time, the armed forcesparticipated in the positive educational development that was taking place in thecountry. As a result of this, in 1885, the Naval Circle [Circulo Naval] wasestablished. Initially chaired by Vice-Admiral Uribe, it is an organizationdedicated, among other things, to debate and to publication of developments inthe naval and maritime sciences. The Navy Review [Revista de Marina] originatedin this organization, and for over a century, historians and analysts have writtenand published, uninterruptedly in its pages. This bimonthly publication is animportant source for those who want to get acquainted with Chilean navalhistory and the professional activities of the folio wing generations.

At the end of the nineteenth century, there was a bloody civil war that tookplace in 1891, and there were acute tensions in Chilean relations with Argentinaand the United States of America. The Chilean Navy reached an important newstage, as the fleet gained power and obtained the consensus of support for itsactivities in controlling the sea, so important for a country with a geographicconfiguration like Chile.

Naval, 1953); Arturo Prat Chacon, Observaciones a la lei electoral vijente (Valparaiso: Imp. de "ElMercurio", 1876); Juan Simpson, Algunos rasgos ineditos de la personalidad de Arturo Prat (Valparaiso: Imp.Victoria, 1925); Carlos Toledo de la Maza, Arturo Prat: Vida y obra de un hombre ejemplar (Valparaiso:Ediciones Prat, 1975).

Diego Barros Arana, Historia General de Chile (Santiago: Rafael Jover, 1884-1902), 16 volumes.1    Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, Las dos Esmeraldas (Santiago: 1879).

Juan Williams Rebolledo, Guerra del Pacifico: Operaciones de la escuadra mientras estuvo a las drdenes delcontra-almit'ante Williams Rebolledo (Valparaiso: Imp. del Progreso, 1882).

Luis Uribe Orrego, Los combates navales en la Guerra del Pacifico: 1879-1881 (Valparaiso: Imp. de laPatria, 1886); Neustra Marina militar (Valparaiso: Tipografia de la Armada, 1910).

Pascual Ahumada Moreno, Guerra del Pacifico (Valparaiso: Imp. del Progresso, 1884-1891), 8 volumes.

Justo Abel Rosales, La apoteosis de Arturo Prat i de sus compaheros de heroismo muertos por la patria el 21de mayo de 1879 (Santiago: Imp. de los Debates, 1888).

Julio Banados Espinosa, Balmaceda: su gobiemo y la reuolucion de 1891 (Paris: Libreria de GernierHermanos, 1894); Jose Miguel Barros Franco, Apuntes para la historia diplomdtica de Chile: el caso delBaltimore (Santiago: Casa Nacional del Nino, 1950); Maurice H. Harvey, Dark Days in Chile (London:1892); Antonio Ifiiquez Vicuna, Elgolpe de estado y la reuolucion, primero y siete de enero 1891 (Santiago:Imp. Victoria, 1891); Emilio Rodriguez Mendoza, Ante la descendencia (Santiago: Imp. Moderna, 1899);

To the publications of Admirals Williams and Uribe, we may add those ofCaptain Francisco Vidal Gormaz that refer to scientific matters and the story ofthe explorations performed by Spanish navigators in the southern tip of Chile,based in documental reseach done by this notable naval hydrographer in Spain.

At the turn of the century, the trend increased toward more critical, historical,and scientific research, supported by many officers who were sent to study inEuropean countries with greater naval development. The arrival of British officersin Chile, who came to act as instructors, promoted this trend toward professionalimprovement by creating the Naval War College and other initiatives. Thisincreased the spreading of the doctrines on sea power developed in Europe and inthe United States, particularly those of Captain Alfred T. Mahan. Since that time,there has been a tendency to analyze past events, stressing these doctrines.

In Chile, during the first half of this century, a new generation of navalhistorians and analysts developed. Among them were Rear Admirals LuisLanglois Vidal, Alejandro Garcia Castelblanco, and later, Captain HoracioVio Valdivieso. Simultaneously, the First World War and the serious politicalevents of the 1920s and 30s, with their repercussions in the Chilean military,gave origin to different articles published in the Revista de Marina and to thememoirs of Admirals Jose T. Merino Saavedra, and Edgardo von SchroedersSarratea. By mid-century, Vice Admiral Juan Agustin Rodriguez Sepulvedafinished his work of historical research, reaching a wide audience.

The Chilean Academy of History, a center for the study and publication ofhistory, was founded in 1933. Among its membership are notable researchersand specialists in naval history. One of its founding members was the alreadymentioned Admiral Garcia Castelblanco. Other members that joined theacademy later were Captain Rodrigo Fuenzalida Bade, author of a large workon the history of the Chilean Navy,    and Dr. Carlos Lopez Urrutia, who lives

Fanor Velasco, La revolution de 1891: Memorias de don Fanor Velasco, 2nd ed. (Santiago: DireccionGeneral de Talleres, 1925); P. WycrofF, "The Chilean Civil War, 1891" U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings88 (October, 1962), pp. 58-63.

Luis Langlois Vidal, Injluencia delpoder naval en la historia de Chile desde 1810a 1910 (Valparaiso: Imp.de la Armada, 1911).

Alejandro Garcia Castelblanco, Estudio critico de las operaciones navales de Chile (Valparaiso: Imp. de laArmada, 1929).

Horacio Vio Valdivieso, Resena historica de los nombres de las unidades de la Armada (Santiago: 1938);Manual de Historia Naval de Chile (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada, 1972).

Jose T. Merino Saavedra, La Armada National y la dictadura militar. Memorias del ultimo Director Generalde la Armada (Santiago: Imp. de la Direccion General de Prisiones, 1932.)

Edgardo von Schroeders, El delegado delgobierno y el motin de la escuadra (Santiago: Imp. y LitografiaUni verso, 1933).

Juan Agustin Rodriguez Sepulveda, Cronicas nacionales y navales (Valparaiso: Imp de la Armada, 1953.)

Rodrigo Fuenzalida Bade, La Armada de Chile desde la alborada al sesquicentenario (Santiago: TalleresEmpresa Periodistica "Aqui Esta," 1978), 4 volumes; Marinos ilustres y destacados del pasado (Santiago:Sipimex Ltda., 1985).

and teaches in the United States and is the author of several books and articles

ofton the same topic.     The current commander in chief of the Chilean Navy,

Admiral Jorge Martinez Busch, author of an extensive bibliography on historical

and geopolitical matters, recently joined the Chilean Academy of History.

Throughout its existence, the Chilean Academy of History has contributedto the research of many aspects related to naval and maritime history, thepublication of the O'Higgins archives among them. One of the academiciansthat participated, Luis Valencia Avaria, has published books and articles specializ-ing on the independence period and on the efforts of the O'Higgins governmentto create the Chilean Navy. Another academician, Alamiro de Avila Martel,completed several month's of research in English and Scottish archives onAdmiral Cochrane, sponsored by the academy, and later published a biography.A collection of edited documents is awaiting publication.

It is worthwhile noting that the academician Gabriel Guarda Geywitz hasdeveloped part of his work on the history of architecture and urbanization inChile considering the Spanish fortifications at the south of the country, wheremany important events related to the Chilean Navy took place. One of his bookstreats the topic of the seizure of Valdivia during the War of Independence.

The civilian researchers who are more oriented toward naval history are atthe Catholic University of Chile (Universidad Catolica de Chile) in Santiago.Some of these individuals include Professors Roberto Hernandez Ponce,Ximena Rojas Valdes, and Emilio Meneses Cuiffardi. The latter is a politicalscientist oriented toward topics in geopolitical and international relations. Hehas published a book on difficulties in the naval relations between Chile and theUnited States.

David Mahan Marchese, M.D., has done a great and valuable research effort

on

on naval historiography and iconography. He is in possession of a privatecollection that is the widest and best organized in the country, collaborating withmany researchers on the subject.

In the field of Chilean maritime history, Admiral Uribe and Claudio Velizhave publications on the merchant navy. Also worth mentioning in thiscontext are Pedro Sapunar, Jorge Lira, Mateo Martinic, and Manuel Fernandez,who have referred to the history of Chilean ports in different periods of thiscentury.

El Mercurio publishes, in several of its newspapers, a supplement entitled OurSea (Nuestro Mar), under the direction of Rear Admiral Francisco GhisolfoAraya, Chilean Navy (retired), who is a prolific author of essays on historical,

Carlos Lopez Urrutia, Historia de la Marina de Chile (Santiago: Andres Bello, 1969).

Alamiro de Avila Martel, Cochrane y la independencia del Pacifuo (Santiago: Universitaria, 1976).

Emilio Meneses Ciuffardi, El factor naval en las relaciones de Chile y EE. UU., 1881-1951 (Santiago).

David Mahan, La Marina de Chile: Proyecto de ensayo Bibliografico (Valparaiso: 1974).

Claudio Veliz, Historia de la Marina Mercante de Chile (Santiago: Universidad de Chile, 1961).

strategic, and tactical topics. This publication characteristically publishes inter-esting articles on naval and maritime activities. Otherwise unavailable back-ground information can also be found in its pages.

In Chile, in general terms, there is a trend to treat naval and maritime subjectswithout any distinction between them. The Chilean Navy has a special concern forthe latter. Furthermore, there is a branch of the Navy that performs the coast guardfunction, and merchant marine officers are educated at the Naval Academy.

The Naval Review [Revista de Marina], normally publishes articles on subjectsrelating to naval history. In addition to this Review, the Chilean Navy publishesLookout [Vigia], which includes similar topics, although graphically treated andin a lighter manner, providing both knowledge and entertainment. It alsoincludes notes on current naval and maritime situations that will become futuresources of information for historians.

Several books relating to the special branches of the Chilean Navy have beenpublished during the last decade, some of them with many illustrations and

-1-1 io

references. Such is the case of books about naval aviation,    naval engineering,supply,    the submarine force,    and naval artillery,    and Marine Corp.

English speaking countries have developed recently an interest in Chileannaval history. Different factors might account for this interest. In the case ofBritish authors, the reason might lie in the important naval influence theircountry exerted in the days of the independence, when many British officersand personnel came here, either with Cochrane or by themselves, and in thegreat amount of naval shipbuilding that was performed by British shipyards forthe Chilean Navy by the middle of the past century. Later, at the beginning ofthis century, through the First World War, and even after this conflict, Britishinstructors came to Chile, while a great number of Chilean officers wereeducated in Britain and in Europe.

The work of Philip Somervell on the subject is quite important. We canalso name Adrian English, who is a journalist who publishes articles on

Carlos Tromben Corbalan, La Aviation Naval de Chile (El Belloto: Comandancia de Aviacion Naval,1987).

Carlos Tromben Corbalan, Ingenierta naval, una especialidad centenaria (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada,1989).

Francisco Astudillo Tapia, y Fernandez A., Marco Historia de la especialidad de Abastecimiento,1818-1940 (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada, 1991).

Armada De Chile, Fuerza de Submarinos (Concepcion: Comandancia en Jefe de la Fuerza deSubmarinos, 1992).

Juan Anderson Diaz, Centenario de la Escuela de Armamentos, 1892-1992 (Valparaiso: Imp. de laArmada, 1992).

Curpo de Infanteria de Marina (Santiago: Sipimex Ltda., 1994).

Philip Somervell, "Amistad naval anglo-chilena", Revista de Marina, 102: 767 (July-August, 1985),pp. 481-93.

the Chilean Navy in specialized reviews; in time they will be a source ofhistorical data.

The Chilean Navy has also been a subject of study in the U.S. Besides the articlesof the aforementioned Dr. Carlos Lopez, we should mention the books by WilliamSater and Robert L. Scheina and others who have written their degree thesesfor different American and British universities. All of these scholars share a curiosityfor this small country with its huge coastline that throughout its history has had arather important naval force compared to its territorial size and which, by the endof the last century, was even able to threaten the emerging naval superiority of theUnited States in the Pacific Ocean. A subject of interest for American authors is theparticipation of the Chilean Navy in internal conflicts and the influence exerted bythe U.S. Navy, particularly since the Second World War, when Great Britainnotably decreased its presence in this part of the world, but Americans have alsodone some substantial work on earlier periods.

An interesting book on Chilean sea power [El Voder Naval Chileno], waspublished to celebrate the centennial of the Revista de Marina. Several distin-guished historians and analysts, some of them already mentioned, directed byCaptain Claudio Collados Nunez, reviewed the historical evolution of theconcept of sea power in Chile from different perspectives.

Currently, there is no official professorial chair in maritime and naval history,except at the Naval Academy. The Chilean Navy focusses research in the field inthe Historical Division of the Naval Museum and Historical Archives, and NavalHistory Bureau in the General Secretariat of the Navy. These two centers of work,research, and analysis are supporting several current research projects to be published.

The transfer of the Naval Museum (which until 1967 had been occupiedby the Naval Academy) to its current building in Valparaiso meant not only

Adrian J. English, Armed forces in Latin America (London: Jane's Publishing Co., 1984).

William F. Sater, The Heroic Image in Chile: Arturo Prat, Secular Saint (Berkeley: Univ. of CaliforniaPress, 1973).

40 Robert L. Sheina, Latin America: a Naval History 1810-1987 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1987);The Influence of Sea Power Upon Latin America: A bibliography (2nd ed. Offset, 1972); "Indigenous LatinAmerica Sea Power" Ph.D thesis, Catholic University of America, 1976).

Robert N. Burr, By Reason of force: Chile and Balance of Power in South America, 1830-1905 (Berkley:Univ. of California Press, 1967); David J. Cubitt, "Study of the Naval Aspects of the War ofIndependence of Chile" (Portsmouth, UK: Portsmouth Polytechnic, 1978-79); D.J. Cubitt, LordCochrane and the Chilean Navy (1818—1823), with an Inventory of the Dundonald Papers relating to his servicewith the Chilean Navy (University of Edinburgh); Leland Henschel Jackson, "Naval Aspects of the Warof the Pacific" (M.A. thesis, University of Florida, 1963); Donald E. Worcester, "Sea power and ChileanIndependence" (thesis, University of Florida.)

Edward Baxter Billingsley, In Defense of Neutral Right: the United States Navy and the Wars ofIndependence in Chile and Peru (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1964); Hanson U. Hancock,A history of Chile (Chicago: Sergei and Co., 1983); Robert Hart, The Great White Fleet (Boston: LittleBrown & Co., 1965); Robert Erwin Johnson, Thence round Cape Horn (Annapolis U.S. Naval Institute,1963). For the recent period, see Robert L. Sheina, Latin America: A Naval History.

Armada de Chile, El poder naval chileno (Santiago: Alfabeta, 1985).

Tromben     101

the renewal of the museum's exhibits in accordance with latest standards formuseums, but the creation of the specialized Historiography Division, headedby Professor Jorge Garin Jimenez (who has been involved in a research at theNational Archives) to select and to classify naval and maritime-related material.The first volume of the papers of Vice-Admiral Thomas A. Cochrane is the fruitof this work, jointly developed with the Naval History Bureau of the GeneralSecretariat of the Navy. It will be published soon with the sponsorship of theoffice of the commander in chief of the Navy.

The Chilean Navy has two other important on-going projects. The firstconsists of continuing research at the National Archives, and in other places,in order to make available the most important documents, enabling special-ized researchers to use them. The second is a project to remodel an additionalpart of the old building of the Naval Academy, supplementing the currentNaval Museum with a library and archive for naval and maritime history.

As a final consideration we can add that the independence period and, ingeneral, all of the last century have been treated in depth by Chilean navaland maritime historiography, probably because it was mainly a time ofexternal conflicts and it is easier to agree on their interpretation. By the sametoken, recent events are less addressed, probably because naval and evenmaritime affairs are related to internal political problems or other aspects thatare subject to the most different interpretations.

There are many newspaper and specialized review articles, together withprofessional theses written by naval and military officers about the events ofthe 1920s and 30s. The published institutional histories for this periodcover controversial matters lightly, but there is very little published aboutthe following decades. Due to a lack of perspective, it is certainly noteasy to provide a fair historical judgment on recent events. Nevertheless,this should not be an excuse to dispense with the personal viewpoints ofrecent events, as authors such as Admirals Uribe and Williams did in thepast century or as von Schroeders and Merino Saavedra did at thebeginning of this one. The works of Admirals Ismael Huerta Diaz andSergio Huidobro Justiniano, especially Admiral Huerta's work, which isundeniably valuable in literary and documentary terms, seem to be isolated

Jorge Garin Jimenez, Archivo Historico Naval, Volume I Book I: Vicealmirante Thomas AlexanderCochrane (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada, 1993).

Ricardo Donoso, Alessandri, agitador y demoledor (Mexico: 1954); Ernesto Gonzalez, El parto de losmonies o la sublevacion de la marineria (Santiago: Talleres Graficos "Condor," 1932); Leonardo GuzmanCortes, Un episodio olvidado de la historia national, julio-noviembre de 1931, (Santiago: Anrdes Bello, 1966);Antonio Quintanilla, Memorias del general Quintanilla (Santiago: 1960); Ramon Vergara Montero, Porrutas extraviadas (Santiago: Imp. Universitaria, 1933); Lorenzo Villalon Madrid, Combate naval de Inquiaue,Valparaiso 21 de mayo e 1925 (Valparaiso: Fisher e Ihnen, 1925).

Ismael Huerta Diaz, Volveria a ser marino (Santiago: Andres Bello, 1988).

Sergio Huidobro Justiniano, Decision Naval (Valparaiso: Imp. de la Armada, 1989).

102    Chile

efforts that find their way amid many newspaper publications and books thattreat these subjects partially or antagonistically. The lack of good analytical andinterpretative works on the naval aspects of recent events is a void that wecannot but regret.

Denmark

Hans Christian Bjerg

Denmark commands a significant maritime geostrategic position. It isbeyond dispute that this position has played a decisive role in thedevelopment of our country and has given it the essence of its historical identity.

It's curious, therefore, to observe that the maritime aspect of Danish history hasbeen assigned a relatively humble position in historical literature, research, inter-pretation, and consciousness. Apparently, in the general consciousness of the Danishpeople, their country is more an agricultural nation than a maritime one.

Fortunately, that state of affairs seems to be changing. In the last three decadesthe interest for naval and maritime history has increased significantly in Denmark.

One of the reasons for the previous lack of comprehensive research in navaland maritime history in Denmark is that we used to speak about maritime issuesin terms of traditional grievances. We did not consider the maritime culturalconcept as a whole, wherein all the diffuse but important maritime aspects cometogether.

It would be fair at this point to note that the situation described above isobviously not unique to Denmark.

The Museums

The Royal Danish Navy has maintained museum collections since theeighteenth century. Still, the public was not normally given access to thesecollections and therefore a general interest in naval history was not stimulated.

R. Steen Steensen, Orlogstnuseet Marinehistorisk Selskabs Skrifternr, 6 (Kobenhavn: 1961), and HansChr. Bjerg, "Den marinehistoriske forskning og Sovsernets museumsproblemer," in MarinehistoriskTidsskrift no. 1, 1973, pp. 7-18.

Hans Christian Bjerg graduated from the University of Copenhagen in 1971. He wasAssistant Keeper at the Danish National Archives 1971-81, Consultant on Naval Historyof the Royal Danish Navy in 1974, Lecturer in Naval History at the Royal NavalAcademy in Copenhagen in 1975, and Chief Archivist and head of the Military Archivesin 1981. He is author of several books and articles about naval history and was editor ofthe Danish Naval Historical Review from 1967 to 1978. He has been a member of theboard of the Society for Danish Naval History since 1964.

The first maritime museum was founded in Denmark in 1914. It was namedThe Museum for Trade and Shipping, (Handels og Sefartsmuseet) and waslocated in the old castle of Kronborg, near Elsinore. For a long time this museumwas the center for the only research in maritime history officially undertaken inDenmark.

Starting in 1958, parts of the naval collections were put on permanentexhibition. That exhibition eventually evolved into a genuine museum. TheRoyal Naval Museum [Orlogsmuseet] finally moved into its own building inCopenhagen in 1989. Unfortunately, due to lack of financial support, theopportunities for the Royal Naval Museum to initiate and attract researchprojects in naval history has been restricted.

In 1964, The National Museum established a special laboratory for shiphistory, primarily to develop research on the ships during the Viking age and inthe Early Middle Ages. A Viking museum was connected to this laboratory in1968 and is located in Roskilde on Zealand. Since 1993 this museum's activitieshave expanded and should develop into a more ambitious Research Center forMaritime Archaeology, which will be supervised by a special council of experts.

In 1908 the a screw frigate Jylland, which had been launched in 1860, wasstricken by the Royal Danish Navy in order to be scrapped. Instead, the frigatewas bought by a group of private individuals who, for a period, used it as afloating exhibition platform. In 1960 it was placed at Ebeloft on Jutland andopened as a museum ship. At the end of the 1980s, support from a privatefoundation made it possible to completely restore the ship. That process wasfinished in early 1994. The ship is a success as a museum and it has stimulatedan interest for the special development of warships and the history of the Navyand its men.

In 1993 an integrated maritime museum was open for the public in Aaiborgon Jutland. There it is possible to visit a submarine and a fast patrol boat and toview collections showing the nation's general maritime and naval development.

It warrants mention that the Arsenal and Arms Museum [Tejhusmuseet] inCopenhagen also contains rich collections related to naval development and thatthe historians of that museum have also contributed to research and publishingof naval history.

Within maritime ethnology and the development of fishing, which also hadan important role for the country's economy, The Museum for Fishing andShipping [Fisker i og Sefartsmuseet] at Esbjerg on Jutland has made exceptionalstudies in the research of this aspect of our history.

Olde Crumlin-Pedersen "Marinarkaeologisk Forskningscenter i Roskilde—en aktuel orientering,"in Fortid og Nutid (1994), pp. 24-52.

The history of the museum ship can be found in R. Steen Steensen, Fregattenjylland, MarinehistoriskSelskabs Skrifter (Kobenhavn: 1965); and F.H. Kjoolsen, "The Old Danish Frigate," in Mariner's Mirror(1965) pp. 27-33.

All in all, the museum situation in Denmark regarding the nation's naval andmaritime history is more favorable today than ever.

Instruction and Education

One of the reasons for the lack of the interest on naval and maritime historyin general in Denmark is due to the fact that there has never been a Chair onthis subject at the Danish Universities. Of course, courses in maritime aspects ofcertain disciplines have been held. But the concept as such has never been objectfor profound and comprehensive research. As of this writing, only three doctoraldissertations have been prepared in this field.

The situation at the universities for the last two decades seems to be followingthe general trend noted above. In advanced classes in history, several now chooseto prepare papers about relevant naval and maritime subjects and relatedproblems.

There is, however, no formal education or instruction on the maritime historyat the schools for the merchant marine and shipping. Only at the Royal NavalAcademy do they provide regular instructions and lectures on Danish NavalHistory and development of the naval tactics during the ages. But, once again,there is no formal chair. The lectures are given by the historical adviser of theRoyal Danish Navy, who is a naval historian and also head of the military archivesin Denmark.

Organizations

For many years the only forum for discussions about naval and maritimehistory was the so-called Society of Naval Lieutenants (See-lieutenant-Selskabet), founded in 1784. In the beginning, only lieutenants of the Navycould be members. Later, all naval officers of the line could be members. TheSociety is a closed circle and is only visible for the public through the Society'sthe Naval Review [Tidsskrift for Sevssen], which the Society has published since1856 when it took over from private sources who had published it since 1826.Now it is one of the oldest reviews on naval affairs in the world.

In 1951 a small group of interested naval officers and historians founded theNaval Historical Society (Marinehistorisk Selskab). Their intention was tostimulate research in, and interest for, the history of the Royal Danish Navy.Furthermore, another goal was to develop a naval museum where the richcollections of the Navy could be shown to the public.

Ever since 1951 this society has been the primary forum for discussions onprimarily naval history and, to a lesser extent, on maritime history in general.

Henning Henningsen, Crossing the Equator: Sailor's Baptism and Other Initiation Rites (Copenhagen:1961); Ole Feldbaek, India Trade under the Danish Flag 17 12-1 #0# (Scandinavian Institute of Asian StudiesMonograph Series no. 2) (Copenhagen: 1969); Anders Monrad Moeller, Fra Galeoth til Galease. Studieri de kongerigske provinsers so/art i det 18. arh. (Kobenhavn: 1981).

From its inception, the society published books on Danish naval history. In 1967it began to publish the Naval Historical Review [Marinehistorisk Tidsskrift], forwhich the first editor was the present author. This Review has fulfilled its purposeand has really stimulated research on naval historical matters. Today the Reviewconstitutes an important forum for naval and maritime matters.

From 1959—73, a naval officer was attached to the naval staff as a consultant onhistorical questions. In 1974 a civilian historian became the consultant of the Navyon naval historical matters and has, in reality, worked as the official naval historian.

The Board of Marinehistorisk Selskab discussed in 1971 the general conditionof naval historical research in Denmark and how it could stimulate generalinterest in seeing naval and maritime history as a whole and as aspects of thesame overall concept. The discussions were also inspired by the development inSweden of an official council for maritime research in 1971—72. As a conse-quence, the Board decided to initiate the First Danish Conference on MaritimeHistory in March 1974. The purpose of the conference was to develop a baselinefor research on Danish maritime history and to investigate the possibilities forcoordinating the efforts of the different disciplines.

The result of the conference was the creation of the Contact Committee forDanish Maritime Historical and Social Research, which, since 1974, has ar-ranged a biennial conference for maritime research. Furthermore, the committeehad taken the initiative to publish surveys periodically of on-going research aswell as a guide to where sources for maritime history can be found. Each yearthe Committee publishes a bibliography of books and articles related to navaland maritime matters.

Naval History Research and Literature

The research and publishing of Danish naval history, until the second part ofthe present century, has been dominated by naval officers. The literature onthese matters was characterized by general works and very few special investiga-tions. As a matter of fact, very few educated historians had previously dared tostep into the field.

One who did was H.D.Lind, a vicar, who in the last decades of the nineteenthcentury has published works about the sixteenth and seventeenth century DanishNavy. His works are still used as textbooks today.

The first survey of relative modern Danish naval history was printed in smallbooklet form in 1818 by W.A. Graah, a naval officer. After comprehensivestudies of the archives, another naval officer, H.G. Garde, published a four-

7    _

volume history of the Dano-Norwegian Navy dating from 1500.   The edition

Hans Christian Bjerg, "Den maritimhistoriske forskning i Denmark," in Fortid og NutidXXVI (1976),pp. 392-7.

W.A. Graah, Udkast til Danmarks Soekrigshistorie (Kobenhavn: 1818).7    H.G. Garde, Efterretninger on den danske og norske Semagt, bd. I-IV (Kobenhavn: 1832-35).

was not a continuous history, but rather a chronological synthesis of periodicinformation. It does, however, remain a useful work.

Garde expressed the hope that its publication would inspire historians to writeabout Danish naval history, but he was to be disappointed. It was Garde himselfwho would, in 1852 and 1861, publish two general works on the history of the

Q

Danish Navy, covering the period 1500—1814. He later brought that historyup to 1848. General works on Danish naval history were not produced until1875 and 1906 respectively. The authors, once again, were naval officers.

The same was the case when a new general naval history was published in1934. A two-volume publication emerged in 1941—42, following the samemodel. The two last mentioned books must be considered in view of the existingpolitical context. With regard to the first publication, it must be noted that, inthe 1930s, the wave of disarmament nearly strangled the Navy in Denmark, andthe naval officers had to profile their occupation. When the two-volume workwas published, Denmark was occupied by German troops, and one purpose ofthe publication was apparently to emphasize the long history of Denmark andthe strength of the national will which, over the ages, had been secured by theNavy.

The last publication in the list of general books about history came in1961-62. It followed the same model as its predecessors, but for the first time,some of the contributors were civilian historians. This was apparently a result ofthe efforts of Marinehistorisk Selskab since 1951. The general works did notcommunicate new knowledge to the naval history other than the contemporaryactivities of the Royal Danish Navy.

The increase of interest in naval history from the beginning of the 1970sproduced a demand for new knowledge about naval history. Therefore, the timefor general works had passed and several books and articles about special andnarrower subject areas based on a scientific approach emerged. However, onegeneral work from this period was produced. It is a two-volume book about theshipbuilding activity in the Danish-Norwegian Navy in the period of the sailingwarship, 1690—1860, which was published in 1980. That book revealed therichness of the huge collections of technical drawings and plans which existedin the naval files of the Danish National Archives. It has contributed to ourknowledge of an important aspect of our maritime heritage which had not been

8 H.G. Garde, Bidrag til Semagts Historie 1700-1814 (Kobenhavn: 1852), and Den dansk-norske SemagtsHistorie 1535-1100 (Kobenhavn: 1861).

9 H.G. Garde, "Bidrag til Somgtens Historie 1814-48," Historisk Tidskrift, 3.Rk. V. Bd. (1866-67),pp. 165-216.

Fldden gennem 450 Ar, Red. af R. Steen Steensen, G. Honnes de Lichtenberg og M. Frils Metier,(Kobenhavn, 1961) (vol. 1), and Fladen - administration, teknik og civile opgauer, Red. af K.G. Konradsen,G. Honnens de Lichtenberg og M. Frils Moller, (Kobenhavn, 1962) (vol. 2).

Hans Christian Bjerg and John Erichsen, Danske Orlogsskibe 1690-1860, Konstruktion og Dekoration,Bd. I-II (Kobenhavn: 1980).

108     Denmark

researched previously. It also inspired basic studies about technical developmentin Denmark where, for a long time, the Naval Shipyard in Copenhagen was thelargest workplace in the country. In the 1980s, profound and comprehensivestudies were published on the ships and shipbuilding of the Danish Navy in the

19

seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries.

Now we also have a comprehensive knowledge on the Navy in the last partof the seventeenth century, thanks to discussions among the Danish navalhistorians about the course of the Naval Battle of K0ge Bugt on the 1st of July

1 'X

1677. This discourse has brought many new facts to light on that period.Contemporary research also exists on the last part of the eighteenth century andon the first decade of the nineteenth century.

Much remains to be done. For example, we still need modern research onthe administration of the Navy, its political role, the social conditions for theofficers and the crews, and among other things, new investigations on the navalbattles fought by the Navy.

In 1975 the present author published A Bibliography of Danish Naval Historyfrom 1500-1975 [Dansk Marinehistorisk Bibliografi 1500-1975]. It lists 2,086items, most of them small articles and booklets. Unintentionally, the bibliog-raphy became a chronicle of the status of Danish naval history prior to theincreasing interest which appeared in the 1970s. Since then, there have beenaround 500 items published, which, on average, are far more detailed andextensive than most of the items listed in the mentioned bibliography. It is notsurprising, therefore, that a revision to that bibliography is planned for publica-tion in the next two to three years.

Danish naval historians realize today that a lot of trends common to otherEuropean naval development can be recognized in the Danish materials. But theyare also of that opinion that knowledge of the development of the small DanishNavy can provide important pieces to an understanding of the general puzzle.Heretofore, very few books or articles on Danish naval history have been publishedin English or another major language. It is, therefore, the claimed intention ofDanishnaval historians today to publish more in English in the future.

Maritime History Research and Literature

As compared to naval history, maritime history has thus far been characterizedby general surveys and sporadic scientific research. It is worthwhile to observe

See for instance, Niels M. Probst and Frank Allan Rasmussen in several articles in MarinehistoriskTidsskrift in the 1980s and 1990s.

Jorgen H. Barfod, Niels Juel, liv oggeming i den danske seetat (Arhus: 1977). The discussions about theBattle of Koge Bugt can be followed in articles in Tidsskrift for Sevcesen og Marinehistorisk Tidsskrift in thebeginning of the 1950s and from 1977 and on.

14 Ole L. Frantzani Trualan tra vat. Dansk-norsk fladepolitik 1769-1807, Marinehistorisk SelskabeSkrifter, no. 16 (Kobenhavn: 1980) and Ole Feldbaek, Slaget pa Reden (Kobenhavn: 1985).

Bjerg     109

that the two disciplines have followed separate tracks. But, in general, the interestin maritime history has been greater than that shown for naval history.

In 1919 a huge book in two volumes was published. The title was The Shippingand Trade of Denmark during the Ages [Danmarks Sofart og Sohandel fra de oeldsteTider til vore Dage]. The contributors were esteemed historians, naval officers,and men working with the shipping trade. For a long time this book representedthe general knowledge of the maritime history of Denmark, but did not inspirefurther research.

Research and writings about maritime history have concentrated around theHandes og Sofartsmuseet and its yearbook, the articles which represent the mainpart of the published maritime history up to current times. A lot of informationmay also be found in the jubilee publications of the different Danish shippingcompanies.

Denmark and the Sea [Danmark og Havet] was the title of a general two-volumebook about the maritime history of Denmark and the maritime contemporaryinstitutions in the country. It was published in 1948.

The 1970s were also a breakthrough for the maritime historical interest andresearch centered around the Conference for Maritime History and the ContactCommittee mentioned above. In 1980 the Contact Committee began to publishthe Maritime Contact [Maritim Kontakt], which now, in addition to the yearbookof the Museum for Trade and Shipping, is the main forum for published maritimeresearch in Denmark. One of the few doctoral dissertations on maritime historywas published in 1981.

The situation for maritime historical research in Denmark is, therefore,generally in very good shape at the moment. An example of this is the workingplan for a general and comprehensive work on the maritime history of Denmark,which is going to be published within the next 3—4 years in 4—5 volumes, writtenby historians who belong to the new school that emerged after the 1970s. It isexpected that this new history will compile all the new knowledge provided bythe modern and scientific research approach.

15

By Anders Monrad Moller, cfr. note 4.

10Dominican Republic

Cesar A. De Windt LavandierRear Admiral, Dominican Republic Navy, Retired

Following twenty-two years of Haitian military occupation, DominicanRepublic independence was proclaimed on 27 February 1844. On that verysame day, Commander Juan Alejandro Acosta took possession of the portfacilities at the Harbor on the Ozama River, and the Dominican Navy, knownas the National Fleet, was born.

The Navy was initially composed of five converted merchant ships providedby three Dominican businessmen, and was organized by its founders, Com-manders Juan Bautista Cambiaso and Juan Bautista Maggiolo. The first ship tocarry the Dominican banner was the schooner Leonor, which departed SantoDomingo on 2 March 1844 bound for Curacao. Her mission was to returnpreviously exiled patrician Juan Pablo Duarte, the founder of the DominicanRepublic, to his newly independent homeland.

The Navy's first five converted merchant vessels were soon joined by sevenother ships that had been purchased for use in the new nation's defense. TheDominican Navy then comprised twelve ships, with attendant Naval Artilleryand Naval Infantry units from 1844 to 1861. It was to play a leading role insecuring the independence of our fledgling country. This was particularly trueduring the war between the Dominican Republic and Haiti from 1849 to 1850,when the Navy successfully met the Haitian Navy in combat while transportingsubstantial quantities of troops and supplies in that conflict.

Despite this proud and significant introduction, however, much of theDominican Republic's naval and maritime history has fallen into a state of neglectin recent times. It is this issue which merits our attention.

Authentic historiography in the Dominican Republic began with Jose GabrielGarcia who, during the last decade of the nineteenth century, wrote wrote fourvolumes in a compendium of the history of Santo Domingo dating back to thearrival of the Spaniards to the islands.   Garcia, it should be noted, also served as

Duarte was destined to be exiled again that same year by his Dominican rival, Pedro Santana, andwould lead a wandering lifestyle, largely in Venezuela, until his death in 1876. Still, he is widely regardedas the founder of the Dominican independence movement.

Jose Gabriel Garcia, Historia Moderna De La Repubica Dominicana (Santo Domingo: Garcia hermanos,

112     Dominican Republic

an artillery lieutenant in one of the warships that fought against the Haitian forces

during the 1849—50 war. He took part in the naval battle of Aux Cayes off the

southern coast of Haiti in December 1849, from which the Dominican Republic

emerged victorious.

Antonio del Monte y Tejada, another author who actually preceded Garcia,

■I

made reference to the Dominican Corsairs activities from 1738 to 1760. Bothwriters based their ideas on their studies of the West Indian Chronicals. SinceGarcia did not have access to many primary sources of information, it is possiblethat he used del Monte y Tejada's notes, as Antonio had traveled to Havana,Cuba to conduct extensive research in the official files and deposits held there.

Also ranking among the noteworthy researchers of our history is EmilioRodriquez Demorizi, who, most notably, made reference to the evolution ofour merchant marine as well as the Dominican Navy in many of his books.

In fact, in our country the military affairs dealing with seafaring events arevery closely related to non-military maritime issues. All matters associated withport authorities are in the hands of the military officials. Since the DominicanRepublic is a small nation, the Navy supervises all activities concerning all ofour ports of call, including trade, defense and security. Thus, our naval heritageis very much a part of our national history.

Unfortunately, there is no institution in the Dominican Republic,governmental or private, intended solely to teach our naval history. The onlyentity currently teaching maritime history is the Dominican Naval Academy,and even those courses are taught under precarious conditions. Appropriateresearch facilities are nonexistent, and the lack of resources, materials, andprimary documents prevent students from obtaining a validated understandingof that history.

The Academy of History (Academia de la Historia de la RepublicaDominicana) is an official institution founded by a group of prominent anddistinguished historians dedicated to the study of the history of the two countriessharing the island of Hispaniola: the Dominican Republic and the Republic ofHaiti. As such, it concerns itself with many aspects of the island's history, but ithas not undertaken the study of either the Dominican Navy or its merchantmarine.

Several individuals in the private sector have accumulated documents relatingto events that took place during our War for Independence and those chroniclingthe Dominican Republic's naval participation in World War II, but those effortshave not enjoyed the support of our public institutions.

1893-1906; reprint 1968), 4 vols.

Antonio del Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo (1890; reprint: Ciudad Trujillo, 1952-1953),3 vols.

See, for example, Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi, Hostos en Santo Domingo (Ciudad Trujillo,1939-1942), 2 vols.

De Windt Lavandier    113

In my personal opinion, our country is in great need of institutions thatpromote the studies of naval historiography. For example, the creation of aspecial department at Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo, the oldestuniversity in the New World and a very prestigious institution, to study maritimeand naval history would be extremely important.

It would also be possible to integrate a special branch for the study of maritimehistory with the collaboration of other international organizations with ourgovernment. Proposals for such a development could be made through theMuseum of History and Geography or through the Academy of History of theDominican Republic.

The absence of a sound and vigorous branch of maritime history in theDominican Republic is due largely to the imperatives of national priorities; weare a small and poor country and must husband resources accordingly. Thepotential for cooperative or collaborative efforts with international organizationsdedicated to maritime research may provide the opportunity to overcome theresource limitations and permit us to more thoroughly develop and betterunderstand this important aspect of our nation's history.

11

France

Herve Coutau-Begarie

For much of the twentieth century, France has maintained a leading role inthe study of history. At the turn of the century, the positivist school helpeddecisively to settle the emerging rules of scholarly history. In the 1930s, theAnnales school played a leading role in the revival of historical studies with itsinterests in economy and social history. Today, Fernand Braudel, Emmanuel LeRoy-Ladurie, and Pierre Chaunu are well known to the international com-munity of historians. Yet, despite this rich relationship with historical studiesin general, it is not at all certain that the same positive observations can be madeabout the influence of the French school on maritime history.

Such an assertion may be surprising. France, after all, has played an importantrole in the International Commission of maritime history. It was through Frenchinfluence that the revision of the Glossaire nautique by Jal, and the creation of amaritime history working group five years later at the Stockholm Congress, wasapproved at the 10th International Congress of Historical Sciences in Rome in1955. The first international symposia were organised in Paris from 1956 to 1959by the Academie de Marine, the Comite de documentation historique de laMarine, the Centre national de la recherche scientifique and the IVe Section del'Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes. Subsequent symposia have taken place allover the world, but the mainspring has always been a French source. Symposiaproducts were also for some time published by the S.E.V.P.E.N. in France, ina collection known to all maritime historians.

Given all this, how could one have doubts as to the influence of Frenchmaritime historiography? The balance sheet is impressive, but it is essentially thework of one man: Michel Mollat, President of the International Commission ofMaritime History for twenty-five years. Mollat authored many books, served asthe head of the working groups for the revision of the Glossaire nautique, of asurvey concerning the marine ex-votos, and of a bibliography of oceanic routes.He was a leading figure in dozens of national or international symposia and,finally, was founder of the Laboratorie d'Histoire maritime. An entire articledevoted just to his work would not suffice to relate his contribution to maritime

Herve Coutau-Begarie, Le phSnomene Nouvelle Historie, Grandeur et dkadence de I'ecole des Annales(Paris: Economica, 2e ed., 1989).

history. Following him are those who are today known to the international com-munity: Jean Meyer, Etienne Taillemite, Jean Boudriot, and Philippe Masson.

But French maritime historians have been unable to establish a commonmethodological approach with which to challenge the Anglo-Saxon hegemony inthis field. The reasons for this situation are, of course, complex. First, we have toconsider the absence of a structure around which French maritime historians couldgather. For instance, there is no counterpart to the British Navy Records Society inFrance. The Commission francaise d'Histoire maritime (CFHM), is relatively new,dating back only to 1976, and its means have always been very modest. For variousreasons, the integration of the Commission into the Comite de documentationhistorique de la Marine, which was logically appropriate, has not been possible.

Furthermore, there is no real center for research within academia except theLaboratoire d'histoire maritime. That laboratory was created in 1973 by MichelMollat at the Sorbonne when the IVeme section de l'Ecole pratique des HautesEtudes was finally integrated into the Centre National de la Recherche Scien-tifique. Additionally, no journal of maritime history enjoying the same impor-tance as the American Neptune or the Mariner's Mirror exists in France. As a result,the professional articles which are produced are dispersed in various reviews, themost important of which do not give them the space or attention they deserve.

In 1979, the CFHM began publication of a Chronique d'histoire maritime, which,in fact, is more a simple bulletin than a true review. Of course, we have theexcellent review, Neptunia, published by the Musee de la Marine, but it is moreinterested in archeology than in history, and its size prohibits the publication ofextensive articles. The review Marins et Oceans, published for the first time bythe CFHM in 1990, was stopped after the third issue with a change in theCommission's editorial policy. The same situation exists in the publishing ofother scholarly maritime and naval history; for instance, the well-knownS.E.V.P.E.N. no longer exists after having once been the publishing resourcefor substantive studies.

The Service historique de la Marine publishes certain works, but only whenthey are the result of researchers using the documents kept by that Service. Someworks remain unpublished, particularly if they are extensive, unless it is possibleto adopt the imperfect solution of the anastatic process. For example, the workon the Chinese Navy by Jacques Dars was published more than twenty yearsafter its examination by the university, and the book by Claude Huan on theSoviet Navy in the Arctic during the 1940-1945 war waited more than ten yearsfor a publisher. These are but two examples among others.

This lack of structure has created an unfortunate separation between navalhistory and maritime history. The former has suffered from a long-lasting

2 Naturally there are other centres of research having fewer resources such as Centre d'historie desEspaces atlantiques in Bordeaux under the supervision of Paul Butel.

Coutau-Begarle     117

-I

prejudice against military history, anathematised by the Annales school. Thestudy of naval history has been relegated for decades to retired naval officers orship lovers, interested in the ships themselves. Thus, naval history has longfocused on technique and tactics and emphasized activities of ships-of-the-lineor the actions of privateers in the guerre de course. Maritime history, on the otherhand, survived by adapting itself to external subjects such as economic history,through which its revival began.

In a Revue historique article in 1971, Professor Andre Martel foresaw a revivalof military history in France. It is not going too far to say that a similar occurrencehas been observed for the last two decades in the studies of naval and maritimehistories. Both have finally reached, if not unity, at least a complementaritywhich allows them to coexist in academia. The number of studies has increasedin various spheres. Today, French maritime history covers almost all historicalresearch fields, although, unfortunately, some important areas exhibit weaknessor obsolescence. As an initial conclusion, therefore, we may say that the resultsof this progress remain mixed.

The distinction between naval history and maritime history has given rise tosome disputes. The most common point of view, in accordance with theetymology currently being accepted, is that naval history should include every-thing which concerns the ships themselves, while maritime history would bemore one of the environment. It does not seem necessary to debate that questionhere, but to remain with the commonly accepted interpretation, naval historymeans the history of the military forces used at sea, while maritime historyconcerns all the rest. This division has the advantage of being easily under-standable and also corresponds in a certain way to an institutional reality whichis almost sociological: naval historians form a particular group in which academicsremain a minority; maritime historians are much more numerous and morediversified, while at the same time more closely connected to academia.

Naval History

Before 1940, France seemed to have a promising and solid base in navalhistory. Famous historians had dedicated their studies to it: Lacour-Gayet wrotea whole set of volumes on French maritime and colonial policy before theRevolution. Charles de la Ronciere wrote a monumental, six volume Histoirede la marinefrancaise. Although his history was never completed, the final volumehe produced, concerning Louis XIV's navy, is still considered a reference for today'sresearch.

Herve Coutau-Begarie, "L'histoire militaire face a la nouvelle histoire," Strattgique, 18, 1986.

This statement is in no way exhaustive. Its aim consists in bringing tendencies to the fore and in notseeking an exhaustive evaluation. The only works mentioned are the most important or the mostsignificant as such.

The historical method also remained highly regarded in French naval circles despitethe consequences of the First World War. Officers studying at the Ecole de guerrenavale were typically required to write a thesis, and most often they were of a historicalnature, with a predilection for works on the seventeenth and eighteenth centuryperiods. For this reason, we have a number of important studies based on archivalresearch and presenting original interpretations which have been brought to theattention of the public by historians since the Second World War.

This tradition continued through the 1950s, with an inclination towardscontemporary history. Then, in the following decade, it was interrupted whenmilitary teaching turned from history and gave priority to technical subjects.This lack of interest, demonstrated by both the Navy and academia, was veryharmful to the progress of research. It was only in the 1980s that naval historywas revived and claimed its rightful place among historical studies.

Contemporary Naval History. Contemporary naval history reached an excep-tional level of development in France between the two world wars, when thememory of the First War was still vivid, furthering the publication of works onnaval warfare. The undisputed leader of that form of literature was Paul Chack, whopublished a number of small works with much success, and which have recentlybeen collected in one volume by Jacques Antier. Simultaneously the Servicehistorique de la Marine, created in 1920 by Captain Raoul Castex, began publishingsome strategical studies through its historical section. Other purely historical studies,written primarily by Captains Adolphe Laurens and Louis Guichard, are remarkablefor the way the authors scrupulously used official records. These works remain usefultoday.

This worthy historical effort was brought to a sudden halt by the SecondWorld War. Of course, at the end of that war, just as in 1918, a number ofpopular works on naval war emerged. Some of them have achieved great success,particularly those by Jacques Mordal (pen name of naval doctor Herve Cras,who also wrote several other works on the Second World War). At the sametime, just as in 1918, the historical section of the Service historique de la Marine,renewed publication of historical studies through official histories. Cras andCaptain Caroff wrote most of those studies, which deal with almost all thetheaters of operation: Mediterranean, Atlantic, the Channel, North Sea, and

See for instance the works listed in the bibliography of Philippe Masson, Histoire de la Marine (Paris:Lavauzelle, 1982, volume I).

Paul Chack et Jean-Jacques Antier, Histoire maritime de la premiere guerre mondiale (Paris: France-Empire,1970 in 3 volumes and 1992 in one volume).

Adolphe Laurens, Histoire de la guerre sous-marine allemande (Paris: Editions maritimes et coloniales,1930); he commandement naval en Mediterranee (Paris: Payot, 1931); Precis d'histoire de la guerre navale (Paris:Payot, 1929); Louis Guichard, Histoire du blocus naval 1914-1918, (Paris: Payot, 1929).

Coutau-Begarie     119Indochina. Other similar works have been devoted to certain postwar events,

Q

particularly the colonial war in Indochina and the Suez crisis.

Unfortunately, this effort was stopped in the 1960s for several reasons. Theprimary one was the lack of resources available to the Service historique de laMarine, but the slow progress of granting access to official records or documentsto unofficial researchers also contributed to the problem. Thanks to the 1979change in French national security law, which reduced the required time delayfor opening records to the public from fifty to thirty years, part of the accessproblem has been alleviated. Still, we must contend with the fact that many ofour historical records suffered significant disorder, or even destruction, bothduring the 1940 French collapse and during military actions before and afterLiberation. Therefore, reconstitution of naval archives has been difficult andonly partially successful. Additionally, some of the series in the French navalarchives are incompletely listed or without detailed inventories. This, of course,further complicates the researcher's task.

Despite the various limitations, the contemporary period is the best studied.Among the best works are those by Philippe Masson, head of the historicalsection of the Service historique de la Marine, and those by Claude Huan,dispersed through many articles and conference papers.

A number of French researchers  have  extended their consideration of

maritime issues beyond France. Here too, Captain Claude Huan has studied

Soviet and German naval history in a number of important articles and begun a

history of the German-Soviet war, the first volume of which has just been

published.   Captain Francois-Emmanuel Brezet chose to study the Imperial

1 oGerman Navy; his original analysis of the Jutland battle    replaces the famous

book by Captain Georg von Hase, La bataille du Jutland vue du Derflinger, which

had impressed many French naval officers in the 1930s.

We are, however, unable to mention any noteworthy study on the Royal

Navy (contrary to what happens on the other side of the Channel), or on the

Q

Herve Cras, Lesforces maritimes du Nord, 1955; C.F. Caroff, Le thS&tre atlantique, 1958—1959; Le tht&tremtditerranken, 1960; Les formations de la marine aux armies, 1953, reed. 1984; La campagne de Norvege, 1955,reed. 1986; Herve Cras, L'armistice de juin 1940 et la crise franco-britannique, 1959; C.F. Caroff, LesdSbarquements alliis en Afrique du Nord (Novembre 1942), 1960, reed. 1987; Andre Reussner, Les conversationsfranco-britanniques d'Etat-Major (1935-1939), 1969; V.A.E. Chaline et C.V. Santarelli, Historique des Forcesnavalesfrancias libres, t. 1,1989; Jacques Michel, La marinefrancaise en Indochinede 1939 a 1956, 1972-1977,reed. 1991-1992; Philippe Masson, La crise de Suez, 1966.

Claude Huan, La marine sovietique en guerre. I Antique (Paris-Caen: Economica-Memorial, 1990).Two other volumes will follow: one for the Black sea, another for the Baltic. Huan has already publisheda great number of studies, mainly in the 1960s in Revue Maritime.

This author has previously published important articles: "Une flotte contre l'Angleterre. La rivalitenavale anglo-allemande 1897-1914" in Marins et Ockans /(Paris: 1991); "Le croiseur de bataille: mytheou realite," in Marins et Odans II (Paris: 1992).11   F.E. Brezet, Le Jutland 1916 (Paris: Economica, 1992).

navies of Italy and Japan.  Contemporary naval history in France remains

markedly introverted.

Despite the individual efforts noted above, there are a considerable number

of lacunae in contemporary French naval history. It is, for instance, obvious that

biographical research lags in France. Most of the British admirals of the First

World War had their biographies written; this is not the case for the French

admirals. Admiral Guepratte, well known for his gallantry during the First World

War, was the only one to be the subject of biographies, but they are all too often

anecdotal or hagiographic.  None of the chiefs of the naval staff nor the

commanders-in-chief of the French fleet have been accorded this honor.

1 oWith regard to the Second World War, only two admirals, Castex     and

Darlan,    have had biographies published; the former as a naval thinker and the

latter for his political importance. This course of events seems surprising,

particularly when we recall the important role played by several other admirals,

such as de Laborde, Commander in Chief of the French High Sea Forces at the

time of the scuttling of the French Navy in Toulon in November 1942; or

Muselier, Commander of the Free French Naval Forces until his break with de

Gaulle; or Abrial, who defended Dunkirk, was governor of Algeria after 1940,

and Secretary of State for the Navy during the dramatic events leading to the

scuttling of the fleet.

There are many more examples of the lack of biographical research of French

naval history in France. Through the work of Philippe Masson, we do have a

general history of the French Navy during the Second World War.    This work

replaces the obsolete and inadequate one by Admiral Auphan and Jacques

Mordal,    whose work suffered from the research restrictions noted earlier. The

history by Philippe Masson is a synthesis of complementary investigations into

the mass of documents kept in Vincennes. There is no comparable work for the

First World War, which has been widely neglected since the death of Henri Le

Masson. The fundamental reference about the Navy of the Belle Epoque remains

American Theodore Ropp's work, written between the two wars at the time

when the public record offices were closed (although there is a study in progress

by Admiral Ausseur).     Another key work is the study by Genevieve Salkin

on naval attaches, bringing to naval history the methods of prosopography.

Herve Coutau-Begarie, Castex le stratege inconnu (Paris: Economica, 1985).

Herve Coutau-Begarie et Claude Huan, Darlan (Paris: Fayard, 1989), followed by Lettres et notes deI'amiral Darlan, (Paris-Caen: Economica-Memorial, 1992).

Philippe Masson, La marine Jrancaise et la guerre 1939-1945 (Paris: Tallandier, 1991).

Amiral Auphan et Jacques Mordal, La marine Jrancaise pendant la seconde guerre mondiale (Paris: Hachette,1958).

Unpublished for a long time, this book has been magnificently edited by Stephen Roberts: TheodoreRopp, The Formation of a Navy (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press 1987).

Genevieve Salkin-Laparra, Marins et diplomates. Les attache's nauals 1860-1914 (Vincennes: Servicehistorique de la Marine, 1990).

Another work by Philippe Masson concerns the postwar mutinies, but nofundamental study exists on naval law. A thesis on interwar naval policywas abandoned, but we shall soon have a book published, unfortunatelyposthumously, by Admiral de Lachadenede, which considers the French

9ft

Navy during the Spanish Civil War.    As for the study of the officer corps

by Ronald Chalmers Hood, it is slightly exaggerated and warrants some

21

revision.

Today, ships' histories are pursued by passionate specialists. One of thebest is Robert Dumas, the matchless connoisseur of the battleships.    While

.9^

the French Fleet Air Arm looks forward eagerly for a historian, Henri LeMasson, publisher of the Flottes de Combat and a renowned historian,produced several remarkable studies on the history of the light craft and ofsubmarines from a broader perspecive than that usually employed. CaptainHuan is also working on a revised history of French submarines.

The history of French naval thought actually lay essentially fallow untilthe launching of the international programme under the supervision of theFondation pour les Etudes de Defense Nationale (FEDN), to which historiansfrom eleven countries contributed. The studies on naval disarmament,which proliferate in the Anglo-Saxon world, are very rare in France. TheWashington Conference aroused the attention of a German historian who

97 >-»-.

has written a thesis on the subject.     The London Conferences also await

98

a French historian's approach.

Philippe Masson, La marinefrancaise et la mer Noire (Paris: Publicatioons de la Sorbonne, 1982).1    Captain Huan is working on this subject.Philippe Masson, La marine francaise et la mer Noire (Paris:Publications de la Sorbonne, 1982).

Rene Sabatier de Lachadenede, La marine francaise et la guerre civile d'Espagne (Vincennes: SHM, 1994).

Ronald Chalmers Hood, Royal Republicans, French Naval Officers Corps between the Wars (Batan Rouge:Louisiana Univ. Press, 1985).

Robert Dumas, Les cuirassh de 23 000 tonnes (Brest: Editions de la Cite, 1980); Le cuirasse Jean Bart(Bourg-en-Bresse: Marine Editions, 1992).

Let us mention the recent creation of an Association pour la recherche de la documentation surl'histoire de l'aeronautique navale (ARE)HAN), 3 Avenue Octave Greard. 00300 Armees.

Henri Le Masson, Du Nautilus au Redoutable (Paris: 1960); Histoire du torpilleur en France (Paris:Academie de Marine, 1966).

L'AGASM (Association generale des anciens sous-mariners) has a remarkable review of littlediffusion, Plongee, which has published several issues treating of highly technical questions on submarinesof the main sea powers.

France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgique, Portugal, Rumania, Sweden, Finland, UnitedStates, Argentina. Three volumes have been published under the title L'evolution de la penste navale,(Paris: FEDN, I, 1991; II, 1992; IN, 1993). At least two other volumes are programmed.

Hannsjorg Kowar, Die Franzosische Marinepolitik 1919-1914 und die Washingtoner Konferenz(Stuttgaart: Hochschulverlag, 1978); a digest of this work is about to be published in French.

The study by Maurice Vai'sse, Securite d'aboard (Paris: Pedone, 1980) is most particularly dedicatedto general disarmament according to the rules of the SDN.

Today, some famous events need reinterpretation. For instance, the 1916Athens affair still provokes a misplaced reserve in historical circles. Nobody wantsto shed light on the causes which resulted in that show of force which culminatedin tragic failure. That is not so for the Mers el-Kebir episode, but, even fiftyyears later, that tragedy warrants historical clarification. For instance, all existingsources continue to give the erroneous number of losses as 1,294 killed, whilemany aspects of the decision-making process are left undisclosed. The samecan be said of the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon. A number of importantmessages between Toulon and Algiers remain unknown, while everyone tellsthe legend of a major SS operation, which participated with only a smalldetachment.

The deficiencies of French contemporary naval history are, in fact, logical, ifwe take into account the lack of interest which surrounds naval strategy inFrance. The tradition personified by Admiral Castex in the interwar years andfollowing the renowned authors at the turn of the century, Admirals Daveluyand Darrieus, has fallen by the wayside. There is not a single work concerningFrench naval strategy, outside some historical works, since Espagnac du Ravay's1941 essay, Vingt arts de politique navale, written by order of Admiral Darlan. Bycontrast, consider, for instance, that in the 1970s and 1980s, approximately tenbooks concerning naval strategy were published in England by authors such asSir James Cable, Eric Grove, and Rear-Admiral Richard Hill.

This is the result of a political censorship enduring from the memory of theSecond World War (as exemplified by the absence of a commemoration of thefiftieth anniversary of Mers el-Kebir, the official celebration of which was strictlythe work of the British). It is due also to an instinctive suspicion towards anyreflection that could threaten the delicate consensus about defence policy. Further-more, it is the consequence of a sensitive juxtaposition of hierarchical interests,divided between a lack of interest for genuine research and a particular interest inpreventing even a muffled criticism of its actions. The freedom of expression thatfavored research on strategy and history through the 1930s simply does not existanymore. There is, of course, the beginning of a scholarly interest in French navalstrategy following 1945, but the results of these efforts are still undetermined.

Contemporary naval history, despite all, is tied to an understanding ofprevious periods.

Ancient Naval History. The deficiencies in French maritime and navalhistoriography are particularly manifest with regard to antiquity. We can noteonly a few works, which are generally governed by an archeological approach.

Herve Coutau-Begarie et Claude Huan, Mers el-Kebir. La rupturefranco-britatmique, (Paris: Economica,1994).

For example, studies still unpublished by Philippe Ouerel on the naval policy of the 4th Republicand Jean-Marc Balenci on naval diplomacy in the Indian ocean since 1967.

The most impressive study concerning Roman history was presented by Michel

-11Redde, and focused on the Roman Imperial Navy.    This monumental work

stands out because of a very erudite analysis of the infrastructure of naval basesat the disposal of the Roman Navy. On the other hand, it must be noted thathis consideration of naval tactics and strategic employment of fleets was some-what thin; Redde did not take a keen interest in these important aspects of navalwarfare. It is to Jean Pages' works that one must turn for treatment of thosefeatures of ancient naval warfare.

There has been little work on Greek naval history (with the singular exceptionof a small book by Jean Rouge, who presented a very short synthesis of thesubject) until the studies by Jean Pages on naval thought, armament, tactics, and

thalassocracies. Still, these articles, dispersed in different publications, provide

-19

materials for synthesis in future publications.

The current disinterest in ancient naval history contrasts notably with thenineteenth when Admiral Jurien de la Graviere, Admiral Serre, and ProfessorCartault acted as pioneers in the field. Historians of ancient naval wars stillappreciate their studies, despite their age. One must also note that there is arecent work in French on ancient ships, Le Musee imaginaire de la marine antique.It was, however, written by Lucien Basch, a Belgian specialist, and to credit hisexcellent work to the French school would be inappropriate.

Medieval Naval History. Medieval history is just slightly better off. Hereagain, there are only a few names worthy of mention. One, of course, must beProfessor Mollat, whose interests lay more in maritime history than in navalhistory. Nevertheless, he contributed to naval history in a number of his works.Another historian, Anne Martin-Chazelas, has shed light on the question of theClos des Galees, which was the first real attempt to establish a naval dockyardin France. Her study, however, is based on a set of unique documents.Furthermore, the life of Jean de Vienne still awaits a sound biography.

Some incidents mentioned in the works by Charles-Emmanuel Dufourq onCatalonia, Michel Balard on Genoa, Freddy Thiriet on Venice, and ClauseCahen on the Crusades make one regret the absence of naval historical studieson those subjects.    Maurice Lombard has opened new avenues for consideration

% 1

Michel Redde, Mare Nostrum Les infrastructures de la marine romaine h Vepoque imperiale (Rome: Ecolefrancaise de Rome, 1987).

Jean Pages, "La pensee navale atheienne au Ve siecle" in Herve Coutau-Begarie, L'evolution de lapensee navale I, 1991; "La pensee navale hellenistique" in L'euolution de la pensee navale //(Paris: FEDN,1992); "Les armes navales dans l'Antiquite," Marins et Oceans II (Paris: FEDN,1991); "Etudes sur lecombat naval antique," Marins et Oceans III, 1992; "Y a-t-il eu une pensee navale romaine?" V Evolutionde la pensee navale III; "Les Thalassocraties antiques" et "Geostrategie maritime d'Athenes" in HerveCoutau-Begarie, La lutte pour Vempire de la mer (Paris: 1993).

For instance, La vie quotidienne des gens de mer en Atlantique, Moyeti-Age-XVe sikle (Paris: Hachette, 1983).

See Economic History in the present paper.

or

in his work, but they, too, have not been pursued. In France, there are noworks comparable to those of Lewis or Pryor.

It is important when discussing this era to mention the activities of scholarsdevoted to research of Byzantine history and among these, particularly HeleneArchweiler, with her primary work on this subject, Byzantium and the Sea.This enormous work, almost exhaustive for all that concerns the structure andthe organization of the Byzantine navy, has, unfortunately, serious shortcomingsin the areas of tactics and strategy. We find the same institutional tendencies inthe works of Helene Antoniadis-Bibicou. For example, the nearly total absenceof reference to the very rich Byzantine naval thought, which is known only bythe work of Alphonse Dain, who is preoccupied with establishing a criticaledition of historical texts and providing a philological study of them withouttrying to single out main trends in tactical or strategic terms.

Very few works can be mentioned on Arab or Ottoman naval histories in theMediterranean. One exception, Michel Lesure, has devoted several works to

in

the Ottoman fleets and to Turkish naval thought. It is symptomatic to notethat the remarkable work by John Guilmartin on galley warfare has made littleimpact in France.

Modern Naval History. Modern naval history is, save for the contemporaryera mentioned above, the period best represented in French historiography. Itis the period in the French Navy's heritage which has the richest and mostinteresting information. Richelieu is the true founder of the modern FrenchNavy, and nineteenth century historians have already emphasized the Cardinal'simpact on naval issues. Following Richelieu, the credit for the resurrection ofthe French Navy during the reign of Louis XIV belongs to Jean Baptiste Colbert.The question has been entirely reexamined during the last two decades. CardinalRichelieu has been subject of several studies, but the most interesting results,covering the end of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, have beenachieved by Jean Meyer and his colleagues, who have worked since the 1970swith the group at the Laboratoire d'histoire maritime (CNRS Paris-Sorbonne).Jean Meyer started his career as historian of nobility, but his research turned

Maurice Lombard, Espaces et reseaux du haut Moyen-Age (Paris-La Hayre: Mouton, 1972).

Archibald Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean, AD 500-1100 (New Jersey: PrincetonUniv. Press, 1951) and John H. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History ofthe Mediterranean 649-1571 (Mass.: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988).

Helene Archweiler, Byzance et la mer (Paris: Presses Universitaries de France, 1966).

Michel Lesure, Lepante (Paris: Gallimard-Julliard, Archives, 1974).39  Ibid.

John Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea (Mass.:Cambridge Univ. Press, 1974). Jean Pages prepares a translation accompanied by commentaries of DeliaMilizia Marittima (1542) composed by the Venitian admiral Da Canal who, in the third book, exposesthe tactics of the Venetian fleet at Lepanto (1572).

progressively towards naval history, where he has achieved very importantresults, and has compiled his studies in works of synthesis written in collaborationwith Martine Acerra. Daniel Dessert produced a revisionist work on the navyof Louis XIV. It is a very remarkable work, though unfortunately it is marredby hostility to Colbert. The systematic study of the documents dealing with theshipyards, and maritime administration, particularly the records of the Inscriptionmaritime (administration of the French professional seamen created by Colbert),has opened new avenues to maritime scholarship, which are quite different inmany aspects from those obtained through the classical approach founded onthe studies of naval campaigns and ministers' papers. For example, this newapproach has ended the myth about the effects of the battle of la Hougue andpartly rehabilitates Pontchartrain's reputation.

Andre Corvisier observed at the beginning of the 1970s that the revival ofmilitary history was achieved by means of the history of military men; in otherwords, through social history applied to the army. A similar approach may beobserved in naval history, particularly in modern times. Indeed, naval historybenefits directly from the results of research in economic and social history. Interms of social history, one can see this in the monographs on ports, such as thoseproduced by Alain Boulaire on Brest, by Martine Acerra on Rochefort, and byJean Peter on Toulon. In his thesis on la guerre de course, Philippe Villierssucceeded in reviving the subject from a military point of view, largely by usingmethodologies belonging to economic history.

The studies on social history are widely dispersed at the extremeties of the navalhierarchy. They range, on the one hand, from lower work by Andre Zysberg ongalley rowers, and Alain Cabantous' study on mutineers and deserters, to severalstudies on officers, most particularly on admirals. The thesis by Jacques Aman on"blue" officers was widely noted when it was published in 1976. More recently,we have the enormous work by Michel Verge-Franceschi on flag officers, whichis full of details on admirals' genealogies. Unlike earlier studies, these works donot focus on tactics or strategy.

Martine Acerra et Jean Meyer, La grande epoque de la marine a voile (Rennes: Ouest-France, 1988);Marine et Revolutions (Rennes: Ouest-France, 1991). Let us mention also his contribution "L'Europe etle mer," in Andre Corvisier et al., L'Europe a Louis XVI, 1990. On "la guerre de course," see theposthumous work by Auguste Toussaint: Avant Sucouf; Corsaires en ocean Indien (Aix: Publications del'Universite d'Aix-Provence, 1989).

Patrick Villiers, Le commerce colonial atlantique et la guerre d'Independance americaine, 1976 and Marineroyale, corsaires et traffic dans VAtlantique de Louis XIVci Louis XVI, 1990. On "La guerre de course"; theposthumous work by Auguste Toussaint, Avant Surcouf: Corsaires en I'ocian Indien (Aix: Publications del'Universite d'Aix-Provence, 1989).

Andre Zysbert, Les galeriens (Paris: Le Seuil, 1987).

Alain Cabantous, La vergue et lesjers. Mutins et deserteurs dans la marine de Vatiaetme France (Paris: Tallandier, 1984).

Jacques Aman, Les offiders bleus dans la marine jrancaise au XVIIIe siecle (Paris-Geneve: Droz, 1976).

Michel Verge-Franceschi, les officers generations de la marine au XVIIIe rikle (Paris: Librarie de l'lnde, 1990).

It must be pointed out that the studies which formerly would have beenlabelled "naval," that is to say, focused on tactics and strategy, are not insig-nificant. The research led by Jean Meyer and his colleagues, specially those onports and naval bases, gave historians a better understanding of the logisticalimperatives which weighed heavily on navies in the days of sailing ships.Research on galley rowers have also allowed scholars to create a model whichexplains the way galleys were manned and operated in battle (Zysberg, for thatpurpose, obtained assistance from a physicist). The research concerning officersand, particularly, admirals has brought to light masses of documents that providea better view on naval operations. Finally, it is important to mention thefundamental contribution that Jean Boudriot has made, which offers new insighton the technical aspects of battleships. Boudriot's contribution is fully asimportant as J.S. Morrison's on the problem of the trireme.

Besides the works which disassociate themselves from the old approach, onecan not ignore the persistence or, rather, the revival of studies having a moretraditional perception; that is to say, a viewpoint centered on tactics and strategy.First among them are those by Captain F. Caron on the capitulation ofLouisbourg in 1758 and on the War of Independence, to which he will soonadd a work on Suffren's campaigns. Francois Caron has reached conclusionswhich have been disputed by some Anglo-Saxon authors, but his detailedknowledge of seafaring has helped him to take the lead in certain, littleunderstood aspects of naval warfare, such as the problem of the continuity inthe line-ahead battle formation.

Other studies are in process. Michel Depeyre is writing an anxiously awaitedthesis, the first of its kind, on naval thought during the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries. There is also a revival of biographical studies after severaldecades of indifference. The well-written and popular biographies based onrather limited documentation by Jean de la Varende have been followed by newstudies on Duquesne by Michel Verge-Franceschi, and on Tourville by MarcVigie.    Suffren has been the subject of less convincing biographies.

The period of the French revolution and the Imperial period have tradition-ally remained the field of a very learned but isolated group of historians.

Jean-Boudriot, Le vaisseaux de 14 cations (Paris: 4 vol., 1976-1978); Les vaisseaux de la Compagnie des bides(Paris: 1990).

Francois Caron, La guerre iticomprise ou les raison d'un echec. Capitulation de Louisbourg (Vincennes: SHM,1983). La victoire volee. Bataille de la Chesapeake (Vincennes: SHM, 1989). Jacques Aman, Utie campagne navalemeconnue A la ueille de la guerre de Sept Ans. L'escadre de Brest en 1755 (Vincennes: SHM, 1986).

See his study on "Le vicomte de Grenier: Heritier de Bigot de Morogues ou disciple de Suffren?"in L'evolution de la pensee navale ///(Paris, 1993).

See his articles on Hoste and Clerk in L'evolution de la penske navale I et II.

Michel Verge-Franceschi, Abraham Duquesne, huguenot et matin du Roi Soleil (Paris: France-Empire, 1992).

52  Marc Vigie, Tourville (Paris: Fayard, 1993).Marc Vigie, Tourville (Paris: Fayard, 1993).

Following A. Thomazi and Captain Muracciole, Rear-Admiral MauriceDupont has just crowned his extensive research with a biography of Decres,Minister of the Imperial Navy Department. The nineteenth century is not sowell represented, despite an extensive field of research which has scarcely beenexplored. Bernard Lutun is currently working in this area.

The Contribution of French Orientalists. France has always had a greatinterest in the Far East, but naval studies in that area, while important, are fewin number. Arab sources have been studied by Rear Admiral Henri Labroussein articles recently gathered in a single volume concerning, principally, the RedSea. Chinese naval history has benefited from the thesis by Jacques Dars, althoughit was long delayed in publication, as mentioned earlier. Dars deepened the intuitiveideas of Lo Jun Pang, whose pioneer work dealt with the expansion of the ChineseNavy from the Song period to the Ming period. It is a very highly focussed work,but one of very high quality.

Compared to what is typical practice in Great Britain and the United States,the results achieved by French naval historians are, all in all, rather poor. Thechasm which has for so long divided the Navy and acadamia, the lack of traditionin maintenance of archives, and the destructive effects of domestic and interna-tional disruptions have taken their toll on French sources. The harmful effect ofthis combination of factors continues to hamper research.

For instance, we must observe that the continued publication of importantdocuments has never been the rule in France. The Fench naval classics, from Hosteto Castex, have not been republished. The memories of most of the great sailors cannotbe found today, and there are no collections of documents similar to those so frequendyfound in political, administrative and economic history. This is a real and eminendyprejudicial deficiency, for which there appears to be no solution whatsoever.

All the same, French naval history remains largely inward-looking. However, itis true that international contacts are increased, as demonstrated by the Franco-British symposium on maritime history, held since 1986 on the initiative of theService historique de la Marine, as well as many other symposia. But, it isimpossible to mention any wide-ranging study on Great Britain, Italy, or Japan.Claude Huan's research on the Kriegsmarine and the Soviet Navy are an exception.

Particularly his very important contribution to the Dictiomtaire Napoleon, by Jean Tulard, (Paris: Fayard, 1987).

Amiral Maurice Dupont, L'amiral Decres et Napoleon (Paris: CFHM-Economica, 1991).

An enormous work of almost 1,000 pages on the Guerigny forges; "L'epuration dans la marine1814-1817." Revue historique 285 (1992).

Amiral Labrousse, Recits de la mer Rouge et de Vocean Indien (Paris: CFHM-Economica, 1992).

en

Jacques Dars, La marine chinoise du Xe siecle au XIV e siecle (Paris: CFHM-Economica, 1992).

The acts have been published by the Service historique de la Marine: Guerres et paix, 1660-1815(1986); Les empires en guerre et en paix 1793-1860 (1988); Francais et Anglais en Mediterranee 1789-1830(1990).

Les marines de guerre europSennes au XVIIIe siecle (Paris: Presses de l'Universite de Paris-Sorbonne,

Such an attitude contrasts sorely with the numerous contributions coming fromabroad which have been beneficial to the French naval history. Consider, forinstance, the works of Jenkins, Bamford, Symcox, T. Le Goff, Dull, Halpern,Ropp, Kowark.

Nevertheless, a perceptible improvement has been observed during the last twodecades as the summary sketched out here shows. For several years we have had atour disposal some instruments of research which were previously lacking and whichnow signal new developments. Rear Admiral Fremy has published a splendiddictionary of ships. Etienne Taillemite, for his part, is the author of an exhaustivebut eminendy readable dictionary on French sailors. In the same period, we havewitnessed the publication of a vast synthesis concerning the history of the FrenchNavy by Philippe Masson. It is rather paradoxical that, previously, the primaryreference was the work of a British historian, H.E.Jenkins, which was publishedin 1973 and translated into French five years later. In that book, Jenkinsexpressed the perfect synthesis of the traditional points of view, certain of whichwere being challenged by the conclusions of more recent research. PhilippeMasson's book was followed by one of Etienne Taillemite in such a way thatwe have at hand two works with diverging views on the same subject. Theyprovide a genuine basis for setting aside the caricature suggesting that "if Franceis not ashamed of her Navy, the Navy has some grounds to be ashamed of France"(Jenkins). It is wrong to say, notwithstanding a few exceptions, that the Frenchgovernments have never understood their Navy. Masson would better accusethe naval men themselves, with their lack of great leaders and with a chroniclack of discipline in the officer corps. For his part, Etienne Taillemite considersfirst the structural handicaps, the insufficient coastal populations, the lack of goodChannel harbours. All this remains a problem of determinism which must beconsidered anew.

1985); Fleurieu et la marine en son temps (Paris: CFHM-Economica, 1992); Marine et technique au XIXesiecle (Paris: IHCC-SHM, 1989); Les marines de guerre du dreadnought au nucleaire (1988), (Paris:IHCC-SHM, 1991).

Paul W. Bamford, Forest and French Sea Power 1660-1783 (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1956);Jonathan Dull, The French Navy and American Independence: A Study in Arms and Diplomacy 1774—1781(New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1975); Paul R. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation1908—1914 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1971); Hannsjorg Kowark, Die Franzosische Marinepolitik1919-1924 und die Washingtoner Konferenz (Stuttgart: Hochschulverlag, 1978); TJ.A. Le Goff,"Problemes de recrutement de la marine francaise pendant la Guerre de Sept Ans," Reuu Historique, 283(1990), pp. 205-33; Theodore Ropp, The Development of a Modem Navy: French Naval Policy 1871-1904.Edited by Stephen S. Roberts (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1987); and Geoffrey Symcox, The Crisisof French Sea Power 1688—1697: From the guerre d'escadre to the guerre de course (The Hague: MartinusNijhoff, 1974).

Raymond Fremy, Des noms sur la mer (Paris: ACORAM, 1991).

Etienne Taillemite, Dictionnaire des marins francais (Paris: Editions maritimes et d'outremer, 1982).

H.E.Jenkins, Histoire ignore" e de la marine francaise (Paris: Albin Michel, 1978).

Philippe Masson, Histoire ignoree de la marine (Paris: Lavauzelle, volume 1, 1982 and volume 2, 1983).

Etienne Taillemite, Histoire ignoree de la francaise (Paris: Perrin, 1988).

But, again, we must not forget that those very few works are insignificantcompared with the flowering of those in other branches of the French historicalresearch. It simply indicates that a vast area of historical research remains to becarried out.

Maritime History

If naval history has a clearly delimitated field of research, the same does nothold true for maritime history. At different levels, all human activities havesomething to do with the sea in such a way that maritime history deals with allfields of historical research. Despite its slow development in France, maritimeworks are numerous, and it is difficult, within the scope of this paper, to providean indicative example. Therefore, it seems better to look to the main tendenciesof research by theme rather than by period.

Bibliographies and Aids to Reseach. Maritime bibliography was overlookedfor a long time. Finally, in the 1970s, it required a remarkable collection throughthe work of Jean Polak, which is well-known and used among the Frenchmaritime historians. One can follow it through all the different categories in theBibliographie ennuelle de Vhistoire de France.

Some remarkable work has been done to inventory archival sources. EtienneTaillemite and Philippe Henrat have done this for the Archives Nationales. TheService Historique de la Marine has made a similar great effort but, for lack ofmoney, the inventories made during the last few years, particularly thoseconcerning contemporary events, have not all been published.

Among these means of research, while we must regret the absence of shipslists or the lack of biographical dictionaries (the one by Taillemite being mostlycentered on naval officers), we still must mention one of the most interestingefforts in contemporary maritime history: the revision of the Qlossaire nautiqueby Jal, initiated by Professor Michel Mollat du Jourdin and pursued underChristiane Villain-Gandossi's leadership within the scope of a seminar compris-ing several dozens of specialists. As of this writing, six sections have beenpublished, as far as the letter "I," and a seventh has gone to press. It is needlessto insist here upon the exceptional importance of such a revision. Nevertheless,one must keep in mind that the original work contains much information thatis not included in the revised edition.

In the same vein, but on a different subject, we must point out anotherundertaking initiated by Michel Mollat: the survey of the votive ships. Thisinvestigation, started in the 1970s within the Laboratoire d'histoire maritime, isnow completed. Such a work is extremely useful, not only for art history, butalso for the history of ship-building and for the history of seafaring peoples.Unfortunately, because of budget difficulties, we regret that nothing of it has yetbeen published.

General Works. We have a clear idea of the ground lost by French maritimehistory when we perceive the scarcity of that kind of work. Marine et Oceans byPhilippe Masson, which concerns only the contemporary period, is an excep-tion. There is no recent scholarly synthesis on maritime history except the veryrecent work by Michel Mollat: L'Europe et la met. It is clear that there are nogeneral studies in French about the history of the oceans. L'Histoire de VAtlantiqueby Jacques Godechot dates back to 1947 and, so far, has not been replaced. Onthe Indian ocean, we have Histoire de Vocean Indien (1961) by Auguste Toussaint.The author died before completing the second edition. Such an important work,still partly obsolete, can only be completed by fragmentary eighteenth century

/TO

studies and by others on the history of the Mascarenhas Islands. We may wellask if Auguste Toussaint, although born in Mauritius and a French-speakinghistorian, may be considered as belonging to the French maritime history, ratherthan to that of Mauritius.

We have no general French study on the Pacific ocean. On the other hand,it is much more surprising when we see the lack of a similar work on theMediterranean; the sea so close and so dear to the heart of many Frenchmen.The principal work of Fernand Braudel, la Mediterranee et le monde mediterraneenh Vepoque de Philippe II, belies the lack of general study on the Mediterranean inFrench. However, we must mention Jean Rene Vanney, author of an eruditestudy on the Southern Seas, which helped to fill the gap. In spite of all, thereis much to do in order to ensure that non-specialists might easily have sufficientdocumentation at hand. The bibliographical references at the end of Vanney's bookcontain a warning which could be valid for many oceans of the world: "The placeoccupied by the often translated French works is so modest that a grave question isposed as soon as we want to facilitate an easy access for the non-specialist."'

What is true for the regional synthesis is also true, to a large extent, for very

71

particular studies. French maritime studies are very much in need of worksdesigned to put within easy reach of the readers research results which, in spiteof all, are still going on very actively.

Underwater Archeology. Naval archeology has been somewhat neglected byacademia, but it has succeeded in becoming implanted in the CNRS and also inthe Ministere de la Culture. The benefit of this was the creation in 1970 of theDepartment of submarine archeological research (DRASM), which from that

Philippe Masson, Marine et oceans (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1982).

Michel Mollat du Jourdin, L'Europe et la mer (Paris: Le Seuil, 1993).

Auguste Toussaint, Histoire de I'ocean Indien (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961); L'ocean Indienau XVIIIe siecle (Paris: Flammarion, 1973); Histoire des iles Mascareignes (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1972).

Jean-Rene Vanney, Histoire des mers australes (Paris: Fayard, 1986).70   Ibid., p. 699.

Philippe Masson's book, Grandeur et misere desgetis de mer (Paris-Limoges: Lavauzelle, 1986), is an exception.

time has managed all underwater finds. The results of that research have appearedin Gallia and in Gallia Informations. A review of underwater research, Cahiersd'archeologie subaquatique, began publication in 1972 and, in 1977, CNRS com-menced publishing another, Archeonautica. The research covers, at the same time,harbours and ships; the wreck called epave de la madrague de Giens (1st c. B.C.)for instance, has been the subject of a very careful research. Among theprominent scholars are Patrice Pomey for ancient archeology and Eric PJeth onmedieval archeology. These authors recently presented an overall survey ofresearches in process during a recent symposium on maritime heritage.

Additionally, as a matter of interest, we must not forget to mention thearcheological excavations near Bercy. These two 4,500-year-old dugouts were

•7-1

recently brought to light thanks to a research group of the Vieux Paris. In yetanother area, Gabriel Camps has published the results of his research on earlynavigation in the Mediterranean in several articles.

Modern naval archeology in France today is brilliantly represented by JeanBoudriot. All maritime historians know his works (I have already mentionedthose on the 74-gun ships-of-the-line, and on the French vessels of theCompagnie des Indes), among others on merchant ships. Jean Pierre Moreauhas worked on finds in the Caribbean and specialized in archeological treasures.

With regard to contemporary naval techniques, we could bring together withindustrial archeology certain research on the first steamships, or those on thepassengers ships, which have always been popular with the public.

Without commenting on the relationship between maritime history andinterior navigation history, it is important to remember, just as a matter ofinterest, the very active groups working on river history today.

Finally, we must speak of the efforts in favour of the maritime preservation.Without coming under maritime history, in the strict sense, preservation isclosely linked to it. The international symposium held in Nantes in 1991,organised by both the Ministere de la Culture and the CFHM, provided asummation of work and the recent initiatives taken in a long neglected area ofhistorical research. The symposium papers, just published, define a part formaritime historians in the process of restoring maritime heritage.

Economic History. Economic history was one of the strong points of theAnnales school, and it is only natural that the maritime trade benefited from itsstudy. This is clearly demonstrated by the important theses published betweenthe 1950s and 1970s which cover all the periods. Regarding antiquity, the work

Le patrimoine maritime etjluvial (Paris: Colloques du patrimoine, 1993).

There is also the discovery of the Henri Cosquer cave, but that only indirecdy concerns maritime history.Jean-Pierre Moreau, Giude des trSsors archeologiques sous-marins despetites Antilles (Paris: J.-P.M., 1988).Most particularly, the numerous works by Francois Beaudouin.

by Jean Rouge on Roman sea-trade, followed by the less imposing, but veryrich work by Julie Velissaropoulos on ancient greek maritime institutions set thestage. Considering the medieval period, the fundamental thesis by MichelMollat on Norman trade,    and the publication, fifteen years later, of a study by

7Q

Henri Touchard on the commerce of Brittany as well as one on the Bordeauxtrade by Jacques Bernard, continue the tradition.

The Mediterranean has been the subject of several important studies; HenriBresc on Sicily, Jean-Claude Hocquet on Venetian salt trade, Jacques Heerson Genoa,   Jean Delumeau on Rome,    Michel Balard on Genoese Romania

. 8£

and, finally, Freddy Thiriet on Venetian Romania. Spain has been less studiedthan Italy, but we cannot ignore the work of Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq on

87

Catalonian Spain and the Maghreb,     and another on Valencia by Catherine

88

Guiral. The north of Europe, in comparison, has received much less investiga-tion than the Mediterranean. Still, there are at least two important studies: oneby Stephane Lebecq on the medieval Frisians, which is an exemplary collabora-

80

tion between the use of written sources and archeology, and another byPhilippe Dollinger on the Hanse, which extends substantially into moderntimes. For this last period we have in the first place, the monumental and justlyfamous thesis by Pierre Chaunu on Sevilla,     those by Frederic Mauro on

09 Q^

Portugal and the Atlantic,    Victor Magalhaes-Godinho in the Indian ocean,

Jean Rouge, Recherches sur I'organisation du commerce maritime en Mkditerranke sous I'Empire romain(Rome: Ecole fracaise de Rome, 1966).

Julie Velissaropoulos, Les nauchUres grecs. Recherches sur les institutions maritimes en Grece et dans VOrienthellenise (Paris-Geneve: Minard-Droz, 1980).

Michel Mollat, Le commerce maritime normand a la fin du Moyen-Age (Paris: Plon, 1952).

Henri Touchard, Le commerce maritime breton & la fin du Moyen-Age (Paris: Les Belles-Le teres, Annaleslitteraires de l'Universite de Nantes, 1967).

Jacques Bernard, Nauires etgens de mer & Bordeaux vers 1450 - vers 1550, (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1968).

81 HenriBresc, UnmondemSditerraneeti. EconomicetsodeteenSidle 1300-1450(Rome: Ecole ftancaise de Rome, 1986).

82 Jean-Claude Hocquet, Leseletlafortumde Venise, 1200-1650 (Lille: Presses de l'Universite de Lille, 1978-79).

83 Jacques Heers, Genes au XVe siecle (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1961).

84 Jean Delumeau, Vie konomique et sociale de Rome dam la seconde moitU du XVJe siecle (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N.,1957-1959); L'alun de Rome (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1962).

85 Michel Balard, La Romainegenoise, Xlle debut de XVe siecle (Rome, Ecole francaise de Rome, 1978).Freddy Thiriet, La Romanic vtnitienne au Moyen-Age. Le developpement et I''exploitation du domaine coloniale

vetiitien, Xlle-XVe siecle (Paris: de Boccard, 1975).

87  Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq, L'Espagtie catalane et le Maghreb, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1965).

Catherine Guiral, Valence, port mediterraneen (Paris: Presses de la Sorbonne, 1975).

Stephane Lebecq, Marchands ettiavigateursjhsotis du Haut-Moyen-Age (Lille: Presse Universitaire de Lille, 1983).

90 Philippe Dollinger, La Hanse (Paris: Aubier, 1968).

91 Pierre Chaunu, Seville et I'Atlantxque 12 vol. (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1955-1960).

92 Frederic Mauro, Le Portugal et I'Atlantique (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1960).

Victor Magalhaes-Godinho, L'economie de I'empire portugais au XVe et au XVIe siecle (Paris: FondationGulbenkian, 1969).

and those on the French trade during the eighteenth century by Paul Butel,Charles Carriere,    Christian Huetz de Lemps,    Louis Dermigny,    Jean Tar-rade    and, finally, the very recent one by Jean Ducoin.

The contemporary period has received much more attention by theeconomists and historians. For example, I note the work of Jean HefFer on NewYork harbour during the second half of the nineteenth century, who employedthe methods of New Economic History. All the works just mentioned aboveare the best known and are directly focused on maritime history. There are,however, many others which also consider sea-trade. The slave-trade, which noone dares put under the single heading "Economic History," has given impetusto rather numerous studies of mixed interest.

There is also a branch of maritime history which is all too often forgotten: thehistory of fishing. It is usually left to local historians who have produced works noteasily accessible: we cannot, however, ignore important contributions in this field,such as the one by Thierry du Pasquier on the French whaling industry.

Among all these works published during the last years, we must preserve aspecial place for those concerning the history of Marseilles. This is largely becauseof their quality, but it is also thanks to the support constantly provided historiansby the Chamber of Commerce of this premier French port. This fortunatecollaboration has allowed publication of numerous works in a unique situationin France. Just the same, there are also numerous histories of coastal towns.

History of the French Seafaring People. Social history has been anotherstrong point of the Annales school, but it may be that maritime history has notbenefited from this as much as it has from economic history. Among the regionalstudies, which have so much for French historians, some theses deal withmaritime populations. The northern part of France has an advantage by virtue

of the 1963 work by Jacques Toussaert on the population of the Flemish coast

1 o^at the end of Middle Ages,      and more recently another by Alain Cabantous,

Paul Butel, Les negotiants bordelais au XVIIIe siecle. L'Europe et les iles (Paris: Aubier, 1974).Charles Carriere, Negotiants marseillais au XVIIIe siecle. Contribution & I'etude des economies maritimes (Paris:1973).

Christian Huetz de Lemps, Geographic du commerce bordelais alafin du regne de Louis XIV (Paris: La Haye,Mouton, 1975),

Louis Dermngy, La Chine et VOccident. Le commerce a Canton au XVIIIe siecle (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1964).

98

Jean Tarrade, Histoire du commerce atlantique au XVIIIe siecle, these inedite (1976).

Jean Ducoin, Naufrages, conditions de navigation et assurances dans la marine de commerce. Le cas de Nanteset de son commerce colonial avec les Us britanniques (Paris: Librairie de l'lnde, 1993).

Parmi les plus recents, Jean-Michel Deveau, La traite rochelaise (Paris: Karthala, 1990); Serge Daget, Latraite des Noirs (Rennes: Ouest-France, 1990).101    Thierry du Pasquier, Les baleiniersfrancais de Louis XVI a Napoleon (Paris: H. Veyrier, 1990).

See the series edited by Lindt and published in Toulouse.

Jacques Toussaert, Le sentiment religieux en Flandre maritime a la Jin du Moyen-Age (Paris: Plon, 1963).

which covers an adjacent region in more modern times. Still, one wouldexpect to find a greater number of studies concerning the coastal regions. In fact,many often give only a secondary place to maritime subjects.

The revival in understanding seafaring populations was accomplished throughthe history of mentalites. Alain Cabantous has made an important contributionto this subject. It is a field in which many promising points of view haverecently been observed, for example, in Alain Corbin's original considerationof the coastal region during the nineteenth century. The path followed byCorbin is particularly interesting, since he started with a study on a mountainousregion far from the sea.

This very short account should be considerably extended by listing all thestudies that dealt incidentally or substantially with social history, and this is alsothe case with almost all of the studies under the rubric of economic history. Thework by Michel Mollat, which bears a significant subtitle, "Studies of Economicand Social History," is typical of the Annales school. Among recent works whichillustrate this connection, there is the thesis on the merchants of St. Malo byAndre Lespagnol. To all this, one could add other numerous works, symposiaproceedings or books belonging to the much known series, La vie quotidienne desgens de met dans I'Atlantique, IXe—XVIe siecle by Michel Mollat; La vie quotidiennedans les ports mediterraneens, by Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq, or La vie quotidiennea Bordeaux au XVIIIe siecle by Paul Butel and Jean-Pierre Poussou.

Colonial history. There is a close relation between maritime history andcolonial history, the latter being called in France today, "overseas" history.During the nineteenth century, the dependence of maritime and colonial affairson a single ministry was institutional in France but has since been abandoned.Nevertheless, the bond between them has remained present in academia. Duringrecent years, colonial history has enjoyed a brilliant revival, reaching a peak atthe end of the 1980s with several remarkable works. In particular, one byPhilippe Haudrere, La Compagnie francaise des Indes 1719-1795, and another byJacques Weber Les etablissements jrancais en Inde au XIXe siecle 1816—1914, wereboth submitted for consideration within a period of several weeks in 1987.

These two theses confirm the vitality of the French research on the IndianOcean. Additionally, a group led by Jean Aubin started a publication, Mare

104   Alain Corbin, Le territoire du vide. UOccident et le desir du rivage 1750-1850 (Paris: Aubier, 1988).

Alain Cabantous, Dix mille matins face a Voce"an. Les populations maritimes de Dunkerque au Havre vers 1660-1194(Paris: Publisud, 1991).

106 Alain Corbin, he del dans la met. Christianisme et civilisation maritime XVe-XIXe siecle (Paris: Fayard,1990).

107 Andre Lespagnol, Ces Messieurs de Saint-Malo. Une elite negociante au temps de Louis X/K(Saint-Malo:L'Ancre de Marine, 1991).

See for instance, the Symposium of Boulogne on the seafaring populations; the proceedings werepublished in a special issue of Revue du Nord, 1986.

Coutau-Begarie     135

Luso-Indicum, in the 1970s. There also are a number of works by GenevieveBouchon on India during the Portuguese investiture. The French have also takenan active part in researching South-East Asian history, the maritime aspect ofwhich is clearly evident. This sector has also a specialized review, Archipel, andhas recently benefited by the monumental thesis on Java by Denys Lombard.

Nineteenth-century colonial history has generated many works, some ofwhich contribute to the maritime dimension; consider, for instance, those byJean-Louis Miege, former president of the CFHM. The idological aspect in someof them was denounced several years ago by Francois Caron, and provokeda controversy with Charles-Robert Ageron, but this must not overshadowtheir important role in the development of maritime history.

The history of explorers cannot be ignored either. Jehan Desanges hasproduced a very important study of the Roman activity along the african coast.But nothing exists yet in French which equates to the remarkable analyticaleditions of the ancient Peripli that have just been published in English. MichelMollat studied medieval sea voyages and edited a volume on the Verrazanovoyage; Etienne Taillemitte, for his part, edited the diary of La Perouse; Admiralde Brossard did the same with the journal of Bougainville; and Numa Broc didso with the journal of Pager. Special mention must also be made of Jean-PierreFaivre, for his important study of the South Pacific during the first half of thenineteenth century.

A very productive and specialized branch also contributes to the work on theexplorers. For instance, the history of map-making, as exemplified by MireillePastoureau's Voies Oceanes, or the oft-ignored thesis by Yoro K. Fall onMajorcan portolan charts (showing that certain coasts were known before thedates of their official discovery), add substantially to our body of knowledge.For the contemporary period, Jacqueline Carpine-Lancre has published anumber of works on oceanography.

A good example of the link existing between both disciplines is the historyof naval and colonial medicine. This is a specialized subject, but demonstratesthe evolution of maritime history in France. As General medical doctor Niaussat,

Denys Lombard, Le carrefour jauanais (Paris: Editions de l'EHESS, 1990).

Francis Caron, La Frame des patriotes, volume V ofHistoire de France by Jean Favier (Paris: Fayard,1987).

This is clarified in a long letter which has remained unpublished but is widely known.

1 1 0

Jehan Desanges, Recherches sur les activities des MediterranSens le long des cStes africaines (Rome: Ecolefrancaise de Rome, 1980).

Jean-Paul Faivre, L'expansionfrancaise dans le Pacifique, 1800-1842 (Paris: Nouvelles editions latines, 1953).Mireille Pastoureau, Voies oceanes. Cartes marines etgrandes decouuertes (Paris: Bibliotheque nationale,1992).

Yoro K. Fall, L'Afrique ci la connaissance de la cartographie modeme, (Paris: Karthala-CRA, 1982).Jacqueline Carpine-Lancre, Souuerains ocSanographes: Dom Carlos Ier roi de Portugal et Albert Ierprincede Monaco (Paris-Lisbonne: Fondation Gulbenkian, 1992).

136     France

one of the leaders of the naval and colonial medicine, put it, "It has been, if notignored, at least neglected ..." until a recent date. Here, France was unques-tionably behind Great Britain, Germany, or Italy. There are only several isolatedindividuals, (General medical doctor Carre on history of the naval medicalschools, Dean Jean-Pierre Kerneis on medical officers serving at sea, andProfessor Pierre Huard on the Far East) who can be cited in this field. Even so,starting around the 1980s, we have observed several efforts in that field, alongwith the organization of conferences on the history of naval and colonialmedicine and with the increase in the number of studies under the auspices ofNiaussat or Carre. Historians have stood somewhat apart from this process,largely because of their lack of technical knowledge. Unfortunately, JacquesLeonard, who was the exception, was not able to create a viable school becauseof his untimely death.

•    •    •

This brief survey cannot pay homage to all the numerous authors whocontributed to, enhanced, and revived the knowledge of maritime history in itsdiverse aspects. To the individual studies cited here, one must add a great numberof essay collections, particularly when considering the numerous symposia andcountless articles of high quality that have been produced. We hope, however,that a vision of a French maritime and naval history, after a too long period ofmarginalization, will emerge, fully integrated into the historical studies pursuedin academies and in the CNRS, including the irreplaceable contribution of theamateurs, particularly those belonging to learned societies or coming from themaritime professions. There are considerable deficiencies in the field, but thereis no doubt that maritime history is one of the most promising fields for futurework and development in the years to come.

Cf. P.M. Niaussat, "A propos d'une disciple historique trop meconnue: l'histoire de la medecinenavale et d'outremer," Chronique d'histoire maritime, ler semestre 1984, no. 9.

1

Germany

Kapitan zur See Dr. Werner Rahn, German Navy

Before we deal with naval history and the history of shipping in Germany,a few preliminary remarks of a linguistic nature and definitions with regardto contents are called for in order to prevent any misunderstandings.

Military History and Naval History: Some Remarks on Basic Terms

The German term Schiffahrtsgeschichte, literally translated as the "history ofshipping," can, without hesitation, be equated with the Anglo-Saxon term"maritime history." This field of research centers on the ship as a system oftransportation with its economic, social, and technological context. Thedevelopment, construction, operation and handling, manning, and ultimatelythe fate of the ship as well as many other spheres are fields of research in "maritimehistory."

If we take the terms "military history" and "naval history," it is clear andsimple to most Anglo-Saxon historians what these terms involve. In the caseof "military history," research interest focuses on land forces, i.e. the army,while in the case of "naval history" this interest focuses on naval forces or—toput it in more general terms—the navy as an armed service. Both these spheresare subordinate elements of general history, in particular that of strategy andpolitics.

In contrast, since 1945 in Germany, the term "military history" has come tobe accepted as a generic term for that part of the study of history whose centralsubjects of research are the armed forces and war. Military history deals withthe evolution and structure of the armed forces and their position in state andsociety. Military history studies the importance of armed forces as a means ofpolicy and as an instrument of state authority. It analyzes the problems associatedwith the exercise of command and control over armed forces in peacetime andin war at the various levels.

A recent summary of the development of military historiography in Germany may be found inRoland G. Foerster, "Military History in the Federal Republic of Germany and the Bundeswehr," inDavid A. Charters, Marc Milner, and J. Brent Wilson, eds., Military History and the Military Profession(Westport, Conn, and London: Praeger, 1992), pp. 191-210.

In this sense, "naval history" in Germany is taken to mean that part of militaryhistory which focuses its study of the above-mentioned fields of research on the"navy" as an armed service. When the term "military history" is used in thefollowing basic remarks, it always includes "naval history."

However, when dealing with the above-mentioned fields of research, thereis one sphere that must not be neglected, as it is the greatest challenge for militaryhistory—I am referring to war! Ultimately, armed forces are raised, equippedand trained so that they can one day be sent into battle. Thus, it is not onlylegitimate but imperative that military history also deal with war and warfare inthe widest sense. This approach to research would appear, on the face of it, tobe self-evident; however, many years ago, John Keegan, in his seminal book TheFace of Battle, pointed out critically that many professional historians are shy ofexploring and portraying the profundities and realities of the phenomenon of"war."   This inhibition is also widespread in Germany.

Generally speaking, it can be expected of the military historian that he alsohas a certain affinity with the subject of his research, namely the military, andthat he possesses a modicum of basic theoretical—and if possible also practical—knowledge about the military in the same way that we naturally expect aneconomic historian to have a sound basic knowledge of economic theory. JohnKeegan is thus justified in demanding that the military historian should spend asmuch time as possible among military personnel, "because the quite chanceobservation of trivial incidents may illuminate his private understanding of all sortsof problems from the past which will otherwise almost certainly remain obscured."'

The same is true for naval history. A historian who studies the origins and useof naval forces will find that his research profits greatly if he has ever had theopportunity to spend some length of time aboard a warship. He will find it easierto evaluate and integrate most of his sources, such as reports, memoranda, andplanning documents from all levels of naval command. This is true especiallysince some structural factors for the building and deploying of naval forces changeonly very little over time.

Like any historian, the naval historian bears a great responsibility in his strivingafter historical truth, if he wants to be taken seriously. This striving will neverbe free of subjective values. The uncritical patriotic history which used to glorifymilitary and naval actions and successes is a thing of the past. Today, somemilitary historians tend to judge personalities, events, and structures accordingto today's moral categories, and they end up "putting the past on trial, and sincethe critical historian, armed with his generation's self-confidence or with his

See Carl von Clausewitz, Vom Kriege, Erstes Buch, II: "Der Soldat wird ausgehoben, gekleidet, bewaffnet,geiibt, erschlaft, ifit, trinkt und marschiert, alles nur, urn an rechter Stelle und zu rechten Zeit zufechten."

John Keegan, The Face of Battle (London: Jonathan Cape, 1976), p. 29.

4    Ibid., p. 34.

progressive concept of the future, knows everything better, in this trial he willbe prosecutor, judge and legislator all in one.

,.5

Research into German Naval History after 1945

After 1945, the documents of the German Navy, preserved almost in theirentirety, were available initially only to the Allied forces' historical researchsections. The files were transferred onto microfilm on a large scale; where morethan one original copy existed—e.g., several original copies of war diaries—theBritish kept copy no. 1, while the second copy went to Washington D.C. Thiswas the case with numerous U-boat war diaries and the War Diary of the NavalStaff. The Allied historians evaluated the material for their respective officialaccounts of World War II, as is apparent from numerous references in the variousvolumes. In most cases, however, the evaluation was confined to strategic andoperational sectors in order to make the Allies' corresponding actions andreactions more easily understandable.

On the German side, initially, only former naval officers were allowed accessto selected files. On behalf of the British Admiralty or the U.S. Navy, theycompiled special operational and tactical studies that seemed necessary given thefact that a conflict with the Soviet Union could no longer be ruled out. Thelong-serving Head of the Historical Research Department of the Navy, ViceAdmiral Kurt Assmann, for example, worked in London writing an account ofthe naval war in the Arctic Sea from the German point of view. Grand AdmiralKarl Donitz's son-in-law, Commander Giinter Hessler, was given unlimitedaccess to all files of the Naval Staff and the U-boat Command, in order to writea comprehensive operational history of the Battle of the Atlantic. Hesslerperformed this task in an outstanding manner and produced an operationalhistory which comprises an abundance of material and provides precise refer-ences throughout, and which will surely remain unequaled for a long time tocome. The British Admiralty had the three-volume study translated, and from1950 onwards had it distributed among the Royal Navy as Confidential BookOB. 4523, later renamed B.R. 305. The third volume, covering the period June1943 to May 1945, was, however, not published until 1977. For the translation,

Thomas Nipperdey, "Wozu Geschichte gut ist," Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 41 (1987), pp. 7-13,quotation p. 9.

See, for example, Stephen W. Roskill, The War at Sea 1939-1945, vol. I, The Defensive, (London:HMSO, 1954), pp. xix, 51-60.

See Christian Greiner, "'Operational History (German Section)' und 'Naval Historical Team,'Deutsches militarstrategisches Denken im Dienst der amerikanischen Streitkrafte von 1946 bis 1950,"in Manfred Messerschmidt, Klaus A. Maier et al., eds., Militargeschichte. Probleme—Thesen—Wege,(Stuttgart: DVA, 1982), pp. 409-35.

Vizeadmiral a.D. Kurt Assmann, "Die deutsche Kriegflihrung gegen den englisch-russischenGeleitverkehr im Nordmeer 1941-1945," (unpublished manuscript, Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv,Freiburg: RM 8/1126).

the German original version was somewhat abridged. It was not until 1989 thatthe British Ministry of Defence decided to publish the study in the form of afacsimile edition. The German Military History Research Office is currentlypreparing the publication of the original German version.

The favorable source situation—due to the fact that the majority of the navaldocuments were soon accessible and were extensively transferred ontomicrofilm—at an early stage prompted a number of historians in America to dealwith the individual phases and problems of German naval history. In addition,this group of documents provided an excellent starting point for studying theGerman conduct of war and politics during World War II.

From among the numerous research studies, this article will mention onlythe works of Keith W. Bird, Holger H. Herwig, Daniel Horn, Ivo NikolaiLambi, L.W. Lewis, Janet M. Manson, Eric C. Rust, Allison W. Saville, CharlesThomas, Gerhard L. Weinberg, and Gary Weir.

Any new research into German naval history will first of all fall back on abook which has been available since 1985 and which is likely to be used notonly as an indispensable aid but in many cases also as a sound guide: I am referringto Keith W. Bird's bibliography, which he compiled in an exemplary manner,entitled German Naval History. A Guide to the Literature. This work completelycovers and comments on the entire German naval literature of the nineteenthand twentieth centuries. In addition, it is a comprehensive research report whichcontains only few gaps. Bird not only lists sources and literature, but also providesa comprehensive academic historical survey to which the individual titles areallocated accordingly. Bird divides German naval historiography from thenineteenth century to the present into six periods, and the demarcation linesbetween the periods are generally undisputed. In this context, only the last twoperiods are of interest: the period from 1945 to 1965 and the period from 1965to the present. For research in Germany, the year 1965 constituted a turning

9 Ministry of Defence (Navy), German Naval History: The U-Boat War in the Atlantic, 1939-1945.Facsimile edition with Introduction by AndrewJ. Withers, 3 parts in 1 volume (London: HMSO, 1989).

Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt or MGFA.

For complete bibliographical datas of their publications up to 1984, see Bird, Keith W., German NavalHistory. A Guide to the Literature (New York, London: 1985). Cf. further Janet M. Manson, DiplomaticRamifications of Unrestricted Submarine Warfare, 1939-1941 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), Gary E.Weir, Building the Kaiser's Navy: The Imperial Naval Office and German Industry in the von Tirpitz Era,1890-1919 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1992), Eric C. Rust, Naval Officers under Hitler: The Story ofCrew 34, (New York: Praeger, 1991) and for the recent publications of Holger H. Herwig: "The Failureof German Sea Power, 1914—1945: Mahan, Tirpitz, and Raeder Reconsidered," The International HistoryReview, February 1988, pp. 68-105; "Wolfgang Wegener and German Naval Strategy from Tirpitz toRaeder" Introduction to Wolfgang Wegner, The Naval Strategy of the World War, Classics of Sea Powerseries (Annapolis: Naval Institute, 1989), pp. xv-lv; "The Influence of A.T. Mahan upon German SeaPower," in John B. Hattendorf, ed., The Influence of History on Mahan, (Newport, R.I.: Naval War CollegePress, 1991), pp. 67-80.

12  Keith W. Bird, German Naval History. A Guide to the Literature (New York: Garland, 1985).

point in that the process of returning most of the naval documents to Germanywas concluded in that year. Only the U-boat files of World War II remaineduntil 1978 in the custody of the British Ministry of Defence, which was veryrestrictive in allowing use of these documents.

Besides the already mentioned naval officers who worked for the BritishAdmiralty or for the U.S. Navy, Walther Hubatsch, in 1956—57, was the firstGerman civilian historian to be allowed access to the German naval files in London;he could, however, only evaluate them in parts. His findings resulted in the bookDerAdmiralstab und die obersten Marinebehorden in Deutschland 1848—1945 (Naval Staffand Supreme Naval Commands in Germany 1848—1945). This book and otherworks by Hubatsch determined for a long time how the historical development ofthe Navy was viewed, not least by the Navy itself! Thus, initially, one book remainedlargely unnoticed, a book that was published in 1965 and which Bird justly calls a"turning point": It is Jonathan Steinberg's work, Yesterday's Deterrent. Tirpitz and theGerman Battle Fleet. For the first time since 1945, Steinberg—who consulted anextensive wealth of original sources—examined the background against which, inthe late nineteenth century, Tirpitz was appointed Secretary of the Navy andGermany began building a battle fleet.

After the return of the naval documents to Germany, from 1969 onwards a growinginterest also emerged among researchers in Germany in studying more thoroughlythe strategic and political aims as well as the individual military-technical plans of theGerman Naval Command, using the source material that was then accessible. In thiscontext, it is noticeable that research focused on the following points:

• Naval arms policy in Imperial Germany, with the Secretary of the Navy,Grand Admiral Alfred v. Tirpitz, in charge of building up the high seas fleet(Volker Berghahn, Wilhelm Deist);

• The continuity or discontinuity of naval armaments from Emperor WilliamII to Hitler (Jost Dulffer, Werner Rahn, Michael Salewski);

Walther Hubatsch, Der Admiralstab und die obersten Marinebehorden in Deutschland 1848—1945(Frankfurt/M.: 1958).

For complete bibliographical datas of their publications, see Bird, German Naval History, passim., andrecendy Volker R. Berghahn and Wilhelm Deist, Rustung im Zeichett der wilhelminischen Weltpolitik.Grundlegende Dokumente 1890-1914 (Dusseldorf: Droste 1988) and Wilhelm Deist, "Kiel und die Marineim Ersten Weltkrieg," in J. Elvert, J. Jensen, and M. Salewski, eds., Kiel, die Deutschen und die See (Stuttgart:Steiner, 1992), pp. 143-54.

For complete bibliographical datas of their publications, see Bird, German Naval History, passim., andrecently Michael Salewski, "Das maritime Dritte Reich—Ideologic und Wirklichkeit 1933-1945," inDeutsches Marine-Institut and Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt, eds., Die deutsche Flotte imSpannungsfeld der Politik 1848-1985. Vortrage und Diskussionen der 25. Historisch-Taktischen Tagung der Flotte1985, Schriftenreihe des Deutschen Marine Instituts, Band 9 (Herford: Mitder, 1985), pp. 113-39; WernerRahn, "Kriegfuhrung, Politik und Krisen—Die Marine des Deutschen Reiches 1914-1933," ibid., pp.79-104; M. Salewski, "Deutschland als Seemacht," Kiel, die Deutscheti und die See, pp. 21-34; Jost Dulffer,"Wilhelm II. und Adolf Hitler. Ein Vergleich ihrer Marinekonzeption," ibid., pp. 49-69.

• The ideological orientation in the Naval Command's strategic and politicalthinking up to 1945; and the planning and decision-making of the SupremeNaval Command during World War II (Michael Salewski, Gerhard Schreiber,Werner Rahn).16

After Volker Berghahn published his seminal book on Der Tirpitz-Plan in1971, a gap still remained in the research on the Imperial Navy which wasclosed  only  recently by Michael Epkenhans'  study Die   Wilhelminische

1 R

Flottenriistung 1908—1914. On a broad basis of sources, he analyses the phaseof naval armament policy which Berghahn had already characterized as a "declineof Tirpitz' original concept." Epkenhans establishes that Tirpitz succeeded until1914 in keeping his armaments program going despite declining public en-thusiasm for the fleet and despite political doubts.

As historians concentrated on the Tirpitz era, two important phases of theImperial Navy were long neglected: the time before 1890, and World War I.Recently, Jorg Duppler presented a comprehensive analysis of the developmentof the Navy from 1848 to 1890, which concentrates mainly on naval relationsbetween Germany and Britain. Duppler proves in great detail that since 1848the Royal Navy, by selling ships and training officers, gave a kind of "develop-ment aid" to the fledgling German Navy.

The naval historians' reluctance to take a closer look at war itself has beenmentioned before. It is particularly evident for World War I. All the documentsare well catalogued and easily accessible in the archives, and they challenge thehistorian to revise the official version as presented in Der Krieg zur See 1914—19 IS. Even so, in recent years only two historians dealt with questions relatingto the war at sea from 1914 to 1918. Bernd Stegemann's doctoral dissertationanalyzed naval policy from 1916—1918, mainly concentrating on the interdepen-dence of fleet deployment and submarine warfare.     In his Ph.D. dissertation

For complete bibliographical datas of their publications, see Bird, German Naval History, passim., andrecendy Werner Rahn, "Der Seekrieg im Adantik und Nordmeer," Derglobale Krieg. Die Ausweitung zumWeltkrieg und der Wechsel der Initiative 1941-1943 (Stuttgart: 1990) [= Das Deutsche Reich und der ZweiteWeltkrieg, ed. by MGFA, Vol. 6], pp. 275-425. [Paperback edition: Die Welt im Krieg 1941-1943, vol. I:Von Pearl Harbor bis zum Bombenkrieg in Europa (Frankfurt a.M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp.329-496], and W. Rahn, "Strategjsche Wechselwirkung zwischen Nord- und Ostseekriegfuhrung im 19.und 20. Jahrhundert," Kiel, die Deutschen und die See, pp. 89-103.

Volker R. Berghahn, Der Tirpitz-Plan. Genesis und Verfall einer innenpolitischen Krisenstrategie unterWilhelm II (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1971).

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Michael Epkenhans, Die wilhelminische Flottenriistung 1908-1914. Weltmachtstreben, industriellerFortschritt, soziale Integration (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1991) [ = Beitrage zur Militargeschichte, ed. byMGFA, vol. 32]. - Cf. in this context also, Weir, Building the Kaiser's Navy.

Jorg Duppler, Der Juniorpartner. England und die Entwicklung der deutschen Marine 1848-1890,Schriftenreihe des Deutschen Marine-Instituts, Band 7 (Herford: Mittler, 1986).

Der Krieg zur See 1914—1918, ed. by Marinearchiv, by Kriegswissenschaftliche Abteilung der Marineand by Arbeitskreis fur Wehrforschung, 22 vols. (Berlin/Frankfurt/M.: 1920-1966).21   Bernd Stegemann, Die deutsche Marinepolitik 1916-1918 (Berlin: 1970).

presented in 1989, Gerhard P. GroB—an Army major!—concentrates entirelyon the conduct of the naval war in 1918. A comprehensive study of theImperial Navy, with particular emphasis on the naval war of 1914—1918, similarto Arthur J. Marder's exemplary five volumes on the Royal Navy, cannot beexpected in the foreseeable future.

Even the Handbuch zur deutschen Militdrgeschichte 1648—1939 (six volumes,completed in 1981) makes a point of excluding the individual campaigns andwars. The military, as a means of conducting war, was meant to be eclipsed bythe military as a structural part of society. However, the historical process called"war" always influences the thoughts and actions of the military, even inpeacetime. It is regrettable that, while this seminal handbook contains an articleon the principles of land warfare, a similar chapter on naval warfare was not evenattempted.

With regard to the German naval campaign during World War II, and theU-boat campaign in particular, an abundance of widely varying literature isavailable, ranging from popular general accounts to special studies rich in materialthat deals with operational and tactical questions regarding the employment ofsurface units and anti-convoy operations by U-boats. However, there is as yetno comprehensive learned overall account of the naval war compiled on thebasis of both German and British files. The World War II series edited by theMGFA entitled Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg is not comparablein its conceptional approach to corresponding works published in Great Britainby Stephen W. Roskill and in the USA by Samuel Eliot Morison. Thus, forinstance, in volume 6, Der globale Krieg. Die Ausweitung zum Weltkrieg und derWechsel der Initiative 1941—1943, the account of the Battle of the Atlantic fromthe spring of 1941 to May 1943 had to be confined to one hundred fifty printedpages, since this volume with a total length of 1,181 pages was, after all,designed to give an account of everything that happened in the war in Europe,the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and also the Pacific. With his three-volumework, Die deutsche Seekriegsleitung 1935—1945, Michael Salewski,    too, was not

Gerhard P. GroB, Die Seekriegfuhrung der Kaiserlichen Marine imjahre 1918 (Frankfurt/M., Bern: PeterLang, 1989).

For the naval aspects, see Wolfgang Petter, "Deutsche Flottenriistung von Wallenstein bis Tirpitz" andJost Dulffer, "Die Reichs- und Kriegsmarine 1918—1939," Handbuch zur deutschen Militdrgeschichte1648-1939, ed. by Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt, vol. 4 / part VIII (Munich: 1978).

See Wolfgang Petter, "Ein neues Handbuch zur Marinegeschichte," Marineforum, 53 (1978), pp.201-3, and the critical comments of Paul Heinsius, Hans-Otto Steinmetz and Thilo Bode, ibid., pp.236 and 314-15.

Volumes 1-6, to be continued; English translation published by Oxford University Press under thetitle, Germany and the Second World War.

Cf. Werner Rahn, "Der Seekrieg im Atlantik und Nordmeer," Derglobale Krieg, pp. 275-425.27  Michael Salewski, Die deutsche Seekriegsleitung 1935-1945, vol.1:   1935-1941 (Frankfurt a.M.:Bernard & Graefe, 1970), vol. 2: 1942-1945 (Munich: 1975), vol. 3: Denkschriften und Lagebetrachtungen1938-1944 (Frankfurt a.M.: 1973).

able to study and describe the actual naval war; rather, he concentrates mainlyon the events at the heart of the Naval Command, i.e., in the Naval Staff, wherethe strings were pulled and the decisions taken. With regard to the U-boat war,the interested historian continues to be dependent above all on the numerousworks by Jiirgen Rohwer. In addition, the memoirs of Erich Raeder and KarlDonitz, which the two published soon after their release from Spandau, areconsulted time and again. English translations followed a few years later. Todaywe know fairly well how these memoirs came to be written. Raeder's memoirswere for the most part the work of a team of former flag officers led by ErichForste, who felt particularly attached to their former commander-in-chief. KarlDonitz, on the other hand, was able to rely on the already-mentioned workby his son-in-law, Giinter Hessler, of which the latter had at his disposal acomplete copy—either unknown to his British employers or with their tacitpermission. At any rate, it later struck the historians in Germany that the U-boatfiles used by Hessler, and later also quoted by Donitz, had not been freelyaccessible to researchers until 1977. It was not until 1978 that they werereturned to the Federal Republic of Germany, and they are now in Freiburgwhere they are available to historians.

In addition, the notes left by the two commanders-in-chief, Raeder andDonitz, on their conferences with Hitler continue to remain an indispensablesource for any research activity into the German Navy during World War II.The edition of these conferences with their numerous annexes contains a lot ofsource material on all problems of naval warfare and naval armaments, illustratingthe Naval Command's struggle for resources and priorities. These conferenceswere first published in English in 1948 in Brassey's Naval Annual. In this version,however, the original texts were abridged in places, and some important annexesto the conferences are also missing. This information is of particular importanceto historians from English-speaking countries, since an unaltered reprint of the1948 edition was published in 1990 without mentioning the missing sections.This reprint unfortunately also contains a preface giving a misleading statement

For complete bibliographical datas of his publications, see Bird, German Naval History, passim. Cf.also the recently published new edition of J. Rohwer and G. Hiimmelchen, Chronology of the War atSea 1939-1945. The Naval History of World War Two (Annapolis: Naval Institute, 1992).

Erich Raeder, Mein Leben, vols. 1 and 2 (Tubingen: Schlichtenmayer, 1956-57), English translation

in one volume: My Life (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1960). Cf. Salewski, Seekriegsleitung, vol. 2,

p. 590.-irk

Karl Donitz, Memoirs, Ten Years and Twenty Days, with an introduction and afterword by Jiirgen

Rohwer (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1990). Cf. also Dieter Hartwig, "Karl Donitz - Versuch

einer kritischen Wurdigung," Deutsches Schiffahrtsarchiv, 12 (1989), pp. 133-52.

See the critics of Salewski, Seekriegsleitung, vol. 2, p. 276, note 21 and p. 658.

'  Gerhard Wagner, ed., Lagevortrage des Oberbefehlshabers der Kriegsmarine vor Hitler 1939-1945,

(Munich: Lehmanns, 1972).

11

Fuehrer Conferetues on Naval Affairs 1939-1945, (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990).

on the genesis of the German original edition of 1972. Michael Salewski, in hiscomprehensive and fundamental study of the German Naval Staff, was right inpointing out that the topic "German naval armaments" deserved "extensivespecial treatment." As far as the history of the entire German U-boat construc-tion is concerned, a work by Eberhard Rossler, rich in material, has beenavailable for quite a few years. It is indispensable, above all, concerningtechnical details of the individual types of U-boats and their variants as well asfor problems concerning the mass production of U-boats. In Das Deutsche Reichund der Zweite Weltkrieg, the problems of the German war economy are examinedprimarily at the level of the Wehrmacht High Command and the Reich Ministryof Armaments and Ammunition. The analysis focuses on Army and Luftwaffearmaments. Naval armaments are only touched upon, which means that thespecial study of German naval armaments during World War II based on thedocuments, as suggested by Salewski, will continue to remain a desideratum.

Apart from the OKW (German Supreme High Command) War diary, theWar Diary of the Naval Staff, Part A, is one of the most important and mostcomprehensive sources for World War II. Day by day, it documents thesituation, the strategic and operational deliberations, and decisions of the navalhigh command, as it strove assiduously for an adequate role of the navalcomponent within German overall warfare. In 1988, the MGFA began to publisha facsimile edition. It will include a reprint of all sixty-eight volumes, coveringa month each, from August-September 1939 to April 1945. In view of theenormous size of this publication, which will run to some 35,000 pages whenit is completed, the editors had to cut rigorously their critical apparatus. Theirannotations concentrate on clarifying difficult handwritten alterations, notes andinserts as well as on cross-references to other Naval Staff documents. Even so,on average, each volume contains some two hundred footnotes. Even if thisdoes not reach the standard of a comprehensive critical edition, this procedurewas the only feasible option if this important source for the history of WorldWar II is to be made available to researchers at large. Forty-four volumes have

Salewski, Seekriegsleitung, vol. 1, p. 130, note 98.

Eberhard Rossler, The U-boat. The evolution and technical history of German Submarines (Annapolis:Naval Institute Press, 1981).

Cf. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, vol. 5, part I: B. Kroener, R.D. Muller, H. Umbreit,Organisation und Mobilisierung des deutschen Machtbereichs, part I: Kriegsverwaltung, Wirtschaft undpersonelleRessourcen 1939-1941 (Stuttgart: DVA, 1988), pp. 570-74, 626-30 (Muller) and pp. 966-80 (Kroener).Compare in this context the documentation of Werner Rahn, "Einsatzbereitschaft und Kampfkraftdeutscher U-Boote 1942," Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 47 (1990), pp. 73-132.

P.E. Schramm, ed. Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Wehrmachtfuhrungsstab)1940-1945, vols. 1-4, (Frankfurt a.M.: Bernard & Graefe, 1961-1979).

Werner Rahn and Gerhard Schreiber with the assistance of Hansjoseph Maierhofer, eds.,Kriegstagebuch der Seekriegsleitung 1939-1945, Teil A, vol. 1 (August/September 1939 ); vol. 44 (April1943) (Bonn, Herford: Mittler, 1988-93), [to be continued].

been published so far, containing 20,150 pages, covering the period up to April1943.

In concluding, I should like to point out some gaps in research. So far, thereare no comprehensive biographical analyses for either Raeder or Donitz, norfor the leading admirals of the Imperial Navy, including Tirpitz. For thepost-1945 period, there are only very few studies which, based on originalsources, cover the origins and development of the two German navies between1955 and 1990. The three-volume series Anfdnge westdeutscher Sicherheitspolitik1945— 1956, however, presents first results of ongoing research into the originsand beginnings of the Federal German Navy.

Naval History: The State of Teaching

German universities offer naval history neither as an independent subject norin specialized courses. As a consequence, the forces are the only organization toteach naval history on various levels of their cadet and officer training programs.The naval cadets receive an instruction in naval history as part of their term withthe Naval Academy, Flensburg. The level they are expected to achieve is definedas follows:

The cadet will be able to describe the development, structure and tasks of Germannaval forces during the 19th and 20th centuries as well as German strategy andnaval strategy during both World Wars. As a future leader of men, he has to beable to instruct his subordinates on the origins and role of the Navy within theBundeswehr.

During a cadet course, which lasts for four or six months, twenty or thirtyhours respectively will usually be allotted to the naval history teacher. He willexplain the basic pattern of naval development from 1848 to the present, withparticular emphasis on the twentieth century. The naval cadet will be acquaintedwith the strategic aims and political repercussions of Tirpitz' fleet-buildingprogram as well as with the command problems of the World War I GermanNavy. Another period which receives special attention is the inter-war years andnaval warfare 1939—1945.

The Bundesmarine, the Federal German Navy, has been in existence fornearly forty years now, which is longer than the combined lifespan attained bythe Reichsmarine and Kriegsmarine from 1919 to 1945. Therefore, it isnecessary and legitimate to place particular emphasis on teaching about this

Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt, ed., Anfdnge westdeutscher Sicherheitspoltik 1945-1956, vol. 1:Roland G. Foerster et al., Von der Kapitulation bis zum Pleven-Plan (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1982); vol.2: Lutz Kollner et al, Die EVG-Phase (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1989); vol. 3: Hans Ehlert et al., DieNATO -Option (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1993).

Information from Commander Dr. Dieter Hartwig to the author, May 1993.

period, even more so, since the present navy was founded as a result of the ColdWar, which has shaped its development and structure up to 1990.

Since 1958, a large "historical collection" has been available as a valuableteaching aid. In 1976, it was reorganized into the "Naval Historic TrainingCenter," which combines naval history, tradition of the Navy, and teaching.This collection largely resembles a museum, and will be discussed later.

Following their first military training period, the cadets or young officers continuetheir education at one of the Bundeswehr universities, either in Hamburg orMunich. These universities do offer a course in history, but it is largely unconnectedwith military or naval history. Since the professors who teach history at theseuniversities are intent on preserving their academic independence, they will notdiscuss subjects drawn from military history on a regular basis.

After taking his degree, the young officer will return to the Naval Academyfor a few months to prepare himself for his first posting in the Navy. At thispoint, a more thorough naval historical education is envisaged, but experienceshows that most officers have lost virtually all previous knowledge they mighthave acquired in this field, making the job more challenging for teachers.

As part of their continued training, some 10 to 12 percent of every class attendthe two-year course for general-admiral staff officers at the Armed ForcesGeneral Staff College in Hamburg. During this course, eighty-six hours arescheduled for military and naval history. Here, the intended level of achievementis defined as follows:

The officer on Admiral Staff Duty should be able to understand the interdepen-dence and mutual influence of political and military leadership. He shouldunderstand the influence of the various elements of war on past concepts of warfareand draw conclusions which apply to the present. Based on historical examples,he should be able to follow some basic principles of military commanders.

In this course, particular care is taken that the officer will get to know undunderstand German and international concepts of naval strategy, of both theninteenth and twentieth centuries. Selected examples should enable him torealize the nature and the elements of the reality of war. About thirty-five hours,i.e., about 40 percent of the total reserved for the entire discipline, are scheduledfor these two fields of naval historical teaching. A special form of academictraining at the Armed Forces General Staff College is the requirement thatstudents write a thesis. This will analyze a specified, limited subject and must bewritten during their stay at the Staff College. The lecturers in military history

41 Jorg Duppler, "Das Wehrgeschichtliche Ausbildungszentrum Flensburg-Miirwik," in NordseestadtWilhelmshaven/Der Oberstadtdirektor, ed., Dokumentation Symposium Deutsches Marine-Museum(Wilhelmshaven: 1988), pp. 91-5.

Curriculum of Fuhrungsakademie der Bundeswehr for the 34th AdmiralstafF Course (informationfrom Commander Dr. Nagler to the author, May 1993).

regularly offer a choice of historical topics, some of which will be researchedusing original sources. A number of especially qualified papers have beenpublished, indicating the high standards of teaching at the Armed Forces GeneralStaff College.

Beginning in 1957, the German Navy began to develop a new approach instudying its own history. That year, the first Commander-in-Chief Fleet, RearAdmiral Rolf Johannesson, organized the first Historical-Tactical Convention.Since then, it has been held every year, and it is now a standard element of theentire naval officer corps' historical education. Admiral Johannesson's aim wasto distance himself from the subjective naval historiography about World WarI. He hoped that a critical discussion of the past would teach the officers truth,loyalty, and moral courage, and that they would determine their own positionmore solidly by a recourse to history and to the federal constitution. One of hissuccessors, Vice Admiral Giinter Fromm, summed this up in 1985 in a phrasewhich can be taken as exemplary for any serious dealing with the past: "Yet,there must be no taboos. What is necessary is rather a permanent effort to comecloser to the truth. Only truth, however difficult it may be to attain and to bear,can give us the security of a sound foundation."

Up to 1993, thirty-three conventions have been held, covering a wide varietyof subjects. Papers are usually presented by junior officers (commanders andcaptains are exceptions) from the fleet who are assisted in their preparations bynaval historians. The papers presented in some of the conventions have beencollected and published as books. The contents and results of the conventionsare regularly reported in the monthly naval journal, Marineforum. The papers do

Cf. H. Schuur, R. Martens, W. Koehler, Ftihrungsprobleme der Marine im Zweiten Weltkrieg, 2nd ed.(Freiburg: Rombach, 1986); Diether Hiilsemann, "Die Versorgung des deutschen Kreuzergeschwaders1914 und ihr EinfluB auf seine Operationen," Die Bedeutung der Logistikfiir die militarische Ftihrung vonder Antike bis in die neueste Zeit (Herford, Bonn: Mittler, 1985) [= Vortrage zur Militargeschichte, vol.7], pp. 167-209; Uwe Dirks, "Julian S. Corbett und die britische Seekriegfuhrung 1914-1918,"Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 37 (1985), pp. 35-50; and Wulf Diercks, "Der EinfluB derPersonalsteuerung auf die deutsche Seekriegfuhrung 1914—1918," Militargeschichtliches Beiheft zurEuropaischen Wehrkunde, Nr. 1/1988.

Statement of Rear Admiral Rolf Johannesson (Ret.) to the audience in Deutsches Marine Institut,ed., Der Marineoffizier als Ftihrer im Gefecht. Vortrage auf der Historisch-Taktischen Tagung der Flotte 1983(Herford: Mittler, 1984), p. 241.

Giinter Fromm, "SchluBbemerkungen des Befehlshabers der Flotte," in Deutsches Marine-Institutand Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt, eds. Die deutsche Flotte im Spannungsfeld derPolitik 1848—1985.Vortrage und Diskussionen der 25.  Historisch-Taktischen  Tagung der Flotte  1985,  Schriftenreihe  desDeutschen Marine instituts, Bd 9 (Herford: Mittler, 1985), p. 223.46  See "Generalthemen der Historisch-Taktischen Tagungen 1957-1985," ibid., pp. 225-7.

Cf, for example, Bild der russischen undsowjetischen Marine. Vortrage der 5. Historisch-Taktischen Tagungder Flotte, 6.-7- Dezember 1961 (Frankfurt a.M.: Mittler, 1962) [= Beiheft No. 7/8 of MarineRundschau]; Die EntuHcklung des Flottenkommando. Vortrage der 7. Historisch-Taktischen Tagung der Flotteam 5. und 6.12.1963 (Darmstadt: Wehr und Wissen, 1964); and Deutsches Marine Institut, ed., DerEinsatz von Seestreitkraften im Dienste der auswartigen Politik. Vortrage auf der Historisch-Taktischen Tagungder Flotte 1981 (Herford: Mittler, 1983).

not always live up to the standards of the professional historian, but theirpresentation and the candid, often lively, discussion of subjects relevant to thebusiness of the day usually give testimony of the multiple intellectual talentsamong the Navy's officer corps. Many an admiral-to-be made his mark when,as a lieutenant, he presented some sharply critical theory in the Naval Academy'sGrand Hall, provoking the older generation's opposition.

Maritime History: State of Research and Publications

The field of maritime history extends its range far back into ancient historyand covers the central aspects of the age of exploration. A key German languagework in this area is the comprehensive multivolume collection of documentscovering the history of European expansionism, covering the entire period ofEuropean expansionism prior to the age of imperialism. However, the sourceshave been translated into German only. The first volume covers the period fromabout 500 A.D. to 1500, i.e., the beginnings of the age of exploration.

The second volume covers the great voyages of exploration from Henry theNavigator in the fifteenth century to the opening up of the Pacific in theeighteenth century. The third volume deals with the origins of the colonialempires from about 1500 through the mid-eighteenth century.

The Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum (DSM—German Maritime Museum) atBremerhaven is the only learned institute in Germany that is exclusivelyconcerned with maritime history. At present, eleven historians and scholars ofother branches work in this museum. Their research covers, among others,subjects such as: passenger shipping, merchant shipping, whaling, oceanography,social history of navigation, marine painting, naval industrial archeology.

For a long time, the museum's research was focussed on maritime archeology,which was justified by the finding and restoration of the Hanse Cog of 1380.This aspect will be presented in more detail later on. Another focus of museumwork is the social and economic history of navigation. Recent publications bymembers of the museum's staff deal mostly with problems of social history, suchas harbor workers, shipbuilders and the sailors' work.

Eberhard Schmitt, ed., Dokumente zur Geschichte der europaischen Expansion, 7 vols. (Munich: Beck,1984 ff.).

Eberhard Schmitt, ed., Dokumente zur Geschichte der europaischen Expansion,, vol. 1: Die mittelalterlichenUrspriinge der europaischen Expansion, ed. by Charles Verlinden and Eberhard Schmitt with contributionsof Hanno Beck et al. (Munich: Beck, 1986).

Eberhard Schmitt, ed., Dokumente zur Geschichte der europaischen Expansion, vol. 2: Die grofienEntdeckungen, ed. by Matthias Meyn et al. (Munich: Beck, 1984).

Eberhard Schmitt, ed., Dokumente zur Geschichte der europaischen Expansion, vol. 3: Der Aujbau derKolonialreiche, ed. by Matthias Mey et al. with contributions of Annegret Bollee et al. (Munich: Beck,1986). Vols. 4 through 7 cover economy, trade, and life in the colonies, their role in international politicsand the end of the colonial system.

This varied research results in a large number of specialized publications whichare listed every year in the museum's annual report. These annual reports arepublished in the museum's journal, Deutsches Schiffahrtsarchiv, which has existed since1975 and has been published annually since 1980. It is now one of the leadingpublications on maritime history in the German language. Also, the traditionalHansische Geschichtsbldtter, which appeared in its 111th annual volume in 1993,contains important contributions to the research of maritime history. Its regularreport on publications, called Schiffahrt und Schiffbau (Navigation and Shipbuilding),and edited with profound knowledge by the museum's director, Professor DedefEllmers, deserves particular attention. Out of the numerous tides published bymembers of the museum's staff, only a few can be listed here. Arnold Kludas'sfive-volume Geschichte der deutschen Passagierschiffahrt (History of German Passenger

CO

Shipping) is by now complete. Lars U. Scholl, a well-known expert in history ofGerman marine painting and economical aspects of maritime history, has publishedthe results of his research in several articles and catalogues. However, there is stillno comprehensive history of German merchant shipping. Any interested historianwill have to make do with representative volumes whose individual articles offerimportant summaries of the latest research.

Maritime History: State of Teaching

So far, there are no courses in maritime history in any German university.However, the departments of history in several north German universitiesregularly offer seminars on subjects that are closely related to maritime history:history of emigration, social history of shipbuilders and sailors. The lecturers willoften be staff members of the German Maritime Museum in Bremerhaven orhistorians who have touched upon questions of shipbuilding and ship design aspart of their work on the history of technology.

Maritime and Naval Museums and Collections. Archaeology of Ship-ping and Private Maritime Collections

Before World War II, Germany had a central institution for the study anddisplay of objects relating to shipping, namely the Museum fur Meereskunde

Arnold Kludas, Die Geschichte der deutschen Passagierschiffahrt, vols. 1-5, (Hamburg: Kabel,1986-1990).

53 Lars U. Scholl: Claus Bergen 1885-1964. Marinemalerei im 20.Jahrhundert (Bremerhaven: 1982); FelixSchwormstadt 1870-1938 (Herford: Koehler, 1990) and Der Marinemaler Hans Peter Jurgens (Herford:Koehler, 1991); "Shipping Business in Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," inTsunehiko Yui and Keiichiro Nakagawa, eds., Business History of Shipping. Strategy and Structure (Tokyo:University of Tokyo Press, 1985), pp. 185-213, and "The Harriman-Hamburg-American LineAgreement of June 1920: The Foremost German Shipping Company's Return to the Seas," Researchin Maritime History, 2 (1992), pp. 349-81. Dr. Scholl presented a paper, "German Maritime HistoricalResearch during the past twenty-five years. A critical survey" at the conference on New Directions inMaritime History (December 1993, Perth-Freemantle, Australia).

Cf., for example, Volker Plagemann, Ubersee. Seefahrt und Seemacht im deutschen Kaiserreich (Munich:Beck, 1988).

(Museum of Oceanography) in Berlin. During the war, the building and largeparts of its collections were destroyed. Only a few pieces survived, and todaythey are scattered among various collections and museums. Not least, the divisionof Germany and of her capital Berlin meant that for several decades it wasimpossible to fill this gap in an appropriate manner.

As a result of the vacuum created by the lack of a central museum, smallermuseums in the port towns and cities gained in importance. Thus, today, almostevery German port from Emden in the West to Stralsund in the Fast has a smallmaritime museum. They often developed from private collections, and todaythey provide the maritime historian and ship lover with an abundance of materialfrom different eras of maritime history. From the point of view of their locationand tasks, they naturally concentrate their collections on local peculiarities andthose of the adjacent coastal region.

The city of Wilhelmshaven has been canvassing for a central German NavalMuseum since 1988. However, this project did not get beyond its initial stage,i.e., the preparation of a small collection. In 1992, an attempt failed to takeover the former naval training vessel, the Deutschland, and to set it up as a museumship.

From among these numerous museums, one museum stands out, which is tobe described in greater detail here. This is the Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum(German Maritime Museum) in Bremerhaven. The starting point for thefoundation of the museum lay in three different spheres:

• When the Bremerhaven Morgenstern Museum moved to new premises in1961, a maritime section was also opened. In the years that followed, the museumsucceeded in acquiring important estates and collections, which today form amajor foundation of the German Maritime Museum.

• In 1962, the city of Bremerhaven decided not to fill in the old docks locateddirectly on the Weser but to preserve them as an expanse of water. This createdideal conditions for a subsequent museum harbor, which got its first old ship in1966.

• The salvage in 1962 of a medieval Hanseatic cog was a pioneer achievmentin the archaeology of shipping. Immediately after the ship had been salvaged,funds for its lengthy restoration were also obtained. Thus, there was a majorimpulse for the establishment of a central German maritime museum. Themuseum was subsequently founded in 1971 and opened in 1975.

In the museum's charter of foundation, its tasks are described as foliows:

Nordseestadt Wilhelmshaven/Der Oberstadtdirektor, Dokumentation Symposium DeutschesMarine-Museum (Wilhelmshaven: 1988).

Cf. Wolf-Dieter Hoheisel, "Aufgaben und Aufbau des Deutschen Schiffahrtsmuseums," HansischeGeschichtsblatter, 91 (1973), pp. 54—7, and Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum '75, Fiihrer des DeutschenSchiffahrtsmuseums, Nr. 1 (Bremerhaven: 1975), and "Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum Bremerhaven,"Museum, Januar 1/1977 (Braunschweig: Westermann, 1977).

1. To collect historical exhibits, to illustrate and to document German maritimehistory and its correlations;

2. To conduct academic research into all fields of German maritime history;

3. To use the museum's scientific and technological capabilities at its disposal inorder to work for the public on behalf of German maritime history.

In January 1972, the first ships were able to dock in the museum harbor. From1970 to 1975, the museum's main building was constructed to a design by HansScharoun. The concept of this building was to combine systematically arrangedexhibits in the building with an open-air collection of museum ships.

One of the major difficulties of maritime history exhibitions is caused by the sizeof the ships, which precludes the use of originals to illustrate the evolution of shiptypes. It is necessary to resort to scale models and accept the effect of niinirnizationthat this involves. To counterbalance this, the German Maritime Museum hasattached particular importance to establishing the relation to the original dimen-sions—the ships in the Old Docks and on the Weser can be seen from the exhibition.At the same time, these ships, plus a few original-size systems, form the centerpiecesof the individual exhibition sections, to which the other exhibits are clearlysubordinated. From among the museum ships, I should like to mention only thenaval ships: they are a fast patrol boat from the early days of the post-warBundesmarine and the only surviving Type XXI World War II submarine. Themuseum includes a separate naval department which displays, inter alia, an originaltype Seehund midget submarine of fifteen tons.

The Hanse Cog

Archaeology of shipping and reconstruction is exemplified by the Hanse

58

cog. On 9 October 1962, during dredging work in the Weser river, the wreckof a ship was discovered which, on the basis of numerous symbols on seals, wasidentified as a medieval Hanseatic cog. This type of ship was not only theregular cargo ship of the early Hanseatic league until well into the fifteenthcentury, the cog was also the means of early Hanseatic naval warfare. As thiswreck had been found by chance, nobody was prepared for salvaging such aship. However, the rescue of the find had to commence immediately, as the cogwas in danger of breaking apart as soon as the supporting masses of sand were

Cf., Technikmuseum U-Boot "Wilhelm Bauer." Kleine Geschichte und Technik der deutschen U-Boote(Bremerhaven: 1990).

58 The following part is based on the special journal Museum, 1 (1977), pp. 20-24. (This chapter waswritten by Wolf-Dieter Hoheisel). Cf. also Klaus-Peter Kiedel and Uwe Schnall, The Hanse Cog of 1380(Bremerhaven: 1985) and Die Kogge von Bremen, vol. 1, Werner Lahn, Bauteile und Bauablauf, Schriftendes Deutschen Schiffahrtsmuseums, 30 (Hamburg: Kabel, 1987) with 37 plans and 161 illustrations.

See Paul Heinsius, Das Schiff der hansischen Fruhzeit, 2nd ed. (Cologne and Vienna: Bohlau, 1986).

removed. Eventually, a great effort made it possible to complete most of thesalvage operation before the onset of the winter of 1962—63. However, anotherten years were to elapse before it was possible to lay down the keel of thisHanseatic ship for a second time, this time in the purpose-built "Kogge-Haus"of the German Maritime Museum on 1 November 1972. As nobody knew theexact size and shape of the cog, the restorers had to put the ship back togetherby assembling some 2,000 pieces. It was one big jigsaw puzzle. They often hadto rely on conjectures, which were then checked by using the actual conditions.In the course of their work, the restorers tested new measurement, damp woodbonding, and preservation techniques. The reconstruction of the cog took placein a foggy atmosphere, since otherwise the saturated, almost six-hundred-year-old oak would have shrunk by 25 to 30 percent. Then, a preservation basin hadto be constructed around the ship in which the cog is impregnated with apreservation fluid for many years. During this time, the water-soluble preserva-tion agent, polyethylne glycol, slowly penetrates all the components startingfrom the surface. In the process, the water present in the cells of the wood isgradually replaced by the polywax, which then, during the subsequent dryingprocess, forms a "supporting corset" and prevents shrinkage. This process shouldbe completed in around 10 years. The cog is now the central exhibit of the"Middle Ages" section at the German Maritime Museum.

Once the restoration of the original cog had progressed so far that it waspossible to clearly distinguish the design of the ship, the suggestion was made tobuild an exact reproduction of the cog. It was hoped that tests with this replicaunder actual sea conditions in the area in which it used to operate, i.e., primarilythe North Sea and the Baltic, might answer questions as to the cogs' sail-carryingability, their seaworthiness, load capacity, navigation, etc.

The replica's length overall is 23 meters, its beam over all is 7.26 meters.When loaded with the maximum cargo of 87 metric tons, the draught is 2.25meters, giving a displacement of about 120 metric tons. The cog, which wassalvaged from the Weser, had been lost in an accident in 1380 while being built.Because none of the rig's original parts were found near the wreck, which wouldhave provided clues to the ship's sail-carrying ability, replicating the rig posedspecial problems. The rig's reproduction had to be based on old representations;a description by the Italian, Timbotta, dating from 1444 could also be used. Finaldetails such as the sail area of 200 square meters were eventually decided uponafter a model had been tried in a wind tunnel.

From 1987 to 1990, two replicas of the cog were built, one in Kiel and anotherin Bremerhaven. They were meant for two different purposes:

The following description is based on Wolf-Dieter Hoheisel, "A Full-Scale Replica of the HanseCog of 1380," Yearbook of the International Association of Transport Museums, 15/16 (1988/1989), pp.26-33. Cf. also Wolf-Dieter Hoheisel, "Rekonstruktion der Bremer Hans-Kogge," fahrbuch derSchiffbautechnischen Gesellschaft, 82 (1988), pp. 223-9.

• The Kiel replica was built as true to the original as possible, to permit abetter analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the medieval structure andits influence on the ship's characteristics. Without an engine or any other aids,it was used to determine exactly how a Bremen cog sailed in the Middle Ages.

• The Bremerhaven replica was built for a different purpose. It was toundertake studies in long-term cruises along the Hanseatic sailing routes in theNorth Sea and in the Baltic. For safety reasons, an engine and modern navigationaids had to be included to prevent accidents, e.g., on a lee shore. Of course, thecity of Bremerhaven also sees visits of this cog to former Hanse cities as goodpublic relations for Bremerhaven and its German Maritime Museum.

In June 1991, the first sailing trials of the Kiel cog commenced. Their resultsconfirmed the prior calculations. Up to wind-force 4—5, the cog could run underfull sail, heeling less than 15 degrees. With wind-force 6—7 from nearly abaft,the cog made slightly more than 7 knots. However, during the first trials the cogwas unable to beat against the wind. Scientific results of the trials, however, arenot expected until 1994—5, and will probably be published in the Jahrbuch derSchiffbautechnischen Gesellschaft.

Until 1945, the Museum fur Meereskunde (Museum of Oceanography) inBerlin included a large department of naval history. Among other items, it heldthe first German submarine, the Brandtaucher, built by Wilhelm Bauer in 1848.When this museum was destroyed, Germany lost its most valuable exhibits,which had documented naval history.

Before 1990 the German Armed Forces had no central museum of militaryhistory which might have included a separate section for naval history. This wasfor a variety of reasons, not the least being a lack of funds. After reunification inOctober 1990, the Bundeswehr took over the former East German Army (NVA)Museum of Military History, which had been established in Dresden. At themoment, it looks as if that museum will eventually be the central Germanmuseum for military history. It includes a naval department with a number ofvaluable exhibits and good models. Its showpiece is certainly the Brandtaucherwhich, although very badly damaged during World War II, was rescued fromamong the ruins of the Museum of Oceanography and later restored.

The best collection documenting naval history can be found in the NavalHistoric Training Center of the German Naval Academy at Flensburg. Whenthis collection originated in 1958, its aims were defined as follows:

Information from Professor Dr. Detlev Ellmers and Dr. Lars U. Scholl, both of German MaritimeMuseum, Bremerhaven, to the author, May-September, 1993.

Cf. Wolf-Dieter Hoheisel, "Erste Segelversuche mit dem Kieler Nachbau der Bremer Hanse-Koggevon 1380," Deutsche Schiffahrt, 2 (1991), pp. 23-5.

Cf. Klaus Herold, "Der Kieler Brandtaucher. Ergebnisse einer Nachforschung," Kiel, die Deutschenund die See, pp. 123-42.

The Historic Collection, as part of the Center of Military History, will illustratethe various epochs of the German naval past to the officer cadets and officers aspart of their education, so as to motivate them for their chosen profession as navalofficers. Also, it will serve to cultivate naval tradition and to inform the publicabout Germany's maritime interests, past and present. The exhibition will there-fore center on the development and history of naval forces from the end of the19th century.

Based on a Naval Staff order dated April 1958, the Naval Academy developeda department which was initially called the "Historical Collection." Renamed"Naval Historical Training Center" in 1976, it united naval history, the traditionof the Navy, and teaching into an organic whole, with all three componentsenjoying equal status.

This collection started from humble beginnings in 1958, and it is not actuallya museum. Still, in view of the large number of exhibits, some of which areextremely valuable, it compares favorably with other, similar institutes. Today,it holds some 150 model ships, 350 oil paintings and prints, 300 flags andpennants, 15 busts, 7 figureheads, 25 coats of arms from ships' bows, 80 situationmaps, 300 ships' diagrams as well as several thousand photographs depictingindividuals, ships, and events. The photographs are often from old albums whichhave been presented to the collection by former officers and men of the Navy.The collection is mainly used for the instruction and education of the officercadets. Also, some 6,000 visitors per year, excluding Navy personnel, find it asource of valuable information for their historical interests. The manuscriptcollection now numbers about 17,000 items, and it is used increasingly byhistorians, both from Germany and from abroad. Meanwhile, the exhibition hasfound better accommodation in what used to be the commandant's villa, makingit more accessible to outside visitors.

This report on German museums and collections relating to maritime andnaval history can by no means be complete; it can only present a selection.However, one private collection has to be mentioned. It has a special positionas one of the largest and most important of its kind. Its owner is the publisherand former Chief Executive of Springer Publishing Company, Peter Tamm, inHamburg. This collection includes not only a special library of about 60,000volumes, it consists of a vast number of extremely valuable ship models, paintings

Jorg Duppler, "Das WehrgeschichtlicheAusbildungszentrum Flensburg-Muiwik," Dokumentation SymposiumDeutsches Marine-Museum, pp. 91-5, and Franz Hahn, "Ein Rundgang durch das WehrgeschichtlicheAusbildungszentrum," in Deutsches Marine Institut. Conception and Redaction: Dieter Matthei, JorgDuppler and Karl Heinz Kruse, Marineschule Murwik (1910-1985), 2nd rev. ed. (Herford: Mittler, 1989),pp. 213-20.

Cf. Heinrich Walle, "Private Sammler maritimer Kunst," in Deutsches Marine Institut andMilitargeschichtliches Forschungsamt, eds., Seefahrt und Geschichte (Herford and Bonn: Mittler, 1986),pp. 220-5, and [without author] "Das Wissenschaftliche Institut fur Schiffahrts- und Marinegeschichte,"Marinejorum, 67 (1992), pp. 426-7.

156     Germany

dating from the sixteenth century to the present, innumerable manuscripts,charts, uniforms, decorations, weapons, and other historic maritime exhibits.The collection is now a part of the private Institute of Maritime and NavalHistory, which is still in the process of development. Large parts of the collectionhave time and again enriched major exhibitions elsewhere.

Correlations between Naval and Maritime History

The close relationship between maritime and naval history makes it obviousthat there is an interdependence between the two fields of research. Even so,cooperation between historians dealing with maritime and naval history, respec-tively, has so far been sporadic rather than intensive. As there was always a tensionbetween naval and merchant navigation, this distance is also quite discerniblebetween historians researching naval and maritime history. The much-regrettedgeneral tendency of all historians to specialize also contributes to a neglect ofsubjects which cover more than one narrow field. A number of learnedassociations exist, but they do not care to improve cooperation. In view of theforthcoming cuts in research grants, cooperation will be more essential than everif the available monetary and staff resources are to be employed effectively forfundamental naval and maritime research.

Conclusion

It is a basic, and perennial challenge to historians to try and come close tohistoric truth. Today, the German Navy has both a lively interest in its historyand also a special relationship with it. A clear link can be seen between thehistorical self-perception of its officers and the history of their service. In thepast, this link often served only to legitimize and to secure the Navy's ownposition in its fight for recognition and even for its existence, during a relativelyshort period. In such situations, there is a danger if historical interest is limitedonly to the Navy itself and to naval warfare, and too little attention is paid tothe "general context, to the subordination of the individual aspect under thevaried panorama of historical development."

The various aspects of highly specialized maritime historiography are beset bysimilar dangers. The commercial success of popular publications as well as thenumber of visitors attracted to the museums indicate how many people havesome historical interest. This continuing interest is a stimulating challenge forthe professional historian. We should continue to try and present our findingsabout past backgrounds and structures in such a way that the message gets across,i.e., in such a way that historical knowledge and sensitivity become a stabilizingfactor for a liberal society. And if this calling sounds ponderous enough, we

Wilhelm Deist, "Auflosungserscheinungen in Armee und Marine als Voraussetzungen der deutschenRevolution," in MGFA, ed., Menschenfiihrung in der Marine, Vortrage zur Militargeschichte, 2 (Herfordand Bonn: Mittler, 1981), p. 37.

Rahn     157

should not forget the humorous touch—it always was and always will be arefreshing element of human life.

In 1943, the following story received clearance for publication in Germany:

A circus had been hit during an air raid on Berlin. Two lions escaped and wereon the loose without anyone having any idea where they might be.

After two weeks had passed, one of the lions returned ruefully to his cage. Helooked worn out and thin and swore to his fellows: "Never again! I'd rather putup with bad horse meat than have to find my own food in Berlin!"

The next day, the other lion came back; proud as anything and fatter than he hadever been before. "Hello! Where have you been?" the others called to him, "whathave you been up to?"

"Who me?—I was in Naval Command Headquarters and every day I had anadmiral for my supper. But be careful not to tell anyone—no one's noticed yet."And back he ran to the Naval High Command.

To draw an analogy from this story, you could say that after World War II,German naval archives were indeed eaten by British and American historianswhile German historians, without any access to the original documents, lookedworn out and thin for a long time.

•  •  •

The collation of this material and its translation into English was generouslysupported in a variety of ways by a number of colleagues. I am grateful to Colonel(GS) Dr. Roland Foerster and Major Winfried Heinemann, both of the MGFA,as well as to Commander Dr. Dieter Hartwig of the Naval Academy inFlensberg, Lieutenant Commander Dr. Frank Nagler of the Armed Forces StaffCollege, Hamburg, Professor Dr. Detlev Ellmers and Dr. Lars U. Scholl, bothof the German Maritime Museum, Bremerhaven, and Professor John Hattendorfof the Naval War College.

Peter Ernst Eiffe, Seemannsgam. "Splissen und Knoten " zweite Folge. Heitere Marinegeschichten mit einemGeleitwort des Admiralinspekteurs der Kriegsmarine des GroBdeutschen Reiches GroBadmiral Raeder(Magdeburg: 1943), pp. 45—6.

13India

Captain C. Uday Bhaskar, Indian Navy

The study of naval and maritime history offers a curious paradox in theIndian context. For a nation whose recent political history has beeninextricably linked with the dictates of sea power and whose maritime historygoes back to earliest antiquity—namely to the Mohenjo—Daro—Harappa period(c. 3000—1500 B.C.)—the actual study of naval and maritime subjects in India ismodest, to say the least.

History itself, as interpreted in the Western context, is something alien to theIndian psyche. There are various reasons for this trait. At the broad level ofcivilizations, it is averred that the timelessness of Indian thinking and metaphysicsdefies the special perch of history. The continuum of time is seen as an endlesscycle punctuated by the birth, life, death, and rebirth of the protagonist—be itthe individual or the soul—the only perennial entity being the essence ofcivilization. At a more simplistic level, a casual observer may look at languageand deduce that in Hindi, the national language of the country, the word foryesterday and tomorrow is the same, kal, thereby diluting the need to preservethe past in a codified and rigorous manner.

Be that as it may, a preliminary survey suggests that, barring the professionalnaval establishments, there is no dedicated institutional infrastructure for thestudy of naval and maritime history in India. All the universities in India offerdetailed courses in the study of history per se, but the division is more traditionalin the sense that ancient Indian history, the medieval period, and the Britishperiod are some of the broad areas studied. These may be explored further intheir political, social, and economic dimensions, but the actual study of militaryhistory, with specific reference to the naval and maritime dimension is currentlyin its infancy.

A wealth of material remains to be excavated. For instance, the linkagesbetween sea power and the political fortunes of the early Indian dynasties—theSatavahanas and the Mauryans—need to be authoritatively analyzed and, in likefashion, specific linkages in maritime commerce, ship-building, and contacts

Captain C. Uday Bhaskar, Indian Navy, is currently Senior Fellow at the Institute forDefense Studies and Analyses, New Delhi.

with the rest of the ancient world need to be rigorously examined. Some researchat the post-graduate level is now being encouraged in certain universities inIndia, such as those in Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. A more detailedsurvey of Indian academia may be warranted at a later stage to fill in theinadvertent omissions of this preliminary report.

Among the service establishments, naval and maritime history receivestangential attention at the Defence Services Staff College, Wellington, Nilgiris,Tamil Nadu, and at the College of Naval Warfare, Bombay, and the NationalDefence College, Delhi. But none of these three establishments teach thesubjects in the pristine, academic sense. In an effort to infuse a historical senseinto their respective studies, these colleges correlate naval and maritime historystrands with the specific issue or subject being studied. Here, the threshold atwhich the students come to the college is relevant and this gives one an insightinto the manner in which naval and maritime history are woven into thecurriculum.

The Defence Services Staff College is the first stepping stone for highercommand in the Indian armed forces, and officers enter at the grade of lieutenantcommander and its equivalent, major or squadron leader. Here, naval andmaritime history are related to specific tactical studies and are undertaken ingroups. Campaign studies receive greater attention, and, here again, the correla-tion is between the principles of war and twentieth century naval battles andcampaigns. The Atlantic and Pacific campaigns of World War II are studied indetail, specifically the Battle of Midway, the Normandy landing, along with theKorean War landing at Inchon. More recently, the Falklands campaign and theGulf War have become logical priorities in the Defence Services Staff College.

In sum, the Defence Services Staff College does not teach maritime or navalhistory, but it deals with specific historical issues that encompass naval battles atsea or amphibious operations that are taken up in the syndicate and divisionalportions of the group study program. Each group makes a final presentation tothe entire college, at which stage certain relevant aspects of naval and maritimehistory are discussed.

The College of Naval Warfare conducts courses for officers at the rank ofsenior commander or captain. Here also, there is no attempt to teach naval andmaritime history. However, in the effort to infuse a historical sense into studiesof naval strategy, the discussions on ancient and medieval Indian history includespecific aspects of naval and maritime history. This syllabus is still being refined,and I believe that there will be a gradual shift from the political science contentto a marked maritime strategy content in the years ahead. Currently, the Collegeof Naval Warfare offers a separate session on the maritime heritage of India andthe ancient methods of navigation in these waters. The latter aspect is alsoreceiving attention in the Bombay University.

Bhaskar     161

The National Defence College, New Delhi, is the apex college for the IndianArmed Forces and also has representatives from other nations. Student officersare of brigadier and equivalent rank. Here again, there is no formal teaching ofnaval and maritime history. However, during this one year—long course at theNational Defence College, sea power per se is analyzed. The historical perspec-tive, the Indian context, and the colonial paradigm are explored. Guest lecturersare invited to address these subjects and, for the last two years, I have beeninvolved in structuring lectures around these subjects. For example, subjectthemes, such as "Maritime Rivalry in the Indian Ocean: A Historical Perspec-tive" and "The Impact of Sea-power on the Littoral of the Pacific and IndianOceans: Prognosis in the Post—Cold War," have evolved to cover all the salientpolitical, economic and military aspects of naval and maritime history.

There is no single intellectual trend or critical theory that is adhered to in thediscussions at the above institutions, but there is little doubt that the perspectiveof the naval and maritime events under study is from that of a non-white, formercolony. It is often averred in India that the lack of adequate appreciation aboutthe relevance of sea power by early Indian rulers led to the later colonization ofthe sub-continent. This theme has been amply dealt with by K.M. Panikkar inhis books on the subject and provides the basic intellectual thrust to the currentIndian interpretation.

No Indian university offers any specific courses in naval/maritime history perse. These subjects are dealt with as part of a larger sub-heading, e.g., in addressingeconomic history of a period or region, the maritime trade aspects are covered.In like fashion, while naval battles or capabilities receive little individual attentionin the universities, references are made to the maritime strand while dealing withthe specifics of political history.

While it has not been possible to survey all the Indian universities individually,one has been able to look more closely at the syllabus of the Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi and some of the findings here may be extrapolated tothe larger Indian university canvas as a general indicator of the current trend.

For example, one of the courses offered at the post-graduate level in theCenter for Historical Studies at the Jawaharlal Nehru University is entitled:"Economic History of India: Trade, Commerce and Industry in India in the17th and 18th centuries." The subject is treated in the following manner:Structure of Asian trade: 10th-15th centuries; the Portuguese domination of theIndian Ocean in the 16th century; the response of Indian merchants and rulersto Portuguese hegemony; the Dutch rule in intra-Asian trade; Dutch trade inIndia; the English East India Company; the economy of Gujarat; the Indianmerchants and their trading practice; the role and position of merchants in

K.M. Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1962).

162     India

economy and society; the Coromandel; the economy of Bengal; and someaspects of technology and industry.

In like fashion, while dealing with medieval Indian history, for instance, theCholas in the ninth to thirteenth centuries of peninsular India are the subject ofa separate course. In this course, the maritime trade practices of the Cholas andtheir expeditions into Sri Lanka and South East Asia are dealt with as part of theeconomic and political history of the period.

Further, a course on "Trade Networks in the Indian Ocean: Fifteenth toEighteenth Centuries" examines the geographical setting of the Indian Ocean,the pre-European concepts, nature and meaning of the Indian Ocean as a worldeconomy, the Indian Ocean trade network before the fifth century, the con-tribution of European trading companies, the role of China and East Asiancountries and ship-building technology.

These illustrative examples from the Jawaharlal Nehru University aresymptomatic of the larger trend in Indian academia, wherein there appears tobe a lack of any specialization in naval and maritime history perse. This is a glaringgap as far as the professional sailor is concerned, and more recently there hasbeen an attempt by the Indian Navy to make a modest contribution in thisregard. Naval Headquarters has been encouraging naval historians to researchspecific subjects, and in the last few years retired Rear Admirals Satyindra Singhand K. Sridharan  have made noteworthy contributions.

A small but significant step in creating a national maritime consciousness hasbeen the addition of a naval-maritime wing to the National Museum in NewDelhi. Despite the claims to an ancient maritime past that goes back to about4000—6000 B.C., there was no dedicated maritime museum in India barring thefew naval museums outside of Delhi. This lacuna was partially redressed by theaddition of this new maritime wing to the National Museum in 1992.

However, there is a need to encourage greater specialist studies in Indian navaland maritime history in the first instance and then attempt an interdisciplinarystudy of the different strands that, taken collectively, will point to a more holisticunderstanding of the Indian past.

Academic Perspectives (New Delhi: Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharal Nehru University, 1989),pp. 105, 106.

3 Ibid., p. 113.

4 Ibid., p. 118.

Rear Admiral Satyindra Singh, Under Two Ensigns: The Indian Navy, 1945-50 (New Dehli: Oxfordand IBH Publishing Company, 1985); Rear Admiral Satyindra Singh, Blueprint to Bluewater: The IndianNavy, 1951-65 (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1992).

6    Rear Admiral K. Sridharan, History of the Naval Dockyard Bombay—250 Years, 1735-1985 (Bombay:The Admiral Superintendent, Naval Dockyard, 1989).

14

Ireland

John E. de Courcy Ireland

The independent Irish State was set up in 1922 after centuries of unrestfollowing the definitive English occupation of the island early in theseventeenth century. The Irish had always been a maritime people, and in thetwo centuries preceding the definitive English occupation, Irish seamen andshipowners were engaged in lively maritime commerce with England andScotland, Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Scandinavia.There is powerful evidence that as well as a variety of traditional—type vessels,Irish shipowners had ships of the most modern types available in Europe. TheIrish sea fisheries were very rich and were frequented by continental as well asIrish fishermen. Some of them were fishing the Grand Banks by the 1550s, andthe wealth of these fisheries was one of the reasons for the English governmentundertaking a final conquest of Ireland later in the sixteenth century.

Being divided into nearly one hundred petty principalities, with about a scoreof largely autonomous seaport towns and no centralized Irish authority, the Irishpeople had no navy or naval policy and only rudimentary systems of maritimelaw. In the past, a remarkable English seaman, Thomas Stucley from Devon,with ambitions to become a power in Ireland, was the first person to realize thestrategic importance of Ireland. He presented Philip II of Spain with detailedideas on the subject of Waterford as an ideal base for Spain to seize to exercisepermanent strategic pressure on England. After Philip ignored the advice, Stucleyfell out with the government in London and offered his services to Spain. OnlyHugh O'Neill, leader in the last phase of resistance to the English invasion,understood the need to create an Irish state with a navy and merchant ships atits disposal.

Very few leaders of the numerous movements that arose in Ireland in thecenturies after 1607 showed serious interest in the economic potential ofIreland's geographical situation, if it attained freedom, or in the end, was givenindependence, in some kind of naval defence forces, nor, indeed, in considera-tion of means, during a struggle for independence, to try to cope with the factthat the struggle was against the leading sea power in the world. In the final andsuccessful phase of the independence struggle, only one leader, Arthur Griffith,

had thought profoundly about the importance of the sea to an independentIreland, and he died within a few months of the establishment of the new state.

Yet, throughout the centuries of English occupation and despite the imposi-tion of restrictions, particularly on the development of the fisheries, an Irishmaritime economy continued to function, given a particular boost by the arrivalof maritime Protestant refugees from France in the late seventeenth andeighteenth centuries. Thousands of Irishmen served in the British Navy (probab-ly 15 percent of its personnel were Irish over a long period) and in the merchantnavy. Shipbuilding flourished in Ireland and hundreds of Irishmen distinguishedthemselves at sea in the navies of France, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands,Austria—Hungary and in at least ten countries on the American continent, Northand South.

The state that was set up in 1922 introduced no legislation establishing anIrish merchant fleet; therefore, merchant ships registered in Irish ports continuedto fly the British ensign until such legislation in September 1939, and no attemptwas made to create a coast defence navy until August of that year.

Maritime history was ignored in the schools and in the universities to thepoint where, thirty years ago, the head of Ireland's oldest university, a historian,wrote publicly that Ireland had no maritime history or traditions. In the 1930s,with the likelihood of a world war growing closer, isolated individuals, all ofwhom were later to become active in the Maritime Institute of Ireland set upin 1941 to crusade for the creation of a strong Irish maritime economy and forthe revival of Ireland's great maritime tradition, spoke out about the need tooperate an Irish merchant navy and coast guard fleet and to revive the almostdefunct fishing fleet. When, ten years ago, the Department of Defence archiveswere opened to the public, I was immediately shown a detailed document,marked Top Secret and evidently left to smoulder quietly in a pigeon hole forhalf a century, in which two officers of the Irish Army, on instructions from theChief of Staff, demonstrated clearly what sort of coastal defence navy would besuitable for Ireland. They then reasoned that the provision of such a navy wouldbe of little ultimate value unless a merchant navy and a revived fishing fleet alsobecame part of policy. This document had never before seen the light of daynor awoken the smallest echo in political circles.

The 1939—45 war led to the improvisation of a navy, the establishment of anIrish merchant fleet, and the revival of the fishing fleet, though that did not reallystart to grow until 1962. Since then it has increased quite phenomenally in sizeand catching capacity in spite of a variety of problems associated with theover-fishing of Irish waters and the slow growth of the essential research work.

1 See for example, John de Courcy Ireland, "The Confederate States Navy 1861-1865: The IrishContribution," Mariner's Mirror, 66 (August 1980), pp. 259—63 and "Irish Naval Connections in Brestin the Eighteenth and Ninteenth Centuries," Irish Sword, 17 (Summer 1987), pp. 57-60.

From its foundation, the Maritime Institute of Ireland, an independentnon-official body, has conceived the teaching of maritime history—general oreven Irish—to be one of its absolute priorities. It runs regular lectures andoccasional conferences on maritime historical topics, provides lectures for anyorganization, society, or college that requests one; has published books andpamphlets on both maritime history and actualities; and has since 1946 (thoughwith a break of several years in the late 1960s) published, under different titles,a journal, at first monthly, now quarterly, containing maritime historicalinformation as well as information on maritime activities. The Institute has beenable to interest the official radio—television station and several local radio stationsin transmitting maritime historical material quite regularly. It has encouragedprimary and secondary schools to allow students to specialize on maritime topics,although it has not yet persuaded the state educational authorities to recognizemaritime history as a subject. The Institute has helped undergraduate andgraduate students at Irish universities and at foreign ones, allowing them tochoose maritime topics for degree theses, and it has enabled the Free Universityof Ireland, set up in Dublin in 1986, to offer annually a course in maritimehistory. Each of the country's local history societies is invited to study its ownlocal maritime history and to invite a lecturer from the Institute. The Institutehelped to found the Military History Society of Ireland in 1949 and has providedlecturers for its annual October-March lecture programme. Institute membershave contributed frequently to its prestigious twice-a-year journal, The IrishSword. In 1959 the Institute founded (and operates through volunteers as withall its other work) the non-state subsidized National Maritime Museum ofIreland, which presents a series of lessons on Irish and general maritime and navalhistory. Schools and learned societies that visit the museum are provided with aguide competent in maritime history.

The museum is affiliated with the International Congress of MaritimeMuseums and is represented at its triennial conferences. Members of the Instituteform the Irish section of the International Conference of Maritime Historiansand have provided papers at its conferences, which began in 1975 and are heldevery five years, as well as at conferences organized by the French and Britishsections. The Institute has helped in the last five years to persuade the universitiesat Cork, Limerick, and Belfast in Northern Ireland to consider seriously theintroduction, in the next few years, of courses on maritime studies, includingmaritime history. It has also assisted in the establishment of a local maritimehistorical research center for Northwestern Ireland at Derry, Northern Ireland.The Institute can also take some credit for the fact that, whereas between 1948and 1981 only one maritime book was published in Ireland, now three or four

The Maritime Institute of Ireland, B. Donnelly, Hon. Sec, Haigh Terrace, Dun Laoghaire, Co.Dublin, Republic of Ireland.The Irish Maritime Journal.

166     Ireland

are published annually. Ten books on maritime history published in Ireland inthe last twelve years were either written or edited by Institute members.

Outside of the Institute, whose members are all volunteers, Irish maritimehistory is taught to the cadets at the maritime division of Cork RegionalTechnical College (formerly the Irish Nautical College) by Captain Brunicardi,a staff member who has also written a history of the Irish Naval Service andwhose father, Commander Brunicardi, has written and lectured locally in WestCork on local maritime history.

The officers of the Naval Service receive rather elementary education in thehistory of their service and some very sketchy international naval and maritimehistory as part of their training. Occasional arrangements are made for officers,cadets, or seamen to attend lectures by Captain Brunicardi; but, apparently,unless they do courses abroad (at which some have excelled) Irish naval officersare not adequately educated about naval history.

Other than the Institute and its members on the Free University staff, noacademics in Ireland teach these subjects, though some good economic historiansdo deal with aspects of maritime history inevitably (and quite well), and movesare being made for the academics who run the archives at Cork to startpropagating maritime history based thereon. Some fishery history is taught atthe fine Fisheries Training College, Greencastle, County Donegal.

There is no coordination of Irish maritime studies. The innate and more orless unconscious anti-British bias with which history is generally approached inIreland tends to be nullified by the fact that outside the Institute maritime historyis dealt with in English and from British sources. The periods least covered areprobably the medieval, eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Mosthelp is needed in the post-medieval field in getting at the vast amount of archivalmaterial which we know to be available in the National, Cork city, and NorthernIreland archives, and in archives abroad (e.g., France, Britain, Portugal, Spain,the United States and the Netherlands), where Institute members have identifiedmaterial and done much preliminary work on it. The gulf between naval andgeneral maritime history is not great as presented in Ireland, and it should bepossible to prevent its swelling when the study of maritime history in Irelandbecomes better organized and less elementary.

A very recent and very welcome development was the Argentine Navy'sinvitation to the Irish Naval Service to send one of its most promising youngIrish officers on a training cruise in the famous Argentine naval sail-training ship,

Among recent works, see for example, John de Courcy Ireland, Ireland and the Irish in Maritime History(Dun Laoghaire: Glendale Press, 1986) and Ireland's Sea Fisheries: A History (Dublin: Glendale Press,1989); Nicholas Rossiter, Wexford Port: A History (Wexford: Wexford Council of Trade Unions, 1989).

A History of the Irish Naval Service (Haulbowline: Naval Base, 1989), 10 pages.

For example, Niall Brunicardi, Haulbowline, Spike and Rocky Islands in Cork Harbour (Fermoy, n.d.).

See Thomas A. Adams, Irish Naval Service (Kendal, Cumbria: World Ship Society, 1982).

de Courcy Ireland     167

the Libertad. The invitation followed, but may not have been inspired by, a longlecture tour in the autumn of 1993 by the Maritime Institute's research officer,author of the soon-to-be published first English-language biography of theIrishman, William Brown (1777—1857), founder of the Argentine Navy. In1922, Argentina was the first country to recognize the separate Irish state. IrishNaval Service officers have been trained in Britain, but it is hoped that this firstserious contact with another naval tradition may become permanent.Meanwhile, the Irish Navy's ships are kept busy protecting, with their insuffi-cient numbers, Irish and European fishery zones from frequent intruders, variedfrom time to time with a visit abroad, notably to revictual Irish military units onpeace-keeping duty in the eastern Mediterranean basin.

ISIsrael

Meir Sas, Nadav Kashtan, and Sarah Arenson

Geographical and historical factors give Israel an important role to play inthe contacts between the two seafaring systems, the Red Sea and IndianOcean on the one hand, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean on theother. Since the days of King Solomon and his maritime expeditions in theSouth seas, through the maritime exploits of the Hasmonean Kings and Herod'sCaesarea Maritima, to the tragedy of the Great Jewish Revolt against Rome,there was a sound link between the land, the people, and the sea.

After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Talmud and other literarysources point out the continuity of Jewish maritime activity in the diaspora. Allthrough the Middle Ages, and especially under Charlemagne, the Jews carriedon a vast maritime, commercial network. They shared in the development ofastronomy and cartography prior to the period of the great discoveries, foughtSpain along with the Barbary corsairs, and were among the first settlers in theNew World.

The rise of the Jewish national movement at the end of the nineteenth centurychanged radically the situation of the Jewish people. Nevertheless, agriculturetook the lead at first, and there was no awareness of the sea until the 1930s.During those years, the first attempts were made to train Jewish mariners atRiga in Latvia and Civitavecchia in Italy. These first attempts were supersededby the Haifa Nautical School of Technology, which later moved to Acre tobecome the still active Israel Nautical College. In 1936 a new port was built inTel Aviv, due to the Arab Revolt and the difficulties in using the ports of Jaffaand Haifa.

The British Mandate on the land of Israel (1918—1948) put severe restrictionson Jewish immigration. During those years, especially in the last four years ofBritish rule, illegal immigration by sea, which had already started in the 1930s,took on growing proportions. There are many written works that deal with thisperiod, offering general descriptions and monographs of particular ships and

The first portion of this essay is by Dr. Meir Sas of the Israeli Nautical College, Acre. Dr. Sas passedaway on 26 July 1993. His two coauthors dedicate this chapter to his memory.

J. Halperin wrote about his experience in his book in Hebrew, The Renaissance of Jewish Seamanship(Tel-Aviv: Hadar, 1962).

actions, but due to the authors' general ignorance of conditions at sea, they donot contribute much to the analysis of Jewish, illegal, maritime immigration asa historical phenomenon during this period.

In those years, the prevalent opinion was to strengthen the maritime inclina-tion of the people through the study and revival of old traditions. The firsthistorical essay was by R. Patai and dealt with Biblical and Talmudic times, 700B.C. to A.D. 700. N. Slouschaz wrote another historical study, centering aroundCarthage and the Phenico-Punic achievement, and S. Tolkowsky wrote ageneral history of Jewish involvement in naval affairs.

Since the moment that the State of Israel was declared on 15 May 1948, itstarted fighting for its existence. The same vessels that had served the immigrantswere converted to form the nucleus of the new marine corps of the IsraelDefence Forces. The role of the Navy in the Israel War of Independence wassummed up by E. Tal in the best work on any of the Israeli Defence Forces'naval operations, which, since then, have been covered only by journalistic essaysin various Hebrew language military and naval magazines. The Encyclopedia ofArmy and Security has published one volume dedicated to the Navy, but it consistsmainly of pictures accompanied by a short text.

Meir Sas has published many short articles on the history of seafaring andnaval affairs, including translations from the classics such as A.T. Mahan's TheInfluence of Sea Power upon History. He has also written a monograph on the history

Q

of Acre. As there are no textbooks in Hebrew for the general history of seafaringand sea power, Dr. Sas has compiled several textbooks for high school and navalcollege students.

Z. Herman is another prolific writer of maritime themes in Hebrew* Most

1 oof his books deal with the ancient world,    but he has dealt also with modern

11.Jewish commercial shipping.    His most recent book deals with the history and

1 ochallenge of oceanography.

R. Patai, JeuHsh Seafaring in Ancient Times, a Contribution to the History of Palestinian Culture (Jerusalem:Mass, 1938) in Hebrew.

4 N. Slouschaz, The Book of the Sea (Tel Aviv: 1948) in Hebrew.

5 S. Tolkowsky, They Took to the Sea (New York: Yoseloff, 1964).

E. Tal, Naval Operations in the Israeli War of Independence (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence Publications,1964) in Hebrew.

7

Zahal Beheilo (Tel Aviv: Revivim, 1982) in Hebrew.

Q

Meir Sas, Maritime Acre (Acre: Israel Nautical'College, 1981) in Hebrew.

Meir Sas, The Book of the Sea (Haifa: Renaissance, 1970) and Oars and Sails Qerusalem: Ministry ofEducation, 1973). His most recent book is Seapower through the Ages (Jerusalem: Ministry of DefencePublications, 1991) in Hebrew.

For example, Z. Herman, Man and the Sea (Haifa, 1979); People, Seas and Ships (Tel Aviv: Massada,1964) and Carthage, A Maritime Empire (Tel Aviv: Massada, 1963) in Hebrew.

Z. Herman, History of Hebrew Shipping (Tel Aviv: 1978) in Hebrew.12  Z. Herman, The Depth of the Sea (Haifa: 1985) in Hebrew.

The Academy of the Hebrew Language has summarized the professional,

1 %linguistic innovations that maritime activity has brought to Hebrew.

Haifa University Center for Maritime Studies

The Leon Recanti Center for Maritime Studies at the University of Haifawas established in 1972. Guided by an interdisciplinary concept, the centerconducts and promotes research projects which encompass man's activitiesrelating to the sea, bringing to light what was known in the past, man'sinvolvement in the present, and what man can accomplish by using the sea inthe future. By combining disciplines, such as history, archaeology, earth sciences,and marine resources, the Center has found a way of bridging betweenhumanities, sciences, and technology. This is reflected in the graduate programof the Department of Maritime Civilizations, initiated by the Center forMaritime Studies in the framework of the Faculty of Humanities.

The Department of Maritime Civilizations offers courses that aim to broadenand deepen the historical, archaeological and geographical knowledge of cul-tures, people, countries, and coastal settlements whose history and developmentwere or are affected by the sea. Emphasis is placed on maritime activities andinterrelations in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. These courses includesubjects such as: history of naval power, coastal and marine archaeology,development of ships in antiquity, navigation and seamanship, ancient harbors,marine ecology and geology.

The National Maritime Museum in Haifa

Founded forty years ago, the National Maritime Museum in Haifa, Israelcelebrated the twentieth anniversary of the opening of its current, 1972 pur-pose—built facility. The Museum grew out of the significant personal collectionof Arie L. Ben—Eli, who at the time in 1953 was a lieutenant commander in theIsraeli Navy. By the end of the following year, the museum had been turnedover to the Haifa Municipality with the full support of the Israel MaritimeLeague. Its first premises were on one floor of the League's building near theport of Haifa. Arie L. Ben—Eli became its first Director.

Soon a familiar pattern emerged. As the collections grew, the facility becameovercrowded, while interest and demand grew for a proper museum buildingthat could do justice to the museum's programs. This was finally built and openedin 1972. Named the National Maritime Museum, Haifa, the new museum aimedat establishing itself as the major maritime museum in Israel. It has achieved itsgoal, while attracting substantial donors along the way.

Dictionary of Maritime Terms, Hebreiv-English—French—German (Jerusalem: The Academy of theHebrew Language, 1970).

The following section is by Dr. Nadav Kashtan, Director, of the National Maritime Museum, Haifa.

The overall theme of the museum is the "History of Seafaring," which ispresented in two complementary ways: chronologically and through the il-lumination of specific themes. The chronological approach has four mainperiods: ancient seafaring, seafaring in the Middle Ages, modern seafaring, andpresent—day shipping. This history is richly illustrated by artifacts acquired bythe museum or donated by collectors. Objects which are relevant to ancient andmedieval seafaring have come primarily from underwater archaeological activity.These artifacts include anchors, storage jars, statuettes, terra-cotta oil lamps, andancient coins. An important core of the museum's collection is a large numberof ship models. Sub-themes have also been developed which include: geography,including discoveries and cartography; economics, including maritime trade,types of ships and cargoes; science and engineering, including warships and navalbattles; and art and culture, including the development of coastal cities and portsalong with the relationships between peoples.

The museum has produced a number of temporary exhibits that have travelledwithin Israel and abroad. A wide range of educational programs are offered, anda university course on the "Maritime History of Israel in Antiquity" is held incooperation with Haifa University. The first two Directors, Arie Ben—Eli andJoseph Ringel, created an active publication program and produced severalmonographs, but most important of all is the scholarly journal Sefunim, ofwhich eight volumes have been published since 1966.

The museum has a research library of over 5,500 volumes and subscribes toa number of periodicals. Over 190 periodical titles are represented in thecollection.

The current director's goals are to maintain the museum's excellent standingamong the world's maritime museums and to continue the development andexpansion of its collections and programs. Construction of a new floor ofexhibition space is planned. The museum also needs to strengthen its financesand to introduce environmental controls in the entire building.

Maritime Research and Activity in Israel

The following is a list of marine-related institutions and activity centers inIsrael:

The National Maritime Museum in Haifa exhibits ancient seafaring fromPharaonic times to the end of the Middle Ages and modern shipping. Specialitems include The Athlit ram, Jewish ship graffiti,  anchors and amphoras

A. Ben-Eli, ed., Ships and Parts of Ships on Ancient Coins (Haifa: National Maritime Museum, 1975);A. Zemer, Storage Jars in Ancient Sea Trade (Haifa: National Maritime Museum, 1977); D. Avrahami,Eskimo and N. W. Indian Art at the Maritime Museum, Haifa (Haifa: National Maritime Museum, 1979);and J. Ringel, Marine Motifs on Ancient Coins (Haifa: National Maritime Museum, 1984).

The following section was compiled by Mrs. Sarah Arenson, Director of the Man and Sea Society,Israel.

Sas, Kashtan and Arenson     173

discovered by marine archaeology, Greek Fire containers, figurines of sea-god-desses, and coins with marine symbols. The museum has a fine collection of oldmaps of the Holy Land and its shores, as well as rare nautical instruments.

The Museum of Illegal Immigration, also in Haifa and adjacent to the NationalMaritime Museum, is concerned with Jewish seaborne immigration to Israel,mostly between the Second World War and the establishment of the State ofIsrael.

The National Oceanographic and Limnological Institute in Haifa conductsbasic and applied research, mainly in marine geology, biology, and chemistry.It cooperates in international projects such as MAP and other regional plansconcerned with marine resources and pollution. It has a branch on the Lake ofGalilee and another on the Red Sea, in Eilat. Its publications include annualconference reports and special issues in English.

The Fisheries Research Institute is centered in Haifa, as well, and conductsfield research projects in the Eastern Mediterranean and brackish waters alongthe coast. The Ministry of Agriculture has a central research institute, Vulcani,which is also involved with fishing experimentation. Its publications are inHebrew.

The Research Institute of Shipping and Aviation is concerned with theplanning of ports, the economics of shipping, the welfare of seamen, and weatherproblems. It is located at Haifa University. Its publications are mostly in Englishwith a few in Hebrew.

Zim Shipping company has its own research unit located in Haifa andpublishes its work in Hebrew.

The Technion, Israel Technological Institute, has a naval engineeringlaboratory, which conducts research in port engineering and the architecture ofships. Its reports are published mostly in English.

The Hyperbaric Medicine Institute (M.R.I) is affiliated with the Navy andsituated at the Rambam Hospital in Haifa. It does both basic and applied researchin all aspects of physiology and medicine related to the sea, on the surface andunderwater, and treats both civil and military cases. Its publications are in English.

The Center for Maritime Studies at Haifa University is occupied withacademic and applied research in all fields concerned with man and sea relations,such as marine archaeology, marine biology, and oceanography. There is also aDepartment for the History of Maritime Civilizations, granting the master'sdegree. Publications in English and Hebrew.

Marine Biology Department at Tel Aviv University is academically active and,together with several other universities in the country, maintains a laboratory inEilat. Its publications are in English and Hebrew.

The Center for Strategic Research is affiliated with Tel Aviv University and isinvolved also with naval affairs. Its publications are in Hebrew and English.

174    Israel

The Israeli Defence Forces Navy has an academic historical branch whichconducts historical and practical research in naval affairs. Its publications aremostly in Hebrew and with restricted circulation.

In Jerusalem, the government Geological Institute has a marine section, whichconducts surveys in all Israeli waters.

The Antiquities Authority has a marine section, situated at present in KibbutzNeve-Yam, South of Haifa. It is concerned with guarding the coasts againstdamage to the cultural heritage and conducts surveys and salvage excavations asnecessary. Its publications are in Hebrew and English.

The Society for the Preservation of Nature in Israel (SPNI) has a network offield-schools, several of which are marine related, such as the ones at Akhziv,Maagan-Michael, and Eilat, as well as Kinrot and Yarkon. It publishes Eretzmagazine, in English.

The Man and Sea Society of Israel is concerned with educationalprograms for the youth and the wider public. It has initiated a major TV series,"The Encircled Sea: Mediterranean Maritime Civilization," a British-Israelijoint venture production. Among other projects, there is an innovative high-school program of maritime studies and a summer course, "A Maritime Ex-perience in Israel."

16Twentieth Century Italy

Brian R. Sullivan

An understanding of the present state of Italian naval and maritime historybenefits from a review of the context in which such history has been andis being researched and written. Perhaps most useful for American readers in thisregard are some relevant comparisons between Italy and the United States. Suchcomparisons involve both material and non-material factors.

Perhaps the most significant physical factors involve considerable differencesin scale between the United States and Italy. Italy is considerably smaller in termsof territory and population than the United States. Furthermore, their nationalincome makes contemporary Italians somewhat less wealthy on a per capitaaverage than Americans. More relevant is the fact that, while the gap betweenaverage individual incomes in the United States and Italy has narrowed consid-erably in the last twenty years, previously, Americans enjoyed a far higherstandard of living, particularly before 1960. Certainly the differences betweenItalian and American national geography are likely to remain permanent. TheRepublic of Italy covers 301,000 square kilometers, with a coastline of about5,000 kilometers long, entirely within the Mediterranean; the territory of theUnited States is over thirty-one times larger and includes a coastline of almost20,000 kilometers on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans and the Gulf ofMexico. In mid-1993, the Italian population reached 58 million, while that ofthe United States rose to nearly 257 million. In 1991, the American grossdomestic product was $5,695 trillion, Italian GDP for that year was about $1.099trillion. The Italian merchant marine numbers about 1,600 vessels of some 8million gross tons, while that of the United States counts over 6,300 vessels ofnearly 20 million gross tons.

But ratios in favor of the United States are even more imbalanced when naviesare compared. Proportionately, the United States has far outspent Italy ondefense, even when differences in size of populations and economies are takeninto consideration. The following table compares American outlays on defense

1 Central Intelligence Agency, Tlte World Fact Book 1992 (Washington: 1992), pp. 167-69, 358-60;International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics August 1993 (Washington: 1993), pp. 304,556.

with Italian defense budgets in the 1985 to 1991 period, each expressed in billionsof dollars.

Year Italy United States

1985 8.6 245.2

1986 9.8 265.5

1987 13.4 274.0

1988 16.1 282.0

1989 16.7 294.9

1990 19.6 289.8

1991 19.7 262.4

Even with the marked decrease in American defense spending and thedoubling of Italian defense spending over the past decade, the Italian governmentexpends far less per capita on its armed forces than does the American govern-ment. At present, Americans spend about 5.7 percent of their GNP on defense,Italians about 2.2 percent. These disparities are reflected in the different sizesof the two national navies.

In mid-1993, the United States Navy numbered about 515,000 and the U.S.Marine Corps about 180,000, for a total of roughly 695,000 men and women.In comparison, the Italian Navy and Marine Corps comprised some 54,500personnel. True, the U.S. Navy is expected to decline from its present strengthof 452 ships to about 340 by 1999; the Italian Navy is expected to retain itspresent strength, thanks to a healthy building and replacement program. How-ever, this will maintain the Italian Navy at only about 60 major warships andsupport vessels. In addition, the U.S. Navy not only vastly outweighs the ItalianNavy in numbers of warships but in size of warships. At present, the U.S. Navyhas 23 ships of over 39,000 tons full-load displacement in commission, comparedto just two ships of over 9,000 tons in the Italian Navy. Even with the comingdecommissioning of a number of the largest American warships and the

construction of a second Italian light aircraft carrier and several large destroyers,

•i

these differences in scale between the two navies will remain indefinitely.

A glance at the history of the American and Italian navies emphasizes thesmaller and less prominent role of the latter in its nation's development. TheUnited States came into existence in 1776 and fought ten major wars over thenext 215 years. Its navy took a significant part in every conflict and had a majorrole in at least seven. Perhaps more important, the American Navy establisheda highly favorable reputation during the first decades of its existence, as a resultof its actions during the Revolution, the Quasi-War with France, the navalcampaign against the Barbary Pirates and, most of all, the War of 1812. The

2 The International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 1986-87 (London: 1986), p.70; ibid.: 1987-88, p. 68; ibid.: 1988-89, p. 69; ibid.: 1989-90, p. 67; ibid.: 1990-91, p. 71; ibid.:1991-92, p. 63; ibid.: 1992-93, pp. 17, 49; The World Factbook 1992, pp. 169, 360.

3 Richard Sharpe, ed., Jane's Fighting Ships 1993-94 (London: 1993), pp. 321-40, 753-802.

exploits of Paul Jones, Biddle, Barry, Truxton, Preble, Bainbridge, Decatur,Hull, Lawrence, Stewart, Perry, and Macdonough and their sailors helped createthe worshipful attitude of the American people toward their navy that hassustained its popularity ever since. Equally important for maintaining interest inand support for the U.S. Navy were American naval actions after the earlynineteenth century, especially during the Civil War, the Spanish American Warand, of course, the Second World War. Such successful campaigns haveencouraged a strong interest in American naval history among both the generalpublic and the scholarly community.

The Italian naval tradition offers a rather stark contrast. Following its unifica-tion in 1861, Italy engaged in seven major wars in which six involved navalactivity but only four in a major way. In contrast with the history of the U.S.Navy, the early decades of the Italian Navy proved extremely difficult. Its firstwar in 1866, the short mid-summer conflict with Austria, ended in the disastrousItalian naval defeat at Lissa, marred by the incompetence of the Italian com-mander, Admiral Carlo Persano, and the treachery and cowardice of hissubordinates, Admirals Giovanni Battista Albini and Giovanni Vacca. There-after, the Italian Navy experienced no significant wartime action until 1911,although draining its impoverished nation of significant resources to littlepractical end until the turn of the century. While the subsequent history of theItalian Navy offers numerous examples of heroism, Italy's only major victoriousnaval conflict came to an end in 1918, and its last serious naval conflict endedin humiliation in September 1943 with the surrender of its battle fleet. At themoment of its capitulation in World War II, the Italian Navy enjoyed its all-timemaximum size: 259,000 officers and men. In contrast, the United States Navyreached a maximum strength of 3.4 million in 1944—45, joined with a U.S.Marine Corps of 475,000.5

These facts help explain Italian political and psychological attitudes towardtheir navy and merchant marine, as well as the limited degree of general Italianinterest in the history of these institutions. In brief, Italians have shown andcontinue to exhibit far less fascination with their naval and maritime history thando Americans with their own. But the major negative influence on the Italianattitude in these regards—indeed on the Italian attitude toward almost all publicinstitutions—comes from widespread perceptions of the defunct monarchy andof the Fascist regime, culminating in the disasters of 1940—45. Such attitudes

The Italian Navy engaged in considerable action in the Italian-Turkish War of 1911-12; WorldWar I, 1915-18; Italian intervention in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-39; World War II, 1940-43 (aswell as providing some naval assistance to the Allies in 1943—45). The Italian Navy fought one losingbattle in the war of 1866 with Austria and provided major naval support in the Italian-Ethiopian Warof 1935-36, without engaging in hostilities.

For a survey of Italian naval history, see the relevant portions of Lucio Ceva, Leforze annate (Turin:1981).

have created additional obstacles to the pursuit of naval and maritime history inItaly.

Throughout the first eighty-odd years of Italian unification, despite severenational poverty, the state spent very heavily on its armed forces. Well into thetwentieth century, the House of Savoy and the ministers who served it reliedon the army to hold together a kingdom whose subjects felt little sense ofnationalism. In turn, the royalist officer corps was expected not only to provideinternal security but to enhance the prestige of the monarchy and the weak senseof Italian nationalism by waging expansionist wars. In the mid—1880s, with theenthusiastic support of the monarchy, Italy founded an African empire and begana series of foreign wars that were to last until 1943. Naturally, the establishmentof an overseas empire stimulated the expansion of the Italian Navy. In the 1860s,spending on the Navy amounted to only 22 percent of spending on the Army.By the 1890s, following the creation of the Italian colonial empire, thatpercentage had expanded to 39 percent. In the first decade of the twentiethcentury, thanks to a surge in national industrialization and wealth, spending onthe Italian Navy rose to 51 percent of military spending. It remained on roughlythat level until the Second World War.

As much as such oppressive military and naval spending burdened the subjectsof the Kingdom of Italy, it could be justified to some degree by Italian successesin the Italian-Turkish War of 1911—12 and, especially, the First World War. Butthe arms spending of the Fascist dictatorship from the mid—twenties onwardreached unprecedented levels, crushing the ordinary Italian under an array ofever—mounting direct and indirect taxes. Simultaneously, Italians were bom-barded by hysterical militarist and navalist propaganda in support of suchspending. Such propaganda efforts included considerable official support forhighly subjective naval historical publications and navalist sloganeering at everylevel of the Italian school system. The argument of national prestige was alsoenlisted in support of the expansion of the Italian merchant marine, devastatedby submarine warfare in the Great War, and the construction of such gianttrans-Atlantic ocean liners as Rex and Conte di Savoia.

The monarchy maintained an attitude of reserve toward some aspects of theFascist regime and, as a means of self-protection, remained closely associatedwith the highly royalist officer corps. But the approval of the naval officer corpsfor the Fascist regime's large program of naval and maritime construction andthe bestowal of many monarchist names on the Italian vessels built in the 1920sand 1930s necessarily linked the House of Savoy with Mussolini's navy in thepublic mind.

For statistics on Italian naval spending, see Giorgio Rochat and Giulio Massobrio, Breve storiadell'esercito italiano dal 1861 al 1943 (Turin: 1978). Despite its title, the book deals with all the Italianarmed forces.

By 1940, the Fascist dictatorship had constructed a navy roughly the samesize as the French Navy but—due to autarkist economic policies and officially-tolerated corruption—at about twice the expense it should have cost, in acountry of approximately half the wealth of France. When these sacrifices werefollowed by the humiliating Italian naval defeats of 1940-41, the loss of thecolonial empire, the destruction of most of the merchant marine, the surrenderof the battle fleet to the British in September 1943 and the ruinous war foughtup the length of the Italian peninsula in 1943—45, it is no wonder that the Italiansabolished their monarchy in 1946 and rejected with disgust the legacies of theFascist era. Among that baggage was excessive navalism and heavy official supportfor naval and maritime history. Such attitudes continued to affect very negativelythe study of those areas of Italian history for the next several decades. The factthat in the generation after 1945 a certain number of historians who could bedescribed as ex-Fascist or neo-Fascist continued to work in the fields of militaryand naval history made it difficult for others to write on those subjects and tobe judged objectively.

The end of the Cold War, Italy's rise to third in rank among the Europeaneconomies, and the simultaneous earthquake shaking the Italian political systemmarks the end of what may be called the post-Fascist period of Italian history.While it is too soon to state with certainty, a greater degree of Italian nationalassertiveness and of Italian willingness to deploy armed force abroad will probablybecome evident over the next few decades. In fact, such tendencies have beendiscernible for the past ten years or so and have stimulated a growing interest inItalian naval and maritime history. The study of such history, long tainted byits unfortunate association with the Fascist regime, has already begun a modestrevival since the 1970s. Nonetheless, while these areas of Italian history willalmost certainly benefit from growing official and public support in the future,the present state of their study is hardly robust.

For a detailed examination of aspects of corruption in the naval shipbuilding industry under theFascist regime, see Lucio Ceva and Andrea Curami, Industria bellica anni trenta. Commesse militari, I'Ansaldoedaltri (Milan: 1992).

For an appraisal of the influence of domestic politics on Italian historiography since 1945, see chapter6, "The eclipse of anti-Fascism in Italy," ofR.J.B. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima. HistoryWriting and the Second World War 1945-1990 (London & New York, 1993).

One recent example of increased national pride in naval accomplishments is the renaming of twoItalian destroyers, completed in 1992—93. The names originally to be given to these ships were Animosoand Ardimentoso. Before commissioning, however, they were renamed Luigi Durand de la Penne andFrancesco Mimbelli.

Durand de la Penne was the commander of the two-man guided torpedo that sank HMS Valiant inAlexandria harbor in December 1941. Mimbelli commanded the torpedo boat Lupo, which engagedthree British light cruisers at point-blank range and escaped while escorting a German troop convoy toCrete in May 1941. Mimbelli later led motor torpedo boat flotillas in many legendary actions in theBlack Sea and off Sicily against Soviet and British forces. See Marc'Antonio Bragadin, The Italian Navyin World War II (Annapolis: 1957), pp. 108-9, 269, 278, 284-6, 301; Callum MacDonald, The LostBattle: Crete 1941 (New York: 1993), pp. 237-42; Jane's Fighting Ships 1993-94, p. 326.

Within the Italian university system, the teaching of naval and maritimehistory has been limited recently to only two schools, the Universities of Pisaand Rome, and to two scholars, the highly respected Mariano Gabriele and hisstudent, Alberto Santoni. For many years earlier in this century, the Universityof Rome had a chair in naval history and policy, held by the illustrious experton World War I at sea, Camillo Manfroni. After the Second World War,Manfroni was effectively succeeded by Gabriele. However, since Gabriele wasand remains a civil servant in the Ministry of Finance, he has been forbiddenunder Italian law from being an official professor at the University of Rome andhas been only an incaricato (adjunct). Since such a position within the Italianuniversity system has been abolished recently, it is now legally impossible forGabriele to go on teaching at the University of Rome. Barring the unexpected,when Santoni eventually retires from the University of Pisa, the teaching of navaland maritime history may well cease there. In fact, officially, Santoni holds achair in military history and technology and will probably be succeeded by ascholar of land warfare.

The situation within the Italian Navy educational system is slightly better.The Italian Naval Academy at Livorno offers a three-year course in naval historyand policy taught by Commander Pier Paolo Raimono. In effect, Raimono hasattempted to carry on the work initiated by Camillo Manfroni at the Universityof Rome. In this effort Raimono collaborates closely with Alberto Santoni, aidedby the proximity of the Livorno Academy and the University of Pisa. Raimonois attempting to expand his course to four years. However, most of the subjectmatter covered by Raimono involves the naval and maritime history of othercountries, rather than of Italy.

The Istituto di Guerra Marittima, also located on the grounds of the ItalianNaval Academy, is roughly equivalent in purpose and functioning to the U.S.Naval War College. That is, the Istituto di Guerra Marittima offers both a juniorand senior course, corresponding to the command and staff college level and thewar college level. For these courses, Commander Raimono teaches a one-yearcourse in naval strategy and history, with somewhat greater emphasis on Italianmatters than is the case for his courses at the Naval Academy. However, thestress on the above-mentioned course at the Istituto di Guerra Marittima is onnaval strategy, rather than history. Raimono has succeeded in getting a numberof prominent Italian military and naval historians to give guest lectures at theItalian Naval War College and to expand the teaching of Italian naval historythere. However, given the politically sensitive nature of many aspects of of Italiannaval history, Raimono has encountered difficulties. In fact, many of his students

Manfroni's most significant published works include La marina militate durante la guerra mondiale(Bologna: 1923); / nostri alleati nauali (Milan, 1927); Storia della Marina italiana durante la guerra mondiale1915-1918 (Bologna: 1933).

seem to have a greater knowledge of the naval history of Britain or the UnitedStates than of their own country.

The schools of the Italian Army and Air Force largely ignore naval history,whether that of Italy or of other nations. The two-year Italian Military Academyat Modena has abolished the teaching of the history of ground, sea, or air warfare.When the graduates of the academy at Modena pass on to the two-year Scuoladi Applicazione at Turin, they receive a one-year course in military history thatincludes a modest naval component. However, this is limited to such points asa passing mention of the battles of Trafalgar, Jutland, or Midway. The ItalianArmy War College (Scuola di Guerra) at Civitavecchia offers a one-year coursein military history. Naval history is covered by an annual conference withlectures by a few naval officers. Neither the Italian Air Force Academy nor theItalian Air War College offers any naval history whatsoever.

Italy has no equivalent of the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, although itdoes have a number of government high school-level vocational schools formariners. The University of Naples offers a program in maritime studies thatprovides roughly the type of education available in the United States from KingsPoint. However, in none of these schools is Italian maritime history taught,except for passing references.

In pleasant contrast to the state of the teaching of naval history is the status ofItalian Navy official history. Such history falls under the jurisdiction of theUfficio Storico della Marina Militare (USMM). The archives and publicationservice of the USMM are located in Rome, at present under the able directionof Admiral Renato Sicurezza.

The Navy historical archives are undoubtedly the best organized and mostaccessible of the three Italian services. They are devoted to the history of theItalian Navy since the amalgamation of the Sardinian and Neapolitan Navies in1861, obviously covering only the age of steam. Utilizing teams of professionalarchivists and historians, the USMM directorate is completely reorganizing thearchive and creating comprehensive finding aids as it progresses through its hugecollection of documents. The USMM staff is extremely knowledgeable and veryhelpful. Probably the only serious criticism that one can make of the USMMarchive is its lack of adequate photocopying services.

Two other archives in Rome also contain much material relevant to Italiannaval and maritime history. The Archivio Centrale dello Stato in the EURsuburb holds the records of the Naval Ministry, the Merchant Marine Ministry,and also the records of cabinet discussions that sometimes touched on navalmatters, Air Ministry records from the Fascist period that occasionally deal withrelations with the Navy, and records of the Fascist-era Ministry of Communica-tions that controlled ports and the merchant marine. The archives of the ForeignMinistry are located separately in the Foreign Ministry office and containdiplomatic records of naval and disarmament conferences. Both these archives

are quite well ordered and researchers can have access to good rinding aids.However, those using such archives must be prepared to deal with the frustratingpractices of the Italian bureaucracy, especially those of its lowliest members.

The publications of the USMM are generally well researched and of highquality, although they are devoted almost exclusively to technical and narrativequestions. The single most impressive of the USMM publications remains itsexcellent twenty-three-volume history of the Italian Navy in World War II, hamarina italiana nella Seconda Guerra Mondiale, published between 1950 and 1988(including revisions of earlier volumes). The value of this massive work lies inits objectivity, accuracy, thoroughness and honesty of self-appraisal. It stands instriking contrast to the Navy's eight-volume official history of World War I(published under the heavy hand of Fascist censorship in 1935—42), to the ItalianArmy's official history of its operations and activities in World War II—-theearlier volumes of which fall so short of historical objectivity that newer volumesare being produced to supercede the older—and to the Italian Air Force historicaleffort, which has never even issued an official history of the 1940—45 period thatit has been willing to publish.

Much of the credit for the success of the Italian Navy's official history ofWorld War II should go to Admiral Giuseppe Fioravanzo, the director of theUSMM at the time of its publication. Admiral Fioravanzo was himself the authorof a number of the twenty-three volumes and ensured the adherence of theentire project to the high standards that he laid down. Fioravanzo was ablyassisted in the project by its other authors, notably Carlo De Risio, Aldo Cocchia,and P.F. Lupinacci. It is a pleasure to note that Admiral Sicurezza has restoredthe USMM to that same high level of performance.

Admiral Sicurezza is also president of the Commissione Italiana di StoriaMilitare, which is in the process of publishing a series of volumes entitled L'ltaliain Guerra, on the history of Italy in the Second World War. These volumes, onefor each year of Italian participation in the conflict, are resulting from annualconferences that began to be held in 1990. Each volume explores topics ofconsiderable depth and breadth, going beyond the operations of the threeservices to include strategy, diplomacy, civil-military relations, propaganda,industrial production, weapons design and procurement, intelligence, logisticsand German-Italian relations.

It is to be hoped that such an approach to official history will be reflected infuture USMM publications in general. For too long even its best publicationshave been rather narrowly focussed. The USMM can be rightly proud ofGiovanni Bernardi's massive work, // disarmo navalefra le due guerre mondiali (1975)or Ezio Ferrante's short but excellent La grande guerra in Adriatico (1987).Nonetheless, both studies would have benefitted from a greater and more frank

For the records of the naval and merchant marine ministries, see Guida generate degli ArchitH di StatoItaliani (Rome: 1981), vol. 1, pp. 179-93.

analysis of related political and strategic questions. The naval historical office has

recently issued a long-awaited monograph on a previously taboo subject: Mario

Bargoni, L'impegno navale italiano durante la Guerra Civile Spagnola (1936—1939)

(1992). In many ways, Bargoni's book is admirable, offering the first complete

narrative of Italian naval operations in the Spanish Civil War, revealing many

previously unknown facts and offering a candid assessment of the Navy's tactical,

operational, and technical weaknesses. However, again there is a disappointing

lack of strategic and political discussion and a failure to place Italian naval

activities within the broader context of international naval,  military,  and

diplomatic developments.

One hopes for the appearance of USMM publications on the development of

Italian naval doctrine, strategic thinking, and warship design akin to such official

Italian Army publications  as  Filippo  Stefani,  La storia della dottrina e degli

ordinamenti delVesercito italiano (1984-85); Ferruccio Botti and Virgilio Ilari, II

pensiero militare italiano dalprimo al secondo dopoguerra (1985), and Lucio Ceva and

Andrea Curami, La meccanizzazione delVesercito fino al 1943 (1989). Mariano

Gabriele has produced such monographs for the USMM on the earlier years of

the Italian Navy: Le convenzioni navali della Triplice (1969) and in collaboration

with Giuliano Friz (Fritz): Lajlotta come strumento di politica nei primi decenni dello

stato unitario (1973), and La politica navale italiana dal 1885 al 1915 (1984). But

there is a serious scholarly need for similar studies on the period of World War

I, of Mussolini's expansion of the Italian Navy in the 1920s and 1930s, the naval

aspects of the Italian-German alliance, and the Italian Navy as part of NATO's

1 osouthern flank forces.

Of indisputable merit is the USMM's quarterly Bollettino d'Archivio dell UfficioStorico della Marina Militare, which has been published since 1987. Each 300 to400-page issue is divided into two sections. One describes a section of the USMMarchives and provides a detailed finding aid, the result of the ongoing reorganiza-tion and indexing project. (Eight recent issues provide a complete guide to thearchive's holdings related to the Spanish Civil War.) The other section of eachBollettino contains fine scholarly articles on various aspects of post-1861 Italiannaval history, often accompanied by complete documents.

Of related interest are the historical publications of the official Italian navaljournal, Rivista Marittima, which are produced under the overall direction ofAdmirals Vincenzo Pellegrino and Francesco Pascazio. Rivista Marittima itselfusually contains at least one historical article in each issue. However, such articlesare aimed at Italian naval officers in general and are not always of the same high

However, USMM has published Mariano Gabriele, Operazione C.3: Malta (1965) on the strategicand operational planning for the aborted Axis seizure of Malta in mid-1942. Also useful in regard toItalian Navy strategy in World War II is the Italian Army Historical Office publication of the transcriptsof the chiefs of staffs discussions during their 1939-43 meetings: Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito, UfficioStorico, Verbali delle riunioni tenute dal capo di SM Generate, 3 vols. (Rome: 1982-85).

scholarly quality as those that appear in the Bollettino. On the other hand, oneor more times a year, Rivista Marittima is accompanied by usually superb historicalsupplements in the same format as the journal. Among such supplements areEzio Ferrante's short but illuminating biography, // Grande Ammiraglio PaoloThaon di Revel (1989), his examination of all-too-neglected subjects, II poteremarittimo. Evoluzione ideologica in Italia, 1861—1939 (1982), and Ilpensiero strategiconavale in Italia (1988), and Erminio Bagnasco and Achille Rastelli's he costruzioninavali italiane per Vestero (1991).

Beyond official publications, a fair number of Italian books and articles onItalian naval history have appeared since 1945. Most are popular and only a fewscholarly; the majority, as might be expected, devoted to the Second World Warperiod. However, recently, publications devoted to naval and maritime historyprior to 1915 have appeared in increasing volume. Until the last twenty—fiveyears or so, the general quality of such works was not very high, with theexception of the studies and memoirs of Admirals Alberto Da Zara, VittorioTur, Romeo Bernotti, and Angelo Iachino, and the work of Mariano Gabriele.Recently, however, as one sign of the revival of Italian military and naval history,a number of good studies have been published. These include the books andarticles of the above-mentioned Alberto Santoni, Lucio Ceva, Andrea Curami,Ezio Ferrante, as well as Walter Polastro, Giorgio Giorgerini, Matteo Pizzigalloand Francesco Mattesini. Admittedly, some twenty or so Italians working inthe field is not many. In fact, as an indication of the number of Italians devoted

13 Alberto Da Zara, Pelle d'ammiraglio (Milan: 1949); Vittorio Tur, Plancia ammiraglia, 3 vols. (Rome:1958—63); Romeo Bernotti, Cinquant'anni nella marina militate (Milan: 1971); idem., Storia delta guerranel Mediterraneo 1940-43 (Milan: 1960); Angelo Iachino, La campagna navale di Lissa, 1866 (Milan: 1966);idem., Le due Sirti (Milan: 1953); idem., Gaudo eMatapan (Milan: 1946); idem., Hpuntosu Matapan (Milan,1969); idem., La sorpresa di Matapan (Milan, 1962); idem., Tramonto di una grande marina (Milan, 1959).In addition to Gabriele's works cited elsewhere in this article, noteworthy are his La politica navaleitaliana dall'Unith alia vigilia di Lissa (Milan: 1958) and Da Marsala alio stretto. Aspetti navali delle campagnedi Sicilia (Milan: 1961).

Among the more important publications of these authors not already cited are: Alberto Santoni, Uvero traditore. U ruolo documentato di ULTRA nella guerra del Mediterraneo (Milan: 1981); idem., La secondabattaglia delta Sirte (Rome: 1982); idem., Da Lissa alia Falkland: storia epolitica dell'eta contemporanea (Milan:1987); idem., "Strategia marittima ed operazioni navali dell'anno 1940" in L'ltalia in guerra, il primoanno—1940 (Rome: n.d. [but 1991]); Francesco Mattesini, H giallo di Matapan (Rome: 1985); idem.,La battaglia di Punto Stilo (Rome: 1990); Santoni and Mattesini, La participazione tedesca alia guerra aeronavalenel Mediterraneo (Rome: 1980); Lucio Ceva, "L'evoluzione dei materiali bellici in Italia" in Ennio DiNolfo, Romain Rainero and Brunello Vigezzi, eds., L'ltalia e la politica di potenza 1938—1940 (Milan:1985); Ezio Ferrante, "Un rischi calcolato? Mussolini e gli ammiragli nella gestione della crisi di Corfu"in Storia delle relazioni intemazionali, no. 2, 1989; idem., "L'ammiraglio Lais, Roosevelt e la 'beffa' dellenavi" in Storia delle relazioni intemazionali, no. 2, 1991; Walter Polastro "La marina militare nel primodopoguerra, 1918-1925" in II Risorgimento no. 3, 1977; Giorgio Giorgerini, La battaglia dei convogli inMediterraneo (Milan: 1977); idem., "La preparazione e la mobilitazione della Marina italiana nel giugno1940" in L'ltalia inguerra, il primo anno—1940 (Rome: n.d. [but 1991]); idem., "II problema dei convoglie la guerra per mare" in L'ltalia inguerra, ilsecondo anno—1941 (Gaeta, 1992); Matteo Pizzigallo, "L'ltaliaalia conferenza di Washington (1921-1922)" in Storia e Politica July-September and October-December1975.

to naval and maritime history of all kinds, the International Naval ResearchOrganization lists only about seventy—five Italian members.

However, one other group of Italians deserve to be mentioned as enthusiastsof Italian naval and maritime history: the Associazione Italiana di Documen-tazione Marittima e Navale (AIDMEN) and the Associazione NavemodellistiBolognesi. Together, these organizations number about 250 members and aredevoted to preserving photographs of ships and original builder's plans, buildingmodels, and publishing books and articles on ship designs. Prominent amongthese passionate experts are the famous Aldo Fraccaroli, as well as ErminioBagnasco, Giorgio Giorgerini, Augusto Nani, Franco Gay, Elio Ando, AchilleRastelli and Gino Galuppini, each of whom has written one or more books onmerchant or naval ship design, construction or armament. All these men haveaided USMM over the years in its superb publications devoted to the specifica-tions of Italian naval vessels and have authored many of them. Such workconstitutes more the raw material for naval and maritime history rather than theheart of such studies, but it deserves mention for the painstaking care that hasgone into its creation. Italian research and publication on ship design—perhapsreflecting Italian superiority in design of all kinds—is of particularly high quality.

Italian maritime history has been advanced by an extensive series of excellentpublications subsidized by the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI), thegovernment holding agency created by the Fascist regime in 1933, which stillplays a huge role in the Italian economy. IRI also maintains an extensive andwell-ordered archive in Rome devoted to the history of Italian industry,especially the state-sponsored naval armaments, steel and shipbuilding industries,and the government-supported Italian ports. In contrast to the publications ofthe USMM, IRI's volumes have been devoted to Italian shipyards, ports, maritimeand naval industries, and seaborne commerce from the end of the Napoleonicperiod to the present. V. Marchese, Mariano Gabriele, Fulvio Babudieri, andL.A. Pagano have all produced volumes notable for their detail, accuracy andcareful research.     Equally excellent private scholarship on the history of the

Aldo Fraccaroli, Italian Warships of World War /(London: 1970); idem., Italian Warships of World WarII (London: 1968); Erminio Bagnasco, Submarines of World War Two (London: 1977); idem., Le armidelle navi italiane nella seconda guerra mondiale (Parma: 1978); Erminio Bagnasco and Elio Ando, Naui emarinai italiani nella seconda guerra mondiale (Parma: 1977); Erminio Bagnasco and Mark Grossman, ItalianBattleships of World War Two (Missoula, Mont.: 1986); Erminio Bagnasco and Achille Rastelli, Lecostruzioni navali italiane per Vestero (Rome: 1991); Giorgio Giorgerini and Augusto Nani, Gli incrociatoriitaliani 1861-1964 (Rome: 1964); idem., Le navi di linea italiane 1861-1961 (Rome: 1962); Franco Gaywith Elio Ando and Franco Bargoni, Orizzonte mare. Naui italiane nella seconda guerra mondiale, 14 vols.(Rome: 1972-79); Franco and Valerio Gay, The Cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni (London & Annapolis, 1987);Gino Galuppini, Guida alle naui d'ltalia. La marina da guerra dal 1861 ad oggi (Milan: 1982).16 V. Marchese, L'industria armatoriale italiana dal 1815 al 1859 (Rome: 1955); idem., L'industria liguredelle costruzioni nauali dal 1815 al 1859 (Rome: 1957); idem., Ilporto di Genoua dal 1818 al 1891 (Rome:1959); Mariano Gabriele, L'industria armatoriale nei territori dello stato pontificio dal 1815 al 1880 (Rome:1961); idem., L'industria delle costruzioni nauali nei territori dello stato pontificio dal 1815 al 1880 Rome,

Italian merchant marine, shipbuilding, maritime law and, of particular, Italianports was pioneered by Arturo Assante after the First World War. Morerecently, such work has been continued and expanded (to include studies of theseafarers' union and maritime law, among other subjects) by Vito Dante Flore,Tomaso Gropallo, Francesco Ogliari, Ennio Poleggi, Guglielmo Salotti,Pasquale B. Trizio, and Ludovica De Courten. Thanks in particular to thework of Gabriele in the area of Italian maritime history, there has been an unusualand happy integration of naval and maritime history in Italy. Whatever othercriticism can be fairly leveled at IRI, its support of such scholarship deserves highpraise.

Outside of Italy, few historians have paid much attention to that country'snaval and maritime history. What work has been done has been almostexclusively limited to the period from the Italian—Turkish War to the end ofWorld War II and often in the context of Italian naval activities in alliance withor in conflict with other powers. Paul G. Halpern deserves special mention forhis studies of the Mediterranean naval situation from 1908 to 1918. OtherAmericans include MacGregor Knox, James Sadkovich and the author.    Also,

1961); idem., Iporti dello statopontificio dal 1815 al 1880 (Rome: 1963); Fulvio Babudieri, L'industriaartnatoriale di Trieste e della regione giulia dal 1815 al 1918 (Rome: 1966); idem., Iporti di Trieste e deltaregione giulia dal 1815 al 1918 (Rome: 1967); L.A. Pagano, L'industria artnatoriale siciliana dal 1816 al1880 (VLome: 1966).

Arturo Assante, II porto di Napoli (Naples: 1938); idem., Lafunzione mediterranea del porto di Napoli(Naples: 1941).

Vito Dante Flore, L'industria dei trasporti marittimi in Italia, 1860—1943 (Rome: 1970); idem.,L'inserimento nei mercati intemazionali (Rome: 1973); idem., Le emergenze nazionali (Rome, 1973); TomasoGropallo, Naui a vapore ed armamento italiano dal 1818 ai nostri giomi (Milan: 1976); Francesco Ogliari,Trasporti marittimi di linea, 1 vols. (Milan: 1975-87); Ennio Poleggi, Porto di Genoua: Storia e attualith(Genoa: 1977); Guglielmo Salotti, Giuseppe Giulietti: il sindicato dei marittimi dal 1910 al 1953 (Rome:1982); Pasquale B. Trizio, La marineria a vapore del Levante d'ltalia 1876-1932 (Bari: 1983); LudovicaDe Courten, La Marina mercantile italiana nella politica di espansione, 1860-1914: industria,finanza e trasportimarittimi (Rome: 1989).

19 Paul G. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation, 1908-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1971); idem.,The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1914-1918 (London: 1987).

20 MacGregor Knox, Mussolini Unleashed 1939—1941. Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War(New York: 1982); idem., "The Italian Armed Forces, 1940-3" in Allan R. Millett and WilliamsonMurray, eds., Military Effectiveness, vol. Ill, The Second World War (Boston: 1988); James Sadkovich,"Aircraft Carriers and the Mediterranean: Rethinking the Obvious " in Aerospace Historian, December1987; idem., "Re-evaluating Who Won the Italo-British Naval Conflict, 1940-42" in European HistoryQuarterly October 1988: idem., "The Italian Navy in World War II: 1940-1943" in Sadkovich, ed.,Reevaluating Major Naval Combatants of World War II (Westport, Ct.: 1990); Brian R. Sullivan, "Prisonerin the Mediterranean: The Evolution and Execution of Italian Maritime Strategy, 1919-1942" inWilliam B. Cogar, ed., Naval History. The Seventh Symposium of the U.S. Naval Academy (Wilmington,Del.: 1988); idem., "A Fleet in Being: The Rise and Fall of Italian Sea Power, 1861-1943" in TheInternational History Review, February 1988; idem., "The Italian Armed Forces, 1918—1940" in Millettand Murray, op. cit., vol. II, The Interwar Period; idem., "The Strategy of the Decisive Weight: Italy,1882-1922" in Williamson Murray, Alvin H. Bernstein, and MacGregor Knox, eds., The Making ofStrategy (New York, 1993); "Italian Naval Power and the Washington Disarmament Conference of1921-1922" in Diplomacy & Statecraft, Fall 1993.

the French Pierre Barjot, Jean Savant, and Raymond De Belot stand out for

their work several decades ago on the naval aspects of the Second World War

91in the Mediterranean.     The Germans, Michael Salewski, Walter Baum, and

most of all, Gerhard Schreiber deserve praise for their more recent studies, as do

00

Josef Schroder and Jiirgen Rohwer for their more specialized research.     In thearea of Italian ship design and construction, Siegfried Breyer, Robert O. Dulin,

91

Jr., and William H. Garzke, Jr., have published outstanding work.

This brief survey of the state of Italian naval and maritime history indicatesthat much work in the field remains for the future, particularly in naval history.To begin with, there is no truly adequate history of the Italian Navy. Fioravanzo'sLa marina militare nel suo primo secolo di vita 1861—1961 (Rome, 1961) andGiuliano Colliva's Uomini e navi nella storia della marina militare italiana (Milan,1971) are the best available. But neither are sufficiently detailed nor analytical,nor based on primary research, nor on extensive use of foreign sources. Bothare also outdated, even in regard to recent Italian publication in the field.

Scholarly biography, until recently, has not been emphasized in any area ofItalian history. This is certainly true in regard to Italian naval history. CarloPersano, Simone de Saint-Bon, Benedetto Brin, Augusto Riboty, CarloMirabello, Vittorio Cuniberti, Giovanni Bettolo, Giovanni Sechi, Luigi diSavoia, Paolo Thaon di Revel, Alfredo Acton, Costanzo Ciano, UmbertoPugliese, Giuseppe Sirianni, Domenico Cavagnari, Arturo Riccardi, AngeloIachino, Inigo Campioni, and Romeo Bernotti all deserve modern, detachedbiographies. Ezio Ferrante has written a short study of Brin and the previouslymentioned brief biography of Thaon di Revel. Recently, Aldo Santini haspublished a biography of Costanzo Ciano that covers his naval career to some

9^

extent. Otherwise, with the exception of the short, although generally excel-lent, sketches and bibliographies that have appeared in the forty—odd volumes

Pierre Barjot and Jean Savant, Histoire mondiale de la Marine (Paris: 1961); Raymond De Belot, Laguerra aeronavale nel Mediterraneo 1939-1945 (Milan: 1971).

Michael Salewski, Die deutsche Seekriegsleitung 1935—1945, 3 vols. (Frankfurt am Main & Munich,1970—75); Walter Baum, Der Krieg der "Achsenmachte" im Mittelmeer-Raum. Die "Strategic" der Diktatoren(Ottingen, Zurich & Frankfurt am Main: 1973); Gerhard Schreiber, "Italien im machtpolitischen Kalkulder deutschen Marinefuhrung 1919 bis 1945" in Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiuen undBiblioteken, no. 62, 1982; idem., Revisionisms und Weltmachtstreben. Marinefuhrung und deutsch-italienischeBeziehungen 1919 bis 1944 (Stuttgart: 1978); idem., "Die Seeschlacht von Matapan" in Marineforum, no.50, 1975; Gerhard Schreiber et al., Das Deutsche Reich in der Zweite Weltkrieg, vol. 3, Der Mittelmeerraumund Sudosteuropa: Von der 'non belligeranza' Italiens bis zum Kriegseintritt ver Vereinigten Staaten (Stuttgart,1984); Josef Schroder, "Weicholds Plane zur Aktivierung der Seekriegfuhrung im Jahre 1943" inWehrwissenschafliche Rundschau, no. 19, 1969; Jiirgen Rohwer, Axis Submarine Successes 1939—1945(Annapolis: 1983).

23 Siegfried Breyer, Battleships and Battle Cruisers 1905-1970 (Garden City, N.Y.: 1973); William H.Garzke, Jr. and Robert O. Dulin, Jr., Battleships. Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II (Annapolis:1985).

Ezio Ferrante, Benedetto Brin e la questione marittima italiana 1866-1898 Rome, 1983).

25

Aldo Santini, Costanzo Ciano, ilganascia delfascismo (Milan: 1993).

188    Twentieth Century Italy

of the far from completed Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (Rome, I960-)(upto the "Ds" so far) and the even shorter entries by MacGregor Knox and theauthor in Philip V. Cannistraro's Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy (Greenport,Ct.: 1982), all the above-mentioned major Italian naval figures lack objectivestudies of their lives.

A third aspect of Italian naval history that has been neglected is the periodsince 1945. Given the Italian political situation described above, this is to beexpected. Bernardi's monograph for the USMM on the naval aspects andconsequences of the 1947 peace treaty, the latter parts of Admiral FrancoMaugeri's two books of memoirs, Enea Cerquetti's Marxist analysis of the Italianarmed forces, 1945—1975, and Elizabeth Macintosh's unpublished doctoraldissertation on Italian naval arms sales and foreign policy, 1949—89, are the onlymajor works known to the author. The revelations that have emerged in recentmonths about the degree of corruption that has tainted relations between theItalian government and private industry will probably expand to Italian shipyardsand naval armaments firms. If true, this would present yet another impedimentto the study of recent Italian naval history.

For those interested in seeing Italian naval history, Venice provides itsexcellent Museo Storico Navale. The museum is only a short walk from StMark's catherdral and illustrates the naval history of both Venice and of modernItaly.

The gaps in Italian naval and maritime historiography have been mentionedabove. The most serious appears to be the near-total neglect of the teaching ofnaval and maritime history in Italian universities. Given Italy's re-emergence asa major power in the Mediterranean region, the Balkans, and in the EuropeanCommunity, and given the likely diminution of American naval power in thewaters surrounding Italy, it is very much in the interest of Italian democracy thatItaly's citizens understand such aspects of their nation's history. Over the lastdozen years, Italian naval forces have returned to taking a major role in Italy'sforeign policy, making operational deployments to the Suez Canal and the RedSea, to the waters off Lebanon, Libya and Somalia, to the Persian Gulf and tothe coastlines of Albania and Croatia. Given the turbulence in North and EastAfrica, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, such Italian naval operations seemlikely to increase in future. Italy's citizens seem on the brink of remaking theirnation's politics and of creating a new, far more accountable system of govern-ment. While it is presumptuous for a non-Italian to so state, to make wise

Giovanni Bernardi, ha marina, gli armistizi e il trattato di pace, settembre 1943-dicembre 1951 (Rome:1979); Franco Maugeri, From the Ashes of Disgrace (New York: 1948); idem., Ricordi di un marinaio. LaMarina italiana dai primi del Nouecento al secondo dopoguerra nelle memorie di uno dei suoi capi (Milan: 1980);Enea Cerquetti, Leforze armate italiane dal 1945 al 1915 (Milan: 1975); Elizabeth Macintosh, "Italy:Defense Industries and the Arms Trade, 1949-1989," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1989.

Sullivan     189

decisions about their national security, it would be best for Italians to have a farbetter knowledge of their naval and maritime past and present.

In the writing of this article, the author has relied heavily on two publications of the CentroInteruniversitario di Studi e Ricerche Storico-Militare of the Universities of Padua, Pisa, and Turin: Lastoriografta militare italiana negli ultimi venti anni (Milan: 1985) and Bibliograjia italiana di storia e studi militari1960-1984 (Milan: 1987). In addition, he wishes to express his gratitude for help from his friends LucioCeva, Willard C. Frank, Jr., and Paul G. Halpern.

Comments on Brian Sullivan's"Twentieth Century Italy"

James J. Sadkovich

Dr. Sullivan has presented an excellent paper on those Italian archives, authors,and publications that are concerned with contemporary naval and maritimehistory. He has raised a number of issues, including the question of whether theItalian peninsula's naval and maritime history is synonymous with twentieth-centuryItaly's naval and maritime history or should it also include those of the maritimerepublics of the late medieval and early modern periods as well as those of thepre-Risorgimento navies of Naples, Sardinia, Venice, and Tuscany.

Italians have certainly been preoccupied with the role of the Regia Marinasince unification, and they have debated its performance during the Fascistventennio and World War II in numerous books and articles, including suchpopular histories as those by Arrigo Petacco and Gianni Rocca. That Rocca'sbook, Fucilategli ammiragli [Shoot the Admirals] was published in 1987 and reissuedin 1990 as one of Monadadori's popular Oscar Storia series indicates that thereis a large public for such offerings, and its title, like that of Di Sambuy's Matchpari fra due grandi Jlotte [Drawn Match between Two Great Fleets], hints at thepolemical nature of the historiography on World War II. The publication overthe past two decades of a large number of technical and scholarly studies onWorld War II and the fascist era by both academics and former naval officersdemonstrates that if the Italians have not adopted a "worshipful attitude" towardtheir navy, they certainly are interested in recent naval history.

At the same time, there is also an interest in ancient and early modern naval andmaritime history, and there appears to be a public for books on such subjects as

This essay is an expanded version of the remarks that I made during the Conference on Naval andMaritime Affairs and contains a number of observations that I neglected to make in June. I have tried toretain the spirit of my comments, while including bibliographic information and interpretive commentsprecluded in an oral presentation. Both Dr. Sullivan and I concentrated on contemporary naval andmaritime history, much to the distress of Dr. Herve Coutau-Begarie, who correctly observed that Italiannaval and maritime history extends far beyond the twentieth century. I have therefore alluded to workson the medieval and modern period as well. The bibliographic notes are not comprehensive, but areintended to serve as a guide to recent publications, many of which have excellent bibliographies.

Gianni Rocca, Fucilategli ammiragli: la tragedia delta Marina italiana nella secondaguerra mondiale (Milan:Mondadori, 1987, 1990) and La battaglia di Matapan (Milan: Mondadori, 1985); and Arrigo Petacco, Lebattaglie navali del Mediterraneo nella seconda guerra mondiale (Milan: Mondadori, 1977). The interest inrecent naval history has tended, perhaps properly, to blur the lines between amateur enthusiast andprofessional historian and to move popular and academic history closer together.

maritime archaeology and folklore. There are also strong regional and localorganizations, such as the Centro Veneto per le Ricerche Storiche, whichlaunched a new journal, Ricerche Venete, in December 1989, and the Universityof Genoa's Istituto di Medievistica, which has published a number of studies onGenoa and Liguria, including a series of volumes that deal with everything fromearly modern business women (donne d'affari), to deserters, pirates, foreign affairs,and Genoese colonies in the Black Sea. The Institute has also published anumber of studies dealing with the history of Liguria, among them LauraBalletto's interesting collection of essays on piracy, fishing, and port operations.It is therefore no surprise that the Italians have continued their traditionof publishing popular and scholarly works on maritime centers such asAncona,    Carrara,    Florence and Tuscany,    Genoa,    Manfredonia,

3 For example, Attilio Delia Porta, Marina di Vietri: Storia, vicende, folklore (Cava dei Tirreni: ArtiGrafiche Palumbo & Esposito, 1984); Peter Throckmorton, Atlante di archeologia subacquea: la storia raccontadal mare: dall'Oddissea di Omero al Titanic (Novara: Istituto Geografico De Agostini, 1988); Anna MariaCrino's edition of Petruccio Ubaldini, La disfatta dellajlotta spagnola, 1588: due commentari autobiografiinediti (Florence: L. S. Olschki, 1988). Also see Elizabeth Bostwick Shuey, Etruscan Maritime Activity inthe Western Mediterranean c. 800-400 B.C.: An Archaeological Perspective on Historical Interpretations (Ph.D.,University of California at Santa Barbara, 1982). For the importance of archaeology to Italians duringthe early 1900s, see Maria Petricoli, Archaeologia e Mare Nostrum (Rome: Valerio Leri, 1990).

4 Istituto di Medievistica, Miscellanea di storia ligure, vols-. I and IV (Genoa: 1958, 1966), vols. II andHI (Milan: 1961, 1963); Miscellanea di storia ligure in onore di Giorgio Falco, (Milan: 1962 and 1966);Miscellanea di studi storici (Genoa: 1969); Miscellanea di storia italiana e mediterranea per Nino Lamboglia(Genoa: 1978); Miscellanea di storia savonese (Genoa: 1978). The Centro per la Storia della Tecnica del ConsiglioNazionale delle Ricerche (Sezione 4), has published Studi di storia navale (1975).

5 Laura Balletto, Genova nel Duecento: uomini nelporto e uomini sul mare (Genoa: 1983) is volume 36 ofthe Institute's Collana storica di fond e studi. Also see her Battista de Luco mercante genovese del secolo XVe il suo cartulario (Genoa: 1979), and Mercanti pirati e corsari nei mari della Corsica (Genoa: 1978). Amongthe more recent publications by the Institute are G. Airaldi, Studi e documenti su Genova e Voltremare(Genoa: 1974); M. L. Balletto, Navi e navigazione a Genova nel quattrocento. La "Cabella marinariorum"(1482—1491) (Genoa: 1973); and G. Forcheri, Navi e navigazione a Genoa nel Trecento. H "Liber Gazarie"(Genoa: 1974).

6 Alberto Caracciolo, Le port franc d'Ancone: Croissance et impasse d'un milieu marchand su XVIIIe siecle(Paris: SEVPEN, 1965), and Francesco Trionfi: capitulista e magnate d'Ancona (Milan: Giuffre, 1962).

7 Antonio Bernieri, H porto di Carrara (Genova: Sagep, 1983), a volume in the Collana I Manufattiseries.

The recent works by Cesare Ciano, footnote 81, below, and Camillo Manfroni's early study, Lamarina militare del granducato mediceo (Rome: Forzani & C, 1895).

9 Mario Bottaro, Genova 1892 e le celebrazioni colombiane (Genoa: F. Pirella, 1984); Georg Caro, Genovae la supremazia sul Mediterraneo, 1257—1311 (Genoa: Societa Ligure di Storia Patria, 1974); GiovanniForcheri, Navi e navigazione e Genova nel Trecento, op. cit., Antonino Ronco, Genova tra Massena eBonaparte: storia della Repubblica ligure, il 1800 (Genoa: Sagep, 1988). Also B. Z. Kedar, Mercanti in crisia Genoa e Venezia nel '300 (Rome: 1981), and Camillo Manfroni, Banco di Genova (Genoa: A. Donath,1911); and Anita Ginella Capini, Enrica L. Aronica, and Maria G. Buscaglia, eds., Immagini di vita traterra e mare: la Foce in eta moderna e contemporanea, 1500-1900: mostra storico-documentaria (Genoa: AzioneCattolica S. Zita, 1984), an exhibition held in Genoa from 31 May to 8 June 1984.

Vincenzo Gennaro Valente, Manfredonia: Storia della citta di Manfredi (Rome: Manzella, 1986).

Massa,    Messina,    Milan,    Naples,    Sardinia,    Taranto,    Trieste,    and Venice.Genoa hosted two international congresses on maritime history over the last decade,Ancona held a conference on Zara and other Yugoslav cities,    and even Lake Comohas its historians.   Authors such as Gino Galuppini,    Marc 'Antonio Bragadin,    Ezio

11   Stefano Giampaoli, Vita di sabbie e d'acque: il litorale di Massa,  1500-1900 (Massa: Palazzo di S.Elisabetta, 1984).

^  R. Battaglia, Mercanti e imprenditori in una citta marittima. H caso di Messina (Milan: Giufire, 1992).13  Milan functioned as an inland port, whose superb canals made it a major commercial center. GiuseppeCodara, J navigli delta vecchia Milatio (1977). For a general history, Domenico Sella, U Ducato di Milanodal 1535 al 1196 (Turin: UTET, 1984).

Among the many works on Naples and Sicily, Antonio Calabria, The Cost of Empire: The Finances ofthe Kingdom of Naples in the Time of Spanish Rule (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991).

15  Giorlamo Sotgiu, Storia della Sardegna sabauda, 1720-1847 (Rome: Laterza, 1984).

*     Giacinto Peluso, Taranto,  1919—1953: una citta, un monumento: cronaca, fatti, personaggi (Taranto:

Mandese, 1984); Giuseppe Mataluno, "Cenni storici sull'arsenale M. M. di Taranto," Riuista marittima

(1986).

For example, Fulvio Babudieri's many works, e.g., Industrie, commerci e navigazione a Trieste e nellaregione Giulia dall'inizio del Settecento ai primi anni del Novecento (Milan: Giuflre, 1982), La funzionedell'emporio marittimo di Trieste nell'ambito della Monorchia absburgica nell'Ottocento (Milan: 1980), IIporto diTrieste nel quadro dellapolitica absburgica dell'Ottocento (Innsbruck, 1977), Iporti di Trieste e della regione Giuliadal 1815 al 1918 (Rome: 1965), L'industria armatoriale di Trieste e della regione Giulia dal 1815 al 1918(Rome, 1964), and La nascita dell'emporio commerciale e marittimo di Trieste (Genoa: 1964). Also SpiridioneP. Nicolaidi, La presenza greca a Trieste (Triest: B & MM Fachin, 1990); Gottfried von Banfield, L'aquiladi Trieste: Vultimo caualiere di Maria Teresa nana la propria vita (Triest: LINT, 1984) (originally publishedin German as Der Adler von Triest: der letzte Maria-Theresien-Ritter erzahlt sein Leben (1984).18 For example, the late Roberto Cessi's Venezia ducale (Venice: Deputazione di Storia Patria per laVenezia, 1963), Studi sul Risorgimento nel Veneto (Padua: Liviana, 1965), and Storia della Repubblica diVenezia (Milan/Messina: G. Principato, 1968); and Armando Lodolini's, Le repubbliche del mare (Rome:Ente per la Diffusione e l'Educazione Storica, 1967), part of the Biblioteca di Storia Patria series. AlsoThomas F. Madden's recent dissertation, Enrico Dandolo: His Life, His Family, and His Venice before theFourth Crusade (Ph.D., University of Illinois at Urbana—Champagne, 1993); Frederic Chapin Lane'sclassic history, Venice. A Maritime Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1973), published inItaly as Storia di Venezia (1978), vol. 137 of the Biblioteca di Cultura Storica. Lane's bibliography is stilluseful.

Raffaele Belvederi, ed., Atti del congresso internazionale di studi storici. RapportiGenoua—Mediterraneo—Atlantico nell'eta modema (Genoa: Prima Cooperativa Grafica, 1982).

S. Anselmi, ed., Sette citta jugo—slave tra Medioevo e Ottocento (Ancona: Quaderni di Proposte e ricerche,1991). The "seminario" was held in September 1989 and focused on a number of cities, including Zara.

L'idea del lago: un paesaggio ridefinito, 1861-1914 (Milan: G. Mazzotta, 1984), was published on theoccasion of an exhibition on Lake Como.

In addition to Guida alle navi d'ltalia dal 1861 a oggi (Milan: Mondadori 1982), Gino Galuppini haspublished La bandiera tricolore nella Marina sarda (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1987), "Lascuola per i sottufficiali della marina borbonica," Rivista marittima (1985), and "Lo schnorchel e unainvenzione italiana," Rivista marittima (1975).

Marc'Antonio Bragadin's Le repubbliche marinare (Milan: Mondadori, 1974) is a popular, illustratedhistory of Venice, Pisa, Genova, and other maritime republics prior to Venice's capitulation to Napoleonin 1797. It has neither bibliography nor notes, but does have a definite nationalist bias that credits theItalian republics with writing "many of the most luminous chapters" of human history, notes that Europeis indebted to Venice for repelling the Turks and insists that the spirit of the early modern republics liveson in today's Italian mariners.

Ferrente, and Lamberto Radogna, have dealt with the Bourbon and Sar-dinian navies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as well as those of theearly modern maritime republics of Venice, Genova, and Pisa and the modernItalian Navy.

But if early modern history is fairly robust, my impression, perhaps skewedby my own research, still is that contemporary naval history dominates Italianbookstores and that since 1945 relatively little has been done on the nineteenthand early twentieth centuries. To the best of my knowledge, there is noorganization comparable to the Italian Naval League, which popularized navalaffairs from 1897 to the 1920s, although the Historical Office of the Italian Navyhas done a great deal to keep naval and maritime history before the Italianpublic. Such studies by historians, as those by Caracciolo on early moderncapitalism in Ancona and by Babudieri on the shipbuilding industry in Triest,are notable, but more is needed on the development of maritime industries, shipdesign, and maritime law, and it is reassuring to know that IFJ is sponsoring

In addition to Benedetto Brin e questione marittima italiana, 1866-1898 (Rome: Rivista Marittima,1983) and La sconfitta navale di Lissa (Rome: Vito Bianco, 1985)., Ezio Ferrente has published "Romanzenavali e guerre ipotetiche nel secolo XIX," Informazioni parlamentari difesa (1982), "August VittorioVecchj: lugotenente di vascello e storico della Marina," Rivista marittima (1972).

Lamberto Radogna, Cronistoria delle unita di guerra delle marinepreunitarie (Rome: Ufficio Storica dellaMarina Militare, 1981). This is an extremely useful listing of the ships of the various Italian navies priorto unification.

26 Also Carlo Zaghi, P. S. Mancini, I'Africa e il probkma del Mediterraneo 1884-1885) (Rome: Casini,1955); and the numerous articles published in Rivista marittima, including Augusto De Toro, "La squadraaustriaca prima e dopo Lissa: interessanti elementi da due immagini fotografiche," (1987); NunziaEsposito Elefante, "La marina Sarda nella guerra di Crimea" (1986); Antonio Formicola and ClaudioRomano. "L'industria navale nel regno delle due Sicilie sotto Ferdinando II" (1986), and "1860: Marinaborbonica ultimo atto" (1984); Giovanni Macchi, "La marina italiana a Creta in una operazionemultinazionale di fine ottocento," (1985); Arturo Marcheggiano, "Le operazioni navali italiane nellaprima guerra di indipendenza (1848-49)" (1984).

For example, Ferruccio Botti's articles in Rivista marittima: "Esercito e armata navale nel pensieromilitare 'terrestre' dalla fine del secolo XIX all'inizio della prima guerra mondiale" (1987), "La'correlazione terrestre marittima': un precedente italiano dell'attuale cooperazione interforce all'iniziodel secolo XX" (1987), and "Aviazione navale in Italia agli inizi del secolo i un raffronto con le intuizioniprecorritrici di Clement Ader" (1986). Botti has also published on armored forces and military doctrinewith Nicola Pignato and Vicenzo Ilari. Also see Luigi Romani, D'Annunzio e il mare (Rome: RivistaMarittima, 1988) and Timothy W. Childs, Mediterranean Imbroglio: The Diplomatic Origins of Modem Libya(The Diplomacy of the Belligerents during the Italo-Turkish War, 1911—1912) (Ph.D., GeorgetownUniversity, 1982).

The Lega Navale Italiana published an illustrated periodical, La lega naval (Florence, 1897-98, LaSpezia, 1898-1901, Rome, 1901-19), as well as a number of studies on naval and maritime affairs. Forexample, the patriotic The Adriatic Avenged: The Apotheosis ofNazario Sauro (Rome: E. Armani, 1917)and La marina italiana nella guerra mondiale, 1915-1918 (Rome: 1920). The League also published theAlbum marinaresco (Rome: 1914), as well as Luigi Castagna, Dizionari Mamaro (Rome: LNI, 1955) andGiuseppe di Maceo, La battaglia di Lepanto e il mare di Gaeta (Gaeta: Tipografia Salemne, 1930). For theLeague's official history, Angjolo Ponti, Venticinque anni di vita della Lega navale italiana (1899-1924)(Rome: LNI, 1924).

studies on maritime industries and commerce. I agree with Dr. Sullivan thata great deal also needs to be done on the Italo-Turkish war of 1911—12 andWorld War I, both significant, if neglected, victories for the Italian Navy thatwere crucial to its development and affected the evolution of such navalweapons as MTBs, pioneered as Mas (Motoscafi antisommergibili) by theItalians. Nor is there an abundant biographical literature on those whoshaped and implemented Italian naval policy. And even many officialhistories are now out of date.

^ Above for Babudieri and Caracciolo. The recent study that Dr. Sullivan has cited by Lucio Cevaand Andrea Curami has interesting data on naval weaponry and the scandal at Ansaldo in the 1930s; seeIndustria bellica anni Trenta (Milan: Franco Angeli, 1992). Also Michele Nones, "L'industria militare inLiguria da 1945 al 1975." Storia contemporanea (1986); Maria Ottolino, Commercio e iniziativa marittima inPuglia, 1876-1914: la Societa di navigazione a uapore Puglia (1981); Donato Riccesi (1956—), GustavoPulitzer Finali: il disegno della nave: allestimenti interni, 1925—1967 (1985); Valerio Staccioli, "II linguaggioarchitettonico nel disegno della nave passeggeri: I. Dai transatlantic! di Brunei agli anni vend." "II. Daglianni trenta ai nostri giomi," Rivista marittima (1987). Also see Francesco La Saponara, The Shipping Industryand Statistical Information in Italy: A Survey (1986). For maritime law Riniero Zeno, Storia del dirittomarittimo italiano nel Mediterraneo (Milan: Giuffre, 1946), vol. 3 of the series Fondazione Vittorio Scialoiaper gli Studi Giuridici and Documenti per la storia del diritto marittimo nei secoli XIII e XIV (1970/1936),vol. 4 of the series Documenti e Studi per la Storia del Commercio e del Diritto Commerciale Italiano;and Luigi Benvenuti, Lafrontiera marina (Padua: CEDAM, 1988), who examines the concept of territorialwaters.

Most of the studies on these topics are dated, e.g., Adolfo Balliano and Giuseppe Soavi, L'ltalia sulmare nella grande guerra (Turin: Successore Loescher Ermanno, 1934); Capitano di Fregata Roncagli,Guerra italo-turca. I. Dalle origini al decreto di sovranita su la Libia (Milan: Hoepli, 1937); and CamilloManfroni's works, Guerra Italo—turca (1911—1912). Cronistoria delle operazioni navali (Milan: Hoepli,1918-26), which is the official history of the war; Tripoli nella storia marinara d'ltalia (Padua: Drucker,1911); LTtalia nelle vicende marinare della tripolitania (Intra/Verbania: A. Airoldi, 1935/1942); Marina eaviazione italiane nella guerra mondiale (Milan: F. Vallardi, 1937); and Storia della marina italiana durante laguerra mondiale, 1914-1918 (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1923).

Among the more recent works on early twentieth-century naval history are the two works Dr.Sullivan has cited by Paul Halpern, and E. Europoli, "La lega navale italiana," Rivista marittima (1980).Among the works that are now dated are those by Adolfo Balliano and Camillo Manfroni; Guido Po,II grande ammiraglio Paolo Thaon di Revel (Turin: Lattes, 1936); Ettore Bravetta, La grande guerra sul mare,2 vols. (Milan: Mondadori, 1925); Bernardo Melli, La guerra italo-turca (Rome: E. Voghere, 1914);Whitney Warren, The Role of the Italian Navy in the Great War: A Lecture Given at the Colony Club, NetvYork, 22 January 1920 (New York, 1920/microfilm); and A. Thomazi, La guerre navale dans VAdriatique(Paris: Payot, 1927); and La guerre navale dans la Mediterranee (Paris: Payot, 1929).

Most of the early histories tended to fall within the category of pamphlets and apologies more thanscholarly analysis. La Marina italiana (Rome: Ministero della Marina, 1918), was only eleven pages long;La marina italiana nella guerra mondiale, 1915—1918 (Rome: Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dellaMarina, 1920), only 84 pages; and The Italian Navy in the World War 1915—1918. Facts and Figures (Rome:Ufficio Storico della Regia Marina Italiana, 1927) was a defense of Italian naval operations during thewar. Also see G. Almagia and A. Zoli, La marina italiana nella grande guerra. I. Vigilia d'armi sul mare(Florence: Vallecchi, 1935), published by the Office of the Chief of Staff of the Royal Italian Navy'sHistorical Section (Ufficio Storica dello Stato Maggiore della Regia Marina Italiana); and Storia dellacampagne oceaniche della regia marina (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Stato Maggiore della Regia MarinaItaliana, 1936, 1960), 4 vols.

On the other hand, since the 1940s there has been a continual outpouringof literature on the fascist era, often of a polemical nature. Why this is so isnot clear, but it certainly is due partially to the impression that the Italian fleetwas largely intact when it surrendered in 1943, because it had elected to stay inport rather than fight during the war. But if a handful of cruisers and mostbattleships survived the war, few smaller vessels did so, because they played themajor role in a war that was characterized by convoy, not fleet, operations.Nonetheless, the polemical conflagration that touched off efforts to assign blamefor the apparent failure of the Navy to perform well during the war has beenfuelled by the difficulty of reconciling antifascist postwar politics with apatriotism that was compromised by fascism during the Ventennio. As a result,there is a massive literature on World War II and the fascist era, and a great manyhistorians have contributed to it.

Among the better known are Erminio Bagnasco, Franco Bargoni, GiovanniBernardi,    Marc'Antonio Bragadin,    Carlo De Risio,    Vittorio Di Sambuy, '

For example, Achille Rastelli, "II naviglio mercantile requisito nella storia della marina militare,"Rivista marittima (1984); Ernesto Giuriati, "Storia e tradimento," Riuista marittima (1981); Gino Jori, "Lacrittologia nelle operazioni navali in Mediterraneo (1940-1943)," Riuista marittima (1982); Nino BixioLo Martire, Naui e bugie (1983); Gianni Padoan, Laguerra nel Mediterraneo (Bologna: Capitol, 1978); andDobrillo Dupuis, Lajlotta bianca: le naui ospedale italiane nel secondo conjlitto mondiale (Milan: Mursia, 1978).Also Renzo De Felice, Mussolini I'alleato. I. L'ltalia in guerra 1940-1943. II. Crisi e agonia del regime(Turin: Einaudi, 1990), 2 vols., who discusses the Navy's role; Salvatore Minardi, Italia e Francia aliaconferenza nauale di Londra del 1930 (1989); and Rosaria Quartararo, "Imperial Defence in theMediterranean on the Eve of the Ethiopian Crisis (July-October 1935)," Historical Journal (1977).

Erminio Bagnasco collaborated with Elio Ando on Naui e marinai italiani nella seconda guerra mondiale(Parma: Ermanno Albertelli, 1977/1981), and with Marco Spertini on J mezzi d'assalto della X" MAS,1940-1945 (Parma: Ermanno Albertelli, 1991). On his own has published a number of studies, includingLe armi delle naui italiane nella seconda guerra mondiale (Parma: Ermanno Albertelli, 1978); Italian Battleshipsof World War II: A Pictorial History (1986); La portaerei nella marina italiana. Idee, progetti e realizzioni dalleorigini a oggi (Rome: Rivista Marittima, 1989); Submarines of World War Two (Annapolis: USNIP, 1977);"Navi incorporate nella Marina italiana durante la seconda guerra mondiale." Riuista marittima (1961); /M.A.S. e le motosiluranti italiane, 1906-1968 (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1969).

Franco Bargoni, L'impegno nauale italiano durante la Guerra ciuile spagnola (1936—1939) (Rome: UfficioStorico della Marina Militare, 1992); Corazzate italiane classi Duilio—Italia—Ruggiero di Lauria, entrate inseruiziofra il 1880 e il 1892 (Rome: Ateneo e Bizzarri, 1978); and Le prime naui di linea della marina italiana(1861-1880) (Rome: Bizzarri, 1976).

Giovanni Bernardi, La Marina, gli armistizi e il trattato di pace: settembre 1943—dicembre 1951 (Rome:Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1979); and 7/ disarmo nauale tra le due guerre mondiali, 1919—1939(Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1975); "La dibattuta questione della parita navale tra Italiae Francia nel periodo tra le due guerre mondiali," Reuue intemationale d'histoire militaire (1978).

■xn

Marc Antonio Bragadin, U dramma della marina italiana, 1940-1945 (Milan: Mondadori, 1982), andThe Italian Nauy in World War //(Annapolis: USNIP, 1957, 1980). Both works are slightly revised reissuesof earlier studies.

Carlo De Risio, Naui diferro, teste di legno: la marina italiana, ieri e oggi (Rome: Ciarrapico, 1976).

in

Vittorio Di Sambuy, Match pari tra duegrandeflotte. Mediterraneo, 1940-1942 (Milan: Mursia, 1976);and "Un segreto svelato—il segreto 'Ultra'," Riuista marittima (1976).

Mariano Gabriele, Giorgio Giorgerini, Tullio Marcon, 4\ FrancescoMattesini, Riccardo Nassigh, Sergio Nesi, and Alberto Santoni. Al-though the fascist period is relatively narrow and early approaches were often inthe nature of reciprocal reproaches, a rather wide spectrum of approaches hasevolved, while a keen interest in such elite units as the San Marco marine divisionand the X Mas has remained high.    Bagnasco, Di Sambuy, Mattesini, Nassigh,

40 Mariano Gabriele, Operazione C/3: Malta (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1965, 1990);"La guerre des convois entre l'ltalie et l'Afrique du nord," in Comite d'Histoire de la 2e GuerreMondiale, La guerre en Mediterranke, 1939-1945. Actes du colbque International tenu Paris du 8 au 11 avril1969 (Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1971). He has also written onother periods, e.g., Lajlotta come strumento di politica nei primi decenni dello stato unitario italiano (Rome:Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1973); La politica navale italiana dal 1885 al 1915 (Rome: UfficioStorico della Marina Militare, 1982); "La politica navale italiana alia vigilia del primo conflitto mondiale,"Riuista marittima (May 1965): pp. 15-32; "La convenzione navale italo-franco-britannica del 10 maggio1915," Nuoua antologia (April-May 1965): pp. 483-502, 69-84.

Giorgio Giorgerini, La battaglia dei convogli in Mediterraneo (Milan: Mursia, 1977); Da Matapan al QolfoPersico: la Marina militare italiana dalfascismo alia Repubblica (Milan: Mursia, 1989); Almanaco storico dellenaui militari italiane: la Marina e le sue navi dal 1861 al 1915 (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare,1978); "The Role of Malta in Italian Naval Operations, 1940-43," in New Aspects of Naval History(Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1985); and with Aldo Nani, Le naui d'ltalia. I. Le naui di lineaitaliane, 1961—1969 (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1969), Gli incrociatori italiani,1861—1975 (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1976), and Almanacco storico delle naui militarid'ltalia, 1861-1915 (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1980).

Tullio Marcon, "Operazione Malta due owero il rispetto del nemico," Riuista marittima (1976); AHmarine: gli osseruatori della Regia Marina nella seconda guerra mondiale (Milan: Mursia, 1978).

Francesco Mattesini, La battaglia aeronauale di mezzo agosto (Rome: Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 1986); IIgiallo di Matapan. Reuisione di giudizi (Rome: Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 1985); La battaglia di Punta Stilo(Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1990); Isommergibili di Betasom 1940—1943 (Rome: UfficioStorico della Marina Militare, on press); "Navi da guerra e mercantili della Gran Bretagna e nazionialleate affondate e danneggiate in Mediterraneo (10 giugno 1940—5 maggio 1945)" Archiuio StoricoMarina. XI (9); "I retroscena inediti del mancato intervento delle navi di superficie italiane nella battagliadi mezzo agosto 1942," II Giomale d'ltalia (5 January 1984); "La battaglia aeronavale di mezzo agosto,"Aeronautical mensile dell'auiazione italiana (1985), nos. 8, 9, 10, 11.

Riccardo Nassigh, Guerra negli abissi. I sommergibili italiani nel secondo conflitto mondiale (Milan: Mursia,1971); Operazione mezzo agosto. (Milan: Mursia, 1976).

Sergio Nesi, Decimaflottiglia nostra: i mezzi d'assalto della Marina italiana al sud e al nord dopo Varmistizio(Milan: Mursia, 1986).

As Dr. Sullivan has noted, Alberto Santoni has published a number of important works oncontemporary naval history, especially // uero traditore: il ruolo documentato di ULTRA nella guerra delMediterraneo (Milan: Mursia, 1981). He has also collaborated with Theodor Fuchs on "Der Einfluss von'ULTRA' auf den Krieg im Mittelmeer," Marine Rundschau (1981); and with Francesco Mattesini onLa partecipazione tedesca alia guerra aeronauale nel Mediterraneo (1940-1945) (Rome: Edizioni dell'AteneoeBizzarri, 1980).

The official history has a volume on the X Mas, which was popularized by Julio Valerio Borghese,Sea Deuils (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1954). Among the recent publications on the unit is the excellentvolume by Bagnasco and Spertini, and Ricciotti Lazzero, La decima Mas (Milan: Rizzoli, 1984). Alsosee Pieramedeo Baldrati, San Marco. . .San Marco. . .Storia di una diuisione (Milan: San Marco InfantryDivision, 1989); Guido Bonavicini, Decima Marinai! Decima comandante! Lafanteria di marina, 1943—45(Milan: Mursia, 1988); and Aurelio Scardaccione, Ildelfino dorato: in guerra sui sommergibili (Fasano: Schena,1988), a diary by a former submariner.

Nesi, and Santoni have generally focused on the technical and operational aspects of navalaffairs; Bargoni, Bernardi, and Gabriele have been more concerned with policy anddiplomacy; and Giorgerini and Bragadin have written synthetic works on the ItalianNavy. In short, there are a great many Italians who are currendy working on naval andmaritime topics. While the number of foreign scholars is much smaller, as Dr. Sullivannotes, many, such as Germany's Gerhard Schreiber, have made contributions to thefield49

Recent naval history thus seems to be thriving; and if some cliaff remains, that is theprice the Italians pay to stimulate interest in the subject. The firms of Mursia, Rizzoli,and Mondadori may not always publish scholarly studies, but they provide a valuableservice by issuing memoirs and popular studies that keep the public interested in navaland maritime history, while Edizioni dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri and Ermanno Albertelli focuson a more restricted audience interested in the nuts and bolts of naval history.

In short, while there are undoubtedly enormous differences between the United Statesand Italy, I am not sure that Italians are less enthused with their naval history than we arewith ours; and if ground forces played a much greater part in Italian development thannaval forces, that was also true of the United States, save in the Caribbean, where ourNavy and Marines consolidated an informal empire against weak forces, and in the Pacific,where a combination of naval and air secured victory in the early 1940s. Our Navy iscertainly larger than the Italian Navy, and it is better publicized in this country,   where

I am indebted to Admiral Renato Sicurezza, who currently heads the Italian Navy's Historical Officeand to Admiral Francesco Pascazio, the former editor of Rivista Marittima, for their generous help inidentifying those Italian historians who are currently working in the contemporary era; to ProfessorDomenico Sella for his suggestions regarding the early modern period; to Professor Alberto Santoni forhis courteous and informative reply to my inquiries; and to Admiral Carlo Gottardi, for his interest.Among those who are currently writing on contemporary history are Vittorio Barbati, Franco Bargoni,Colonel Ferruccio Botti, Admiral Alfredo Brauzzi, Augusto De Toro, Admiral Luigi Donini, AdmiralAntonio Flamigni, Antoni Formicola, Aldo Fraccaroli, Professor Mariano Gabriele, CommandanteFranco Gay, Admiral Gino Galuppini, Giorgio Giorgerini, Admiral Carlo Gottardi, Tullio Marcon,Francesco Mattesini, Riccardo Nassigh, Franco Puddu, Admiral Luigi Romani, Claudio Romano,Professor Alberto Santoni, and Admiral Pietro Zancardi.

See Gerhard Schreiber, "Italien im machtpolitischen Kalkiil der deutschen Marineflihrung 1919 bis1945," in Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken (Tubingen: Istituto StoricoGermanico in Roma, 1982) vol. 62; "Les structures strategiques de la conduite de la guerreitalo-allemande au cours de la deuxieme guerre mondiale" RHDGM (1980); "Sul teatro mediterraneonella seconda guerra mondiale: inediti punti di vista della marina germanica del tempo." Rivista marittima(1987). Also see Josef Schroder, "Les pretensions allemands a la direction militaire du theatre italiend'operations en 1943" RHDGM (1974).

Given that the United States has five times the population of Italy and is considerably wealthier, thedisparities between the two states diminish or disappear. Multiplying Italy's budget by five, one gets anannual outlay of $120 billion, not $24 billion, about a third of the US budget of $290 billion; the adjustedsize of the Italian navy is 275,000, about half that of the USN; and the number of ships about 300,comparable to the 340 that Dr. Sullivan projects for the USN. Indeed, the adjusted merchant figuresyield 8,000 Italian ships displacing 40 million GRT, compared to 1,600 American vessels displacing 8million. It is also worth noting that while there is a considerable public for works on the Navy in theUnited States, there is not a large market for histories of such maritime organizations as the Coast Guardand merchant marine.

only a handful of academics have devoted any attention to Italian naval mattersover the past twenty years. But that is to be expected, given our preoccupationwith superpowers.

Whether "the major negative influence" on Italian attitudes toward the Navy,merchant marine and public institutions in general have derived from"widespread perceptions of the defunct monarchy and of the Fascist regime" isdebatable, although there is no doubt that during the 1950s the Italians hadnothing comparable to America's Victory at Sea to extol their Navy, and a spateof critical works, such as Antonio Trizzino's Navi epoltrone, censured the ItalianNavy as so inept as to be treasonous.

But such attitudes predated Mussolini's era and seem to be rooted in theproblems that accompanied the creation of a unitary Italian state, including themonarchy's emargination of Mazzini and its "betrayal" of Garibaldi, the South'sresistance to Piedmontese rule, and the influence of socialism, syndicalism, andanarchism in areas as diverse as Puglia, the Romagna, Lombardy, and Sicily. Agreat many Italians thus came to view the armed forces as repressive, and Italy'sfailure to realize an African empire disillusioned the more patriotic, even if itstimulated Enrico Corridoni and the ANI to clamor for even more spending onoverseas expansion and eventually led Mussolini to discern and exploit thepolitical advantages of the concept of an Italian "proletarian" nation. In otherwords, if the Fascist regime disillusioned many Italians, the liberal Italian statehad already alienated many others. Since 1945, pugnacious and partisan mediahave helped to keep political debate lively and censorious in Italy, whereas inthe United States the mass media have usually fallen into line behind governmentefforts to glorify its military and naval exploits. And, as noted above, thedifficulties of reconciling postwar antifascism with a patriotism and navalismtainted by their association with the fascist regime has created a climate in whichpolemics flourish.

51 Brian Sullivan, "A Fleet in Being: The Rise and Fall of Italian Sea Power, 1861-1943," TheInternational History Review (1988); and Marco Rimanelli, The "Least of the Powers": Italy's Foreign, Security,and Naval Policy in the Quest for Mediterranean Pre-eminence, 1860s-1989, (Ph.D, Johns Hopkins Univ.,1989). Bernard MacGregor Knox, Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941. Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy'sLast War (Cambridge: UP, 1982), also deals with naval matters in his survey of Italy's war effort. JackGreene is an aficionado of naval history and his Mare nostrum: The War in the Mediterranean (Watsonville,Calif.: Typesetting, etc., 1990) is a useful compilation of data, all the more so because few academicstudies have been published in this country. Also see James J. Sadkovich, The Italian Navy in World WarII (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1994); "The Italian Navy," in Reevaluating Major Naval Combatantsof World War II (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1990); "Aircraft Carriers and the Mediterranean,1940-1943: Rethinking the Obvious," Aerospace Historian (1987); and "Re-evaluating Who Won theItalo-British Naval Conflict, 1940-42," European History Quarterly (1988).

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Antonio Trizzino, Navi e poltrone (Milan: Longanesi, 1966). From 1945 into the 1960s, Americanfilms exalted our victory in the war, but in Italy such fare as Citth aperta and Bicycle Thief reflected aresigned weariness with the whole subject of war, as Fellini and others created a pacifist postmodernworld.

Yet I do not think that one can simply dismiss the fascist era and its naval andmaritime achievements. It seems to me that the success of the fascist campaigns inAfrica and the prestige conferred on Italy by its trans-Adantic liners more than offsetearlier defeats. The Rex's brief appearance in Fellini's Amarcord underlined the effecton the Italian psyche of such spending, even if in retrospect the achievements provedas illusory as the ship's illuminated outline on a summer night. The defeat of 1943was unquestionably a major blow to the Italians, but there were no decisive defeats in1940-41, except in the minds of Allied wartime propagandists and some postwarhistorians, and after 1945 the Italians had no choice but to reject those "legacies of theFascist era" not approved by the Allies. But if the neo-fascists have been reduced toa fringe group in postwar Italy, the referendum mounted by the Radical Party in 1977reminded everyone that their legacy included the penal code and IRJ, both integralparts of the postwar liberal regime.

Italy's excessive navalism and heavy official support for naval and maritime historyprior to 1945 was fairly typical of great powers, and its more moderate militarypretensions since then characteristic of such former imperial powers as Britain. Therewere a number of ex-fascist or neo-fascist historians in the postwar era who tried torefurbish the fascist ventennio, but the greatest impact on the historiography of the warhas been that of such naval officers as Angelo Iachino, Marc'Antonio Bragadin, andGiuseppe Fioravanzo, who had served in the "fascist" navy and sought to set the recordstraight by challenging an Allied wartime propaganda that was anything but objective.

Although the fascist media were hardly objective, I think it still a safe assumption that many Italians shared thepride in Italy's naval achievements expressed in such articles as Domenico Cavagnari, "La Marina delTltalia fascista."Rassegna italiana (1938).

Of course, prior to 1943, the fascist regime issued its own propaganda, e.g., Vincio Araldi, Marittai d'ltalia sulkvie della gloria (Bologna: Cantelli, 1942); Marc'Antonio Bragadin, Vittoria sui man di Roma, 15giugno XX (1942)(Verona: Mondadori, 1942); Vittorio Calvino, La guardia del mate: Vaviazione da ricognizione marittima (Rome:Editoriale Aeronautica, 1942); Giuseppe Fioravanzo, U Mediterratieo, centra strategico del mondo (Verona: Mondadori,1943); Vittorio G. Rossi, Laguerra dei marittai (Milan: Bompiani, 1941); Ministero della Marina, Amanecer heroicoen el Mediterramo: dos torpederos contro utia escuadra britanica. La epica empresa de los torpederos "Circe y Vega" (Milan:1941), and Appello cd mare (Rome: Tipografia Novissima, 1940).

' Aldo Cocchia and Giuseppe Fioravanzo, who oversaw the writing of the first official monographs on theNavy, were both members of the fascist navy, the one a war hero, the other a serious theorist. A prolific writer,Fioravanzo wrote on theory in the 1930s, composed propaganda during the 1940s, and was instrumental in issuingthe Italian official histories in the 1950s, e.g., Manuale teorico-pratico di cinematka aero-ttavale e d'impiego delle uniti incombattimetito (Livomo: Accademia Navale, 1930), Laguerra sul mare e laguerra integrate (Turin: Enrico Schioppo,1931), 2 vols, Basi navali ml mondo (Milano: Istituto per gli studi di politica intemazionale, 1936), History of NavalTactical Thought (Annapolis, Md: USNIP, 1979), U Mediterratieo, centro strategico del mondo (Verona: Mondadori,1943). Iachino published a number of books and articles, e.g., Le due Sim' (Milan: Mondadori, 1953), Gaudo eMatapan. Storiadiun'operazione dellaguerra navale nelMediterramo, 27-28-29 marzo 1941 (Milan: Mondadori, 1946),Operaziom mezzo giugno. Episodi dell 'ultima guerra sul mare (Milan: Monadadori, 1955), Hpunto su Matapan (Milan:Mondadori, 1969), and Tramonto di unagrande marina (Milan: Mondadori, 1959). See above for Bragadin, and theofficial histories for Aldo Cocchia, as well as "II peso strategico di Malta fu veramente determinante?" Rivistamarittima (1964). Virgilio Spigai also published on the war, e.g., "Italian Naval Assault Craft in Two WorldWars." United States Naval Institute Press (1965); and V. Spigai and L. D. De la Penne, "The Italian Attackon the Alexandria Naval Base." United States Naval Institute Press (1956).

Dr. Sullivan's observations regarding the Italian university system are notencouraging, but essentially the same could be said of our own system, with thecaveat that ours is so much bigger than the Italian's that it can accommodate afew more professors in fields such as naval and maritime history. Like CamilloManfroni, Mariano Gabriele has been crucial to the development of Italian navalhistory, and Alberto Santoni has written a number of valuable works, includinghis work on Ultra and the study he co-authored with Francesco Mattesini onGerman participation in the Mediterranean during World War II. But as valuableas Santoni's contributions have been, like those of Mattesini, they tend to bepointedly revisionist and critical of the performance of the Italian armed forces,while on occasion appearing to rationalize German failures in the Mediterraneantheater. It thus seems that polemics are an unavoidable part of doing contem-porary Italian naval history.

Professor Raimono's efforts to continue Manfroni's work at the NavalAcademy at Livorno are laudatory, as are the activities of the Istituto di GuerraMarittima. But I would be curious to know what sorts of "difficulties" Raimonohas encountered and wonder if the acquaintance of his students with Anglo-American naval history is more a function of the number of works published onthe subject than of "the politically sensitive nature of Italian naval history."

That the other service academies ignore naval history is to be expected,although it seems a shame that there has been no effort to coordinate at least airand naval studies, especially since historians like Nino Arena and Nicola Maliziahave written works that include both areas and there is no question that to fullyunderstand the war in the Mediterranean between 1940 and 1945 it is necessaryto integrate naval and air actions. In this regard, it is worth noting that thepublications of the Italian Foreign Ministry and the Italian army are useful tothose doing naval history.

The holdings of the Naval Archives, the State Archives (Archivio Centraledello Stato), and the Foreign Ministry's Archives (Archivio Storico del Ministero

Nino Arena, Bandiera di combattimento: Storia delta Marina militare italiana (1925—1945) (Rome: CEN,1974), 2 vols., and La regia aeronautica, 1939—1943 (Rome: Ufficio Storico dello Stato MaggioreAeronautica, 1981-1984); and Nicola Malizia, Inferno su Malta. Lapiu lunga battaglia aeronauale della secondguerra mondiale (Milan: Mursia, 1976), and with Christopher Shores, and Brian Cull, Malta: The HurricaneYears, 1940-1941 (London: Grub Street, 1987), and Malta: The Spitfire Year, 1942 (London: GrubbStreet, 1991).

The Army is in the process of publishing the General Staffs war diary, and its volumes on the minutes(verbali) of the meetings held by Comando Supremo during the war are indispensable. See UfficioStorico dell'Esercito, Diario storico del Comando Supremo [Antonello Biagini, Fernando Frattolillo] (Rome:1986), Vol. I—III. and Verbali delle riunioni tenute dal capo di Stato Maggiore Generate (Rome: 1985), Vols.I—III. For the Foreign Ministry, Ministero degli AfFari Esteri, Commissione per la pubblicazione deidocumenti diplomatici, I documenti diplomatici italiani. Ottava serie, 1935-39 (Rome: 1952, 1953), Vols.XII, XIII; Nona serie, 1939-43. (Rome, 1957-1988), Vols. I-VIII. Also see Istituto Centrale di Statisticadel Regno d'ltalia, Compendio statistico italiano, 1939-1942, (Rome, 1939-42) Vols. XIII-XVI, andSommario di statistiche storiche italiane, 1861-1958 (Rome: 1958).

degli Affari Esteri) are useful to anyone working in naval history, and thehelpfulness of their personnel is well known. It is also noteworthy, as Dr. Sullivanstresses, that only the Navy has published solid monographs of World War II.Although I am not as critical of the Army's publications as he is, there is noquestion that the Air Force has lagged behind the other services, and despite itslength, even Arena's recent work is not a great improvement on earlier studies

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by Santoro and Licheri. However, the recent publication of two volumes ofSuperaereo's directives should help to fill in gaps in our knowledge of theair-naval war during 1940.

Admiral Sicurezza's efforts to reorder the MM's archives and to bring togethercontributions by established historians on strategy, diplomacy, and other aspectsof naval and maritime history are laudatory. But long-range activities are alsoneeded, as well as support for historians new to the field, especially given thatwhile maritime history can disguise itself as social or economic history, navalhistory suffers from the same sort of emargination within the academic com-munity as diplomatic, political, and military history. And if it is unreasonable toexpect naval historians to become postmodernists, it seems equally unrealistic toexpect that traditional ways of doing naval history will retain a large audience.Yet those of us writing on contemporary naval affairs seem mired in yesterday'spolemics and content with an approach that seems increasingly dated andirrelevant, and I can personally attest to how difficult it is to shake off traditionalapproaches and find a way out of the polemical maze, which I still regularlywander.

Although service histories may be expected to have a narrow focus and acertain bias because of institutional restraints, Dr. Sullivan's praise for the highstandards maintained by the Italian Navy's historical office is not misplaced.Bemardi's works are exceptionally well-done analyses of diplomatic matters and the

Arena, op. cit.; Giuseppe Santoro, L'aeronautica italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale (Milan: EdizioniEsse, 1957), 2 vols., and Sebastiano Licheri, L'arma aerea italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale, 10 giugno1940—8 settembre 1943 (Milan: Mursia, 1976). Also Mario Angelozzi and Ubaldo Bernini, Hproblemaaeronavale italiano (Livorno: Belforte, 1981); M. Circi and A. Guglielmetti, Gli attuali reparti A.M. dellaaviazione per la marina. Note storiche dal 1926 al 1912 (Rome: Grafica Veant, 1977); Carlo Unia, Storiadegli aerosiluranti italiani (Rome: Bizzarri, 1974); Corrado Ricci, II corpo aereo italiano (CAI) sulfronte dellaManica (1940-1941) (Rome: Ufficio Storico dell'Aeronautica Militare, 1980); Corrado Ricci andChristopher E. Shores, La guerra aerea in Africa Orientate, 1940-41 (Rome: Ufficio Storicodell'Aeronautica Militare, 1979); and Vincenzo Lioy, VItalia in Africa. Serie Storico-Militare. Vol. III.L'opera dell'Aeronautica (Rome: Ministero degli Affari Esteri, 1964). Lioy has also written two early workson the Italian air force and operations during the war, Elementi storici nell'Aeronautica Italiana (Nisida:Accademia Aeronautica, 1960), and Gloria senza allori (Rome: Failli, 1953). Others, like Giulio Lazzati,have contributed to the literature on air operations, e.g., his Stormi d'Italia. Storia dell'aviazione militareitaliana (Milan: Mursia, 1975). Also see Guido Bonavicini, Carlo Gaffioni egli aerosiluranti italiani (Milan:Cavallotti, 1987), and Andrea Curami and Giancarello Garello, "L'aviazione ausiliaria per la RegiaMarina fra le due guerre (1923-1940)," Riuista marittima (1985).

59 Franco Mattesini and M. Cermelli, eds., Le direttiue tecnico-operative di Superaereo (Rome: StatoMaggiore Aeronatuica/Ufficio Storico, 1992), 2 vols.

Italian official histories in general are of a very high quality that comparesfavorably with the best that has been done by Italian, British, and Americanacademics. On the other hand, more detailed monographs on the evolution ofthe Italian Navy, recruitment, contracting, and the formulation of naval policywould be welcome.

The publications mentioned by Dr. Sullivan, from the Bollettino d'archiviodelVufficio storico della marina militare to Kivista marittima are extremely useful, andthe organizations he mentions (Associazione italiana di documentazione marit-time e navale and Associazione navemodellisti bolognesi) have helped tostimulate interest in naval affairs and provided some of the raw stuff of navalhistory, as anyone who has used the publications on naval ships and weaponryby Aldo Fraccaroli and Erminio Bagnasco can attest. And it is reassuring to knowthat a fascist institution, IRI (Istituto per la ricostruzione industriale) is fundingscholarly studies on naval and maritime history.

Dr. Sullivan is also correct to note that we do not have enough biographies ofItalian naval and maritime personalities, that there is no comprehensive study of theItalian Navy, and that the post—1945 development of the Navy has been ignored.However, I am not as convinced as he is that it is necessary to teach naval historyin order to make good citizens out of Italians, given that the popularity of navalhistory in this country has not appreciably increased the sophistication with whichthe average American reacts to domestic and foreign crises.

There are a few observations I would like to add to those made by Dr.Sullivan, whose paper I found both interesting and informative, and whoseacquaintance with Italian archives and historians I can only envy. Indeed, thatis my first observation—while there are relatively few Italians working in naval

The data in the twenty-two volumes of the Italian Navy's World War II series is both abundant andcomprehensive, with everything from details on the losses of merchant and naval shipping to convoyoperations, naval battles, technical development, and command structures. The Navy's seven-volumeseries on naval vessels contain extremely useful data on the technical aspects of classes and individualships, complete with operational summaries. See La marina Italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale (Rome:Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1952—present), 22 vols., and Le navi d'Italia (Rome: Ufficio Storicodella Marina Militare, 1969-present), 8 vols. Among those who collaborated on the historical serieswere Giuseppe Fioravanzo (series editor and various volumes), Mario Peruzzi (hospital ships, 1956),Aldo Cocchia (convoy operations, 1958-76), P. F. Lupinacci (Mines, 1968, and Albania and Aegeanoperations, 1972), U. Mori Ubaldini (submarines, 1976), M. Bertini (submarines, 1968, 1972), CarloDe Risio (X Mas and blockade runners, 1972), and V. Rauber (ASW, 1978). The series dealing withships was compiled by Giorgio Giorgerini and Augusto Nani (battleships, 1969; cruisers, 1976; and analmanac, 1980); P. M. Pollina (torpedo boats, 1974), and with Mario Bertini (submarines, 1971); G.Fioravanzo, P. M. Pollina, G. Riccardi, and F. Gnifetti (destroyers, 1971); E. Bargoni (scouts, frigates,and corvettes, 1974); and Erminio Bagnasco (Mas and Ms, 1969).

Fioravanzo's slim volume on naval tactics was a good beginning, and Ezio Ferrente's history of Italianperceptions of the Mediterranean is unusual in its stress on ideas rather than facts. Ezio Ferrante, HMediterranean nella coscienza nazionale (Rome: Rivista Marittima, 1987); and Giuseppe Fioravanzo, AHistory of Naval Tactical Thought, op. cit. Fioravanzo has published a number of theoretical works,including Basi navali nel mondo, op. cit.

and maritime history, there are even fewer Americans, in large part owing toproblems obtaining funding. There is, to the best of my knowledge, no easy wayfor scholars in this country to obtain grants to use Italian naval and maritimearchives, and our priorities, especially in an age that flaunts its commitment to"diversity," should include ways to encourage the American academic com-munity to support the study of such "marginal" subjects as naval history and toencourage an interest in such "minor" powers as Italy. In this country, Dr.Sullivan rightly mentions only a handful of scholars in the field: MacGregorKnox, who focuses on political and diplomatic questions; Halpern, whose studieson the Mediterranean were published in 1971 and 1987; and the two of us, whohave published a handful of articles on contemporary Italian naval history. Norhas there been a rush to do Italian naval and maritime history recently. Still,there are a number of Americans, for the most part recent Ph.D.s, who havedealt with naval and maritime topics, among them Marco Rimanelli, whofinished a two—volume dissertation at Johns Hopkins on Italian naval policy, andTimothy W. Childs, whose 1982 dissertation dealt with the diplomacy of theItalo-Turkish war. There are also a number of Americans who have writtenon subjects that involve Italian naval history, such as the siege of Malta.

Yet even a brief glance at the annual bibliographies put out by the Societyfor Italian Historical Studies is enough to confirm the impression that naval andmaritime studies have become more marginal in this country as social historyhas become more dominant. Non-academics like Jack Greene, whose interestin tactics and whose careful compilation of orders of battle are very useful to usacademic types, are fascinated by naval history, but our colleagues seem not tobe, unless naval and maritime history is viewed in another context. BenjaminArbel therefore highlighted the social aspects of Venetian trade in the fifteenthcentury, Mark John Angelos discussed the role of women of twelfth—centuryGenoa's commerce, Robert Davis discussed the workers of the Venetianarsenal, and Richard Jackson, Mediterranean seamen.     Irene Katele has taken

Timothy Childs, Mediterranean Imbroglio: The Diplomatic Origins of Modem Libya (The Diplomacy of theBelligerents during the Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912) op. cit.; and Marco Rimanelli, The "Least of thePowers" Italy's Foreign Security and Naval Policy in the Quest for Mediterranean Pre-eminence, 1860s—1989,op. cit. While the works of Salewski, Breyer, and Dulin are useful, they are not primarily concernedwith the Italian war effort in the Mediterranean. Those by Barjot, de Belot, Baum, Weichold, Ruge,and others are more directly focused on the Mediterranean theater, but many are now dated, othersrather biased by the participation of the authors in the war.

63 Charles A Jellison, Besieged. The World War II Ordeal of Malta, 1940-42 (New England: 1987); Dora Alves,"The Resupply of Malta in World War II," Naval War College Review (1980); and Rowena Reed, "CentralMediterranean Sea Control and the North African Campaigns, 1940-1942" Naval War College Review (1984).

Benjamin Arbel, "Venetian Trade in Fifteenth Century Acre: The Letters of Francesco Bevilaqua(1471-72)," Asian and African Studies (1988).

Mark John Angelos, Genoese Women, Family Business Practices, and Maritime Commerce, 115-1216(Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne, 1992).

Robert C. Davis, Shipbuilders of the Venetian Arsenal: Workers and Workplace in the Preindustrial City (Baltimore:

another look at piracy in the late middle ages, Catherine Bracewell has studiedthe Uskoks of Senj, and Ilona Klein reexamined the Order of Santo Stefano.In effect, early modern naval and maritime historians seem to have resolved theproblem of how to make the subject germane, whether it is looking at technique(shipbuilding, contracts, organization) or recasting naval history as social, cultural,or gender history. Such studies as that by Augusta Molinari on sanitary conditionsaboard ships carrying emigrants show that the same approach can work forcontemporary history. At this point, one can even hope to publish in such unlikelyplaces as Asian and African Studies, rather than in the handful of journals and withthe few publishers who will consider studies of twentieth-century Italian navalhistory. Yet, on the whole, in this country there are relatively few secure outlets forstudies on Italian naval and maritime topics.

If finding a place to publish can be frustrating in the United States, where relativelyfew journals and publishers concern themselves with Italian naval and maritimeaffairs, there is still a fairly wide choice of publications and publishers to choose from,whether one is writing on the early modern period or dealing with morecontemporary questions. For example, Storia epolitica published Francesco Lefebvred'Ovidio's studies on the London naval conference and Italian and British navalpolicy in the 1930s, Storia contemporanea published Luigi Castioni's essay on thedevelopment of Italian radar,    the Revue de VOccident musulman et de la Mediterranee

Johns Hopkins, 1991). Also Richard Paul Jackson, "Ma misimeperl'alto mareaperto" Mediterranean Seamenduring the Medieval Commercial Revolution (Ph.D., Yale, 1992).

Irene Birute Katele, Captains and Corsairs: Venice and Piracy, 1261—1381 (Maritime, Pirates, Naval, Military,Medieval) (Ph.D., Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne, 1986). Like Angelos and Madden, Katele did herwork under Donald E. Queller.

Catherine Wendy Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth-CenturyAdriatic (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1992).

69 Ilona Klein, The Order of Santo Stefano in the Levant: An Unpublished Account of a Voyage in 1621 (Berkeley:Univ. of California Press, 1990). Also see Giuseppe Gino Guarnieri, J Cavalieri di Santo Stefatto nella storia dellaMarina italiana (1562—1859) (1960), and L'ordine di Santo Stefano net suoi aspetti organizzativi intemi e navali sotto ilGran Magistero Lorenese (1965).

For example, Brian Pullen's Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice (Oxford: Blackwell, 1971) and his morerecent The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1560-1670 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), a social history ofa maritime port, but strictly speaking neither a maritime nor a naval history, save in the sense that any history ofa port could be defined as maritime.

Augusta Molinari, Le navi di lazzaro: aspetti sanitari delVemigrazione transoceanica italiana: il viaggioper mare (Milan:Angeli, 1988).

Although not concerned with naval and maritime history, of some interest is Jonathan Morris, "ItalianJournals: A User's Guide," Contemporary European History (1992).

Francesco Lefebvre d'Ovidio, "Politica e strategia britannica nel Mediterraneo, 1936-1939," Storia epolitica(1978); "L'ltalia e la conferenza navale di Londra del 1930," Storia epolitica (1978).

Luigi Carillo Castioni, "I radar industriali italiani. Ricerche, ricordi, considerazioni per una loro storia." Storiacontemporanea (1987). Rivista marittima had published a series of articles on radar by Ugo Tiberio, but Castioni'swas the first systematic treatment of the subject. See Ugo Tiberio, Ugo, "Cenni sull'opera della Marina italiananel campo radiotecnico durante la guerra, 1940-1945," "Un ricedisturbatore antiradar italiano del 1942," and"Ricordo del primo radar navale italiano," Rivista marittima (1948, 1976, 1976).

printed Salvatore Bono's article on buying Turkish slaves for papal galleys, andthe Centre de recherches sur 1'evolution de la vie rurale issued Marie-ClaudeDionnet's study on the Abruzzi.

Judging from recent publications in early modern maritime and naval history,it would seem that the subject is doing relatively well in Italy. In addition tolocal and regional histories, such as those noted above, there are a number ofstudies on the early modern and late medieval periods. Franco Gay has published

77

numerous works on Venetian history, Gino Benvenuti contributed 300 pages onthe maritime republics to the Quest'Italia series,     Raflaella Brunetti and Lorenza

70

Mazzino have written a popular history of Genoa's naval leaders, Pierangelo Cam-podonico has published works on Genovese mariners in the middle ages and theRenaissance, and Cesare Ciano has written excellent monographs on Mediceanmaritime history. A number of works deal with shipbuilding, and a good deal hasbeen written on the arsenal at Venice.    There are also works on the Venetian

Salvatore Bono, "Achat d'eclaves turcs pour les galleres pontificales (xvie—xviii siecles)," Revue deVoccident musulman et de la Mediteranee (1985).

Marie-Claude Dionnet, L'Abruzze maritime: un mezzogiomo en evolution (Pisa: Biblioteca del BollettinoStorico Pisano, 1986). Also see Terence K. Hopkins and Immanuel Wallerstein, "Capitalism and theIncorporation of New Zones into the World Economy," Review (Fernand Braudel Center) (1987).

For example, Franco Gay, "Fantasticherie galleggianti, splendori e ricchezze delle feste acquaticheveneziane," Rivista marittima (1982); "Port Louis, un museo navale nuovo, Una proposta per l'Arsenaledi Venezia," Rivista marittima (1976); "La campagna navale del 1810-1811 in Adriatico," Rivista Marittima(1977); and Le navi delta Marina Militare italiana (Rome: Salomone, 1977).

78 Gino Benvenuti, Le repubbliche marinare: Amalfi, Pisa, Genova e Venezia: la nascith, le vittorie, le lotte eil tramonto dellegloriose cittd-stato die dal Medioevo al XVIII secolo dominarono il Mediterraneo (1989). Also thelate Angelo Iachino's Le marine italiane nella battaglia di Lepanto (1971), a 48-page volume published bythe Accademia nazionale dei Lincei.

RafFaella Brunetti and Lorenza Mazzino, Guerre eguerrierigenovesi (Genoa: D'Amore Editore, 1989).Also see Giuseppe Gavotti, Battaglie navali delta Repubblica di Genova (1990).

Pierangelo Campodonico, Navi e marinari genovesi nell'etd di Cristoforo Colombo (Genova: EdizioniColombo, 1991), and La marineria genovese dal medioevo all'unith d'ltalia (1991).

Cesare Ciano, Iprimi Medici e il mare: note sulla politica marinara toscana da Cosimo I a Ferdinando I (Pisa:Pacini, 1980), and La sanith marittima nell'eth medicea (Pisa: Bollettino Storico Pisano, 1976).

Franco Gay, Le costruzioni navali nelVArsenate di Venezia (Rome: Rivista Marittima, 1989); GuglielmoZanelli, L'Arsenale di Venezia (Venice: Centro Internazionale della Grafica di Venezia, 1991); UgoPizzarello, Pietre e legni dell'arsenate di Venezia (Venice: Cooperativa editoriale l'altra Riva, 1988); GiorgioBellavistis, L'Arsenale di Venezia (Venice: Marsilio Editore, 1983); Romano Chirvi, Franco Gay, MaurizioCrovato, Guglielmo Zanelli, L'Arsenale dei Veneziani (Venice: Filippi Editore, 1983); Frederic C. Lane,Navires et constructeurs h Venise pendant la Renaissatice (Paris: Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 1965);Cesare August Levi, Navi da guerra costruite nell'Arsenate di Venezia dal 1664 al 1896 (Venice: A. Forni,1983), a reissue of an 1892 study; and Renato Fadda, "L'Arsenale di Venezia," Editizia Militare (1983);Frederic C. Lane, Navires et constructeurs h Venise pendant la Renaissance (Paris: SEVPEN, 1965); and BrunoCaizzi, Industria e commercio della Repubblica Veneta net xviii secolo (Milan: banca Commerciale Italiana,1965). Also see Giuseppe Mataluno, "Cenni storici sull'arsenale M. M. di Taranto" Rivista marittima(1986), and La Spezia e l'Arsenale MM: mostra storica 1860-1960, 3-21 agosto 1960, Palazzo degli Studi,Piazza Verdi: catalogo (1961); and Domenico Sella, Commerci e Industrie a Venezia net secolo XVII (Venice:Istituto per la Collaborazione Culturale, 1961).

gondola and galley,    Mario Murino has examined early maritime law,    andGiorgio Silvini has analyzed the role of Venice and Portugal in the spice trade.There are also, as noted earlier, general surveys and local and regional historiesof ports such as Triest and maritime provinces like Liguria that run the gamut

from scholarly monographs of notarial contracts to broad popular surveys

.     •      86spanning centuries.

There are also a large number of museums and local maritime archives in

Italy, and as Dr. Sullivan has noted, the Universities of Pisa and Rome offer

naval courses, and the University of Naples has a department of maritime

sciences.     Among the better known museums are the Museo Storico Navale

Venezia,    La Spezia's Museo Tecnico Navale    and Genoa's Museo Navale.

Italians have been a maritime people for centuries, and there are still numerous

organizations in Italy that concern themselves with naval and maritime affairs.

Graziella Chiesa Buttazzi, Venezia e la sua gondola (Milan: Gorlich, 1974); Gabriella Cargasacchi,Neve, La gondola (Venice: Arsenale Cooperativa Editoriale, 1975); and Giorgio Crovato, MaurizioCrovato, and Luigi Divari, Bardie della laguna di Venezia (Venice: Arsenale Cooperatrice Editrice, 1980);Guglielmo Zanelli, Silvio Testa, Quirino del Brazolo, Squeraroli e squeri (Venice: Ente Gondola, 1986);and Giovanbattista Rubin de Cervin Albrizzi, Bateau e Batellerie de Venise (Lausanne: Edita, 1978).

Mario Murino, Andar per mare nel Medioevo: le antiche consuetudini marittime italiane (Chieti: VecchioFaggjo Editore, 1988). Also see Riniero Zeno, Storia del diritto marittimo italiano nel Mediterraneo (Milan:Giuffre, 1946), and G. Cassandro, "La formazione del diritto marittimo veneziano," Annali di storia deldiritto (Milan: Giuffre, 1968-69).85  Giorgio Silvini, Venezia e Portogallo sulla via delle spezie (1498-1517) (Treviso: TET, 1982).

For example, Franco Gay, Le navi della Marina militare italiana (Rome: Salomone, 1978); and withElio Ando and Frano Bargoni, Orizzonte mare: il naviglio militare italiano dal 1861 alia 2"guerra mondiale(Rome: Bizzarri, 1976), cited by Dr. Sullivan. Also the late Armando Lodolini's heavily illustrated Lerepubbliche del mare (Rome: Ente per la Diffusione e l'Educazione Storica, 1967).

The University of Naples has a Dipartimento Scienze Marittime, and the University of Pisa offerscourses on naval history.

The museum is located at Riva degli Schiavoni 2148, 30100 Venezia, and its current curator isAdmiral Carlo Gottardi, who has discussed some of its holdings in his "La Sala svedese del Museo storiconavale di Venezia," Riuista marittima (1986).

La Spezia's Museum is operated by the Marina Militare and is located on the Piazza Chiodo, 19100La Spezia.

Genoa's Museo Navale is administered by the Servizio Beni Culturali and is located in the Villa Doriaon Piazza Bonavino, 16156 Genoa—Pegli. Also, Mario Marzari, "II museo della marineria di Cesenatico,"Riuista marittima (1986) 119(5); Mostra navale italiana (Genoa, Italy: 1982), 669 pp.; and Mostra navale italian(1986); Velieri di Camogli: la quadreria del Museo marinaro "Gio Bono Ferrari" (1981).

Other museums include (ship models) Museo delle Navi, Via Zamboni 33, 40126 Bologna; MuseoStorico Navale, Campo S. Biagjo 2148, Via degli Schiavoni, 30122 Venice; (Roman Ships) Museo delleNavi, 00049 Nemi; (fishing) Civico Museo del Mare, Via di Campo Marazio 5,34123 Trieste; (flags) MuseoSacrario delle Bandiere della Marina Militare, Vittoriano, Rome; (models, relics, navigation equipment)Civico Museo Navale Didattico, Via San Vittore 21, 20123 Milan; (collection on Amalfi's role as a maritimerepublic) Museo Civico, Piazza Municipo, 84011 Amalfi. There is also a naval museum at Imperia.

Among these are the Centro di Studi sulla Storia della Tecnica at the University of Genoa's Istitutodi Storia Moderna e Contemporanea, Via Balbia 6, 16126 Genoa; the Instituti Policattedra di IngegneriaNavale dell' Univesrsita di Genova, Via Montanello, 16145 Genova; the Associazione Italiana di Diritto

As noted above, there are relatively few monographs on the Risorgimento,and, like Nunzia Elefante's article on the Sardinian navy in 1986 or the piecesby Antonio Formicola and Claudio Romano on the Bourbon navy, theyseem to focus more on the navies of Italian states than on maritime matters.Moreover, aside from Ferrante's study of Thaon di Revel, there are fewbiographies and relatively little recent work on the early twentieth century.But the lack of biographies does not mean that Italy has had no naval heroes.Although such traditional heroes as Andrea Doria spring most easily to mind,there are a number of major and minor twentieth-century naval figures, someof whom have written memoirs or autobiographies,     including RomeoBernotti,    Mario De Monte,    Oscar di Giamberardino,    Angelo Iachino,Franco Maugeri,     Vittorio Tur,       Alfredo Viglieri,       and Alberto Da

Marittimo in Rome, Via Po 1, Palazzo Assitalia; the Istituto Nazionale per Studied Esperienze diArchitettura Navale, Via Corrado Segre 60, 00146 Rome; the Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Storici, ViaBenedetto Croce 12, 80134 Naples; The Instituto di Studi Adriatici, 1364-A Riva 7 Martiri, 30122Venice; and the Istituto per gli Studi di Politica Internazionale, Palazzo Clerici, Via Clerici 5, 20121Milan.

2 Nunzia Esposito Elefante, "La marina Sarda nella guerra di Crimea," Riuista marittima (1986);Antonio Formicola, and Claudio Romano, "L'industria navale nel regno delle due Sicilie sottoFerdinando II," Rivista marittima (1986), and "1860: Marina borbonica ultimo atto," Riuista marittima(1984). Also see La marina militare italiana nel 1848 (Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1948);Giovanni Macchi, "La marina italiana a Creta in una operazione multinazionale di fine ottocento,"Riuista marittima (1985); Arturo Marcheggiano, Arturo, "Le operazioni navali italiane nella prima guerradi indipendenza (1848—49)," Riuista marittima (1984); Sante Romiti, Le marine militari italiane nelRisorgimento, 1748—1861 (1950); and Franco Micali Baratelli, La marina militare italiana nella uita nazionale(1860-1914) (1983).

For recent biographies, Paolo Luigj, Andrea Doria (Milan: Editoriale Nuova, 1984). Among earlierbiographies are Robert Sabatino Lopez, Genoua marinara nel Duecento. Benedetto Zaccaria, ammiraglio emercante (Genoa: 1933), Vol. 17 of the Biblioteca storica Principato series; Alberto Tenenti, CristoforoDa Canal: la marine uenitienne auant Lepante (1962); and Mario Battaglieri, La politica nauale del conte diCauour (1942). And, of course, there are a great many works in Italian and English on Columbus,including Kirpatrick Sale's critical The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy(New York: Knopf, 1990).

For the minor, Alessandro Caldara, Quelli di sottocastello: cronaca di guerra, 1940-1943 (Milan: Mursia,1978); and Dino Selmi, Marb, li ricordi di guerra sul mare, 1940-1943 (Pisa: Giardini, 1977).

Romeo Bernotti, Cinquant'anni nella Marina militare (Milan: Mursia, 1972); Storia della guerra inMediterraneo, 1940-1943 (Rome: 1960).

Mario De Monte, Uomini ombra. Ricordi di un addetto al seruizio segreto nauale, 1939—1943 (Rome:Nuova Editoriale Marinara Italiana, 1955). Also see Giovanni Roccardi, Gioco d'ala (Rome: Trevi, 1981).

Oscar Di Giamberardino, La marina nella tragedia nazionale (Rome: Danesi in via Margutta, 1947);and La politica bellica nella tragedia nazionale (Rome: Polin, 1945).

See Dr. Sullivan's paper and footnote 55, above, for Iachino's works.

Franco Maugeri, From the Ashes of Disgrace (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1948); Ricordi di unmarinaio: la Marina italiana dai primi del Nouecento al secondo dopoguerra nelle memorie di uno dei suoi capi(Milan: Mursia, 1980).

Vittorio Tur, Plancia ammiraglio (Rome: Editzioni moderne, 1958).

Alfredo Viglieri, In mare, in terra, in cielo. Vicetide di pace e di guerra (1915-1945) (Milan: Mursia, 1977).

Zara.1 That more biographies are not being done is probably due to the associationof such figures as Costanzo Ciano and Gabriele D'Annunzio with the fascistregime and the tendency of the Italian services to credit units, such as the X Mas,rather than commanders, like Julio Borghese, with spectacular performances—atendency that has also created the impression that Italy had no aces during WorldWar II.104

But while I am not particularly pessimistic with regard to Italy, I am less sanguinewhen contemplating the future of Italian naval and maritime studies in this country.Not only does it appear that most Americans, including academics, have little interestin the field, but if the Pentagon's budget is cut, surely one of the first things to go,aside from low-level personnel, will be the historians. It thus might be worthconsidering ways in which to stimulate interest in naval and maritime studies, andby extension, military, diplomatic, and political history, because all of these sufferfrom the same diseases—the hegemony of social history within academics and thegeneral indifference to things Italian among the general public, which includespublishers and editors. Finding a niche in the curriculum can thus be as difficultas finding a publisher in this country.

One way to promote naval and maritime history is, of course, to recast it associal history by rejecting Mahan and embracing Braudel.      This, I think, will

102 Alberto da Zara, Pelle d'ammiraglio (Milan: Le Scie, 1949).

Ciano and D'Annunzio thus tend to be thought of as subjects for studies on "fascism," not on navalor maritime history, and it is reassuring to know that there is a recent biography on Costanzo Ciano.For example, Gioacchino Volpe, Gabriele D'Annunzio: L'italiano, il politico, il combattetite (Rome: Volpe,1981); Giovanni Rizzo, D'Annunzio e Mussolini: la uerita sui loro rapporti (Rocco San Casciano: F. Cappelli,1960); or Ludovico Domenico, Gli auiatori italiani del bombardamento nellaguerra 1915—1918 (Rome: UfficioStorico Aeronautica Militare, 1980), which stresses D'Annunzio impact on air operations, and GiovanniBattista Giuriati, Con D'Annunzio e Millo in difesa dell'Adriatico (Florence: Sansoni, 1954). Franco Cordovaand Michael Ledeen therefore both treated D'Annunzio and the occupation of Fiume in 1919—20 as"political" subjects. Similarly, even though he headed the seamen's union, Giuseppe Giulietti has acquireda political aura; see his biography, Pax Mundi (Naples: Rispoli, 1945).

For an example of the tendency to deal with the unit, Maurizio Circi, 30° stormo idrovolanti. Notestoriche dal 1931 al 1974 (Rome: Ufficio Storico Aeronautica Militare/Bizzarri, 1974); Antonio Duma,Quelli del cauallino rampante. Storia del 4° stormo caccia (Rome: Ateneo, 1981); Nino Arena, 50° stormod'assalto (Modena: STEM, 1979); Alberto Borgiotti, 97° gruppo autonomo bombardamento a tuffo1940-1941: Sicilia, Balcani, Africa Settentrionale (Rome: Ateneo & Bizzarri). Also Junio Valerio Borghese,Sea Deuils, op. cit., also wrote a history of his unit rather than an autobiography.

This certainly has been my experience. Evidently books on Italy, whether on prostitution in theRenaissance or nineteenth-century military policy, do not sell well in this country. As one editor of amajor publishing house, both of which shall remain anonymous, wrote me regarding a manuscript onthe Italian Navy during World War II, "surely the obsession with Germany is a correct one" because"Anglo—Italian clashes" were "thoroughly unimportant" in the "Battle of the Atlantic."

For example, Alvarez Javier Guillamon, "Congresso historico: ciudad y mar en la edad moderna,"Contrastes (Spain) (1985), describes a September 1984 conference in Cartagena that focussed on (1)geographical framework and urban development, (2) demography and socioprofessional structures, (3)economic bases and productive factors, (4) market and commercial relations, (5) institutional and militaryaspects, and (6) maritime science and techniques. Or one could follow the example of David A. Cappell,

occur in the field of contemporary naval studies as it has in the field of earlymodern naval and maritime history. Such a shift in emphasis would undoubtedlybe healthy because it would expand the horizons of those of us who dabble innaval and maritime history as well as those of our colleagues who do not. Butwhile such a shift will be relatively easy for Italian historians, who are close toarchival sources, it will be more difficult for those of us who survive by usingpublished sources, at least until a solid foundation of published documents andmonographs on naval and maritime history is available.

Another way to promote naval and maritime history is to do colonial andtransnational studies. But this will be difficult, since one of the characteristics ofnaval histories is that they tend to be parochial, and too often hyperbolicallypatriotic, which is certainly one of the reasons that the field is not taken seriously

1 07

by many historians. Yet in the case of Italian navies, such an approach makesconsiderable sense, since the essence of Italian naval and maritime history is itsdiversity and the interaction of the navies of Italian states over the centuries witheach other and with surrounding naval forces, whether Barbary corsairs, Dal-matian Uskoks and the Turkish fleet in the early modern period; the French fleetand the Austrian navy during the Napoleonic wars and the Risorgimento; or the

108

British and Austrian fleet during this century.

By its very nature, naval and maritime history is part of an internationalpolitical, economic, social, and diplomatic history, and it should not be containedwithin narrow national boundaries but connected to the wider world. Draganivojinovi has done this for the Dalmatian littoral by focusing on topics as diverseas the role of naval officers in the Adriatic during the unsettled period of 1918—21and the relations between Dubrovnik and the American colonies in the late1700s.       Indeed,  cities such as Dubrovnik—Ragusa,  Rijeka—Fiume,  Split—

"Shipboard Relations between Pacific Island Women and Euroamerican Men, 1767-1887',"Journal of PacificHistory (1992), and write on such topics as "madamismo" in Italian East African ports and aboard Italian ships.

For example, the exaggeration of the role played by British submarines in the Adriatic during WorldWar I in Paul Kemp and Peter Jung, "Five Broken Down B Boats: British Submarine Operations inthe Northern Adriatic, 1915-1917," Warship International (1989).

1 Oft

For example, Gligor Stanojevi, Senjski Uskoci (Belgrade: Vojnoizdavaki Zavod, 1973); and AlbertoTenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice, 1580-1615 (London: Longman, 1967), originally published asVenezia e i corsari, 1580-1615 (Bari: Laterza, 1961); and Giulio Giacchero, Pirati barbareschi, schiavi egaleotti nella storia e nella leggenda ligure (1970), a volume in the Scaffaletto Genovese series. Tenenti dealtwith Uskoks, Barbary Corsairs, and English, Spanish, Maltese and Florentine pirates. Unfortunately, thetendency is to draw a line through the middle of the Adriatic and treat one side as Italian, the other aseastern European, e.g., Apostolos E. Vacalopoulos, Constantinos D. Svolopoulos, and Bela K. Kiraly,eds., Southeast European Maritime Commerce and Naval Policies from the Mid-Eighteenth Century to 1914(Boulder: Columbia Univ. Press, 1988), vol. 23 of the War and Society in East Central Europe series.The volume discusses the British, French, Austrian, and even American navies, and policy in the Adriaticand on the Danube, but Italy is largely ignored.

Dragan ivojinovi, Amerika reuolucija i dubrovaka republika, 1763-1790 (Belgrade: Prosveta, 1976), and"The United States and its Unknown Role in the Adriatic Conflicts of 1918-21" (1989), OccasionalPaper, East European Program, European Institute, n. 15.

Sadkovich     211

Spalato, Zadar—Zara, Pola—Pula, and Sibenik—Sebenico are as integral to Italianhistory as Trst—Triest, Venice, or Bari, and the Adriatic is as international a seaas the Tyrrhennian, Ionian, or Mediterranean. Although the tendency is tosee the Adriatic as dividing Italy from eastern Europe, it is clear that the sea unitesthe Italian to the Balkan peninsula, and authors as diverse as Paolo Alatri andBernard Stulli have dealt with the connection in one context or another.

To the extent that the Adriatic, Tyrrhenian, Black, and Red Seas areextensions of the Mediterranean, Italian naval and maritime history forms anintegral part of Italian colonial and imperial history. In a sense, Austrian, Italian,French, and Balkan history—whether Turkish, Yugoslav, Greek, or Albanian—-are therefore complementary. But while there are studies ranging from theexpansion of the early maritime empires into the Black sea to the role played bythe Italian Navy in colonial expansion in Africa in this century, there is a greatdeal that can still be done. For example, to the best of my knowledge, there areno comprehensive histories of the Adriatic or Tyrrhenian seas that would

integrate a variety of approaches over time, as Braudel did almost a half-century

•I'll

ago for the Mediterranean.

Finally, let me note that while relatively few publishers and journals take aconsistent interest in naval and maritime history, there are a number of journals

For the Adriatic, its cities, and its fleets, see Lawrence Thomas Sondhaus, Austria and the Adriatic: TheDevelopment o/Habsburg Maritime Policy, 1797-1866 (Ph.D., University of Virginia, 1986); Lothar Hobelt,"Die Marine," Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 (1987); Karl Gogg, Osterreichs Kriegsmarine, 1848-1918(Salzburg: Verlag das Berland-Buch, 1967); Roberto Cessi, La Repubblica di Venezia e ilproblema adriatico(Naples: 1953); Barisa Kreki, Dubrovnik et le Levant au Moyen Age (Paris: Mouton, 1961), and Dubrovnikin the 14th and 15th Centuries (Norman, Okla.: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1972).

111 Paolo Alatri, Nitti, D'Annunzio e la questione adriatica (Milan: Feltrinelli, 1959), and Bernard Stulli,"Talijanski historiografija i jadranska irredentizam," Hrvatski Zbomik (1954). Also see Milan Marjanovi,Borba zajadran, 1914—1946: Iredenta i imperializam (Split: 1953); Vjekoslav Mastrovi, Kako je svrhnaokupacija Zadra 1918. godina (Zadar: 1951); and Berislav Viskovi, "Ratna 1943. Godina kao presudaforza bitke zajadran," Vojnoistoriski Glasnik (1984); Ferdo ulinovi, Rijeka drava (Zagreb, 1953).

For example, Kenneth M. Setton, Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century(Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1991); or Juliette Bessis, La Mediterranie fasciste: I'ltaliemussolinienne et la Tunisie (Pairs: Editions Karthala, 1981). Although neither of these is a naval history,the interaction of the Mediterranean states makes a transnational approach natural for maritime and navalhistory.

The Italian Foreign Ministry's Comitato per la documentazione dell'opera dell'Italia in Africasponsored a series of studies on the work of the Italian services overseas, including that by GiuseppeFioravanzo and Guido Viti on the navy, L'ltalia in Africa. Serie Storico-militare. Vol. II. L'opera della marina(1868-1943) (Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1959). But the work is now rather dated. Amongworks on the subject, see Vittorio Giglio and Angelo Ravenni, Le guerre coloniali d'ltalia (Milan: FrancescoVallardi, 1942); Luigi Goglia, "Sulla politica coloniale fascista," Storia contemporanea (1988); and E. S.Zevakin and A. Penko, "Ricerche sulla storia delle colonie genovesi nel Caucaso occidentale nei secoliXIII-XIV," in Miscellanea di Studi Storici (Genoa: Istituto di Medievistica, 1969), vol. I. There have beena great number of works published on Italy's colonial policy over the past fifteen to twenty years, butthey have tended to focus on land operations, economics, and diplomacy rather than maritime or navalmatters, even though the Navy played a crucial role in the Italian conquests of Libya in 1911-12 andEthiopia in 1935-6.

212    Comments

that will publish works on naval and maritime history. In Italy, Rivista marittima,Bollettino d'Archivio dell'Ufficio Storico delta Marina Militare, Panorama Difesa, StoriaMilitate, and Rivista Italiana Difesa regularly publish articles dealing with navaland maritime history, technique, and current policy, as do such organizationsas Genoa's Istituto Medievistica. Storia contemporanea, Storia e politica,Archivio Storico Italiano, Nuova Rivista Storica, Rivista Storica Italiana, Quad-erni Stefaniani, and Rassegna Storica della Liguria have also published essayson naval and maritime history. In this country, aside from the Naval War CollegeReview and the United States Naval Institute Press, there are few outlets for navalhistorians, although, as with major publishers, major journals will publish articles

117

on maritime and naval history. In Italy, a handful of editorial houses publishthe bulk of the books on maritime and naval history, among them ErmannoAlbertelli, who publishes Bagnasco and others; Mursia, which has publishedGiorgerini; and Edizioni delTAteneo e Bizzarri, which publishes a variety ofair-naval studies. In this country a major press, such as Johns Hopkins, mightissue a work like that by Davis on early modern maritime history, but they shyaway from works on World War II Italian naval history, leaving only Greenwood

118

and a few publishing houses in England, like Frank Cass.

What is needed, it seems to me, is some way to provide more outlets forarticles on naval and maritime history that are not associated with a serviceinstitute, and to create an organization that would provide a network for thoseof us interested in the area, even if we teach in such places as Hattiesburg,Mississippi where merely keeping up with the literature is an impossible task andwhere beauty pageants, the NFL draft, and the Dixie League are of much moreimmediate interest to most people than naval and maritime history.

See Ezio Ferrente, La Rivista Marittima dallafondazione ai nostrigiomi. La storia, gli autori, le idee (Rome:Rivista Marittima, 1986). My thanks to Admiral Pascazio and Professor Alberto Santoni for calling myattention to these publications, some of which Dr. Sullivan has also mentioned.

Or the Deputazione di Storia Patria per le Venezie, which publishes the Archivio Veneto.

For example, Cesare Ciano, "Considerazioni sulla disciplina a bordo delle navi mediterranee nelXVII secolo," (1987); Franco Gay, "L'Arsenale di Venezia," (1984). Quaderni Stefaniani is published inPisa.

117

Contemporary European History, the Journal of Strategic Studies, and the Journal of Contemporary History,the Journal of Modem History, Economic History Review, and the Journal of European Economic History alsohave published pieces on Italian naval or maritime history. Other possible outlets include, but are notlimited to journals such as the Mediterranean Historical Review, War & Society, Revue intemationale d'histoiremilitaire, Aeronautical mensile dell'aviazione italiana, Marine Rundschau, Revue d'histoire de la deuxieme guerremondiale et des conflits contemporains, Archivio storico marina, and The Mariner's Mirror.

Among other editorial houses that have published works on Italian naval history are Biblioteca delBollettino Storico Pisano (Pisa) and Istituto di Medievistica (Genoa); Harvard Univ. Press; and theIstituto Storico Germanico in Roma. But only the Istituto di Medievistica in Genoa has a large list oftitles, which include the works of Laura Balletto.

17Japan

Mark R. Peattie and David C. Evans

Fifty years ago Alexander Kiralfy, writing about Japanese naval thought,asserted that the Japanese "lack interest in waters which do not directlyconcern them." Allowing for a certain degree of wartime ignorance andprejudice about the Japanese enemy which he displayed in the article, Kiralfyhad a point. For reasons that have to do with geography and history, Japan'smaritime interests throughout its history have been mostly limited to its homewaters and to those of the northeast Asian littoral. Only for one brief period,1940—1945, did those interests stretch as far as the mid-Pacific, southeast Asia,and the eastern Indian Ocean.

This regional focus, or "continental strategy," as Clark Reynolds would haveit, has meant that modern Japanese naval thought has been subjective, ratherthan objective, concerned with the specific application of the principles of seapower to the Japanese case, rather than with the study of sea power as a generalhistorical phenomenon about which broad judgments can be drawn. Even themost erudite of Japan's modern naval thinkers, Sato Tetsutaro, sometimesmistakenly referred to as the "Japanese Mahan," framed his arguments solely fora Japanese audience. While the evidence on which he rested his ponderous andsomewhat mystical On the History of Imperial Defense (1908) was drawn fromexamples of the naval and maritime history of the West, his theoretical point ofreference was exclusively Japanese. Those lesser Japanese naval writers whofollowed after Sato in the 1920s and 1930s were even more subjective in theirconcerns. In the decade immediately prior to the Pacific War, Japanese navalthought, expounded by civilians as well as naval professionals, was essentiallydirected toward the mobilization and increase of Japanese naval power and thedefeat of the American naval enemy.

General State of the Field in Postwar Japan

Given its outcome, it is not surprising that the Pacific War did nothing tobroaden the Japanese perspective on naval matters and, indeed, in one sense

Alexander Kiralfy, "Japanese Naval Strategy," in Edward Earle et al., eds., Makers of Modem Strategy:Military Thought from Machiavelli to Hitler (New Jersey:  Princeton Univ. Press, 1943), pp. 457-84.

further narrowed its focus on national concerns. Certainly, any discussion of thestate of naval history in postwar Japan must begin with the impact of the PacificWar on that nation. Not only did that conflict shape the view of the Japanesepublic toward the subject of military history in general, but the nation's defeatin that war and the Imperial Japanese Navy's role in it have shaped the concernsof those who have been most active in thinking and writing about naval history.

To begin with, for decades after its conclusion there was a general turningaway from the rationale for the Pacific War by the majority of the Japanesepeople. Civilian scholars, indifferent if not hostile to operational history, soughtexplanations for Japan's defeat in the nation's pre-war political, economic, andsocial systems. Those who were concerned with the Navy's operational historywere those former officers who had served in the Navy. But there wereinhibitions to writing about it publicly, even for those naval professionals, forthe undeniable fact was that the history of the Japanese Navy ended badly.Whatever the early triumphs of the Imperial Japanese Navy, its humiliatingdemise cast a pall of gloom over its story. In the United States, following navalvictory on two oceans, there were hundreds of thousands of Navy veterans wholooked forward to reading about the triumphant campaigns in which they hadtaken part. In Japan, a large portion of the potential audience rested at the bottomof the ocean and that portion which survived wished largely to forget the traumaof war. In the early postwar years, moreover, the existence of the war crimestribunals undoubtedly had a chilling effect on the publications and pronounce-ments of anyone who had held a responsible position in either of the two servicesduring the war.

Nevertheless, in the first decades after the war, a small group of formerJapanese naval officers did begin sifting through the ashes of defeat to study thepre-war navy, seeking answers as to how and why it played a leading role in theinitiation of the war, and how and why it was defeated in the end. With theestablishment of the War History Office in 1955 as part of the Japanese DefenseAgency, their central effort, along with that of a number of former ImperialArmy officers, was channeled into participation in the research and writing ofwhat eventually became the official Senshi sosho, (War History Series), more thanone hundred volumes recounting the activities of both services in the China andPacific wars. Over the course of time, building on their work on the Senshi sosho,through books and articles they wrote as individuals, a number of these formerNavy men-turned historian—Normura Minoru and Seukuni Masao, to nametwo of the most prominent—came to enjoy a solid reputation in the field fortheir firsthand knowledge and for their professional integrity. Other formerNavy officers not connected with the project have produced important workson the war: Chihaya Masataka has written on strategy, 6i Atsushi on antisub-marine warfare, and Torisu Kennosuke on submarine operations. It has been bythe hands of these men that such operational history of the Japanese Navy as

exists has been preserved since 1945. On the whole, their work has been highlyinformative and often usefully analytical. But to much of the academic com-munity in postwar Japan, their writings have lacked intellectual rigor, theirsubject matter has been seen as irrelevant, and they have been regarded,sometimes unfairly, as apologists for the old navy.

In any event, what has distinguished the work of these men from that of theircounterparts in the West has been the absence of personal controversy amongthemselves and of any open professional debate as to the principal navalcampaigns of the war or as to the reputations of the foremost naval commanderswho conducted them (some of whom were their direct superiors). In part thismay be due to the Navy's traditional reputation as the silent service, but moreimportantly, perhaps, to the Japanese cultural tradition which does not en-courage the open airing of disputes or assaults on the reputations and characterof individuals. Nor does it permit a Japanese, no matter how highly placed, toclaim achievements for himself, a fact that explains the absence of any real navalautobiographies of the free-wheeling, now-I-can-tell-it variety known in theWest. Those autobiographies which do exist are often simply records of longinterviews conducted at the behest of disciples. There are, of course, dozens ofdetailed biographies, often being the product of committees composed of theadmirers of the naval figure in question; they too often concentrate on externalsand the inconsequential.

Though in the immediate postwar decades the academic community itself,by and large, continued to avoid naval history as a suspect field, establishedscholars (political scientists and international relations specialists for the mostpart) and front-rank publishing houses touched upon naval matters in a numberof major publications. The collections of primary sources like the Documentson Modern History [Gendai shi shiryo] (1962—70) and analytical histories such asThe Road to the Pacific War [Taiheiyo senso e no michi\ (1962—63) contained a wealthof information on the Navy and served as departure points for a myriad of morespecialized studies on the role of the Navy in the modernization of Japan and inthe origins of the Pacific War.

In the past several decades, moreover, younger academics, educated after thewar and thus with no particular bias for or against the pre-war Navy, have begunto enter the field. Many have furthered the study of the Navy's involvement inthe origins of the Pacific War, though their perspective is almost entirely that ofinternational relations, domestic politics, or foreign policy. Asada Sadao ofDoshisha University, publishing in both Japanese and English, has establishedhimself as the world's authority on Japan's role in the interwar naval treatysystem. I to Takashi of Tokyo University has done important work on the Navy'sactions in politics. Ikeda Kiyoshi of Tohoku University has produced a surveyhistory and a set of critical essays on the old Navy. Others have sought to broadenthe study of the Navy in the Pacific War into such non-operational topics as the

character and impact of the Navy's administration of those occupied areasassigned to the Navy in Southeast Asia. Still others have sought to push back thestudy of their nation's naval history to the Meiji (1868—1912) and Taisho(1912—1926) periods, illuminating new aspects of the Navy's history: finances,statutes, personnel policies, education, institutions, and other topics whichreflect, to a certain extent, the "new military history" so much in vogue in theWest.

The quality of these nonoperational studies is generally good. Yet, what stillcharacterizes almost all the study of naval history in postwar Japan, either byformer naval personnel or by civilian scholars, is that which characterized itbefore the war: its subjective quality, its absolute absorption in the Japanese case.Still lacking is any major work in Japanese which has attempted to provideobservations on sea power with global, rather than just national, implications,or any major work that has made wide use of primary sources for a study of thenaval history of any Western nation (although articles appear on such topics fromtime to time), or any that has sought to place Japanese naval thought and historyin a comparative context. Until such studies appear, Japanese naval history, forall its intrinsic interest and importance, will remain isolated by language and bynarrowness of perspective, a monologue in what should be a dialogue.

The public attitude toward Japan's naval past has been ambivalent to say theleast. On the one hand, books and magazines for the layman relay masses ofinformation on the old Imperial Navy, its ships, its planes, and especially itsexploits during the Pacific War. Some years ago, model kits of the super-bat-tleship Yamato were among the top sellers in Japanese toy stores, and a recentNHK (government) television documentary series on the Pacific War, whichfeatured the major naval engagements in the Pacific, 1941—1945, drew a wideaudience. On the other hand, any governmental efforts to promote publicrespect or reverence for Japan's military past can be expected to meet stout publicresistance, particularly from the political left, as witnessed by the heated protestsover the occasional visits by the Emperor and various Japanese prime ministersto Yasukuni Shrine, dedicated to the spirits of Japan's military dead. Indeed, thegeneral public acceptance of the present Maritime Defense Force, like the otherDefense Forces, rests upon the assumption that it is qualitatively different fromits hugely more prestigious Imperial predecessor.   A third element, the most

In this connection, the authors recall that, on a visit to the First Service School of the MaritimeSelf-Defense Force at Etajima (the site of the prewar Academy) in 1985, they stopped in to view thenaval museum and were surprised to see at the top of the grand stairway leading into the building atriptych of portraits: Togo HeihachirS, Horatio Nelson, and John Paul Jones. Later, when asked whatsort of message the last portrait was intended to convey to aspiring young Japanese naval cadets, thesuperintendent of the Service School replied somewhat vaguely that it was the duty of the Self-DefenseForce to instill "a spirit of internationalism" in its graduates. Clearly, it meant that, while Togo wassufficiently removed in time to be an acceptable icon to postwar Japanese naval officers, and while theaddition of Nelson's portrait paid tribute to British tutelage of the Japanese Navy in its infancy, the

conservative band in the Japanese political spectrum, further complicates publicattitudes toward Japanese naval history. Though small in numbers, its power toinfluence scholarly discourse on military matters is out of proportion to its size.While this influence is difficult to gauge with any accuracy, it does appear tolimit research into topics deemed too delicate, such as the relationship of theImperial family to the pre-war Navy, or too revered, such as the reputation ofAdmiral Togo, to be appropriate subjects for unrestricted scrutiny and discussion.The authors have been told by younger Japanese naval historians on more thanone occasion that foreign researchers are able to write about the Imperial Navyin ways that would not be possible for them. Such assertions do not in any wayimply that contemporary Japanese naval historians have maintained anything lessthan the highest professional standards in their work, but they do indicate thatJapanese researchers are obliged to be a bit more guarded in their judgments andin their choice of subjects than are their counterparts in the West.

Institutions Promoting the Study of Naval History

The principal element of the Japanese government involved in promotingthe study of naval history in Japan is the Japanese Defense Agency, both throughits instruction at the various service academies (see below) and through theresearch activities of the Military History Department (Senshi-bu, which suc-ceeded the War History Office) of the National Institute for Defense Studies.Since the completion of the Senshi sosho series, the mission of the Departmenthas broadened to include research on military and naval history in general,though the thrust of its studies is largely related to Japan and the rest of Asia.Though the faculty of the department contributes to scholarly journals outsidethe Defense Agency, the purpose of the department is essentially the trainingand education of members of the Japanese Defense Forces.

More specifically devoted to the promotion of studies on the former ImperialNavy is the Japanese Navy History Preservation Association (Kaigun RekishiHozonkai), a semi-governmental foundation affiliated with the Defense Agency.At present, the main efforts of the association are directed toward the compilationof a ten-to-twelve volume narrative history, with substantial appendices, of theImperial Navy.

Two private institutions promote the study of naval history to varying degrees.The larger of these, the Military History Society (Gunjishi Gakkai), was foundedin 1955 to bring together both scholars and military professionals interested infurthering the study of military history in general. While the focus of its interestis largely that of land warfare, its regularly published journal, Military History

inclusion of any Japanese commanders from the Pacific War, such as Yamamoto Isoroku, OzawaJisaburo, or Nagumo Chuichi, could only create an image problem for the Self-Defense Force. Far saferto honor an American naval hero whose combat experience had nothing to do with Japan and whosereputation, in any event, was largely unknown to the Japanese.

[Gunjisht] occasionally carries articles of naval interest. It is a sign of the slowlyincreasing respectability of military history among Japanese academic circles thatthe Society was admitted as a member of the Science Council of Japan in 1984.A smaller institution, The Navy Library (Kaigun Bunko) in Tokyo, is devotedentirely to the study of Japanese naval history and its regularly published journal,Navy History Research [Kaigunshi Kenkyu], presents articles almost exclusivelyfocused on the Imperial Navy and largely based on materials possessed by theLibrary.

Resource Collections and Basic Sources

The library of the Military History Department of the National Institute forDefense Studies is a major resource for the study of Japanese military and navalhistory, housing as it does some 25,000 books, 48,000 maps, and 146,000documents, of which 33,000 deal with naval matters. The library is essentiallyclosed to the public, though limited access is available on a selected basis. TheKaigun Bunko, with approximately 30,000 volumes, is somewhat smaller butsimilarly valuable. Public access to the collection is similarly limited and grantedselectively. The National Diet Library also has a good number of important navalworks, though these do not comprise a major consolidated collection, nor isthere a specialist in naval history on the library staff.

One of the principal difficulties in the study of Japan's modern naval historyis the dearth of primary sources, at least in comparison to those available in majorarchives in the United States and Western Europe. There are a number of reasonsfor this state of affairs, but none is as critical as the wholesale destruction of filesand documents by the Japanese military services and civilian government in theseveral days after the Japanese surrender which ended the Pacific War. It isregrettable, but inevitable, therefore, that there are numerous issues of majorimportance concerning the Japanese Navy and its plans and operations in theChina and Pacific wars that will never be resolved or which will be understoodincompletely because of the absence of adequate documentation. Of course, asignificant portion of the Navy's records did escape destruction and the compilersof the 106—volume Senshi sosho, published from 1966 to 1980 by the AsagumoShimbunsha, have exploited these, supplementing them wherever possible withdiaries and interviews with former Imperial Army and Navy officers.

The thirty-three volumes of the Senshi sosho, which are devoted to navalmatters, therefore, comprise the most detailed, most complete, and mostauthoritative record of the Navy's plans, operations, organization, weaponry,strategy and tactics from 1937 to 1945. One can scarcely research any topicwithin these categories as they relate to the Imperial Navy without consultingthe relevant volumes of the series. Nevertheless the collection not only suffersfrom the usual debilities of official history, but presents a number of problemsto the serious researcher. A practical difficulty is that the series, like most Japanese

scholarly works, includes neither an overall index nor indexes for any of theindividual volumes. More serious is the lack of any interpretive or criticalapproach to the subjects treated. This is due partly to the fact that the hundredor more compilers of the series, most of them former members of the Imperialarmed forces, were reluctant to critique the actions of the major commanders,most of whom were deceased and many of whom were their own superiorofficers. More importantly, most of those involved in this huge effort in researchand writing were untrained in historical inquiry and thus frequently becameabsorbed in accumulating enormous detail without being able to stand back andask larger questions of the material which came under their hands, believing,perhaps, that great masses of fact would naturally and inevitably yield the truth.A final and curious defect in the series is the frequent and unfortunate redundancyfrom volume to volume whereby campaigns and operations are given inexhaustive detail from the standpoints of both services, a ghostly echo of thetraditional rivalry between the Imperial Army and Navy, which reacheddangerous levels during the Pacific War.

The Senshi sosho comprise only the largest and best known of the publishedcollections which deal, inter alia, with the Japanese Navy. While even a partiallisting of the histories on specialized naval topics is impossible to provide here,by way of example we note the History of Naval Organization [Kaigun seidoenkaku], originally produced by the Navy Ministry in the 1930s and reissued intwenty-six volumes by Hara Shobo (1971—72); the four—volume History ofJapanese Naval Aviation [Nihon kaigun kokilshi], published in 1969 and compiledby veterans of the Japanese naval air service: the History of Shipbuilding in theShowa period [Showa zosenshi shi\, a two—volume work published in 1977, ofwhich the second volume is devoted to naval construction from the mid—1920sonward; the two—volume study of the Japanese Navy's use of naval fuels [Nihonkaigun nenryoshi shi\, published in 1972; and the Showa period social andeconomic history collection of Navy Ministry materials [Showa shakai keizaishishusei: Kaigunsho shiryo], which is now being published by the Daito BunkaDaigaku Toy 6 Kenkyujo and contains some important naval documents notfound elsewhere. When it is completed in 1995, the multivolume history of theImperial Navy by the Hozonkai, mentioned earlier, will undoubtedly be a majorresource. Finally, we should mention the existence of a number of importantdiaries of leading figures in the prewar and wartime Japanese Navy, includingthose of Kato Kanji, Ishikawa Shingo, Fujii Shigeru, Takagi Sokichi, NagumoChuichi, and Ugaki Matome, the last of these having recently appeared in anEnglish translation.

With very few exceptions, this material remains untranslated and thusinaccessible to those researchers who cannot read Japanese. But gradually, as thenumber of Western-trained Japanese scholars in the field increases, along withthe number of Western naval historians possessed of Japanese language facility,

220     Japan

we in the West will gain a more sophisticated understanding of Japanese navalhistory.

Instruction in Naval History

Formal study of naval history in Japan is confined to the educationalinstitutions of the Defense Agency.

At the Defense Academy, cadets aiming at a commission in the Japanese

Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) take several courses that include naval

affairs, for example, "Technology and War," "Western Military History" and

"Contemporary Military History." Naval history is the exclusive focus of one

course, "History of Naval War." A prospectus, echoing Mahan—who enjoys a

high reputation seemingly undiminished by time and change among JMSDF-I

officers -—states that it "examines the influence of sea power on the rise and fallof states." Instructors of this course are normally senior JMSDF officers who havedone a stint as scholars of naval history at the National Institute for DefenseStudies. In recent years, all have been active scholars. Toyama Saburo, a PacificWar veteran and rear admiral, JMSDF (ret.), published an exhaustive study ofthe battles of the Russo-Japanese War and several other books of naval battlehistory. Nomura Minoru, already mentioned in connection with the Senshisosho, wrote on the Navy's role in the politics of the prewar period and manyother subjects. Hirama Yoichi, the current Professor of Maritime DefenseStudies, has published on the Japanese Navy in World War I, the influence ofSun Tzu on naval thinking, and other topics.

At the JMSDF Staff School, lieutenants and lieutenant commanders take partin seminars on strategic affairs and national security matters. Their work ofteninvolves naval history, and they often publish their work in the Staff Schooljournal, Waves [Hato], though their studies are often of a narrow technical nature.

Maritime History

This area of scholarship, in the words of a knowledgeable Japanese informant,is "at a low ebb." Why this should be so is difficult to understand, particularlygiven Japan's current position as one of the world's leaders in maritimecommerce. One reason may be that the professional schools and colleges run bythe government, at which maritime history might be pursued, have a strictlytechnical and practical curriculum that excludes such "soft" subjects as history.This is true of the Maritime Safety (coast guard) Academy, the Marine Technical

Hirama Yoichi's recent article, "The influence of A.T. Mahan on the Japanese navy" (A.T. Mahanga Nihon kaigun ni ataeta eikyS), Seiji keizai shigaku, no. 320 (February 1993), pp. 29-48, documentsthe continuing popularity of Mahan, who is "still revered as the god of sea power." The most recentJapanese translation of The Influence of Sea Power upon History appeared in 1984. Its editor, KitamuraKen'ichi, admiral, JMSDF, Ret., said in an interview with one of the authors (10 June 1986) that Mahanwas still valid for today provided proper allowance was made for technological advances since Mahan'stime.

Peattie and Evans    221

College, the Tokyo Merchant Marine Academy, the Tokyo College of Fisheryand the Kobe Merchant Marine Academy. The Tokyo Merchant MarineAcademy sponsors the Japan Nautical Association, which publishes Seafaring[Kokai\, but its articles are almost all on technical subjects.

For many years a private organization, the Japan Maritime History Associationhas published a well-respected journal, Studies in Maritime History [KaijishikenkyU]. Recently, however, the organization has suffered from lack of funding.Further, it shares the parochialism of the naval history establishment in Japan byconcentrating on Japanese maritime history, primarily that of the early andmedieval periods.

One slim hope for maritime history in Japan would seem to be the exampleof the just-married Crown Prince. While at Oxford, Naruhito studied medievalriver traffic on the Thames.

1

Republic of Korea

Kim 111 Sang

Ancient Korea was closely tied to the Chinese Empire, and for the peopleof Korea, China represented the external world almost exclusively. As aresult, Koreans viewed the Korean peninsula as an appendage of the Asiancontinent rather than as a separate entity poised on the sea. Given this landwardfocus, ancient Koreans were not concerned with naval and maritime affairs. This,however, does not mean that there was no maritime activity or sea transporta-tion. It has, in fact, been demonstrated that intercoastal sea communicationexisted, although limited, as early as 4000 B.C. One example of this activity is thebody of comb-pattern earthen wares which have been excavated all along theKorean peninsula coastline.

The Kokuryo (37-66 B.C.), Shila (57-935 B.C.) and Paekche (18-660 B.C.)empires were all deeply entwined with the Chinese Empire. All three empiresmaintained important and close political and economic relations with theChinese. At the same time, however, these empires failed to develop strongnaval forces, so their military systems were designed to meet land-based threatsrather than those from the sea. It is not surprising, then, that Japanese sea piratesfrequently encroached upon the southern coast of Korea in those lean years ofthe Three Empires.

In 1592, Toyotomi, then Emperor of Japan, decided to invade the Koreanpeninsula with the intent of changing the international balance of power which,until then, had been a hierarchy in terms of power and influence with China atthe top, Korea in the middle, and Japan at the bottom. In the end, the ShilaEmpire unified the peninsula through the advantage provided by their controlover the Han River, which facilitated communications with China. Afterunification, a significant development in Korean maritime history was broughtabout by Bo-Ko Chang in A.D. 828. He became a base commander of Wan-Do,an island off the southern coast, after serving in the Chinese Army as a general.With the security Chang provided on that strategic island, Shilla was able toachieve economic growth through international trade and destroy the piratemenace.

In 1231, the Mongols invaded the Koryo dynasty. The King of Koryo resistedthe usurpation for 30 years by taking refuge on Kwang-Hwa Island. TheMongols never completely dominated Korea and, after 30 years conflict, theymade peace. A number of important factors made this long resistance possible.First, Kwang-Hwa island was isolated by the sea and strongly fortified. Addi-tionally, the Koreans built combatant vessels of various sizes, some with cannonaboard, to enhance the island's defense. Finally, thousands of Koreans were onthe islands, providing the manpower base to continue the resistance.

It is interesting to note that, in the process of the peace negotiations, theMongols asked the Koryos to join them in a combined forces to invade Japan.The Koreans agreed to this request. Two joint invasion operations failed,however, because of bad weather, which the Japanese called Kami-Kaze (God'sWind). The first joint invasion force of 1274 consisted of 20,000 Mongol-Chinese and 5,400 Koryos in 900 ships built in Koryo. In 1281, the second jointinvading forces totalled 40,000 men with more than 4,000 ships.

This mission's failure led the Japanese to believe that Koryo and the Mongolswere militarily weak. Japanese pirates then increased their encroachment of thesouthern part of Koryo in the fourteenth century. By the end of the Koryodynasty, Japanese pirates had become quite powerful. Koreans living on thecoastlines began to move inland, and the Korean government had difficultyprotecting seaborne commerce. This created many problems for Korea. Forinstance, the ancient Korean taxation system was primarily monetary, but animportant part involved assessments in grain (mostly rice) for government use.Typically, the local authorities shipped the grain to the authorities at the ImperialPalace by sea. The sea pirates, however, interdicted this trade and contributedto the decline of the Koryo dynasty's power. In fact, the failure of the two jointinvasion operations and the suspension in shipping tax grain were the two mostimportant events that led to the Koryo dynasty's collapse.

The early fifteenth century witnessed a number of significant changes forKorean maritime affairs. In 1408, the Lee dynasty consolidated a naval force, asthe number of vessels increased from 412 to 597, and the number of the sailorsincreased to 49,000. In 1413, the Koryo dynasty invented the turtle ship. In1415, 10,000 guns were manufactured.

In 1592, Toyotomi's Japanese invading forces attacked Pusan and thenadvanced toward Seoul. However, Admiral Soon-Shin Lee recovered controlof the entire southern part of the sea basin, and swept the enemy from thesouthern part of the coastline except for the Pusan area. Admiral Lee foughtmany sea battles against the Japanese and won every engagement. During theJapanese invasion of Korea, the most important sea battles were fought atSan-Han Myung-Yang and No-Ryang. Admiral Lee was killed in the battle ofNo-Ryang, but in doing so he saved the Lee dynasty, in a manner similar to

Sang     225

that of Nelson, who achieved his victory over the French and Spanish at Trafalgarthree hundred years later.

By the nineteenth century, a policy of isolation was firmly entrenched in bothJapan and Korea. In 1853-54, a U.S. naval squadron under command ofCommodore Perry took an aggressive attitude toward Japan with regard toopening that country's ports for trade. Japan, in the end, accepted an open doorpolicy.

In Korea however, the "open door" came with greater difficulty. In 1866,an American merchantman, the General Sherman, was burnt by Pyong-Yangofficials in Tae-Dong River. The Americans protested this incident on Kwang-Hwa island, and a military engagement between the Korean garrison forces andfive U.S. naval ships ensued.

In 1875, Japan took coercive action toward Korea in much the same way asAdmiral Perry had done to Japan before. The Korean peninsula was soonoccupied by Japan, and an open door policy was adopted under Japanese"guidance."

Japan completed the colonization of the Korean peninsula following hervictory over China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894. In 1904, Japan soundlydefeated the Russian Navy in the Russo-Japanese War. One of the mostimportant reasons for this important victory was the Japanese occupation of theChinhae Bay of Korea. Later, Japan started building a naval base at that location.This Japanese decision is significant because it later turned out to be one of thecritical naval bases supporting Japanese military operations in the Pacific duringWorld War II.

Today, the geopolitical position of Korea is similar to that of 1890-1910 inAlfred T. Mahan's terms. It occupies a strategically central position. Korea'sstrategic importance as a peninsula surrounded by the four major powers, U.S.,Russia, China, Japan, has remained significant even in the post-Cold War period.

It is unfortunate that most Korean universities and colleges do not cover thenaval and maritime history, with the exception of the Naval War College. Mostof them consider naval and maritime history only in connection with other,independent aspects of the nation's history.

The Naval War College does cover the history of war at sea, naval tacticaland strategic thought in the context of sea power and history of sea power.

The Naval Academy, on the other hand, has a system similar to civilianuniversities and consists of departments of various engineering, management,oceanography and international relations. The department of internationalrelations is divided into international politics and military history. The schoolcurriculum does provide a history of sea war in the third year of study. TheNational Defense College and its post-graduate school cover the history of seapower the and tactical and strategic thought of the great leadership.

Naval and maritime history is also considered in other courses as follows:

226     Republic of Korea

The Korea Maritime University provides post-graduate education inMaritime Industry and the College of Science provides degrees in maritime andsocial science.

The Mokpo Merchant Marine Junior college has departments in navigation,engineering, and communication.

The National Fisheries University of Pusan has colleges of sciences, engineer-ing, humanities-social science, as well as a post-graduate school of industry.

The Che Ju National University consists of colleges of humanities, law,economic-commercial, agriculture, oceanography, natural science and en-gineering.

Editor's note: Very little writing on Korean naval and maritime history is available in English, butsee the references in various volumes of The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge: Univ. Press, variousyears); G.M. Hagerman, "Lord of the Title Boats," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 93 (1967), pp.67-75; Edward D. Rockstein, "Maritime Trade and Japanese Pirates: Chinese and Korean Responsesin Ming Times"; Asian Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs, vol. 5, no. 2 (no year given), pp10-19, and Sang-woon Jeon, Science and Technology in Korea: Traditional Instruments and Techniques(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1974).

On U.S. naval affairs, see Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Rear AdmiralRobert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1984), chapters 13-14: "The Openingof Korea, 1881-1882," and the Korean War (1950-53) sources listed in Barbara A. Lynch and John E.Vajda, United States Naval History: A Bibliography (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1993), p. 74.

Professor Kim is Chairman of the Maritime Policy and Strategic Studies Department of the KoreanNaval War College. He is a 1957 graduate of the Korean Naval Academy, and a captain (retired) in theKorean Navy (ROK).

19The Netherlands

Jaap R. Bruijn

Historians always look back. That is their profession. Naval and maritimehistorians are no exception to that rule, and the same is certainly truefor historiographers. Hence, there is a feeling of being completely at sea whenasked to write an outline o£ the present status of naval and maritime historyin the Netherlands. While the present status has its history, which isworthwhile telling, there is a reason for feeling hesitant about the subject:the suggested dichotomy between naval and maritime history. In theNetherlands, that dichotomy is nonexistent. For this reason, the Dutchhistoriography which I will now examine refers only to sea history or tomaritime history.

The Founding Period: A Private Interest

During the seventeenth century, the contemporary was aware of the impor-tance of the Dutch activities at sea. A surprisingly high number of books werepublished about the exploits at sea, which were always assured of wide readershipand were often reprinted. The discovery of the sea route to Asia and thesubsequent voyages of the East India Company were treated by I. Commelin in1645. The year before, in 1644, a director of the West India Company, J. deLaet, published the history of his company, year-by-year, based on archivalsources. The biographies of at least three admirals were written soon after theirdeaths. G. Brandt's Life of Admiral De Ruyter, containing data drawn from theadmiral's papers and letters, became famous. Books on less spectacular topicssuch as the whaling industry and the mechanisms of the Amsterdam staplemarket were published as well.    More or less the same happened in the

I. Commelin, Begin ende voortgangh van de Nederlantsche geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie, 2 vols.(Amsterdam: 1645).

J. de Laet, Historie qfte jaerlijck vethael van de verrichtinghen dergeoctroyeerde West-Indische Compagnie (Leiden:1644).

G. Brandt, Het leven en bedrijfvan den heere Michiel de Ruiter (Amsterdam: 1687). Further, A. Montanus,Het leven en bedrijf van den doorluchtigen zeeheldt Johan van Galen (Amsterdam: 1654) and n.n., Leven enbedrijfvan den vermaarden zeeheld Cornelis Tromp (Amsterdam/Haarlem: 1692).

C.G. Zorgdrager, Bloeijende opkomst deraloude en hedendaagsche Groenlandsche visscherij (The Hague: 1727)and J. le Moine de l'Espine and J. le Long, Den Koophandel van Amsterdam (Amsterdam: 1719; 3rd ed.).

shipbuilding industry. Most of these works that were written by interestedcontemporaries can to a great extent be considered the entirety of history bookswritten until the nineteenth century when a survey study of the history of theDutch at sea was published. It was written by the head of the General StateArchive, J.C. de Jonge and entitled The History of Dutch Marine Affairs, in tenvolumes, published between 1833 and 1848. Marine affairs, according to DeJonge, were the 'faits et gestes' of the navy. This connotation stayed alive formore than a century and was used by later historians as well; the most famousexample is J.E. Elias' Sketches from the History of our Marine Affairs, six volumesdealing with the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648), published between 1916 and1930. Marine affairs were naval affairs. Other 'wet' matters were considereddifferent and belonged, though not explicitly, to the field of economic history.De Jonge's study was and still is a landmark. It describes in great detail thenaval activities from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth century and is basedupon original material, much of which was burned in a fire in the Ministry ofthe Navy in 1844; hence, the study's irreplacable value. Around 1870 de Jonge'swork was followed by that of J.J. Backer Dirks. A teacher of naval history at theRoyal Naval College of the Dutch Navy, he devoted four volumes to the DutchNavy and included its exploits in the East Indies up to his own time; he created

Q

a still useful, though old-fashioned reference book.

During the same period the study of "non-naval" marine affairs was en-couraged by competitions held by learned societies, which resulted in twoexcellent books on the history of early Dutch whaling and the fishing industry.The prize winners were a young lawyer, later an archivist, S. Muller Fzn, andan economist, later a professor, A. Beaujon. A remarkable event in 1874 wasthe opening of a maritime museum in a yacht club at Rotterdam. The heart ofthe exposition was a collection of about two hundred models of nineteenth-century ships. The underlying idea was to stimulate the public's interest inseafaring in general. The display was in chronological order and it dealt with themercantile marine, the navy, and fishing.

New developments took place in the first three decades of the twentiethcentury when several naval officers, secondary schoolteachers, and a few private

N. Witsen, Aeloude en hedendaegsche scheepsbouw en bestier (Amsterdam: 1671) and C. van IJk, DeNederlandsche scheepsbouwkonst opengestelt (Amsterdam: 1697).

J.C. de Jonge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche zeewezen, 10 vols. (The Hague: 1833—1848); alsothe annotated second edition in 5 vols. (Haarlem: 1858-1862).

J.E. Elias, Schetsen uit de geschiedenis van ons zeewezen, 6 vols. (The Hague: 1916-1930).

J.J. Backer Dirks, De Nederlandsche zeemagt in hare verschillende tijdperkengeschetst, 4 vols. (Rotterdam:1865-1876).

S. Muller Fzn, Geschiedenis der Noordsche Compagnie (Utrecht: 1874) and A. Beaujon, Overzicht dergeschiedenis van de Nederlandsche zeevisscherijen (Leiden: 1885).

L.M. Akveld, "De Watersport-Prins," in Ph.M. Bosscher a.o., Prins Hendrik de Zeevaarder (Naarden:1975), pp. 91-107.

Bruijn     229

scholars took a keen interest in the naval side of the Dutch Golden Age(seventeenth century) and in the discoveries of the Arctic and in the East. Thesepeople, who came to know each other, published and joined forces in foundingthe Linschoten Society in 1908 and the Scheepvaartmuseum at Amsterdam in1916. Like the Hakluyt Society, the Linschoten Society started editing originaldescriptions of sea and land voyages—in practice, nearly always late sixteenthand early seventeenth-century sea voyages—producing a new volume each year.The only person who looked at the social aspects of seafaring was the archivistJ. de Hullu. He wrote a substantial number of handsome articles on life on boardDutch East Indiamen in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Until the1970s he would remain an exception.

Academic Recognition

During the Interbellum, the leading person was the retired naval ofticerJ.C.M.

Warnsinck. He published several well-written monographs, based upon good

historical insight and archival research in combination with nautical knowledge.

His great interest was in admirals, naval campaigns and battles. He also made sea

history, as it was then called, academically fashionable. Professor P.J. Blok,

prominent historian of the University of Leiden, obtained Warnsinck's advise

about his biography of Admiral De Ruyter, published in 1928. Academic

recognition was realized in 1933. In that year the Royal Academy of Sciences

founded the Committee for Sea History, with Warnsinck as its secretary, who

also became an unsalaried university lecturer at the University of Amsterdam,

and four years later at Leiden too. In 1939 at the Univerity at Utrecht, a special

19chair for the history of marine affairs was created for him.

The Committee for Sea History was very active and was instrumental in

getting several good monographs published, amongst which were a few Ph.D.

theses. Only two exceptions challenged the then unwritten rule that the topics

deal with seventeenth-century naval history. The publications of the foreigner,

C.R.  Boxer,  strengthened this  trend.      During the years  of the  German

occupation, 1940-45, books on naval history of the seventeenth century were

popular. The same was true for studies on the early period of the Dutch presence

in Asia. The history of fishing or overseas trade, let alone social or institutional

aspects of marine affairs, were hardly studied.

J.R. Bruijn and J. Lucassen, eds., Op de schepen der Oost-Indische Compagnie. Viff artikelen van J. deHullu (Groningen: 1980).

For a short sketch of Warnsinck and also J.E. Elias, see: Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland, vol.

I (The Hague: 1979) and vol. II (The Hague: 1985).

i "\

On C.R. Boxer, see the introduction to the third Dutch editon of his The Dutch Seaborne Empire:

Het profijt van de macht (Amsterdam: 1988).

14   For example: J.H. Kernkamp, De handel op den vijand 1572-1609, 2 vols. (Utrecht: 1931-1934); M.

Simon Thomas, Onze IJslandvaarders in de lie en 18e eeuw (Amsterdam: 1935) and, though older, J.E.

Elias, Het voorspel van den Eersten Engelschen oorlog, 2 vols. (The Hague: 1920).

Warnsinck died in 1943, but academic recognition of sea history was sooncontinued. In 1946 the university at Leiden appointed former naval officer andprofessional historian T.H. Milo, professor of colonial history and the history ofmarine affairs. Milo's Ph.D. topic had broken with the seventeenth-centurytradition. It dealt with a Dutch naval expedition during the French Revolution-ary wars. Milo focussed his research interest on two projects: 1) the edition ofdocuments on late sixteenth-century naval administration and campaigns, and2) a study of the Dutch Navy during World War II. Meanwhile a few ofWarnsinck's students continued publishing. Abroad, Boxer was joined by C.Wilson in his interest in Dutch history. The Dane, K. Glamann, was the first(foreign) student who did serious research into Dutch trade with Asia in theseventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

A Difficult Period (c. 1955-1975)

The future looked bright for sea history during the early fifties. There were,however, symptoms of gloom. Milo's lectures always attracted a reasonablenumber of students, but very few of them started research of their own. Bothof Milo's two projects failed. In 1960, after his sudden death, no obvioussuccessor was available. His chair was abolished. The Committee for Sea Historyof the Royal Academy of Sciences had no manuscripts suitable for publication.Volume 13 appeared in 1955, and it would be fifteen years, before volume 14was published. Up till then, publication of yearbooks and special exhibitions hadstimulated directors and staff of the two great museums at Rotterdam andAmsterdam to jot down the results of their investigations. That custom lapsedinto disuse.

In 1961 two former students of Warnsinck, R.E.J. Weber and Miss A.M.P.Mollema, who were worried about the status of sea history, founded theNederlandse Vereniging voor Zeegeschiedenis (Dutch Society for Sea History).At the start they collected sixty members. A newsletter was published. The newsociety also acted as a national subcommittee of the recently founded Commis-sion Internationale d'Histoire Maritime.

The society was well and enthusiastically received, and its membershipincreased rapidly. Nevertheless, the situation remained difficult. The greatmajority of the members only took an amateur's interest in the past, though intheir professional life they were often actively involved in the shipping busi-nesses. Those members seldom published, and professional sea historians werescarce indeed. Despite this handicap, the newsletter slowly increased in scope

T.H. Milo, Degeheime onderhandelingen tusschen de Bataafsche en Fransche Republieken van 1195 tot 1191in uerband met de expeditie van schout bij nacht E. Lucas naar de Kaap de Goede Hoop (Den Helder: 1942).On Milo see Biograftsch Woordenboek van Nederland, vol. IV (The Hague: 1994).

C. Wilson, Profit and power; a study of England and the Dutch wars (London: 1957) and K. Glamann,Dutch-Asiatic trade 1620-1140 (The Hague: 1958).

and quality of content. The variety of topics became vast. And, not in vain, atits inaugural meeting the society stipulated that sea history was more than naval

1 7

history. Dutch historians in general took a growing interest in economic andsocial aspects of centuries other than the seventeenth. That line was folio wed bythe society and its biannual publication.

Although the time period of sea history that was being studied was broadened,naval and maritime history were artificially separated in 1972. The tables,however were now reversed. In that year, the Historical-Scientific Commissionof the Royal Academy of Sciences began an investigation into the status ofhistorical research. It proclaimed sea history a field of its own, dealing with socialand economic aspects of seafaring. Naval history was attached to military history,and the historical department of the Navy, founded in 1946, was considered itsmain representative.

Revitalization (c. 1975-present)

De Jonge's interpretation of marine matters as identical with naval mattersdefinitely belonged to the past. And in the mid and late seventies some importantdevelopments took place, which resulted in a revitalization of the study of seahistory as a natural entity.

Perhaps all-important were the conception, writing and publication of a

1Q

four-volume Maritime History of the Low Countries between 1974 and 1978. Allvolumes had the same structure, and the dividing lines for periods wereinnovative: c. 1585, c. 1680, and c. 1850—70. The approach was thematic. Eachvolume started with chapters on ships and shipbuilding, ports, shipowning,seafarers, and navigation. Next came the operational chapters on the fivedifferent Dutch branches of seafaring: the mercantile marine in Europe andoutside Europe (mainly Asia and the Americas), fishing, whaling, and the Navy.An annotated bibliography was added to each chapter. Lacunae were indicated.Right from the beginning it was obvious that such a book could be written onlyby a team of authors. To prevent delays in time, no author was asked for morethan two chapters; thirty-seven authors committed themselves. Most of themgot to know each other, and this often proved fruitful in later days. All chaptersin a volume were read in draft by all authors contributing to that volume. TheMaritime History of the Low Countries was well received and several thousand ofthe four-volume set were sold, to the delight of the publisher as well as theauthors.

The new handbook, which included the Netherlands as well as Belgium,made any idea about a dichotomy between naval and maritime history obsolete.

1 7

Mededelingen Nederlandse Vereniging voor Zeegeschiedenis, vol. 1 (1961), p. 6.

Rapport over de huidige stand en toekomstige planning van het wetenschappelijk onderzoek der Nederlandsegeschiedenis (Amsterdam: 1974), pp. 7, 33-5 and 126-38.

Maritieme Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, 4 vols. (Bussum: 1976-78).

The five branches of seafaring have their common base in the chapters on ships,seamen, navigation, and administrators. Only their operations are different,having their own characteristics. Since that time the teaching of maritime historyhas been structured along this concept.

A second development in the seventies occurred at the universities. Thedemocratization of the Dutch society made an academic education possible forlarger sections of the population. The enrollment of students overall increasedenormously, as it did in the departments of history. Lectures and researchseminars in sea or maritime history at the university at Leiden also got their shareof this students' boom. At Leiden, a lectureship in maritime history had beencreated in 1968, followed by a readership in 1977, and three years later convertedinto a chair. From 1978, a steady stream of completed Ph.D. theses in maritimehistory began to flow.

A third development was the growing internationalization of the study ofmaritime history. The International Commission for Maritime History (theFrench name disappeared when M. Mollat's initiative became widely accepted)held a conference every five years, bringing together scholars from differentcountries. Their attention always focussed on one well-prepared theme. Also,general trends in the study of history at-large could no longer escape the maritimehistorian's notice. Smaller international meetings became popular, where staffmembers of universities, research institutes, and museums discussed one specialtopic or period. The International Commission for Maritime Museums and itsmeetings also stimulated wider cooperation.

Factor number four in revitalizing the world of Dutch maritime historianswas the Dutch Society for Maritime History. Its membership increased vastlyand reached about five hundred around 1980. But its journal, in particular,became the vehicle for an exchange of research products. The original newsletterwas transformed into a proper journal with articles, book reviews, and abibliography. In 1982 the name was changed from Communications to Journalfor

21

Maritime History. The bibliography had become so vast and elaborate thatjournals abroad republished sections of it.

Summing up the main trends of the past fifteen to twenty years, one canobserve, firstly, that the four-volume Maritime History of the Low Countriesfunctions as a book of reference and a starting point for most research. Secondly,more students of maritime history with an academic background are nowavailable. Thirdly, Dutch maritime historians actively participate in international

One of the first students was Frank J. A. Broeze, who in 1971 was invited to start a course in maritimehistory at the University of Western Australia (Nedlands). His Ph.D. degree was awarded at Leiden in1978. The author of this article was appointed to the Leiden-positions.

91

Mededelingen Nederlandse Vereniging uoor Zeegeschiedenis vol. 1-27 (1961-73) quarto, vols. 28-43(1974-81) octavo; Tijdschrift voor Zeegeschiedenis vols. 1 (1982) in two issues per year (vol. 13, first issuehas just been published).

organizations and meetings, and fourthly, the Journal is being offered so manymanuscripts that its editorial board can be very selective. Special issues havebecome possible.

The Present Organizational Status

Those who are interested in maritime history in the Netherlands, one mightsafely say, are members of the Dutch Society. At present, about 650 membersare registered. The Journal is considering three issues per year. The financialmeans have grown. Publishers' advertisements and flyers are holding the costsdown.

The wide range of maritime museums—the two great ones at Rotterdam andAmsterdam plus a variety of specialized or regional ones—-all restrict themselvesfirstly to the preservation and exposition of artifacts of all kinds. For the majormuseums, which are highly dependent on state or municipal funds as well asactivities that raise sponsorships, increasing the number of visitors to museumshas become top priority. Sometimes an occasional lecture is organized in relationto a special exhibition. Museum publications are rare indeed, though theShipping Museum at Amsterdam has re-established its former tradition ofpublishing a yearbook with object-related articles. The regional museum atSneek in Friesland never abandoned that good tradition and is, incidentally, notafraid to publish an M.A. thesis or an article of wider importance. The librariesin the museums also keep manuscripts and regularly attract research students. Byand large, however, one must say that Dutch maritime museums do not functionas active centers of research.

As to the actual teaching of naval, and nowadays maritime, history, the RoyalNaval College at Den Helder has the oldest tradition. All naval cadets must takea short course in history. This same requirement existed in the nineteenthcentury, though naval battles then did not have to compete with social structures.Teaching the history is a part-time job and in the past seldom fulfilled by oneperson for a long period. The most renowned teacher was Backer Dirks, theauthor of the nineteenth century handbook. A well-known teacher in the sixtiesand seventies was Ph.M. Bosscher, who finally wrote a three-volume history ofthe Dutch Navy in the second World War, the work his former professor, T.H.Milo, had only started. In 1980 the position of naval history at the college wasstrenghtened by the appointment of G. Teitler as professor of strategic studies.His main research interest being in the strategic position of the Navy in theformer Dutch East Indies.

J.C.M. Warnsinck's appointment at the universities at Amsterdam, Leiden,and Utrecht in the thirties only had a sequence at Leiden with a chair in maritime

Jaarboek Fries Scheepvaartmuseum en Oudheidkamer. See for example, G. Groenhof, "De N.V. FriescheKofscheepsrederij (1839-1859)," in Jaarboek 1989, pp. 46-115.23   Ph.M. Bosscher, De Koninklijke Marine in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, 3 vols. (Franeker: 1984-1990).

or sea history. No other university created facilities for teaching maritime history.In 1992, however, FJ.A.M. Meijer, senior lecturer in ancient history, was appointedextra-ordinary professor of the Maritime History and Archaeology of ClassicalAntiquity at the university of Amsterdam. To my knowledge Meijer is the firstprofessor combining history and archaeology in teaching and research.

The academic staff for maritime history at Leiden university includes one fullprofessor and a half-time senior lecturer, F.S. Gaastra, and a few researchstudents. The teaching is at several levels and is always optional for students. Anintroductory lecture course is in two parts, one dealing with the seventeenthand eighteenth centuries, the other with the modern time, each for two hoursduring twelve weeks. Point of reference for this course is the Maritime History ofthe Low Countries, but the scope is also international: British, American, andGerman aspects are treated as well. A short introduction into archival work isalso included in the course (often the reading of early modern ship logs), plusvisits to two maritime museums to discuss museum policy with staff members.An oral exam based upon the course work and some additional readingcompletes this course. The number of students per part differs annually, but ismainly in the range often to twenty. Each year there are also thematic classes,often given by research students. Such a class studies the literature and printedsources on one general theme as, for instance, the modernization of thenineteenth-century navy, mutinies, passenger transport or naval administrationin the sixteenth century. These classes take two weekly hours during twelveweeks, and the student must write a paper. Research is done in special seminars,one or two per year. A seminar is twenty-four weeks long. The main body ofthe research material has to be investigated in the archives; research papers alwaysbring new information. The themes vary greatly, from the Dutch whalingindustry after the Second World War and the shipping policy of the DutchTrading Company (NHM) to the careers of East India captains and the lives offishermen's wives. The number of participants is always between eight andsixteen. A lecture course of twelve weeks on a broad theme was begun in 1989,and it is open to students as well as to interested people from outside theuniversity.

Individual research work is done for the M.A. thesis and the Ph.D. degree.The topic is the student's choice or as advised by the staff. The M.A. thesis issupposed to take at least six months and is the last piece of work before leavingthe university. Work for the Ph.D. degree does not require enrollment and isdone either in one's private time or in the scarce position of research student forwhich one has to apply. The supervision is on on a personal but regular basis,though groups of Ph.D. students meet together in bimonthly sessions; about

FJ.A.M. Meijer, Een duik in een zee van bronnen. Oude Geschiedenis vanafde bodem van de MiddellandseZee, inaugural address 30 March 1993 (Amsterdam: 1993); see Warnsinck, note 12.

twenty dissertations are in preparation, a few even abroad. The topics deal withthe sixteenth to the twentieth centuries.

The research potential can be divided into three categories. The greater partof original research is from the Ph.D. students and from the staff members atDen Helder, Leiden and some other universities. Next is the group of amateurmaritime historians who devote their leisure time to their favorite topics. Theyare not very numerous, but the share of those with an academic background isincreasing. There is, however, a third, not yet mentioned category of researchers:the academic staff of the department of Maritime (!) History at The Hague. Thisdepartment of the Naval Staff of the Ministry of Defense is committed tostimulating research and publications on the Navy, publishing its own in firstinstance. Though the production has not yet been particularly impressive, thedepartment's potential promises well.

This gets us straight on to the last organizational aspect: the publishingfacilities. In 1985 the Department of Maritime History at The Hague substan-tially enhanced these facilities by starting the publication of a series of bookscalled Contributions to Dutch Naval History. Volume 6 was published in 1992.In 1972 the Committee for Sea History of the Royal Academy of Sciencesresumed its publications. Volume 18 appeared in 1990. The Linschoten Societynever stopped its activities and continues editing descriptions of sea and landtravels: volume 92 in 1993. Even more important is the interest in maritimehistory demonstrated by several publishing houses, an interest that tends to shiftfrom one house to another over the course of time. In the seventies De BoerMaritiem was a prolific publisher, but was forced to give it up. In the eighties,other smaller ones took over: De Bataafsche Leeuw, Walburg Press, Van Wijnenand Verioren, for example. They have published many a Ph.D thesis as amonograph. Modern equipment and the heigtened birth of one-man publishinghouses has facilitated the printing of manuscripts—an asset for young scholarswho want to have their dissertations published.

Production and Trends

The days of naval campaigns and discoveries as the most favored topics inmaritime historiography have long gone. The study of maritime history nowfigures in the study of history as an academic discipline. Therefore, it is regularlybeing influenced by new ideas about the relevant approaches of the past.Economic, social and institutional aspects are studied as well as mental andtechnical ones. Statistics are common features in many publications. Theseaspects also permeate the publications of some amateur historians.

The production over, say, the past twenty years has been carefully registeredin the extensive bibliography in each issue of the Communications (later the Journal

25

The Dutch name is: Bijdragen tot de Nederlandse Marinegeschiedenis.

for Maritime History of the Dutch Society). Dutch titles are intermingled withforeign ones. A quantitative approach to the production is feasible, but I ratherprefer to point out the main trends of the publications, which cover the earlymodern and modern periods evenly. The sixteenth century and the Middle Ageshave received less attention than later periods.

The general themes which cross the ages and trades are ships, ports, navigationand seamen. As to ships, there were hardly any typically Dutch, apart from thefluyts. Hence the focus in Dutch publications is more on shipbuilding: shipcarpenters' guilds by R.W. Unger, the East India Company dockyard atAmsterdam by J. Gawronski, nineteenth century-naval engineers and innova-tions by J.M. Dirkzwager and A.A. Lemmers. Shipbuilding was also animportant industrial activity in the late nineteenth and twentieth century. Mostshipyards have now gone. Their rise and fall have been studied neither for theindustry as a whole nor for any of the main yards. Some archives have been savedfrom destruction. The demise of the major shipyards around 1980 has beeninvestigated by a parliamentary commission and has produced huge files ofdocumentation, on government interference in particular. Financial problemsin the 1980s surrounding the construction of submarines had the same veryattractive opportunity for historians. As to the Navy, the history of theirdockyards from the late sixteenth century to the present day is mainly a blank.

Ports and port cities have not been studied intensely. CM. Lesger set a finestandard in 1990. He studied Hoorn in the early modern times, regarding thisport city as part of a network and central location system. J.P. Sigmond publisheda handsome survey of the planning and digging of smaller and greater harborsfrom the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. For ports in the modern period, somestudies of a different nature have become available; for instance, two monographson post-Second World War labor relations in the port of Rotterdam and thecooperation between international liner shipping, stevedoring, and road haulageindustry at Rotterdam in the container era. Two articles deal with Rotterdam'stariff policy and Amsterdam's efforts to invest in its infrastructure before WorldWar II.    Social and financial aspects of seamen's lives in port cities were also

R.W. Unger, Dutch Shipbuilding before 1800 (Assen/Amsterdam: 1978); J. Gawronski's book onwrecks of East Indiamen and shipbuilding at Amsterdam in the 1740s will be published in 1994; J.M.Dirkzwager, Dr. B.J. Tideman 1834-1883. Grondlegger van de modeme scheepsbouw in Nederland (Leiden:1970) and some recent articles from his hand in the Tijdschrift voor Zeegeschiedenis; A.A. Lemmers ispreparing a Ph.D. thesis based on the huge collection of late 18th and 19th century naval models andinstruments, kept in the Rijksmuseum at Amsterdam.

27  Enquete Rijn-Schelde-Verolme (RSV), Tweede Kamer, vergaderjaar 1984-1985, 17817, no. 16. HetWalrusproject. Besluituorming en uituoering, Algemene Rekenkamer September 1985.

CM. Lesger, Hoom ah stedelijk knooppunt. Stedensystemen tijdens de late middeleeuwen en vroeg modemetijd (Hilversum: 1990); J.P. Sigmond, Nederlandse zeehavens tussen 1500 en 1800 (Amsterdam: 1989); E.Nijhof, "Gezien de dreigende onrust in de haven. . . ." De ontwikkeling van de arbeidsverhoudingen in deRotterdamse haven 1945-1965 (Amsterdam: 1988); H. van Driel, Samenwerking in haven en vervoer in hetcontainertijdperk (Rotterdam:  1990); A.H. Flierman, '"This much too high retribution.' Municipal

touched upon. The evolution and transformation of modern port cities, asentities has not yet been tackled.

The art of navigation, the education of it, the maps and the instruments havebeen carefully studied by C.A. Davids, G.G. Schilder, and W.FJ. Morzer Bruyns;their results have been widely published. The main developments and manydetails are now known for the early modern period, not only for European andAtlantic waters, but also for the Indian Ocean. Navigational education duringthe nineteenth and twentieth centuries was the theme of a special issue of theJournal in 1985. Elly Decker introduced research into the influence ofastronomers on the development of navigation technology. This side ofmaritime history during the modern period requires specialized knowledge.

The fourth and last general theme regards the seamen, popular since the 1970s.It was started in the eighteenth century with studies of naval and East Indianpersonnel. It was mainly quantitative: total numbers, geographical origins, andwages. Pay and muster rolls provided the information. Not only the officer, butalso the common seaman was of interest. The relevant chapters of the MaritimeHistory of the Low Countries presented estimates of the labor force employed byall seafaring branches. In the early eighties, studies of a more qualitative naturebegan to be published. It is likely that a reissue of J. de Hullu's innovating articleson life on board East Indiamen had a stimulating effect. Davids wrote aboutmusic and songs on board sailing vessels, mutinies were studied, and P.C. vanRoyen published a book on the social side of the mercantile marine around1700.    Seamen's unions also came into the picture and the same is true of social

harbour fees and the competiviness of the port of Rotterdam 1900-1940," and M. Wagenaar,"Amsterdam harbour between 1850" and "1940: from national focus to regional prop," both in L.M.Akveld and J.R. Bruijn (eds.), Shipping Companies and Authorities in th 19th and 20th Centuries (TheHague: 1989), pp. 87-106 and 107-24 resp.

M.A. van Alphen, "The Female Side of Dutch Shipping: Financial Bonds of Seamen Ashore in the17th and 18th Centuries," in J.R. Bruijn and W.FJ. Morzer Bruyns, eds., Anglo-Dutch Marine Relations1700-1850 (Amsterdam-Leiden: 1991), pp. 125-32; J.R. Bruijn, "Seamen in Dutch Ports: c. 1700-c.1914," in Mariner's Mirror, 65 (1979), pp. 327-38.

The most important publication is C.A. Davids, Zeewezen en wetenschap. De wetenschap en deontwikkeling van de nauigatietechniek in Nederland tussen 1585 en 1815 (Amsterdam-Dieren: 1986), anextensive bibliography included. For later publications see the Joumafs bibliography. Further, E. Dekker,"Frederik Kaiser en zijn pogingen tot hervorming van 'Het sterrekundig deel van onze zeevaart,'" inA. de Knecht-van Eekelen and G. Vanpaemel, eds., Met zicht op zee. Zeewetenschappelijk onderzoek in deLage Langen na 1800 (Amsterdam: 1990), pp. 23-41.

31 J.R. Bruijn, "Dutch Men-of-War: Those on board c. 1700-1750," in Acta Historiae Neerlandicae:Studies on the History of the Netherlands, vol. 7 (The Hague: 1974), pp. 88—121; idem, "De personeelsbehoeftevan de VOC overzee en aan boord, bezien in Aziatisch en Nederlands perspectief," in Bijdragen inMededelingen Geschiedenis der Nederlanden 91, 1976, pp. 218—48; for a correction, see K.L. vanSchouwenburg's articles in Tijdschrifi voor Zeegeschiedenis 7 (1988), pp. 76-93 and 8 (1989), pp. 179-86.

C.A. Davids, Wat lijdt den zeeman al uerdriet: Het Nederlandse zeemanslied in de zeiltijd (1600-1900)(The Hague: 1980); P.C. van Royen, Zeevarenden op de koopvaardijvloot omstreeks 1700 (Amsterdam:1987); J.R. Bruijn and E.S. van Eyck van Heslinga, Muitery. Oproer en berechting op schepen van de VOC(Haarlem: 1980). For de Hullu, see note 11.

legislation. The medical side did not escape the maritime historian's attentioneither. Research into a number of detailed aspects is making good progress.Time is almost ripe for overview monographs for each branch of seafaring. Onething, indeed, has become clear: the background of seamen differed with eachbranch. A seaman did not switch between the Navy and the mercantile marine,as was the case for his British colleagues. The traditional influx of foreign laboron Dutch ships made the situation even more complex. The theme of seamensuits an international comparitive approach: numbers, level of wages, andmovement of labor.

Coming now to the five different branches of seafaring, one can establish thattwo have been studied intensively in the recent past: the whaling trade and theEast India Company (in Dutch: VOC). The Dutch played a prominent role inearly whaling in the Arctic. At its peak (1721), nearly 260 ships were involved.The South-African economic historian C. de Jong wrote a good, though noteasily accessible survey of two centuries of Dutch whaling (the 17th and 18th).A.M. van der Woude integrated the whaling industry into the social, economicand demographic structure of the northern part of the province of Holland. P.Dekker studied the careers of several masters of whaling vessels. Innovative,because of its multi-disciplinary approach, is L. Hacquebord's study of the firstDutch whaling activities and settlements on Svalbard in the first part of theseventeenth century. He puts the numbers of vessels involved into the rightperspective and proves that new patterns in whaling were caused by climaticalchanges. FJ.A. Broeze has demonstrated why the Dutch failed to participate innineteenth-century whaling in the Southern Hemisphere. The post-World WarII activities in the Antarctic have also been studied. Further whaling researchwill probably serve only to refine the available knowledge.

The story of research into the VOC is an interesting one. In the sixties, Dutchsociety in general did not want to be reminded of its colonial past in Asia.Colonial history was out of date. In the early seventies, however, interest in themaritime aspects of the VOC was regenerated by the university at Leiden    and

J.M.W. Binneveld and F.S. Gaastra, "Organisatie en conflict van een vergeten groep," in Economisch-en Sociaal-Historischjaarboek 35 (1972), pp. 303-23; J.R. Bruijn, "Marinevakbonden tussen wereldoorlogen muiterij (1914-1933)," in Tijdschrift voor Zeegeschiedenis 9 (1990), pp. 135-57; A.E. Leuftink, Hardeheelmeesters: Zeelieden en hun dokters in de 18e eeuw (Zutphen: 1991).

C. de Jong, De geschiedenis van de oude Nederlandse walvisvaart, 3 vols. (Pretoria: 1972-1979); A.M.van der Woude, Het Noorderkwartier (Wageningen: 1972); FJ.A. Broeze, "Whaling in the SouthernOceans. The Dutch Quest for Southern Whaling in the Nineteenth Century," in Economisch- enSociaal-Historischjaarboek 40 (1977), pp. 66-112; WJJ. Boot, De Nederlandsche Maatschappij voor deWalvischvaart (Amsterdam: 1987); J.R. Bruijn, "De Nederlandse Maatschappij voor de Walvisvaart,1946-1967," in Economisch- en Sociaal-Historischjaarboek 48 (1985), pp. 233-57. For Dekker's articlessee the bibliography of the Communications between 1970 and 1979.

A study on Dutch whaling in Davis Strait is prepared by J.R. Leinenga (University at Groningen).

J.R. Bruijn, F.S. Gaastra and I. SchofFer, Dutch-Asiatic Shipping in the 17th and 18th Centuries, 3 vols.(The Hague: 1979-1987). C.R. Boxer's The Dutch seaborne Empire 1600-1800 (London: 1965) was

the discovery of some shipwrecks. New insight about frequency of sailings,numbers of people on board and those who died, and duration of the voyageseven reached the newspapers. It made the VOC fashionable, which then alsobecame an item for museums. Replica's of East Indiamen were constructed.Reports of the discovery of more wrecks and the auction of their cargoessometimes reached the world press. Recently it was decided that the VOC willbe boosted as a cultural and tourist asset of the Netherlands! Meanwhile,historical research continues and is resulting in a number of Ph.D. theses andbooks. F.S. Gaastra is the expert at large on the history of the VOC. Theoverall picture of the maritime aspects is now considered to be complete, apartfrom the intra-Asian shipping and trade of the company. A second generationof Ph.D. students is well on its way, dealing with more detailed topics like thetransport of mail, medical care, the effects of malaria, and social life on board.The maritime activities have also been put in a wider, comparative context.

Of the three remaining branches of seafaring, the fisheries have been studiedthe least. H.A.H. Kranenburg's analysis of the early modern herring and codfishery of 1946 has not been matched by the study of other kinds of fishery.There are, of course, a number of popular or local publications, but from ascholarly point of view the catch is small. The early period has hardly been dealtwith. Promising, however, is a forthcoming book on the fisheries in the Meuseestuary in the first half of the seventeenth century. The economic and socialaspects of the modern period (c. 1860—1940) have been given a bit moreattention. A new development is the interest taken by cultural-antropologists inseafaring communities.

translated and had several reprints.

P. Marsden, The Wreck of the Amsterdam (London: 1974); C.J.A. Jorg, The Geldermalsen. History andPorcelain (Groningen: 1986); J. Gawronski a.o., Hollandia Compendium. A Contribution to the History,Archeology, Classification and Lexicography of a 150-foot Dutch East Indiaman, 1740-1750 (Amsterdam: 1992).38 F.S. Gaastra, Bewind en beleid by de VOC 1672-1702 (Zutphen: 1989); E.S. van Eyck van Heslinga,Van Compagnie naar koopuaardij. De scheepvaartverbindingen van de Bataafse Republiek met de kolonien in Azi'e1795—1806 (Amsterdam: 1988) and I.G. Dillo, De nadagen van de Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie1783—1795. Schepen en zeevarenden (Amsterdam: 1992).

F.S. Gaastra, Degeschiedenis van de VOC, first edition Bussum: 1982, second Zutphen: 1992). A shortsurvey in English is E.M. Jacobs, In pursuit of pepper and tea. The story of the Dutch East India Company(Zutphen-Amsterdam: 1991). The inventory of the Company's archive was printed in 1992.

J.R. Bruijn and F.S. Gaastra, eds., Ships, Sailors and Spices. East India Companies and their Shipping inthe 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries (Amsterdam: 1993).

H.A.H. Kranenburg, De zeevisscherij van Holland in den tijd der Republiek (Amsterdam: 1946).

R.D. van der Vlis, "Friese haringvisserij in de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw," in It Beaken 50(1988), pp. 345-62; R.T.H. Willemsen, Enkhuizen tijdens de Republiek (Hilversum: 1988), chapter II.A.P. van Vliet's study will be published in 1994.

See the special issue "Holland en de Visserij" of Holland, Regionaal Historisch Tijdschrift 16 (1984).For the communities see R. van Ginkel, Elk vist op zijn tij. Een Zeeuwse maritieme gemeenschap, Yerseke1870-1914 (Zutphen: 1991) and his study of Texel, Tussen Scylla en Charybdis (Amsterdam: 1993).

Much more research has been done into the mercantile marine. A com-prehensive survey, however, of the different European trades in the early modernperiod is not available and is difficult to write. No register like that of Britishshipping has ever existed; shipownership and the exploitation of ships can onlybe studied per single ship. There is no equal to Ralph Davis' The Rise of theEnglish shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1962). Onebook, however, explains lucidly the practice of shipownership at the end of theearly modern period. That is FJ.A. Broeze's De Stad Schiedam, complete withthe texts of many documents. It has been estimated that about 1,750 ships wereused in the seventeenth century and about 1,500 in the eighteenth century.Other estimates provide the number of seamen employed in the European tradesat around the year 1700. The best studied trade is the Russian, apart from theBaltic which can always rely on the Sound Toll Registers. The other trades arehardly known in general or in detail. As to Dutch shipping in the AtlanticOcean, the slave trade is covered by J. Postma's already classic survey. Researchon eighteenth century African and Caribbean trade is in progress. The biggestshipowner and merchant in the early nineteenth century, Anthony vanHoboken, has found his biographer. Privateering belongs to warfare as well asto commercial shipping. Its size and its economic, legal, and administrativeaspects have been studied in detail for the War of the Spanish Succession andmore generally for the Second and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars. Sources are there

4ft

for other wars, the Eighty Years' War in particular.

For the later periods of steam navigation and other means of ship propulsion,a variety of studies have been published, but there has been no survey. The oneship company had almost completely disappeared and the incorporated com-panies came into existence. If one needs a survey of all major and middle-sizedcompanies, chapters 6 and 7 in the Maritime History of the Low Countries, volume

FJ.A. Broeze, De Stad Schiedam. De Schiedamsche Scheepsreederij en de Nederlandse vaart op Oost-Indieomstreeks 1840 (The Hague: 1978).

Van Royen, Zeevarenden op de Koopvaardijvloot om streeks 1700.

J.V.T. Knoppers, Dutch Trade with Russia from the Time of Peter I to Alexander I. A Quantitative Studyin Eighteenth Century Shipping, 3 vols. (Montreal: 1976) and P. de Buck, "De Russische uitvoer uitArchangel naar Amsterdam in het begin van de achttiende eeuw (1703 en 1709)," in Economisch- enSociaal-Historisch Jaarboek 51 (1988), pp. 126-93. Further studies by De Buck and J.Th. Lindblad andother authors in three bundles: The Interactions of Amsterdam and Antwerp with the Baltic region, 1400-1800(Leiden: 1983), W.G. Heeres a.o., From Dunkirk to Danzig. Shipping and Trade in the North Sea and theBaltic, 1350-1850 (Hilversum: 1988) and J.Ph.S. Lemmink and J.S.A.M. van Koningsbrugge, BalticAffairs. Relations between the Netherlands and North-Eastem Europe 1500-1800 (Nijmegen: 1990). A wholesurvey of Dutch trade is, of course, J.I. Israel's, Dutch Primacy in World Trade 1585-1140 (Oxford: 1989).47 J.M. Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600-1815 (Cambridge: 1990); B. Oosterwijk,Koning van de Koopvaart: Anthony van Hoboken, 1756-1850 (Rotterdam: 1983).

Aft

J.Th.H. Verhees-Van Meer, De Zeeuwse Kaapvaart tijdens de Spaanse Successie oorlog, 1702-1713(Middelburg: 1986); J.R. Bruijn, "Dutch Privateering during the Second and Third Anglo-DutchWars," in The Low Countries History Yearbook 1978: Acta Historiae Neerlandicae 11 (1979), pp. 79-93.

4, will help as well as B. Oosterwijk's, Op een koers for the more recent decades. Atthe level of the one single company, J.N.F.M. a Campo's study of the Royal PacketCompany in the East Indies is voluminous but brilliant. He combines the study ofthe development of a network of liner services within the archipelago and with theoutside world, foreign competition, and colonial state formation into one book.There is also a many-sided book on the Zeeland Company, dealing with cargo andpassenger traffic between Holland and Britain; a comparable study is available forthe Rotterdamsche Lloyd around 1900. Further research in this field would bewelcome. Diaries or memoirs in printed form from captains of the shipping industryare very rare indeed. Most valuable are the diaries of Ernst Heldring covering thefirst four decades of the twentieth century. The memoirs of D.A. Delprat for somelater decades are rather disappointing, still keeping his own council. The RoyalShipowners' Association, the expression of the need amongst shipowners of closercooperation in their relations with trade unions and the increasing numbers ofnational and international rules, has been studied. A new approach of the shippingindustry is the financing of the Rotterdam maritime sector after World War II.Traditional is Bezemer's study in three volumes of the role and fate of the mercantilemarine in that war. The hinterland is vital for the Dutch economy. The transpor-tation of goods over the rivers has received attention for only the nineteenth51

century.

As to the Navy, there are two modern surveys, one for the early modern andthe other for modern times. Not only the 'fairs et gestes,' but also the navaladministration, officers, crews, and ships are treated, though in a different degree

CO

of detail. The focus on battles and campaigns has gone. Only one article wasdedicated to the fighting tactics during the Anglo-Dutch Wars, other studies aremore interested in strategical and tactical planning of the defense of the EastIndies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.    By and large, however, one

B. Oosterwijk, Op een koers. Nedlloyd (Rotterdam: 1988); J.N.F.M. a Campo, Koninklijke PaketvaartMaatschappij. Stoomvaart en staatsvorming in de Indonesische archipel 1888—1914 (Hilversum: 1992); P.W.Klein and J.R. Bruijn, eds., Honderd jaar Engelandvaart. Stoomvaart Maatschappij Zeeland. KoninklijkeNederlandsche Postuaart nu, 1875—1975 (Bussum: 1975); F. de Goey, ed., Vaart op Insulinde. Uit debeginjaren der Rotterdamsche Lloyd NV, 1883-1914 (Rotterdam: 1991). For a recent merger see H. vanDriel, Een verenigde Nederlandse scheepvaart. De fusie tussen Nedlloyd en KNSM in 1980-1981, eenbedrijfshistorische analyse (Rotterdam: 1988).

50 J. de Vries, ed., Herinneringen en dagboek van Ernst Heldring 1871-1954, 3 vols. (Utrecht: 1970); D.A.Delprat, De reeder schrijft zijn joumaal (The Hague: 1983); A.H. Flierman, "Het centrale punt in dereederswereld." De Koninklijke Nederlandse Redersvereniging. Vijfenzeventig jaar ondememingsorganisatie in dezeevaart (Bussum: 1984).

P.Th. van Laar, Financieringsgedrag in de Rotterdamse maritieme sector 1945—1960 (Amsterdam: 1991);K.W.L. Bezemer, Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Koopvaardij in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, 3 vols.(Amsterdam: 1986-1990); H.P.H. Nusteling, De Rijnvaart in het tijdperk van stoom en steenkool,1831-1914 (Amsterdam: 1974).

52 J.R. Bruijn, The Dutch Navy of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Columbia, S.C.: 1993); G.J.A.Raven, ed., De Kroon op het anker: 175 jaar Koninklijke Marine [1813-1993] (Amsterdam: 1988).

R.E.J. Weber, "The Introduction of the Single Line Ahead as a Battle Formation bv the Dutch.

242    The Netherlands

observes that most attention has been given to the twentieth century. Theresearch policy of the historical branch of the Navy has been successful. The roleof the Navy in the Second World War has been described, as well as many navalactivities in the period after 1945. The equivalent of the American Waves areat present being studied. The relations between Navy and society have beenanalyzed as to the failed introduction of a Navy law in 1923 and a spectacularmutiny in 1933. The early modern period has been given a comparatively lessgenerous share of attention. Some biographies of naval officers have beenpublished—most extensive is one of Admiral J.H. van Kinsbergen. There is, ofcourse, more: a study of the Dutch naval side of the Glorious Revolution of1688, for example, and not to be forgotten, a nice analysis of the phenomenonof the Sea Beggars around 1570.

One can easily describe the lacunae and research opportunities in navalhistory. Naval finances have not yet been placed in a wider context. Thestructure of the naval administration needs more attention as well as the studyof some important administrators. The same is true of the officers' corps as such.The leading scientific role of naval officers in the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies is quite remarkable. Several technical innovations were then instigatedby the Navy. The structure and development of a naval base like Amsterdam,Flushing, and Den Helder in particular, have not yet been dealt with. In someof these directions research is already in progress.

A Balance

When comparing the past fifteen to twenty years with the period after theSecond World War, the balance in all respects is more favorable for the recentspan of time. The amount of publications is greater and more varied in kind andtopic. In general, all the fashionable points of view in history are present: frompolitical to social and cliometric. Maritime history books are reviewed in the

1665-1666," in Mariner's Mirror 73 (1987), pp. 5-19; G. Teitler, Anatomie van de Indische defensie.Scenario's, plannen, beleid 1892-1920 (Amsterdam: 1988); G. Teitler, De strijd om de slagkruisers(Amsterdam: 1984); G. Jungslager, Recht zo die gaat. De maritiem-strategische doelstellingen terzake van deverdediging van Nederlands-Indie in de jaren hvintig (The Hague: 1991). Teitler is the most productiveauthor in this field. To keep in touch with his publications requires careful consultation of thebibliography in the Tijdschrift voor Zeegeschiedenis, to which I refer for most other naval history booksand articles.

Ph.M. Bosscher, De Koninklijke Marine in de Tweede Wereldoorlog. See also j.J.A. Wijn, ed., Tussenvloot en politiek: lOOjaar marinestaf 1886-1986 (Amsterdam: 1986).

' H.J.G. Beunders, Weg met de Vlootwet! De maritieme bewapeningspolitiek van het kabinet-Ruys deBeerenbrouck en hetsuccesvolle verzet daartegen in 1923 (Bergen: 1984); J.C.H. Blom, De muiterij op de ZevenProvincial. Reacties engevolgen in Nederland (Bussum: 1975).

A. van der Kuijl, De Glorieuze overtocht. De expeditie van Willem III naar Engeland in 1688 (Amsterdam:1988); J.C.A. de Meij, De Watergeuzen en de Nederlanden, 1568-1512 (Amsterdam: 1972); R.B.Prud'homme van Reine, Jan Hendrik van Kinsbergen (1735-1819): admiraal enfilantroop (Amsterdam:1990).

Bruijn     243

leading historical journals and also in national newspapers and magazines. TheJournal of Maritime History shows quality and is not lacking manuscripts submittedfor publication. A difference between naval and maritime history does not exist.Ideology is an unknown word and does not permeate any kind of debate. Thethree academic staff members of the historical department of the Navy have ascholarly past in maritime history, if one uses this term in the Americanconnotation!

The present group of maritime historians is bigger than ever before. The staffsof museums have been enlarged, in Amsterdam and Rotterdam in particular;their output in the shape of scientific publications, however, is small. There areno more than a total of six to seven historians attached to universities, the navalacademy, the naval historical department; although that is certainly a numberthat would be unbelievably high for earlier generations. Their scholarly outputis considerable. One may fear a growing discrepancy between museum andacademic institutions in this respect. The aims of the present policy of theministry of culture, to which most museums belong (and not to that ofeducation), is to reach the general public in an effort to have well-visitedexhibitions. The best that one can hope for at the moment is the preservationof good library and research facilities. Gratifying is the fact that a considerablenumber of Ph.D. students are involved in maritime history, broadening thegroup of scholarly trained maritime historians.

Plans for research do exist, but only on a small scale. In general, the personalpreference for a subject is decisive. The interest of the established scholars isregularly guided away from their own research by (international conferencesand commemorations of events of national historic importance. At times one isinclined to think of a superabundance of those events. Dutch maritime historians,as far as I have observed, bear a fair share of that burden. They do not do researchinto non-Dutch topics, though well aware of foreign publications. It was a longtime before they published in a language other than Dutch, but several booksand articles are now available in English. International contacts have boosted thistrend.

Periods and aspects which have lacked attention belong to the later MiddleAges, the sixteenth century, and plus the fisheries. A survey of the mercantilemarine would be welcome. The results of the excavation of shipwrecks shouldbe better incorporated in historical research. New information can be expectedfrom the archive of the Zeeland auditor's office for the early modern periodwhich is presently being inventoried and from the files of the nineteenth centuryDutch Trading Company (NHM). The soon to be introduced "twenty year-rule" for governmental and local administration records (instead of closing themfor fifty years) will offer greater opportunities for contemporary research. Thereis sufficient vitality amongst young and older Dutch maritime historians toexploit both the forthcoming and the already existing opportunities.

New Zealand

Ian McGibbon and Gavin McLean

As an island state in a vast ocean, New Zealand has always had a strongrelationship with the sea. It was colonized by people who sailed longdistances across the ocean, first, Polynesians who began arriving more than athousand years ago, and later Europeans, mainly from the British Isles, for whomthe voyage to the antipodes was often one of months-long hardship anddeprivation. The economy which these people developed was—and remains—uniquely dependent on seaborne trade. New Zealanders have traditionally beenconscious, moreover, that any direct threat to their security must come fromacross the sea. The importance of New Zealand's maritime environment hasbeen enhanced by the resource management measures associated with theestablishment of exclusive economic zones. New Zealand's zone, proclaimed in1978, is one of the largest in the world.

At times, New Zealanders have been inspired by visions of maritime greatness.This was especially so during the heyday of the British Empire, when Britishnaval and maritime predominance seemed part of the natural order. Some sawNew Zealand, in time, emulating its British mentor. William Massey, theimperialist-minded Prime Minister from 1912 to 1925, for example, was apt toproclaim New Zealand's future naval greatness. That these aspirations have gonelargely unfulfilled is less surprising than that New Zealanders have tendedincreasingly to take for granted the sea and its importance to their well-being.

New Zealand's economy has been characterized by its supply of a narrowrange of unprocessed primary products to markets that are a great distance fromits shores. At first, wool held pride of place, but the introduction of refrigeratedships in the 1880s allowed a diversification of the nature, if not the direction, ofNew Zealand's overseas trade. The ability to transport meat and dairy productsto the other side of the world helped transform the pattern of farming in NewZealand. While the direction of its trade has shifted as the assured British markethas disappeared, New Zealand remains as dependent in 1993 upon the free flowof its produce across the seas as it did in 1893. Because of its limited industrialbase, it was—and is—equally dependent upon the import by sea of a great rangeof commodities and goods.

New Zealanders were, from an early stage, engaged in a range of maritimeactivities, including shipbuilding, though inevitably on a small scale. Shippingcompanies were founded by enterprising capitalists, usually with the backing ofBritish capital. Two companies were especially important—-the New ZealandShipping Company established in Christchurch in 1873 and the Union SteamShip Company established in Dunedin in 1875. The former competed on theUnited Kingdom-New Zealand route, while the latter came to dominate theNew Zealand coastal and inter-colonial shipping scene. Both were taken overby the British P&O group during the First World War. Small, locally basedcompanies continued to operate in a coastal role in the first three-quarters ofthis century. The fishing industry in New Zealand was generally small scale andat a subsistence level until the late 1970s when the establishment of the exclusiveeconomic zone brought new attention to local fishing resources. Fishing'simportance to the New Zealand economy has been greatly enhanced in the lasttwenty years.

The vital importance of New Zealand's sea trade routes ensured that maritimeactivities would play a significant role in its affairs, even if ownership of theshipping lines upon which it depended lay outside New Zealand hands. Therapid turnaround of shipping demanded attention to port facilities and cargohandling. Periodically union activities on the waterfront have caused majordisruptions, notably in 1890, 1913, and 1951. Governments, conscious of theadverse economic impact of the resulting hiatus in cargo flow, have often reactedstrongly during such disputes. In 1951, even troops were deployed on thewaterfront to work the cargo ships. More recently, attention has been focusedon resource management. The need to monitor and control the operations offoreign fishing vessels has placed the spotlight on New Zealand maritime policingcapacity, primarily the responsibility of the Royal New Zealand Navy.

For more than a century, the British connection dominated New Zealand'snaval activities even more completely than it did general maritime activities. TheRoyal Navy was deeply involved in New Zealand's establishment as a colonyof the British Empire. It was Captain James Cook, RN, who took possession ofthe country on behalf of the British Crown, and another British naval officer,Captain William Hobson, RN, who not only signed the Treaty of Waitangiwith Maori chiefs in 1840 but also became the new colony's first governor.British naval vessels were involved in operations in New Zealand during theconflict over land issues of the 1860s. Moreover, New Zealanders regarded theRoyal Navy as their shield against invasion or attack by potential externalenemies and as an essential protector of the trade routes upon which theydepended for their economic well-being. When that shield was threatened, theywere prepared to make financial contributions to its sustenance, culminating inthe gift of a battle cruiser to the Royal Navy in 1909 as well as financial

contributions towards the construction of the Singapore Naval Base betweenthe world wars.

Within this framework, a small New Zealand naval force emerged, initiallyas a Division of the Royal Navy. Established in 1913, the New Zealand NavalForces were heavily dependent on the Royal Navy for both ships and personnel.This reliance had not been significantly lessened when, in 1941, the NewZealand Division was reconstituted as the Royal New Zealand Navy. Theprovision of British officers for senior and technical posts remained of vitalimportance to the viability of the force for another twenty years. British influencewithin the RNZN's higher command was also considerable, with the last Britishofficer not leaving the New Zealand Naval Board until 1966.

Since cutting the painter with the Royal Navy, the RNZN has survived withdifficulty. Whereas in the early days New Zealand borrowed warships from theRoyal Navy, paying only for their maintenance and upkeep, the RNZN todayis faced with the capital charges of replacing warships. This has caused politicalproblems, which were especially evident when New Zealand and Australia inthe late 1980s developed a joint project to build a series of frigates for their navies.By participating in the construction of the so-called ANZAC frigates, NewZealand is deriving spin-off economic benefits. In particular, its languishingshipbuilding industry has been given a shot in the arm. Nevertheless, oppositionwithin New Zealand has been substantial. Lulled by their sense of isolation fromthe world's trouble spots, many New Zealanders no longer consider theircountry's naval defence a significant problem, requiring prudent long-termplanning and diversion of resources from other, socially oriented activities. Twovessels only are scheduled at present, with options on two more unlikely to beexercised in New Zealand's straitened circumstances.

While New Zealanders remain chary of expenditure on naval defence inpeacetime, they have responded with alacrity to calls to arms this century. NewZealand's naval involvement in the First World War was limited to its newlyacquired cruiser HMS Philomel, which operated in the Red Sea area for threeyears until being decommissioned in 1917. A number of New Zealanders servedin a variety of Royal Navy vessels, one of them winning the Victoria Cross forhis exploits. New Zealand's "gift" warship, HMS New Zealand, took part in allthe major encounters of the British and German battle fleets during the FirstWorld War. In the Second World War, this pattern was repeated, though on amuch larger scale. One of New Zealand's cruisers, HMS Achilles, had early actionwhen it took part in the Battle of the River Plate. New Zealand ships wereactive in the Pacific War. Moreover, New Zealanders participated in every facetof the naval war aboard British ships. The Second World War also gave a boostto shipbuilding in New Zealand, with small craft being built for the British,United States, and New Zealand navies.

Given this background, maritime and naval history might have been expectedto attract significant academic attention. That this has not been the case is areflection of both the smallness of New Zealand's scholarly establishment andthe fact that social themes hold the field in New Zealand history at present, withinevitable effect on the composition and interests of university history depart-ments. Maritime history gets limited attention from a few academics in theuniversities as part of more general courses, especially in economic history. Thereis a School of Maritime Studies at the Otago Polytechnic in Dunedin, but itsskills-based course is designed to meet the practical needs of an expandingdeep-sea fishing industry rather than academic enquiry.

There are only a few individuals specializing in maritime history. GavinMcLean, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust's historian, has been con-spicuous in recent years, producing ground-breaking work on the business ofshipping in New Zealand and a series of books on maritime themes, but hisinterest is necessarily limited by his other duties. Some other scholars publish onmaritime-related themes from time to time. For example, Simon Ville, untilrecently a member of Auckland University's Economic History Department,but now in Australia, has recently published a study of New Zealand's coastalshipping. Gordon Boyce of Victoria University of Wellington's EconomicHistory Department is working on aspects of the Furness Withy Group. Othermaritime subjects to engage scholarly attention have included Polynesian voyag-ing, the early European exploration of the Pacific and whaling. The staging ofNew Zealand's first maritime history conference in 1992 provided a boost toscholarly interest, and this will be reinforced by the decision of the StoutResearch Centre at Victoria University of Wellington to devote its 1993conference to the theme of "The Sea."

Despite the lack of academic interest, there is a vast secondary literature onNew Zealand's maritime history, though much of it is of indifferent quality.Most books deal with company histories and fleet lists. Prolific writers from thepast have included S.D. Waters, J. O'C. Ross and A.A. Kirk. The most activewriters today are David Johnston, whose Maritime History of New Zealand is akey document, and Gavin McLean, whose works include Canterbury Coasters,Richardsons of Napier and The Southern Octopus: The Rise of a Shipping Empire.

Other themes to have received attention include port histories. The majorityare commissioned works, with Otago leading the way with two major scholarly

Simon Ville, "The Coastal Trade of New Zealand Prior to World War One," New Zealand Journalof History, vol. 27, no. 1 (1993).

David Johnston, Maritime History of New Zealand (Auckland: David Bateman/Collins, 1989).3    Gavin McLean, Canterbury Coasters (Wellington: NZ Ship & Marine Society, 1987).

Gavin McLean, Richardsons of Napier (Wellington: NZ Ship & Marine Society, 1989).

Gavin McLean, The Southern Octopus: The Rise of a Shipping Empire (Wellington: NZ Ship & MarineSociety and Wellington Harbour Board Maritime Museum, 1990).

histories: A.H. McLintock, The Port ofOtago and Gavin McLean, Otago Harbour:Currents of Controversy. Lyttelton and Oamaru are well served by W.H. Scotter,A History of Port Lyttelton and Gavin McLean, Oamaru Harbour, respectively.Production of port histories peaked in the late 1970s and early 1980s, althoughupdated accounts of Napier and Nelson harbors have recently appeared.

There is an extensive literature on migration. The publication of migrants'diaries began last century and has gained its second wind with an upsurge ofinterest in genealogy in recent decades. Sir Henry Brett's White Wings remainsa key document. Charlotte Macdonald's A Woman of Good Character is a rareexample of a scholarly publication in this field.

Shipwrecks are a major theme. An updated version of C.W. Ingram and P.O.Wheatley's 1936 Shipwrecks and Maritime Disasters is still in print. Academicwriters have also shown intermittent interest in waterfront labour in recentdecades. Little has yet been written on Maori craft, though this deficiency iscurrently being remedied.

The pattern of naval history in New Zealand is similar. No tertiary institutionsoffer courses in naval history. The nearest approach to such treatment is coverageof naval aspects within a course on New Zealand defence run on an extramural(off-campus) basis by Massey University. There is no naval academy which mightprovide a focus for such activity. Because of the smallness of its naval estab-lishment, New Zealand has traditionally sent its young officers to schools inBritain and Australia.

If maritime history has a tenuous place in scholarly interests, naval history isvirtually ignored by the scholarly community. There is consequently no his-toriographical debate. In recent times, Ian McGibbon, Senior Historian in theHistorical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, has been alone in the field.Although unable to devote himself full time to the subject, he is currentlyworking on the naval aspect of New Zealand's involvement in the Korean War.

While there is no ongoing tertiary-based work on New Zealand's naval

history, a small body of literature does exist. A starting point is S.D. Waters's

1 "\Royal New Zealand Navy     in the official war history. It provides in-depth

coverage of RNZN operations and the activities of New Zealanders with the

Royal Navy during the Second World War. Ian McGibbon, in his Blue-water

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

A.H. McLintock, The Port of Otago (Dunedin: Otago Harbour Board, 1951).

Gavin McLean, Otago Harbour: Currents of Controversy (Dunedin: Otago Harbour Board, 1985).

W.H. Scotter, A History of Port Lyttelton (Christchurch: Lyttelton Harbour Board, 1968).

Gavin McLean, Oamaru Harbour (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1982).

Sir Henry Brett, White Wings, 2 volumes (Auckland: Brett Publishing Company, 1924 and 1928).

Charlotte Macdonald, A Woman of Good Character (Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1991).

C.W. Ingram and P.O Wheatley, Shipwrecks and Maritime Disasters (Auckland: Beckett Publishing,

1990).

13   S.D. Waters, Royal New Zealand Navy (Wellington: War History Branch, 1956).

Rationale, The Naval Defence of New Zealand 1914—1942, sought to place theseoperations in a strategical context, while outlining the development of the NewZealand Division of the Royal Navy. Naval policy was also covered by W. DavidMclntyre in his New Zealand Prepares for War, Defence Policy 1919—39. Morerecently, in his The Path to Gallipoli, Defending New Zealand 1840-1915,16 IanMcGibbon has further examined the origins of New Zealand's naval policyleading to the payment of subsidies to the Royal Navy and the creation of theNew Zealand Naval Forces in 1913. He has also given attention to the navalrelationship between Australia and New Zealand. Among the areas awaitingscholarly treatment are the Royal Navy in New Zealand and the New ZealandNaval Forces.

For the time being, naval history seems likely to remain largely the preserveof enthusiastic amateur historians and antiquarians. They will add to an extensiveantiquarian literature on naval activities. T.D. Taylor's New Zealand's NavalStory leads the field, providing much useful information about naval visits toNew Zealand in particular. More recently, R.J. McDougall, in his New ZealandNaval Vessels, has exhaustively catalogued the ships of the RNZN and itsantecedents. Among other recent works of a non-academic nature are accountsof New Zealand's wartime cruisers by Jack S. Harker,     two largely pictorial

21

histories by Grant Howard, and a brief account of the Royal Navy in NewZealand and a study of the hydrographic branch by Rear Admiral John O'C.Ross.

In the absence of interest among tertiary institutions, museums will continueto play a key role in promoting New Zealand's naval and maritime heritage.There are three of primary importance. At the RNZN Naval Base at Devonport,Auckland, the Royal New Zealand Naval Museum will soon assume a higher

Ian McGibbon, Blue-water Rationale, The Naval Defetice of New Zealand 1914-1942, (Wellington:Government Printing Office, 1981).

W. David Mclntyre, New Zealand Prepares for War, Defence Policy, 1919—39 (Christchurch: Universityof Canterbury Press, 1988).

16 Ian McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli, Defending New Zealand 1840-1915 (Wellington: GP Books,1991).

1 7

Ian McGibbon, "Australian-New Zealand Naval Relations," in T.R. Frame, J.V.P. Goldrick andP.D.Jones, eds., Reflections on the RAN ( Kenthurst NSW: Kangaroo Press, 1991).

18 T.D. Taylor, New Zealand's Naval Story (Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed Ltd, 1948).

19 R.J. McDougall, New Zealand Naval Vessels (Wellington: GP Books, 1989).

20 Jack S. Harker, HMNZS Achilles (Auckland: Collins, 1980); Well Done Leander (Auckland: Collins,1971); HMNZS Gambia (Wellington: Moana Press Ltd, 1989); Almost HMNZS Neptune (Wellington:Moana Press Ltd, 1991).

21 Grant Howard, The Navy in New Zealand, An Illustrated History (Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed,1981); Grant Howard, Portrait of the Royal New Zealand Navy, A Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration(Wellington: Grantham House, 1991).

22 J.O'C. Ross, The White Ensign in New Zealand (Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1967); This StemCoast (Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1969).

McGibbon and McLean    251

profile when a planned new building is completed. Its growing collection ofmaterial will provide a basis for future research. Particularly useful will be anongoing series of oral history interviews with former naval personnel, beingconducted by the present director.

The country's premier maritime museum is the Wellington MaritimeMuseum and Gallery on Wellington's Queen's Wharf. Founded by the formerWellington Harbour Board in the early 1970s, it holds the country's largestcollection of maritime archives, photographs, and models. Merchant shipping isits specialty. It hosted the maritime history conference in 1992. A newsletter,Leading Light, is published.

The Auckland Maritime Museum was formed in the late 1980s. Its largemulti-million dollar complex will open at Auckland's Hobson Wharf in August1993. The museum will be less of a research centre than its Wellingtoncounterpart and will specialize in small craft and Polynesian/Maori vessels. Itwill operate a fleet of approximately forty authentic and replica craft and willfranchise shops designed to keep alive traditional crafts such as sailmaking andboat-building. The museum's quarterly journal, Bearings, has a wide generalcirculation.

In addition, there is a small maritime museum at Bluff, Southland, which wasexpanded in 1992, and museums at Port Chalmers and Lyttelton are maritime-dominated. The new Museum of New Zealand will be devoting space andresources to the history of Polynesian and Maori voyaging and watercraft.

Several societies have been formed to restore veteran craft. The PaeroaMaritime Park has a collection of small coasters and former RNZN craft, but isless active than it was a decade ago. At Picton, the Edwin Fox Society is planningto restore the Edwin Fox, the world's last East Indiaman. At Wanganui, ahistorical society has recovered a paddle steamer for restoration. Private in-dividuals have restored several trading schooners and scows. Shiplovers' societiesalso provide a maritime-focused network. Founded in 1949, the New ZealandShip and Marine Society has branches in Wellington, New Plymouth, andNapier and publishes a quarterly journal, New Zealand Marine News. TheAuckland Maritime Society and Otago Maritime Society service their respectiveareas.

Where to from here? There appears little prospect of early change to thepattern described above, wherein maritime and naval history is mostly thepreserve of non-professionals. Previous generations of New Zealanders wereforcibly reminded of their country's dependence on the sea during the worldwars. Such concerns have not been of overriding importance in the latetwentieth century. In the absence of some new disruption of New Zealand'strading links, or some shift in strategic outlook which might reawaken a senseof vulnerability, it is likely that academic interest will remain limited, and that

252     New Zealand

personal rather than institutional influences will remain the main driving forcein maritime and naval studies in New Zealand.

Norway

Captain Tore Prytz Dahl, Royal Norwegian Navy

In the wake of the unification of Norway under one king, a defence system-was created that included all the coastal districts. This system, called theleidang, was based on earlier local defence arrangements. The coastal districtswere divided into skipreder, and each skiprede was to build, equip, and maintaina longship of a certain size. From about the year 950, the leidang- system includedall Norway. The defence system represented a cornerstone in the formation andprotection of the Norwegian realm which included approximately the presentNorwegian area of land as well as Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, theShetland Isles, the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. The leidang wasan efficient system for about 250 years. Then new, more costly types of shipswere introduced in the seafaring countries around the North Sea. The Nor-wegian realm, sparsely populated and ruled by kings in possession of very limitedresources, came increasingly under foreign influence and fell apart.

The story of leidang has been of great interest to military as well as civilianhistorians. In 1951, the Norwegian naval high command marked the millenniumof the leidang with a publication. The book was based on contributions frommilitary and naval historians, Colonel G.P. Harbitz, Commodore S. Oppegard,and Commander Rolf Scheen, with the advisory help of civilian historians.

With the Treaty of Kalmar in 1397, the three northern countries, Denmark,Norway, and Sweden, entered a union under one king. A century later, in1523, the Swedes succeeded in breaking out of the union, while Norway steadilybecame more closely knitted with Denmark. From the Danish rulers' point ofview, the ideal thing was to regard Norwegian territory simply as "a part ofDenmark." In practical policy, however, this proved to be impossible due to thesize of the Norwegian population and resources compared with the might ofthe Danish colonial power.

Captain Tore Prytz Dahl, Royal Norwegian Navy, is Senior lecturer in naval historyat the Norwegian Naval Academy (Sjokrigsskolen), N-5034 Ytre Laksevag.

G.P. Harbitz, S. OppegSrd, Rolf Scheen, Den norske leidangen (Oslo: 1951).Gottfrid Carlsson, Medeltidens nordiska unionstanke (Stockholm: 1945).

The period of Danish dominance, which lasted for about 400 years, from1397 to 1814, is traditionally treated by Norwegian historians in a rathernationalistic way, with great emphasis on the emergence of new Norwegianinstitutions. This trend in Norwegian historical ideology has been significantfor the status of Norwegian naval history as opposed to the country's militaryhistory. During the reign of King Hans (1483—1513), a combined Danish-Nor-wegian navy was created with its main base in Copenhagen. The primary taskof this navy was to protect and dominate the sea routes in the Baltic. In thisarea, both Sweden and Denmark had large economic interests at stake. Duringthe century between 1620 and 1720, the heyday of this common Danish—Nor-wegian navy, about two-thirds of the seamen and many of its officers were ofNorwegian descent.

In 1628, however, a new Norwegian army came into being by royal decree.This army, called the "legdshaer" was based on conscription in the rural areas.For practical reasons, the new army was, to a great extent, administered inNorway, with its high command in the capital, Christiania, and differentadministrative arrangements in rural districts. The new army became an impor-tant factor in Norwegian national growth. It had, for instance, the very firstinstitutions of higher education in the country. At the same time, the NorwegianArmy in the wars against an expansive Sweden in the last half of the seventeenthcentury and the beginning of the eighteenth, fought mainly on, and defended,Norwegian soil. In that way, the Army became well known in the country,while as a rule, the common navy operated out of its main base in Copenhagenfor equally important, but not so well-known or well-appreciated operations indistant Baltic waters. Emphasized by the nationalistic trend in Norwegianhistorical writing, this contributed to the pronounced military tradition in

Q

Norway. Traditional Norwegian history tends to be rather narrowminded,nationalistically, but there are a few exceptions to this, for instance the work ofCommodore Olav Bergersen and Commander Rolf Scheen, who have tried tostress the great Norwegian share in the achievements of the common Danish-Norwegian Navy. Traditional writing has tended to overemphasize the impor-tance of the operations of the legdshaer and, to some extent, discounting or evenomitting the deeds of the Navy.

The Napoleonic wars brought the Danish-Norwegian union to an end. Afterthe bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807 and the British capture of the seagoing

Ottar Dahl, Norsk historieforskning i det 19. og 20. arhundre (Oslo: 1959).

Kayjungersen, Danmarks Sekrigshistorie (Kobenhavn: 1945) pp. 51-2.

O. Eidem and O. Liitken, Vor Somagts Historie (Kristiania and Kobenhavn: 1906) p. 182.

Axel Coldevin, Vart folks historie, vol V (Oslo: 1963) pp. 163-67.

Ibid. pp. 158-63.

Niles P. Vigeland, Norgepa havet, 2 volumes (Oslo: 1953-54).

Forsvarets Krigshistoriske Avdeling, Forsuarets rolle i Norges historie (Oslo: 1965), pp. 7-20.

portion of the combined Danish—Norwegian Navy, the two countries, alliedwith Napoleon, entered an unhappy war with Great Britain. The outcomeof the war brought Norway into a union partnership with Sweden in 1814.However, the Norwegian—Swedish union was more restrictive than theearlier connection with Denmark: primarily a common king and joint foreignpolicy. After the Napoleonic wars, the new Norwegian state was in factbankrupt. For the new Norwegian Navy, the sad economic picture impliedunrealized plans for a new seagoing fleet. At the same time, based onexperience from the war, most Norwegians thought that the waters alongour extended coasts were dominated, as well as protected, by the Royal Navy.With the exception of spasmodic naval efforts in the wake of the CrimeanWar and in the last decade before the breakup of the union with Sweden,1895—1905, the Army dominated Norwegian national defence.

After a peaceful restoration of an independent kingdom of Norway in1905, Norwegian defence policy was dominated by fear of Swedish plans forrevenge. With the long land frontier between the two countries, this naturallyresulted in an augmentation of the Army and, to a large extent, neglect ofthe Navy. A late awakening to the dangerous aspects of the Anglo—Germannaval race before 1914 produced very few material results in our Navy.During World War I Norway remained neutral, but with steadily increasingpro-allied sentiment, not least because of the sufferings of thousands ofNorwegian sailors caused by the German war against shipping. However,during the war the Norwegian Navy guarded national waters on neutralitypatrol, and the seas outside territorial waters were protected by the RoyalNavy. The dominance of the Royal Navy in adjacent waters remained aprevailing belief in Norwegian naval and political circles up to the Germaninvasion in 1940. This conception had a decisive influence on our smalldefence effort during the interwar years.

After a stumbling start, the Norwegian Army fought against the Germaninvaders for two months in 1940, rather inefficiently supported by French

17

and British troops. In connection with the withdrawal of Allied forces fromNorway in the beginning of June 1940 (the principal cause was the collapsein France), an armistice was signed between the German and Norwegianmilitary high commands. The Norwegian king and government, however,

10 Knut Mykland, Norges historie, vol. 9 (Oslo: 1977), pp. 145-55, pp. 425-76.

11 Francis Sejersted, Norges historie, vol. 10 (Oslo: 1978), pp. 32-65.

12 Article by Tore Prytz Dahl in Roald Gjelsten, ed., Verkteyforfred (Oslo: 1993), pp. 58-66.

13 Ibid. pp. 66-8.

Olav Riste, Forsuar og neytralitet under 1. uerdenskrig (Oslo: 1965).

15 Olav Riset, The neutral ally (Oslo: 1965).

16 Nils 0rvik, Sikkerhetspolitikken 1920-1939, 2 volumes (Oslo: 1960-61).

17 Odd Lindback-Larsen, Krigen i Norge 1940 (Oslo: 1965).

fled to England to continue the war from abroad. The armistice affected theArmy in particular, while naval vessels, destroyers, patrol vessels and a submarinesailed for the British Isles. A few naval planes succeeded in reaching the Britishshores as well. While it was rightly considered impossible to muster a sufficientnumber of soldiers to form new army divisions abroad, naval officers and pilotswere in demand to join the new Norwegian armed forces in Great Britain.Therefore, during the government's exile in Great Britain, the Norwegian Navywas the largest service, and the Navy and Air Force participated in a great numberof operations along with British forces. The small Norwegian Army on Britishsoil, however, was to a great extent held in reserve by our political authoritiesfor use in a possible campaign to liberate Norway. Luckily, the Germans inNorway capitulated as a result of defeats outside our country.

After the war, a special historical branch was established in the NorwegianDefence Staff. The members of the historical branch had their backgroundchiefly from service academies; only a few of the members came from civilianuniversities, for instance Professor Nils 0rvik, who had studied at the universitiesof Oslo and Wisconsin. The main task of the historical branch was to clarifythe background and the events of Norwegian participation in World War II.Consequently, Army historians treated the Norwegian Army's operations duringthe war. In Particular, they treated in great detail the two months of war inNorway in 1940. The Air Force had their histories as well, and last but notleast, the operations of the Royal Norwegian Navy during the period ofneutrality and in conditions of war, have been dealt with by Commander E.A.Steen. In the beginning of the eighties, the historical branch was disbanded inthe belief that its work was completed. At present, no special unit exists for thetreatment of historical topics in the Norwegian armed forces, with the exceptionof the work done by the Museum of Defence in Oslo and its subdivisions: theNorwegian Home Front Museum, the Air Force museum in Bodo, the NavalMuseum in Horten, and a small centre of defence studies in Oslo, led since 1980by Professor Olav Riste.

The Norwegian Museum of Defence has, until recently, been directed byofficers with an Army background. The last military director resigned in protestagainst the transfer of the Air Force museum from Gardemoen near Oslo toBodo in northern Norway. The new director, Rolf Scheen, the first director ofthe Museum of Defence with a non-military background, is an archaeologist in

Halvdan Koht, Norway, neutral and invaded (London: 1941).

Forsvarets Krigshistoriske Avdelning, Forsvarets wile i Norges historie (Oslo: 1965), pp. 37—50.20  Norges Statskalender 1951 (Oslo: 1951), p. 1086.

Forsvarets Krigshistoriske Avdelning, Krigen i Norge i 1940, Ca. 15 volumes (Oslo: 1952-1965).Fredrik Meyer, Haerens og Marinens jlyvapen 1912-1945 (Oslo: 1973).

23 Erik Anker Steen, Norges Sjekrig 1940-45, 7 volumes (Oslo: 1954-1963).

24 Norges Statskalender 1993 (Oslo: 1993), pp. 141, 174.

his mid-forties. Rolf Scheen's pronounced goal is to improve the cooperationwith civilian bodies. The new director judges his museum as one of the biggestin the country and aims at making the institution a center for competent researchin matters concerning Norwegian defence forces. At present, with fewexceptions, the majority of the museum's personnel have a military background.In the same way the Naval Museum at Horten, the main naval base of Norwayuntil the 1960s, has a director educated at the Norwegian naval academy.

The teaching of Norwegian naval history, with the exception of occasionalmuseum lectures, is done almost exclusively by the Norwegian naval academyin Bergen. At the academy, all the students, regardless of specialization, attendcourses in naval history. The executive branch students, however, have the mostextensive syllabus. The prescribed texts in Norwegian naval history are preparedmainly at the academy. Thanks to the efforts of Captain K.E. Kvam, who wasthe lecturer in naval history during the first decades after World War II, navalofficers were selected as future teachers and prepared for their profession throughM.A. theses in naval history in addition to their general education at the navalacademy. In that way, since the middle of the sixties, the teachers in naval historyhave possessed professional naval knowledge in combination with a passed

9Q

examination for a university degree in history. In addition to Norwegian navalhistory, international naval history is also taught. The students at the Norwegiannaval academy are expected to graduate with a fairly good insight into the navalhistory of the United States, Great Britain, Russia, France, Germany, and Japanas well. To that end, the Potter and Nimitz text book, Sea Power, is highlyvalued.

Maritime History

The field of maritime history can be defined widely to include both the historyof the merchant fleet as well as that of the Navy. Traditionally in Norway,however, there is a division between the study of naval affairs and non-military,

>i4

maritime history. A merchant fleet is an important constituent of sea power,since its protection provides the Navy with a rationale. The resources of themerchant marine (hulls, sailors, and expertise) can support naval strength to aconsiderable degree. However, civilian and naval types of maritime power donot necessarily sail together, and that is clearly the case in Norway. First and

25 Forsuarets Forum, 19 (1992).

26 Ibid., 21 (1992).

27 Norges Statskalender 1993 (Oslo: 1993), p. 141.Norwegian Naval Academy, Education plans 1993, (SKUP-3).

K. Kvam, Beretning om den twrske sjekrigsskoles virksomhet 1817-1967 (Oslo: 1967), pp. 584, 629.Norwegian Naval Academy, Education plans 1993, (SKUP-3).Helge W. Nordvik: "Norwegian Maritime Historical Research during the past twenty years: A

Critical Survey," Sjefartshistorisk Arbok 1990 (Bergen: 1991), p. 241.

28293031

foremost, the Norwegian Navy is a coastal one, while the Norwegianmerchant fleet ranks among the foremost in the field of international transportationacross the oceans.

The last century of Norwegian political independence in the Middle Ages, saw asteady increase in the Hanseatic cities' participation in Norway's foreign trade,eventually dominating it. Not until the great economic expansion in the Netherlandsby the turn of the sixteenth century did Norwegian economic life experience asubstantial change for the better. Norway's forests proved to be one of her mostimportant resources, with timber being exported to the Netherlands and to othercountries in Western Europe such as England and Scodand. To a great extent, thistrade was carried out on Dutch keels. The blooming of the Dutch economy ledthousands of Norwegians, especially from southern Norway, to emigrate to theNetherlands. Norwegians served in the Dutch Navy as well as on Dutch mer-chantmen. The Dutch served as our teachers in naval and maritime matters since thesespecialties, to a large extent, had sunk into oblivion in Norway after the Middle Ages.

England struck a serious blow against the Dutch carrying trade to English ports bythe Navigation Act of 1651. However, by the exclusion of Dutch merchantmen fromthe timber trade between Norway and England, Norwegian ships were given anadvantage, giving the Norwegian merchant fleet many favourable years at the turn ofthe seventeenth century. These conditions also prevailed in the 1750s and later duringthe American War of Independence and in the first decade of the French Revolu-

-1/:

tionary War. During these periods, Denmark—Norway enjoyed a profitableneutrality.

The battle in the roadstead of Copenhagen in 1801, and especially the Britishbombardment of Copenhagen in 1807 and the taking away of the better part of theDanish—Norwegian Navy, however, brought the countries into the turmoil of theNapoleonic wars, and a war against the mistress of the seas, Great Britain. The Britishblockade brought disaster to the Norwegian merchant fleet. Since free transportationby sea was of vital importance for Norway, some parts of the country even experiencedfamine when the sea routes were interrupted.

After the union with Sweden in 1814 and the restoration of peace, Britishprotectionism put obstacles in the way of Norwegian maritime expansion, for instancethe favoring of Canadian instead of Norwegian timber.    The abolition of the British

32 Geoffrey Till, Modern Sea Power, vol. 1 (London: 1987), pp. 12-3.

33 Statistical Yearbook of Noway 1992 (Oslo: 1992), p. 460.

34 Ole Jorgen Benedictow, Norges historie, vol. 5 (Oslo: 1977), pp. 207-8, 232-39.

35 Axel Coldevin, Vartfolks historie, vol. 5 (Oslo: 1963), pp. 87-90.

36 Ibid., pp. 348-51.

37 Ibid., pp. 407-16.

38 Knut Mykland, Norges historie, vol. 9 (Oslo: 1977), pp. 145-55.

39 Bernt A. Nissen, Vart folks historie, vol. 6 (Oslo: 1964), p. 129.

Navigation Act in 1849, however, was of the greatest importance for the growthof the Norwegian merchant fleet.

During the 1850s, Norwegian shipping expanded dramatically in the overseastrades. Sailings between foreign ports, without Norwegian ports of call, becamecustomary. Norway was able to maintain competitive advantage by paying lowwages to the sailors and using second-hand ships. At the same time, theconditions of life in the Norwegian coastal districts produced sailors well adaptedto the seafaring life.

The upward trend for Norwegian shipping continued, with a few setbacks,into the present century. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Norway'smerchant fleet ranked number four after Great Britain, Germany, and the UnitedStates. Before 1914, most shipowners had managed the transition to steam, andNorwegian shipyards mastered the new technology.

The merchant fleet of neutral Norway was highly affected by World War I;however, due to political sympathy for the Allied cause, common economicinterests, and Allied pressure, the Norwegian policy became definitely pro-Al-lied. In the final years of the war, the largest part of the merchant fleet wasengaged in British transport, although at very high expense. Nearly half (49.6percent) of the pre-war fleet was lost. About 900 ships were sunk due towar-related causes, and nearly 2,000 sailors perished.

After the war, the development of Norwegian liner trades continued, handin hand with the reconstruction of the fleet. The difficult market was met bymodernization—for instance a change from steam to motor. At the same time,new, more specialized trades were developed, most importantly the tanker trade.In 1921, tonnage reached the pre-war level. With the exception of a fewsetbacks, the expansion of the merchant fleet went on throughout the inter-waryears. By the outbreak of World War II, Norwegian merchant tonnage haddoubled to 4.9 million G.R.T. and ranked fourth after Japan. Before 1914, duringthe previous period of great expansion, growth had taken place through theprocurement of cheap, old ships. During the inter-war years, the competitiveability was maintained by sailing vessels that, in technical terms, were the bestof ships. In 1939, 70 percent of the fleet used motor propulsion, and 20 percentof the world's tanker tonnage was Norwegian.

After the German attack in 1940, about 16 percent of the Norwegian ships,the "home fleet," came under German control. The rest of the fleet, about 4million tons, remained under the control of the legal Norwegian government.By decision in cabinet,  the Norwegian merchant fleet was placed under

40 Hans Try, Norges historic vol. 11 (Oslo: 1979), pp. 116-53.

41 Per Fuglum, Norges historie, vol. 12 (Oslo: 1978), pp. 234-52.

42 Chr. A.R. Christensen, Vart folks historie, vol. 8, (Oslo: 1961), pp. 66-83).

43 Edvard Bull, Norges historie, vol. 13 (Oslo: 1979), pp. 59-68.

44 Niels P. Vigeland, Norgepa hauet, vol. 2 (Oslo: 1954), p. 582.

governmental control for the duration of the war. In that way, "The Nor-wegian Shipping and Trade Mission," usually abridged to NORTRASHIP, wasborn. NORTRASHIP, with its estimated 1,000 ships and 25,000 sailors, was themost valuable asset of the Norwegian government in exile. The income fromNORTRASHIP made the government economically independent during itsforced stay in Great Britain. At the same time, the Norwegian merchant fleetwas Norway's greatest contribution to the Allied victory. For instance, in theperiod "when Great Britain stood alone," nearly 50 percent of the vitaloil-transports came to Britain on Norwegian keels. As during World War I,the cost was grim: 2.7 million tons, 47 percent of the fleet, was lost and about4,000 Norwegian sailors died.

Within five years after the end of World War II, the Norwegian merchantfleet had reached its pre-war level. All through the fifties and sixties, the fleethad a remarkable growth, reaching 25 million tons in the middle of the seventies.In that decade, however, the merchant fleet experienced a downward economictrend and felt the negative consequences of the higher Norwegian costs ofoperation. Competition from ships registered under "flags of convenience," withlower taxes and far less social costs, elucidated the competitive disadvantages thatthe post-war Norwegian welfare state implied for international shipping. Theresult was a pronounced downward trend in the Norwegian tonnage of shipping.Not until the creation of the Norwegian International Ship's Register (NIS) in1987 was the decline halted, perhaps temporarily. By the end of 1992, the sizeof the Norwegian merchant fleet was about 23 million G.R.T. Of this total,21,769 million tons was in the NIS.

After this very short survey of Norwegian maritime history, what is the presentstate of naval and maritime history in Norway? Maritime finds from antiquityand the Middle Ages are regulated by law. The Chief of Inspectorate of AncientMonuments and Historic Buildings [Riksantikvar] has country—wide authority.As for archeological finds, the country is divided between the University of Osloand the Norwegian Maritime Museum in Oslo, the Archaeological Museum,and the Maritime Museum in Stavanger, the University of Bergen and theMaritime Museum in Bergen, the University of Trondheim and the Museumat the University of Tromso. According to Norwegian law, maritime finds fromthe modern period, if they are more than one-hundred years old, belong to theNorwegian state when private ownership is impossible to establish. The respon-

45 Ibid., p. 579.

46 Chr. A.R. Christensen, Vart folks historic vol. 9 (Oslo: 1961), pp. 422-23.

47 Niels P. Vigeland, Norge pa hauet, vol. 2 (Oslo: 1954), p. 582.

48 Ibid., p. 609.

49 Edvard Bull, Norges historie, vol. 14 (Oslo: 1979), pp. 197-203.

50 Central Bureau of Statistics of Norway, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, 1/1993 (Oslo: 1993).

Prytz Dahl     261

sibility for material of this category is divided in the same way among the abovementioned institutions.

As for maritime history in the modern period, it has been maintained thatfascinating ships, sailors, and personalities always tend to win in the competition

Co

with structures, strategies, and politics. In a somewhat exaggerated reaction tothis issue, primarily to the book on The History of Norwegian Shipping up to 1914,Professor Johan Schreiner published his study of Norwegian shipping in theperiod 1914—1920. In his preface, Professor Schreiner explicitly stated that hisbook contained no pictures of ships or portraits and no accounts of ships andmen. Instead, Schreiner concentrated on the new problems created by the warand the shipping boom of the period.

The history of the individual shipping firms, quantitatively the most commontype of maritime history in Norway, has largely been written through commis-sioned assignments to journalists and "popular" writers. Fortunately, however,there are several exceptions to this fact. Some research is being done in this area,but it is usually done outside the universities, because Norwegian professionalhistorians generally have concentrated their research on Norwegian politicalhistory, especially the emergence of the new state after 1814 and the creation ofthe modern welfare state. The most prominent institutions that have dealt withmaritime history in the shape of scientific research published in books andwell-edited yearbooks are the maritime museums of Oslo and Bergen, both ofwhich are led by professional historians. Bard Kolltveit is the director at theNorwegian Maritime Museum and Dr. Atle Thowsen is at the MaritimeMuseum in Bergen. The foundation of the "Norwegian Research Fund forMaritime History" at the Bergen Maritime Museum in 1971 is an attempt toturn the tide in favor of scientific research in the field of Norwegian maritimehistory, but its resources are very limited. Consequently, the foundation cansupport only a few research workers per year. Although some progress has takenplace, the negative trend has not been changed permanently. During the twodecades leading up to the 1990s, some twenty master of arts theses in maritimehistory have been written at Norwegian universities. In the same period, onlythree doctoral theses in maritime history have been defended at Norwegianacademic institutions.

Lov om kulturminner av. 9. juni 1978, Lovendring av 3. juli 1992.

Helge W. Nordvik, "Norwegian Maritime Historical Research during the past twenty years: ACritical Survey," Sjefartshistorisk Arbok 1990 (Bergen: 1991), p. 242.

Jac. S. Worm-Muller, Ed., Den norske sjefarts historie fra de aeldste tider til uore dage, 3 volumes(Kristiania-Oslo, 1923-51).

Preface to Johan Schreiner, Norsk skips/art under krig og heykonjunktur 1914-1920 (Oslo 1963).

55 Ottar Dahl, Norsk historieforskning i det 19, og 20. arhundre (Oslo: 1959), pp. 268-71.

56 Universitetet i Bergen, Arsmelding 1968-69 (Bergen: 1970), p. 133; Hvem er Hvem (Oslo: 1984), p.419.

■      Helge W.  Nordvik,  "Norwegian Maritime  Historical  Research,"  Sjefartshistorisk Arbok   1990

262     Norway

Among the most important works published recently is Commander JonRustung Hegland's account of the NORTRASHIP Fleet. ' This well-docu-mented account studies the activities of 1,081 ships and about 25,000 seamen.Based on primary sources, Hegland used maritime statutory declarations, actionsreports from naval gunners aboard the ships, the Admiralty's War Diary,NORTRASHIP's records of losses, Norwegian naval documents, as well as someBritish and German printed documents. Although Hegland only treated theeconomic and administrative aspects when they are important for the overallview, the very comprehensive works of Lauritz Pettersen, Bjorn L. Basberg,Guri Hjeltnes, and Atle Thowsen on The Merchant Navy at War have morecompletely elucidated these aspects.

These works are good examples of the complementary research done by navaland civilian historians. To a certain extent, the two groups may be said to bemutually prejudiced, with naval men writing oversimplified explanations ofcomplex historical causes and effects, while civilian historians tend to giveamateur treatment to naval and military problems.

In the future, one may hope that the goal of the new director of theNorwegian Museum of Defence, to improve contact between civilian andmilitary research establishments, may help to bridge the existing gulf betweenNorwegian maritime and naval history.

(Bergen: 1991), pp. 243, 248, 256; Atle Thowsen, "Norsk sjofartshistorie—periferi eller sentrum inorsk historieforskning?"  Sjefartshistorisk Arbok 1912 (Bergen: 1973), p. 38, (Summary in English).

58 Jon Rustung Hegland, Nortraships Flate, 2 volumes (Oslo: 1976).

59 Atle Thowsen, Handelsjlaten i krig 1939-1945, vol. 1; Bjorn L. Basberg, Handelsjlaten i krig1939-1945, vol. 2; Guri Hjeltnes, Handelsjlaten i krig 1939-1945, vols. 3 & 4; Lauritz Pettersen,Handelsjlaten i krig 1939-1945, vol. 5 (Oslo: 1992-1995).

Pakistan

Commodore S.Z. Shamsie, Pakistan Navy, Retired

Pakistan came into existence on 14 August 1947. Prior to that date therewas only one well-established maritime institution in what was to becomePakistan, that being the Karachi Port Trust. It was on that same day in Augustthat the Royal Pakistan Navy was born, with its ships being allocated from theold Royal Indian Navy.

The region has a long-standing relationship with the sea. Two small islandsnear the mainland in Karachi harbour contain a thriving shipbuilding industrywhich, for many years, has been focused on building dhows. Even today, theseindigenous boats ply the Arabian and Red Seas, the Persian Gulf, as well as otherareas. Now equipped with diesel engines, the dhows are able to operate in nearlyall weather conditions. They also carry a surprising amount of cargo, as littlespace is devoted to comfort, and crews are small.

The infancy of the Pakistan Navy was difficult, given the chronic lack of financialresources, manpower, and expertise. It took time to create these new institutions,and it was not until the 1950s that substantive growth appeared. Two importantfacilities were developed during that time frame: the Royal Pakistan Navy Dockyardand, near it on West Wharf, the Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works.

Although the subject of a naval academy and a marine academy had beendiscussed as early as 1948, nothing significant happened for several years. The CadetTraining School was started in HMPS Himalaya (the training complex) on ManoraIsland in the early 1950s. The Naval Academy was commissioned at another locationon the island in 1957. The Pakistan Marine Academy was eventually set up in 1961in East Pakistan, near Chittagong. After East Pakistan became Bangladesh in 1971,temporary accommodation for the Marine Academy was found in Karachi.Construction of a new Academy, not far from Sandspit Beach, was started in 1976.That institution is now under control of the Ports and Shipping Wing.

A general history of the development of the Pakistan Navy is provided in the official history, titledthe Story of the Pakistan Navy 1947-1972, (Karachi: Elite Publishers, Ltd., 1991); See also, HerbertFeldman, Karachi Through a Hundred Years; the Centenary History of the Karachi Chamber of Commerce andIndustry, 1860-1960 (Karachi: Pakistan Branch, Oxford Univ. Press, 1970).

This information, and that which follows about the Pakistani National Shipping Corporation, theAcademy, the Coast Guard, and Port Qasim, was obtained from official Naval Headquarters Records

The Ports and Shipping Wing was established in Karachi at the end of 1961,under a director general who held the rank of commodore. He was assisted bytwo directors who were naval officers. Although it initially functioned underthe Ministry of Defence, the Wing was later transferred to the Ministry ofCommunications.

The National Shipping Corporation was established in the public sector bythe government to ensure better operation and development of shipping inPakistan. The first ship was purchased in 1964, and by 1971 the number hadincreased to thirty-two. From its inception this corporation has been led by anaval officer.

The concept of a coast guard, initiated by the Navy, was developed as aseagoing force for the protection of national marine resources, patrolling coastalwaters, anti-smuggling and assistance to merchantmen. It had been assumed thatthis was a natural function of the Navy. The proposal to establish a coast guardbumbled through the meandering channels of bureaucracy and emerged, havingsuffered a significant metamorphosis, as a land-based, ancillary force to assist thelocal police and Customs agencies.

The Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW) proved to be anunprofitable industry. With high overhead and labour unrest it was not com-petitive. After a Presidential Order, it was taken over by the Ministry of Defenceand placed, in 1970, under the charge of a naval officer.

Discussions were also held on the subject of creating another port to ease theburden on Karachi. The intent was that it be close so that transportation of goodsfrom the north would be enhanced. Finally, it was decided that both the steelmill (which was to be set up with the help of the USSR) and the new port shouldbe located at Pipri, which is close to Karachi while just to the south of it. Thatport was named after the man who conquered Sindh in 711; Port MohammadBin Qasim.

The Department of Hydrography was established in 1948 with the assistanceof an officer from the Royal Australian Navy. A continuous demand by theNavy for scientific information about the marine environment led to theformation in 1958 of the National Committee for Oceanographic Research(NCOR). This organization was chaired by the Hydrographer of the Navy. ThePakistan Navy took part in the International Indian Ocean Expedition (1962-65)and generated much interest in the region. UNESCO organized training schemesfor naval personnel, and equipment was donated by a number of countries,including the United States.

The Ministry of Technology was established in 1978. The Navy played asignificant role in the establishment of the National Institute of Oceanography,(NIO) as the Committee for Oeanographic Research was the primary advisory

and Naval Archives and from the Office of the Director, General Ports and Shipping.

body for the development of that organization. That institute was set up inKarachi in 1981, with the aim of initiating oceanic research and exploitingmarine resources.

The Navy further extended its research and training facilities. Close coopera-tion with the Pakistan Navy led to an increase in the activities of the NationalInstitute of Oceanography. For instance, the need for tidal data from the UnitedKingdom was eliminated through the introduction of tidal predictions inPakistan. In addition, coastal protection works were commenced. The Institutealso arranges special lectures for the Navy and other organizations. The Institute'sDirector was appointed Vice Chairman of the Inter-governmentalOceanographic Commission For UNESCO, in Paris 1989—93.

The need for an oceanographic research vessel had been felt for some time,and approval had been pending for some time. Continued pressure by the Navyand National Institute of Oceanography ultimately lead to action and, in 1982,a research vessel was launched. This Oceanographic vessel was commissionedand named Behr Paima in 1983. It is under the administrative control of theMinistry of Communications, while naval personnel man it.

Two Pakistan research expeditions have been undertaken to the Antarctic.The first was from 12 December 1990 to 1 March 1991. An Antarctic stationwas established and named after the founder of our nation: Jinnah. On the secondexpedition, the ship left Karachi on 27 December 1992 and returned on 11March 1993. There were twenty scientists, thirteen naval officers, eleven Armyofficers and one Air Force observer. Jinnah Station 2 and Iqbal Observatory wereestablished on the ice shelf, while detailed scientific research was carried out inthe surrounding waters.

In addition, an oceanographic ship was chartered by the Ministry of Tech-nology for National Insitute of Oceanography and expeditions were organizedand led by the Pakistan Navy. Scientists from the Institute and other institutionscarried out extensive research on the ice shelf and adjacent waters, with theNavy and Army providing assistance.

As mentioned earlier, the Navy initiated a case for the establishment of theCoast Guard which, unfortunately, became a para-miliary unit. The situtationwas reconsidered in order to redress that error, and the Coast Guard wasreconstituted in 1986 to perform its originally assigned functions. This organiza-tion is now called the Maritime Security Agency. It is currently manned by navalpersonnel and was started with ships allocated by the Navy.

Some years ago, a body called the Foundation for Development throughMoral Revival was formed as a non-profit making public charity trust by retired

Information about general oceanographic developments was obtained by interview with the formerDirector of the National Institute of Oceanography.

Specific data for the 1992 expedition was provided in an interview with the naval officer directly incharge of the 1992 expedition.

266     Pakistan

Vice Admiral Choudri, who was the first Pakistan naval officer to become thecommander in chief. His purpose was to call together various intellectuals andpersons interested in discussing matters of national importance. At a later stage,a maritime studies group was formed, as attention was focused on maritimesubjects. Admiral Choudri has developed an abiding interest in maritime mattersand has actively supported them on every suitable occasion. Last year, thedecision was made to expand its activities and form an independent researchbody. It has now been named the Pakistan Institute of Maritime Affairs (PIMA).Its charter encompasses many aspects of maritime history, including merchantships, shipbuilding, ship repairs, ports, fisheries, offshore activity, pollution andhinterland infrastructure.

The Pakistan Navy is also in the process of building a museum, to be namedthe Pakistan Maritime Museum. This museum will include display rooms, alaboratory, a historic reference section, and a library. Construction is scheduledto be completed in 1994.

Most maritime institutions are under the control of the Ministry of Com-munications. All of them have published articles on their activities on specialoccasions. A book was published on the occasion of the centennial of the KarachiPort Trust in 1980. A souvenir magazine was produced by the Pakistan MarineAcademy, providing a brief history, an account of its activities, and the coursesheld subsequent to the aid provided by Japan.

Given that our country is very young, the histories are very limited as well.In 1997, when we celebrate the 50th anniversary of our Independence, all theseinstitutions will publish special issues to commemorate the event. When con-sidered together, they will comprise our maritime history.

There is, however, another aspect of Pakistani maritime history which alsowarrants a certain amount of attention. Specifically, the Muslims did muchproductive work in that regard between the eighth and fifteenth centuries.Though books and articles that touch on the maritime aspect have been writtenin the past, many of them are in Arabic or Turkish. A fair amount was alsowritten by the English during their rule in India. But the impression is that notenough has been written in the Urdu language (the language of Pakistan) or inEnglish. While a few articles have appeared from time to time in newspapersand periodicals on navigation, astronomy, ship construction, and charts, andinstruments for navigation, research in this area deserves greater attention andresources. In general, books on maritime history are not readily available to thepublic.

Considering our ethos, our people's thoughts are focused landward, par-ticularly to the north. Very little happened at sea during the rule of the Moghuls,and the small navy which existed for a short period of time remained in theeastern part of the subcontinent. Historically, the only person who understoodthe importance of the sea and the Navy was Tippu Sultan, and his advice went

Shamsie     267

unheeded. Today, paradoxically, most naval personnel are recruited from thenorth. But, in general, there is little interest in maritime affairs.

In fact, the word maritime has a different connotation to most students in thiscountry. In the universities, there are few students who have shown interest inthe subject, though some have displayed an interest in the Muslim history in theperiod A.D. 700—1500. In the recent past, some Sindh students have been keento study the history of old Sindh as a maritime province, going back as far as thetime of Moenjo Daro, and the Indus Valley civilization. Some books in theSindhi language are available. An effort has been made to encourage theUniversity of Karachi to create a Department of Maritime History.

Naval history is taught, on a limited scale, in the Naval Academy at the NavyStaff College. Certain aspects are taught in the Army and Air Force Staff Collegesand in the National Defence College.

The intellectual atmosphere in Pakistan was vitiated some years ago. Thereare, however, faint signs that interest in intellectual subjects may be revived inthe future, but this will come only slowly. Significant interest in maritime affairsis not likely to develop soon. In 1992, an international seminar was held inLahore on the achievements of the Muslims, including the maritime sphere, inorder to generate interest. Many experts came from abroad. That seminar didgenerate some interest. But, without concerted follow-up, that interest is alsolikely to wane.

The Institute of Maritime Affairs held a seminar in Islamabad in 1992, andplanned to hold another in Lahore in May 1993, to raise the consciousness ofmaritime issues for those who are generally far removed from the sea. Politicalevents forced them to postpone the seminar which was to be held in Islamabadin March 1994. The institute's objective was, and is, to make the maximumpossible contribution as a non-political, non-governmental organization, interalia, through study/research and development, in as many of the maritimesubjects as resources permit. They also hope, wherever possible, to help otherorganizations engaged in similar work in the interest of the country.

The Pakistan Maritime Museum will probably assume the task of producing themaritime history of the country. One of the functions of a maritime museum is tomake people aware of their maritime heritage. In this case, it will be entrusted withthe task of writing notes on the achievements of the Muslims. Any assistance whichcan be provided from other sources will certainly be deeply appreciated.

As mentioned earlier, while there has been a slight resurgence of interestrecently in the achievements of the Muslims, there is inadequate intellectualinterest presently in the maritime sphere. Just the same, an effort to recordmaritime history is underway. A modest start in this process was made by thepublication of the Story of the Pakistan Navy, which was referenced earlier in thisarticle. That book provides the first reference to our extended maritime history.

Peru

Commander Jorge Ortiz, Peruvian Navy

The sea has always been an important factor in Peruvian life. It played adecisive role in the formation of Andean culture and in the evolution ofthe colonial world, and it has remained just as important throughout our modernhistory as well. However, for many different reasons, Peruvians remained outsidethis important process. Historically, Peru has remained an observer, whileforeigners exploited one of the richest seas of the world, laying adjacent to hercoast (for example, the use of the whaling grounds off the northern coast of Peruby the British and North Americans in the late eighteenth and early nineteenthcenturies, and the development of the important guano trade in the last century).

A possible explanation for this situation is the tremendous influence that theAndes have exerted on Peruvian life. It was in the sierra that the most importantcultures flourished, exploiting the great diversity of ecological niches. After theEuropeans arrived in the sixteenth century, enormous mineral resources locatedin the mountains became the base for the Spanish colonial economy in the NewWorld. Nonetheless, maritime routes were the only feasible means for the exportof gold and silver taken from the Andes. That exploration moved the Peruvianeconomy increasingly away from agriculture and towards mining. That trendcontinues today.

This condition restricted Peruvian maritime activity to insignificant fishingcommunities and to a small number of maritime entrepreneurs, ship owners andseamen. The vast majority of these people were concerned only with their ownbusinesses. Very few of them played an active role in politics, or devotedthemselves to developing an awareness in the Peruvian community of theimportance of the sea to the national well-being.

This article is intended to explain why maritime and naval history are nearlyabsent in the Peruvian academic world and are not being offered as courses orseminars in any Peruvian university. In fact, aside from some valuable andpioneering research done in the late nineteenth century, maritime history was,in the past, largely confined to an adjunct status to naval history. That historywas, in the main, produced by naval officers. Taking this situation into account,and with the intent of renewing maritime and naval history, a group of naval

officers and historians took upon themselves the task of writing a Peruvianmaritime history nearly thirty years ago.

A few years later, with the firm support of the Peruvian Navy, this groupformed the Peruvian Institute of Maritime History, (Instituto de EstudiosHistorico-Maritimos del Peru) and published a large collection of books underthe general title, Historia Maritima del Peru. This collection, covering Peru'smaritime past, from prehispanic times to the twentieth century, already numberstwenty volumes, and three other volumes are in work.

The functions of the Institute are complemented by the Navy itself throughits historical service. However, despite its formal intentions to promote maritimehistory, the Institute has devoted a considerable amount of its effort to navalhistory, not only because it forms an important part of maritime history, but alsobecause the Institute is directed by retired naval officers. Apart from the Instituteand the Navy, and closely linked to both, there are a small number of historiansand other scholars who do research in maritime or naval history themes. Asalready suggested, though, while there are historians who have written aboutmaritime and naval topics, it cannot, in general, be said that they are truly navalor maritime historians. The exception, perhaps, is Commander FernandoRomero Pintado, who holds a Ph.D. in history, but whose advanced age haslimited his involvement in academic activities during the last few years.

Taking all of this into consideration, the Peruvian Institute of Maritime Studieshas encouraged and supported some naval officers to take up maritime historicalstudies. Furthermore, efforts have been made to attract young historians andresearchers to maritime themes. Several young naval officers studied at the Facultyof Arts at the Universidat Catolica del Peru and have become professional historians.One of the first to accept this challenge was the author of this short essay who, alongwith some other young historians and researchers, devoted his studies to topics ofthe sea. In both cases, there have been some initial successes. In the near future atleast, a small cadre of trained maritime and naval historians will be working in theareas that maritime and naval history encompass.

Some reference should also be made to the dissemination or publication ofmaritime and/or naval themes. While no seminars or courses on maritime ornaval history are currently being given in the universities, they are being offered,although with some difficulty, at the Instituto de Estudios Historico-Maritimadel Pern, as well as by the Navy itself. In the last few years the following courseshave been offered:

• Naval War College (Escuela Superior de Guerra Naval). Between 1988and 1991 a course was offered in Maritime Identity. Since 1992, it has beenreplaced by three seminars: Historical Analysis of Peruvian Naval Cam-paigns, A History of War at Sea, and History of the Navy.

i

Historia Maritima del Peru (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Histdrico-Maritimas del Peru, 1912- ).

• Peruvian Naval Academy (Escuela Naval del Peru) provides a course onthe History of the Navy.

• Institute for the Study of Peruvian Maritime History (Instituto de EstudiosHistorico-Maritimos del Peru). In 1992, a course in maritime history wasbegun which was designed to give students a general overview of maritimetopics. That course had three parts: a) evolution of ships, b) history of warat sea, and c) general maritime history.

The first course mentioned above, the maritime identity, was given by thisauthor to the Captain's Course. The objective was to present a general overviewof Peruvian maritime history, emphasizing the way it helped to build our nationalidentity. Among the points covered were the importance of the sea to theprehistoric settlement of Peru; the myths and legends that shed light on thisreality; and prehispanic navigation as a fundamental element in the productionof food as well as in the pursuit of commerce. Reviewing the colonial period,the importance of Callao in the maritime commerce of the South Sea wasemphasized, not only during the time of the annual fleets in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries, but also during the epoch of the special license ships inthe eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Furthermore, we directed thestudents' attention to the nascent interest in Peru which was awakened by theexploitation of marine resources. These activities included whale hunting at theend of the eighteenth century, which was later replaced by the great guano boomof the nineteenth century, and by the lucrative fishing industry, especially ofanchovies, in the twentieth century. Peru became the world's leading produceroffish products in the 1950s.

The seminar covering the analysis of Peruvian naval campaigns is given byseveral retired admirals and includes three campaigns: Independence (1818—1826), the war with Chile (1879-1880), and the war with Ecuador (1941). Twoother seminars are directed by this author, which are efforts to provide lieutenantcommanders and commanders with an overview of the evolution of war at seaand of the Peruvian Navy itself. This course on naval history, given in the NavalAcademy, has not been taught regularly in the last few years, and for this reasonwill not be analyzed fully. In 1992, the professor for the course, a retiredcommander, died and was replaced by his assistant, a young civilian historian.

The course of maritime history, mentioned above, offers a common base forresearchers who work on maritime and naval themes. It should be noted thatno similar course has ever been given in the country. As a result, in the pastevery researcher approached the topic with his own understanding of what wasnaval and what was maritime, but often with little understanding of the bigpicture and how the two fields meshed. So, for example, we not only try topresent general ideas on the evolution of naval ships, but also emphasize pointson worldwide maritime and naval history as well.

Having already mentioned the work carried out by the Instituto de EstudiosHistorico-Maritimos del Peru in reference to the development of maritimestudies, its organization and editorial efforts should be presented as well. TheInstitute is a private enterprise, strongly linked to the Navy, but independent inall its activities. It is made up of forty members, half of them naval officers, andthe other half academics of diverse disciplines, including historians, diplomats,biologists, etc. Its principal endeavor, The Maritime History of Peru [HistoriaMaritima del Peru] which, as previously noted, is the primary resource for thosewho wish to become acquainted with the maritime and naval history of Peru.In addition, they have published more than a dozen other titles, and a reputablejournal is issued, although on a somewhat irregular basis.

On the other hand, the Navy itself carries out and promotes historical researchthrough the Direccion de Intereses Maritimos, which administers the NavyMuseum and the Historic Archives of the Navy, and which contains documentsdating from the beginnings of the nineteenth century. Another importantarchive for study of Peruvian and South American maritime and naval historyis the National Archive, with documentation dating to the sixteenth century.The Navy has an editorial fund that has published almost thirty titles in the lastfew years, not all of which are on strictly naval history topics.

Apart from these two institutions, other works are being or have beenproduced which touch on maritime or naval themes. One of these is a thesiscurrently in preparation for presentation to the Catholic University, and anotheris the collected works of Dr. Maria Rostworowsky de Diez Canseco, publishedby the Institute of Peruvian Studies, which deals with the Peruvian coast in theLate Prehispanic Period.

Finally, it should be noted that, given the importance of the Peruvian viceregalperiod, there are more than a few works, published outside Peru, which dealwith maritime or naval aspects of the period.

Naturally, one institution is not capable of handling all these works. None-theless, there is a concerted effort to establish links among all those who areinterested in these topics. This effort was reinforced in 1991, with the FirstSymposium of Ibero-American Maritime Studies of Peru. One of the majorachievements was the establishment of a permanent secretariat, and Chile as well

Maria Rostworowsky de Diez Canseco, Costa peruana prehispanica (Lima: Instituto de Estudiosperuanos, 1989) 2nd ed.; Recursos naturales renovables ypesca, sighs XVI y XVII (Lima: Instituto de EstudiosPeruanos, 1981).

Pablo E. Perez-Mallaifha y Bibiano Torres Ramirez, La Armada del Mar del Sur (Sevilla: Escuela deEstudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 1987). Peter T. Bradley, The Lure of Peru. Maritime Intrusioninto the South Sea, 1598-1701 (London: The Macmillan Press: 1989). Peter T. Bradley, "The ships ofthe Armada of the Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth Century" in The Mariner's Mirror, 79 (1993),pp. 393-402. Hugo O'Donell, El Viaje a Chiloe de Jose de Moraleda (1787-1790) (Madrid: EditorialNaval, 1990).

Ortiz     273

as Argentina and Brazil agreed to host successive symposia in 1993, 1995, and1999, respectively.

It is probably too early to speak of intellectual tendencies in the fields ofmaritime and naval history, as interest in academic circles has not been appliedconsistently over a prolonged period of time to demonstrate such trends ortendencies.

The War of the Pacific (1879-1884), which Peru and Bolivia lost to Chile,endowed the Navy with its most famous heroes. This, combined with the factthat the war proved traumatic for the nation, has been primarily responsible forso much of Peruvian naval and maritime history being devoted to that war andthat epoch in general. Only in recent times have several works highlighted otheraspects of Peru's rich and diverse maritime and naval past.

In this category, that being the periods least treated but also quite important,the one spanning the end of the eighteenth and the beginnings of the nineteenthcenturies should be noted. It was the period between the authorization of theentrance of British and North American whalers and the war for nationalindependence. A methodical study is also needed on the Spanish South SeaFleet, whose existence spanned almost two centuries (between 1579 and 1750).Some work on the topic exists, but much more needs to be known about thisimportant colonial entity. Present day Peruvian maritime communities also needstudy. One can still find some prehispanic customs and artifacts (such as rafts) ina number of small fishing villages and ports. It is also necessary to research boatsin general. In Peru, many immigrants settled on the coast in the past twocenturies and many of the boats presently in use by fisherman reflect the influenceof these immigrants. Another theme that should be dealt with urgently is theconquest of the Amazon, a process begun in the sixteenth century via the riversystem. This began to be systematized with the participation of the Navy after1864.

As noted above, Peruvian historical studies deal largely with naval topics.Works on maritime themes, if they are attempted, face lack of incentives in theacademic world. It is worth mentioning that while the Navy, through theInstituto de Estudios Historico-Maritimos and through its own historic division,supports and develops historic studies,the same does not occur among the diverseelements that make up the maritime world of our nation.

In sum, Peruvian maritime history is very rich, given its diversity and the longrelationship that Peruvians have had with the sea. In the case of naval history, itis equally abundant, having begun in the sixteenth century with the formationof the South Seas Fleet. All this information has been gathered and reviewed by

4 Jorge Ortiz, El Vicealmirante Martin Jorge Guise Wright (1780-1828) (Lima: Direccion de InteresesMaritimos, 1993). Jorge Ortiz and Alicia Castafieda, Dicaonario biografico maritimo peruatio (Lima:Direccion de Intereses Maritimos, 1993). Jorge Ortiz, "Peru and the British Naval Station (1809-1839),"Ph. D. Thesis, St. Andrews University, Scotland, 1994.

274    Peru

the Institute of Historic-Maritime Studies of Peru, however, much researchremains to be done in this field.

24Poland

Jerzy Litwin

and

Commander Dr. Wincenty Karawajczyk, Polish Navy

Maritime History

Studies of the history of shipping and the Navy, which have been conductedin Poland over the past seventy-five years, have been strictly related to thecountry's political situation. During that period, the country's political-economic doctrines have undergone three radical changes. As a result, with eachchange, the authorities intensified demands to have at their disposal syntheses ofparticular fragments of Poland's history. These were utilized, more or less, forpertinent educational purposes, but also for specific propaganda activities,conducted in the name of the politics of the state at the time.

The first such period embraced the years 1918—1947, that is, from theregaining of Poland's independence after 123 years of annexation by Russia,Prussia, and Austria at the end of the eighteenth century. This period alsoincluded the Second World War and the post-war struggles for independenceconducted by the Polish underground. The second period lasted from 1948 tothe spring of 1989, when Poland was ruled by a communist government whosepolicies were imposed by U.S.S.R. authorities. The third period began in thespring of 1989 when, after the agreement of the so-called "round table," thecommunist authorities handed over power in Poland, agreeing to its being takenover by the forces which produced the social uprising in 1980, known by thename "Solidarity."

Polish Maritime History in Outline. The oldest written sources telling ofthe riparian navigation of the Slavic peoples date to the sixth century A.D. Thenorthern borders of the Slavic lands stretched along the Baltic coast from theregion known today as Lubeck in the west, to the mouth of the Vistula in theeast.

The people living adjacent to the western Slavs called them Wends. Thispoint is brought to light in a description by Wulfstan, a ninth century Anglo-

This section is written by Dr. Jerzy Litwin, Deputy Director of the Polish Maritime Museum, Gdansk.2    Wfedysfaw Filipowiak, Wolin - Vineta (Rostock-Stralsund: 1986); WTadsysfaw Filipowiak, "Poczatki

Saxon traveller, who claims to have had the Wendic lands off his starboard bowduring the entire voyage from Hedeby (Haithabu) to Truso. From Gdansk Bayhe sailed up the Vistula which, as he pointed out, was the natural frontierbetween the Wends and the "Old" Prussians.

To meet their transportation, communication, and fishery needs, the riparianSlavs produced rafts and logboats and, if the necessity arose, larger craft as well.

It was probably in the seventh century that the Slavs first ventured out intothe open sea. To sail in safety there required appropriately constructed craft.This usually involved increasing the ships' freeboards by attaching single planksto them, or sets of two or more overlapping planks.

In the larger boats, the dugout part of the ship's bottom was of no greatsignificance, and in time it came to be left as a semicircular beam: the keel. Bythe end of the ninth century, keels had become T-shaped in cross-section.Dugout keels in small boats persisted on the south coast of the Baltic until thebeginning of the twentieth century.

Ancient Slavic boatbuilding reached its peak of development in the tenththough the twelfth centuries, when large plank-built boats made quite longcommercial voyages.  The Western Slavs also sent fleets to wage war against the

Q

Vikings. Many wrecks and parts of Slavic vessels from this period have beendiscovered not only along the southern shores of the Baltic but also in Denmark.Sweden, and Germany.

Slavic boats of the ninth through the twelfth centuries had a number ofcharacteristic structural features. They were made of oak. In silhouette theyresembled Viking ships, but their cross-sections were different. Their bottomswere flat and, even though they were made from overlapping planks; the 10-30

zeglugi slowianskiej u ujscia Odry," Studia nad etnogeneza Sfowian i kultura Europywczesnosredniowiecznej, vol. 2 (Wrodaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk-Lodzl 1988); Witold Hensel,Stowiariszczyzna wczesno/redniowieczna (Warszawa: 1965); Jozef Kostrzewski, Pradzieje Pomorza(Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow: 1966); Zdenek Vana, Suriat dawnych Sfowian (Praha: 1985).

3 Niels Lund, Two Voyagers at the Court of King Alfred (York: 1984), p. 22-30.

4 W. Hensel, ibid.

Przemysiaw Smolarek, Studia nad szkutnictwem Pomorza Gdanskiego w X-XIII w. (Gdansk: 1969);Przemysiaw Smolarek, "Szkutnictwo Pomorza Gdariskiego we wczesnym sredniowieczu," Historiabudowtiictwa okretowego na Wybrzezu Gdanskim, ed. E. Cieslak (Gdansk: 1972).

Wolfgang Rudolph, Handbuch der volkstumlichen Boote im ostlichen Niederdeutschland (Berlin: 1966);Wolfgang Rudolph, Inshore Fishing Craft of the Southern Baltic from Holstein to Curonia (London: 1974).

Wfedysfaw tega, Obraz gospodarczy Pomorza Gdanskiego w XII i XIII wieku (Poznari: 1949); P.Smolarek, ibid.

Q

Krystyna Pieradzka, Walki Sfowian na Battyku w X-XII wieku (Warszawa: 1953).

Detlev Ellmers, Fruhmittelalterliche Handelsschiffahrt in Mittel- und Nordeuropa (Neumunster: 1984); P.Herfert, Ralswiek einfruhgeschichtlicherSeehandelsplatz aufder Insel Rugen (Greifswald: 1982); Jan SkambyMadsen, Danish-wendische Beziehungen am Schluss des 11. Jahrhunderts vom Fund einer Schiffswerft bei FrhrodreA auf Falster aus beleuchtet, Bistum Roskilde und Rugen (Roskilde: 1987); K.W. Struve, "Ein slawischesSchifBwrack aus der Eckernforder Bucht," Offa (1978); "Kazimierz Slaski, Slawische Schiffe deswestlichen Ostseeraumes," Offa (1978).

millimeter diameter pegs used to hold the structural elements together proved

1 oto be an entirely satisfactory substitute for nails.

The East Baltic Slavonic tribes, which belonged to Poland from the end of thetenth century, continued to expand maritime economy within the boundaries ofthe Piast monarchy, which in the tenth and eleventh centuries organized thestate of Poland. At the end of the twelfth century, Poland was divided into anumber of principalities. One of them, Masovia, experienced problems with itsstrong neighbor to the west, Prussia. Masovia's Prince Konrad, in 1226, invitedthe Teutonic Order Knights to fight with them against Prussia. These new-comers very soon established their own state on Prussian territory, and at the

beginning of the fourteenth century they, in turn, invaded Gdansk. With that

11act Poland lost her access to the Baltic.

Two points stand out in fifteenth century Poland: her economic growth andher struggle for supremacy with the Teutonic Order. Settlement in coastaltowns was increasing, which helped to foster trade with foreign centres. By then,goods were being carried mostly by ship. As early as the fourteenth century,inland towns were making their contribution to the country's export drive. Avariety of goods were shipped downriver to the coast on rafts, large logboats, orother craft.

Cogs and hoiks were vessels frequently used in medieval sea transport. Theirdesigns had generally become more sophisticated, but they differed from oneanother in detail. Cogs became common on the Baltic shores in the thirteenthcentury and, although probably originating in the Frisian Islands, they were alsobuilt in Gdansk and Elblag. Cogs had flat, flush bottoms and clinker-built sides,closely resembling Vistula ships in these design features. Hoiks, which wereusually larger than cogs, became common in the fifteenth century and weretraditionally built on a keel, like boats, by means of the shell technique.

River navigation on the Vistula reached its zenith in the sixteenth througheighteenth centuries, when thousands of ships and rafts sailed down to Gdanskand Elblag and then, laden with overseas goods, plied back upstream to theirpoints of origin. Products of farm and forest, minerals and goods in transit, wereall shipped down the Vistula and its tributaries.

Smolarek, see note 5; Tadeusz Delimat, "O genezie-todzi klepkowych na Pomorzu," Lud, 42 (1956);Jerzy Litwin, "Szkutnictwio i zegluga," Zdziejow techniki w dawnej Polsce (Warszawa: 1992); K. Slaski, ibidem.11   Edmund Cieslak, Historia Gdanska, I (Gdansk: 1978).

Marian Biskup and Gerard Labuda, Dzieje Zakonu Krzyzackiego w Prusach (Gdansk: 1988).

Aleksander Gieysztor, "Wisia w sredniowieczu," Wisfa, monografia rzeki, ed. A. Piskozub (Warszawa:1982); Stanistaw Gierszewski, Wista w dziejach Polski (Gdansk: 1982); Przemysfaw Smolarek, "Types ofVistula Ships in the 17th and 18th Centuries," Yearbook of the International Association of Transport Museums,8 (Gdansk: 1981).

Jerzy Litwin, Some Remarks Concerning Medieval Ship Construction (Malta: 1989); and From Studies onGdansk and Elblpg Ship-building and Shipping in the 13th-15th Centuries (Malta: 1991).

Jan W. Gan, Z dziejow zeglugi srodlpdowej w Polsce (Warszawa: 1978); Sebastian F. Klonowic, Flis, to

The szkuta was the largest vessel that shipped goods on the Vistula. A szkutacould be up to 38 meters long, 8.5 meters wide, and was capable of taking 100tons of cargo on board.

A great opportunity to create a Polish navy arose in 1570 when the Polish king,Zigismund August, brought two experts from Venice and entrusted the constructionof a galleon at Elblag. This brought a new type of warship to the Baltic. We knowhow the ship was built from surviving expenditure records. Construction of thegalleon began in June 1570. Ready for launching a year later, the ship was completedin 1572. However, she was not armed and never entered service, owing to the

1 8

premature death of King Zigismund August.

While Zigismund August failed in his effort to establish a navy, the Polishkings of the Vasa dynasty enjoyed greater success in that field in the first half ofthe seventeenth century. King Zygmunt III created a fighting fleet for whichfive ships were built at Gdansk in 1605—6. Poland's naval successes included avictory over the Swedish fleet in 1627 in the Battle of Oliwa, which took placein Gdansk Bay. During this battle the Swedish warship Solen was sunk, whileanother, the Tigem, was captured.

In 1641—43, King Wladislaw IV's fleet was scrapped. The consequence of thiswas that for the next three hundred years the rulers of Poland, for a variety ofreasons, turned their backs to the sea. At the same time, from the mid-seventeenthcentury onwards, the policies of Gdansk, which had become rich acting as themiddleman in Polish-European trade, led to a standstill in the local shipbuildingindustry.

Although Poland had never been a major producer of oceangoing ships, shewas a major supplier of raw materials to foreign shipbuilders through the end ofthe nineteenth century; timber (beams, planks, and masting) was shipped to thesea ports, where it was resold, principally to Holland and Britain. Up to the

jest spuszczanie statkow Wisia i inszymi rzekami do niej przypadajjacymi (Warszawa: first edition 1595);Stanislaw Kutrzeba, Wista w historii gospodarczej daumej Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Warszawa: 1922); J.M.Matecki, "Wisia w okresie od pokoju toruriskiego do pokoju oliwskiego," Wisfa, monografia rzeki, ed.A. Piskozub (Warszawa: 1982); H. Obuchowska-Pysiowa, Handel wislany wpierwszejpotowie XVIIwieku(Wroclaw: 1964); Krystyna Waligorska, "Konstrukcje statkdw prywajacych po Sanie i Wisle w XVIIIw," Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej, vol. 8, no. 2.

Mieczysfaw Boczar, Galeona Zygmunta Augusta (Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdarisk: 1973); JerzyLitwin, "The First Polish Galleon and its Construction Register from 1570-1572," Carvel ConstructionTechnique, Oxbow Monograph 12 (Oxford: 1991).

17 Adam Kleczkowski, Regestr budowy galeony (Krakow: 1915).

18 M. Boczar, ibid.;]. Litwin, "First Polish Galleon."

Witold Hubert, "Bitwa pod Oliwa," Przeglpd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol. 1 (Warszawa: 1929);Stanislaw Bodniak, Zwipzekjloty i obrona wybrzeza w wojnie Zygmunta III z Karolem IX (Poznan: 1930);Kazimierz Lepszy, Dziejejloty polskiej, (Gdarisk-Bydgoszcz-Szczecin: 1947); Eugeniusz Koczorowski,Bitwa Pod Oliwa (Gdynia: 1968).

20 K. Lepszy, ibid.

21 Edmund Cieslak, Historia Gdanska, vol. I-III (Gdansk: 1978; 1982; 1993).

eighteenth century, the materials specification for ships-of-the-line built in Britishyards expressly required 4 to 4 1/2 inch-thick oaken planks from Gdansk.

Steam power, which revolutionised industry in Western Europe at the turnof the eighteenth century, also had an effect on inland shipping. The first riverand canal steamships made their appearance, making transport on those water-ways more efficient.

Moreover, companies operating steamships came into existence despite thefact that the powers partitioning Poland were wilfully neglecting the country'swaterways. The pioneers in this respect were Piotr Steinkeller and KonstantyWolicki, who established a shipping company in 1825—27. In 1827 theyimported two ships from England, the Victory and the Ksipzp Ksawery. Unfor-tunately, both ships were sunk during the November Insurrection of 1830. In1840-42, Steinkeller bought two new ships, again in England, intended forpassenger transport in the Warsaw area.

The most successful steamship company operating on the Vistula at that timewas the "Steamship Company on the Navigable Rivers of the Kingdom, CountZamoyski et Companie," founded in 1848 with the assistance of French capitalprovided by Eduard Guibert. In 1849, this firm had ten lighters with twosteamboats to move them (the Prince de Varsovie and the Vistule), both built atNantes in 1847. Eduard Guibert was also the managing director of the companyuntil 1852. Additional ships were built for this company in Poland, most of themat the Steamship Workshops, founded in 1851 in Solec, a suburb of Warsaw.The company's operations ended as a result of the restrictions imposed by thetsarist authorities after the January Insurrection of 1863. Count A. Zamoyski wasalso deported and his estate confiscated. In 1871 the company was formallydissolved and the ships sold.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, passenger travel by boat becamevery popular, not only as a means of getting from one place to another, but alsoas a form of recreation. Many pleasure steamers were built at Solec (Warsaw),

Oft

Wfodawek and Krakow. M. Fajans' company was the leader in this field.

After the First World War, inland navigation was reactivated under Polishauspices. The leading companies operating on the Vistula were the Polish

John Charnock, An History of Marine Architecture (London: 1800); John Fincham, An Outline in ShipBuilding (London: 1852); James Dodds and James Moore, Building the Wooden Fighting Ship (London:1984).

23 Witold Arkuszewski, Wislane statki pasazerskie XIX i XX uneku (Gdansk: 1973).

24 Ibid.

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

Navigation Company of Krakow, the Polish River Navigation "Vistula" ofWarsaw, and Lloyd of Bydgoszcz.

From 1918 to 1939 inland Polish shipyards prospered. Among their achieve-ments were the large passenger ships, Polska and Francja, built in 1925, and theBajka built at Solec in 1927. The largest vessel of all was the Baftyk, built at theGdansk yard in 1928. Other yards produced smaller ships and lighters. Theyalso received orders for specialised craft. Particularly profitable for the shipyardswere vessels supplied to the Polish Navy for the Vistula and Pinsk flotillas, andthose supplied to the customs and frontier guards at Gdynia. The Zieleniewskiyard in Krakow built a series of monitors. The Navy's own yards at Pinsk andModlin built armed cutters and minelayers, and the Modlin yard built the firstsea-going ship for the modern Polish Navy, the Jaskotka.

As well as fostering the growth of inland navigation, Polish authorities in thatperiod emphasized the organisation of a sea-going fleet. Among the mostimportant undertakings of that period were the construction of a modern portat Gdynia and the formation of a navy and a merchant fleet. The Higher NavalSchool was founded to train future ship's officers, and a nationwide association,the Maritime League, was brought into existence to disseminate informationabout and to organise activities dealing with the sea among the populace ingeneral and among young people in particular.

At that time, France was very active in helping establish Poland's maritimeactivities. It was in France that Poland purchased her first modern warships,destroyers, and submarines, as well as a series of cargo ships, popularly knownas "Frenchmen," many of which were still in service after 1945.

One tremendous achievement on the part of the organisers of the Polishmaritime economy was the founding of a shipyard at Gdynia, where constructionof sea-going vessels developed rapidly. Unfortunately, this healthy progress wasinterrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War.

After the war, cleanup operations got under way in the ports and shipyardsalong Poland's devastated, but now very much longer, coast. Harbours andshipyards were rebuilt. A system of maritime education came into being, andspecialist design offices were established.

The industrialization of Poland undertaken after the war has also effected thedynamic development in the shipbuilding industry which was, until 1989, thepride of Poland's maritime economy. Even today* following the recent politicaland economical changes, the shipbuilding industry seems well positioned to bea dominant force in the Polish economy.

The Study and Preservation of Polish Maritime History. Compared toother European literature on naval and shipping history, Polish research publi-

29 Ibid.

cations remain rather modest. The reason for this state of affairs is that systematicstudies on these questions, as well as ship and boat-building, and fishers, startedrelatively late. This was due to a large extent to the country's unstable politicalsituation prior to 1918 and to the prolonged lack of access to the sea, whichprecluded the development of more important maritime traditions.

Characteristic of the post-1918 period was the positively enthusiastic interestin maritime matters demonstrated by the whole population. This followed theaward to Poland of a land corridor to the sea by the Treaty of Versailles. This,in connection with access to the seaport of Gdansk (which had been given thestatus of a free city), led to the development of a maritime economy. A socialorganization, most frequently known as the Maritime League, was also estab-lished.

The first popular maritime publications also appeared. These offered articleson the Slavs' struggles on the Baltic, the times of King Zygmunt August, thefounder of the Maritime Commission, and the only naval victory—the Battleof Oliwa, in 1627. The results of studies were also published by such historiansas S. Bodniak, A. Czolowski, W. Hubert, W. Konopczynski, and others.Of particular importance in these considerations is the work of K. Lepszy, whosecrowning study was The History of the Polish Fleet.

Traditional fishery and small boat-building was primarily the subject ofinterest to ethnographers. Unfortunately, these subjects did not constitute aspecific concerted area of study but, rather, just a fragmented body of paperspresenting the material culture of the people inhabitating Poland at the time. Ofa dozen or so papers, that by K. Moszyriski, "The Popular Culture of the Slavs,"'was of particular importance. It was an attempt to present the basic types ofSlavonic floating structures, including rafts and canoes.

With regard to linguistic studies concerning aquatic occupations, B. Slaski'sFishery-Nautical and Boat-building Dictionaryremains a good source of informationwhen studying earlier boat-building.

Information on research and publications concerning shipping, shipbuilding,navies, fishery, rafting and boat-building was substantially supplemented byperiodicals published at the beginning of the twentieth century. An important

Stanisfaw Bodniak, Zwiazek Jloty i obrona wybrzeza w wojnie Zygmunta III z Karolem IX (Poznarf:1930); "Morze w gtosach opinii dawnej Rzeczpospolitej," Rocznik Gdanski, vol. IV (Gdansk: 1931);"Sprawy morskie w 'Ksiegach Hetmariskich' Sarnickiego," Rocznik Gdanski, vol. XII (Gdansk: 1938).

Aleksander Czolowski, Marynarka w. Polsce (Lwow: 1922).

Witold Hubert, "Proba tworzenia marynarki wojennej podczas powstania 1863-64," PrzeglpdMorski, vol. 2, no. 4 (1929); "Bitwa pod Oliwa," Przeglad Historyczno-Wojskowy (1937).

Wfadyslaw Konopczynski, Pohka polityka battycka (Poznan: 1930).

Kazimierz Lepszy, "Straznicy morza Stefana Batorego," Rocznik Gdanski, vol. 7 (Gdansk: 1933);Kazimierz Lepszy, Dzieje Jloty polskiej (Gdarisk-Bydgoszcz-Szczecin: 1947).

Kazimierz Moszyriski, Kultura ludowa Stowian, vol. 1; Kulturamaterialna (Krakow: 1929).

Bolesfaw Slaski, Stownik rybacko-zeglarski i szkutniczy (Poznarf: 1930).

popularizing role here was played by The Sea [Morze] and TJie Maritime Review[Przeglad Morski] concerning naval matters; The Technical Review [PrzegladTechniczny], which was devoted to industry, including shipyard questions; FisheryReview [Przeglad Rybackt], which was dedicated to fishermen; The People [Lud\,The Land [Ziemia] and The Vistula [Wista], which were designed for a widercircle of readers. There were also a whole series of weeklies containing articleson maritime subjects.

During that period efforts were also made to establish museums of a maritimecharacter. This was not an easy task, as Poland's maritime traditions were not asextensive as those of many other European countries. The first attempts toestablish such institutions were taken up in the 1930s, when a private maritimemuseum was organized in Warsaw and a fishery museum in the small fishingvillage of Debki. Neither of these survived the ravages of the war. Numerousrelics from other museums and private collections also met the same fate.

Despite the tremendous enthusiasm to learn about and propagate maritimematters in Poland in the years 1918—1947, no comprehensive system of profes-sional studies and education in the field of historical-maritime problems couldbe established. Only the staff of the Baltic Institute conducted studies on Poland'smaritime history, although there was also a fairly large group of scholars whotook up sporadic studies in this field. That group managed to create the climatefor the propagating of maritime history in postwar times.

The period following the Second World War, particularly in the years1945-1947 was, for Poles, a period of continued struggle to regain independence.The Yalta Conference of 1945 had bound the future of the nation, oppressedby the six years of war, to a treaty of unreserved subordination to Soviet Russia,which was imposed by force. This struggle was carried out with considerableeffort throughout Poland. Diplomatic steps were taken up in allied countriesbut, in view of the declining political force of Polish emigre circles, these effortsfailed to achieve expected results. Thus, after 1948, following the wiping out ofthe patriotic groups throughout the country, Poland became totally subordinateto the Soviet Union.

The consequences of this situation became apparent in all spheres of learning,including history, the fields of studies, and dissemination of knowledge of thehistory of the Polish nation, as well as its modest maritime history. All of thesewere conducted, particularly until 1956, in the new communist spirit. It becamecustomary to avoid, or hold back information regarding the country's economicachievements of the pre-war time when, for over a dozen years, Poland hadmanaged to establish genuine bases for a versatile maritime economy. It was alsonot advisable to glorify the Navy's combat achievements during the 1939-1945period, when it was on active service with the Western allied fleets. Perfidiouscommunist authorities generated political trials based on false accusations againstwar heroes who continued to serve as officers during the Stalinist rule of terror

(1949—1953). These acts of repression included Navy men, and resulted in thesentencing of several outstanding officers for (unproven) espionage. The senten-ces included the death penalty.

Later, the Polish Navy, thanks to the dedicated, professional attitude of itsofficers, refused to participate in the suppression of the so-called social protestswhich took place with particular intensity in 1956, 1970, and 1981. Thanks tothis, it earned the respect and friendship of the Polish society.

Generally speaking, the achievements in the organization of the maritimeeconomy in Poland in 1948-1989 were considerable. Not only were thecommercial and fishing port complexes established, but shipowning firms weredeveloped and shipyards organized. An extensive system of education for thisfield of the economy began to function, beginning with basic vocational studiesand leading to specialized, postgradate work. Several schools, particularly theGdansk and Szczecin technical universities, as well as other universities andmerchant navy academies in the towns previously mentioned, promotedhundreds of graduates each year. The Navy could also boast of its ownuniversity-level academies.

In the field of propagation of maritime culture and history, as well as theconservation of nautical relics, Poland's achievements were the most distinctlymanifested of all the countries in the "Eastern Block."

Attempts to found a maritime museum in Poland were made just as soon ashostilities ceased, and, in fact, the first such museum was set up in Szczecin in1946. Unfortunately, this museum was subordinated to the Museum of WesternPomerania in 1950, where, to this day, it functions as the Maritime Departmentof the National Museum in Szczecin. Despite its subordinate status it continuesto play an important part in the preservation of historical nautical objects and inencouraging townspeople to visit its attractive maritime exhibition. That exhibi-tion is housed in a building apart from the main body of the museum andcomprises, among other things, the wrecks of three early medieval Slavic boatsand other artifacts illustrating the maritime traditions of the western Slavs. Themuseum has a varied collection of ship's fittings, many of which are from theship Poznan, one of the "Frenchmen" mentioned earlier.

The second museum to be established in Poland was the Naval Museum,established in 1953, which can today boast of approximately ten million visitors.It has no dedicated, permanent display ship, but the destroyer Btyskawica, builtin Great Britain in 1936, has been on display since 1976. Following successfuladaptations to its new purpose, substantial exhibition space was gained. This wasimproved by a special passageway made through the turbine and steam boilerrooms.

An important achievement of the museum employees is the permanentexhibition of armaments. Thanks to this, it has been possible to safeguard severalexamples of what are now relies of armaments used at sea in the twentieth

century. It warrants mention here that the experience in keeping a ship as anexhibit afloat was gained by the museum in the years 1960-1975 when anotherworthy veteran of World War II, built in France in 1928, the destroyer Burza,was opened to the public. Unfortunately, such exploitation was the reason forthe ship finally being scrapped.

A significant achievement on the part of the scientific staff of the NavalMuseum, is the publishing of the Historical Bulletin [Biuletyn Historyczny]. Thetwelfth edition appeared in 1992. Such publications present articles concerningvarious aspects of naval history.

The Naval Museum is not the only entity that accumulates relics anddisseminates information on questions of war at sea. A considerable role is playedby the fourteen halls of tradition found in the particular barracks, whichconstitute local historical centres not only for the sailors, but also for localcommunities. Among these, the most interesting exhibitions and collections areaccommodated at Gdynia-Oksywie and Hel, where one of the exhibits is theCoast Guard cutter Batory, built in Poland before the war. In October 1939, theBatory managed to break through the German blockade and reach neutralSweden. One commendable tradition is the custom of naming new naval vesselsafter units previously famous for their active service. For example, a third Polishsubmarine now bears the famous name of Orzet (Eagle).

The Polish Navy also conducts several cultural-educational activities. Anexample of this is the organizing of numerous training-propaganda voyages foryoung people and teachers. Within the framework of training activities, salvagevessels traditionally cooperate with the Gdansk Maritime Museum, providingassistance in the search for and exploration of shipwrecks.

A third museum dealing with the sea is the Oceanographic Museum andAquarium in Gdynia. As a part of the Sea Fisheries Institute, it has dischargedits statutory responsibilities in strict accordance with its original charter. Onlyrecently has it begun to develop broader interests, such as the study of theethnography of fisheries.

The leading museum of this kind in Poland, however, is the Central MaritimeMuseum in Gdansk, established in 1960 and financed by the Ministry of Cultureand Art. Considering the country's remaining economic difficulties, Gdansk'sMaritime Museum has become a museum giant in the last thirty years, employinga staff of about 250. In the same way, it constitutes the centre of Polishnautological studies and provides protection for these types of relics. Throughthe staffs efforts, it has been possible to purchase and adapt two historicalsea-going ships: the sail-training frigate Dar Pomorza, and the first coal-ore carrierto be built entirely in Poland after the last war, the S.S. Sotdek. The museumalso possesses a large collection of traditional inland and sea-going craft, bothfrom Poland and from elsewhere in the world.

The Museum's continually expanding premises are already extensive: theunique port crane on the Motlawa river in the old city of Gdansk; a group ofthree port granaries and a building taken over from the city's former powerstation on the opposite bank of the Motiawa; a branch museum in Hel, displayingexhibits from the history of fisheries; and a branch in Tczew, the museum of theVistula River. The Central Maritime Museum also has a large conservationlaboratory specialising in the preservation of artifacts recovered form the seabed.It merits mention that the museum initiated in 1965 the first regular underwaterarchaeological research in Poland. It has had its own ship for these purposes since1973. The permanent exhibitions at the museum have become very much morediverse as a result of the exploration of the numerous wrecks lying around andon the bed of Gdaiisk Bay.

Having organised a historical monument conservation service, the PolishMaritime Museum has taken on the responsibility of curator of all nauticalobjects of historical interest in the whole of Poland. As a result, the museum hasalso developed extensive programmes of ethnological, underwater, and land-based archaeological investigations.

The Central Maritime Museum attaches considerable attention to educationalactivities, offering, among other things, systematic classes for groups of schoolchildren. It also conducts lectures and practical workshops for archaeologystudents from the universities of Toruii and Warsaw.

A number of societies have been important in assisting the Polish MaritimeMuseum fulfil its statutory obligations. These include the Friends of the PolishMaritime Museum, who have made an important contirbution towards thefounding and expansion of this institution; the Friends of the Dar Pomorza, whoare raising funds for the construction of a dry dock for this ship; and the Friendsof the S.S. Sofdek, through whose efforts this vessel was adapted to museumpurposes.

A few other museums in Poland are involved in the protection of maritimeheritage. Among them is the Toruii Museum of Ethnography, with its extensiveexhibition of traditional fisheries in Poland. This is yet another institution playingits part in the conservation of objects of nautical interest. It has a collection ofVistula craft dating from the early twentieth century. A number of othermuseums each have several boats and dugouts. In all, there are some thirtytraditional boats in Polish museums (not counting the maritime museums) aswell as nearly 150 dugouts, mostly obtained from archaeological excavations.

Company museums have also played an important part in preserving Poland'scultural-industrial heritage. The idea of creating such museums was born in theearly days of communism in Poland. Their purpose was to collect documentsand artifacts illustrating the achievements of that era. Today, in the wake of majorpolitical and economic change, these museums face serious difficulties. Still, theircollections illustrate an important era, that has come to an end and are of

significant historical value. Two companies with such museums are shipyards:The Gdynia Shipyard, known as the Paris Commune yard before 1990, which,besides its own museum, has managed to preserve and exhibit on it premises thefirst ship it ever built there in 1930. The Gdansk Shipyard Museum has by farthe largest display area, much of which is now devoted to the birth of the socialmovement, known to the world today as "Solidarity."

Apart from direct steps taken to safeguard material nautological relics, variousscientific institutions and societies play an important part in popularizing andpromoting that role. Thus, those conducting their activities in Gdansk includethe Institute of Pomeranian History and Maritime Affairs, the Baltic Institute,and the Maritime Institute. Additionally, the University of Gdansk is becomingmore and more "maritime" in character, boasting a huge library with a significantmaritime profile. For several years now, an Institute of Ocean Technology hasbeen in existence, but there are no lectures provided in the history of this field.Toruri University, in contrast, has an active faculty of Underwater Archaeology.

The scientific societies boast a considerable contribution to the study andpropagation of maritime history in Poland. The Gdansk Scientific Society,whose members include scholars from various fields, including a considerablegroup of historians interested in maritime problems, is a force with substantialpotential. Its achievements include several books on Gdansk's maritime history,shipbuilding and shipping. Another such association is the Polish NautologicalSociety, located at Gdynia. Its trademark is the quarterly Nautologia, which hasappeared, uninterrupted, for twenty-eight years. While considering the varioussocieties, mention must also be made of the Brotherhood of Submarine Lovers,memberships of which include former crew members of such ships, amongothers.

Recently, the "Cutter Brotherhood" has become very active. This is a societywhose aim is the preservation and proper operation of craft that have becomerare or have been withdrawn from service.

Poland's return to democracy in 1989 is clearly reflected in her domesticpolitics. The outcome of this change includes elimination of publication cen-sorship, which has allowed impartial study of naval history to reappear. Oneexample of this is the intensification of studies on the inland Pinsk flotilla. Thatunit was the only formation of the Polish Navy to participate in operations againstthe Soviet armies which invaded Poland without declaring war in September,1939. We still await the results of these and other studies.

Several new steps have recently been taken in respect of the protection andpopularisation of Poland's maritime heritage. Not all can boast visible effectstoday, but it is expected that there will be continued increase in interest in navalhistory and the protection of such relics in the future. This was supported bythe establishment in 1991 of twelve Regional Centres of Studies and Preserva-tion of Built Environment. Among these, Gdansk's centre has been entrusted

with an additional specialization: the study and protection of our watersidecultural heritage. The Gdansk centre also collects documents and evidence ofrelics of technology connected with the shipbuilding industry and shipping.

One expression of this new outlook on our heritage is the call for a conferencedevoted to the protection of relics of industrial heritage. This conference, to beheld at Gdansk Technical University in 1999, will devote the sessions to theprotection of the maritime heritage and will be held at the Central MaritimeMuseum in Gdansk.

There is hope, therefore, that the combined activities of all these groups willensure the continued growth of interest in the protection of maritime heritageand, particularly, the completest possible preservation of artifacts, inludingtraditional craft which, because of their physical characteristics and condition,present serious technical problems.

Naval History3

In Poland, there is a distinct division between maritime and naval history, aswell as a significant absence of works considering their relationship. Naval historyis regarded as a sub-discipline of military history which, in turn, is considered apart of general history. This makes it a subject of special interest to the PolishNavy and Army. The vast majority of books and articles on Polish naval historyhave been published by naval officers or other researchers connected with thearmed forces, since they have had better access to documents kept in militaryarchives than their civilian colleagues. Access to source materials plays animportant role, particularly in writing contemporary history on the Polish Navy.

There are now in the Polish armed forces three principal institutions inter-ested in naval history: the Institute of Military History in Warsaw, the NavalMuseum in Gdynia, the Institute of Humanities at the Naval Academy inGdynia.

The Institute of Military History conducts research in all branches of militaryhistory, including naval history. The most famous naval historian at the Instituteis, in my opinion, Captain W. Dyskant, an assistant professor. Dyskant haswritten several books and many articles on the history of the Polish Navy up to1939, with an emphasis on the history of river flotillas. It is appropriate to notethat doctoral students of the field of naval history from all over Poland maydefend their theses at the Institute and, if successful, earn their degrees in militaryhistory.

The Naval Museum in Gdynia is busy collecting all kinds of items related tothe past and present history of the Polish Navy, including Polish and foreignpublications. The Museum has a large collection of diaries, memoirs, accountsand reports produced by officers and seamen who took part in World War II,

37 This section has been written by Commander Wincenty Karawajczyk, Polish Navy. Dr. Karawajczykis assigned to the Polish Naval Museum in Gdynia.

as well as many personal documents and keepsakes presented by members ofnaval personnel or their families. The Museum has two distinct parts: themuseum ship Btyskawica, and an open-air exhibit of naval armaments. It warrantsmention here that the staff of the Naval Museum is engaged in publishing theHistorical Bulletin [Biuletyn Historyczny], which has produced thirteen issues thusfar. All Polish naval historians may publish articles in this bulletin. At present,Commander Dr. Z. Wojciechowski is director of the Naval Museum.

The Naval Academy's Institute of the Humanities, part of which is theDepartment of Naval History, plays a leading role in studies and teaching ofPolish naval history. The staff is headed by Captain J. Przybylski, an assistantprofessor and a prominent Polish naval historian. The Department of NavalHistory is conducting research on the development of the Polish Navy duringits most interesting period: 1918—1989. Its staff prepares doctoral and habilitationtheses which include the main results of this research. These theses are, in mostcases, defended at the Institute of Military History in Warsaw.

The Department of Naval History is presently engaged in writing amonograph on the Polish Navy and its role in coastal defense through the years1918-1989. This effort should appear in print in 1996. It is worthwhile toemphasize that, in preparation of this monograph, not only have professionalhistorians from the Institute of the Humanities taken part, but also economistswho study economic problems within the Navy in that period, teachers, whoexamine the process of education and training of naval officers and seamen, andsociologists, who study social aspects of the Navy.

Captain J. Przybylski's research concentrates on the postwar development ofthe Polish Navy. He also conducts a seminar in naval history for doctoralcandidates. His students prepare theses on the organization, tasks, development,training, and armament of various parts of the Polish naval forces for the years1918—1989. They have contributed significantly to the development of thepreviously mentioned monograph. Under Captain Przybylski's leadership, theInstitute of the Humanities has organized many symposia in the field of navalhistory.

Apart from naval historians working for military institutions, there is a smallgroup of academic historians, dispersed in a few universities, who are alsointerested in naval matters. Most of them are located at the University of Gdansk(for example, Professors C. Ciesielski, Z. Machalirfski and S. Ordon are part ofthe faculty there). A fair number of writers producing popular books about thePolish Navy and its role in war at sea should also be mentioned. Among them,E. Kosiarz and J. Pertek deserve special attention. Many valuable publicationson the history of the Polish Navy have also been authored by "researchers livingabroad." Most of them were originally members of the Polish Navy who didnot return to Poland after the dissolution of Polish naval forces in Great Britainin 1947. They have had excellent access to original documents from World War

II. S. Piaskowski from the older generation, and M. Kiriakowski from theyounger, both conducting their studies in Canada, are the most eminent authorsin this category, and are cited in later footnotes.

With regard to the teaching of naval history, only the Polish Navydemonstrates a great interest. Except for the Naval Academy in Gdynia, thissubject is not taught at any university in Poland. The Academy has two coursesin naval history that midshipmen must study: the history of the Polish Navy,and the history of the art of naval warfare. Each course is composed of sixtyhours of lectures and seminars and must be taken by students during the fourthyear of study. The course, on the history of the Polish Navy, examines theantecedents, origins and development of the Polish naval forces in both theirnational and international setting. Special attention is paid to the Polish fleetbetween the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries and to the period after 1918,when Poland regained its independence. The Last seventy-five years are dividedinto three main time frames: (1) the Navy of the Second Republic, 1918—1939;(2) the Polish Navy in World War II and in the postwar period in Great Britain,1939-1947; and (3) the Navy of the Polish People's Republic, 1945-1989.

The second course examines the development of maritime strategy and tacticsfrom ancient to modern times. It is made up of three parts; first is the art of navalwar from the age of rowing fleets through World War I; second is the art of navalwarfare in World War II; and, third, the development of the art of naval warfareafter World War II. The focus is on tactical analysis of actions carried out by surfaceships and submarines against shipping lanes, and on the ways and means ofconducting anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare in the two World Wars.

The academic staff for teaching naval history at the Naval Academy includes oneprofessor and three lecturers, all of whom possess Ph.D. degrees in Military History.

Not only prospective naval officers, but also ordinary seamen (conscripts), areintroduced to naval history in the Polish Navy. During the so-called "patrioticeducation" they take an eighteen-hour course entitled "Tradition and thepresent day of the Polish arms at sea." This course includes such topics as Polisharms at sea before 1918, the Polish Navy in the years 1918—1939, combatoperations of the Polish Navy in World War II, and the Polish Navy in the years1945—1990. Commanding officers at company or ship's department level per-form all teaching duties in this course.

The Naval Museum is not involved in the regular teaching process, but itplays an important role in popularizing and protecting our naval heritage.

It must be emphasized that there is no organization in Poland that coordinatesand brings together the various studies in naval history. Each institution has itsown research program. Individual historians choose problems for studies inaccordance with their personal preferences. At times, plans for research are madeonly in a small way, as in the Department of Naval History at the Naval Academy,where the academic staff has focused its efforts on the comprehensive study of

the Polish Navy in the years 1918—1989. There is no doubt that Polish navalhistorians, in order to be more effective, need a proper, underlying platform todevelop a common research scheme.

Polish naval tradition goes back to the period between the fifteenth andeighteenth centuries, when Polish kings made several attempts, some of themsuccessful, to organize a fleet in order to protect the coast and seaborne trade.Unfortunately, at the end of eighteenth century, Poland lost its independenceand for many decades could only dream about naval affairs. Hopes revived in1918, when Poland again became independent. On 28 November 1918, MarshalPilsudski, the Polish head of state, issued a decree bringing the Polish Navy intobeing. After the outbreak of World War II, the Polish Navy moved to GreatBritain, and it was the only branch of the Polish armed forces that fought againstNazi Germany and its allies from the very beginning to the very end of that war.That navy was officially dissolved in March 1947.

When Poland was liberated from Nazi occupation, reconstruction of anothernavy, brought into being by the order of the commander-in-chief of the PolishArmy on 7 July 1945, was undertaken. So, for almost two years, there wereactually two Polish navies in existance; one in Great Britain and the other inPoland, subordinate to the Soviet Union. That is why the Polish Navy, whichoperated in conjunction with the British during World War II, did not returnto Poland as an entity. More than 85 percent of its personnel, totalling over4,000 men, remained in Great Britain, the United States, France, Canada, andAustralia. The current Polish Navy is building on the traditions of both theprewar and postwar navies.

Most naval historians in Poland have placed most of their research emphasison combat actions and on where Polish Navy ships served during World WarII, rather than on any other problems or periods of Polish naval history. Curiouslyenough, the majority of comprehensive books on the role of the Polish Navyin the Second World War have been produced by popular marine writers likeE. Kosiarz and J. Pertek, rather than by professional historians. Their workshave been very well received by the younger generation. Among the numerousworks devoted to World War II, there are a considerable number of studiesmade by professional historians as well. For example, A. Rzepniewski and R.Witowski, among others, have carefully examined the efforts of Polish seamenin the defense of the Polish coast in September 1939, and later on the side ofthe Allies.    Some diaries and memoirs published by naval officers taking part in

38 E. Kosiarz, Flota Bialego Orta (Gdansk: 1980); E. Kosiarz, Od pierwszej do ostatniej salwy (Warszawa:1973); J. Pertek, Matajlota wielka duchem (Poznari: 1989); J. Pertek, Wielkie dni matejjloty (Poznarf: 1967);W. Kosianowski, ed., Polska Marynarka Wojenna od pierwszej do ostatniej salwy w drugiej wojnie swiatowej.Album pamiptkowy (Rome: 1947).

A. Rzepniewski, Obrona Wybrzeza w i939 roku na tie rozwoju marynarki wojennej Polski i Niemiec(Warszawa: 1970); R. Witkowski, "UdziaiPolskiej Marynarki Wojennej w drugiej wojnie swiatowej,"40 lat Ludowego Wojska Polskiego (Warszawa: 1984); A. Jaskowski, Kampania norweska (Glasgow: 1944).

World War II supplement a vast literature in this field. Most valuable are thediaries of B. Romanowski, B. Karnicki, W. Kon and J. Kfossowski. Thus, therole of the Polish Navy in the war against the Kriegsmarine is one of the bestexplored and most fully described areas of Polish naval history.

Studies of the 1918—1939 Polish Navy have also been undertaken quitefrequently. Although no elaborate, scientific description of that period has thusfar been completed, many interesting monographs on particular subjects havebeen produced. For example, C. Ciesielski wrote about the Polish fleet in theBaltic, and about naval education in Poland between the two World Wars.W. Dyskant made a thorough analysis of river flotillas in Polish war plans, S.Ordon described legal and economic problems of the Polish Navy, S. Roz-wadowski touched upon the history of naval air division, and R. Witowskishowed the role of the naval base of Hel in the defense of the coast. Someauthors have attempted to present a comprehensive vision of the Polish Navyduring that period as well. Chronicles by S. Piaskowski, and two volumes of M.Kuaikowski's monograph are among the best known works written with such

. ..    .... 46

intentions.

After World War II, having discovered new original materials, many navalhistorians focused their efforts on the era between the fifteenth and eighteenthcenturies. The privateer fleets attracted much attention and were describedin works authored by K. Lepszy, M. Biskup, E. Koczorowski, and J. Trzoskaamong others.

With regard to the history of the People's Navy (the naval forces in Polandin the years 1945—1989)—that is becoming an increasingly interesting subject ofthorough studies, although archival materials for the last twenty-five years arestill unavailable. Articles and books published by W. Radziszewski deal with thefirst period of the People's Navy.     Recent periods have been explored by J.

B. Romanowski, Torpeda w celu (Warszawa: 1985); B. Karnicki, Marynarski worek wspomnieri(Warszawa: 1987); W. Kon, Atlantyckiepatrole (Warszawa: 1958); J. Kfossowski, Wspomnienia z MatynarkiWojennej (Warszawa: 1970).

C. Ciesielski, Polskajlota wojenna na Baftyku w latach 1920-1939 na tie batiyckichjlot wojennych (Gdansk:1985); C. Ciesielski, Szkolnictwo Marynarki Wojennej w II Rzeczypospolitej (Warszawa: 1974).

W. Dyskant, Flotylle rzeczne wplanach i dziataniach wojennych II Rzeczypospolitej (Warszawa: 1991).S. Ordon, Polska Marynarka Wojenna w latach. 1918-1939. Problemyprawtie i ekonomiczne (Gdynia: 1966).

44 J. Rozwadowski, Morski Dywizjon Lotniczy 1918-1939 (Albany: 1973).

45 R. Witkowski, Hel na strazy Wyhrzeza 1920-1939 (Warszawa: 1974).

M. Kudakowski, Marynarka Wojenna Polski Odrodzonej (Toronto: 1988), vols I—II; S.M. Piaskowski,Kroniki Polskiej Marynarki Wojennej 1918-1946 (Albany: 1983-1990), vols. MIL

K. Lepszy, Dziejejlotypolskiej (Gdarlsk-Bydgoszcz-Szczecin: 1947); M. Biskup, Gdanskajlota kaperskaw okresie wojny trzynastoletniej 1454-1466 (Gdarfsk: 1953); E. Koczorowski, Flota polska w latach1581-1632 (Warszawa: 1973); E. Koczorowski, Bitwa pod Oliwa (Gdynia: 1968); J. Trzoska, Kaprzykrola Augusta Mocnego 1116-1121 (Gdansk: 1993); Z. Cieckowski, Kaprowie krola Kazimierza (Gdynia:1968); M. Krwawicz, Marynarke Wojenna i obronapolskiego wyhrzeza"w dawnych wiekach (Warszawa: 1961).

W. Radziszewski, "Powstanie i rozwqj Marynarki Wojennej PRL (Zarys historyczny)," Dzieje oreza

Przybylski who, in my opinion, is the most competent researcher in this field.His doctoral thesis covered the development of the Polish Navy between 1949and 1956, while his work, which qualified him as an assistant professor, dealswith more recent times. It is worth mentioning that in 1992 J. Przybylski,together with C. Ciesielski and W. Pater, produced the most comprehensivework on the history of the Polish Navy for the years 1918—1980.51 Apart fromsuch fundamental works, a great number of detailed studies on the above subjecthave been published in the Maritime Review [Przeglad Morski\, the HistoricalBulletin [Biuletyn Historyczny], the Review of Military History [Wojskowy PrzegladHistoryczny] and other journals. The most important of them were recountedby Z. Wasko and R. Witkowski in their article about the state of research on

52

the People's Navy.

Historians of the Polish Navy have written not only on the main periods ofits development but also on some particular problems. Unfortunately, not allessential problems have been touched upon so far. Among the best examinedand described are studies of famous Polish men-of-war, such as the Btyskawica,Burza, Grom, Wicher, and Orzet. The history of Polish submarines in the years1926-1969, published by C. Rudzki should also be included in this group ofworks.

Another question, relatively well explored, is the education of Polish navalofficers. The period between two World Wars was thoroughly researched byC. Ciesielski, while the postwar period was studied by W. Biatek and T.Struniewski. A special 70th anniversary issue of the Przeglad Morski (September1992) was devoted entirely to Polish naval education.

Other problems have not been investigated so comprehensively. As a result,we experience numerous lacunae and other weaknesses in Polish naval history.From this long list, at least a few should be mentioned. For instance, the

polskiego na morzu (Gdynia: 1961); W. Radziszewski, XXX lat marynarki wojennej PRL (Warszawa:1975); W. Radziszewski, Marynarka Wojenna w latache 1945-1949 (Gdansk: 1976).

J. Przybylski, RozwdjMarynarki Wojenttej ijej rola wobronie Wybrzeza wlatach 1949-1956 (Warszawa: 1979).

50 J. Przybylski, Marynarka Wojenna PRL w latach 1956-1980 (studium historyczno-wojskowe)(Gdynia: 1988).

51 C. Ciesielski, W. Pater, J. Przybylski, Polska Marynarka Wojenna 1918-1980 (Warszawa: 1992.

Z. Wasko, R. Witkowski, "Proba oceny stanu badan historii Marynarki Wojennej PRL," PrzegladMorski, 1980, no. 9.

53 W. Szczerkowski, ORP "Btyskawica" (Gdansk: 1970); J. Marczak, Niszczyciel "Btyskawica"(Warszawa: 1970); J. Marczak, Kontrtorpedowiec "Burza" (Warszawa: 1970); R. Mielczarek, ORP"Grom." Zarys dziejow (Gdansk: 1970); J. Pertek, Niszczyciele "Grom" i "Btyskawica" (Gdansk: 1969);J. Pertek, Niszczyciele "Wicher" i "Burza" (Gdansk: 1971); J. Pertek, "Burza" - weteran atlantyckichszlakow (Gdynia: 1965); J. Pertek, Dzieje ORP "Orzet" (Gdansk: 1972).

54 C. Rudzki, Polskie okrety podwodne 1926-1969 (Warszawa: 1985).

C. Ciesielski, Szkolnictwo Marynarki Wojennej w II Rzeczypospolitej (Warszawa: 1974).

W. Bialek, T. Struniewski, Wyzsza Szkoia Marynarki Wojennej imienia BonaterSw Westerplatte (Warszawa:1978).

Litwin and Karawajczyk    293

development of naval aviation has not been sufficiently covered. There are onlytwo important publications from a scholarly point of view: one dealing with

C"J CO

prewar times and the other with postwar times. In addition, economic andlegal aspects of the Navy have not attracted much attention. So far, only onenaval historian, S. Ordon, has considered this subject. In the 1960s he wrote tworemarkable books devoted to the period between 1918 and 1939. Further-more, the history of ports and naval bases has been almost completely ignored.Apart from one of R. Witkowski's publications relating to the Hel naval basein the years 1920—1939,    there is virtually no literature in this field.

One of the serious drawbacks of Polish naval historiography has been lack ofa "Mahanian" school, or even individual researchers thinking like A.T. Mahan.Such a situation can be understood to a certain degree because Poland neverintended to become a sea power. It is much more difficult to understand,however, why Mahan's works are almost unknown in Poland. None of them,for instance, have even been translated into Polish.

International naval history issues have often been evaluated by Polish authors.I note, for example, E. Kosiarz, J. Lipiriski, and J. Pertek. In most cases,however, their publications have not been based on their own sound studies,but rather on the research of foreign naval historians. Very few publications havebeen dedicated to the art of naval war, strategy, and fighting tactics. Thoseauthored by W. Glinski and R. Pietraszkiewicz are the most valuable.

Since World War II, ideology and politics have been very important to Polishnaval history. Under the communist regime a few topics, such as brotherhoodin arms, and friendship and cooperation between fleets of socialist countries inthe Baltic, were particularly well received. Others, on the other hand, wereprohibited; for example, the role of the Polish Navy in the war against SovietRussia in 1920 and in September 1939, or the oppression of prewar naval officersin the postwar period. Sweeping political changes in Central and Eastern Europefrom 1989 on have, to some extent, affected the development of naval historyin Poland. There are no longer forbidden themes or problems for scientific

57 J. Rozwadowski, Morski Dywizjon Lotniczy 1918-1939 (Albany: 1973).

Z. Misztal, "Poczatki Lotnictwa Marynarki Wojennej," Rocznik Osrodka Nauk Spotecznych iWojskowych Marynarki Wojennej, no. 5 (1975).

S. Ordon, Kampania wrze'sniowa 1939 r. na morzu w swietle prawa miedzynarodowego (Gdynia: 1963);S. Ordon, Polska Marynarka Wojenna w. latach 1918—1939. Problemy prawne i ekonomiczne (Gdynia:1966).

60  R. Witkowski, Hel na strazy Wybrzeza 1920-1939 (Warszawa: 1974).

E. Kosiarz, Wojna na Battyku 1939 (Gdansk: 1988); E. Kosiarz, Wojna na morzach i oceanach1939-1945 (Gdansk: 1988); J. Lipinski, Druga wojna swiatowa na norzu (Gdansk: 1976); J. Pertek, OdReichsmarine do Bundesmarine 1918-1965 (Poznari: 1966).

W. Glinski, Morski operacje desantowe w drugiej wojnie swiatowej (Gdansk: 1969); H. Pietraszkiewicz,"Rozwoj polskiej morskiej mysli wojskowej w latach 1945-1969," Rocznik Osrodka Nauk Spotecznychi Wojskowych Marynarki Wojennej, no. 5 (1970); E. Kosiarz, L. Ratajczak, "Taktyka 'wilczych stad'niemieckich okretow podwodnych," Przeglad Morski, no. 10 (1958).

294     Poland

research, but that does not mean that the current political situation has no impacton naval history. Sometimes one can come away with the impression that somehistorians investigate particular problems, not because they are important, butbecause they have been prohibited for a long time. In the war against SovietRussia in 1920, for example, the Polish Navy played an altogether insignificantrole. Only about one hundred seamen took part in the fighting on land, as therewere no actions at sea. Still, a number of historians have devoted research to thissubject, while there are many considerably more important topics to explore.

To sum up these remarks on the state of naval history in Poland, I must pointout, in the first place, that there exists a wide gulf between the study of militaryaffairs on the seas and of non-military maritime history; additionally, naval historyis taught exclusively in the Navy, mainly at the Naval Academy, and researchin this field is being done primarily by historians employed by military institu-tions; furthermore, most researchers have concentrated on military operationsof the Polish Navy while other topics have been to some extent neglected. Alsoof concern is that there is no organization or journal that brings the studies innaval history together; and, finally, ideology and politics have shaped, to a certaindegree, the debates about naval history, mostly by creating demands for inves-tigation into specific problems.

25Portugal

Commander J. A. Rodrigues Pereira, Portuguese Navy

The geographical position of Portugal, at the southwestern extremity of theEuropean continent, has placed it, throughout history, astride importantsea routes. The territory of Portugal, which includes several parallel river systemswith good havens and ports, permits easy penetration of the country's interiorby ships and has led the various populations to pursue maritime activities,sometimes as a complement to their terrestrial ones.

The Portuguese Navy evolved from the twelfth century and attained, throughjudicious legislative measures, a great development by the fourteenth century.At the beginning of the fifteenth century, under the guiding hands of themaritime bourgeoisie and the Military Order of Christ, the nation becameconscious of its maritime capabilities and launched the enterprise of maritimediscoveries. In the space of about one century, this endeavor gave the Portugueseextensive knowledge of two thirds of the surface of the world and produced animmense maritime empire. Using, for the first time, innovative strategicconcepts that would later be adopted by other nations, Portugal succeeded inobtaining for a time a command of the seas, which are written about today bymany respected naval strategists.

Portugal is definitively connected with the sea. Its maritime history has playeda significant role in the development of some of the most important chapters ofthe world's history: its maritime achievement, its ships and seamen, its caravelsand carracks that voyaged over "seas that had never been previously navigated;"'the transportation and supply of military expeditions; and seaborne trade andfishing. The importance of leaving this rich history of our maritime and militaryaccomplishments to future generations was recognized very early by responsiblenational leaders.

The Military Order of Christ replaced the Templars, who had previously been predominant inPortugal.

Passing through many vicissitudes, and suffering various amputations, this maritime-colonial empirewould last until 1975.

Luis de Camoes, The Lusiads (1655: reprint, with introduction by Geoffrey Bullough, Cartendale:Southern Illinois University Press, 1964). For a broad general overview in English of early Portuguesemaritime history, see the essays by Charles Verlinden and George Winius in Hattendorf, ed., AnIntroduction to Maritime History: The Age of Discovery (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Publishing, 1995).

We can say that the history of the Portuguese Navy began with the scribesof the sixteenth century carracks and with the chroniclers of the realm who leftus detailed accounts of Portuguese voyages, and military and naval actions,particularly those that took place in the Orient and Africa. Although this wasdone in a style that was very characteristic of that age, we find in them acomprehensive account of Portuguese maritime activities in the fifteenth andsixteenth centuries.

In 1835 the first attempt to write a systematic study of our maritime historyappeared in the Annals of the Portuguese Navy, Royal Academy of Sciences.However, whether due to the possibility that the original author had not finishedhis work, or that it was lost, only the part that covers the years of 1140-1640 hasbeen preserved, and that deals only with the events that took place in the AtlanticOcean.

The end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth witnessedthe appearance of numerous scattered studies of our maritime history. Themajority of these were produced by illustrious naval officers.

In the 1930s, when the commemorations of the eighth centenary of thefounding of Portugal and the third centenary of the restoration of Independencewere taking place, The Clube Militar Naval promoted the writing of a historyof the Portuguese Navy, the absence of which was felt by all. This project, whichemerged from an organizing commission presided over by Commander Fon-toura da Costa, was divided into six parts, and sub-divided into chapters.Unfortunately, only the first volume, covering the period 1140—1385, waseventually published.

In the 1960s, when the great commemoration of the fifth centenary of the

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death of Prince Henry took place, the absence of a comprehensive naval historywas once again made a prominent issue. At that time an important work ofmaritime historiography was published, containing a repository of all the knownPortuguese nautical charts of the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries.

On 5 March 1969, a Ministry of the Navy decree led to a group of studies ofmaritime history. These proved to be the embryo of the present Academia deMarinha, created in 1978, which presently comprises over one hundred mem-bers. The Academia includes some of the most dedicated and zealous inves-

Between 1580 and 1640, Portugal and Spain were united under a dualist monarchy.

A Club of naval officers founded at the end of the nineteenth century.6    The Periods that were to be covered were 1) from the founding of the nation to the battle ofAljubarrota (1140-1385); 2) The dynasty of Aviz (1385-1580); 3) The Philippine dynasty (1580-1640);4) The dynasty of Braganca (until 1820); and 5) the Constitutional Monarchy and the Republic(1820-1926).

Each period was intended to focus on administration, personnel, materials, and operations.8    The Master of the Military Order of Christ, and the great stimulator of the Portuguese discoveries.

Armando Cortesao and Avelino Teixeira da Mota, Portugaliae Monumenta Cartagraphica (Lisboa:Comissao Executiva das Comemorancoes do V Centenaria da Marte do Infante D. Henrique, 1960).

tigators of maritime history, although it must be recognized that other excep-tional workers in the same field exist outside that fine organization, as well.

At a time when Portugal is commemorating the centennials of its mostimportant maritime voyages and discoveries, the Academia de Marinha hasnow undertaken the task of publishing a history of the Navy. The intent of thisproject is to recognize in a significant manner, the transition from past to future.After having made an analysis of previous attempts, and their planning, thedecision was made to produce a profound and well-documented work that couldbe consulted by serious scholars and investigators, and one which would serveas a fundamental source for study and investigation. According to the elaboratedplan, the work would be divided into periods, materials, parts and chapters, witheach period being designated a tome and containing the necessary number ofvolumes based on the development of the parts and the required chapters. A firstestimate suggested that the complete work would consist of thirty-three tomesin about one hundred volumes. The theses would be coordinated by a scientificcommission of seven members, who would select the authors and make apreliminary evaluation of their proposed work so as to ensure compliance withthe defined directives.

The work is to be divided into six periods, according to the followingdistribution:

1) From the beginning of the nation to the beginning of expansion(1140-1415).

2) From the conquest of Ceuta to the death of D. Joao II (1415—1484).

3) From the reign of D. Manuel I to the invasion by the Duke of Alba(1484-1580).

4) From the Philippine period until the end of the War of Restoration(1580-1669).

5) The period of absolute monarchy (1669—1820).

6) The period of constitutional governments (after 1820).

Each period consists of generically equal parts comprising the followingsubject areas in general:

- Ships, seamen, the art of navigation, and war at sea.

- Men, doctrines, organization, and legislation.

- Voyages and naval operations.

- The passage to India.

- Ports and maritime trade.

10  Those being the Cape of Good Hope (1487), the maritime route to India (1487-1488), Brazil (1500),and the arrival in Japan (1543).

298     Portugal

Maritime history was first taught in the Naval Academy in 1864, with theaim of providing "a brief and simple presentation of facts, some development ofoutstanding events and a very brief synthesis of the various periods." A courseof naval history is currently being taught at the Naval Academy to give thestudents a perspective of the development of naval power throughout history,its use by the peoples who possessed it, and its consequences for the politicalstructure of the world. At the same time, it emphasizes the Portuguese maritimeposition.

The following themes, dedicated exclusively to the History of the PortugueseNavy, are also explored:

- The Portuguese Navy from the eleventh to the fourteenth century;

- Portuguese discoveries and expansion in the fifteenth century;

- The Portuguese maritime empire in the sixteenth century;

- The Evolution of cartography and Nautical Science;

- The Portuguese Navy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries;

- The Portuguese Navy in the nineteenth century: technical evolution andoccupation of the coasts of the continent of Africa.

- The Portuguese Navy in the twentieth century: participation in WorldWar I, NATO and the war in Africa.

The Higher Institute of Naval Warfare also teaches some facts about ourmaritime history, but only from the strategic point of view.

Courses at several Portuguese universities teach maritime history in theprograms leading to degrees in history, but under different names; for example,the history of the expansion versus the history of the discoveries. The LisbonFaculty of Letters even has a course that is designated the History of thePortuguese Navy. There is, in the Faculty of Letters of the University ofOporto, a Centre of Historical Studies which is dedicated to study of thecountry's traditional vessels in their historical and archaeological context. TheLuis de Camoes University also has a discipline on naval archaeology includedin its curriculum.

The Faculty of Social and Human Sciences of the Universidade Nova deLisboa awards a master's degree in the History of the Portuguese discoveries andExpansion, with a specific area of study in Portuguese maritime activities duringthe fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Faculty of Letters of the classicalUniversity of Lisbon awards a master's degree in Modern History, for the study

Vicente Almeida d'Eca, LJpcaes historia maritima geral (Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional, 1895).

The author taught at the Naval Academy from 1982 to 1988, and collaborated in the elaborationof the present study programme.

Faculty of Letters of the Lisbon Classical University, Faculty of Letters of the University of Coimbra,Faculty of Letters of the University of Oporto, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences of the UniversidadeNova de Lisboa, University of Evora, University of the Minho, and University of the Azores, thesebeing all teaching establishments of the State.

Luis de Camoes University is a private institution.

Rodrigues Pereira    299

of the Maritime Discoveries, and conducts seminars on nautical science andcartography. Other, recently created, Portuguese universities give courses inmilitary history, which naturally includes the naval aspects of the conflicts inwhich Portugal has been involved.

There is also the Maritime Museum in Lisbon which is a dependency of thePortuguese Navy. It is dedicated to the study, gathering, and presentation ofelements related to Portuguese maritime activities. Its director enjoys thecollaboration of a consultative technical commission of eight members who arespecialists in various fields and who support the Museum with their studies andinvestigation. The Museum also provide replies to consultations requestedfrom abroad. There are, in addition, about ten small regional museums inPortugal, dedicated to local maritime affairs, regional craft, and fishing activities.

The period of maritime discoveries and Portuguese expansion (fifteenth andsixteenth centuries) is the period best studied, albeit with a few lapses, becauseit belongs to the most important period of Portuguese history, when Portugalwas a great maritime power and when significant developments in nauticalscience and cartography occurred.

On the contrary, the least studied period is the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies, when there was a progressive reduction in the importance of thenation in international affairs, primarily as a consequence of the decline inPortuguese naval power.

Students of our maritime history have been predominantly naval officers.Thus, those aspects of it which are connected with military activities are logicallymore developed than those linked to civilian ones. However, there are also otherdedicated investigators who have made studies of our merchant marine, regionalor traditional vessels (history and archaeology), and fishing activities. In someparts of northern Portugal, these have special characteristics since they are, attimes, associated with agricultural pursuits.

The lack of a comprehensive history of the Portuguese Navy is a serious lapsein national historiography, and one which must be corrected. The Portuguesepeople, and the rest of the world, need to understand what our seafarers did andhow they lived—from the anonymous sailors of the medieval galleys, to thosewho have collaborated recently with the United Nations in the embargoesplaced on Iraq and Serbia—so that other cultures that presently possess maritimepower will not forget that it was Portugal that pioneered those ocean voyagesthat made it possible for it to "give new worlds to the world."

The Director is an active naval officer.

Specifically in the fields of strategy and naval shipbuilding.

The Napoleonic wars and Liberal wars are stressed here, particularly from the perspective of navalpower.

Luis de Camoes, The Lusiads.

Singapore

Malcolm H. Murfett1

It is rather paradoxical to think that the Republic of Singapore, which owesa great deal of its phenomenal commercial success to its close involvementwith the sea, has still to develop more than a token appreciation of the roots ofits maritime and naval history.

Little is done on the island, for example, in an academic sense, to further thecause of either of these branches of Singapore's local history. No courses onthese themes are offered at its two universities (the National University ofSingapore (NUS) and the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), or at theSingapore Command and Staff College (SCSC) at Seletar Base. Apart from a fewlectures devoted to the ideas and influence of Mahan, Corbett, and Richmondin the strategic studies course offerings at NUS and SCSC, there is little attemptto cover international naval history in a systematic way at either of theseinstitutions. Although specific naval topics, such as the Anglo-German navalarmaments race, the Washington Conference and the Singapore Strategy, dofind their way onto existing regional-based courses at NUS, and the war at seais studied as part of a much broader military component within its historydepartment, the fact remains that naval issues appear more as an accompanimentrather than a core of these academic courses. Maritime history fares little betterin comparison. Several lectures by Associate Professor Ng Chin Keong aredevoted to the development of Chinese maritime trade as part of a third yearB.A. general degree course on the Economic and Social History of ModernChina at NUS, but there is little else on the existing slate of courses that takesaccount of maritime subjects.

Fortunately, some element of change is likely in light of the modularizationof curricula that both the NUS and NTU are planning to introduce at the

Senior Lecturer in British and European History, National University of Singapore.

In some senses, the irony is greater still since in the recent past Singapore has not only become theworld's busiest port, but also has been actively expanding its relatively small but modern, well-equipped,naval fleet.

Ng Chin Keong is best known for his admirable book, Trade and Society: The Amoy Network on theChina Coast 1683-1735 (Singapore: Singapore Univ. Press, 1983), on the maritime trade of Fukien.His book is a revised version of his award winning Ph.D. thesis at the Australian National Universityin Canberra.

beginning of the 1994-95 academic year. It is highly probable that a postgraduatecourse in International Naval History will be launched at the NUS by the authorof this article at the earliest opportunity after 1994, and the likelihood is thatonce the Singapore Armed Forces Training Institute (SAFTI) is expanded andupgraded into a military academy in 1995, it will be better able to offer a greatervariety of naval topics for its students than is possible at the present time. On themaritime front at the NUS, Associate Professor Ng Chin Keong is intending tointroduce a postgraduate level course on the Maritime History of China fromthe Twelfth Century to the Fall of the Ch'ng Dynasty, but apart from this newoffering, nothing else is planned for the immediate future. Clearly, much morecould be done than is being tackled at present, particularly in the sphere ofSoutheast Asian economic history and on specific issues such as piracy, whichhave a contemporary relevance in Southeast Asian waters.

While the development of Singapore's maritime trade and its managementby the Port of Singapore Authority does receive some attention from the staffof both the Geography and Economics Departments at the NUS and NTU, a farmore rigorous set of practical and technical training courses are offered to schoolleavers at the well-equipped Singapore Polytechnic and Ngee Ann Polytechnic.At the Singapore Polytechnic, which has a marine simulator on the premises,diploma courses are offered in marine engineering, maritime transport, andnautical studies, whereas Ngee Ann Polytechnic provides a diploma course inshipbuilding and offshore engineering.

Of those academics currently working in the area of maritime studies at thetertiary level in Singapore, arguably, the best known is Associate Professor ChiaLin Sien of the Geography Department of NUS. Amongst his many researchpublications are articles on container port development, ship-generated marinepollution, navigational, resource, and environmental impacts upon the Straits ofMalacca and Singapore; and a chapter on "The Port of Singapore" in themagisterial volume edited by Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley entitledManagement of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore.

C. Northcote Parkinson was among the first of the academics in Singaporeto write about maritime and naval affairs. As Raffles Professor of History at the

4 Chia Lin Sien, "The Port of Singapore" in Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley, eds.,Management of Success: The Moulding of Modem Singapore (Singapore: ISEAS, 1989), pp. 314—36.

A selection of Chia's prolific output is provided below:

"Ship-Generated Marine Pollution Issues in Southeast Asia," a conference paper presented to theSEAPOL International Conference on the Implementation of the Law of the Sea Convention in the 1990s: MarineEnvironmental Protection and Other Issues, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia, 28—30 May 1990, pp. 264—303;"Container Port Development in Asean: Shaping up for the Future," Shipper's Times, vol. 11(2), 1991,pp. 2-6; "The Strait of Malacca and Singapore; navigational, resource environmental considerations,"in Chia Lin Sien & Colin McAndrews eds., Southeast Asian Seas: Frontiers for Development (Singapore:McGraw Hill, 1981), pp. 239—66; "Transportation of Oil in the Strait of Malacca and potential MarinePollution," in P.R. Burbridge, Koesoebiono, H. Dirschl & B. Patton eds., Coastal Zone Management inthe Strait of Malacca (Halifax, Nova Scotia: Dalhousie Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 165-78.

University of Malaya, Singapore, in 1950—58, Parkinson published several books,including his famous book on naval administration, Parkinson's Law, as well asmore regionally oriented books, such as War in the Eastern Seas, 1793—1815,and British Intervention in Malaya, 1867—1877. After the university changed itsname, Kenneth G. Tregonning became Head of the Department of History atthe University of Singapore (Uni of S) and wrote Home Port Singapore: A History

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of Straits Steamship Company Limited 1890-1965, while he was still working inthe republic. His successor as Raffles Professor, Wong Lin Ken, a distinguishedeconomic historian in his own right, was the author of the standard work onSingapore's early nineteenth century trade. He felt that Singapore's uniquegeostrategic position—lying as it does between the Indian and Pacific Oceans—deserved a more comprehensive study of this equatorial island's place in thescheme of things than had been attempted hitherto. His exploratory findings,which were published for the first time as an article, merely whetted theappetite for more. Sadly, his untimely death in February 1983 robbed theacademic community of the fruits of his ongoing research on this fascinatingsubject. Following on from Wong's work on trade, Ambassador Chiang HaiDing published his doctoral thesis from the Australian National University, AHistory of Straits Settlement Foreign Trade, 1870-1915.

Despite the relative paucity of local academicians working in the realm ofmaritime history, Singapore's close relationship with the sea has continued toexert quite an appeal for a fair number of tertiary students in the past. Over theyears there has been no shortage of honours degree dissertations (known asAcademic Exercises) and masters' theses devoted to maritime affairs. A selectionof the more interesting is provided in the appendix at the end of this chapter.

Outside the realm of the academic world, the Port of Singapore Authority(PSA) does have an educational function to perform and one which itdischarges responsibly. Apart from holding regional conferences and seminarson a host of specialist maritime subjects from bunkering to container traffic,

C. Northcote Parkinson,   Parkinson's Law and Other Studies in Administration (Boston: Houghton,Mifflin, 1957).6    C. Northcote Parkinson, War in the Eastern Seas, 1793-1815 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1954).

C. Northcote Parkinson, British Intervention in Malaya, 1867—1877, Malayan Historical Studies(Singapore and Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1960). Although much of this deals withthe Royal Navy, it is a written only from the Colonial Office papers, not the Admiralty papers.

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Kenneth G. Tregonning, Home Port Singapore: A History of Straits Steamship Company Limited1890-1965 (Singapore: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967).

Wong Lin Ken, "The Trade of Singapore, 1819-69," Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal AsiaticSociety, vol. xxxiii, part 4, no. 192 (December 1960), pp. 1-315.

Wong Lin Ken, "The Strategic Significance of Singapore in Modern History" Commentary, (theJournal of the NUS Society), vol. 5, no. 2 (1981), pp. 3-16.

Chiang Hai Ding, A History of Straits Settlements Foreign Trade, 1870-1915. Memoirs of the NationalMuseum, no. 6 (Singapore: National Museum, 1978).

the PSA encourages members of its executive team to undertake postgraduate

courses overseas in business management. In addition, the PSA also does its best

not only to cater to the demands of MBA students from a wide range of

Singaporean and foreign business schools and trade missions, but also services

requests from secondary school students in the republic who wish to work on

various port-related projects. It has recently established a new computerized

library at the Singapore Port Institute in Maritime Square with an array of

specialist books and reports, microfilm resources, a reasonable file of press

clippings from the early 1970s onwards, numerous trade periodicals, and the

proceedings of the many conferences and seminars the PSA has held on maritime

subjects in the past two decades. Furthermore, the PSA also publishes its own

monthly in-house staff magazine, Port View, and assists in the production of the

annual factual handbook, Singapore Port & Shipping, which is actually published

by Charter Pacific Publications of Victoria, Australia. Being an important

element in Singapore's commercial development, the PSA naturally takes its

economic role very seriously and is justifiably proud of its record of achievement

in the maritime world. Its buoyant and polished self-image is reflected in the

two elegant pictorial studies which it has commissioned in the past decade. Both

1 oof the quasi-coffee table variety, Singapore: Portrait of a Port    and A Port's Story:

1 ^A Nation's Success,    are expensively produced books that look good and provide

a clue to the unabashed professionalism of the PSA. Eric Alfred, the formercurator of the PSA—sponsored Maritime Museum, also wrote and compiled aninteresting sixteen-page illustrated booklet, Singapore Port History, which doesmuch to complement Chris Yap's text in A Port's Story: A Nation's Success.

Apart from its publications, the PSA has also endeavoured in the past to bringSingapore's success as a modern port to the attention of the general publicthrough the medium of its Maritime Museum sited on the offshore island ofSentosa. Unfortunately, the static display items, faded photographs, and unex-citing textual commentaries on the growth of Singapore's maritime trade andport are not calculated to appeal to the younger generation. In addition, nolectures, seminars, or conferences on maritime subjects are held on the premises,and the Museum does not have a manuscript collection or a library or resourcecentre for research purposes. It has produced a few, well-written, informationsheets on various aspects of Singapore's seafaring tradition, but these are notreadily available to any but the most inquisitive or persistent visitor. It is,therefore, difficult to imagine that the Maritime Museum will be able to attractlarge numbers of appreciative and enthusiastic visitors to its various gallerieswithout a large infusion of money, a change of location, and the introductionof a much more interactive set of items than it has at present. As the Maritime

Port of Singapore Authority, Singapore: Portrait of a Port (Singapore: MPH Magazines (S) Pte, 1984).Port of Singapore Authority, A Port's Story: A Nation's Success (Singapore: Times Editions, 1990).14  Eric Alfred, Singapore Port History (Singapore: 1987).

Museum's long-term future on Sentosa is far from certain, the PSA is under-standably reluctant to provide it with the investment it so badly needs. This lackof funds ensures that regardless of how committed its staff may be, the MaritimeMuseum looks destined to remain a sad and unsatisfactory relic on a holidayisland given over to leisure and entertainment on a grand scale. Its future mayalso be compromised to some extent by the anticipated success of the so-calledSingapore Maritime Showcase—a multimillion-dollar development on thewaterfront by the World Trade Centre on the main island of Singapore. Thishigh-tech, multimedia attraction—a celebration of Singapore's global portstatus—will be roughly 5,000 square feet in surface area when the exhibition iscompleted and opened to the public by the end of 1993. If it proves to be assuccessful as the PSA imagines it will be, the death knell is likely to sound forthe Maritime Museum on Sentosa. Should that happen, the PSA may try tohouse some of the more interesting artifacts from the Maritime Museum, suchas the racing jongs, outrigger canoes, and keeled boats (Kolek Sauh, Kolek Selat,Kolek Chiau, and Pomehai), in the large foyer of the PSA head office in AlexandraRoad on the main island of Singapore.

Shipping companies who have played their part in the development ofSingapore's maritime trade, such as the Keppel Corporation and Neptune OrientLines (NOL), have also recently felt the necessity to commission histories of theirpast deeds. Although NOL has already produced an earlier slim account of itscorporate history, it decided against releasing Only Yesterday: The Story of NeptuneOrient Lines 1969—1983 into the public domain. Now it has decided tocommission Dr. Grace Low, the Head of the History Department at NTU, toprepare an updated version for publication in 1994. Keppel's plans for acorporate history are still shrouded in mystery despite the planned launch in lateSeptember 1993 of Richard Lim's, Tough Men, Bold Visions—The Story of Keppel.Although it is expected to have a print run of 11,000, Lim's book on one ofSingapore's flagship companies is unlikely at this stage to be sold to the generalpublic and appears to be reserved for the exclusive use of customers and staffonly.

Singapore's controversial (some would describe it as infamous) military legacy,wrapped up as it is with the fate of the British Empire, has never failed to attractthe attention of a host of historians from all over the world ever since the islandfortress fell to the outnumbered troops of the Imperial Japanese Army on 15February 1942. Apart from the military historians who have sought a convincingexplanation for this allied debacle, other diplomatic and international scholarsmoved into the arena in the hope of placing Singapore's surrender into a wider

Dr. Low has just completed a manuscript on the development of the port ofjurong (located on thewestern coast of Singapore) which she is hoping to publish in 1994.

Richard Lim, Tough Men, Bold Visions—The Story of Keppel (Singapore: Keppel Corp., 1993), 141pp.

context of Britain's spectacular fall from grace on the world's stage in thetwentieth century. As a result, research work on British military involvementwith Singapore developed into one of the historical growth areas in the 1970sand early 80s without much help from any of the island's academics. Interestinglyenough, much of this work was concerned with unravelling the so-called"Singapore Naval Strategy." William Roger Louis's, British Strategy in the Far

17

East 1919—1939, may be seen as opening up the field for others to exploit inthe years that followed. W. David Mclntyre went much further in exploring a

r-r-rt 1 ft

purely naval theme in his The Rise and Fall of the Singapore Naval Base, as didJames Lord Neidpath in The Singapore Naval Base and the Defence of Britain'sEastern Empire 1919-1941. Paul Haggie's, Britannia at Bay, Ian Hamill's, TheStrategic Illusion, Peter Lowe's, Great Britain and the Origins of the Pacific Warand Malcolm H. Murfett's, Fool—proof Relations, all managed to add somethingto the naval story of what S. Woodburn Kirby was to describe as "the greatestnational humiliation suffered by Britain since Yorktown." After losing someof its research topicality for a few years, the "Singapore Strategy" has resurfacedonce more in the vanguard of the republican movement in Australia. DavidDay's, The Great Betrayal: Britain, Australia and the Onset of the Pacific War, ledthe way and the Rt. Hon. Paul Keating, the Australian Prime Minister, joinedin the fray with a series of outspoken remarks about the iniquities of the Britishmilitary and government in allowing the island of Singapore to fall to the Japanesein 1942. Malcolm Murfett wrote an answer to these charges. While not goingas far as Day and Keating in their scathing denunciations of the perfidious British,his article is critical of what he sees as both British and Australian wishful thinkingas far as Singapore was concerned during the inter-war period.

Given the high level of interest in Singapore's part in British naval history upto 1942, the fact that its immediate postwar role is usually passed over in silence,

17 William Roger Louis, British Strategy in the Far East 1919-1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).

18 W. David Mclntyre, The Rise and Fall of the Singapore Naval Base (London: Macmillan, 1979).

19 James Lord Neidpath, The Singapore Naval Base and the Defence of Britain's Eastern Empire 1919-1941(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981).

20 Paul Haggie, Britannia at Bay: The Defence of the British Empire Against Japan, 1931-1941 (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1981).

Ian Hamill, The Strategic Illusion: The Singapore Strategy and the Defence of Australia and New Zealand,1919-1942 (Singapore: Singapore Univ. Press, 1981).

22 Peter Lowe, Great Britain and the Origins of the Pacific War (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977).

23 Malcolm Murfett, Fool-proof Relations: The Search for Anglo-American Naval Cooperation during theChamberlain Years, 1937-1940 (Singapore: Singapore Univ. Press, 1984).

24 S. Woodburn Kirby, Singapore: The Chain of Disaster (London and New York : Macmillan, 1971),p. xiii.

25 David Day, The Great Betrayal: Britain, Australia and the Onset of the Pacific War (New York: W.W.Norton, 1989).

26 Malcolm Murfett, " Living in the Past: A Critical Re-examination of the Singapore Naval Strategy,1918-1941 " War & Society, vol. 11, no. 1 (May 1993), pp. 73-103.

or in a few sentences at most, looks a little odd and requires some investigation.Sadly, it is all too explicable since it results largely from the deficiencies in theprimary source material covering this topic. All of the authors who havepublished works on British defence policy east of Suez in the post—1945 periodhave, for example, been denied access to more than a mere fragmentary recordof the deliberations of the extremely important regional policy-making com-mittee in Southeast Asia known as the British Defence Coordination Committee(Far East). This mixed civil-military review body was chaired by the Commis-sioner-General Malcolm MacDonald and included the regional Chiefs of Stafffrom all three British armed services based at the Far East Station in Singapore.It was in virtually constant communication with the Chiefs of Staff and the JointPlanning Section in London, as is witnessed by the large number of referencesto the COSSEA and SEACOS cables which litter the Ministry of Defence filesfor the immediate post—1947 period. Its work embraced review studies andmilitary appreciations which were sent to both departmental and Cabinet sourcesin Whitehall. Unfortunately, the British government has embargoed all the filesrelating to the work of this committee under Section 3(4) of the Public RecordsAct 1958 and steadfastly refuses to relent and release this information into thepublic domain. As a result, scholarship on the Singaporean end of the Britishdefence story east of Suez in the post-war period has been sparse, although ToniSchonnenberger did try to do justice to this theme in his book. Unfortunately,little scholarly activity on this topic followed in his wake. After vainly pursuingthe British government for clearance to use the British Defence CoordinationCommittee (Far East) papers throughout the decade of the 1980s, MalcolmMurfett finally decided in 1992 to write up the research project on Singapore'srole in British naval defence of the Far East, which he had been working on fora number of years.

Complaints about the lack of access to the British records may also beadvanced in the case of the Singaporean National Archives. Although Singaporehas officially adopted a twenty-five-year rule for its public records, there are twonotable departmental exceptions to this rule, namely, the Ministry of Defenceand the Ministry of Home Affairs. Neither of these departments are required bythe government to lodge their official records with the National Archives, andboth will remain independently responsible for all their documents in the yearsto come. Presumably, therefore, public access to these primary sources will beseverely restricted. Even those departments and statutory boards that are requiredby law to send their primary source material to the National Archives havesomehow managed to circumvent the ruling and retain their most importantand confidential files. Moreover, they have even imposed a restricted access on

Toni Schonnenberger, Derbritische Riickzug aus Singapore 1945-1916(Zurich: Atlantis Verlag, 1981).

Malcolm Murfett, hi Jeopardy: The Royal Navy and the Role of Singapore in British Far Eastern DefencePolicy, 1945-51 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994).

those papers which they have been willing to pass to the National Archives.Applications from researchers for approval to examine these records in theNational Archives will be handled on a strictly case-by-case basis. Although itis not specifically stated, one may infer that Singaporean nationals are more likelythan foreign scholars to get what access may be granted to these records in theyears to come. It is a moot point, of course, whether or not the individual publicbodies will ever trust the National Archives sufficiently to handle their mostsensitive material. An additional problem is posed by the fact that some of thestatutory boards may not have established a file registry as yet—the PSA is a primeexample—an administrative omission that will vastly complicate the process ofanyone using these official records for research purposes in the future.Moreover, before the bulk of these files are turned over to the National Archives,the individual ministries and statutory boards will have to evaluate all this materialand decide on what ought to be released for public inspection, or that whichmust be embargoed for a specific number of years—or even indefinitely. Oncethis stage has been completed, and before the public records of the Republic ofSingapore can be made available to bona fide scholars, the staff of the NationalArchives will have to compile a number of reference ledgers that list by nameand number all the individual files which these public bodies have passed to theNational Archives for its safeguarding. If these are not sufficient reasons forpessimistic concern, the fact is that the National Archives desperately needs apurpose-built building to house its permanent records. Its present building—anold, labyrinthine structure, which it shares with the Oral History Archive andother assorted ventures—is thoroughly unsuitable on a number of grounds.Apart from its somewhat dilapidated appearance, the Hill Street building isneither secure nor large enough to act as a repository for all the officialSingaporean records generated since 1959, nor is it equipped to serve as a modernsearch-room for scholars and interested members of the general public to consultthose public records that it possesses. Its Oral History Archive (OHA) has someconsiderable potential, but its catalogue is hardly user-friendly and providesinsufficient information to potential researchers about the contents of the tapedinterviews or personal reminiscences which form the bulk of the OHA's stockof material.

Of the documents that are open in the National Archives and relate to navaland maritime history, there are five War Office files drawn from the WO 32and WO 106 classifications (originating in date between 1924—1939 on thesubject of the Singapore Naval Base); thirty-nine documents are to be found inthe CO 273 series on a range of different naval and maritime subjects, and anindex of Straits Settlements records for the years 1890—1946 is also available. Itshould be noted, however, that all this archival material and much else, besides,in the Ministry of Defence (DEFE) and Foreign Office General Correspondence

Murfett    309

(FO 371) files can be consulted in the Public Records Office at Kew Gardensin London.

Owing to the highly sensitive nature of its work, the Ministry of Defence(Mindef) in Singapore is officially exempt from observing the twenty-five-yearrule on the release of its departmental papers. According to the staff of theMilitary Heritage Branch at Mindef s new headquarters at Bukit Gombak, thelikelihood is that non-military personnel will not be granted permission toexamine its confidential files at any time in the foreseeable future. If such a rulingis likely to apply to local researchers, it stands to reason that foreigners will nothave the faintest chance of gaining access to Mindef s files for many years tocome. Research possibilities into aspects of the history of the Republic ofSingapore Navy (RSN) are, therefore, very limited and largely dependent uponthe information the RSN wishes to yield to the general public in the com-memorative volumes which the Naval Archives produces from time to time.The Republic of Singapore Navy is one such volume—a slim thirty-page affairreplete with colourful snapshots capturing the essence of an active and demand-ing service. It does not seek to be a scholarly tome, but looks and reads as thoughit were designed as part of a recruitment campaign to sell the merits of the RSNto the youth of the island. The Pointer, the journal of the Singapore ArmedForces (SAF), can also be relied upon to publish uncontentious pieces on theRSN from time to time. Far more important than either of these sources ofinformation is the ongoing research project on the history of the RSN, whichwas set in motion in the early 1990s by Teo Chee Hean, the then Commanderof the RSN. Lieutenant Colonel Lim Kwong Hoon, a trained historian with amaster's from Duke University, was asked to begin the task before he took earlyretirement from the service. According to Lieutenant Colonel Lim, he hadfinished a chapter on the Confrontation period (1963—65), written up a proposedoutline for a thirteen-chapter manuscript covering the entire history of theSingaporean fleet and had found source references for many of the individualtopics which he thought should be included in this work before he left the RSNin 1992. One may assume that the project will continue to be advanced throughthe work of other naval officers until the complete history of the RSN isconcluded. Whether this manuscript will be published or merely used as anin-service information tool for RSN personnel is far from clear at this stage.

Despite its silence on this matter, the RSN is nonetheless keen to provide thegeneral public with what it describes as "a showcase of the RSN's Heritage"through the establishment of the Naval Museum which was opened at RSSPanglima—the School of Naval Training—in Sembawang Camp on 22 June1987 by Lieutenant General Winston Choo, Chief of General Staff on the SAF.

The Republic of Singapore Navy (Singapore: RSN Archives, 1988)

See also the Singapore NavaSingapore Navy (Singapore: 1987)

See also the Singapore Naval Archives booklet, Pictorial History of Brani Naval Base: Republic of

Unfortunately, it has neither a library nor an archive of its own, nor is it used asa centre for lectures, seminars, or conferences on the RSN's historical develop-ment. Far from being a research facility, the Naval Museum is designed as a visualexperience. On display are a range of interesting artifacts (including such itemsas the mine-sweeping hammer, a decompression chamber, and a host of navalguns) that have been collected over the years by S.W.O. Wee Cheng Leong, thepart-time curator of the Naval Museum. Despite the fact that S.W.O. Wee hasdone a good job in gathering display items to reflect the history of the RSN, theNaval Museum lacks a certain sophistication and is chronically underfunded. Itsvery existence may be an encouraging step in the right direction, but unless theRSN has a change of heart and decides to upgrade its facilities, it looks destinedto remain a small amateur venture rather than a glamorous professional attraction.On the whole, therefore, the record of maritime and naval history inSingapore today is mixed. While, admittedly, some work is being done on bothsubjects, research on a whole range of interesting contemporary topics-—espe-cially for the post—1959 period—is full of potential pitfalls even for those trustedand empowered to undertake this work on behalf of the Singaporean authorities.By the same token, foreign scholars who wish to work on these topics inSingapore face an even more daunting challenge. If they are denied access toarchival sources (a reasonable assumption in the circumstances!), they will almostcertainly be forced to rely upon conducting oral interviews and scouring thepages of the local English-language daily newspapers, The Straits Times andBusiness Times, together with those quality journals, such as The Economist, AsiaWall Street Journal and the Far East Economic Review, in an effort to stitch togetherwhat, under the circumstances, cannot be anything more than an incompletestory. Unless the government relaxes its rules on the freedom of information,and major companies follow suit—an unlikely scenario—quality research workon Singaporean maritime and naval subjects in the modern era will remainregrettably compromised. This is particularly unfortunate since there are lessonsfor others to learn from Singapore's postwar experience. At this stage, however,debate on various aspects of Singapore's maritime and naval past remainsmuted—a casualty, one imagines, of the prevailing belief that history is somehowirrelevant at a time when a nation is in active pursuit of commercial success andmaterial prosperity. For these reasons the unusual paradox mentioned in theopening paragraph looks likely to remain ironically valid for many years to come.

Bibliographical Appendix

Economics and Statistics Department (University of Singapore andNational University of Singapore)

Unpublished Academic Exercises:Chou Sook May, "Marine Resources and Tourism: The Case of Singapore"

(1986)Kaur, Pirtpal, "Pricing of Services at Telok Ayer Basin" (1973)Kuek Eng Chyne (Anthony), "Development of Coastal Shipping in Singapore"

(1971)Lee Fou Yoong, "A Manpower Study of the PSA Operations Division" (1973)Lee Tuan Penh (Michael J.), "The Port of Singapore" (1969)Leong Mun Keong, "Shippers and Agents in Singapore's Coastal Trade" (1971)Loh Fong Kwee (Daniel), "Concentration in the Shipbuilding and Repairing

Industry in Singapore" (1971)Ng Chee Keong, "The Effects of the Free Trade Zone or the Entrepot Trade

of Singapore" (1973)Oh Kim Wee, "Flags of Convenience: Practice and Implications for Singapore"

(1977)Sze Toh Kok Leang, "A Study of Cargo Handling in Singapore in Singapore's

Coastal Shipping" (1971)Yeo, Annie, "The Structure of Singapore Shipping Industry" (1973)

Geography Department (University of Singapore andNational University of Singapore)

Unpublished Academic Exercises:Chia Beng Hock (Alan), "The Malacca Straits: A Study in Political Geography"

(1986)Kalyanam, Ganesh s/o R., "Container Port Development in ASEAN" (1990)Lee Kai Yin, "South Asian Shipping and its Links with Singapore" (1989)Teo Kiew Ting (Mary Celine), "The development of the port of Singapore

1819-1959" (1962)Wee Siew Sun, "The port of Singapore—postwar development of its physical

facilities" (1977)

History Department (University of Singapore andNational University of Singapore)

Unpublished Academic Exercises:Richard Cheong, "The Singapore Naval Base, a local history" (1983)

312    Singapore

Chiang Ming Shun, "Military Defences and Threat Perceptions in Nineteenth

Century Singapore" (1992)R.D. Jansen, "The idea of Singapore as a Naval Base & the abandonment of that

idea 1885-1905 (1954)"Bhajan Singh, "The Defence of Singapore from 1902 to the Washington

Conference" (1975)E. Wong, "The Singapore Harbour Board 1913-1941 (1961)"Yeo Piah Woon, "The Singapore Harbour Board 1946-57 (1975)"

History Department

Master of Arts Thesis:

George Bogaars, "The Tanjong Pagar Dock Co." (1952)

Political Science Department (National University of Singapore)

Unpublished Academic Exercises:Kuldip Singh, "Implications for security in Southeast Asia of the 1982 Conven-tion on the Law of the Sea" (1985).

South Africa

C.I. Hamilton

To most South Africans, the sea is the hidden frontier. There are so manywho appear to regard it as nothing more than a pleasing background to aholiday, or perhaps a source of vicarious excitement when a storm endangersships off the coast. This indifference is striking, given the strong maritimeelements present in the country's geography, history, and economy. Maritimestudies have inevitably suffered, and to a degree not to be found in othercountries known to this author. The circumstances peculiar to South Africa willbe addressed after a survey of what is taught there and its current state of research.A suitable beginning is maritime archaeology, because it offers a strikingexample of South Africa's uninterest in its maritime heritage. There are nearlythree thousand recorded wrecks off the coast of South Africa, dating from thesixteenth century; but scarcely any of these have been properly investigated.There is a telling contrast here with another "new country," Australia, wherethere are few wrecks, but much research. It is encouraging, however, that interesthas been increasing lately. Admittedly, some of the growing interest in wrecksis from scuba-looters, and there are increasing complaints about their selfishdepredations, but there are also private divers who are putting their energies andenthusiasm at the disposal of institutions. Museums have also become moreactive in the area. Those in ports, notably the Local History Museum, Durban;the East London Museum; the Port Elizabeth Museum and the Natal Museumin Pietermaritzburg, and to a lesser extent the Bredasdorp Museum, tend to havegood collections of artefacts from wrecks, look to extend them and, where

Dr. C.I. Hamilton is a member of the Department of History, University of the Witwatersrand,Republic of South Africa.

Acknowledgenment: I wish to thank all those who responded to my requests for information aboutmaritime studies in South Africa, though I am obliged in particular to the generous help of CommanderW.M. Bisset, Dr. L. van Sittert, Miss H. Van Niekerk (Transport Economics, University of Stellenbosch),and Drs B. Werz. Of course, only the author can be held responsible for his opinions. I also owe muchto those who suggested (with perfect politeness, apart from one oddity) a degree of surprise that membersof their departments should be thought to have anything to do with the sea: such replies set the contextto the chapter.

The references given are almost entirely limited to work undertaken in the last twenty years. It isnot exhaustive; notably, short reports and undergraduate theses have been excluded; but it is hoped thatat least the great majority of recent significant work has been included.

possible, study them and publish results. The South Africa Cultural Museumin Cape Town has a Maritime Archaeology Unit, though at present it has onlyone member, and the Local History Museum, Durban, hopes soon to make asimilar appointment. These museums are also much concerned with educatingthe public in regard to salvage.

University interest in the subject has grown somewhat, but is still morelimited. There is no specialist department in the country, but in 1988 a trainedmaritime archaeologist was appointed to the Archaeology Department at theUniversity of Cape Town (UCT). The departmental courses reflect this,perhaps most interestingly in the one on maritime traffic around the Africancoast from about 1500 to 1800, dealing, inter alia, with shipboard life and contactswith indigenous peoples. Moreover, joint student projects have been arrangedwith surveying, oceanography, chemistry, marine law and marine geo-science.With regard to research, one must note the work on the wrecked V.O.C. vessel

C. Auret and T. Maggs [Natal Museum], "The Great Ship Sao Bento: Remains from a mid-sixteenthcentury Portuguese wreck on the Pondoland Coast," Annals of the Natal Museum, 25, 1 (1982), pp. 1—39.G. Bell-Cross [Curator, the Provincial Museum, Mossel Bay], "The Occurrence of Cornelian and AgateBeads at Shipwreck Sites on the Southern African Coast," The Coelacanth, 25, 1 (1987) pp. 20-32.

Bell-Cross, "Portuguese Shipwrecks and Identification of their Sites," in E. Axelson, ed., Dias and hisSuccessors, (Cape Town: Saayman & Weber, 1988), pp. 47—80.

T. Maggs, "The Great Galleon Sao Joao: Remains from a mid-sixteenth century wreck on the NatalSouth Coast," Annals of the Natal Museum, 26, 1 (1984), pp. 173-86.

B.R. Stuckenberg [Director, Natal Museum], research on the Santiago wreck is far advanced andpublication is planned.

G.N. Vernon [East London Museum], "Oriental Blue and White Porcelain Sherds at Shipwreck Sitesbetween the Fish and Kei Rivers," The Coelacanth, 25, 1 (1987), pp. 15—19.

On also the human consequences of wrecks, see:

G. Bell-Cross, "A brief Maritime History of the Coast between the Kei and Fish Rivers," TheCoelacanth, 20, 2 (1982), pp. 27-39, and 21, 1 (1983), pp. 7-12.

J.M. Costello [East London Museum], "S.S. Umzimvubu," The Coelacanth, 24, 2 (1986), pp. 6-15.

D.A. Webb and K. Stripp [East London Museum], "Wrecked Twice in one Voyage. The Experiencesof an Eastern Cape Merchant," The Coelacanth, 26, 1 (1988), pp. 35-47.

J. S. Bennie [Port Elizabeth Museum], M.A. research on the Amsterdam.

For an enthusiastic account of a non-professional survey of a wreck, see Allan Kayle, Salvage of theBirkenhead (Johannesburg: Southern Book Publishers, 1990).

B.E.J.S. Werz [Archaeology, UCT], "Saving a Fragment of the Underwater Heritage; aMulti-Faceted Approach," CABO: Yearbook of the Historical Society of Cape Town, 4, 4 (1989), pp. 13-18.

Werz, "A Preliminary Step to Protect South Africa's Undersea Heritage," IJNA, 19, 4, (1990), pp.335-38.

Werz, "The Excavation of the Oosterland in Table Bay: the first Systematic Exercise in MaritimeArchaeology in Southern Africa," South African Journal of Science, 88, 2 (1992), pp. 85—90.

Werz, "Tafelbaai gee sy geheime prys. 'n Histories-argeologiese ondersoek van die VOC-skipOosterland," Huguenot Society of South Africa Bulletin, 29 (1992), pp. 54-61.

Werz, "Maritiem argeologiese ondersoeke in 'n Suid-Afrikaanse konteks: doelstelling, metode enpratyk," Tydskrifvir Geesteswetenskappe, 33, 1 (1993), pp. 20-6.

D. Miller, J. Lee-Thorp, & B. Werz, "Amber in Archaeological Contexts in South Africa," The SouthAfrican Gemmologist, 1, 2 (1993), pp. 4-8.

Werz and U.A. Seemann, "Organic Materials from Wet Archaeological Sites: the Conservation ofWaterlogged Wood," The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 48(1993), pp. 37-41.

Oostetland, the first scientific underwater excavation in South Africa. In the samegeneral context, one ought to mention the Maritime Law Institutes at the Universitiesof Natal, Durban (ND) and UCT, and the Department of Public Law at UCT, notso much because the two former offer courses of inevitable historical maritimesignificance (more striking in the case of UCT), but because there are researchers atall three studying jurisdiction in coastal waters (which is crucial to control of wrecks)as well as other matters of interest to maritime historians.

One area in which there has long been interest is port development and the urbanhistory of ports. Here, too, the port musuems are engaged, not just at the level oforganizing exhibits and exhibitions, but occasionally also publication. One museumunmentioned so far, Simon's Town Museum, has its own historical society, whichregularly publishes articles on the local history of the town in its Bulletin, and someyears ago published a solid and well-illustrated volume of research work. (This isseparate from the new Simon's Town Naval Museum, in the Dockyard.)

4    Professor Devine, (Institute of Maritime Law, UCT), was good enough to send me the followinglist of relevant publications of himself and his colleagues:

D.J. Devine and G. Erasmus, "International Environmental Law," chapter 9 of M.A. Rabie, et at.,Environmental Management in South Africa (Cape Town: Juta, 1982), pp. 155—79.

Devine, "The Cape's False Bay: a Possible Haven for Ships in Distress," SAYIL, 16 (1990-91), pp.81-91.

J.I. Glazewski, "The Admiralty Reserve—an Historical Anachronism or a Bonus for Conservation inthe Coastal Zone," Actajuridica, (1986), pp. 193-201.

Glazewski, "The International Law of the Sea," Marine Science and Technology in South Africa, (1990),pp. 12-13.

Glazewski & M.A. Rabie, "The Evolution of Public Policy with regard to the Environment: a LegalPerspective over the last Fifty Years," S. A. Journal of Science, 86 (1990), pp. 413-19.

Glazewski, "The Regulation of Whaling in International and South African Law," SAYIL, 16(1990-91), pp. 61-80.

Glazewski, A. Dodson, and H. Smith, "Tightening Up the Law" in M. Ramphele, con. ed. with C.McDowell, Restoring the Land: Environment and Change in Post-Apartheid South Africa, (London: ThePanos Institute, 1991), pp. 139-54.

Glazewski, J. Gurney, and J. Kirkley, "Offshore Minerals," in M.A. Rabie, et al., EnvironmentalManagement, pp. 380-416.

Glazewski, A. Heydorn, and B. Glavovic, "The Coastal Zone," in M. A. Rabie, pp. 669-89.

One should note, too, B.L. Allen, Coastal State Control over the Historical Wrecks Situation on theContinental Shelf as Defined in Article 16 of the Law of the Sea Convention 1982, M.A., Public Law, UCT,1991; and H. Staniland (Institute of Maritime Law, ND), is working on Admiralty Court jurisdictionover salvage and wreck claims.

G.N. Vernon, [East London Museum], "From Sail to Ro-Ro: the Story of a River Port," TheCoelacanth, 19, 1 (1981), pp. 5-10.

See also M. Parkes and V.M. Williams, Knysna the Forgotten Port. The Maritime Story, (Knysna: EMU,1988).

B.B. Brock and B.G. Brock, in close collaboration with H.C. Willis, Historical Simon's Town. Vignettes,Reminiscences and Illustrations of the Harbour and Community from the Days of the Dutch East India Co. and ofthe Royal Navy at the Cape of its Administrators, Personalities and Buildings, with Special Notes on Shipwrecksand Navigation, published on behalf of the Simon's Town Historical Society (Cape Town: A. A. Balkema,1976).

However, it is the universities that take the lead in studying the history ofports, although there appear to be no courses with a strong enough historicaland maritime element to qualify for inclusion here. The Architecture Depart-ment at the University of Port Elizabeth, however, is considering a course onshipbuilding and urban development. On the other hand, at the research levelthere is much activity; a number of masters and even doctoral theses have beenwritten since the Second World War and more are in hand, with consequentpublications, not just in history departments but also economics, architecture,and geography. The approaches vary, but even where the ultimate aim is towrite a contemporary study, at least some historical context is given; inevitably,though, it is the history departments where port research is most relevant to thissurvey. The UCT department is predominant, having issued several volumes ofworking papers over the past years on various aspects of Cape Town's past andmembers of the staff have also published independently on the subject. Athree-year project is now under way to write the history of the "mother city."

However, once one looks beyond work on the ports and the shoreline, farless research activity is to be found.   Seamen, shipping, fishing, and exploration

7 D.P. De Beer, "A Study of the Utilisation of East London Harbour and its Relative Importance inthe South African Import and Export Trade to 1975," doctoral thesis, University of Rhodes, 1979.

H.R. Fitchett [Architecture, Witwatersrand], doctorate research on early architecture at the Capeunder the VOC, 1652-1710.

EJ. Inggs [Ec. History, University of South Africa], "Liverpool of the Cape: Port Elizabeth HarbourDevelopment, 1820—70," M.A., Economics & Ec History, University of Rhodes, 1984.

A.B. Lumby [Economics, ND], and I. H. McLean, "The Economy and the Development of the Portof Durban," in B. Guest and J.M. Sellars, eds., Receded Tides of Empire: Aspects of the Economic and SocialHistory of Natal—Zululand since 1910 (Pietermaritzburg: Natal Univ. Press, in press). § D.W. Rush,"Aspects of the Growth of Trade and the Development of Ports in the Cape Colony, 1795-1882,"M.A., Economics, University of Cape Town, 1972.

H.E. Soonike, "The Development of the Port and Harbour of Table Bay with Special Reference tothe Period 1825-1848," M.A., History, UCT, 1974.

K.P.T. Tankard [History, University of Rhodes, East London] "East London. The Creation andDevelopment of a Frontier Community, 1835—1873," M.A., University of Rhodes, 1985.

Tankard, "The Development of East London through Four Decades of Municipal Control," doctoralthesis, University of Rhodes, 1990.

Tankard, "Strangulation of a Port: East London, 1847-1873," Contree, 23 (March 1988), pp. 5ff.

LJ. Twyman (Heydenrych), [History, University of South Africa], Durban Harbour in the History ofNatal, 1845-1900, doctoral thesis, University of South Africa, 1986.

Twyman, "Port Natal Harbour, cl850-1897," in B. Guest and J. M. Sellars, eds., Enterprise andExploitation in a Victorian Colony: Aspects of the Economic and Social History of Colonial Natal,(Pietermaritzburg: Univ. of Natal Press, 1985), pp. 17-45.

Twyman, "Port Natal Harbour and the Colonial Politics of Natal," Historia, 36, 2( 1991), pp. 5-16.

Twyman, "The First Harbour Works at Port Natal—the Role ofjohn Milne, 1849-1857," The CivilEngineer in South Africa, 1993.

C. Saunders [History, UCT], et al., Studies in the History of Cape Town, 5 vols. (Cape Town: Centrefor African Studies, UCT, 1980+).

Recently a volume has been published about the Cape (in the sumptuous Brenthurst series) of widermaritime significance: (the late) M. Boucher and N. Penn [History, UCT], eds., Britain at the Cape 1195to 1803 (Johannesburg: Brenthurst, 1992). For more information on publications about the history of

attract relatively little attention. Take the case of the last. One thinks of the

activities of the Van Riebeeck Society, which since 1918 has been publishing

editions of historical documents, many of them of maritime importance.

One thinks as well of Professor E. Axelson, famous for the discovery and

uncovering of the Dias cross at Kwaaihoek in 1937—8, and author since then

of numerous works on Portuguese navigation.    He was also the prime mover

behind the commemoration in 1988 of the Dias voyage, when the replica

caravel, Bartolomeu Dias, built in Portugal, sailed to South Africa. (The replica

is now at Mossel Bay.) He is both a leading figure in the country and a nearly

isolated one.    Seamen, shipping and fishing however, do not have someone

of Professor Axelson's  eminence,  though  there  are  a  number  of re-

1 "^searchers,   and there is a Whale Research Unit at the University of Pretoria

Cape Town, and confirmation about the emphasis on the terra firma, see C. Saunders, ed., and T.Strauss, comp., Cape Town and the Cape Peninsula, 1806+: A Working Bibliography, (Cape Town: Centrefor African Studies, UCT, 1989).Recent relevant publications are:

M.D. Nash, ed., The Last Voyage of the Guardian. Lieutenant Riou, Commander 1798—1791, VanRiebeeck Society, Second Series no. 20 (Cape Town: 1990).

Randolphe Vigne ed., Guillaume Chenu de Chalezac, the "French Boy." The narrative of his experiences asa Huguenot refugee, as a castaway among the Xhosa, his rescue with the Stavenisse survivors by the Centaurus,his services at the Cape and return to Europe, 1686-9, Van Riebeeck Society, Second Series no. 22, (CapeTown, 1993).

E.  Axelson   [History,   UCT],   Portuguese in  South—East Africa,   1600-1700,  (Johannesburg:Witwatersrand Univ. Press, 1960).

Axelson, Portuguese in South-East Africa: 1488-1600 (Cape Town: Struik, 1973).

Axelson, Congo to Cape: Early Portuguese Explorers (London: Faber, 1973).

Axelson, Portugal and the Scramble for Africa, 1875—1891 (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand Univ. Press,1967).

Axelson, E.N. Katz, and E.C. Tabler, Baines on the Zambesi, 1858-1859 (Johannesburg: Brenthurst,1982).

Axelson, "Recent Identifications of Portuguese Wrecks on the South African coast, especially of theSao Goncalo (1630), and the Sacramento and Atalaia (1647)," II Seminario Intemacional de HistoriaIndo-Portuguesa, Actas (Lisbon: 1985), pp. 41—61.

Axelson, "The Dias Voyage, 1487—1488: Toponymy and Padroes," Revista da Universidade de Coimbra,XXXIV (1988), pp. 29-55.

See also note 2.2  See E. Axelson, Early Portuguese Explorers of Southern Africa, Camoes Annual Lecture, no 2, 1981, atthe University of the Witwatersrand; and "The Voyages of Bartolomeu Dias 1487-88 and of theBartolomeu Dias 1987—88," Congresso Intemacional Bartolomeu Dias e a sua Epoca, Actas, Volume II,Navegacoes na segunda Metade do Siculo XV (Porto: 1989), pp. 106—9.

Commodore N.R. Guy is currently editing a volume Charting and Navigation in Southern Africa, witha significant historical bias, to be published under the auspices of the Hydrographic Office. Despite herbase just outside South Africa, perhaps one ought also to mention J. Kinahan, [Curator of HistoricalArchaeology, State Museum of Namibia], By Command of their Lordships. The Exploration of the NamibianCoast by the Royal Navy, 1795-1895, (Windhoek: Namibia Archaeological Trust, 1992).a. Seamen:

M.C. Kitshoff [Church History, University of Zululand], currently researching on Mission andMinistry to Seamen in S.A.

(although housed in the South Africa Museum) with some historical interests.

With regard to courses involving shipping and fishing, one can point to those

in maritime economics in the Transport Economics Department at the

University of Stellenbosch, which go up to honours' level and beyond,

though the historical element is comparatively small, at least at the lower

levels.

Looking to other topics, there is a research project to compile a catalogue

raisonne of the William Fehr collection at Rust-en-Vreugd, Tichiu nowal art.

This is particularly interesting because it is a group effort—one, moreover, that

involves the cooperation of members of the Art History Department at UCT as

C.I. Hamilton [History, Witwatersrand], "Seamen and Crime at the Cape, c 1850-1880," TheInternational Journal of Maritime History, 1, 2, (December 1989), pp. 1—35.

b. Shipping:

E.A.G. Clark, presently at work on British merchants and the establishment of new ports and tradesin the Cape of Good Hope, 1795-1840. Education, University of Rhodes.

P. Dickinson [Ec. History, Witwatersrand], "Smith's Coasters: the Shipping Interests ofC.G. Smith,1889-1966," The South African Journal of Economic History, 3, 1 (1988), pp. 20-32.

N.P. Fawcett, M.A. research on shipping in the Eastern Mediterranean in the first millennium B.C.,Semitiese Tale, University of Stellenbosch.

B.D. Ingpen, South African Merchant Ships. An Illustrated Recent History of Coasters, Colliers,Containerships, Tugs & Other Vessels (Cape Town: S.S. Balkema, 1979).

Ingpen, "The Coastwise Shipping Industry of Southern Africa—A Study in TransportationGeography," M.A. thesis, Geography, UCT, 1983.

A.L. Muller (Economics, University of Port Elizabeth], "Coastal Shipping and the Early Developmentof the Southern Cape," Contree (July 1985), pp. 10-15.

V.E. Solomon [former Ec. Hist, Witwatersrand, now S.A. Treasury], "The South African ShippingQuestion, 1886-1914," doctoral thesis, History, University of Rhodes, 1979. (Published 1982 by theHistorical Publications Society.)

Solomon, "The Freight Rates crisis of 1907," Journal of Natal and Zulu History, 4 (1981), pp. 39-48.Dr. Solomon is presently working on a biography of Sir Donald Currie.

c. Fishing:

K. Cadle, "The Response of a Coloured Fishing Community to their Marine Resource Base," M.A.thesis, School of Environmental Studies, UCT, 1983.

A. Kirkaldy, "The Sea is in our Blood: Community and Craft in Kalk Bay, 1880-1939," master'sthesis, History, UCT, 1988.

T. Quinlan, "Line Fishing in Kalk Bay: An Account of a Marginal Livelihood in a DevelopingIndustrial Environment," M.A. thesis, Soc. Anth., UCT, 1981.

L. van Sittert [Oral History Project, UCT].

"Labour, Capital, and the State in the St. Helena Bay fisheries, cl856-cl956," doctoral thesis, History,UCT, 1992.

Van Sittert, "Making Like America: the Industrialisation of the St Helena Bay Fisheries cl936-1956,"Journal of Southern African Studies (September 1993).

Van Sittert, "'More in the Breach than the Observance': Crayfish, Conservation and Capitalism,1890-1939," Environmental History Review, forthcoming. Dr. van Sittert also has several other papers inpreparation, and his work is particularly interesting in drawing on both oral and archival sources.

P.B. Best, [South African Museum], "Seals and Sealing in South and South West Africa," S.A.Shipping News and Fishing Ind. Rev., 28 (1973), pp. 49, 51, 53, 55, 57.

Best and P.D. Shaughnessy. "An Independent Account of Captain Benjamin Morrell's Sealing Voyageto the South West Coast of Africa in the Antarctic, 1828-29," Fish. Bull. S. A., 12 (1979), pp. 1-19.

Best, "Sperm Whale Stock Assessments and the Relevance of Historical Whaling Records," Rep. Int.

well as staff of the collection. It certainly contrasts with the general patternof maritime studies research in the country, much of which is a matterof individual work carried on in relative isolation, often little knownoutside the sheltering institution.

' However, one category of maritime studies has not yet been spoken of at all:the history of war navies, or naval history proper. It has been left aside until now,because in South Africa it is very largely confined to one institution outside theuniversities. This is not to say that there is no naval history carried on at theuniversities, but there is little of it, only a handful of researchers carrying onindividual work. There are also two courses that have a considerable navalhistory element: the honours course offered by the Strategic Studies Centre atthe University of South Africa, and the History of Diplomacy course occasionallyoffered by the International Studies Unit at the University of Rhodes. Outsidethe universities, some amateur historians have performed sterling work, aboveall Wilhelm Griitter, who in one book openly raised some interesting (if

Whal. Comn. (Special Issue 5), 1983, pp. 41-55.

Best & G.J.B. Ross, "Catches of Right Whales from shove-based establishments in Southern Africa,1792-1975," ibid (Special Issue, 10), 1986, pp. 275-89.

Best, "Estimates of the landed Catch of Right (and other whalebone) whales in the American fishery,1805-1909," U.S. Fish. Bull, 85 (1987), pp. 403-18.

Best, "Right Whales (Eubalaena australis) at Tristan da Cunha—a Clue to the 'Non-Recovery' ofDepleted Stocks?" Biol. Cons., 1988, 46, pp. 23-51.

Best and G.J.B. Ross, "Whales and Whaling," in Oceans of Life off Southern Africa, Vlaeberg Publishers,Cape Town, 1989, pp. 315-38.

Best, "The 1925 catch of Right Whales off Angola," Rep. Int. Whal. Comn., 40 (1990), pp. 381-82.

C. de Jong, (Ec. History, University of South Africa, "Walvisvangst bij Kaap de Goede Hoop tijdensde Bataafse Republiek," Historia, 12, 2, (September 1967), pp. 171-98.

a. History of Art: M. Godby, S. Klopper, M. Stevenson.

b. William Fehr collection: L. Melzer, B. Cole.

E.A. Biggs, M. A. research on the development of traditions and customs in the S.A.N. AfrikaanseKultuurgeskiedenis, University Stellenbosch.

E. and F. Bradlow, (respectively History, UCT, and Chairman, Van Riebeeck Society, WitwatersrandHere Comes the Alabama, (Cape Town: A.A. Balkema, 1958).

G. Burford, M.A. research on Seapower and the Second Gulf War. I.R., Wits.

D.F.S. Fourie (Strategic Studies, UNISA), studying problems of doctrine for the navies of middle tominor powers.

C.I. Hamilton, "Naval Hagiography and the Naval Hero," The Historical Journal, University of SouthAfrica 23,2 (1980), pp. 381-98.

Hamilton, Anglo-French Naval Rivalry 1840-1870 (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993).

D.B. Saddington (Classics, Witwatersrand), "Praefecti classis, orae maritimae and ripae of the SecondTriumvirate and the Early Empire," Jahrbuch des Romish-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, XXXV,(1992), pp. 299-313.

Saddington, "The origin, and character, of the Provincial Fleets of the Early Roman Empire,"Proceedings oftheXVth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, ed. V.A. Maxfield and M.J. Dobson,(Exeter: 1991), pp. 413-8.

Saddington, "The origin and nature of the German and British fleets," Britannia, XXI (1990), pp.223-32.

embarrassing) questions about the recent history of the South African Navy,notably concerning the Afrikanerization of the force in the 1950s. Otherwise,naval history in the country is essentially the province of the South African Navy.

Naval history has only a small role in the courses at the Gordon's Bay collegefor midshipmen, but is significant at the Muizenberg staff college: one of thefour modules at the latter is largely historical in nature. The colleges' staffs areprincipally responsible for the teaching, but Commander W.M. Bisset, the seniorstaff officer at the Simon's Town Naval Museum, gives an illustrated survey ofS.A. naval history, principally with the intention of fostering esprit de corps. Andat Muizenberg, Professor D.F.S. Fourie of the Strategic Studies Centre at theUniversity of South Africa gives lectures on strategy and revolution.

At Saldanha Bay is the tri-service academy, which (in association with theUniversity of Stellenbosch) offers a bachelor's degree in military science.Students may take military history as one of their majors and spend some timeon a topic in naval history. The potential for concentration is all the greater athonours' level.

Naval officers are also encouraged, where feasible, to take research degrees;

few are relevant to this survey, though one officer has just completed an M.A.

at Randse Afrikaans Universiteit on the recent history of missile-carrying

1 ftvessels.     Some officers, retired as well as active, also undertake non-degree

research and publication. Unfortunately, Union War Histories are no longer

being written; the organization was discontinued in 1961, in part as an economy

measure, though some hitherto unpublished chapters appeared recently in Navy

News and Militaria.    But there is at least a small historical section of the South

African Defence Force, although not at present engaged with any specifically

naval project.

The survey has already suggested not just a general inadequacy but also some

specific weaknesses. First, there is the "patchiness" of coverage of subjects and

periods. Particularly noticeable is the way that interest declines markedly with

increased distance from the shore; if coastal shipping and fishing arouse little

enough attention, the maritime history of other nations is usually ignored, at

least outside the naval colleges. There is also a certain narrowness of approach

discernable in the universities, to be observed in South Africa as elsewhere: the

barriers of the discipline often appear to be the barriers to inquiry; this is certainly

apparent in the history departments. It does not seem wholly accidental that

A Name among Sea Faring Men. A History of the Training Ship General Botha (Cape Town: The T.B.F.Davis Memorial Sailing Fund, 1973).

Lt. Commander L.T. Potgieter. In Afrikaans; restricted circulation.19 By (the late) Commander H.R. Gordon-Cumming, "The Loss of HMSAS Parktoum" Navy News,September 1992, pp. 5f. Militaria, S.A. Navy Anniversary Issue, 22, 1 (1992). On pp. 51f of the latter,Gordon-Cumming expresses a strong opinion about the poor understanding shown at the S.A. Ministryof Defence about sea power and the role of a navy. He was discussing an early period, but later officersmight well find the statement still has some pertinence.

Professor Couzens' life of Trader Horn, undeniably the best recent local workin maritime studies, and generous in its multidisciplinary approach, came froman African Studies Centre (Witwatersrand) and not a history department.

But the most obvious point to be picked out from the survey is the few linksbetween institutions, notably between the universities and the South AfricanNavy. In part, this is because of long-standing mutual suspicion that is commonenough in other countries, but is particularly sharp in South Africa where politicshave long had a severe effect upon maritime studies. Many academics identifyall the armed forces with apartheid tyranny, and many officers believe that atleast the English-speaking universities are radical hotbeds. Each side has had itsmisconceptions: the one, failing to notice the outward-looking, even liberalstrand implicit in naval policy making, and the other, confusing opposition tovicious stupidity with attempted revolution. And naval history has suffered. Ifone looks at what has been published in recent years, ignoring the works ofanecdote or piety or nostalgia, a too-common tendency is found towardsunadorned factual accounts. One looks back with regret to the last of the UnionWar History volumes, War in the Southern Oceans, with its insight, telling detail(a most valuable comparative element), and even some humour. But that waswritten in more accommodating days. It is pleasant to note that the S.A.D.F.historical section is currently attempting to develop military history throughapproaching the universities to sponsor projects and encourage more use of the

20 T. Couzens, Tramp Royal. The True Story of Trader Horn with such of his Philosophy as is the gift of Ageand Experience learned in his Quest from Joss House to Doss House and in which appear severally Cannibals andPyrates, Gorillas and Lynchings with a guest appearance by Greta Garbo as well as numerous other adventures of aRemarkable Nature, (Johannesburg: Ravan Press and "Witwatersrand Univ. Press, 1992).

Other interesting works of maritime significance from outside the history departments, so farunmentioned, are:

J. Hilton, (Classics, ND), "Azania—Some Etymological Considerations," Acta Classica, XXXV (1992),pp. 151-59.

Hilton, "Peoples of Azania," Scholia, ns, 2 (1993), pp. 3-16.

M.H. Lategan, M.A. research on autobiographical literature with special reference to the writings ofsingle-handed sailors, English, University of the Orange Free State.

H.P. Maltz, M.A. research on myth in the novels of Herman Melville, a study of the function of themyths of Eden, the Golden Age and Hero and Dragon in Typee, Moby Dick, and Billy Budd, Sailor,English, ND.

R. Laverde (International Studies Unit, University of Rhodes), Development, Pursuit and Maintenaticeof the South African Antarctic Policy: 1926-1988, M.A., 1990.

A. Vos (English, ND), presently researching on the relationship between myth, literature, and history,in connection with the schooner Mazeppa.

B. Warner (Astronomy, UCT), presently researching on the early history of the Cape Observatory.Professor Warner is also contributing a chapter to the Guy volume (see note 12) concerning the role ofastronomers in the history of navigation in southern waters.

By L.C.F. Turner, H.R. Gordon-Cumming, and J.E. Betzler (Cape Town: Oxford Univ. Press,1961). Also worthy of note are South Africa's Navy: the First Fifty Years (Cape Town: WJ. Flesch, 1973),by the late J.C. Goosen (this incorporates work by the late Commander Gordon-Cumming. It was alsopublished in an Afrikaans version), and Sailor Women, Swans: A History of the South African Women'sAuxiliary Naval Service, 1943-49 (Simon's Town: Simon's Town Swans History Publication Fund, 1986).

Pretoria military archives' still largely unexploited resources, although—andperhaps this is in itself indicative—the section has put forward no naval historytopics.

Politics have to be considered in another way as well. Given the fractured state ofmaritime studies within the country, there were no serious interior debates that politicscould sharpen. But politics could work from the outside to encourage uninterest or evenaversion towards the subject as a whole. The sea has been politically suspect to most ofthe peoples of the country. Evil came from over the sea, according to the differentviewpoints, taking the form of Dutch settlers, or English ones, or capitalism, or godlesscommunism, or sanctions. Furthermore, politics encouraged South African historians tolook inwards, to study the trekkers fleeing from English imperialism or, more recendy,to study those previously historically disfranchised. As one of my correspondentscommented, it can seem almost perverse today for a South African historian to work onanything other than the history of the oppressed majority. The politics of race anddomination are usually the major theme, even in ostensibly maritime research.

It is easy to over-generalize about the country. One must allow that it is the heartlandwhich remains most indifferent to the sea. A news item about it might reach the frontpages at the coast, only to be relegated to the inside of a Johannesburg newspaper. At thecoast one can find excitement about some maritime events, such as the raising of a sunkencannon. It is also there that one can expect to find numbers of maritime enthusiasts, suchas the Friends Association of the Local History Museum, Durban, or the engaginglyobsessive "ship-spotters" who publish their sightings in the Cape Town journal, Flotsamand Jetsam, now more enthusiastic than ever since there is no longer any need to disguisethe identity of certain ships that appear in South African ports. It is also the coastalbranches of the Navy League that have tended to be the most active. However,both heartland and rimland have suffered alike from two recent forces inimical tomaritime studies—sanctions and depression. The former was instrumental inchoking the two-way relationship that encouraged some to look towards the sea.When one can see only turned backs on another shore, the response is also to turn

22 Slavery is usually dealt with only in its shore-based manifestations. But there is one researcher workingon the maritime slave trade:

G. Campbell (Ec. History, Witwatersrand): "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal ofAfrican History, XXII (1981), pp. 203-27.

Campbell, "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: the 'Southern Complex,'" International Journalof African Historical Studies, XXII, 1 (1989), pp. 1-27.

Campbell, "Madagascar and Mozambique in the Slave Trade of the Western Indian Ocean,1800-1861," in W.G. Clarence—Smith ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the NineteenthCentury (London: Frank Cass, 1989), pp. 166-93.

Campbell, "Disease, Cattle, and Slaves: the Development of Trade between Natal and Madagascar,1875-1904," African Economic History, XIX(1990-91), pp. 105-33.

23 The S.A. Navy League remains vigorous overall, in large part because the naval cadet corps operatesunder its auspices. For the League, and a brief history of the cadet corps by the League's Federal Secretary,Captain D. Brown, plus numerous other details about the sea and S.A., see the current Navy League'sMariner's Diary, published by Walker-Ramus Trading Co. (Pty) Ltd, Durban.

Hamilton     323

away. Significantly, the recent permission for South Africa to participate incommemorating the Battle of the Atlantic immediately led, even in Johannes-burg, to richly nostalgic newpaper articles about the war at sea.

Sanctions also deepened the depression, which has been a powerful factoraffecting all levels of maritime studies. The lack of money has been bedeviling theuniversities, forcing severe reductions and a concentration on core subjects ratherthan something that can be described with dangerous ambiguity as "peripheral." Ithas affected the museums, where many artefacts cannot be given proper storage letalone the treatment vital to their preservation. The Navy has been forced "to cutfat" and rationalize. And bodies such as the Maritime Institute, at Durban, whichoffers courses in maritime trade and transport, have been forced to focus on narrowlyvocational training, cutting away any historical context.

But there are a few hopeful signs. The central grant-giving body, the HumanSciences Research Council, is improving its data base, so perhaps the presentdifficulty in gathering information about maritime research will be mitigated.Moreover, an attempt is being made to formulate a maritime policy for thecountry. Three conferences have been held, attended by academics, museumstaffs, naval officers, and others, and a drafted policy is about to be sent to thecabinet. The main aim is to coordinate the various coastal maritime agencies,and there are implications inter alia for fishing, customs, air-sea rescue, tourism, andsalvage.

The significant aspect of that attempt is the way it has been pushed throughby a comparatively small number of people, led by B.C. Floor, lately of theUniversity of Stellenbosch, but now the head of a private agency. This istypical of the country. The shortage of the highly trained, and the narrownessof the elites, means that individual expertise and energy can achieve resultsthat would not be expected in Western societies, at least when the correctcontacts have been made. One thinks also of Vice-Admiral G. Syndercombe,former Chief of the Navy, who acts as a universal armature, linking togethermany of the maritime organizations in the country. Or there is Drs B. Werz,the maritime archaeologist at The University of Cape Town, in the midst ofa coming together of the Navy and the National Monuments Council (itselfan important organization and responsible for coordinating salvage work). "This grouping articulated "Operation Sea Eagle," a survey of the shipwrecksaround Robben Island, followed by a general management plan for the area,

The papers are available as a bound volume from the National Maritime Policy Committee,University of Stellenbosch.

Dr. J. Deacon has the general supervisory role: see her "Protection of Historical Shipwrecks throughthe National Monuments Act," given at the Third National Maritime Conference, at Durban, in March1993 (see note 24); and "Conservation of Historical Shipwrecks: A Need for Cooperation," InformationBulletin. Council for the Environment, no. 9 (August 1993), pp. 8—11.

324    South Africa

one that may lay a basis for the future rational exploitation of the island for leisureas well as research.

Of course, such schemes depend for their ultimate success upon politicalstability, economic prosperity, and—crucially—the attitudes of the cominggovernment. As yet, those attitudes remain uncertain. From what some A.N.C.representatives have said, one might have cause for pessimism about maritimestudies, for instance in the calls for researchers to concentrate on the history ofthe black majority, which would largely mean a history of the soil and of struggle.But there are also reasons for optimism, as in the suggestion that South Africashould follow the U.S. example and set up a National Endowment fund withonly a relatively light control over subjects of research, though duplication ofeffort is to be avoided. Moreover, the A.N.C. is actively discussing the subjectof fishing, something the Nationalists tended to avoid. A conference in March1993 in Cape Town, organized by the South African Institute of InternationalAffairs (Cape) and the Institute for Defence Policy, also suggested that theA.N.C. has some sympathy towards the Navy and sees a significant future forit. These are only straws in the wind, but one has to agree with supporters ofthe fishing industry and at least some officers in the Navy who think that thefuture holds promise for them, if only because it cannot be worse than the past.In a mood of cautious optimism, one might well say the same about maritimestudies in South Africa.

B.E.J.S. Werz and J. Deacon, Operation Sea Eagle: Final Report on a Survey of Shipwrecks around RobbenIsland (Cape Town: National Monuments Council, pending).

Some of the papers and comments were printed in the South African Defence Review, 10 (1993), issuedby the Institute for Defence Policy, Halfway House (Midrand), S.A. 1685.1 am grateful to Dr. J. Cilliersfor letting me have a copy of the issue.

Spain

Carla Rahn Phillips

Spain's relationship with the sea goes back as far as recorded history, whenmariners from Carthage, Greece, and Rome established settlements of theirseaborne empires on the Iberian peninsula. Muslims from North Africa invadedSpain by sea in the eighth century, and again in the twelfth century, and navalengagements marked important phases in the Christian reconquest of thepeninsula in the late Middle Ages. During the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, Castile governed a vast worldwide empire, held together by maritimetrade and communication and defended by an impressive naval establishment.Seaborne trade and defense loomed large in Spanish affairs as long as the empirelasted—that is, until the late nineteenth century—although with inevitable shiftsof emphasis after most of Spanish America became independent. The twentiethcentury presented a different set of challenges, as the civilian shipbuildingindustry eclipsed the naval establishment.

This essay surveys the historiography of Spanish naval and maritime affairsover the past ninety years or so, during which time virtually every aspect ofSpain's long relationship with the sea has been discussed in print. Bibliographicaids, such as listings of books and articles published during the twentieth century,yielded 1,328 items. Although they seem to represent a valid sampling of thefield, undoubtedly many items eluded me. The most serious deficiency in mysearch is that I was able to deal only superficially with the enormous output ofthe Revista General de Marina (RGM), founded in 1877. The RGMwas publishedregularly except for a hiatus during the Spanish Civil War; in over 115 years ofexistence, nearly 10,800 articles on a wide range of topics have appeared in itspages. A conference in 1990 focused on the RGM and its impact on the field ofnaval and maritime history. Ten short papers analyzing the journal's contentssince its foundation were prepared for that conference and appeared in print aspart of the monographic series published by the Institute of Naval History and

Lawrence Mott, a graduate student in history at the University of Minnesota, served as my researchassistant on this project, assembling the references and entering them on the bibliographic programPro-Cite. I can provide the computer files for the bibliography on "WordPerfect 5.0 to any interestedparties. Send a diskette (3.5 or 5.25 in.) and a self-addressed stamped mailer to Prof. Carla Rahn Phillips,Department of History, University of Minnesota,, Minneapolis, MN 55455.

Culture (Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval). Because the full run of theRGMwas not available to me, I relied primarily on indirect analyses such as theseto characterize the journal's output. I also used a computerized index ofkey-words in the titles of RGM articles, prepared by a researcher at the ConsejoSuperior de Investigaciones Cientificas in Madrid. In the discussion that follows,I have included material from the RGM wherever possible, but I cannot pretendto have analyzed its contents as thoroughly as they deserve.

Judging from that index and from an unsystematic survey of articles, the RGMseems to deal more heavily with naval history than with maritime history, asthose distinctions are commonly used, though its range is too broad to define insimple terms. Moreover, in publications of all sorts, distinctions between navaland maritime history have little relevance in Spain. Many books and articles dealwith all aspects of Spanish seaborne experience, and journals regularly publish avariety of articles that defy rigid labels. Moreover, books about naval andmaritime history are regularly reviewed in national newspapers, as well as inscholarly periodicals; in other words, the field is not marginalized as it is in somecountries.

The authors who publish in Spanish naval and maritime history are—notsurprisingly—mostly Spanish. Of the publications I surveyed in detail, nearly 80percent were written by Spaniards, and the foreign authors generally focused onmatters concerning their home countries. For example, the ill-fated armed fleet,or armada, that Spain sent against England in 1588 inspired a predictable interestamong English authors, and the naval actions of the 1898 Spanish-American warattracted a number of authors from the United States. Very few non-Spaniardshave published on broader Spanish nautical topics, however, and some detailedresearch by non-Spaniards is not likely ever to be published. I have in mind herethe international fraternity and sorority of treasure hunters who have leafedthrough countless documents looking for clues to sunken treasure fromSpain's Atlantic and Pacific fleets, and whose interests are more pecuniarythan scholarly.

Among the Spanish authors my survey turned up, the vast majority are male,many of them serving in the Spanish Navy. That is predictable, given the natureof the topic. Several extraordinary scholars and naval officers in the nineteenthcentury provided ideal models. Martin Fernandez Navarrete and CesareoFernandez Duro each published numerous works of their own research, as wellas editing multivolume series of documents related to Spanish naval and maritime

"La Re vista General de Marina y su Proyeccion historica," Cuademos monograficos del Instituto deHistoria y Cultura Naval, no. 10 (Madrid: 1990).

Fernando Alonso Castellanos, "Indizacion de la Revista General de Marina mediante un sistemaautomatico: El indice rotado de titulos. Utilidades," Cuademos monograficos del Instituto de Historia y CulturaNaval, no. 10 (Madrid: 1990), pp. 57-68. The author analyzed key words in the titles of nearly 11,000articles. A listing of words mentioned fifteen or more times is included in that article.

history. They were followed in the twentieth century by Julio Guillen Tatoand Jose Maria Martinez-Hidalgo Teran, to name only the most distinguishedof the generation that began to publish in the middle of this century. Thetradition continues with Ricardo Cerezo Martinez and Jose Cervera Pery, eachnoteworthy for publications on themes that span several centuries, and a scoreof other naval officers who are also naval and maritime historians.

Members of the military establishment are by no means the only Spaniardspublishing in the field, however. A small minority of the authors currently activeseems to have no direct connection with the Navy and was trained in regularhistory doctoral programs in various Spanish universities. Others studied nauticalarchaeology, a relatively new field everywhere, whose practitioners are notnecessarily part of the naval establishment in Spain. Federico Foerster Laures isthe most noteworthy Spaniard publishing in this field; his articles regularly appearin English in the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, where they find awide audience.

Somewhat unexpectedly, a few Spanish women have also published on navaland maritime history. Spanish naval archives—in the last several decades atleast—have been staffed in large measure by women. Some of them come fromnaval families, and it is quite natural for them to work for the ministry and topublish on nautical themes. Others are university-trained professional archivistswho happen to specialize in naval and maritime archives. Ana Maria VigonSanchez served as Director of the General Marine Archive (Archivo General dela Marina) in the Naval Museum (Museo Naval) in Madrid for many years. TheMuseo Naval houses a prominent research collection of documents as well asship models and other artifacts. Currently, Maria Dolores Higueras Rodriguezand Maria Luisa Martin-Meras head research sections at the Museo Naval andpublish regularly on naval and maritime history. The significant presence ofwomen might be typical of the naval history establishment in other countries aswell, although I have not made a study of the matter.

The 1,328 publications in my survey showed a sharply defined pattern ofdistribution over time, with an enormous increase from the 1970s onward. Thenumber of publications began very modestly, with twenty to forty books andarticles per decade from 1900 to 1930. Despite the disruptions of the SpanishCivil War (1936-39) and World War II (1939-45), however, I noted nearlyfifty publications in the 1930s and nearly one hundred in the 1940s. The numberof publications stayed at an average of nearly one hundred per decade in the1950s and 1960s as well, but the 1970s marked an increase to one hundredforty-one publications. During the 1980s, nearly six hundred books and articles

Fernandez Duro was the subject of an issue of the Cuademos monograftcos del Institute de Historia yCultura Naval, no. 6 (Madrid: 1990).

Even Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, for several decades the principal adviser of General FranciscoFranco, published several extended works on naval history.

328     Spain

were published about Spanish naval and maritime history, and the upward trendseems to be continuing in the 1990s. The 10,800 titles from the Revista Generalde Marina would probably change the temporal distribution somewhat, althoughthe same impulses inspired publications in the field as a whole. Moreover,although my search captured recent publications much more easily than olderones, the sharp increase of activity shown for the 1980s seems to be real ratherthan a statistical illusion.

SPANISH NAVAL AND MARITIME HISTORYFREQUENCY OF TOPICS

OTHER 15%

NAVAL EDUCATION 1%FISHERIES 1°/cMEDICAL CARE 2%CORSAIRS 2%MARITIME LAW 2%

PORTS 3%NAVIGATION 6%

COMMERCE 8%

EXPLORATION& COLONIES

25%

BIOGRAPHIES 10%

NAVAL BATTLES

14%

SHIPS & SHIPBUILDING

11%

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 1,328, MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THAN ONE TOPIC.THE CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

The Revista de Historia Naval, founded by the Instituto de Historia y CulturaNaval in 1983, responded to the growing interest in the field by adding anothervenue for publication. Both the Revista de Historia Naval and the Revista Generalde Marina sponsor additional publications on a diversity of themes as well. Thetopics covered by the field in any given decade show a wide variety, but theanniversaries of historical events with a nautical dimension attract particularinterest.

The books and articles in my detailed survey of 1,328 publications werecharacterized by topic and chronological period. The largest cluster of topics—fully one-quarter—concerned voyages of exploration and the maritime linksconnecting Spain with its overseas empire. By contrast, the key-words in titlespublished in the RGM suggest that Spanish exploration figures much lessprominently in that journal than in the field as a whole. This is probably due tothe RGM*s emphasis on modern maritime topics rather than historical ones. Asimilar example emerges from publications about physical ships. In my survey,over 11 percent of the books and articles dealt with shipbuilding, repair, wrecks,

Phillips     329

and the lives of individual ships, heavily weighted toward the period before thenineteenth century. In article titles in the RGM, nearly 14 percent of the keywords concerned ships and shipbuilding, but with a decided bias toward moderntimes. In other words, there were hundreds of references to aircraft carriers,submarines, cruisers, and other modern vessels. By contrast, caravels, galleons,galleys, and other historical ship types of importance do not appear in thepublished index of key words at all, because they fall beneath the threshold forinclusion.

Naval battles accounted for about 14 percent of the titles in my survey, andabout 10 percent of the key words in the RGM. Biographies of famous marinersand naval strategists also figure prominently in the field as a whole. Mattersrelating to Spanish commerce and the merchant marine account for over 8percent of my surveyed publications, but for a much smaller proportion ofarticles in the RGM. Other matters that have attracted notable attention includenavigation, ports, maritime law, piracy and privateering, medical care, nauticaleducation, and fisheries. Because no Spanish river is navigable very far from thecoast, inland navigation forms no part of the field. Taken as a whole, Spanishnaval and maritime history reflects the broader patterns of Spanish history andinterests in Europe and around the world. Therefore, it makes sense to discussthe published work according to the chronological periods covered.

Very little has been published in Spain about ancient nautical history, andmuch of that has concerned Greek and Roman shipwrecks near the Spanishcoast rather than topics specifically Spanish. Similarly, the early medievalcenturies and the period of Muslim domination in Spain have attracted littleattention, presumably because the most important historical developments inthat period occurred on land. The late medieval period has been somewhat betterserved; I noted twenty-nine publications dealing with the tenth through thefourteenth centuries. The largely land-based Reconquest of the Iberian Penin-sula from the Muslims dominates Spain's late-medieval historiography. None-theless, visual evidence of ships in illustrated devotional works and architecturalembellishments provides a range of hull types and nautical equipment forhistorians to interpret. Modern scholars have only just begun to mine theseriches. The documentary record for the Atlantic fleets of the medieval kingdomof Castile and for the Mediterranean fleets of the eastern regions of Cataloniaand Valencia in the kingdom of Aragon have begun to attract scholarly attentionas well. They may soon provide important insights into the evolution ofEuropean ship design in the era of the Crusades.

The number of scholarly publications about nautical matters in the fifteenthcentury nearly doubles that for all previous periods. The fifteenth century isusually considered part of the Middle Ages, yet it contained developments suchas the consolidation of large territorial monarchies in Europe that heralded theearly modern age. The late fifteenth century also witnessed the first persistent

efforts by Europeans to explore the African coastline and to conquer and colonizevarious groups of Atlantic islands.

Not surprisingly, books and articles about Christopher Columbus over-whelmingly dominate works on the fifteenth century—one hundred one of theone hundred forty-five publications in my survey for the century as a whole.Also, predictably, the majority appeared in years centered around 1942 and 1992,the 450th and 500th anniversaries of his first voyage across the Atlantic. TheRevista General de Marina also published extensively on Columbus. Most of thepublications about Columbus are much more concerned with his life and theconsequences of his voyages than with his ships or his methods of navigation.Nonetheless, nautical matters occupy a sizeable percentage of the publications.Many authors have tried to estimate the tonnages and configurations ofColumbus's ships over the past century, and replicas have been designed, built,and sailed in attempts to bring them back to life. It is not clear, however, thatwe are any closer to knowing their characteristics now than we were in 1892.The documentary and pictorial record is simply too sparse to help us much, andthe craftsmen's traditions that produced the original ships are all but lost in themodern world. Fortunately, underwater archaeology may eventually analyzeenough shipwrecks from the early years of European global exploration tosuggest believable configurations, not only for Columbus's ships but also forother Spanish ship types in the late medieval period.

Scholars concerned with the fifteenth century have also focussed on the artand science of navigation. Modern methods of celestial navigation werepioneered by Portuguese and Spanish mariners and refined as they confrontedthe challenges of sailing far from shore in unfamiliar parts of the globe. One ofthe liveliest controversies surrounding Columbus concerns his first landfall inthe Western Hemisphere, a matter intimately related to his navigational trackacross the Atlantic and in the waters of the Caribbean. An extraordinary amountof effort has been expended in exploring this mystery, most of it by non-Spaniards. A team of researchers at National Geographic in November of 1986claimed to have solved the matter by computerized analysis of Columbus's logof his 1492 voyage—or, rather, of the only existing version of that log, an abstractby Friar Bartolome de las Casas, prepared several decades after Columbus's death.Many scholars, including several Spanish experts on navigation, greeted theNational Geographies findings with marked skepticism. The Columbian Quin-centenary produced several new editions of the abstracted log, yet the text itselfis so questionable that any definitive replication of Columbus's course remainsunlikely.

Books and articles in whole or in part about the sixteenth century accountedfor over a quarter of the 1,328 items surveyed for this study—some 373 in all.During the sixteenth century Spain reached the peak of its power, with anextensive empire in Europe, a large and growing colonial empire in the Western

SPANISH NAVAL AND MARITIME HISTORYFREQUENCY OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY TOPICS

| CORSAIRS                | I    2

III |        |    |       |                         |                            |
|-------------------------|-------------|--------|----|-------|-------------------------|----------------------------|
| PORTS                   | (J

I    2  |        |    |       |                         |                            |
| INSURANCE               | 1    3      |        |    |       |                         |                            |
|                         |             |        |    |       |                         |                            |  |
| NAVIGATION              |             |        | 20 |
|                         |             |
|                         |             |        |
|                         |             |        |    |       |
| SHIPS &SHIPBUILDING | llllll      |        | 36 |
|                         |             |        |    |       |                         |
| COLUMBUS                |             |        |    |       |                         | 101                        |
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40 | ■—  i         —60       | -    - - r J—    —

80     | 100 | 12 |

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 145, MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THANONE TOPIC. THE BAR CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

FREQUENCY OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY TOPICS

CORSAIRS

MARITIME LAW

ASIA

EUROPE

EXPLORERS

AMERICAS

SHIPS &SHIPBUILDING

EXPLORATIONNAVAL BATTLES

| h                         |  |     |  |  |    |     |     |     |  |  |  |  |
|---------------------------|--|-----|--|--|----|-----|-----|-----|--|--|--|--|
|                           |  | 39  |  |  |
|                           |  |     |  |
| :■■■■■       .;           |  |     |  |  | 79 |
|                           |  |     |  |  |    |     |
|                           |  |     |  |  | 88 |
|                           |
|                           |  |     |  |
|                           |  |     |  |  |    |     |     |
|                           |  |     |  |  |    | 102 |
|                           |  |     |  |  |    |     |     |
|                           |  |     |  |  |    | 104 |
|                           |  |
| m                         |  |     |  |  |    |     | 107 |
|                           |
|                           |  |     |  |  |    |     |     |
| 'i^^^Wi^^^^S^             |  |     |  |  |    | 111 |
|                           |  |     |  |
|                           |
| I                         |  | ■   |  |  |    | ■   |     | ■   |  |  |  |  |

20

40

60

80

100

120

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 373, MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THANONE TOPIC. THE BAR CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

Hemisphere, and outposts in Asia as well. As the dominant Roman Catholicpower in Europe, Spain also bore the brunt of defending Catholicism in Europeafter the Protestant Reformation began in 1517, and from external enemies inthe Islamic Ottoman Empire and its North African tributaries and allies. TheOttomans had captured the Christian stronghold of Constantinople in 1453 andremained on the offensive against the eastern borders of Christian Europe, aswell as in the Mediterranean.

The defense of Catholicism can be said to have dominated Spanish foreignpolicy during the first half of the sixteenth century. Naval operations such as thecampaigns to capture and hold Tunis and Goleta on the North African coast inthe 1530s were part of the struggle waged against the Islamic world by CharlesI, the king of Spain who also served as Holy Roman Emperor with the titleCharles V. Even Charles' perennial wars against Catholic France had a religiousdimension once the French allied with the Ottomans in 1536. The naval andmaritime aspects of these wars in the early sixteenth century have attracted somescholarly attention, but not as much as one would expect.

Dynastic politics in Europe and abroad shaped Spain's national policiesthroughout the 1500s, but maritime and global concerns came to the fore in thelast half of the century, during the reign of Philip II. Historians have writtenabout the Spanish naval expedition against Djerba in 1560 and about Philip II'sefforts to reinforce Spanish presidios in North Africa, policies that aimed to securethe Western Mediterranean against Muslim pirates and privateers allied with theOttomans. The Christian and Islamic powers confronted one another defini-tively in 1571 at the battle of Lepanto in the Gulf of Corinth. Spain providedthe majority of ships and men for the Christian fleet, with smaller contingentsfrom the papacy and the Republic of Venice. Spain also provided the com-mander-in-chief, in the person of Don Juan of Austria, half-brother of Philip II.The great Christian victory at Lepanto was commemorated with lavish celebra-tions all over Europe and long remained a symbol of Christianity's response tothe loss of Constantinople. Because of its psychological importance, Lepantoalso generated a wealth of commemorative engravings and paintings, providingprecious visual evidence for maritime historians.

Lepanto has continued to attract the interest of scholars in this century,especially during the four-hundredth anniversary of the battle in 1971. Tenpublications in my survey were devoted entirely to Lepanto, and numerousothers dealt with it in conjunction with other naval engagements in theMediterranean. Although the battle itself settled nothing decisively, it marked aturning point in the struggle between the Ottoman and Spanish empires. AfterLepanto, the Ottomans turned to more pressing matters on their eastern landfrontier with Persia, and Philip II turned toward northern Europe, whererebellion in the Netherlands and worsening relations with England threatenedSpain's grip on its European possessions.

Naval actions during the early phase of the Netherlands rebellion have notfigured prominently in writings about the late sixteenth century, though theSpanish convoys of men and money through the channel appear in all the generalhistories of that conflict. By contrast, the fleet sent by Spain against England in1588 has attracted an extraordinary amount of attention, primarily from writersin England and Spain. Although the Great Armada, as the Spanish called it, haslong held a prominent place in sixteenth-century naval scholarship, the four-hundredth anniversary of that fleet in 1988 produced a floodtide of publications,over 23 percent of all sixteenth-century themes. A series of internationalconferences in 1988 brought Spanish and English scholars together to reconsidervarious aspects of the armada campaign, moving the debate away fromsimpleminded nationalism toward a deepened understanding of the ships,armament, men, and tactics involved. A number of distinguished publicationsresulted from those conferences, as well as a wealth of other serious work. Forexample, the Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval in Madrid sponsored a seriesof monographs on the armada in its many aspects: ships, medical care, politicalconcerns, armaments, tactics, and so on. Regrettably, 1988 was also marked bypublication of the inevitable drivel that often accompanies important anniver-saries.

One of the primary reasons that Philip II decided to launch the Great Armadahad its origins far from Europe, in the Spanish empire in the Western Hemi-sphere. To the extent that English privateers threatened Spanish control of thatempire, they threatened a major source of tax revenue for the crown, and amuch larger source of profits for Spanish merchants. Publications dealing withmaritime aspects of the American empire accounted for over 27 percent of thetotal publications on the sixteenth century.

Spanish scholars have also shown a keen interest in the numerous voyages ofexploration by their countrymen in the late sixteenth century, especially in thevast Pacific Ocean. Books and articles on the Pacific, Asia, and Spain's outpostin the Philippines account for over 10 percent of the publications in my surveydealing with the sixteenth century. The Revista General de Marina also publishedmany titles dealing with discovery (22 percent) and the Pacific (25 percent),though not necessarily all on the sixteenth century.

Predictably, famous expeditions such as Ferdinand Magellan's circumnaviga-tion of the globe in 1519—22 have attracted greater attention than more obscurevoyages. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa,—navigator, natural philosopher, poet,and tireless explorer of the Pacific in the late sixteenth century—formed thesubject of several full-fledged biographies and a half dozen articles, and manyother explorers inspired at least one author. Samuel Eliot Morison, John H.Parry, and other historians of European exploration dealt with many of thesevoyages in the 1950s, but the next generation of historians turned to other topics.Only recently has global exploration resumed its role as an active field for

334    Spain

scholarly investigation. Overall, the range of exploratory voyages has been fairlywell covered by Spanish authors, especially in the concerted effort at publicationspawned by the Columbian Quincentenary. The Spanish government endorsednumerous series of publications starting in the 1980s that edited explorers'accounts of their voyages and provided scholarly analyses of them.

The Netherlands rebellion, the Spanish empire, and further voyages ofexploration have also piqued the interest of scholars publishing on maritimeaspects of the seventeenth century. The first decade of that century, marked bya new king and the winding down of Spain's conflicts with France, England,and the Netherlands, has often been seen as a static period in maritime affairs.Scholars are just beginning to realize that a decade and more of peace allowedthe government of Philip III to sponsor debate on the ideal sizes and configura-tions of ships for the Atlantic run. The regulations of 1607, 1613, and 1618established measurements for shipbuilders to follow, in effect forcing privateindustry to produce ships that would be suitable for the government tocommandeer and rent in wartime. Spanish governments in the early seventeenthcentury also promoted advances in salvage technology. Pedro de Ledesma'sbeautifully illustrated manuscript on that topic in 1623 recently appeared infacsimile in a limited edition.

The Netherlands rebellion resumed in 1621 after a twelve-years' truce,forming one phase in The Thirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648. In its variousphases, the war used up Spanish men, money, and ships at an alarming rate.Stretching its resources to the limit, the Spanish government frequently sentill-manned and poorly supplied fleets into battle, relying on the courage andself-respect of commanders and men to overcome adversity. Surprisingly, theyoften succeeded in defiance of the odds, which only encouraged the governmentto demand more and supply less.

Some distinguished commanders such as Antonio de Oquendo have foundtheir biographers, but most of his colleagues remain little known outside theSpanish naval establishment. Only eight biographies of prominent figuressurfaced in publications about the seventeenth century compared to thirty-twosuch biographies for the sixteenth century, although brief histories of individualcommanders appear in studies devoted to broader issues of seventeenth-centurywar and politics. This neglect may simply reflect a distaste for dealing with Spain'sloss of power; Spanish archives contain ample documentation for a moreextensive collection of biographies, if only scholars seek it out.

The conflicts subsumed under the heading of the Thirty Years' War brokeSpain's power in Europe. Incessant warfare on land and sea coincided disastrouslywith a steep decline in Spain's internal economy and in revenues from the empirein the middle third of the seventeenth century. Given the circumstances, it isastonishing that Spain held on to as much as it did, including the Americanempire. With the peace treaties of 1648, the Netherlands officially won its

independence from Spain. With the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, Spain andFrance disengaged and France emerged from their century and a half ofintermittent warfare as the dominant power in Europe. Louis XIV of France,the great-grandson of Philip II of Spain, also held one of the strongest claims tothe Spanish throne itself, in case the Spanish Habsburg line died out. Just asinterest in England and the Netherlands featured prominently in publicationsabout the sixteenth century, interest in France increased in publications aboutthe seventeenth century.

Spain's American colonies and exploration and colonization in the Pacific andAsia held a prominant place among seventeenth-century topics. Of the onehundred thirty publications dealing with that century in my survey, fifty-six (43percent) concerned the Americas, and another two dozen or so dealt withexploration. Their focus could be as narrow as the voyage of a single obscuremariner or as broad as the geopolitical strategies pursued by Spain in the Pacific.The continued interest in global topics serves as a reminder that, whereas Spainhad slipped to second-rank status in Europe by the end of the seventeenthcentury, it was still the foremost colonial power abroad, by a large margin.

Spanish ship design changed little in the seventeenth century after the activityof the early years. The galleon continued to be the workhorse of the Atlanticfleets, and vessel size edged upward as the century progressed. A series of warsin the last three decades of the 1600s, provoked by French aggression, sappedthe waning strength of Spain's navy, but the country nonetheless maintainedfleets to protect commercial voyages to America. Spain's internal economy andits American trade showed unmistakable signs of recovery by 1680. It is likelythat this revival encouraged renewed attention to Spain's fleets on the part ofthe government. The recent discovery of an important manuscript on ship designby Antonio de Gaztaneta, from the end of the century, is already generatingmore interest in Spanish naval architecture.

At the start of the eighteenth century, the Bourbon dynasty of Franceinherited the Spanish throne when the Habsburgs died out. The change was notwelcomed by other European countries, however, which waged the War of theSpanish Succession (1701—1713) in an attempt to block Bourbon power. Landengagements during the war of succession have attracted much more attentionthan naval battles, though British grand strategy has inspired one thoroughtreatment by John Hattendorf. On the Bourbon side, Spain bore the brunt ofthe limited action at sea, as France had a very small navy, and Spain also had toprotect its overseas colonies from English incursions. The strains of war and thesimultaneous restructuring of the Spanish bureaucracy by the Bourbon govern-ment of Philip V meant that even major naval engagements were documentederratically. After more than a decade of struggle, the Bourbons kept the Spanishthrone, but at the cost of virtually all Spain's remaining territory in Italy and theMediterranean, plus Gibraltar on Spanish soil.

SPANISH NAVAL AND MARITIME HISTORYFREQUENCY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TOPICS

NAVAL BATTLES

BIOGRAPHIES

CORSAIRS

DEFENSES

EUROPE

EXPLORATIONSHIPS &

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20

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60

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 130, MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THANONE TOPIC. THE BAR CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

FREQUENCY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TOPICS

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DEFENSES

SHIPS &SHIPBUILDING

BIOGRAPHIES

EXPLORATION

EUROPE

COLONIES

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THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 206, MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THANONE TOPIC. THE BAR CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

Phillips    337

Once the Bourbons settled in, during the reigns of Ferdinand VI (1746—59)and Charles III (1759—88), they pursued a vigorous policy of administrativereform that included a revival of the navy. The monarchy and a succession ofextraordinarily able ministers found their efforts aided by demographic andeconomic growth that spanned most of the eighteenth century. Within Europe,England mounted increasing challenges to the power of France, while Spainaimed to protect its empire and enhance its fortunes by turning the rivalry of itsneighbors to advantage. More often than not, Bourbon Spain allied withBourbon France in a series of so-called "family pacts." The reason for this stancewas less dynastic loyalty, however, and more a realization that England posedthe more serious danger to Spanish America. Books and articles about Englandaccount for nearly 12 percent of the historiography of Spain's eighteenth centurynaval and maritime history; publications about France account for nearly 8percent. As an ally of France, Spain participated in the maritime wars of themid-eighteenth century and aided the North American colonies rebelling againstEngland after 1776, inspired in part by the vain hope of regaining control ofGibraltar. Several articles deal with each of these conflicts and with noted Spanishcommanders.

Imperial concerns outside Europe loomed large in Spanish naval policiesduring the eighteenth century, which is reflected in published scholarship. Thedefense of Spain's American colonies continued to claim government resources,and the much-vaunted "Bourbon reforms" of colonial administration aimed inpart to foment seaborne commerce. All of these initiatives have attractedscholarly interest.

Spanish voyages of exploration also gained a new impetus under the Bourbondynasty, and thirty-eight publications in my survey reflect that activity. Voyagesin the Pacific figured in thirty-three (16 percent) of the publications dealing withthe eighteenth century. Prominent among those voyages were the expeditionsof Alessandro Malaspina, an Italian sailing for Spain, in 1789—94. In 1989, spurredby the bicentenary of Malaspina's expedition, authors of seventeen publicationsexamined its various aspects. Much of the impetus behind Malaspina's voyagewas scientific—to study and illustrate the flora and fauna encountered in diverseregions. The expedition's sojourn on the northwest coast of North America hadan important geopolitical focus as well, to pursue Spain's interests from SanFrancisco to the Aleutian Islands against rival English and Russian claimants.Unfortunately, the expedition began in the same year that Bourbon Franceerupted in revolution and returned to find Spain involved in war against therevolutionary French regime. The subsequent chaos in Spain's administrationensured that the lengthy documentation and exquisite illustrations generated bythe Malaspina expedition were largely forgotten. Thanks to the bicentenary,they have finally come to light.

The nineteenth century began disastrously for Spain and its navy. After a briefflirtation with the anti-French coalition in 1792—95, Spain returned to alliancewith France and was drawn into the Napoleonic wars that followed. Althoughindividual ships and crews performed well, the Spanish fleet as a whole wasill-prepared to face Britain and its allies. The Spanish Navy was effectivelydestroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, an engagement that featured intwelve of the one hundred seventy-two books and articles about the nineteenthcentury.

Worse was yet to come, as Napoleon sent his armies into Spain, bamboozledthe Bourbon king Charles IV into abdicating in his favor, and then appointedhis brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. With the Bourbon royal familyin exile in France, and no effective central leadership against the Bonapartes, thepeople of Spain organized their own government from the bottom up andlaunched a crusade to oust the French invaders. Unaided, they dealt Napoleon'sarmies their first defeat, and thus attracted the help of the British-led coalition.As the war proceeded, and Joseph Bonaparte tried to govern in Madrid, Spanishpatriots met in Cadiz in the name of the exiled Bourbons and wrote aconstitution to govern the country after Bourbon rule was restored. Eventuallythe allies defeated Napoleon's forces in Spain and throughout the rest of Europe.

Spain's struggle for and against the French during the revolutionary epochresulted in catastrophe, not only for the Navy at Trafalgar, but for the internaleconomy and the American empire as well. No sooner had the Bourbonmonarchy been restored under Ferdinand VII than Spain's American colonies,one after another, declared their independence, after over three centuries ofcolonial rule. Virtually without a navy, and with the government still in disarray,Spain lost most of its American empire by 1824. The large viceroyalties that hadgoverned nearly fifteen million people in the late eighteenth century were splitinto sixteen republics that undertook the difficult task of governing themselves.

Most of the twenty-nine publications dealing with the Americas in thenineteenth century concern one aspect or another of the colonial wars ofindependence. Not surprisingly, most of the officer corps in the navies formedby the new American republics had begun their careers in Spanish service. Withtheir loss, the Spanish faced yet another obstacle to rebuilding after theNapoleonic era.

Within Spain, government ministers formulated a variety of plans to restorethe Navy, but they proved largely ineffectual during the first half of thenineteenth century. With most of the empire gone, the Navy could not claimto be a top priority any longer, and the government of Ferdinand VII lacked thewill and the resources to accomplish much. Civil War erupted after Ferdinand'sdeath in 1833, between supporters of a continued constitutional monarchy andthose who favored a return to absolutism and a tight alliance between the crownand the Catholic Church. The triumph of the constitutionalists in 1839 led to

SPANISH NAVAL AND MARITIME HISTORYFREQUENCY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY TOPICS

COMMERCE I

CATALONIA

SHIPS &SHIPBUILDING

ASIAAMERICAS

BIOGRAPHIES

POLITICS &ORGANIZATION

NAVAL BATTLES

|                                            |                           |    |                                 |     |     |  |  |  |  |
|--------------------------------------------|---------------------------|----|---------------------------------|-----|-----|--|--|--|--|
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0 5 10        15       20       25       30       35       40       45       50       55

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 172, MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THANONE TOPIC. THE BAR CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

FREQUENCY OF TWENTIETH CENTURY TOPICS

AMERICAS

UNITES STATES

CATALONIA

COMMERCE

NAVAL EDUCATION

EUROPE

SHIPS &SHIPBUILDING

POLITICS &ORGANIZATION

SPANISH CIVIL WAR

| 1 | 2  |    |     |  |  |  |     |     | 61                  |
|---|----|----|-----|--|--|--|-----|-----|---------------------|
|   |    | 45 |
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|   | 9  |
|   |    |    |
|   |    | 11 |
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|   |    | 16 |
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10

20

30

40

50

60

70

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS IS 128. MANY OF WHICH DEALT WITH MORE THANONE TOPIC. THE BAR CHART REPRESENTS ONLY THE MOST FREQUENT THEMES.

several decades of fairly stable government, though elections were largelyirrelevant to the process. Through largely bloodless military coups, the right andleft wings of the constitutionalists succeeded one another as advisers to QueenIsabel II.

Naval reform began in earnest in 1847—51, with the administration of theMarques de Molina. His plans were aided by the quickening pace of the Spanisheconomy, which was increasing in population and agricultural output, as wellas gradually industrializing. Encouraged by this growth and by the recovery ofthe navy, the Spanish government engaged in several naval expeditions aroundthe globe in the 1850s and 1860s. Spanish fleets traveled to Morocco and toCochin China (Vietnam), they engaged in a brief unsuccessful naval war againstthree South American republics, and they embarked on a joint expedition withthe French to Mexico in the early 1860s, while the United States was embroiledin Civil War. Scholars have examined these activities in print, even thoughnineteenth-century events pale in comparison with Spanish global voyaging inprevious centuries.

A dozen publications about the nineteenth century dealt with naval architec-ture, centered around the shift from the age of sail to the age of steam. From thefirst steamship in 1817 through the rest of the century, designers worked withnew materials and new specifications, as the naval administration tried to remedya shortage of engineers and machinists needed to crew the new ships. Chronicgovernmental disarray during the late nineteenth century hindered the work ofnaval reformers and architects, however. Isabel II had been forced into exile in1868 by a military conspiracy, and for the next several years a succession ofmonarchist and republican governments attempted unsuccessfully to consolidatetheir rule. The period of experimentation ended in 1875 with the restoration ofthe Bourbons in the person of Alfonso XII, Isabel's eldest son.

Although several capable ministers formulated plans for a large-scale programof naval construction in the 1870s and 1880s, political in-fighting within thegovernment nullified their efforts. A plan proposed in 1887 had better success,although its original aims had to be scaled back to match the financial and politicalrealities of the times. In the last decade of the nineteenth century, increasingstrife caused by clashes between government forces and increasingly militantlabor organizations created a high degree of tension within the Spanish state. Inthat atmosphere, a major naval construction program was simply not feasible,although some ships were built for both the Navy and for the merchant marine.The merchant fleet was owned by several large private companies, including theTransatlantic Company founded in 1850. Together these companies played amajor role in maintaining commercial ties between Spain and the remnants ofits overseas empire in the nineteenth century. The centenary of the TransatlanticCompany in 1950 resulted in several articles analyzing its organization, successes,and failures over the long term.

Spain managed to hold on to Cuba and Puerto Rico with great effort duringthe early decades of the nineteenth century and also retain the Philippines. In1898 those colonies rebelled, providing a pretext for the United States tointervene. The ensuing Spanish-American War found the Spanish Navy un-prepared. Major defeats at Santiago Bay in Cuba and Cavite in the Philippinesled to Spain's being stripped of its remaining colonies. Publications about Cuba,Puerto Rico, and the Philippines in the nineteenth century focus on that war,its antecedents, its battles, and its aftermath. The war itself generated thirty-ninepublications in my survey, most of them analyzing the reasons for Spain's defeat.

The national anguish at Spain's final loss of empire in 1898 spawned ageneration of novelists, poets, and essayists who explored the national psyche ina passionate outpouring of self-criticism and a quest for renewal. This so-called"Generation of'98" had its governmental counterparts, as well, in civil servantsand in the person of King Alfonso XIII. During the first decade of the newcentury the Navy languished, widely blamed for the defeat of 1898. Spurred bythe need to supervise an unstable situation in Morocco, however, and by theincreasing sophistication of Europe's premier navies in England and Germany,the Spanish government adopted a far-reaching plan of naval reform in 1908.Enthusiastically supported by Alfonso XIII, naval reform made considerableprogress, especially as Spain arrived at a modern level of industrialization andmanaged to stay out of World War I.

During the nineteenth century, Army officers had often intervened in politics,protraying themselves as the guarantors of the liberal constitutional monarchy.Bloodless takeovers by one faction of the Army or another had shifted theemphasis of the government on a half dozen or more occasions. Against therising tide of left-wing demands for worker representation in the late nineteenthcentury, the Army seemed to see itself as the preserver of stability against thefractious divisions of civilian politicians. The Navy largely absented itself fromthese confrontations, concentrating on its own priorities.

The Spanish armed services as a whole underwent significant professionaliza-tion in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the Army inparticular became more conservative. When the Army intervened once againin politics in 1922, General Miguel Primo de Rivera took power for himself,with the acquiescence of King Alfonso XIII, rather than working through civilianpoliticians. He used his dictatorial powers to bolster the economy and to coercethe political left and right into cooperating with his national program, modeledon the corporate fascism of Mussolini's Italy.

The Navy concentrated on rebuilding its strength and modernizing thestructure and training of its officers, following the initiative launched in 1908,with an additional program of naval construction in 1915. The Navy recoveredmuch of its prestige in military culture, attracting a higher class of officers andstaying apart from political concerns. Publications about the early twentieth

342    Spain

century focus on naval education, naval architecture, shipbuilding, and themerchant marine. Very few publications even allude to the Army's takeover ofthe government under Primo de Rivera.

The king withdrew his support from Primo in 1930, but Primo's dictatorshiphad discredited the monarchy and civilian politicians as well as the Army. In1931 municipal elections favored republican candidates so strongly that AlfonsoXIII abandoned the field and went into exile. Civilian politicians, largely on theleft of the political spectrum, organized the Second Republic, wrote a newconstitution, and tried to consolidate a stable government. Instead, they managedto alienate a broad range of opinion from center to right, as well as irritating theleft by cautious approaches to social and economic reform. The republicdescended into chaos as rebellions of the left and of the right brought down asuccession of governments between 1932 and 1936.

Street violence by both extremes of the political spectrum inspired factionsof the Army to launch a major coup in July of 1936. Rather than submit, theelected Republican government determined to fight back, arming civilianmilitias. The Civil War that ensued in 1936—39 would convulse Spain andengage the rest of Europe in an ongoing debate about the merits of intervention.Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy openly aided the Army's rebellion. TheSoviet Union and Mexico openly aided the Republic. Everyone else watchedas Spain tore itself apart.

The Spanish naval high command generally backed the Army's insurgency,though many ordinary sailors tried to rally to the Republic's defense. Sailors atthe southeastern naval base in Cartagena mutinied, murdered many officers, andcommandeered dozens of ships, which became the navy of the Republic. Theythen steamed for the Strait of Gibraltar to prevent the Army's insurgents fromferrying troops from Morocco. The uprising would have failed before it began,had it not been for the airborne support of Germany and Italy. Naval matters inthe Spanish Civil War emerge in the historiography as the most compellingtopics among all twentieth-century themes. Whether authors deal with in-dividual ships and their commanders, with actions at sea, or with other themes,the Civil War accounts for nearly half of the one hundred twenty-eightpublications about the twentieth century.

From this brief survey it is clear that Spanish naval and maritime history hasfollowed the agenda established by Spanish history in general, rather thandefining a set of topics from within. Some of the topical distribution ofpublications is predictable and logical. Exploration and matters related to Spain'soverseas empire loom large in publications about the several centuries whereinthe empire flourished; then they fade precipitously. Other topics, despite theircontinuing importance and a wealth of documentation, ebb and flow asappendages to other concerns. For example, the history of ship design is onlysporadically considered in the published literature, surfacing in periods or around

Phillips    343

events that are judged important for other reasons. Sixteenth century ship designis fairly well known because the sixteenth century defined the peak of Spanishpower in Europe and abroad. Seventeenth century ship design has beenneglected because Spain's loss of hegemony has attracted less attention.

Although I have not examined naval and maritime historiography systemati-cally for other countries, I suspect that the pattern I have found for Spain istypical. To a certain extent, naval and maritime themes cannot and should notbe considered separately from their broader historical contexts. The history ofthe sea, broadly conceived, is of necessity also the history of the land and canbest be understood as part of a larger whole. Yet naval and maritime history alsoneeds to have definitions of its own and priorities for research independent ofgeneral history. How can we establish valid comparisons among nations if thepublished work about a given period is abundant for the dominant country andsparse for the rest? Without such comparisons, it is difficult to see how naval andmaritime history can progress beyond the narrow and often nationalistic con-cerns that have defined it in the past.

:9

Sweden

Jan Glete

By strong tradition, Swedish naval and maritime history is divided into whatthe two words imply: the history of the Swedish Navy and the history ofthe Swedish maritime community: maritime trade, seafaring, shipowning,shipbuilding, and fishing. This tradition is to a considerable extent based on therealities of naval and maritime history itself. The Swedish Navy has had, overthe centuries, fewer connections with general maritime life than many othernavies. The Navy has been closely associated with the expansion, defence, anddecline of Sweden's Baltic empire and, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,with Swedish anti-invasion planning and coastal defence. Trade warfare has beenof less importance and the connections between naval seamen and mercantilesailors weaker than in most navies.

The bulk of our present stock of written Swedish naval history was publishedfrom the late nineteenth century up to the 1940s. The last major work of thistype was a five-volume study of the Navy's central administration, written partlyby academic historians and published between 1950 and 1983. Most of it wasproduced by sea officers or others connected with the Navy. Few of these workswere official history, but much of the research was sponsored by the Navy. Totheir credit, some of these naval historians, even in the late nineteenth century,put great emphasis on naval administration, personnel and finance, rather thanconcentrating on naval operations, as most naval historians in other countriesdid in this period. There was no strong "Mahanian" or "blue water" school inSwedish naval historiography. Most authors stressed the interdependence be-tween naval and land warfare in the Baltic area rather than the independentimportance of sea power. There was, however, a certain bias in favor of thebattle fleet compared to the archipelago fleet. This had much to do with theintense nineteenth century political debate about Swedish naval doctrine: a navyfor the open sea or only for the archipelagoes? The debate about the role of theNavy in twentieth century strategic planning also influenced the naval historians.As long as most sea officers wished to have ships with heavy guns and armor,naval historians often tried to derive lessons from the past which showed theimportance of big ships with heavy guns.

These studies are still useful, but, as they are fifty to one hundred years old,inevitably much of the research is now dated. Today, the descendants of Navy-sponsored historical research are found in the activities of the Military HistoryDepartment at the Swedish Staff and War College of the Armed Forces(Militarhogskolan or MHS) in Stockholm. In recent decades, the naval side of thisactivity has been very limited and concentrated on the twentieth century. Theschool also favors integrated studies which cover the armed forces as a whole, andmuch twentieth century Swedish naval history is to be found in studies of defensepolicy as a whole. The possibly last major research project about older historysponsored by MHS is a multi-volume work about Sweden's wars in the Baltic areafrom 1655 to 1660. It is perhaps typical of the present lack of interest in Sweden inwriting operational naval history that the volume about sea warfare in this periodwas entrusted to a Danish historian, Finn Askgaard.

Historical research about the armed forces is also to some extent government-spon-sored through the Delegation for Military Historical Research (Delegationen formilitarhistorisk forskning). This organization gives at least partial financial support toseveral research projects; it supports conferences and it distributes grants for the printingofbooks. However, it has no coordinating responsibility for military and naval history.

Academic interest in naval history has been limited, although rather more hasbeen written about defense policy and wars, where the Navy is treated usuallyas a junior partner to the Swedish Army. A pioneering study in its day 'was thedoctoral dissertation of Oscar Nikula in 1933. The author, a Swedish-speakingFinnish historian, wrote about the large Swedish eighteenth century archipelagofleet. More recent studies are about the Navy during the Second World War byAke Holmquist, the debate about future coast defence armoured ships beforeWorld War I by Anders Sandstrom, and the interplay between politicians andsea officers as experts in the debate about the structure of the Navy from 1918to 1939 by Anders Berge. Within a project about military professionalization,the present author has undertaken a study of the change of Swedish naval

ft 7

doctrine during the nineteenth century,   while Lars Nilehn  wrote about theearly development of the Swedish Naval Staff College.

Finn Askgaard, Kampen om ostersjbn pa Carl X Gustafs tld: Ett bidrag till nordisk sjokrighistoria (Stockholm:Militarhistoriska fbrlaget, 1974).

Oscar Nikula, Svenska skargardsflottan 1156-1191 (Helsingfors: Samfundet Ehrensvard Seura, 1933).

3 Ake Holmquist, Flottans beredskap 1938-1940 (Stockholm: Allmanna Forlaget, 1972).

4 Anders Sandstrom, Pansarfartyg at Sverigesjlotta: En studie omjlottan och striden om F-baten 1906-1909,(Stockholm: Sjohistoriska museet, 1984).

Anders Berge, Sakkunskap ochpolitisk rationalitet: Den svenska jlottan och pansarfartygsfragan 1918—1939(Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1987).

Jan Glete, Kustjbrsuar och teknisk omuandling: Teknik, doktriner och organisation inom svenskt kustforsuar1850-1880 (Stockholm: Militarhistoriska Forlaget, 1985).

Lars Nilehn, Vagen till erkannande: Militar professionalisering och tillkomsten av en svensk sjokrigshogskola(Stockholm: Militarhistoriska Forlaget, 1986).

Older periods of naval history are still being investigated, although withlimited resources. The present author has made a study of Swedish sixteenthcentury warships and their connections to naval policy and the developingtechnology. Nils-Ake Villstrand, a Finnish historian, has made a minor, butimportant, study of the Navy's recruitment of sailors during the seventeenthcentury. I have also written the naval chapter in a recent study of theSwedish-Russian war of 1788—1790, one of the few studies about older historyrecently undertaken by the Military History Department. Furthermore, theKarlskronavarvet Company, formerly the main naval dockyard, is sponsoring atwo—volume study about its history from 1680 to the present day (1993). Thiswork is being undertaken by several historians and it concentrates on the relationsbetween the yard and the maintenance of the Navy.

The author of this essay has also published his research in international navalhistory. The intent is to analyze naval shipbuilding and its long-term develop-ment as part of the state-building process from the sixteenth to the nineteenth

1 o

century; it was published in a two-volume work in 1993.

Except for some very elementary education given to future sea officers, navalhistory is not taught in Sweden. Officers taking courses at MHS, the StaffCollege, may study naval history as a special subject and prepare papers onhistorical subjects, but there are no regular courses. No university teaches navalhistory as a special subject.

The interest among sea officers about naval history is not dead, and the historyof naval technology provokes public interest. In recent years a naval engineer,Curt Borgenstam, has edited, together with several co-authors, illustrated booksabout Swedish twentieth century warships. Captain Bertil Ahlund has pub-lished two studies about Swedish naval policy from the late nineteenth centuryto the Second World War. Part of this research has been sponsored by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Naval Science (Kungliga Orlogsmannasallskapet),

Jan Glete, "Svenska orlogsfartyg 1521-1560: Flottans upbyggnad under ett tekniskt brytningsskede,"Forum Navale, 30 (1976), pp. 5-74; 31 (1977), pp. 23-119.

Nils-Erik Villstrand, "Manskap och sjofolk inom den svenska orlogsflottan 1617-1644," HistoriskTidskrift for Finland, 1 (1986).

Jan Glete, "Kriget till sjoss 1788-1790," in Gunnar Arteus, ed., Gustav libs ryska krig (Stockholm:Probus, 1992).

Erik Norberg, ed., Karlskronavarevts historia, 2 vols. (Karlskrona: Karlskronavarvet AB, 1993).

Jan Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies and State Building in Europe and America, 1500-1860,2 vols. (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1993).

Curt Borgenstam &c Bo Nyman, Motortorpedbat: En Kronika i ord och hild om "Havetsjlygande brigad,"(Mjolby: BM-fbrlaget, 1981), Curt Borgenstam & Bo Nyman, Attack till sjoss: Med svenska flottanstorpedbatar i 100 ar (Karlskrona: CB Marinlitteratur, 1985), Curt Borgenstam et al., Jagare: Med svenskaflottans jagare under 60 ar (Vastra Frolunda: CB Marinlitteratur, 1989).

Bertil Ahlund, Fran vanmakt till sjbmakt: Oscariansk sjofdrsvarspolitik 1812-1905 (Karlskrona: Kungligaorlogsmannasallskapet, 1989), Bertil Ahlund, Svensk maritim sakerhetspolitik 1905-1939 (Karlskrona:Marinlitteraturforeningen, 1992).

an organization of sea officers founded in 1771, which recently has tried to raiseinterest in the naval aspects of the history of the Baltic area. The sweepingpolitical changes in this area from 1989 onward has, to some extent, increasedthe public interest in Baltic history.

Maritime history, as such, is hardly a coherent tradition in Sweden. There isconsiderable study of economic history with maritime connections: maritimetrade, the development of the mercantile marine and shipbuilding. Amongrecent works, one may mention Steffan Hogberg's study of the eighteenthcentury Swedish maritime trade, the same author's biography of the twentiethcentury shipowner Axel Ax:son Johnson (1990) and Ake Sandstrom's study ofStockholm's maritime trade during the first half of the seventeenth century.Swedish—Dutch maritime trade in the eighteenth century has been treated witheconometric methods by J. Thomas Lindblad, a Swedish historian working inthe Netherlands. Nineteenth century Swedish shipbuilding has been studiedfrom an economic perspective by Sven A. Bjorkenstam.

The late nineteenth and twentieth century Swedish shipbuilding industry, itscompanies, economic conditions, subcontractors and trade unions, has been thesubject of several studies. Jan Kuuse, Kent Olsson, Bo Strath and TommySvensson, and Jan Bohlin have given a comprehensive survey of this industry,which from its heyday up to the 1970s, was one of the largest producers of

Of)

mercantile shipping in the world. These studies put a strong emphasis on thelabor market conditions in the industry. Bo Strath has also undertaken acomparative study of the decline of the European shipbuilding industry in recentdecades.

Apart from studies written by academic historians, Sweden also has a fairamount of writers producing popular books about ships and shipping, especially

Staffen Hoberg, Utrikeshandel och sjofartpa 1700-talet: Stapelvaror i svensk export och import 1738—1808(Stockholm: Bonniers, 1969).

Staffan Hoberg, Generalkonsuln: Axel Ax: son Johnson somfbretagare (Stockholm: Norstedts, 1990).

Ake Sandstrom, Mellan Tomea och Amsterdam: En undersokning av Stockholms roll somfbrmedlare av uarori regional - och utrikeshandel 1600-1650. Stockholmsmonografier, vol. 102   (Stockholm: StockholmsUniversitet, 1990).18 J. Thomas Lindblad, Sweden's Trade with the Dutch Republic, 1138-1195 (Assen: 1982).

Sven A. Bjorkenstam, Svenskt skeppshyggeri under 1800-talet: Marknad och produktion (Goteborg:Ekonomisk-historiska institutionen vid Goteborgs universitet, 1989).

Kent Olsson, Fran pansarbatsvarv till tankfartygsvarv: De svenska storvarvens utueckling till exportindustri1880-1936, (Goteborg: Svenska Varv AB, 1983); Thommy Svensson, Fran ackord till m&nadslbn: Enstudie av lonepolitiken, fackforeningama och rationaliseringama inom svensk varvsindustri under 1900-talet(Goteborg: Svenska Varv AB, 1983); Bo StrSth, Varvsarbetare i TV A varvsstader: En historisk studie avverkstadsklubbama vid varven i Goteborg och Malmo (Goteborg: Svenska Varv AB, 1983); Jan Kuuse, Varvenoch underleverantorema: Forandringar ifartygsbyggandets industriella lankeffekter (Kungalv: Svenska Varv AB,1983); Jan Bohlin, Svensk varvsindustri 1920-1915: Lbnsamhet, finansiering och arbetsmarknad (Goteborg,Ekonomisk-historiska institutionen vid Goteborgs universitet, 1989).

Bo Strath, The Politics of Deindustrialisation: The Contraction of the west European Shipbuilding Industry(London: Croom Helm, 1987).

sailing merchantmen and early steamers. Several such studies have the characterof local history, covering a certain area of the long Swedish coast. There are fewmonographs about Swedish shipping companies, but, the one hundred-yearjubilee of the Johnson shipping group in 1990 produced two books of thischaracter, one about the ships and one about the company.

Maritime history as a special subject is not taught at Swedish universities orother institutions. This is not to be taken as a total lack of interest in maritimequestions, but "maritime" is not identified as a coherent historical subject. It israther divided into various economic and social subjects which have asserted astronger position in the Swedish academic world.

History is, however, not the only academic discipline involved in the studyof the naval and maritime past. In Scandinavia, archaeology and ethnology havestrong traditions in these spheres of interest and, through the museums, primarilythe Swedish National Maritime Museum (Statens Sjohistorika Museer), Stock-holm, these disciplines have a considerable institutional base. In 1956, under-water archaeology was much stimulated by the discovery of the Wasa (1628).Through its salvage and restoration, Swedish archaeologists developed consid-erable skill in this special field. Since the 1980s, the Sjohistoriska Museer hascooperated with the Department of Archaeology at Stockholm University in aresearch and education program in nautical archaeology. This program, whichincludes education up to the Ph.D. level, is led by Carl Olof Cederlund, whowrote his dissertation about carvel-built wrecks known to exist in the BalticSea. Two other major archaeological studies—based on interpretations ratherthan excavations are those of Sibylla Haasum and Bjorn Varenius. Bothconcentrate upon the Viking period, about 1,000 years ago.

The raising and excavation of Wasa offered a unique opportunity to studythe sculptural ornamentation of a large seventeenth century warship. Hans Sooptook advantage of this opportunity and wrote a major study of these sculpturesas his dissertation in the History of Arts. Bjorn Landstrom, the internationallywell-known maritime artist has given his analysis of the design and construction

9A

of Wasa in a book with his usual high-quality illustrations.

Maritime ethnology is an important subject in all of Scandinavia, coveringboth the near past of maritime history and long traditions in ship— and boat-

Soren Larsson & Jaak Saving, Nordstjeman: The Inside Story, 1890-1990 (Stockholm: Norstedts,1990), Torsten Rinman, The Johnson Line, 1890-1990 (Goteborg: Rinman & Linden, 1990).

Carl-Olof Cederlund, The Old Wrecks of the Baltic Sea: Archaeological recording of the wrecks of carvel-builtships. BAR Internaitonal Series, no 186 (Oxford, 1983).

Sibylla Haasum, Vikingatidens segling och navigation (Stockholm: Theses and papers in North EuropeanArchaeology, 1974), Bjorn Varenius, Det nordiska skeppet: Teknologi och samhallsstrategi i vikingatid ochmedeltid Stockholm Studies in Archaeology, 10 (Stockholm: Stockholm Universitet, 1992).

Hans Soop, The Power and the Glory: The Sculptures of the Warship Wasa (Stockholm: Almqvist &Wiksell International, 1986).

Bjorn Landstrom, The Royal Warship Wasa (Stockholm: Interpublishing, 1988).

building. Olof Hasslof, an internationally known Swedish ethnologist, did muchto develop this tradition. In recent years, doctoral dissertations and other majorstudies, covering a wide range of subjects, have been produced: deep sea sailors(Knut Weibust, 1969), a coastal area in change 1800—1970 (Orvar Lofgren,1977), fishing (Lars Skotte, 1981), nineteenth century countryside shipowners(Kerstin G:son Berg, 1984), harbor workers in Gothenburg and a shipyard.The Sjohistoriska Museet has a department for ethnological studies, and researchreports are published regularly. In spite of this considerable research activity,maritime ethnology is nowhere taught as a special subject and the theories andmethods used are the same as in ethnology in general.

As we have seen, with the exception of archaeology and a limited amount ofstaff college teaching, there is no regular teaching of naval and maritime historyin Sweden. Maritime history is a part of history, economic history, ethnology,and archaeology, and methods and theories common to these academic dis-ciplines are used. Naval history is part of political history, archaeology, and (toa very limited extent) the training of officers. Books about naval and maritimehistory are read in courses of more general subjects, such as trade and defencepolicy. Scholars with naval and maritime interests are conducting research intotheir subjects with the expectation that they will be evaluated in comparisonwith studies of entirely different subjects.

The result is that such studies often are well connected with Swedish historyin general. The intellectual trends are the same as in the historical disciplines ingeneral. On the other hand the naval and maritime studies are little connectedwith each other or with international debate in the same field. Naval history isnot used in debates about defence policy, nor is it possible today to detect anysystematic bias due to contemporary debate in naval historiography. Althoughideology and political issues have for a long time been more or less dead in thisfield of research, an exception is developing: in the 1980s and early 1990s severalincidents, or supposed incidents, where foreign submarines were reported inSwedish territorial waters, became major foreign policy problems and are nowevolving into a controversial, historical debate.

There is no organization that holds responsibility for coordinating naval andmaritime history on an academic level. The Statens Sjohistoriska museer hasconsiderable activity in ethnology and archaeology—in the latter subject incooperation with Stockholm University—but it undertakes no comparableresearch activity in history. This museum also has the largest collections of books

27 Knut Weibust, Deep Sea Sailors: A Study in Maritime Ethnology (Stockholm: Nordiska museet, 1969),Orvar Lofgren, Fangstman i industrisamhallet: en hallandsk kustbygds omvandling 1800-1970 (Lund: Liber,1977), Lars Skotte, Slutfiskat (Stockholm: Akademilitteratur, 1981), Kerstin G:son Berg, Redare iRoslagen: Segelfartygsrederier och deras verksamhet igamla Vato socken (Stockholm: Nordiska museet, 1984),Anders Bjorklund, Hamens arbetare: En etnologisk undersbkning av stuveriarbetet i Goteborg (Stockholm:Nordiska museet, 1984), Magnus Wikdahl, Varvets tid: Arbetarliv och kulturellfdrandring i en skeppsbyggarstad(Stockholm: Gidlund, 1992).

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and journals in naval and maritime history, and it has published bibliographiescovering Swedish literature. The lack of coordination may have drawbacks, butfrom a qualitative point of view, it is an advantage that historians interested innaval and maritime subjects regard themselves primarily as historians and avoidisolation into a special group. There is no Swedish journal of maritime history.The yearbooks of the naval and maritime museums in Stockholm, Karlskrona,and Gothenburg publish historical articles as does Forum Navale, the yearlypublication of The Society for Sea History (Sjohistoriska Samfundet). The latterwas founded in 1939 and, over the years, has published several important papersin naval and maritime history, but it has no resources for undertaking researchof its own.

Finally, which periods and subjects are well covered and which require furtherresearch? Sweden has a long naval and maritime tradition with vast archivalsources and a large amount of surviving artifacts above and under water. Therather small population makes it difficult to cover all these potential fields ofresearch. In naval history, the old historiography remains as a foundationcovering all periods and aspects, but most of this research is ripe for reinterpreta-tions and expansion. Recruitment and training of sailors, the development ofthe corps of sea officers, the social conditions in the Navy, the connectionsbetween policy and administration and naval technology are especially temptingfields for more research for d//periods. The same applies to the economic historyof the Navy: finance, the supply of timber, iron, sails and hemp, the dockyardactivities. Operational history up to about 1650, the period of Swedish expansionin the Baltic, has also been neglected. This was an era of many naval opera-tions—-blockades, amphibious operations, logistic support of the army—but fewbattles, and it attracted little attention from traditional naval historiography,which puts its emphasis on battle fleet operations.

The state of Swedish maritime history displays a more scattered picture.Shipping and maritime trade have been most extensively treated for theeighteenth century, while other periods are rather neglected compared to otherfields of economic history. The modern Swedish shipbuilding industry is wellcovered, while shipbuilding as an economic phenomenon before the latenineteenth century is much neglected. Social conditions for Swedish seamenbefore the period studied by ethnologists are almost forgotten, especially com-pared to the considerable interest shown to workers in the shipbuilding industryand to harbor workers.

Swedish naval and maritime history is not neglected compared to other fieldsof Swedish history, but naval history has, from an academic point of view, beena small part of a field of research where the Army has dominated. Most of theliterature about warfare and the armed forces are dominated by the studies onthe Swedish Army, which was so important during the period 1560—1721. Thetechnical questions are often important in naval history, but such questions have

352     Sweden

seldom been tempting fields of research for academic historians. This may be afurther reason for a comparative neglect of naval history. Maritime history is,like most modem economic and social history dominated by quantifications—afully justified emphasis considering that Sweden generally has a good supply ofquantitative sources. The drawback from a maritime point of view is thathistorians seldom attempt to put maritime life in the centre of research. For morerecent periods, ethnological research fills this gap, but older periods are simplyneglected. Looking upon the problem from a more positive view, we mayconclude that naval and maritime history belongs to the underexplored andpromising fields of future research for Swedish historians.

30Chinese Maritime History in Taiwan

Vice Admiral Liu Ta-tsai, ROCN, Retired

andWang Chia-chien

China is a country with an exceptional history and ancient origins. TheYellow River area was its birthplace. It was over five thousand years agothat the Chinese people established civilization—one based primarily on agricul-ture. The Loess plateau region symbolizes this traditional and ancient Chineseculture.

For thousands of years, Chinese culture valued agriculture more than com-merce. As an agricultural society, it was inclined to be conservative andisolationist; the Chinese people are accustomed to staying where they are andhave a strong affinity for the land. Thus, the development of Chinese culturehas been land-oriented, nearly to the exclusion of seafaring development.

Just the same, China is located on the western shore of the Pacific Ocean; ithas a vast territory, abundant resources, a warm climate and a long and windingcoastline. Thus, it commands a superior position for development of sea power.History also shows that there has been a relationship between the Chinese peopleand the ocean, albeit limited, for more than three thousand years.

Even in medieval times, China was renowned for its shipbuilding andnavigation techniques, which were actually far more advanced than Westerncountries for that period. During that time, China's maritime trade expandedsignificantly, and relations with foreign countries were very close. However,after seven naval expeditions by Zheng He in the fifteenth century, China'smaritime activities were suspended. Why China did not become a maritimesuper power continues to puzzle Western historians of maritime affairs.

Given China's extensive history, many maritime activities of the ancientChinese people have been recorded. Modern Chinese history reflects the fact

Vice Admiral Liu Ta-tsai is currently Senior Research Fellow at the Society for Strategic Studies,Taipei; Professor Wang Chia-chien is with the Department of History at the National Taiwan NormalUniversity.

The editor is grateful to Professor Arthur Waldron for his assistance with some of the footnotes tothis essay.

Geoffrey Till, Maritime Strategy and the Nuclear Age (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982), p. 4.

that China's maritime development is closely tied to the rise and decline of thevarious dynasties that have ruled the country.

The records of Chinese maritime history support study in a variety of topics,such as the development of shipbuilding and nautical technology, oceantransportation, maritime trade, maritime expeditions, and overseas emigrationand exploitation, to name a few. Hence, there is a broad base of Chinesemaritime history for scholars to explore. Chinese historians, including scholarsfrom both sides of the Taiwan Straits, have undertaken detailed research, andfruitful results have already been obtained.

The television program, "River Elegy," shown in mainland China in 1988,had a great impact on the minds of Chinese people, both at home and abroad.This program provided them an opportunity to ponder and explore the historycreated by the Chinese continental and maritime culture. The broadcast literallycaused a sensation throughout the Chinese mainland. When the book was finallypublished in Taiwan, it was the best selling book there for nearly a year.

River Elegy was written by a group of scholars in mainland China, and describestheir meditations over the maritime history of China. Their motive was to arousethe maritime consciousness of the Chinese society, while calling for the Chinesepeople to face and march toward the vast, blue ocean.

China's Maritime Civilization

As noted earlier, China is not only a continental nation, but it is also boundto the sea. Early in the "Emperor Huang Di" period, the maritime industry ofbuilding wooden boats had already evolved in China. In the "Spring andAutumn" and the "Warring State" periods (771—221 B.C.), feudal states alongthe coast of the continent were constantly bickering or making war upon eachother, employing their individual boat forces to do so. However, influenced bythe vastness of the land, and feudal tendencies of kings with their wild ambitionfor annexing territory, the focus of interest remained continental.

Over the last several thousand years, foreign aggression toward China oftencame overland, from the north. The Great Wall, one of the great architecturalfeats in world history, was originally designed and built to protect againstthese northern invaders. It is correct to say that the Great Wall symbolizesancient China's powerful and prosperous strength. However, the perceptionof China as a landlocked culture is reinforced by the Wall and has emphasized

Su Hsiao-k'ang and Wang Lu-hsiang, He shang (Taipei: Feng-yiin, Shih-tai, Chin-feng ch'u-pangong-ssu lien-he ch'u-pan, 1988). Su-Hsiao-k'ang and Wang Lu-hsiang, Deathsong of the River: AReader's Guide to the Chinese TV series Heshang. Introduced and annotated by Richard W. Bodman andPin P. Wan (Ithaca, N.Y.: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1991).

4 Ts'ao Pao-chien and Kuo Fu-wen, Meditation in Face of the Pacific Ocean—A Revived Perception of theOcean and National Defense (Beijing: Defense Univ. Press, 1989), p. 133.

the evolution of Chinese history, to a great degree, on purely continental issues.This has seriously undermined the understanding of China's maritime culture.

Nevertheless, ancient China's technique in shipbuilding and navigation wereextremely advanced. British scholar Joseph Needham produced a comparativeresearch of the nautical technology of ancient China and the West. In this book,he stated, "As far as many ship building and navigation theories are concerned,the West fell behind China by several centuries. With regard to operation of arudder, the West lagged behind China by four centuries and to the utilizationof the compass by about one century."

Early on, before the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.—A.D. 220), China had built a "SilkRoad" at sea, which brought economic prosperity to ancient china andpropagated the advanced Chinese culture to the West.

According to historical documentation, there were three great inventions inChina: paper, powder, and the compass. They provided a superiority inshipbuilding and navigation to the ancient Chinese navies. In the Yuan Dynasty(1279—1367), several expeditions to Southeast Asia, Java, and Japan wererecorded. Although these expeditions ultimately failed, they did prove thesuperior technology of the Chinese Navy.

In the Ming Dynasty (1368—1644), China's greatest navigator, Zheng He,conducted seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean. They were the most brilliantachievements in the maritime history of China. However, after Zheng died, theMing government imposed restrictions on maritime navigation. Thereafter,

Q

China's leadership in the world of maritime affairs suffered a disastrous decline.

China's Maritime History

As previously noted, nautical technology in ancient China was welldeveloped, allowing China to become one of the earliest ancient countriespossessing a naval force. The "Silk Road," predating the Han Dynasty, hasalready been mentioned. Following the Tang Dynasty (618—907), the Silk Roadon land was closed by wars. It was at that time that the maritime Silk Roadentered its golden age. With the Sung (960-1279) and Yuan (1279-1386)Dynasties, China's maritime transportation entered its most prosperous period.Maritime trade became the country's major financial source. During this period,Chinese ships nearly monopolized the entire sea lane from China to the IndianOcean. In addition to trade, China's ships greatly stimulated the communication,development, and integration of the ancient Chinese, Indian, and Arab civiliza-tions, as well as other Western and Pacific cultures.

Ibid., p. 164.

Joseph Needham, Science and Ciuilisation in China, Vol. 4: "Nautical Technology," p. 484.

Ts'ao Pau-chien and Kuo Fu-wen, Mediation, p. 132.

Chang Wei and Hsu Hua, The Rise and Fall of Sea Power (Beijing: Ocean Publishing Co., 1991), pp. 40-2.

Ts'ao Pao-chien and Kuo Fu-wen, Mediation, pp. 136-7.

China's navigation was at its zenith in the early Ming Dynasty. Sevenexpeditions and goodwill missions, led by Zheng He, to the countries along theSouth China Sea and the Indian Ocean preceded the grand discovery of worldgeography during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

For twenty-eight years, from 1405 to 1433, Zheng He led a goodwill fleetsouthward from the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and tothe farthest eastern African coast. Such an accomplishment was unprecedented.Zheng He's navigation feat preceded Christopher Columbus's discovery of theNew World by 87 years, Vasco Da Gama's transit past the Cape of Good Hopeto India by 92 years, and antedated Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation ofthe world by 114 years. He surely deserved recognition for such a greatgeographical discovery. The impact on the politics, economy and culture of thecountries along the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean of Zheng He'smissions has been clearly recorded in the histories of those regions. It was aprelude to the most glorious achievement in China's maritime history.

Since Zheng He's expedition imposed a tremendous financial burden on thegovernment, it came to be considered a flawed policy. The government of theMing Dynasty, therefore, returned the policy of isolationism and ordered thatconstruction of big ships be stopped. Even the files of Zheng He's expeditionwere burned. Large-scale overseas navigation in China ceased.

Throughout the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), pirates pillaged Chinese coastalprovinces. Resistance to the Qing Dynasty remained strong in southeastern Chinaalong the coast. The Qing Dynasty, therefore, also adopted policies prohibitingnavigation and other activities of maritime trade in order to isolate China from theoutside world. Only after the European Industrial Revolution did the influenceof the West become overwhelming, forcing China to end this policy.

In every conflict with the Western powers (the Opium War, the Sino-FrenchWar, the Sino-Japanese War, and the seizure of Beijing by the joint forces ofthe eight Western powers) China met defeat. The effect of this series of defeatswas that China became a miserable, semi-colony of the Western powers. Thisloss of Chinese sovereignty and dignity was a direct result of its lack of sea power.

Modern Maritime China

After World War II China was split into two political entities. In 1949 thegovernment of the Republic of China (ROC) moved to Taiwan, and mainland

Chang Wei and Hsu Hua, Sea, p. 41.

A British Army major, George Henry Mason, travelled to China at the end of the eighteenth century.Out of curiosity, he recorded what China looked like to him. To depict vividly the Chinese acrobaticsand dramatic costumes, he hired a Chinese painter. Additionally, Major Mason also adopted the worksof a British painter, William Alexander, who had travelled along the Grand Canal from north to south;George Henry Mason and William Alexander, Views of 18th Century China (1804 and 1805; reprintNew York: Portland House, 1988). In the eyes of those British who saw the illustrations and had noidea of this oriental country, China was a mysterious, but rather civilized country. The book has recentlybeen translated into Chinese.

China fell into the hands of the Chinese communists. The two sides adoptedand practiced two completely different maritime strategies.

Taiwan, surrounded by the sea, adopted an island-oriented economic system.Its economic development and national framework are closely related to itsmaritime environment. Taiwan's economic miracle is a maritime-orientedmodel which has enabled Taiwan to transform from a backward, agriculturalsociety to a newly developed, industrial nation.

Throughout Chinese history, Taiwan's people have been a maritime society,using the surrounding oceans to make their fortunes and accomplish greatachievements. Now, Taiwan serves as the example for mainland China to followas that country develops for the future.

The Chinese mainland, under the cloak of socialism, largely ignored theocean, becoming an introverted and isolated society in the process. Fortunately,at the beginning of the 1980s, mainland China adopted a more open policy,developing a coastal economy and working on reforms. It moved toward amarket economy and even publicly expressed the slogan: "learn economicexperience from Taiwan." After more than a decade of efforts, mainland China'seconomic reform has made substantial progress.

Currently, a trilateral "Greater Chinese Economic Ring" is taking shape.This is a great cooperative effort of Chinese people, both in the homeland andabroad. At the same time, mainland China's economic reform has accelerated.Its sea power development and naval expansion has earned the serious concernof other countries worldwide. In particular, neighboring countries in Asia andthe Pacific worry that mainland China will soon become a great maritime power.

During the current period of growth and change, many observers hope thata democratic and open China, possessing a market economy and maritimestrengths, will be a strong and rich country contributing to the stability andprosperity of the region in the twenty-first century.

Studies in Maritime History

Despite its continental tendencies, the evolution of Chinese history is closelyrelated to maritime activities. In order to foster the study of Chinese maritimehistory, the Sun Yat-sen Institute for Social Sciences and Philosophy, led by Dr.Mai Chao-cheng, has regularly gathered scholars interested in this respect toexchange viewpoints. It also holds symposia on the history of Chinese maritime

12

developments biannually to promote systematic academic researches. Thereare three main reasons for this.

First, China is a continental as well as an oceanic nation. In the past, localscholars made substantial research relevant to the former. The symposia arerecognition that the latter has not received the attention it warrants.

Academia Sinica, Proceedings, Studies in Maritime Development in Chinese History, vol. 1 (Taipei:Academia Sinica, Sun Yat-sen Institute for Social Science and Philosophy, 1984), p. 1.

Second, the boom of maritime navigation and colonialism advocated by theWestern nations since the fifteenth century brought forth changes in all civiliza-tions affected by the intersection of China with other cultures. Therefore, thescholar of traditional Chinese maritime history must realize just how far-reachingthe impact of western nations has been on Chinese culture and maritime history.

Third, the successful reclamation and cultivation of Taiwan by the Han peoplenot only sets a good example, but also reflects the historical evidence that theChinese have the capacity for oceanic exploration. The study of Taiwan's historycan contribute to an understanding of the developmental process of the Hansociety and provide a historical tracing for the burgeoning maritime society inTaiwan today.

Based upon the aforementioned reasons, the Institute has gathered a numberof domestic historians in this field to promote these research programs. So far,the number of participants has increased annually, and the quality of essays has

also become much more refined. It has, therefore, received close attention from

1 ^the academic circles, both at home and abroad.

1990 was the one hundredth anniversary of the first publication of AdmiralMahan's well-known work, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History. It was alsothe 150th anniversary of the Opium War. Therefore, 1990 was a particularlyimportant year to Chinese naval officers. When considering modern history, itbecomes apparent that the Opium War was the prelude to a series of disastersthat befell China. Therefore, in order to revive the memory of the Opium War,to review Admiral Mahan's thoughts on sea power, to recall the historical lessonslearned from past failures, and to facilitate the correct recognition of sea power,Admirals Ko Tung-hwa and Liu Ta-tsai established a Chinese Sea PowerResearch Workshop, officially titled "The 21st Century Sea Power Seminar."

The first conference, held in the Republic of China, combined local scholarswith experts from all relevant academic areas to produce research on sea power.It produced an emphatic response and received immediate attention from avariety of scholarly circles.

The second conference, held in July of 1992, stressed the review of maritimestrategy as well as a review of and consideration of the perspectives on the futuredevelopment of Chinese naval power. It, too, was characterized as a verysuccessful and fruitful academic activity by the gathered military and civilianscholars and experts. The two communities worked together to engenderexchange and to discuss current or prospective issues regarding Chinese seapower.

Ibid., vol. 4, ed. Wu Chien-hsiung, (Taipei: Academia Sinica, Sun Yat-sen Institute for SocialScience and Philosophy, 1991), pp. 1-7.

Proceedings, First Seminar on the 21st Century Sea Power, (Taipei: Naval Academic Press, 1991),pp. 1-3.

Both conferences were supported by the shipping industry and by theFoundation of the United World Chinese. Commercial Bank. This supportserves to confirm that the study of Chinese sea power has earned a broadeningand important interest.

In addition, as the Sino-Japanese War of 1894—1895 approaches its onehundredth anniversary, the local historical circle has already engaged in prepara-tions to convene an international academic seminar which will be held by theNational Taiwan Normal University. The main subjects of the seminar will bea discussion of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894—1895 and its influence on Chinesehistory as well as its historical significance and lessons learned.

It is understood that this seminar has already received many sponsors andassistance across the board. In addition, since both the People's Republic ofChina and the Republic of China in Taiwan have actively prepared for theconvention, it appears that a significant seminar may be in the offing.

Because of its diversity, Chinese maritime history offers many subjects forstudy. Among them are foreign trade, foreign relations, overseas immigrationand exploitation, and overseas Chinese societies. Developments in these areashave had an important impact on modern Chinese history. Many scholars inTaiwan have undertaken professional studies in a variety of subjects. Study effortsin mainland China may be even more extensive. A sampling of Taiwanesescholars provides the following:

In naval history, for instance, Professor Pau Tzun-peng, the former curatorof National Historical Museum, is a noted author on Chinese naval history. RearAdmiral (retired) Cheng T'ien-chieh and Captain (retired) Chao Mei-ching, areco-authors of Sino-Japanese War (1894—1895) and Li Hung-chang. Another isWang Chia-chien, professor of history at the National Taiwan Norman Univer-sity and author of the Anthology of Chinese Modern Naval History. He is also theauthor of a series of articles on Chinese naval history. Dr. Ma You-huan, aprofessor of oriental language and literature at the University of Hawaii in theUnited States has authored a series of studies regarding Chinese naval history.

In the field of maritime history, Mr. Wu Hsiang-hsiang, a formerprofessor of history at the National Taiwan University, is making manycontributions to the study of modern Chinese maritime history. ProfessorTsao Yung-he, a scholar versed in the Dutch language, enjoys a solidreputation in historical circles for his specialized study in Taiwanmaritime history and related writings. Dr. Chang Pin-tsun, a researchfellow of the Chung Shan Social Science Institute of Academia Sinica, isthe  author of a  series  of articles  concerning his  specialized study  in

Naval Academic Monthly, Proceedings, Second seminar on the 21st Century Sea Power, (Taipei:Naval Academic Monthly, 1992), pp. 1-3.

For example, Wang Chia-chien, "Li Hung-Chang and the Peiyang Navy," Chinese Studies in History,25 (1991), pp. 52-66.

360    Chinese Maritime History in Taiwan

modern maritime trade. Additionally, Chu Te-lan, an assistant researcherat the Chung Shan Social Science Institute of Academia Sinica, has authored aseries of writings relating to his specialized study in Sino-Japanese maritime trade.

Formal Naval and Maritime History Courses

There are courses regarding naval and maritime history at the Naval Com-mand and General Staff College, the Armed Forces University and the ROCNaval Academy. Additionally, courses in the history of warfare at sea are alsogiven at the War College and Naval Command and General Staff College, aswell as the Armed Forces University. Those courses include instructions inancient Chinese sea battles, studies on the Sino-Japanese War, the FalklandIslands War, and the Persian Gulf War. All lecturers for the courses are activeduty military and naval officers.

Modern Chinese history is closely related to maritime history. Although thedepartments of history in our universities have no specific maritime historycourse, "Modern Chinese History" is a required course and provides a substantialintroduction to maritime history.

Museums

The Naval Historical Museum, located on the campus of the Chinese NavalAcademy at Tso-ying harbor in southern Taiwan, is a three-story buildingdecorated with an artistic and systematic design for its collection and exhibitionof naval relics. The elaborate planning for the presentation of these artifacts ofmodern Chinese naval history are particularly conspicuous according to thestages of development. The rich and varied collections of naval relics, particularlythe huge number of historical files and records dating from the Qing Dynastyto the early days of the ROC, are of great value to historical research. Thismuseum both helps students understand Chinese naval history and facilitate theimplementation of esprit de corps.

The Tamkang University established the first domestic maritime museum inTaiwan to assist the development of marine education. Mr. Rong-fa Chang,Chairman of the Board of Trustees of Evergreen Marine Corporation, not onlycontributed to the funding of its construction but also provided equipment,books, and documents on navigation and marine engineering for exhibit. Basedon the meticulous planning and design of Dr. Tien-fu Lin, the founder andhonorary chairman of the board, construction was completed smoothly. Dr. Linis well known in this country and was engaged in the shipping business in his

Chang Pin-tsun, "Chinese Maritime Trade: The Case of Sixteenth-Century Fu-chien (Fukien)"Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1983; "The Evolution of Chinese Thought on MaritimeForeign Trade from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century," International Journal of Maritime History1(1989), pp. 51-64; "Maritime China in Historical Perspective," International Journal of Maritime History,4 (1992), pp. 239-255.

Liu and Wang     361

early years. It is particularly commendable that during the preparation stage ofthe maritime museum, Dr. Lin travelled around the world to collect variousmodels of sailing ships and combatants for its exhibits.

The Tamkang Maritime Museum is a five-story, ship-shaped building. Thefirst two floors display model ships, the third floor houses a library, and anaudio-video room for maritime science books and relics as well. The fourth flooris a bridge house exhibiting diversified navigation equipment.

The maritime museum is a non-profit organization, open to the public freeof charge in an attempt to promote maritime education. Besides welcomingvisitors, it engages in marine data collection and research and also has undertakenextensive exchanges with maritime museums around the world to gain ex-

1 8

perience and develop its academic position to a world class level.

Tamkang University, The Convergence of the Ships, (Taipei County: Tamkang University, MaritimeMuseum, 1992), p. 2.

1

The State of American Maritime History

in the 1990s

Benjamin W. Labaree

In a paper of this sort, it is best to open with a definition of its scope. By"American maritime history," I mean the teaching, writing, or exhibiting ofmatters pertaining to American maritime, but not naval, history. By "American"I mean that which pertains in some fashion to the territory, both before and afterits independence, that became the United States. I should also make clear thatthe paper considers only work being done in the United States (taught, published,or exhibited here). Under "maritime" I have included such land-based activitiesas inland waterways and seaports. These are difficult limitations at best, par-ticularly for a maritime historian. We are here, after all, to bring our disparateinterests together—naval and maritime; national and oceanic; political,economic, and social; academic, archival, and curatorial. The sea connectseverything, as Gaddis Smith has observed, and it is difficult to draw rigid lines.

Teaching

Historians are well used to taking a running start to their subject, and so "TheState of American Maritime History in the 1990s" very much depends on whathas been happening, and in this case, also what has not been happening, overthe last decade or so. We shall begin with the most difficult part of the subject:the teaching of American maritime history in the United States today. To lookat the worst of it first, the American Historical Association's Directory of HistoryDepartments shows only sixteen faculty members at American institutions whodescribe themselves as American maritime historians. We know and admire themaritime work of at least a dozen Americanists who do not describe themselvesin the field, and we can add several medieval historians or Europeanists, like TimRunyan and Tony Busch, who are also active in American maritime history.And then there are the broad-gauged navalists such as Clark Reynolds, Ken

Robert B. Townshend, ed., Directory of History Departments and Organizations in the United States andCanada, 1991-92, 17th ed. (Washington, DC: American Historical Association Institutional ServicesProgram), 1991. Of course one cannot know whether Directory information is provided by the scholarsthemselves in every instance.

Hagan, and Craig Symonds, who work both sides of our street. Further-more, not all institutions are listed in the Directory, and in the excitementof reading five hundred pages of names I probably missed a few. Yet,taking all of these matters into consideration, we must still conclude thatthere are no more than, say, thirty American maritime historians on thefaculties of our colleges and universities today. Add naval specialists andthat number might double.

The purpose of this search was to get a rough idea of how many university-level courses in American maritime history might be offered in the United Stateseach year. Many of these professors do not teach the subject at all; others offersuch a course once every two or three years, Gaddis Smith at Yale, for example;still others get to teach their specialty only at off-campus programs. There are,fortunately, two or three such opportunities. Williams College co-sponsors withMystic Seaport Museum an undergraduate Program in American MaritimeStudies. Since its beginning in 1977, nearly seven hundred undergraduates havetaken that subject in the unequalled setting of one of our leading maritimemuseums. The Sea Education Association in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, offersa somewhat similar course. And the Frank C. Munson Institute, also at MysticSeaport, has been teaching American Maritime History on the graduate levelevery summer since 1955. Munson alumni are now represented in universitiesand maritime museums throughout the country. But by whatever reckoning, itis not easy for any American student interested in pursuing the subject to do soin the United States.

The biggest setback in the teaching of maritime history has been at the oneAmerican university that actually has an endowed chair in the field. In 1947 Mr.and Mrs. William H. Gardiner gave Harvard University the then princely sumof $250,000 to endow a chair in "Oceanic History and Affairs." RobertGreenhalgh Albion was appointed its first occupant, and he was followed atretirement by John H. Parry. It was for the hundreds of students who took thiscourse, incidentally, that Albion prepared the first comprehensive annotatedbibliography of books in English relating to naval and maritime history. SinceParry's untimely death in 1982, however, Harvard has failed to fill this importantchair, and the best opportunity for American graduate students to prepare in thisfield has been lost.

To close this section on a happier note let us turn to East Carolina University.Here is located the largest collection of maritime historians and archaeologistsin the States. Offering a broad array of maritime-related courses, includingextensive underwater research (a field sadly neglected in this country), EastCarolina may soon become our first and only institution to offer a Ph.D. in thefield. Others could do so as well, like Brown University with the splendidresources of the John Carter Brown Library QCB) on campus. Director NormanFiering of the JCB and John Hattendorf of the Naval War College have teamed

up to co-sponsor at Brown a summer maritime studies program under theauspices of the National Endowment for the Humanities.

The teaching of American maritime history, then, remains an undevelopedfield, so undeveloped in fact that no one should at present encourage graduatestudents to enter the job market primarily as maritime historians. Rather, theyshould follow the example of Bob Albion, originally a historian of the BritishEmpire—or Gaddis Smith, an American diplomatic historian, or Ted Sloan, ahistorian of American business and technology—and pursue at the outset amainstream position, sneaking a maritime history course into the catalog whenonly eager students are looking. Concerning the graduate level, far moreimportant than our struggling to establish entire Ph.D. degree programs inmaritime history at various universities is to offer the subject as an ancillary fieldin as many graduate schools as possible. Unless more American universities doso, the men and women who will become our future faculty members will nothave the opportunity to study the subject, and the number of courses offeredwill continue to dwindle.

Publication

Fortunately, the next section of this report presents a more positive picture.In the last decade or so, the publication of works in American maritime historyhas continued apace, both in quantity and quality. As compiler of a supplementto Albion's bibliography of naval and maritime history, I can vouch for thequantity—over two thousand for the years 1971—1986. While the great majorityof these volumes concerns naval matters or the maritime history of nations otherthan the United States, over the past decade or so hundreds of first-rate booksand articles have enhanced our knowledge and understanding of America'smaritime past. There follows some of the more important works that haveappeared in the past decade or so, arranged under a number of subject headingsand chosen to demonstrate the breadth of range within those headings. Briefcomments suggest their particular contributions. In the first group are books onmore traditional subjects.

Ships, Shipbuilding, and Shipping. George F. Bass, the eminent marinearchaeologist at Texas A&M University, has provided an excellent place to beginthe study of vessels that have sailed in American waters in his Ships and Shipwrecks

This position may seem unnecessarily self-limited by those readers from institutions where graduatework is more narrowly specialized than in the United States.

3 Benjamin W. Labaree, comp. A Supplement 1971-1986 to Robert G. Albion's Naval & MaritimeHistory: An Annotated Bibliography (Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum for the Munson Instituteof American Maritime Studies, 1988).

Robert Greenhalgh Albion, comp. Naval & Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography. 4th ed. rev.and expanded (Mystic, Conn.: The Marine Historical Association for the Munson Institute of AmericanMaritime History, 1972).

of the Americas. One of the nation's premier shipbuilding regions,Connecticut's Mystic River is the subject of William N. Peterson's"Mystic Built"* a book that is particularly noteworthy for the way inwhich the author integrates shipbuilding activities into the communityas a whole. In Steam and the Sea, Paul Johnston gives us a well-writtenand handsomely illustrated book to accompany the Peabody Museum'sexhibit on the origins and development of steam in American coastal

Q

waters and transoceanic routes. Virginia S. Wood's Live Oaking is thedefinitive study of how timber from the live oak forests of the Americansouth was procured for mercantile and naval shipbuilding. The elevenessays comprising Robert A. Kilmarx, ed., America's Maritime Legacyprovide a much-needed update of J.G.B. Hutchins' American MaritimeIndustries, published in 1941. In each of these works, as in all good booksabout ships per se, vessels are shown to be the carefully wrought productsof designers and builders and are the means to some further end, be itcommerce, fishing, science, or whatever, rather than merely ends inthemselves.

Discovery and Exploration. Daniel Boorstin provides a sweeping intro-duction to the expansion of Europe in The Discoverers, the overarchingtheme of which is the intellectual progress that opened up "the world wenow view from the literate West." One of the most exciting books in thiscategory must certainly be Alfred W. Crosby's The Biological Expansion ofEurope, an expansion of the theme first set forth twenty years ago in hisColumbian Exchange, showing how European disease, animals, and plantscontributed to the conquest of the native populations in the world's temperatezones. "Maritime History?" one might ask. Certainly, for Crosby's work exploresthe paradoxical role of the sea in human affairs, isolating peoples from oneanother for centuries and then carrying foreign diseases into their society. The

George F. Bass, Ships and Shipwrecks of the Americas: A History based on Underwater Archaeology (London:Thames and Hudson, 1988).

6 William N. Peterson, "Mystic Built:" Ships and Shipyards of the Mystic River, Connecticut, 1784-1919(Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1989).

Paul Johnston, Steam and the Sea (Salem, Mass.: Peabody Museum, 1983).

Virgiania S. Wood, Live Oaking: Southern Timber for Tall Ships (Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press,1981).

Robert A. Kilmarx, ed., America's Maritime Legacy: A History of the U.S. Merchant Marine andShipbuilding Industry since Colonial Times (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1979).

Daniel Boorstin, The Discoverers (New York: Random, 1983).11   Alfred W. Crosby, The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (New York: Cambridge Univ.Press, 1986).

1 0

Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport,Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1972).

best of the many works cornmemorating the Columbian quincentenary are William D.

Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus    and Felipe

Fernandez-Armesto's Columbus.    More specialized essays on the history of North

American discovery and exploration are edited in a useful volume by Stanley H.

Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz.    Two recent works give us contrasting insights

1 f\into American exploration of the nineteenth century. In Icebound     Leonard

Guttridge makes the tragedy of a failed polar expedition into a fascinating study

of leadership.  Voyage to the Southern Ocean,     on the other hand, is an ably edited

collection of letters by a participant in the highly successful Wilkes Expedition.

Whaling and Fishing. A perennially popular subject for American maritime

writers is whaling, and to a lesser extent commercial fishing. The past decade has

1 ftbrought several significant additions to this literature. Robert L. Webb    and John

Bockstoce    add much to our understanding of the whaling industry by taking their

readers into new waters. In Doum on T-Wharf,    Andrew German's excellent text

accompanies a superb collection of photographs and reminds us of how the New

England fishing industry used to be. In contrast, William Warner's study of Atlantic

deepwater fishing,    though ten years old, nevertheless foretells in timely fashion

the decline in both coastal and offshore fishing that has only recendy brought drastic

action by both U.S. and Canadian authorities. The outstanding book in this general

category is Briton Cooper Busch's remarkable history of sealing.     It is the first

definitive study of this highly charged subject and offers both the commercial and

environmental points of view fair hearings.

Commerce and Shipping. Surely, one might think, there can be little newto be said about maritime trade and commerce, and yet each year increasing

William D. Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge:Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992).14  Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991).

Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz, Essays on the History of North American Discovery andExploration (College Station: Texas A&M Univ. Press, 1988).

Leonard Guttridge, Icebound: The Jeannette Expedition's Quest for the North Pole (Annapolis: NavalInstitute Press, 1986).

Anne Hoffman Cleaver and Jeffrey Stann, eds., Voyage to the Southern Ocean: The Letters of LieutenantWilliam Reynolds from the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1988).18 Robert L. Webb, On the Northwest: Commercial Whaling in the Pacific Northwest, 1790-1961(Vancouver: Univ. of British Columbia Press, 1988).

John Bockstoce, Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic (Seattle: Univ. ofWashington Press, 1986).

Andrew German, Down on T- Wharf: The Boston Fisheries as Seen through the Photographs of Henry D.Fisher (Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1982).

21 William W. Warner, Distant Water: The Fate of the North Atlantic Fisherman (Boston: Litde, Brown, 1983).

22 Briton Cooper Busch, The War Against the Seals: A History of the North American Seal Fishery (Kingstonand Montreal: McGill-Queen's Univ. Press, 1985).

numbers of books and articles probe still unexplored aspects of this mostfundamental theme in maritime history. The challenge here is to choose fromamong hundreds of recent works five or six that give us new perspectives onthis old subject, that show commerce as an activity with consequences that reachfar beyond the economic bottom line. Here we must begin with Philip D.Curtin's Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, which concentrates on bothmaritime and overland commerce as a vehicle of culture through many parts ofthe world. At the other end of the scale is the study of Irish-American trade byThomas M. Truxes. Richard Johnson has used the career of Bostonian JohnNelson to explain the commercial and political relations between New Englandand New France at the end of the seventeenth century. Finally, on a totallydifferent scale is the business history of the American President Lines by JohnNiven, which places the operation of this important transpacific company intothe broad context of maritime policy.

Here is perhaps the best place to note the most recent attempt to put into onevolume a maritime history of the United States, this one by the late Jack Bauer.Its strength lies in the author's knowledgeable treatment of America's inlandwaterways and their integration into the maritime world beyond our coasts.Coastal shipping and the fisheries are also well treated. Unfortunately, Bauer'shandling of the topic of overseas commerce after the Civil War is marred by hismounting distress over the decline of American-flag shipping.

•  •  •

The past decade of scholarly works in maritime history would be noteworthyenough on the strength of the foregoing works. But what has made the past tenyears particularly exciting is the abundance of new work in less conventionalaspects of the field. Let us turn now to this second group.

Seaports. One must begin somewhere, and so we will start on dry land, withsome of the books that have illuminated our understanding of seaports. Begin-ning in New England, Christine L. Heyrman's excellent study of Gloucester andMarblehead    examines the culture of these two fishing communities as it related

23 Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984).

24 Thomas M. Truxes, Irish-American Trade, 1660-1783 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988).Richard Johnson, John Nelson, Merchant Adventurer: A Life Between Empires (New York: Oxford Univ.

Press, 1991).

26 John Niven, The American President Lines and Its Forebears,  1848-1984: From Paddlewheelers to

Containerships (Newark: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1986).

Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The Role of America's Seas and Waterways(Charleston: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1988).

Christine L. Heyrman, Commerce and Culture: The Maritime Communities of Colonial Massachusetts,1690-1750 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1984).

to their commercial activities. In contrast, the planning and development of NewYork's waterfront over the course of three centuries is the subject of AnnButtenwiser's Manhattan Water-Bound, while Philip C.F. Smith has madeextensive use of maps, lithographs, and photographs to demonstrate thatPhiladelphia was and remains a major port city. New Orleans, of all majorAmerican ports perhaps the most neglected by maritime historians, has been thefocus of several recent studies, the most comprehensive of which is EricArensen's Waterfront Workers of New Orleans. The author considers such topicsas the relationship between blacks who worked the waterfront and the largerblack community, and the effects of race relations on the unions. Anotheroverlooked seaport, Portland, Oregon, is the subject of a study by E. KimbarkMacColl. Bruce Nelson's Workers on the Waterfront focuses on the 1930s andgives particular attention to west coast ports. In Atlantic Port Cities, FranklinW. Knight and Peggy K. Liss have edited the papers of a 1986 conference thattook as its point of departure Jacob Price's essay of 1974 entitled "EconomicFunction and the Growth of American Port Towns in the Eighteenth Cen-tury." Despite the title of the conference essays, however, the book focusesalmost exclusively on Latin America and Caribbean ports.

Inland Waterways. Until recently American maritime historians have largelyignored the Great Lakes and other inland waterways that have carried a largeportion of this nation's produce to the seaports from which it was ultimatelyexported. Now, however, we have in addition to Jack Bauer's Maritime Historyof the United States mentioned above, a number of studies that focus on Americancanals and riverways and the men who served them. Michael Allen's WesternRivermen, 1763-1861 is a case in point. The author explains how and why themen who operated the flatboats and rafts became romanticized by a rapidlyindustrializing nation. Further downstream Harry P. Owens has studied theeffect of steam on the transportation of cotton in the Yazoo-Mississippi

Ann Buttenwiser, Manhattan WaterBound: Planning and Developing Manhattan's Waterfront from theSeventeenth Century to the Present (New York: New York Univ. Press, 1987).

30 Philip C.F. Smith, Philadelphia on the River (Pennsylvania: Philadelphia Maritime Museum, 1986).

31 Eric Arensen, Waterfront Workers of New Orelans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York:Oxford Univ. Press, 1991).

32 E. Kimbark MacColl, Merchants, Money, and Power: The Portland Establishment, 1843-1913 (Portland,Ore.: Georgian, 1988).

Bruce Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana:Univ. of Illinois Press, 1988).

Franklin W. Knight and Peggy K. Liss, Atlantic Port Cities: Economy, Culture, and Society in the AtlanticWorld, 1650-1850 (Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1991).

Jacob Price, "Economic Function and the Growth of American Port Towns in the EighteenthCentury" in Perspectives in American History, vol. VIII, pp. 123-86.

36 Michael Allen, Western Rivermen, 1763-1861: Ohio and Mississippi Boatmen and the Myth of the AlligatorHorse (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1990).

delta. Of broader scope is Western River Transportation, by Erik Haites andothers, who put their subject into the context of national policy. Robert Shawhas given us two useful books, a comprehensive study of the Erie Canal and afresh history of the canal era itself in Canals for a Nation.

Immigration. After a long hiatus, American historians are once again writingabout immigration, and several of the recent works on this subject give at leastsome attention to the oceanic crossing itself. Thus David Cressy's "ComingOver' includes a perceptive chapter on the passage to America. Farley Grubbhas published his important research concerning immigration into colonialPhiladelphia in three articles, and A. Roger Ekirch's Bound for America focuseson the transportation of British convicts into the mainland colonies. Althoughnot literally about immigration, James P. Delgado's To California by Sea givesus not only a readable account of the sea passage to the gold fields, but also afirst-rate history of San Francisco's early years as a seaport. One could not closethis section without mentioning Bernard Bailyn's splendid study, Voyaging to theWest, although it is perhaps less concerned with the maritime aspects of hissubject than the title might suggest.

Seamen, Women, and Members of Ethnic Minorities. It is clear to themost casual observer that the most significant innovation in the writing ofAmerican maritime history in the past decade or so has been the increasingnumber of younger scholars who have focused their research on the lives of

Harry P. Owens, Steamboats and the Cotton Economy: River Trade in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta (Jackson:Univ. of Mississippi Press, 1990).

38 Erik F. Haites, James Mak, and Gary Walton, Western River Transportation: The Era of Early InternalDevelopment, 1810-1860 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1990).

39 Robert Shaw, Erie Water West: A History of the Erie Canal, 1792-1854 (Lexington: Univ. of KentuckyPress, 1990).

40 Robert Shaw, Canals for a Nation: The Canal Era in the United States 1790-1860 (Lexington: Univ.of Kentucky Press, 1991).

David Cressy, "Coming Over:" Migration and Communication Between England and New England in theSeventeenth Century (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987).

Farley Grubb, "British Immigration into Philadelphia: The Reconstruction of Ship Passenger Listsfrom May 1772 to October 1773," Pennsylvania History, vol. 55 (1988), pp. 118-41; Farley Grubb, "TheMarket Structure of Shipping German Immigrants to Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Magazine of Historyand Biography, vol. Ill (1987), pp. 27-48; and Farley Grubb, "Morbidity and Mortality on the NorthAtlantic Passage: Eighteenth Century German Immigration," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 17(1987), pp. 565-85.

A. Roger Ekirch, Bound for America: The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718—1775,(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987).

44 James P. Delgado, To California by Sea: A Maritime History of the California Gold Rush (Columbia:Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1990).

Bernard Bailyn, Voyaging to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution(New York: Knopf, 1986).

ordinary mariners, including those belonging to ethnic minorities, and on therole of women in this maritime society. It is premature to proclaim, as MarcusRediker has done, that their work constitutes a "New Maritime History," forconsensus among them has not yet advanced beyond a shared subject-matter.Yet it is encouraging to note how often they discuss their work together, atconferences, in "roundtable articles," and in collaborative books. These scholarsalso work across international boundaries, bringing to life the dictum that "thesea is one," to which most of their elders have given little more than lip service.Indeed, even to discuss this subject from a "Canadian," "American," "British,"or "Scandinavian" point of view seems unnatural. Like most "new" work, thewritings of this generation have been influenced by several precedents, mostnotably Ralph Davis's The Rise of the English Shipping Industry (1962) and JesseLemisch's "Jack Tar in the Streets"(1968).

Let us begin with seamen in general and therefore with Margaret S.Creighton's Dog Watch and Liberty Days. Written as the catalogue to accom-pany an exhibit the author arranged for the Peabody Museum, Dog Watch isbased largely on research done for her dissertation. Creighton provides throughtext and illustration an unembellished glimpse into the lives of ordinary sailors.More specialized is Daniel F. Vickers' "Nantucket Whalemen in the Deep-SeaFishery,"* in which he places mariners into the broader context of the generallabor force. In "Physical and Social Profiles of Early American Seafarers,1812-1815," Ira Dye provides us with invaluable information gleaned fromBritish Admiralty records of American prisoners. The best known and mostcontroversial of recent studies of maritime society is Marcus Rediker's Between

CO

the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea. Here the author attempts to show that thecommon seamen of the mid-eighteenth century in fact constituted a proletariat.This is not the place to catalogue the critiques other scholars (younger and older

Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries(London: Macmillan, 1963).

Jesse Lemisch, "Jack Tar in the Streets: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of Revolutionary America,"William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 25 (1968), pp. 371-80.

Margaret S. Creighton, Dog Watch and Liberty Days: Seafaring Life in the Nineteenth Century (Salem,Mass.: Peabody Museum, 1982).

Margaret S. Creighton, "The Private Life of Jack Tar: Sailors at Sea in the Nineteenth Century,"Ph.D. diss., Boston Univ., 1985).

Daniel F. Vickers, "Nantucket Whalemen in the Deep-Sea Fishery: The Changing Anatomy of anEarly American Labor Force," Journal of American History, 72 (1985), pp. 277-96. This article is largelybased on sections of the author's "Maritime Labor in Colonial Massachusetts: A Case Study of the EssexCounty Cod Fishery and Whaling Industry of Nantucket, 1630-1775" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 1981).

Ira Dye, "Physical and Social Profiles of Early American Seafarers, 1812-1815," in Colin Howelland Richard Twomey, eds.,Jack Tar in History: Essays in the History of Maritime Life and Labour (Fredricton:Acadiensis Press, 1991), pp. 220-35.

Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and theAnglo-American Maritime World, 1700-1750 (Massachusetts: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987).

alike) have made of Rediker's book, but all would agree that he has stimulatedour thinking as no other maritime scholar in recent years. With co-author PeterLinebaugh, Rediker has expanded his challenging interpretation in "The Many-Headed Hydra."

One segment of American seamen as a topic that has attracted attentionfrom both older and younger historians is the role of blacks and members ofother ethnic minorities in the maritime workforce. Martha S. Putney's BlackSailors and James B. Farr's Black Odyssey are worthy efforts to get at adifficult subject. More thorough in both concept and research is JeffreyBolster's prize-winning article "To Feel Like a Man." Judging from thearticle, we eagerly await the author's forthcoming book on the subject.Meanwhile, in his biography of Captain Paul Cuffe, Rise to be a People, 'Thomas D. Lamont shows that not all black mariners were condemned to alife in the fo'c'sle. Briton Cooper Busch has given us a glimpse into the livesof another ethnic minority in "Cape Verdeans in the American Whaling andSealing Industry, 1850-1900."58

One of the first of the younger historians to have considered the role ofwomen in the maritime community is Julia C. Bonham. Fifteen years ago shepublished the results of her work at Mystic Seaport Museum's Munson Instituteand Brown University as "Feminist and Victorian: The Paradox of the AmericanSeafaring Woman of the Nineteenth Century." Since that time scholars havebroadened the scope of this topic through an increasing number of articles.Among the most ambitious are two by Lisa Norling, "Contrary Dependencies:Whaling Agents and Whalemen's Families, 1830—1870" and "the Sentimen-talization of American Seafaring," and a particularly strong synthesizing essayby Margaret S. Creighton, "Women and Men in American Whaling, 1830—

53 Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker, "The Many Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, and the AtlanticWorking Class in the Eighteenth Century," Journal of Historical Sociology. 3 (1990), pp. 225-52. Thisarticle has been reprinted in Howell and Twomey, eds., Jack Tar in History, pp. 11-36.

Martha S. Putney, Black Sailors: Afro-American Merchant Seamen and Whalemen Prior to the Civil War(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1987).

James B. Farr, Black Odyssey: The Seafaring Tradition of Afro-Americans (New York: Lang, 1989).

Jeffrey Bolster, "To Feel like a Man: Black Seamen in the Northern States, 1800-1860," Journal of AmericanHistory, vol 76. 1990, pp. 1173-99, based on research done for Bolster's "African-American Seamen: Race,Seafaring Work, and Adantic Maritime Culture, 1750-1860" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins Univ., 1992).

Thomas D. Lamont, Rise to be a People: A Biography of Paul Cuffe (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1986).

Briton Cooper Busch, "Cape Verdeans in the American Whaling and Sealing Industry, 1850-1900,"American Neptune, 45 (1985), pp. 104-16.

59 Julia C. Bonham, "Feminist and Victorian: The Paradox of the American Seafaring Woman of theNineteenth Century," American Neptune, vol. 37 (1977), pp. 203-18.

60 Lisa Norling, "Contrary Dependencies: Whaling Agents and Whalemen's Families, 1830-1870,"Log of Mystic Seaport, vol. 42 (1990), pp. 3-12.

61 Lisa Norling, " The Sentimentalization of American Seafaring: The Case of the New England WhaleFishery, 1790-1870 " in Howell and Twomey, eds., Jack Tar in History, pp. 164-78.

1870." Noteworthy among the others are Caroline Mosely's "Images ofYoung Women in Nineteenth Century Songs of the Sea" and Joan Druett's"More Decency and Order: Women and Whalemen in the Pacific." Mostrecently Ms. Druett has provided an award-winning edition of the AmericanMary Brewster's journals. Focusing on a more recent period is AmyKesselman's monograph, Fleeting Opportunities, about women shipyardworkers during World War II. Charlene J. Allison et al. have studied thegrowing role of women in the Northwest fisheries. Numerous othermemoirs of sea-going women have been published in the last decade or so,

zro

includingjane Balano's Log of the Skipper's Wife and Julia FreeHand's editionof the memoirs of Captain Sumner Drinkwater and his wife Alice.

In closing this section I should like to reiterate a point I made at its outset.Compared to the teaching of American maritime history, the publication of booksand articles in the field seems to remain numerically quite strong, perhaps onehundred or so a year. And yet a quick survey of the American Neptune during thefive-year period 1988-1992 shows that only fifty-eight (35.8 percent) of the onehundred sixty-two books reviewed there concern American maritime history(distinct from naval), with another thirty (18.8 percent) on European maritimesubjects. In contrast, sixty-three works on American and European naval historyaccount for 38.9 percent of the total. In one sense these figures reflect howbroadly interpreted the phrase maritime history is, and how successful the effortsof the Neptune editors have been in reaching beyond national boundaries.

Museums

Before we conclude that America's maritime past is disappearing as rapidly asits deep water mercantile fleet, let us turn to, and close with, the bright spot on

Margaret S. Creighton, "Women and Men in American Whaling, 1830-1870," Intematiotial Journal ofMaritime History, vol. 4 (1992), pp. 195-218.

Caroline Mosely, "Images of Young Women in Nineteenth Century Songs of the Sea," Log of MysticSeaport, vol. 35 (1984), pp. 132-39.

Joan Druett, "More Decency and Order: Women and Whalemen in the Pacific," Log of MysticSeaport, vol. 39 (1987), pp. 65-74.

65 Joan Druett, "She was a Sister Sailor": The Whaling Journals of Mary Brewster, 1845-1851 (Mystic,Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1992). Properly speaking, Ms. Druett's book should not be listed herebecause she is a New Zealander, but Mary Brewster was an American, her journal is in the library ofMystic Seaport Museum library, and the book was also published by Mystic in its American MaritimeLibrary series. Recently the North American Society for Oceanic History recognized "She was a SisterSailor" as the best non-naval book of nautical history published in 1992.

Amy Kesselman, Fleeting Opportunities: Women Shipyard Workers in Portland and Vancouver during WorldWar II and Reconversion (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 1990).

67 Charlene J. Allison, Sue-Ellen Jacobs, and Mary A. Porter, Winds of Change: Women in NorthwestCommercial Fishing (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1989).

68 James W. Balano, ed., The Log of the Skipper's Wife (Camden, Maine: Down East Books, 1979).Julia Freehand, A Seafaring Legacy: The Photographs, Diaries, Letters, and Memorabilia of a Maine Sea Captain

(Sumner Drinkwater and his Wife [Alice Drinkwater]) 1859-1908 (New York: Random House, 1981).

the scene: America's maritime museums. With few exceptions, these institutionsare private and not for profit. Most of them are dependent on endowments, gifts,and membership dues instead of government subsidies for their support. Mostof them have increasingly come to rely on such sources as sales at retail stores,program charges, and admissions fees. For this reason, whatever activities mightattract tourists and other visitors—chowder festivals, Fourth of July celebrations,popcorn and ice cream vendors, horse-and-buggy rides—get serious attentionby the management.

But there is an upside to this unfortunate aspect as well. To some extent theneed to attract visitors accounts for what maritime museums in America are mostnoted—the number and quality of preserved vessels they have in the water. Eachyear hundreds of thousands of people climb aboard, walk the decks, and gobelow "tall ships" (as the ad-writers love to call them) from Mystic Seaport'snineteenth-century whaleship Charles W. Morgan, or South Street Seaport'sCape Horner Peking, Galveston's bark Elissa, or San Diego's Star of India, to notebut four out of a score or more such museum ships. Still more scores of vesselsare preserved on dry land or under cover. The vessel should not be romanticizedas the be-all and end-all of maritime history, but as a means of educating thepublic about our maritime past, an invitation to inspect a historic vessel firsthandis hard to beat. On the other hand, inviting upwards of a half-million people totramp all over your last wooden whaleship is hardly the best way to preserve it!To the non-seagoing public, however, these vessels do not interpret themselvesvery well, and no amount of labeling "martingales," "crojacks," and "fo'c'sles"will help. Not surprisingly, therefore, the effort to explain these exhibits to thevisitor takes up a large share of the budget and leaves staff members of Americanmuseums with far less time for research and writing than have their colleagueselsewhere.

With this generalized introduction, we should look at what is happening atsome of our best maritime museums, because if this history is to survive inAmerica, it will depend largely on these institutions, not on our universities. Todemonstrate some of the ways these institutions in widely separated parts of thecountry carry out their goals, the following institutions were chosen from agroup of fifteen or so whose staff responded to a recent questionnaire concerningtheir activities.

At the Hawaii Maritime Center in Honolulu, forty-five exhibits coverHawaii's maritime heritage from precontact to the present. Its most recent specialexhibit focused on the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. In addition to numerouspublic lectures throughout the year, the Maritime Center sponsors an annualconference on maritime history and underwater archaeology. Its most activeeducational program brings 3,000 school children to the museum each month toplot the track of the Museum's Polynesian voyaging canoe. It is now building asecond canoe of traditional materials to retrace the route of Hawaii's original

settlers without the aid of modern instruments. The Museum's total annualvisitation is about 100,000.

Near the mouth of the Columbia River, in Astoria, Oregon, the ColumbiaRiver Maritime Museum focuses on fur trade and exploration of the Northwestcoast, fishing, and river navigation. The West Coast's last working lightship,Columbia, is now moored at the museum and open to visitors. The Museum'smost recent special exhibits have been "Marine Art of the Pacific Northwest"and "This Noble River: Robert Grey and the Columbia." Four special projectscollectively called the "Year of the Fisherman" received the Award of Meritfrom the American Association of State and Local History in 1990. School groupsare admitted without charge throughout the year, and Astoria's communitycollege offers a course on Columbia River Maritime History. Other state andregional universities co-sponsor additional lectures and research throughout theyear. The Museum publishes a quarterly magazine, Quarterdeck, featuringscholarly articles for its 2,000-plus members and has an annual visitation of justunder 100,000.

The Mariners Museum at Newport News, Virginia, is one of the nation'slargest such institutions, perhaps best known for its research library and archives,which includes a superb collection of nearly 500,000 photographs. TheMuseum's Chesapeake Bay Gallery, opened in 1989, displays hundreds ofartifacts, photographs, and maps relating to that important inland sea. The workof William Francis Gibbs, designer of the Liberty ship and the S.S. United States,among many other commercial and naval vessels, is commemorated in anothernew gallery. The Mariners Museum sponsors a scholarly lecture series, as wellas a graduate course in Maritime Geography through the University of Virginia.More than 20,000 school children particpate in classes and other educationalprograms at the museum each year. Annual visitation is just under 100,000.

Just up the Bay on Maryland's Eastern Shore at St. Michael's, the ChesapeakeBay Maritime Museum has recently added to its fine collection of workboatsseveral vessels including the river tug Delaware. A new permanent exhibit,"Mechanical Power," traces two centuries of change in the use of engines forpropulsion and deckwork and as such is a rarity among institutions that glorifythe age of sail. One educational program, "Bay Heritage Day," really prepares5th graders to get the most out of their class visit. Middle-schoolers can spendan overnight tending to the Hooper Strait Lighthouse, now moved to theMuseum grounds. About 85,000 people visit the Chesapeake Bay MaritimeMuseum each year.

New York's South Street Seaport Museum, unlike its sister institutions, wasactually begun to save from the wrecking ball the historic maritime district itnow occupies. While restoring buildings, the staff started collecting artifacts ofNew York's maritime past, an effort enhanced by the acquisition of the4,000-piece Seaman's Bank for Savings collection of paintings, prints, and

models. One of its most recent special exhibits, "Hammer and Hand," tells thehistory of the New York's maritime trades, as does its quarterly journal, Seaport.Over the next two years the museum will be sending out four traveling exhibitsand will begin sponsoring a regular symposium on maritime art. In addition tothe restoration work it has done along the waterfront, the museum also haspreserved in the water the iron-hulled Wavertree and the big four-masted barkPeking. Another of its vessels, the schooner Pioneer, built in 1885, offers daytimesail training excursions for local school children, who can also spend an overnighton board the Peking. Altogether 27,000 school children particpate in theMuseum program, out a total visitation of nearly 500,000.

Perhaps America's finest maritime institution is Mystic Seaport Museum. TheMuseum's collections of watercraft now number four hundred fifty, with a dozenvessels in the water, including the whaleship Charles W. Morgan, the Danishtraining ship Joseph Conrad (ex-George Stage), and the Gloucester fishing schoonerL.A. Dunton, all of which are open to the public. The Blunt White Library'scollection of manuscripts grows steadily each year, along with the necessarymonographs and periodicals to support ongoing research. The oral historydivision has taped over two hundred interviews with fishermen, mariners,shipwrights, and others and nearly one hundred scholarly lectures delivered atthe Museum. Represented in the ships plans division is the work of numerousmarine architects from both Atlantic and Pacific seaboards.

Until the recent recession, 70,000 school children visited Mystic each year(about half that number still do). Annual conferences on such topics as yachtinghistory, small craft, and sea music attract hundreds of scholars and enthusiasts.As mentioned earlier, Mystic Seaport cosponsors an undergraduate program inmaritime studies with Williams College and since 1955 has offered its owngraduate-level courses to which public school teachers are particularly welcome.Outreach programs send teacher institutes, theatrical productions, and maritimeartifacts to area schools. Through the generosity of a local family, the museumawards several Paul Cuffe Fellowships each year to encourage research in thehistory of mariners of native American or African descent. The undergraduateWilliams College—Mystic Seaport program offers young scholars the AlbionFellowship for teaching maritime history to the program's students.

The Publications department puts the Museum's best foot forward tothousands of scholars and general readers. In addition to its quarterly journal,The Log, the Museum keeps more than fifty books in print, from John F. Leavitt'sbeautifully crafted Wake of the Coasters (1970) to the latest book, Classic SmallCraft You Can Build (1993) by the dean of American wooden boatbuilders, JohnGardiner (age 87). In between are such works as Andrew German's Down onT-Wharf, Tony Busch's Master of Desolation, and Joan Druett's "She was a SisterSailor." John Rogers' Origins of Sea Terms and Douglas L. Stein's AmericanMaritime Documents are just two of the useful guides recently published by the

Labaree    377

museum. Mystic's average annual attendance over the past five years stands atabout 450,000, and its activities are supported by more than 20,000 members.The contributions of our maritime museums are impressive. Collectively,they offer as many accredited courses in one or another aspect of AmericanMaritime History as do our universities. Through museums, several hundredthousands of school children are made aware of our nation's maritime past, alongwith millions of adults. Counting the maritime museums that are too small tobelong to The Council of American Maritime Museums (CAMM), there areupwards of seventy-five such institutions in the country. Because they providethe primary line of contact between the public and our maritime past, whateverwe can do to improve them will in the long run serve the efforts of us all.

Conclusion

Looking back over the state of American maritime history today brings us toseveral conclusions.

First, the sea is one, and it does connect us all, as so many of us have observedin our research and writings. Maritime history is therefore an mter-nationalsubject and therefore a difficult one to fit into our compartmentalized depart-ments of history.

Second, maritime history is popular. Enrollments in the few courses we dooffer, attendance at museums, special exhibits, and tall ship extravaganzas alldemonstrate this fact. But in some academic circles popularity is the kiss of death.The Munson Institute is occasionally criticized for making its courses availableto public school teachers and museum staff members, many of whom have moremodest academic backgrounds than one finds in our graduate schools. We mustimprove our standards without jeopardizing our accessibility.

Third, we must be careful that our overuse of nautical terminology in ourwork does not become mere jargon for its own sake. We must resist criticizingnewcomers to our field for not having been aloft in a howling gale or knowingthe difference between tacking and wearing ship. There are now moreimportant aspects to our subject than shiphandling.

Fourth, we must put people back into our history, especially the men andwomen of the maritime labor force who, while hardly a proletariat, arenevertheless an all-important element in the equation. If we ourselves are notinterested in the social and cultural aspects of our topics, we should at least giveencouragement through fellowships and other forms of recognition to thosewho are.

Finally, we must bring the two fields of naval and maritime history closertogether. Albion began that effort more than sixty years ago, first with his coursesat Princeton and later at Harvard and the Munson Institute, and since 1951 with

Recent reviews of Barbara Tuchman's The First Salute and Marcus Rediker's Between the Devil andthe Deep Blue Sea do just that.

378    The State of American Maritime History

his bibliography, still called a Naval and Maritime bibliography. This volume givesall of us the opportunity to renew that effort. Let us now get to work.

Mahan Plus One Hundred

The Current State of American Naval History

Kenneth J. Hagan and Mark R. Shulman

The logos of the U.S. Naval Academy and the Naval War College featurethe three-pronged trident of Neptune, an apt icon for the three principalmanifestations of naval history in the United States: teaching, museums, andpublication. The current state of health of each of these endeavors variesmarkedly. The teaching of naval history at colleges and universities is uneven atbest, "with historians often forced to subsume naval history under other subjectsin courses with broader orientations. Naval museums, by contrast, are a thrivingindustry, although the future of some of them is under a cloud. Most surprisingly,in light of the absence of firm support from academic institutions, naval historytoday is an extremely vigorous outlet for scholarly and popular writing.

This essay attempts to substantiate the assertions just made. In doing so, itexamines several subsidiary and related topics, such as archival depositories,libraries, and bibliographies. The conclusions are meant to be cautionary, notpessimistic.

Teaching

Military and naval history emerged as distinct subdisciplines in the latenineteenth century. Since that time they have been consistently marginalized orignored by history departments. In the early twentieth century, studies of war,once a prominent feature of the profession, gradually disappeared from universityand college curricula. By 1935—1936, a survey of the thirty leading universitiesfound no such courses, aside from ROTC offerings. Even at the height of ColdWar paranoia in 1954, only thirty-seven of four hundred ninety-three surveyeddepartments were offering any military history courses.  A few select departments

The surveys are reported in John Bowditch, "War and the Historian," H. Stuart Hughes, ed., Teachersof History: Essays in Honor of Laurence Bradford Packard (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1954),pp. 322-3; Richard C. Brown, The Teaching of Military History in Colleges and Universities of the UnitedStates, Historical Studies, no. 124 (Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: U.S. Air Force Historical Division,Research Studies Institute, Air University, 1955). See also, Paul M. Kennedy, "The Fall and Rise ofMilitary History," Military History Quarterly 3, no. 2 (Winter 1991), pp. 8-12; and Louis Morton, "TheHistorian and the Study of War," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 18, no. 4 (1962): pp. 599-613.

(e.g., Princeton, Dartmouth, and Yale) engaged trained historians to teachmilitary history to ROTC students, but the rest surrendered their responsibilityto active-duty officers with little or no historical training.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, dissent over the war in Southeast Asia droveROTC from many campuses. A modest revival of interest in military historybegan in the 1980s as collegiate anger over Vietnam faded and as PresidentRonald Reagan began the last military buildup of the Cold War. But theresurrection of military history was incremental, and the college and universityofferings most often broadly incorporated the study of naval history or sea powerinto that of war as a whole. The teaching of naval history as a special offeringhas remained highly restricted.

Most teaching of United States naval history is done in government educa-tional institutions, specifically the National Defense University (NDU), theNaval Academy (USNA), the Naval War College (NWC), and the Naval ReserveOfficers Training Corps units (NROTC). The NDU has long offered an electivecourse on naval strategy, or on "The American Way of War at Sea," whichproceeds chronologically and emphasizes the interaction between nationalpolicy and naval strategy. It attracts about a dozen students per semester. Asimilar elective is also taught with some regularity at the Army War College inCarlisle, Pennsylvania.

Since its founding in 1884, the Naval War College has regarded naval historyas an essential element in a curriculum designed to educate mid-career officersfor staff positions and high command. Early presidents Stephen B. Luce, AlfredT. Mahan, French E. Chadwick, and William L. Rodgers made significantwritten contributions to naval history while encouraging their students to seeklessons for the future by studying the past.

Today, there is no explicit course on naval history at the NWC, but the subjectis emphasized in other ways. In terms of research, the college maintains anexcellent book collection in naval history and a growing collection of personalpapers and oral histories. The research arm of the NWC, the Center for NavalWarfare Studies, provides a chair for the college's principal expert in navalhistory: the Ernest J. King Professor of Maritime History, a position held since1984 by John B. Hattendorf. The occupant is required to conduct research,write about a wide range of naval historical issues, and establish contacts withother scholars in the field. Finally, the NWC maintains the Alfred Thayer Mahan

2 George E. Thibault taught this course for several years, followed by Captain W.S. Johnson, uponwhose retirement the NDU hired on a temporary basis H. P. Willmott.

The King Chair was established at the suggestion of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance and wassuccessively held by such eminent visiting historians as John H. Kemble, James A. Field, Jr., TheodoreRopp, Harry L. Coles, Raymond G. O'Connor, Stephen E. Ambrose, and Martin Blumenson. In 1974,the King Chair became a long-term civilian faculty position with the six year appointment of Philip A.Crowl, followed a decade later by the present incumbent.

Chair of Maritime Strategy, now occupied by George W. Baer, who has justcompleted a history of twentieth-century American sea power.

While the graduate level curriculum of the NWC does not provide formalcourses on naval or maritime history, these subjects continue to permeate twocore course offerings in strategy and policy and in joint operations. The firstemploys roughly a dozen civilian specialists in diplomatic, military or navalhistory, political science, and international relations who use the case studymethod for the critical analysis of strategy. The faculty and students scrutinizethe Peloponnesian War, the Second Punic War, the American Revolution, theFrench Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the American Civil War, the warsof German unification, the Russo-Japanese War, the First and Second WorldWars, the Chinese Civil War, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and many ofthe military and naval events of the Cold War. The Joint Operations Coursealso includes a number of case studies, including: the Nazi German invasion ofNorway; the Atlantic campaign of World War II; the Pacific war battles ofMidway, Guadalcanal, the Philippine Sea, and Leyte Gulf; and the recent AchilleLauro incident, the Falklands/Malvinas War and the Gulf War. In a somewhatcatholic approach, the course examines the naval theories of Sir Julian S. Corbett,Alfred T. Mahan, Herbert F. Rosinski, and Joseph C. Wylie, the analyticalstudies of Ken Booth and James Cable, and selected issues of internationalmaritime law. The breadth and sophistication of these offerings permit theNaval War College to award a master of arts degree in National Security Affairsto its graduates.

The Navy's undergraduate degree-granting institution, the U.S. NavalAcademy, records a somewhat different but not too encouraging experiencewith naval history. Since World War II the academy has consistently offered aone or two-semester course in the field. Until the mid-1970s, this offering wasthe legendary "sea power" course shaped by Professor E.B. Potter and formattedaccording to Sea Power: A Naval History, a book he co-edited with AdmiralChester W. Nimitz.   The course and the book took up the subject with the

4 Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U.S. Navy, 1890-1990 (California: Stanford Univ. Press,1994).

For Corbett, see John B. Hattendorf, ed., Mahan is Not Enough: The Proceedings of the Corbett-RichmondConference (Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1993); for Mahan, see John B. Hattendorf, ed.,The Influence of History on Mahan (Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1991). Representative worksof the other authors include: Rosinski, The Development of Naval Thought, ed., B. Mitchell Simpson III(Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 1977); Wylie, Military Strategy: A General Theory of PowerControl (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1989); Cable, Diplomacy at Sea (London: Macmillan, 1985);Booth, Law, Force and Diplomacy at Sea (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1985), and Navies and Foreign Policy(New York: Crane Russak & Co., 1977).

The Naval Institute Press is cited hereafter as NIP.

E.B. Potter and Chester W. Nimitz, eds., Sea Power: A Naval History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1960). There was an earlier version; Potter, ed., The United States and World Sea Power(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1955).

Greeks and Romans but rushed rapidly to the golden age of the U.S. Navy—thevast operations of the Pacific campaign of World War II. Many well-knownnaval historians taught the course, including the prolific Paolo E. Coletta, RobertW. Daly, Clark G. Reynolds, Robert Seager II, and Gerald E. Wheeler. It wasa required course, and it is invariably remembered with strong feelings by formermidshipmen.

Since the mid-1970s the history department of the academy has offered aquite different one-semester required course in the "American Naval Heritage."As the title suggests, this course focuses very heavily on American naval history.It stresses the interrelationship between U.S. national policy and U.S. navalstrategy and operations. Among the nationally known naval historians who havecontributed to this course are James C. Bradford, William B. Cogar, Paolo E.Coletta, Kenneth J. Hagan, Frederick S. Harrod, Michael T. Isenberg, Robert

o

W. Love, Jack Sweetman, and Craig L. Symonds. Innumerable officer-instruc-tors have also taught the course, the most recognizable of whom is the widelyrespected historian of the Marine Corps, Merrill L. Bartlett.

For the foreseeable future, the American Naval Heritage course will remainsecurely in place as a staple of the history department, but the department itself hasdemonstrated an erosion of interest in naval history in the last decade. It has ratherconsistendy failed to replace departing naval historians with new ones, choosinginstead to broaden itself with faculty specializing in other subsets of the discipline.This ecumenical thrust is understandable, but it has created a staffing crisis. Thecourse on the American Naval Heritage is offered to 1,000 midshipmen per year

Coletta, Admiral Bradley A. Fiske and the American Navy (Lawrence, Kans.: Regents Press of Kansas,1979), and A Selected and Annotated Bibliography of American Naval History (Lanham, Md: Univ. Press ofAmerica, 1988); Daly, How the Merrimac Won (New York: Crowell, 1957); Reynolds, The Fast Carriers:The Forging of an Air Navy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968; Annapolis: NIP, 1992), and Command ofthe Sea (New York: Morrow, 1974); Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and his Letters (Annapolis:NIP, 1977); Wheeler, Prelude to Pearl Harbor (Columbia, Mo: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1963).

See Bradford, ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish—American War and its Aftermath (Annapolis: NIP,1993), Admirals of the New Steel Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1880-1930 (Annapolis:NIP, 1990), Captains of the Old Steam Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1840-1880(Annapolis: NIP, 1986), and Command under Sail: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1115—1850(Annapolis: NIP, 1988); Cogar, Dictionary of Admirals of the United States Navy, vol. 1, 1862-1900; vol.2, 1901-1918 (Annapolis: NIP, 1989, 1991); Coletta, ed., American Secretaries of the Navy, vol. 1,1775-1913; vol. 2, 1913-1972 (Annapolis: NIP, 1980); Hagan, American Gunboat Diplomacy and the OldNavy, 1811-1889 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973); Harrod, Manning the New Navy: TheDevelopment of a Modern Naval Enlisted Force, 1899-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978);Isenberg, Shield of the Republic: The United States in an Era of Cold War and Violent Peace, vol. 1, 1945-1962(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993); Love, History of the U.S. Navy, vol. 1, 1775-1941; vol. 2,1942-1991 (Harrisburg, Pa: Stackpole Press, 1992); Sweetman, The Landing at Veracruz (Annapolis:NIP, 1968), The U.S. Naval Academy: An Illustrated History (Annapolis: NIP, 1979), and American NavalHistory: An Illustrated Chronology (Annapolis: NIP, 1991); and Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists TheNaval Policy Debate in The United States, 1185-1821 (Newark, Del.: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1980).9 Bartlett, Lejeune: A Marine's Life (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1991); ed., Assault fromthe Sea: Essays on the History of Amphibious Warfare (Annapolis: NIP, 1983).

and is taught in small sections of no more than twenty-five students each, for a

total of forty sections per year. The four practicing naval historians currently in

the department can reasonably cover only sixteen of these, leaving a shortfall of

twenty-four sections, or six hundred midshipmen to be taught by non-specialists

or officers.

At Annapolis, the 1970s were marked by the introduction of a series of

biennial conferences in naval history, and in this respect the support of the

department and academy for naval history remains as strong as ever. Directed

by Robert R. Love, Jr., the Eleventh Naval History Symposium was held in

Annapolis in October, 1993. With an emphasis on World War II, it attracted

scholars from all over the world, including delegations from Argentina, Australia,

Austria, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain,

Italy, Japan, Peru, Poland, and Russia. Selected papers from the gathering will

1 nbe published within two years, as has been the tradition.

The largest program for teaching naval history in the U.S. remains that of theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC). Currently there are aboutfifty-five college-level NROTC units which "service" a total of about twohundred colleges and universities. For the last seventeen years, Naval AcademyProfessor Kenneth J. Hagan has served as advisor for the NROTC course entitled"Sea Power and Maritime Affairs." Required in most units, it derives itscontent and structure from the American Naval Heritage course at the U.S.Naval Academy.

In preparation for teaching the course, junior Navy and Marine Corps officersfresh from the fleet attend a two-week instructors' seminar where ProfessorHagan suggests teaching techniques, analyzes the content of the course, anddistributes a highly detailed curriculum guide with lesson plans. The officersrespond with enthusiasm and gain a sense of confidence, but they nonethelessremain underprepared for teaching a rigorous history course at the college level.This is one of the reasons that very few colleges grant academic credit for thecourse, despite its Annapolis pedigree.

The future for "Sea Power and Maritime Affairs" is not entirely rosy. TheNavy Department has resolved to reduce the number of NROTC units nation-ally, even though NROTC is demonstrably more cost-effective in producingcommissioned officers than is the Naval Academy. An estimated twelve unitsare scheduled to be decommissioned in the near future, and this means that therewill be twelve fewer offerings of the course.

The most recent proceedings in print is Jack Sweetman, ed., New Interpretations in Naval History:Selected Papers from the Tenth Naval History Symposium, Held at the United States Naval Academy, 11-13September 1991 (Annapolis: NIP, 1993).

For the NROTC format, see Hagan, ed., In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History,1774-1984, 2d ed. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984).

• • •

American naval historians traditionally have taught in subjects other than thehistory of the United States Navy. Harold H. Sprout of Princeton was trainedas a political scientist, not as a historian. With his wife as co-author, he publisheda major synthesis, The Rise of American Naval Power in 1939, and he helpedestablish Princeton's Woodrow Wilson Center of International Relations in1950. In the early 1960s, he directed a doctoral dissertation on the modern BritishNavy written by Navy Commander William J. Crowe, Jr., who later becamechairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Ronald Reagan and ambassador toGreat Britain under President Bill Clinton.

Closer to Clio, if not to the daily teaching of naval history, was Samuel EliotMorison. He spent a professional lifetime teaching surveys and Americancolonial history at Harvard University, even though he had distinguished himselfin naval history with biographies of John Paul Jones and Matthew C. Perry, andwith the 15-volume official history of the Navy in World War II. The fate ofteaching mainly outside their specialty in naval history also befell such notablescholars as Raymond G. O'Connor and Gerald E. Wheeler in the 1950s.Similarly, the field's current dean, William R. Braisted, served three decades asa professor of Far Eastern History at the University of Texas.

Today the list of naval historians who are not regularly teaching naval historyis depressingly long. Stephen E. Pelz teaches diplomatic history at the Universityof Massachusetts. Peter D. Karsten has turned to the study of constitutionalhistory at the University of Pittsburgh. Roger Dingman teaches Far Easternhistory at the University of Southern California. James R. Reckner specializesin the Vietnam War at Texas Tech University. Allan R. Millett of Ohio StateUniversity has written extensively on the Marine Corps and on military affairs,but he does not teach naval history.

Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power, 1776-1918 (New Jersey: PrincetonUniv. Press, 1939; Annapolis: NIP, 1990). Crowe's strategic viewpoint can be seen in "The PolicyRoots of the Modern Royal Navy, 1946-1963," (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 1965), and most recentlyin his memoir, The Line of Fire: From Washington to the Gulf (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993). Foran early homage to the Sprouts, see Gordon C. O'Gara, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the ModemNavy (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1943; New York: Greenwood Press, 1969).

For a Morison sampler, see History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, 15 vols. (Boston:Little, Brown, 1947-63), fohn Paul Jones: A Sailor's Biography (Boston: Little, Brown, 1959; Annapolis:NIP, 1989), and "Old Bruin:" Commodore Matthew C. Perry, 1794-1858 (Boston: Little Brown, 1967).For the others, see O'Connor, Origins of the American Navy: Sea Power in the Colonies and the New Nation(Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 1994); Wheeler, Prelude to Pearl Harbor: The United States Navyand the Far East, 1921-1931 (Columbia: Univ. ofMissouri Press, 1963); and Braisted, United States Navyin the Pacific, 1897-1909, and United States Navy in the Pacific, 1909-1922 (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press,1958, 1971).

Pelz, Race to Pearl Harbor: The Failure of the Second London Naval Conference and the Onset of WorldWar II (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974); Karsten, The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age

Much the same can be said of Carl Boyd at Old Dominion University, JeffreyM. Dorwart of the University of Delaware, William M. Fowler, Jr. at North-eastern University, William M. McBride at James Madison University, Clark G.Reynolds at the College of Charleston, Alex Roland at Duke University, DavidSyrett at the City University of New York, Spencer Tucker at Texas ChristianUniversity, Richard W. Turk at Allegheny College, Jonathan Utley at theUniversity of Tennessee, Charles J. Weeks, Jr. at Southern College of Technol-ogy, and the recently retired David F. Long at the University of NewHampshire. Harold D. Langley teaches occasional courses in diplomatic andmilitary history at Catholic University, but his principal professional position iswith the Smithsonian Institution, as was the case with Philip K. Lundeberg andthe late Roger Pineau, both proteges of Samuel Eliot Morison. In a categoryall his own is Professor Raimondo Luraghi of the University of Genoa, Italywho has completed a manuscript on the history of the Confederate States Navyfor publication in the United States.

Although the teaching of naval history remains on the margin at most privateand public colleges and universities, there are several institutions where newprograms have emerged and assumed central pedagogical roles. The pacesetteris the concentration in Maritime History and Underwater Research at EastCarolina University (ECU), a two-year curriculum leading to a master of artsdegree in history. Established in 1981 by historian William N. Still, Jr. and

of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modem American Navalism (New York: Free Press, 1972); Dingman,Power in the Pacific: The Origins of Naval Arms Limitation, 1914-1922 (Illinois: Univ. of Chicago Press,1976); Reckner, Teddy Roosevelt's Great White Fleet (Annapolis: NIP, 1988); Millett, Semper Fidelis: TheHistory of the United States Marine Corps, 2d ed. (New York: Free Press, 1991).

Boyd and Akihiko Yoshida, The Japanese Submarine Force and World War II (Annapolis: NIP,forthcoming); Dorwart, The Office of Naval Intelligence: The Birth of America's First Intelligence Agency,1865-1918 (Annapolis: NIP, 1979), and Conflict of Duty: The U.S. Navy's Intelligence Dilemma,1919-1945 (Annapolis: NIP, 1983); Fowler, Rebels Under Sail: The American Navy During the Revolution(New York: Scribner, 1976), Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783-1815 (Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1984), and Under Two Flags: The American Navy in the Civil War (New York: Norton,1990); McBride, Goodnight Officially: The Pacific War Letters of a Destroyer Sailor (Boulder, Colo.:Westview Press, 1994); Reynolds, The Fast Carriers: The Forging of an Air Navy (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1968; Annapolis: NIP, 1992); Roland, Underwater Warfare in the Age of Sail (Bloomington:Indiana Univ. Press, 1978); Syrett, The Royal Navy in American Waters, 1775-1783 (Brookfield, Vt.:Gower Publishing Co., 1989); Tucker, Arming the Fleet: U.S. Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era(Annapolis: NIP, 1989), and The Jeffersonian Gunboat Navy (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press,1993); Turk, The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan (New York:Greenwood Press, 1987); Utley, An American Battleship at Peace and War: The U.S.S. Tennessee (Lawrence,Kans.: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1991); Weeks, An American Naval Diplomat in Revolutionary Russia(Annapolis: NIP, 1993); and Long, Gold Braid and Foreign Relations: Diplomatic Activities of U.S. NavalOfficers (Annapolis: NIP, 1988).

16 Langley, Social Reform in the United States Navy, 1798-1862 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1967),and A Medical History of the United States Navy, 1794-1842 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press,1994); Lundeberg, Hie Continental Gunboat Philadelphia and the Northern Campaign of 1776 (Washington:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1966); Pineau, ed., The Japan Expedition, 1852-1854: The Personal Journalof Commodore Matthew C. Perry (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968).

underwater archaeologist Gordon P. Watts, the ECU endeavor blends theresearch methodologies of underwater archaeology and history to paint a clearerpicture of the maritime past. ECU's rich and divergent course offerings include"Sea Power: 480 BC to the Present," a survey of the nature of warfare at sea andits changing role in eras of peace and war. East Carolina's most notablearchaeological successes have been in relation to the Civil War. Starting withthe discovery of the USS Monitor off Cape Hatteras and the vessel's designationas a national maritime sanctuary, ECU scholars have documented the USSSouthfield, the Union transport Maple Leaf, and the Confederate blockade-runnerMary Celestia. ECU archaeologists have also joined peers in the National ParkService and the Naval Historical Center to investigate and where possiblepreserve the CSS Gaines, the USS Philippi, and the USS Tecumseh—all sunkenrelics of the Civil War lying on the bottom of Mobile Bay. In association withFrench experts and with William S. Dudley of the Naval Historical Center,Professor Still and his crew are investigating the remains of the famed Con-federate raider Alabama, sunk off Cherbourg, France, in 1864.

The published historical scholarship on American naval topics by ECUscholars is chronologically and topically broad, ranging from Carl E. Swanson,Predators and Prizes: American Privateering and Imperial Warfare, 1739—1948 toMichael A. Palmer, On Course to Desert Storm: The U.S. Navy and the PersianGulf These ECU authors and other scholars are fortunate to have establisheda close working relationship with the University of South Carolina Press, nowan excellent outlet for historical monographs.

Beyond ECU, the University of Alabama has long sponsored naval history inthe person of three teaching scholars: Robert E. Johnson, recently retired;Ronald H. Spector, briefly; and since 1993, John F. Beeler, who specializes inthe Royal Navy. Spector moved to George Washington University to directan international studies center, but he does occasionally offer a course on worldnaval history since the 1600s.

Sharply focused on U.S. naval history is Texas A & M University, whereJames C. Bradford attracts a large audience to his course on the subject. InPhiladelphia, Temple University recently opened a Center for the Study of Forceand Diplomacy, with David A. Rosenberg teaching naval history. At Yale

Swanson, Predators and Prizes (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1991); Palmer, On Courseto Desert Storm: The U.S. Navy and the Persian Gulf, Contributions to Naval History Series, No. 5(Washington: U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., 1992). See also Palmer, Guardians of the Gulf (New York: TheFree Press, 1992), and William N. Still, Jr., American Sea Power in the Old World (Westport, Conn.:Greenwood Press, 1980).

18 Johnson, Far China Station: The U.S. Navy in Asian Waters, 1800-1898 (Annapolis: NIP, 1979), andBering Sea Escort: Life Aboard A Coast Guard Cutter in World War II (Annapolis: NIP, 1992); Spector,Professors of War: The Naval War College and the Development of the Naval Profession (Newport, R.I.: NavalWar College Press, 1977), and Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: The FreePress, 1985); Beeler, "Steaming Erratically towards the Dreadnought: The British Navy in the Era ofGladstone and Disraeli" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1991).

University since the early 1980s, American military and naval history has beencovered by term appointments. More significantly, at Yale in 1983, Paul M.Kennedy inaugurated the J. Richardson Dilworth Chair of International andDiplomatic History, and in 1989, Sir Michael Howard became the Robert A.Lovett Professor of Military and Naval History. The Lovett professorship passedto Geoffrey Parker four years later. By contrast with Yale, some majoruniversity centers of military and strategic studies have no appointments orcourses specifically in naval history; witness Harvard's Center for InternationalAffairs as well as that university's long vacant Gardiner Chair of Oceanic Historyand Affairs. At Stanford University, the Raymond A. Spruance Chair, namedfor the World War II admiral, is traditionally occupied by a military historianspecializing in Clausewitz.

*  *  *

The absence of university centers dedicated to the study of naval historyexplains why so many doctoral dissertations have been written under thedirection of specialists in fields other than naval history. The experience of thetwo authors of this essay is illustrative. Separated by a generation in age and timeof doctoral work, neither author was directed by a naval historian. Thediplomatic historian Charles S. Campbell, Jr., was Kenneth Hagan's mentor.Mark Shulman's dissertation was directed by Richard Abrams, a politicalhistorian. A doctoral dissertation currently in process (retired naval Captain PeterSwartz's study of the Cold War navy) is being directed by Warner R. Schillingat Columbia. While Schilling's own dissertation was an able essay on navalhistory, it was never published and he has not continued to work in the field.A salient exception to the portrait of doctoral sponsorship just painted is Jon T.Sumida's energetic direction of doctoral dissertations at the University ofMaryland, but his field is primarily British naval history, not the history of theUnited States Navy.22

Harold E. Selesky taught these courses from 1983 until 1991, followed by Mark R. Shulman.

Of the three professors holding endowed chairs, only Paul Kennedy has written widely in navalhistory. See The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (New York: Scribner, 1976).21   Schilling,   "Admirals  and  Foreign  Policy,   1913-1919"   (Ph.D.  diss.,  Yale  University,   1953),photocopy of typescript (Ann Arbor: Univ. Microfilms, 1970).

00

Other American historians of European sea power include: Daniel Baugh, British Naval Administrationin the Age of Walpole (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1965), Professor of History at CornellUniversity; Volker Berghahn, Der Tirpitz-Plan (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1971), Professor of History at BrownUniversity; John T. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1974),Professor of History at Ohio State University; Paul Halpern, The Naval War in the Mediterranean,1914-1918 (Annapolis: NIP, 1987), Professor of History at the University of Florida; Jon T. Sumida,In Defense of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology and British Naval Policy, 1889—1914 (Boston: UnwinHyman, 1989), Associate Professor at the University of Maryland.

• • •

While it is not a teaching organization, the Naval Historical Center inWashington, D.C. is vital to the national dissemination of historical informationabout the Navy. The Center employs approximately twenty-five naval his-torians, a greater number than any other organization in the United States.These professionals write monographs and reference works, edit and publishhistorical documents, record oral histories, organize scholarly conferences,sponsor underwater archaeological investigations, and contribute to the Navy'smuseums. Some of them teach courses on American naval history as adjunctfaculty at colleges and universities in the Washington area.

The Naval Historical Center is presided over by the Director of NavalHistory. Prior to July 1986, this position was occupied by a retired naval officer,usually an admiral. Since then, two civilian scholars have held the post: RonaldH. Spector (1986—1989), followed by the present incumbent, Dean C. Allard.The director's headquarters at the Naval Historical Center is located in the NavyYard at Washington, D.C. The Marine Corps Historical Center is adjacent tothe Navy's.

Museums

Most training in U.S. naval history is done by colleges or governmentalorganizations, but the Mystic Seaport Museum in Connecticut is noteworthyfor its long-standing dedication to educating the American public about thehistory of the sea. In particular, the Munson Institute at Mystic conducts agraduate-level summer program on American maritime studies. Benjamin W.Labaree, William F. Fowler, John B. Hattendorf, Jeffrey Safford and Edward W.Sloan are those who today continue the Mystic tradition of teaching, which wasestablished by the late Harvard Professor Robert G. Albion.

In addition to Mystic, other museums from time to time organize educationalprograms on American naval history. In the spring of 1994, for example, theSmithsonian Institution joined with the U.S. Naval Academy Museum to offera three-day seminar on the history of warfare in the age of sail, a concentratedschedule of lectures and discussions directed by faculty of the history departmentof the Naval Academy at Annapolis.

• •  *

23 The Naval Historical Center is located at the Washington Navy Yard, at M and 9th streets. It isdivided into several branches. Phone numbers for these branches are as follows (all are 202-433):Contemporary History, 3891; Curator, 2220; Early History, 2364; Naval Aviation, 4355/8; Navy ArtGallery, 3815; Library, 3172; Photographic Section, 2765; Senior Historian, 7230; and Ships' Histories,2891.

The Naval Academy Museum is one of twelve naval museums scattered atbases and installations across the United States. The U.S. Marine Corps runs oneofficial museum in the Washington Navy Yard and another at Quantico,Virginia. This Navy-Marine Corps total of fourteen compares with seventy inthe Department of the Army, one in the U.S. Air Force, and one for the CoastGuard.

The twelve museums of the Department of the Navy fall under the generaladministrative umbrella of the Director of Naval History. He exercises imme-diate supervision over only the Navy Museum in the Washington Navy Yard.Stimulated by former Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman, Jr., and dynami-cally directed by Oscar P. Fitzgerald, this museum has made tremendous progressin the last fifteen years. It conducts outstanding educational programs, displaysworks by leading contemporary naval artists, and maintains the largest WorldWar II exhibit in the country. Its renovated Civil War exhibit contains remnantsfrom David G. Farragut's flagship, the USS Hartford.

The Navy's oldest official museum is the one at the Naval Academy inAnnapolis, Maryland. Dating back to 1845, the museum presently is housed inPreble Hall, which was constructed in 1939 and expanded in 1962 with thesponsorship of the Naval Academy Athletic Association and the U.S. NavalInstitute, both non-governmental institutions. The museum's collection featuresartifacts and artwork as varied as midshipmen's class rings, memorabilia fromMatthew C. Perry's nineteenth-century expedition to Japan, paintings ofColumbus's voyages and Commodore Edward Preble's bombardment of Tripoliin 1804, and the table on which the Japanese surrender was signed aboard thebattleship Missouri in 1945. Across the "Yard" from Preble Hall, in the basementof the Naval Academy Chapel, the museum is responsible for the cryptcontaining the body of John Paul Jones, perhaps the most popular site for visitorsto the Academy.

The Naval Academy Museum experienced a period of revitalization in theearly 1990s. Under the directorship of Professor Kenneth J. Hagan (1990-1993),it expanded in scope and assumed much greater importance for the study ofnaval history by midshipmen, scholars, and the general public. In January, 1993,it opened the new Class of 1951 Gallery of Ships, which for the first time properlyhouses the phenomenal Henry Huddleston Rogers Collection of woodendockyard and bone models built in the age of sail.

In October 1993, the museum loaned $3.5 million worth of artifacts toHamburg, Germany, for a brief but extensive exhibition on maritime and navalhistory entitled ART MARITIM '93. With an attendance of over 25,000 people,this was the largest overseas exhibit ever mounted by any U.S. Navy museum.

The Naval Academy Museum is also the repository of the Beverley R.Robinson Collection of historic naval aquatints, messotints, engravings, andlithographs. Fully endowed to perpetually honor the donor, the collection now

includes over 6,000 originals, many dating from the eighteenth and earlynineteenth centuries, before the advent of photography. Prints from this precioussource for the study of European and American naval history have beenreproduced in a carefully documented catalog and on a 12-inch video disk. Thedisk contains a total of 19,000 images relating to naval history generally and tothe Naval Academy in particular.

The largest official Navy museum is the National Naval Aviation Museumat Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. It ranks as the largest by virtue of thesize of its artifacts and the enthusiasm of its supporters, many of whom are navalaviators. The museum currently is undergoing rapid growth funded by theaviation industry, naval aviation buffs, foundation grants, and the million dollarsin revenues that its gift shop generates annually. When completed, the five-module museum will overshadow the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museum.

Pensacola already dwarfs the Naval Air Test and Evaluation Museum at theNaval Air Warfare Center, Patuxent River, Maryland. Founded in 1978, thePatuxent museum tells the hair-raising story of testing and evaluating navalaircraft. The collection includes many actual aircraft, and a trainer for the F-4Phantom allows visitors to sit in the simulated cockpit of a Navy fighter.

With over a million visitors per year, the historic frigate Constitution in theCharlestown Navy Yard near Boston tops the Navy Department museums inannual attendance. Nearby, the Submarine Force Museum at Groton, Connec-ticut has made great strides since the mooring of the USS Nautilus at the backdoor of its new facility. It now ranks among the top five museums in NewEngland in terms of attendance. More modest is the nearby Naval War CollegeMuseum, which focuses on the Naval War College, the naval and maritimeheritage of Newport, Rhode Island, and the seafaring tradition of the people ofNarragansett Bay.

Far to the south, the Hampton Roads Naval Museum is expanding into anew facility in the commercial center of Norfolk, Virginia. Devoted to the navaland maritime heritage of the Norfolk region, the exhibitions are chronologicallyand topically organized to maximize their pedagogical potential. This expansionis a success story which the National Endowment for the Humanities declinedto finance, a regrettable commentary on the difficulty of winning support fromthe NEH or the National Endowment for the Arts for projects connected withthe federal government.

In Athens, Georgia, the Naval Supply Corps Museum, established in 1974,serves also as an archives. The Museum traces the development and growth ofthe Supply Corps using models of auxiliary ships, uniforms, equipment, and adiverse collection of objects. It also houses a collection of technical manuals,cookbooks, and documentary material related to the Supply Corps School inAthens.

The Navy maintains three West Coast museums. The comprehensive NavalUndersea Museum is located at the Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Keyport,Washington. It covers twentieth-century technology as applied to the 'worldbeneath the sea, including warfare, exploration, and exploitation of resources onthe ocean bed. The Civil Engineer Corps—Seabee Museum at Port Hueneme,California commemorates the achievements of the Naval Construction Force(Seabees) and the Navy's Civil Engineer Corps. In San Francisco Bay, theTreasure Island Museum was founded during the American Bicentennial topromote knowledge of naval, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard activities in thePacific basin. The future of this small museum is clouded by the uncertainty overbase closures accompanying the Navy's "downsizing" in the 1990s.

•  •  •

The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., provides coverage onnaval history and occasionally promotes the topic through special travellingexhibitions. In the past twenty-five years two major naval exhibitions have beenmounted. "The Japan Expedition of Commodore Matthew C. Perry" in 1964and "The Magnificent Voyagers: The U.S. Exploring Expedition of 1838-1842"in 1986 were both held in the National Museum of Natural History, with thelatter also travelling to other museums. In 1994 the Museum of AmericanHistory is sending an exhibition on American culture to Japan, to include artifactsrelating to Commodore Perry's expedition borrowed from the Naval AcademyMuseum.

The apparent vigor of the Smithsonian Institution in the field of naval historymasks an unfortunate structural malady. The Museum of American History,presumably the preferred locus for exhibits on American naval history, does notcontain the Smithsonian's walk-through of a simulated World War II aircraftcarrier. That popular eye-grabber, which enables the public to watch film-stripsof carrier operations from the vantage points of the ship's skipper and "air boss,"is situated in the Air and Space Museum across the Mall from the Museum ofAmerican History.

More ominous is the Museum of American History's consistent retrenchmentof support for naval history during the last two decades. Administrativelysubordinated to military history, the naval specialty has lost curatorial time,exhibit space, and research fellowships. There is now only one curator of navalhistory and little prospect of replacement when he retires. A pool of irreplaceableexpertise has evaporated because the Smithsonian hierarchy lacks interest in thehistory of the United States Navy.

For a comprehensive view, see Philip K. Lundeberg, "Military Museums," John E. Jessup, Jr., ed.,Encyclopedia of the American Military, 3 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1994).

• • •

In the private arena, one highly important organization is the Historic NavalShips Association of North America, which assists in the preservation ofsixty-seven former U.S. Navy vessels, including four aircraft carriers, fourbattleships, two cruisers, ten destroyers, one destroyer escort, twenty-foursubmarines, four wooden ships, and other smaller types such as minesweepersand PT boats. More than seven million people boarded these vessels in 1990,and in the same year, their operating budgets reached $21.5 million. Besides theships themselves, some of these centers contain elaborate exhibits on board theships or in nearby shore facilities. Some have extensive educational programs,among the most effective of which are overnight youth encampments withlectures, tours, and films.

Certain exhibitions deserve special note. The Second World War carrier USSIntrepid is one of the most popular tourist attractions in New York City.Battleship Cove in Fall River, Massachusetts, has an outstanding collection ofships, including the USS Massachusetts. And finally, the National Park Servicemaintains the emotionally wrenching USS Arizona Memorial in Pearl Harbor—one of the most highly visited of the national parks.

Many submarines have been saved and converted into museums because theyare smaller and therefore easier and less expensive to maintain than mostwarships. For this reason, several submarines are located far from the ocean,perhaps most dramatically the captured German U-505 in Chicago. At the otherend of the spectrum are the aircraft carriers, notably the USS Yorktown (CV-10)in Charleston, South Carolina, where hull maintenance in a semi-tropicalclimate is a fiscal nightmare.

The historic naval ships of World War II were saved in part because so manythousands of their crew members came to share a sense of nostalgia for theexciting times of wartime shipboard life. What will become of these ships oncethe veterans of World War II are gone is a major concern to those maintainingand operating thern today as museums.

State aid may be one answer; it has rescued two important relics of earliereras. In 1988, the U.S. brig Niagara, one of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry'sflagships in 1813, was rebuilt at Erie, Pennsylvania, and now is used as an officialpromotional vessel for the state of Pennsylvania. Similarly, the battleship Texas,the only survivor of service in both world wars, was rescued by the state of Texasa few years ago when its veterans' support group became minuscule. The Texasrecently underwent an overhaul valued in excess of $21 million.

Two other masterpieces have been less fortunate. Commodore George Dewey's1898 flagship, the cruiser Olympia at Philadelphia, and the sailing warship USSConstellation at Baltimore—both beguiling historical specimens—have suffered

devastating periods of neglect. They could sink at their piers because they haveno natural national constituency of concerned individuals to rescue them.

The Historic Naval Ships Association is attempting to alert Congress to theplight of these ships and win appropriations for their repair in the years ahead.One innovative idea is to use funds obtained from the scrapping of less historicships in the Navy's inventory to maintain the wooden Constellation, the U.S.destroyer Kidd, the diesel submarine USS Cod, the nuclear-powered USSNautilus, and others.

•  •  •

Two non-government museums fall into a special category and are essentialsites for people interested in the Normandy invasion of 6 June 1944. The FirstDivision Museum on the Cantigny estate in Wheaton, Illinois, contains aremarkable recreation of a portion of the Normandy beach as it was on D-day.In New Orleans, the Eisenhower Center is planning a large D-day museum,with groundbreaking scheduled for the fiftieth anniversary of history's mostmassive amphibious landing. Both sites deserve all the popularity they willreceive in the future.

Archives, Manuscript Collections, and Libraries

American naval studies traditionally have focused heavily on strategy andoperations and have been based almost solely upon government documents,mostly from within the Department of the Navy or the Defense Department.A stunning variety of resources used by social and cultural historians remainsvirtually untapped by naval historians: the popular press; records on immigration,health, and voting; television and movie portrayals; propaganda; advertising; andeven sermons. Historians of the United States Navy have also neglected suchtrans- or non-national agencies as the United Nations, NATO, and the RedCross—each of which holds keys to the American naval experience. Theseresources belong to all historians and will not be surveyed here, but one set ofrecords external to the Navy must be mentioned.

Reports from U.S. consuls and consulates are extremely useful for studies ofoverseas naval operations and the category of cruising known as "showing theflag," or "gunboat diplomacy." Most consular records have been accessioned bythe National Archives, and many have been microfilmed as part of RecordGroups 59 and 84. In addition, many consuls kept priceless letterbooks that havefound their way into other depositories. The Special Collections Division of theNaval Academy Library, for example, contains the letterbooks of Richard B.Jones and Moses Young pertaining to U.S. relations with North Africa at thetime of the Barbary Wars. Among the issues they discuss are Great Britain'sclaims to two Tripolitan prize ships taken by the U.S. Navy. This is an essential

dimension to the proper analysis of nineteenth-century U.S. naval strategy andoperations.

Three types of archival sources directly applicable to United States navalhistory present themselves for special consideration: those concerning construc-tion plans and blueprints, operational records, and the documents of high-leveldecision making. The accessibility of each category of records varies. Plans,blueprints, and ship-building folders have been preserved to a considerableextent and are available to scholars at the National Archives Cartographic Office,located at the new National Archives building at the University of Maryland.

The records of the technical bureaus that did so much to shape the Navy'sphysical elements beginning in 1842—BuOrd, BuShips, BuAer, etc.—areavailable, but pose a problem of access. Post-1941 bureau files are stored at theNational Archives Federal Records Center in Suitland, Maryland, but locatingthe documents relevant to any particular study is an uncertain and frustratingexercise. One way to get at some of this material for the twentieth century is tostudy the records of the General Board of the Navy, which have been publishedon microfilm by Scholarly Resources.

Records of operations, including ships' logs, war diaries, and action reports,are relatively easy to access at the National Archives. For greater convenience,Scholarly Resources of Wilmington, Delaware, has microfilmed most of thematerial pertaining to the nineteenth-century Navy.

The third category of archival naval records, covering policy and high-leveldecision making, is difficult to save and recover, and eventually to declassify.Since World War II, especially, decisions regarding naval strategy and policyhave been made by numerous bodies, and there is no national standard for storageand accessibility of interagency documents. Among the bodies that tacklestrategic questions are such sensitive offices as those of the State Department,the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the National Security Council, the National SecurityAgency, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the President. Partly because ofinteragency "turf wars" and partly because of valid concerns about preservingstate secrets, these records present a myriad of challenges to the naval historian.One helpful technique is to desert Washington, D.C. in favor of the presidentiallibraries, which often contain a great deal of relevant interagency material.

It is important to recall that many momentous decisions were made at the"CinC" level, that is, by commanders of joint commands, or of fleets fardistant from Washington. Often the decisions were conveyed over messagetraffic. The Navy messages are preserved in the Operational Archives of theNaval Historical Center, but accessibility is restricted by security-classifica-tion considerations.

25    Hearings Before the General Board of the Navy, 1911-50 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources,1983), microfilm, 15 reels.

For more on these issues, see David Alan Rosenberg, "Process: The Realities of Formulating Modern

The impediment of security classification affects a broad range of the Navy'sCold War archives. For all intents and purposes, systematic declassification ofNavy records halted in 1982 with the declassification of most of the Korean Warfiles. Review of some accessioned records of special interest to the NavalHistorical Center and the Naval Intelligence Command continued after 1982.In general, however, there now exists a forty-year spread (1953—1993) ofneedlessly classified and hence inaccessible materials.

This regrettable situation requires remedy through issuance of a new declas-sification executive order and implementing directives. The emphasis should beplaced on the release of information, as in President Richard M. Nixon's E.O.11652, rather than on security, as in President Ronald Reagan's E.O. 12356.The Clinton administration ought to address questions of what should beclassified and for how long, as well as the possibility of bulk declassification ofCold War-era materials. Hopefully, a new and liberal executive order wouldemerge from such a reexamination of policy.

•  •  •

The National Archives will accession the World War II operations andplanning records from the Naval Historical Center and the Marine CorpsHistorical Office in 1995. In that same year, these and all other military anddiplomatic records dating back to 1941 will be moved to the new NationalArchives building on the campus of the University of Maryland at College Park.For the first time, one repository will house the major documentary resourceson the politico-military policies, decisions, and actions of World War II andafter. This is a major accomplishment and will alleviate hours of tiresome travelbetween various repositories scattered around Washington.

The National Capitol contains valuable manuscript collections, although thepersonal records of leading naval figures will always remain somewhat scattered.Many important papers assembled by the Naval Historical Foundation have beendeposited with the Library of Congress Manuscript Division in the MadisonBuilding. As an aid to locating this collection and others, the Naval HistoricalCenter publishes   U.S.   Naval History Sources in  the  United States.  A more

27

comprehensive guide is the National Union Catalogue of Manuscript Collections.

The Naval Historical Center at the Washington Navy Yard is presentlymaking efforts to collect papers, including those of Admirals Arleigh A. Burke,Elmo R. Zumwalt, Jr., and Arthur W. Radford, as well as those of recent chiefs

Naval Strategy," in James Goldrick and John B. Hattendorf, eds., Mahan is Not Enough: TheProceedings of a Conference on the Works of Sir Julian Corbett and Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond (Newport,R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1993), 14, 15, inter alia.

27   U.S. Naval History Sources in the United States (Washington: Naval History Division, 1979); TheNational Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections (Washington: Library of Congress, 1959-61).

of naval operations (CNOs) Carlisle A.H. Trost, James D. Watkins, and FrankB. Kelso. The most recent collections will remain classified for years. But theybring up the question as to whether there ought to be an American equivalentof the successful British Naval Records Society to encourage the collection andstudy of the papers of men and women below the top tier of the Navy. TheAmerican Naval History Society has been defunct since World War I and theNaval Historical Foundation, which did so much to create the manuscriptcollection deposited in the Library of Congress, has not demonstrated markedenergy in preserving papers in recent years.

Outside Washington, manuscript collections of special importance to U.S.naval history are found at the Naval Academy and the Naval War College.Among the more significant individual papers in the War College's HistoricalCollection are those of Admirals Stephen B. Luce, A. T. Mahan, Ernest J. King,Harris Laning, William V. Pratt, and Raymond A. Spruance. Fragments ofpersonal records can be found in the Naval Academy Museum and in the SpecialCollections Division of the Nimitz Library at the Naval Academy. Elsewhere,East Carolina, Duke, Yale, Harvard, Brown, the New York Public Library, andthe Hoover Institution at Stanford University have notable manuscript collec-tions, as do the hometown presidential libraries administered by the NationalArchives.

•  •  •

Two invaluable oral history programs must not be overlooked by seriousscholars seeking insights into the mind-sets of the men and women who madepolicy and strategy, even though their recollections must be somewhat dis-counted because of the inevitable impact of hindsight on memory. One isconducted by the Naval Historical Center in Washington, D.C. and the otherby the U.S. Naval Institute in Annapolis.

Begun in 1969 and currently directed by Paul Stillwell, the Naval InstituteOral History Program has amassed a library of one hundred ninety boundvolumes of transcripts. Most of the oral histories cover an individual's entirecareer, but some concentrate on specialized topics, such as early WAVES officers,the first black naval officers, and the Normandy invasion of June 1944. Thevolumes are available to the researcher at the Naval Institute's headquarters inAnnapolis, Maryland, and through rental or purchase.

See Evelyn M. Cherpak, A Guide to Archives, Manuscripts and Oral Histories in the Naval HistoricalCollection (Newport: Naval War College, 1991).

29 For the oral histories at the Naval Historical Center, see Edward J. Marolda, et al., eds., Oral HistoryCollection in the Operational Archives, Naval Historical Center (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1983);those at the Naval Institute are cumulatively listed in "U.S. Naval Institute Oral History Collection:Catalog of Transcripts" (Annapolis: NIP, 1993-1994).

For two accessible oral histories, see Paul Stillwell, ed., The Golden Thirteen:  Recollections of the First

The Oral History Program is an adjunct of the Naval Institute's LibraryServices and Photo Archives, a research center administered by Mary BethStraight. This reference collection consists of 4,500 books, indexed back copiesof the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings and Naval History, and more than 400,000photographic images.

•  •  •

One of the nation's two best libraries for the study of naval history is theNimitz Library of the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. The otherone is the Navy Department Library at the Naval Historical Center inWashington, D.C. These two repositories house virtually every book everwritten on the topic of U.S. naval history.

As part of the Naval Academy, the Nimitz Library relies on year-end fundingto supplement its book budget. Without this special but wildly fluctuatingallocation of funds, the library's periodicals' purchases—devoted mostly toscience and engineering—would soon exceed 70 percent of the library'smaterials' budget. As a result of this erratic allocations system, the library's bookpurchases have declined sharply, from 10,000 titles in fiscal year 1992 to slightlymore than 6,000 in fiscal year 1993. This decline practically guarantees that thecore collection in naval history, so painstakingly gathered by dedicated facultyand librarians in the one hundred fifty years of the Naval Academy's existence,will cease to stand as an infallible source of books for scholars and midshipmen.

Published Collections

Published collections of personal papers and correspondence are of consider-able use to the historian. Foremost of these is The Letters and Papers of AlfredThayer Mahan, edited by Robert Seager II and Doris D. Maguire. Also usefulare the New American State Papers, Naval Series; microfilm editions of the papersof John Paul Jones, Samuel DuPont, and John Ericsson; the diaries of JosephusDaniels; the correspondence of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge;the writings of Stephen B. Luce; and the various impressive collections ofpresidential papers.

Black Naval Officers (Annapolis: NIP, 1993), and ed., Assault on Normandy: First-Person Accounts fromthe Sea Services (Annapolis: NIP, 1994).

For a dated but comprehensive listing of depositories relevant to this section, see Dean C. Allard, etal., U.S. Naval History Sources in the United States (Washington: Naval History Division, 1979).

31   Seager and Maguire, eds., The Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 1, 1847-1889; vol. 2,1890-1901; vol. 3, 1902-1914 (Annapolis: NIP, 1975).

The New American State Papers, Naval Series, ed., K. Jack Bauer (Wilmington, Del.: ScholarlyResources, 1981); The Papers of John Paul Jones, microform edition, ed., James C. Bradford (Alexandria,Va.: Chadwyck-Healey, 1986); Official Dispatches and Letters of Rear Admiral DuPont, U.S. Navy:1846-48, 1861-63 (Wilmington, Del.: Press of Ferris Bros., Printers, 1883; Ann Arbor, Mich.:University Microfilm International, 1986); The Papers of John Ericsson,    microfilm edition, Esther

Following the rise of the modern American Navy in the 1880s, the NavyDepartment made several serious efforts to collect relevant historical books anddocuments for historians. James Russell Soley created the Office of Library andNaval War Records (in 1915 the name was reversed) and was given funds tostart publishing the documentary series, Official Records of the Union and Con-federate Navies in the War of the Rebellion (1894—1922). This series was followedby those on the Quasi— and Barbary Wars at the suggestion of President andformer Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt. This type ofproject continues with the ongoing publication of the records of the Revolu-tionary and 1812 wars—an enterprise based on documents that FDR himselffound in the State, War and Navy Building. When these projects are eventuallycompleted, decisions must be made concerning the future of such documentaryediting. Given the sheer volume of collections from subsequent wars, perhapsonly representative selections should be collected, using as a model Ronald H.Spector's Listening to the Enemy.

Bibliography

Bibliography has always been a thriving form of publication in U.S. navalhistory. Each essay in Kenneth J. Hagan's In Peace and War: Interpretations ofAmerican Naval History, 1775—1984 provides a thoughtful bibliography, as dothe individual chapters of Allan R. Millett and Peter Maslowski, For the CommonDefense—the most widely used college textbook of American military history—and of Millett's Semper Fidelis. The most important volumes specifically dedicatedto bibliography are: Robert G. Albion, Naval and Maritime History: An AnnotatedBibliography; Charles T. Harbeck, A Contribution to the Bibliography of the History

Chilstrom Meixner, project director (Philadelphia: American Swedish Historical Foundation, 1970);The Cabinet Diaries ofjosephus Daniels, ed., E. D. Cronon (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963);Selections from the Correspondence of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge (New York: CharlesScribner's & Sons, 1925); The Writings of Stephen B. Luce, ed., John D. Hayes and John B. Hattendorf(Newport R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1975); The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, eds., Elting E. Morisonand John M. Blum (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1951—54).

For a general overview, see John B. Hattendorf, "Purpose and Contribution in Editing NavalDocuments," in Editing Naval Documents (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1984), pp. 43—61.

33 Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, 30 vols. (Washington:U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1894-1922).

34 William B. Clark and William J. Morgan, eds., Naval Documents of the American Revolution:1774-1777, 9 vols. (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1964-1980); Naval Documents Related to theQuasi-War Between the United States and France: Naval Operations from February 1797 to October 1798, 7vols. (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1935-1938); and Naval Documents Related to the United StatesWars with the Barbary Powers: Naval Operations Including Diplomatic Background from 1785 through 1807, 6vols. (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off, 1939-1944).

35 William S. Dudley, ed., The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History, vol. 1, 1912; vol. 2, 1913(Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off, 1985, 1992); Ronald H. Spector, Listening to the Enemy: KeyDocuments on the Role of Communications Intelligence in the War with Japan (Wilmington, Del.: ScholarlyResources, 1988).

of the United States Navy; Benjamin W. Labaree, A Supplement (1971—1986) toRobert G. Albion's Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography; RobinD. S. Higharn, A Guide to Sources of United States Military History; Paolo E.Coletta, A Bibliography of American Naval History and A Selected and AnnotatedBibliography of American Naval History; Myron J. Smith's multi-volume bibliog-raphies, The American Navy and World War II at Sea; and the Naval HistoricalCenter's United States Naval History: A Bibliography.

More particular bibliographies include: John C. Fredricksen, Free Trade andSailors* Rights: A Bibliography of the War of 1812; John B. Hattendorf and LynnC. Hattendorf, A Bibliography of the Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan; John D. Hayesand John B. Hattendorf, The Writings of Stephen B. Luce; and Edward J. Maroldaand James Lesher, A Bibliography of the United States Navy and the Conflict inSoutheast Asia, 1950-1915?1

The Journal of Military History (formerly Military Affairs) publishes fine annualbibliographies on military history by subject, including books, collections,articles, and dissertations. The JMH also publishes book reviews—the criticalmeans of keeping bibliographically current—as do The American Neptune, NavalWar College Review, and the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, and its new offshoot,Naval History.

Immeasurably valuable for beginning to comprehend the tortured history ofwomen in the Navy and in the military generally is a bibliographical essay,"Women in the Military," by the historian D'Ann Campbell. Campbell'sworking premise touches the Navy directly: "The infamous 'Tailhook' incident

Hagan, In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History, 1775—1984 (Westport, Conn.:Greenwood Press, 1984); Millett and Maslowski, For the Common Defense (New York: Free Press, 1984);Albion, Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography (Mystic, Conn.: The Marine HistoricalAssoc, 1955, 1963, 1972); Harbeck, comp., A Contribution to the Bibliography of the United States Navy(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1906); Labaree, A Supplement (1971-1986) to Robert G. Albion'sNaval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography, 4th ed. (Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum,1988); Higham, ed., A Guide to Sources of United States Military History (Hamden: Archon Books, 1975),also, three supplements covering five years each, Higham and Mrozek, eds. (Hamden, Conn.: ArchonBooks, 1981-1993); Coletta, A Bibliography of American Naval History (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press ofAmerica, 1981), and A Selected and Annotated Bibliography of American Naval History (Lanham, Md.: Univ.Press of America, 1988); Smith, The American Navy, 1789—1941: A Bibliography, 5 vols. (Metuchen,N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1972-1974), World War II at Sea: A Bibliography of Sources in English, 3 vols.(Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1974-1990), and United States Naval History: A Bibliography, NavalHistory Bibliographies, no. 1, 7th ed., revised by Barbara A. Lynch and John E. Vajda (Washington:Naval Historical Center, 1993). See also Dean L. Mawdsley, Cruise Books of the United States Navy inWorld War II: A Bibliography, Naval History Bibliographies, no. 2 (Washington: Naval Historical Center,1993).

Fredricksen, Free Trade and Sailors' Rights: A Bibliography of the War of 1812 (Westport, Conn.:Greenwood Press, 1985); J. Hattendorf and L. Hattendorf, comps., A Bibliography of the Works of AlfredThayer Mahan (Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1986); Hayes and Hattendorf, eds., The Writingsof Stephen B. Luce (Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1975); and Marolda and Lesher, comps.,A Bibliography of the United States Navy and the Conflict in Southeast Asia, 1950-1975 (Washington: U.S.Govt. Print. Off., 1991).

and cover-up of 1991—1992 has spotlighted the problem of sexual harassmentin military culture."" The strong implications of this assertion may partiallyexplain why the Naval Historical Center is contracting for a comprehensivemonograph on the history of women in the naval service, a project that will takeseveral years to complete.

The Historiography of the United States Navy

Naval history in the United States is as old as the Navy itself, with origins inaccounts of the Revolutionary, Quasi- and Barbary Wars. The first large bodyof writing appeared soon after the now-famous frigate actions of the youngAmerican Navy in the War of 1812. Heroes and martyrs of these early warsprovided most of the subjects for battle narratives tending toward hagiology.Nonetheless, there were contemporaneous efforts at institutional history byBenjamin Folsom, Thomas Clark, Isaac Bailey, and Abel Bowen. In a periodof relatively low literacy rates, naval history in the early national period alsoincluded an impressive body of paintings and published engravings.

Nearly three decades after the War of 1812, James Fenimore Cooperchallenged the prevailing eulogistic interpretation of Commodore OliverHazard Perry and opened a rancorous debate about American naval policywith his controversial History of the Navy of the United States of America. Bythen the service was deeply imbued with a heroic history, one personifiedby the Perry family that already had third-generation officers in the Navy.George Bancroft joined in the Perrys' defense. As the pre-eminent historianof mid-nineteenth century America, Bancroft hastened the demise ofCooper's brand of historical objectivity by promoting an enduring tradition

38 Campbell, "Women in the Military," Choice, vol. 31 (September 1993): pp. 63-70.

39 For an example, see Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, The Life of Paul Jones (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, &Co., 1841).

40 Folsom, A Compilation of Biographical Sketches of Distinguished Officers in the American Navy(Newburyport, Mass.: n.p., 1814), which included Washington Irving's "Commodore Oliver HazardPerry;" Clark, Sketches of the Naval History of the United States, from the Commencement of the RevolutionaryWar to the Present Time (Philadelphia: M. Carey, 1813); Bailey, American Naval Biography (Providence,R.I.: H. Mann and Co., 1815); and Bowen, The Naval Monument (Boston: A. Bowen, 1816).

41 Cooper, History of the Navy of the United States of America (London: R. Bendey, 1839). His accountof the Battle of Lake Erie (1813) reopened a feud over credit and blame for the great victory. For thecontroversy, see Cooper, The Battle of Lake Erie: or, Answers to Messrs. Burges, Duer, and Mackenzie(Coopertown, N.Y.: H.E. Phinney, 1843); Robert Emmet Long, James Fenimore Cooper (New York:Continuum, 1990); and David Curtis Skaggs, "James Fenimore Cooper and the Batde of Lake Erie:Historical Veracity and Political Correctness" (paper presented to the Eleventh Naval HistorySymposium, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., 1993).

42 See Morison, "Old Bruin:" Commodore Matthew C. Perry 1794-1858 (Boston: Litde, Brown & Co.,1967), pp. 447-9. Much of the historiography of the U.S. Navy is covered in Hagan, "BibliographicalEssay," This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Pou>er (New York: Free Press, 1991), pp. 391-411;and in Shulman, "The Influence of History Upon Sea Power: The Navalist Reinterpretation of theWar of 1812," Journal of Military History (April 1992),: pp. 183-205.

A 'X

of heroic patriotic nationalism. Bancroft also brought note to the NavyDepartment when, as Secretary of the Navy, he founded the Naval Academy atAnnapolis in 1845, an institution designed to instruct in the technical require-ments of the profession while also inculcating the chauvinism of nineteenth-century military culture.

The Civil War turned the nation's interest in military history to the opera-tions, heroes, and villains of the land war. The only significant early volumes onthe naval aspects of the war were written by two naval officers, Daniel Ammenand Alfred Thayer Mahan, and a civilian employee of the Navy, James R.Soley. The Navy Department ultimately did what it could to facilitate a broaderscholarship with the compilation of the multi- volume Official Records of the Unionand Confederate Navies.

With the construction of the first steel-hulled warships in the early 1880s, anew breed of politically savvy historians began to search for guidelines fromAmerican naval history to encourage the creation of a modern strategy. Theyoung Theodore Roosevelt took the lead in 1882 with his book, The Naval Warof 1812, but several other historians soon discovered invaluable admonitionsabout the importance of sea power to American security in that remoteconflict. Soon after the opening of the Naval War College at Newport in 1884,these lessons were sanctified as timeless laws by the new lecturer in navalhistory—Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan.

Mahan's successive studies on sea power and history forever changed the waythe nation would regard navies and, indeed, how the Navy would regard itself.His notions on the concentration of force, massed sea battles a la Trafalgar, andthe importance of maintaining a battle fleet to insure international status woulddominate the service and American naval historiography throughout the twen-tieth century.

Oliver Dyer, The Battle of Lake Erie and Miscellaneous Papers: The Life and Writings of George Bancroft(New York: R. Bonner's Sons, 1891; Ann Arbor, Mich: University Microfilm International, 1976), 1reel.

44 Ammen, The Atlantic Coast (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883; Wilmington, N.C.:Broadfoot Publishing Co., 1989); Mahan, The Gulf and Inland Waters (New York: Charles Scribner'sSons, 1883; Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1970); and James R. Soley, The Blockade and theCruisers (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883; New York: J. Brussel, 1959).

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion (Washington: U.S. Govt.Print. Off., 1894-1922).

46 Roosevelt, The Naval War of1812 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1882; Annapolis: NIP, 1987).See also James Barnes, Naval Actions of the War of 1812 (New York: Harper & Bros., 1896); and RossiterJohnson, A History of the War of 1812-1815 (New York: Dodd, Mead, & Co., 1882).

47 Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1890),The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1783-1812 (Boston: Little, Brown &:Co., 1892), and Sea Power and its Relations to the War of 1812 (Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1905). Theliterature on Mahan virtually dominates the non-operational history of the United States Navy. Seeespecially, Seager and Maguire, eds., The Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 1, 1847-1889;vol. 2, 1890-1901; vol. 3, 1902-1914 (Annapolis: NIP, 1975), and Seager's "warts and all" biography,

The most persuasive and articulate naval spokesman for this viewpoint wasretired Captain Dudley W. Knox, who published A History of the United StatesNavy during the debates over rearmament in the 1930s. Outside the Navy,the Mahanian torch was brightly carried by Harold and Margaret Sprout, whoseThe Rise of American Naval Power remained a standard interpretation from 1939until the 1960s. Challenges to this intellectual hegemony were few and diverse,featuring primarily George T. Davis and the noted economic determinist,Charles A. Beard.

Mahan's critics and supporters were writing with an eye to the coming war,and indeed, the lessons of sea power soon appeared to be vindicated by thestaggering American naval victories in the Atlantic and Pacific in 1942—1945.This, at least, was the viewpoint of the late Harvard Professor Samuel EliotMorison who oversaw the monumental fifteen-volume official History of UnitedStates Naval Operations in World War II. After the conclusion of the war,Morison and Mahan were indirectly institutionalized in the required text at theU.S. Naval Academy, E.B. Potter's Sea Power: A Naval History.

Among the leading successors to the Mahan-Morison navalist interpretationwas Bernard Brodie, who completed his first book, Sea Power in the Machine Age,just in time to start studying the changing strategic environment of the postwarworld. His subsequent works adapted the lessons of the history of sea power to

Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters (Annapolis: NIP, 1977). For the influence of Mahan,seeHagan, This People's Navy: The Making ofAmerican Sea Power (NewYork: Free Press, 1991); Shulman,Naualisnt and the Emergence of American Sea Power, 1882—1893, (Annapolis: NIP, 1995); Hattendorf, ed.,The Influence of History on Mahan (Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1992); Hattendorf, B.Mitchell Simpson, and John R. Wadleigh, eds., Sailors and Scholars: The Centennial History of the U.S.Naval War College (Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1984); Potter and Nimitz, eds., Sea Power:A Naval History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960); also, Potter, ed., Sea Power: A NavalHistory, 2d ed. (Annapolis: NIP, 1981); and William D. Puleston, The Life and Work of Captain AlfredThayer Mahan (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1939). It should also be noted that an enthusiasticfollowing has long existed for "popular" naval histories such as those by J. Willis Abbot, William BellClark, and Fletcher Pratt.48  48. Knox, A History of the United States Navy (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1936, 1948).

Sprout and Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power, 1776-1918 (New Jersey: Princeton Univ.Press, 1939; Annapolis: NIP, 1990). See also, Charles Oscar Paullin, The Navy and the American Revolution(Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1906), and Diplomatic Negotiations of American Naval Officers (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1912; Gloucester, Mass.: P. Smith, 1967). Paullin was the firstprofessionally trained American naval historian. The Sprouts drew upon his essays, which appeared inthe U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings early in the twentieth century.

Davis, A Navy Second to None: The Development of Modem American Naval Policy (New Haven, Conn.:Yale Univ. Press, 1940). Davis was a New Haven school teacher who took a Yale Ph.D. and thendisappeared from the field. Beard, The Navy: Defense of Portent} (New York: Harper & Bros., 1932).One of the foremost scholars of his day, Beard wrote widely in history, first from Columbia Universityand then from the New School For Social Research.

Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, 15 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown& Co., 1947-1963).

52  Potter and Nimitz, eds., Sea Power: A Naval History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960);also Potter, ed., The United States and World Sea Power (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1955).

nuclear strategy and established the standard of discourse for this popular newCold War field. Beard and Davis, on the other hand, found no successors untilthe dissolution of consensus associated with the Vietnam-era debates overempire, strategy, policy, and politics.

In the 1960s, historians of the "New Left" became a potent force in thereinterpretation of American diplomatic and naval history. Many of them wereschooled in the tradition of the University of Wisconsin's "Progressive His-torians," and in particular by William Appleman Williams, who ironically wasa World War II graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy. These younger scholars,soon dubbed "revisionists," quickly focused upon businessmen's pressure foroverseas investments and trade as the source—and the Navy as the tool—ofAmerican aggression, especially in the late nineteenth century. Firing the firstshots in nearly a generation, Walter LaFeber, not himself trained by Williams,wrote suggestively in The New Empire of the Navy secretary who oversaw theauthorization of America's first true battleships: "In preparing the United Statesto occupy this 'seat of empire,' [Benjamin F.] Tracy had few equals."'

LaFeber's work, as well as the contemporaneous political debates over"America's Empire," sparked a remarkable new industry of tightly focused worksexamining the nonoperational aspects of the Navy. The studies include JamesC. Bradford, Makers of the American Naval Tradition, an edited series of navalbiographies in three volumes thus far; Richard D. Challener, Admirals, Generals,and American Foreign Policy, Benjamin F. Cooling, Benjamin Franklin Tracy,Vincent Davis, The Admirals hobby, JefFery M. Dorwart, The Office of NavalIntelligence and Conflict of Duty; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas; JamesA. Field, Jr., From Gibraltar to the Middle East: America and the Mediterranean World,1776-1882; J.A.S. Grenville and George B. Young, Politics, Strategy, andAmerican Diplomacy; Kenneth J. Hagan, American Gunboat Diplomacy and the OldNavy, 1877—1889; Frederick S. Harrod, Manning the New Navy: The Developmentof a Modern Enlisted Force, 1899-1940; Walter R. Herrick, The American NavalRevolution; Peter D. Karsten, The Naval Aristocracy; Harold D. Langley, SocialReform in the United States Navy, 1798—1862; Christopher McKee, A Gentlemanlyand Honorable Profession: The Creation of the U.S. Naval Officer Corps, 1794—1815;Robert L. O'Connell, Sacred Vessels: The Cult of the Battleship and the Rise of theU.S. Navy; Ronald H. Spector, Professors of War; and Craig L. Symonds, Navalistsand Antinavalists.    These important volumes signified the emergence of a new

Brodie, Sea Power in the Machine Age (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1943), and The AbsoluteWeapon (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1946). For a gathering of naval historians of the 1950s andearly 1960s, see Richard A. von Doenhoff, ed., Versatile Guardian: Research in Naval History, NationalArchives Conferences, vol. 14 (Washington: Howard Univ. Press, 1979).

Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1959).

55 LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Ithaca, N.Y.: CornellUniv. Press, 1963), 127.

56 Bradford, ed., Admirals of the New Steel Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1880-1930

generation of historians dedicated to furthering a critical understanding of navalhistory.

To a considerable extent, the new naval historians were scrutinizing the latenineteenth-century origins of the modern American Navy. They and severalothers soon moved forward. In 1981 the diplomatic historian David F. Traskpublished a thoughtful reappraisal of all aspects of the Spanish American War of1898, including strategy and leadership. Inevitably, he resurrected the hoarytopic of who deserved credit for the naval victory in Santiago de Cuba on 3 July1898: Rear Admiral William T. Sampson, who was in overall command, orWinfield Scott Schley, the tactical commander? Trask also published a defini-tive study of U.S. naval preparations and operations during the First World War,joining a debate about the relative merit of battleships and convoys originallyopened by the brilliant commander of U.S. naval forces in European waters,William Sowden Sims, in his Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Victory at Sea.

(Annapolis: NIP, 1990), Captains of the Old Steam Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition,1840-1880 (Annapolis: NIP, 1986), and Command under Sail: Makers of the American Naval Tradition1115—1850 (Annapolis: NIP, 1988); Challener, Admirals, Generals, and American Foreign Policy,1898—1914 (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1973); Cooling, Benjamin Franklin Tracy: Father of theModem American Fighting Navy (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1973); Davis, Postwar Defense Policyand the U.S. Navy, 1943-1946 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1966), and The AdmiralsLobby (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1967); Dorwart, The Office of Naval Intelligence: TheBirth of America's First Intelligence Agency, 1865-1918 (Annapolis: NIP, 1979), and Conflict of Duty: TheU.S. Navy's Intelligence Dilemma, 1919-1945 (Annapolis: NIP, 1983); Drake, The Empire of the Seas: ABiography of Rear Admiral Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1984); Field,From Gibraltar to the Middle East: America and the Mediterranean World, 1116—1882 (Chicago: ImprintPublications, 1991); Grenville and Young, Politics, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in ForeignPolicy, 1813-1911 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1966); Hagan, American Gunboat Diplomacyand the Old Navy, 1811-1899 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973); Harrod, Manning the NewNavy: The Development of a Modem Enlisted Force, 1899—1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press,1978); Herrick, The American Naval Revolution (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1966);Karsten, The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modem American Navalism(New York: Free Press, 1972); Langley, Social Reform in the United States Navy, 1198-1862 (Urbana:Univ. of Illinois Press, 1967); McKee, A Gentlemanly and Honorable Profession: The Creation of the U.S.Naval Officer Corps, 1194-1815 (Annapolis: NIP, 1991); O'Connell, Sacred Vessels: The Cult of theBattleship and the Rise of the U.S. Navy (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991); Spector, Professors ofWar: The Naval War College and the Development of the Naval Profession (Newport, R.I.: Naval WarCollege Press, 1977); and Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the UnitedStates: (Newark, Del.: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1980).

57 Trask, The War With Spain in 1898 (New York: Macmillan, 1981), and the analysis continued inJames C. Bradford, ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish American War & its Aftermath (Annapolis: NavalInstitute Press, 1993). For another endless controversy about the war, see Hyman G. Rickover, Howthe Battleship Maine was Destroyed (Washington: Naval History Division, 1976).

58 Trask, Captains and Cabinets: Anglo-American Naval Relations, 1911-1918 (Columbia: Univ. ofMissouri Press, 1972); and Sims, with Burton J. Hendrick, The Victory At Sea (Garden City, N.Y.:Doubleday, Page & Co., 1920). See also, Trask, The United States in the Supreme War Council: AmericanWar Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1911-1918 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1961), andThe AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1911-1918 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993).

Even as they negotiated the terms of the German surrender at the Parisconference in 1918—1919, the Anglo-American naval partners fell out over thepostwar naval force structure, thus setting the stage for the Washington Con-ference on the Limitation of Armaments of 1921—1922. The U.S. Navy'suncompromisingly hostile reaction to that conference set the tone for theconservative, pro-Mahanian historiography of the interwar years epitomized bythe works of Captain Dudley W. Knox. A generation later, Thomas H. Buckleyand William R. Braisted analyzed the epochal meeting with unparalleled fairnessand clarity.

While Trask and Braisted were dissecting the Navy of the early twentiethcentury, Ronald H. Spector was leaping from the formative years of the "newnavy" of steam and steel to a keenly analytical study of the American war againstJapan, 1941—1945. His searching book, Eagle Against the Sun, puts the nostalgi-cally glamorous battles of the Pacific war and the possibly decisive Americansubmarine campaign against Japanese shipping into proper balance. He has beenjoined by Dan van der Vat, an English scholar whose comprehensive study ofthe Pacific war suggests a more influential role for air power than has previouslybeen conceded. Van der Vat had earlier analyzed the Battle of the Atlantic froma non-Mahanian perspective.

•  •  •

The story of the United States Navy in the Cold War remains largely untold,although scholars are beginning to chip away at the iceberg. The two earliestanalyses were the studies of naval politics and strategy by Vincent Davis in the1960s. Next came a pioneering monograph, Nuclear Navy, 1946-1962, whichappeared in 1974 and was written by two historians of the Atomic Energy

Buckley, The United States and the Washington Conference, 1921—1922 (Knoxville: Univ. of TennesseePress, 1970); Braisted, The United States Navy in the Pacific, 1909-1922 (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press,1971).

Spector, Eagle Against the Sun (New York: Free Press, 1985); and van der Vat, The Atlantic Campaign:World War IPs Great Struggle at Sea (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), and The Pacific Campaign: WorldWar II, The U.S.-Japanese Naval War, 1941-1945 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).

See also H.P. Willmott, The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June1942 (Annapolis: NIP, 1983), and Empires in the Balance: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies to April1942 (Annapolis: NIP, 1982); Clark M. Reynolds, The Fast Carriers: The Forging of an Air Navy (NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1968), and Admiral John Towers: The Struggle for Naval Air Supremacy (Annapolis:NIP, 1991). Clay Blair, Silent Victory (Philadelphia: J.P. Lippincott, 1975) corrects oversights of theMorison project arising from its not having been privy to the ULTRA secrets. The debate continuesto be fought by some of the original actors. For the debates, books, and players, see Roger Pineau,review of Pearl Harbor: Final Judgement by Henry Clausen and Bruce Lee (New York: Crown, 1992) inU.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (July 1993), pp. 98-9.

The documentary point of departure for balancing the American surface, subsurface, and air campaignsis United States, Strategic Bombing Survey, The United States Strategic Bombing Survey, 10 vols. (NewYork: Garland, 1976).

Commission, Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan. Dean C. Allard, FloydD. Kennedy, Jr., and Lawrence J. Korb continued the Cold War examinationfour years later with essays in In Peace and War, edited by Kenneth J. Hagan.For some time, retired Navy Captain Peter M. Swartz has been writing a doctoraldissertation on the Navy of the early Cold War. At the Naval Historical Center,Edward J. Marolda is sparking research and publication as head of the Contem-porary History Branch. One of his former subordinates, Michael A. Palmer,has published Origins of the Maritime Strategy: American Naval Strategy in the FirstPostwar Decade and two monographs on the Navy in the Persian Gulf. Thesecond volume of Robert W. Love's History of the U.S. Navy has an extensivedissection of the Navy since 1945. But the hands-down leader in the race at themoment is the Naval Academy's Michael T. Isenberg, who has just issued thefirst of a monumental two-volume analysis of the Cold War Navy. The viewsof Isenberg, Love, Palmer, and Swartz differ fundamentally from the revisionistinterpretation in Kenneth J. Hagan, This People's Navy: The Making of AmericanSea Power. This wide disparity of interpretation promises an intense his-toriographical debate about sea power in the Cold War, especially as scholarsbegin to exploit the previously sealed archives of the former Soviet Union.

•  •  •

Until very recently, the "new military history" had not yielded a completehistory of the U.S. Navy. The 1948 edition of Captain Dudley Knox's A History

61 Davis, Postwar Defense Policy and the U.S. Navy, 1943-1946 (Chapel Hill: The Univ. of NorthCarolina Press, 1966), and The Admirals Lobby (Chapel Hill: The Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1967);Hewlett and Duncan, Nuclear Navy, 1946-1962 (Illinois: The Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967); Hagan,ed., In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History, 1775-1984, 2d ed. (Westport, Conn.:Greenwood Press, 1984), pp. 290-370.

Marolda's own work concentrates on the Vietnam War: Marolda, comp., A Bibliography of the UnitedStates Navy and Conflict in Southeast Asia (Washington: Contemporary History Branch, Naval HistoricalCenter, 1991), and Marolda, ed., Operation End Sweep: A History of Minesweeping Operations in NorthVietnam (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1993). For the output of Marolda's staff and acomprehensive listing of other works on the Navy in the Cold War, see Barbara A. Lynch and John E.Vajda, 7th ed. rev., United States Naval History: A Bibliography (Washington: Naval Historical Center,1993), pp. 70-9.

Palmer, Origins of the Maritime Strategy: The Development of American Naval Strategy, 1945—1955(Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1988; Annapolis: NIP, 1990); On Course to Desert Storm: TheU.S. Navy and the Persian Gulf, Contributions to Naval History Series, no. 5 (Washington: NavalHistorical Center, 1992); and Guardians of the Gulf: A History of America's Expanding Role in the PersianGulf, 1883-1992 (New York: Free Press, 1992). For a contrasting view, see especially Jeffrey Record,Hollow Victory: A Contrary View of the Gulf War (Washington: Brassey's (US), 1993), pp. 116-7.

64 Love, History of the U.S. Navy, 1942-1991, vol. 2 (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1992), pp.278-837; Isenberg, Shield of the Republic: The United States in an Era of Cold War and Violent Peace, vol.1, 1945-1962 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993).

65 Hagan, This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Power (New York: Free Press, 1991), pp.333-87.

of the United States Navy remained a standard summary, often supplemented withE.B. Potter's Sea Power: A Naval History, or the Sprouts' Rise of American NavalPower. But in the last decade, six major syntheses have appeared, giving thereader a choice of interpretations: George W. Baer, One Hundred Years of SeaPower: The United States Navy, 1890-1990; Captain Edward L. Beach, The UnitedStates Navy: 200 Years; Kenneth J. Hagan, This People's Navy: The Making ofAmerican Sea Power, Stephen Howarth, To Shining Sea: A History of the UnitedStates Navy, 1115-1991; Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy; andNathan Miller, The U. S. Navy: A History. To some extent, each of these booksattempts "to chronicle and explain the high politics of American naval history.'

Also healthy is the list of "big books" which place the American navalexperience in a wider historical context. Foremost among recent contributionsin this line are: Martin van Creveld, Technology and War: From 2000 B.C. to thePresent; John Keegan, The Price of Admiralty; Robert O'Connell, Of Arms andMen: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression; and Paul M. Kennedy, Rise andFall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000.It should be noted that fictional accounts of naval history have never done betterthan now, with Patrick O'Brian's salty tales of warfare in the age of Nelson andthe techno-thrillers of Tom Clancy and Stephen Coonts leading the pack.

66 Knox, A History of the United States Navy (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1936, 1948); Potter, ed.,Sea Power: A Naval History, 2d ed. (Annapolis: NIP, 1981); Sprout and Sprout, The Rise of AmericanNaval Power, 1776-1918 (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1939; Annapolis: NIP, 1990).

The last comprehensive synthesis by a member of the old guard was Edwin B. Hooper, United StatesNaval Power in a Changing World (New York: Praeger, 1988).

While historians disagree widely on a definition of new military history, it would almost certainlyhave to be written by a professionally trained historian rather than a career officer. It might also becharacterized as less teleological ("the Rise and Rise". . .), or as giving less credence to notions ofAmerica's unique mission or righteousness.

67 Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The United States Navy, 1890-1990 (California: Stanford Univ.Press, 1994); Beach, The United States Navy: 200 Years (New York: H. Holt, 1986); Hagan, This People'sNavy: The Making of American Sea Power (New York: Free Press, 1991); Howarth, To Shining Sea: AHistory of the United States Navy, 1775-1991 (New York: Random House, 1991); Love, History of theU.S. Navy, vol. 1, 1775-1941; vol. 2, 1942-1991 (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Press, 1992); and Miller,The U.S. Navy (New York: Quill, 1990).

68 Robert W. Love, Jr., introduction to History of the U.S. Navy: 1775-1941, vol. 1 (Harrisburg, Pa.:Stackpole Books, 1992), xi.

69 Van Creveld, Technology and War: From 2000 B.C. to the Present (New York: Free Press, 1989);Keegan, The Price ofthe Admiralty: The Evolution of Naval Warfare (New York: Viking, 1988); O'Connell,Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1989),also Sacred Vessels: The Cult of the Battleship and the Rise of the U.S. Navy (Boulder, Colo.: WestviewPress, 1991); and Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflictfrom 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987).

70 O'Brian, The Ionian Mission (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992), and Master and Commander (1970;New York: W.W. Norton, 1990); Clancy, The Hunt for Red October (Annapolis: NIP, 1984), and RedStorm Rising (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1986); and Coonts, Flight of the Intruder (Annapolis: NIP,1986), and The Final Flight (New York: Doubleday, 1988).

• • •

Historically, the Navy has been the most technologically sophisticated of theAmerican armed services. Its historiography reflects this reality, despite themarked indifference of academic historians. Notwithstanding Jonathan G.Utley's new social history of the battleship USS Tennessee, American navalhardware traditionally has been the domain of specialists not holding permanent

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university or college positions. Frank M. Bennett, for example, was chiefengineer of the Navy. Howard I. Chapelle, author of the monumental Historyof the American Sailing Navy, was professionally associated with the SmithsonianInstitution. One of his scholarly successors is Jean Boudriot of France, author ofthe scrupulously accurate John Paul Jones and the Bonhomme Richard: A Reconstruc-

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tion of the Ship and an Account of the Battle with HMS Serapis.

Within today's community of technically oriented naval historians, it is thephysicist Norman Friedman who has made the most indelible mark with hisstudies of ships and ordnance. Sometimes assisted by the naval intelligencespecialist A. David Baker III, Friedman has added a ponderous depth of technicalmaterial on types and designs of "gray-hulled" American fighting ships. Acompetitor, free-lance writer Norman Polmar, shows a genius for blending hardtechnical data with operational aspects of the history of weapons systems. At theNaval Academy Museum, Ship Model Curator Robert F. Sumrall specializes inthe histories of certain classes of American warships, his favorite being battleships.Another biographer of battleships, Paul Stillwell, is on the staff of the U.S. Naval

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Institute.

Utley, An American Battleship at Peace and War: The U.S.S. Tennessee (Lawrence, Kans.: Univ. Pressof Kansas, 1991).

72 Bennett, The Steam Navy of the United States: A History of the Growth of the Steam Vessel of War in theU.S. Navy, and of the Naval Engineer Corps (Pittsburgh: Press of W.T. Nicholson, 1896); Chapelle, Historyof the American Sailing Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 1949); Boudriot, John Paul Jones and theBonhomme Richard: A Reconstruction of the Ship and an Account of the Battle with HMS Serapis, trans., DavidH. Roberts (Annapolis: NIP, 1987).

73 Friedman, U.S. Aircraft Carriers: An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis: NIP, 1983), U.S. Cruisers:An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis: NIP, 1984), U.S. Destroyers: An Illustrated Design History(Annapolis: NIP, 1982), U.S. Small Combatants: An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis: NIP, 1987),U.S. Submarines: An Illustrated Design History (Annapolis: NIP, 1994), Naval Radar (Annapolis: NIP,1981), U.S. Naval Weapons (Annapolis: NIP, 1985), and World Naval Weapons Systems, 2d ed. (Annapolis:NIP, 1992); Baker, illus., U.S. Aircraft Carriers (Annapolis: NIP, 1983 and The Aircraft Carrier Intrepid(Annapolis: NIP, 1982); Polmar, The Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, 15 editions (Annapolis: NIP,1978-1992); Alan Raven, Fletcher-Class Destroyers (Annapolis: NIP, 1986), Essex-Class Carriers(Annapolis: NIP, 1988); Sumrall, Iowa Class Battleships: Their Design, Weapons, and Equipment (Annapolis:NIP, 1988), Summer-Gearing Class Destroyers: Their Design, Weapons, and Equipment (Annapolis: NIP,forthcoming), Ship's Data Series, 12 vols. (Annapolis: Leeward Publications, 1973-1979), and Warship'sData Series, 5 vols. (Missoula, Mont.: Pictorial Histories, 1985-1990); and Stillwell, Battleship Arizona:An Illustrated History (Annapolis: NIP, 1991), and Battleship New Jersey: An Illustrated History (Annapolis:NIP, 1986).

Gary E. Weir, the leading historical analyst of the technology of Americansubmarines, previously taught at the U.S. Naval Academy, but today he is onthe staff of the Naval Historical Center. A colleague, Tamara M. Melia, brokenew ground with a history of U.S. naval mine countermeasures. Much earlier,the Ships' History Branch and a team of naval reservists produced thechronological biography of almost every American warship, the Dictionary ofAmerican Naval Fighting Ships. This extremely valuable multivolume en-cyclopedia should be used in conjunction with the two volumes of ships'histories prepared by K. Jack Bauer.

With a few exceptions, the burgeoning analyses of naval technology have notbeen matched by a flowering of new studies in logistics and administration.Older works continue to be the standards. Duncan S. Ballantine's U.S. NavalLogistics in the Second World remains virtually unchallenged, as does A. HunterDupree's, Science in the Federal Government and Robert G. Albion's Makers ofNaval Policy, 1798—1947 — a volume which had been quashed for many yearsas reflecting unfavorably upon its subject.

•  •  •

In many ways, scholars interested in the human aspects of the field dominateAmerican naval historiography. Nowhere is their triumph more evident than inthe field of biography. The long section on biographies and memoirs in the

74 Weir, Building American Submarines, 1914-1940, Contributions to Naval History, no. 3 (Washington:Naval Historical Center, 1991), and Forged in War: The Naval-Industrial Complex and American SubmarineConstruction, 1940-1961 (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1993); Melia, Damn the Torpedoes: AShort History of U.S. Naval Mine Countermeasures, 1777—1991, Contributions to Naval History Series,no. 4 (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1991); Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, 8 vols.(Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1964-1981); K.Jack Bauer and Stephen S. Roberts, Register ofShips of the U.S. Navy, 1775-1990 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1991); and Bauer, Ships of theNavy, 1775-1969 (Troy, N.Y.: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1970).

Weir now has some high-powered competition in Tom Clancy, Submarine: A Guided Tour from Insidea Nuclear Warship (New York: Berkley Books, 1993).

For one new study, see Thomas Hone, Power and Change: The Administrative History of the Office ofthe Chief of Naval Operations, 1946-1986 (Washington: Navy Historical Center, 1989).

Ballantine, U.S. Naval Logistics in the Second World War (New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1947);A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940 (Cambridge,Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 1957); Albion, Makers of Naval Policy, 1798-1947,Rowena Reed, ed. (Annapolis: NIP, 1980).

For more on administration, see Julius A. Furer, Administration of the Navy in World War II(Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1959); Charles O. Paullin, History of Naval Administration(Annapolis: NIP, 1968); and Robert W. Neeser, Statistical and Chronological History of the United StatesNavy, 1775-1907, 2 vols. (New York: n.p., 1909; New York: B. Franklin, 1970).

For more on logistics, see Robert H. Connery, The Navy and Industrial Mobilization (New Jersey:Princeton Univ. Press, 1951); Worrall Reed Carter, Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The Story of FleetLogistics Afloat in the Pacific During World War II (Washington: Department of the Navy, 1953); andCarter with Elmer E. Duvall, Ships, Salvage, and Sinews of War: The Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in Atlanticand Mediterranean Waters During World War II (Washington: Department of the Navy, 1954).

Naval Historical Center's United States Naval History: A Bibliography attests to thefascination exerted on writers by the men and women who made American

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naval history. A perusal of the listings shows that conservative, often uncriticalinterpretations of wartime leaders predominate. But there is also a resilientinterest in officers whose most notable contributions lay outside the seas of glory,such as the new biography of the naval diplomat, Vice Admiral Newton A.

78

McCully, by Charles J. Weeks, Jr. And even the revisionists can take comfortin the existence of essays like Robert W. Love's "Fighting a Global War," anincisive criticism of the strategy of Admiral Ernest J. King, and books likeFrederick S. Harrod's Manning the New Navy: The Development of a ModernEnlisted Force, 1899—1940, Peter D. Karsten, The Naval Aristocracy: The GoldenAge of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism, and Arnold A.

t-r-n 7Q

Rogow, James Forrestal: The Study of Personality, Politics, and Policy. This shortlist means the challenge and opportunity exist for the critical biographers of thelate twentieth century.

•  •  •

Finally, the U.S. Marine Corps, a branch of the Navy always treated as aseparate operational and administrative entity, now has a definitive history inAllan R. Millett's Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps.Several recent works also contribute significantly to the Marines' historiography:Merrill L. Bartlett, Lejeune: A Marine's Life, 1867-1942; John W. Dower, WarWithout Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War, Craig Cameron, AmericanSamurai: Myth, Imagination, and the Conduct of Battle in the First Marine Division,1941—1951; and Timothy Moy, "Hitting the Beaches and Bombing the Cities:Doctrine and Technology of Two New Militaries."

United States Naval History. A Bibliography , Naval History Bibliographies, no. 1, 7th ed., revised byBarbara A. Lynch and John E. Vajda (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1993).

Weeks, An American Naval Diplomat in Revolutionary Russia (Annapolis: NIP, 1993).

Love, "Fighting a Global War," In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History, 1775—1984,2d ed. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984), pp. 263-89; Harrod, Manning the New Navy: TheDevelopment of a Modem Enlisted Force, 1899—1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978); Karsten,The Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modem American Navalism (NewYork: Free Press, 1972); and Rogow, James Forrestal: A Study of Personality, Politics, and Policy (NewYork: Macmillan, 1963).

For Forrestal, see Robert G. Albion and Robert H. Connery, Forrestal and the Navy (New York:Columbia Univ. Press, 1962); and Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, Driven Patriot: The Lifeand Times of James Forrestal (New York: Knopf, 1992).

Millett, Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps, 2d ed. (New York: Free Press,1991); Bartlett, Lejeune: A Marine's Life, 1867-1942 (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1991);Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986);Cameron, American Samurai: Myth, Imagination, and the Conduct of Battle in the First Marine Division,1941-1993 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993); and Moy, "Hitting the Beaches and Bombingthe Cities: Doctrine and Technology of Two New Militaries" (Ph.D. diss., University of California,

• • •

This section ends with mention of a well-known paradox: much of the armedmaritime history of the United States involves a service other than the UnitedStates Navy—the U.S. Coast Guard. No attempt has been made here to discussthat important historiography, but the starting point is the work of Robert L.Schema, formerly the Coast Guard's official historian and now a professor at theIndustrial College of the Armed Forces.

Outlets for Writing

Naval history is flourishing as a written art form because many publishers arewilling to bring out books for a rather limited market. The larger commercialhouses that have had success with broadly conceived books include The FreePress, Charles Scribner's & Sons, Random House, and St. Martin's. The leadingacademic and quasi-academic presses that regularly publish monographs inAmerican naval history are Greenwood, University of South Carolina, Univer-sity of Kansas, and Westview. Three potent but highly specialized outfitsconcentrate almost exclusively on the history of naval technology: Brassey's(U.S.), Conway Maritime Press, and Jane's. Brassey's is especially important towatch because in 1993 it sailed into uncharted waters with Crossed Currents:Navy Women from World War I to Tailhook, by Jean Ebbert and Mary-Beth Hall.Lastly, two quite different specialty presses always bear watching for new titlesin naval history: Nautical & Aviation Press of Baltimore, Maryland, and theSmithsonian Institution Press in Washington, D.C.

Since its founding in 1873, the Naval Institute has encouraged research onnaval history through forums, its press, the Proceedings, and its new journal, NavalHistory. Two current series demonstrate a long-term commitment to excellenceon the part of the Naval Institute Press. Classics of Sea Power, edited by John B.Hattendorf and Wayne P. Hughes, contains works by Julian Corbett, PhilipHoward Colomb, and Alfred Thayer Mahan. Classics of Naval Literature, editedby Jack Sweetman, embraces books by Herman Melville, James FenimoreCooper, Frederick Marryat, and C.S. Forester as well as memoirs by AdmiralsCharles Clark, George Dewey, and Robley D. Evans.

In the last two decades, the Naval Institute Press published three importantworks of collective biography: Dictionary of Admirals of the U.S. Navy, by William

Berkeley, 1993).

81   Scheina, U.S. Coast Guard Cutters and Craft, 1946-1990 (Annapolis: NIP, 1990), and U.S. CoastGuard Cutters and Craft of World War II (Annapolis: NIP, 1982).

Ebbert and Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from World War I to Tailhook, (Washington: Brassey's,Div. of Maxwell Macmillan Co., 1993).

83   Hattendorf and Hughes, eds., Classics of Sea Power, 9 volumes. (Annapolis: NIP, 1988-1994); andSweetman, ed., Classics of Naval Literature, 30 vols. (Annapolis: NIP, 1984-1993).

B. Cogar; American Secretaries of the Navy, edited by Paolo E. Coletta; and TheChiefs of Naval Operations, edited by Robert W. Love, Jr. With this track record,the Naval Institute Press will remain the leading commercial publisher ofAmerican naval history and related technical writing for the remainder of thetwentieth century.

Within the Navy, the Naval Historical Center has a long history of publishingedited collections of documents, bibliographies, and scholarly monographsunder its own imprint, or under those of the Department of the Navy and theU.S. Government Printing Office. Currently, the center is producing threeimportant series: the three-volume set of documents on the War of 1812, editedby William S. Dudley; the Contributions to Naval History Series and the seriesknown as Naval History Bibliographies. Somewhat less active is the Naval WarCollege Press, which was founded in 1975. This press has produced a series ofhistorical monographs based upon the college's own collections. The Naval WarCollege Historical Monograph Series now encompasses eleven volumes ofedited manuscripts, bibliographies, memoirs, conference proceedings, andtheses, with several volumes forthcoming.

•  •  •

Scholarly and quasi-scholarly journals publish a large number of articles onU.S. naval history each year. The premier outlet for popular writing is NavalHistory, published by the Naval Institute. This new bimonthly publicationcomplements the more scholarly American Neptune; the long-established NavalWar College Review, which covers all aspects of sea power and military affairs ingeneral; and the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, which is especially strong intechnical studies. For Marine Corps topics, the leading journal is The MarineCorps Gazette, with an irregular schedule of publication.

Another important periodical venue is the National Maritime HistoricalSociety's Sea History. The professional military historians' voice is Thefournal ofMilitary History published by the Virginia Military Institute and the George C.Marshall Foundation.  The vital museum-related publications include   The

84 Cogar, Dictionary of Admirals of the U.S. Navy, vol. 1, 1862-1900; vol. 2, 1901-1918 (Annapolis:NIP, 1989, 1991); Coletta, ed., American Secretaries of the Navy, vol. 1, 1775-1913; vol. 2, 1913-1972(Annapolis: NIP, 1980); and Love, ed., The Chiefs of Naval Operations, vol. 1, 1775-1941; vol. 2,1942-1991 (Annapolis: NIP, 1980).

In addition to titles cited elsewhere, in 1993 the Naval Historical Center published two originalstudies: Edward J. Marolda, By Sea, Air, and Land: An Illustrated History of the U.S. Navy and the Warin Southeast Asia (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1993); and Curtis A. Utz, Cordon of Steel: TheU.S. Navy and the Cuban Missile Crisis, The U.S. Navy in the Modern World, no. 1 (Washington: U.S.Govt. Print. Off., 1993).

86 For the transition between the Proceedings and Naval History, see Clayton R. Barrow, Jr., ed., AmericaSpreads Her Sails: U.S. Sea Power in the 19th Century (Annapolis: NIP, 1973).

The Marine Corps Gazette (Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Assoc, 1916-present).

American Neptune of the Peabody Museum of Salem, and those published by theMystic Seaport Museum, the South Street Sea Port, the Manitowac MaritimeMuseum, and the National Maritime Museum in San Francisco.

The journals just named and those discussed in earlier sections contain reviewsof books related to naval history, and these reviews are an essential tool forkeeping up with a subdiscipline that lacks a strong academic institutional base.

Sources of Funding

The principal steady source of financial support for research and writing isthe Naval Historical Center. Each year the center awards the Samuel EliotMorison Scholarship of $3,000 to a naval officer, as well as two research grantsof $2,500 each for established scholars, one of $8,000 for a doctoral candidatewriting a dissertation in naval history, and the Ernest M. Eller Prize of $1,000for an outstanding scholarly article. Additionally, the center administers aninternship program and occasionally awards larger, multi-year grants for officialhistories. To mark the bicentennial of the USS Constitution, the Naval HistoricalCenter will make an award of $750 for an article and one of $2,500 for a bookrelated to the bicentennial theme and based on original research. The worksmust be published or accepted for publication between 1994 and 1998. TheMarine Corps Historical Center, also located in the Washington Navy Yard,offers similar grants.

Major private foundations support naval history on an ad hoc basis. The JohnD. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation in Chicago has traditionallyprovided institutional grants for graduate and post-graduate research in securitystudies. In 1994, the Chicago-based Robert R. McCormick Tribune Founda-tion joined with the U.S. Naval Institute in sponsoring two scholarly observancesof the fiftieth anniversary of the Normandy landings, one at the CantignyMuseum in Wheaton, Illinois, the other in Annapolis, Maryland. The Eisen-hower Center of the University of New Orleans sponsored a more popularlyoriented conference on the same topic in May 1994. This was one of theEisenhower Center's series of annual conclaves on World War II topics fromwhich naval historians are not excluded.

The Harry and Lynde Bradley Foundation of Milwaukee has supported worksuch as the series of Yale conferences where this chapter was spawned. The JohnM. Olin Foundation in New York has engaged in this type of activity and hasfunded pre- and post-doctoral fellowships in military history at the YaleInternational Security Program, which is directed by Paul Kennedy, and insecurity studies at Harvard's Olin Institute, directed by Samuel Huntington. TheSmith Richardson Foundation of Westport, Connecticut also funds work in thisfield. The competition for all of these awards is intense, and generally the grants

The best way to keep up with the multifaceted activities of the Naval Historical Center is bysubscribing to its newsletter, Pull Together.

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go to the same few institutions. Some, such as the Eller Fellowship in navalhistory at East Carolina University, are restricted to a particular college oruniversity.

Summary: The State of U.S. Naval History

The teaching of naval history has fallen on tough times. At the NavalAcademy, where it ought to reign supreme, naval history receives lukewarmsupport. In many other departments nationally, it is denied a secure niche in thecurriculum. By contrast, American naval museums are stronger than ever before,although their financial underpinnings are not as solid as they might be, and thustheir future vitality is not guaranteed. Research and publication are surprisinglyhealthy activities, although many scholars have to work alone and isolated indepartments indifferent or hostile to their field. And, as has always been the case,Washington and Annapolis remain the primary geographic centers for researchbecause of their libraries, archives, and manuscript collections.

•  •  •

Despite pockets of encouraging activity, a recent reviewer said, "as a sub-specialty of historical study, U.S. naval history is a toddler." That most navalhistorians agree on this is distressing. Remedies must be sought, and onepossibility is to write histories that address the Navy along lines other than policyand strategy. Sociological, financial, and even psychological approaches shouldbe brought into play in examining naval history.

The primary challenge facing naval historians is to embrace newmethodologies, or risk being considered completely irrelevant to the professionas a whole. They must target and address those broad questions insufficientlystudied, such as the social history of sailors, the commercial-cultural history ofNavy yards, civil-military relations, and the technical-bureaucratic history ofweapons systems. Next, they must establish a methodological framework forinvestigating recent naval history, an area where most high-level governmentdocuments will remain highly classified for some time.

Finally, naval historians ought to ask, what is the purpose of American navalhistory? Is it to eulogize heroes and instill patriotic virtues of self-sacrifice, as itwas for much of the nineteenth century? Is it to enshrine a particular strategicconcept, as it was for the first half of the twentieth century? Or is it to questionprevailing interpretive orthodoxies, as much of it has been since the 1960s?

With the end of the Cold War—if not with the dawning of a particularlybright "new world order"—it is imperative that the historians of America's greatsea service ask questions relevant to the United States Navy of the future, a navy

89 John B. Hattendorf, review of History of U.S. Navy, by Robert W. Love, Jr., Naval InstituteProceedings (August, 1993) pp. 99-100.

Hagan and Shulman    415

diminished in size from its magnitude of 1950—1990, but still the world's mostpowerful. Are there historical antecedents in the American experience or in theexperience of other nations that will suggest strategic, operational, technological,logistical, and administrative guidelines for the future?

Some historians do not believe in seeking lessons from the past as lodestarsfor the future, but if U.S. naval historians adopt this purist stance, they willbecome even less germane to the intellectual and political mainstreams of theUnited States than they are now. The chance to reach out to the Americanpeople is a happy, if daunting, prospect.

The authors wish to thank several people for their advice and help on this project, including: PaulM. Kennedy and John B. Hattendorf for crucial assistance and advice at every stage; David A. Rosenbergfor information and guidance; James C. Bradford, Charles C. Campbell, John P. Cummings, HaroldD. Langley, Jane H. Price, Jack Sweetman, Richard Hume Werking, and Stephen D. Wrage for theirthoughtful reading and comments; Richard A. von Doenhoff for material on the National Archives;Dean C. AUard and Edward Marolda for data on the Naval Historical Center; Harold Langley forinformation about the Smithsonian; James W. Cheevers, senior curator of the Naval Academy Museum,for the section on museums; Erica Thomas for a jump-start with the footnotes; and Ann Jensen forediting of the very highest order. This chapter, however, represents only the views of the authors.

The cutoff for information in this essay was 30 January 1994. Suggestions and comments for futureeditions may be addressed to the editor at the Naval War College Press.

Kenneth J. Hagan, a retired captain in the U.S. Naval Reserve, is author ofAmerican Gunboat Diplomacyand the Old Navy, 1877-1889 and This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Power, and editor ofIn Peace and War: Interpretations of American History, 1775—1984. Hagan served on the faculty of thehistory department of the U.S. Naval Academy, 1973-1993, and was the academy's archivist andmuseum director from 1990 through 1993.

Mark R. Shulman is author of Navalism and the Emergence of American Sea Power, 1882-1893(Annapolis: NIP) and numerous articles. He has edited or co-edited An Admiral's Yam: The Autobiographyof Harris Laning and the Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World. Shulman has taughthistory at Yale University and is now at The National Strategy Information Center, Washington, D.C.

Beyond Toddlerhood

Thoughts on the Future of U.S. Naval History

David Alan Rosenberg

" /\ s a sub-specialty of historical study, U.S. naval history is a toddler." SoJL A.notes Dr. John B. Hattendorf, the Ernest J. King Professor of MaritimeHistory at the U.S. Naval War College and editor of the present volume, in hisrecent review of Robert W. Love, Jr.'s History of the U.S. Navy. Professors Haganand Shulman, in their overview of the current state of American naval history,have taken note of this comment and have provided some general suggestionsabout how historians of American naval affairs can advance their field as asub-specialty of scholarly endeavor. This paper presents some additional thoughtsto challenge colleagues old and young as they attack their chosen subject. Thechallenge takes the form of three questions historians might ask to moveAmerican naval history toward the complexity and intellectual sophisticationenvisioned by Messrs. Hattendorf, Hagan, and Shulman.

The first such question is " What was the U. S. Navy, and who belonged to it?"For far too long, we have regarded the naval establishment very narrowly,concentrating on the uniformed service, both officers and enlisted personnel,and on primarily the seagoing, operational components at that. This hasreinforced naval history's strong traditional focus on the "tip of the spear," theships and men that have deployed overseas and met the enemy in battle. As aresult, if we continue the metaphor, we still have only a vague sense of the spearshaft, which had a different length and a different composition at various timesin the nation's history. Yet that shaft is just as much a part of the navalestablishment as the spearhead, and the shaft may well have determined thenature and effectiveness of the tip that was sent into harm's way.

We need to know more about the naval establishment, broadly defined. Thisincludes civilian shipbuilders, gun, mine and torpedo makers, airplane builders,sail and rope makers, coal and oil suppliers, producers of navigational charts,books and instruments, victuallers, and white collar bureaucrats. There is alsomuch additional work to be done on analyzing the evolution of the naval officercorps and the enlisted ranks, from a professional as well as a sociologicalperspective. For example, navy wives and families not only developed their own

418    Beyond Toddlerhood

brand of naval culture, but in the twentieth century had a profound role inshaping personnel policies, particularly with respect to base housing, medicalcare, deployment schedules, and support services.

The political underpinnings of the American Navy deserve much moreattention as well. While urban and social historians have begun to explore therole that military bases have played in shaping the growth of cities andcommunities, naval historians have not reciprocated by analyzing how localpolitics have influenced the development of the American Navy's shore in-frastructure. Surprisingly, the role of national politics in shaping naval develop-ment has also received much less attention in articles and monographs than itclearly merits.

The second question historians should ask is "What did navies do?" Thisquestion might appear to be an obvious one, and one which historians havealready undertaken to address, but the task is far from complete. Certain aspectshave been ignored. While the gross outlines and in many cases the details ofAmerican naval operations have been traced and analyzed, the internal workingsof shipboard life are little understood. For too long we have implicitly acceptedSamuel Johnson's aphorism: "being in a ship is being in jail, with a chance ofbeing drowned . . .," and have paid little attention to how sailors occupied theirtime while at sea. But life at sea was not simply a punitive exercise. The drillsand discipline applied were not designed just to control human nature, but tomeet the needs of the ship.

In a similar vein, significant progress has been made in recent years in studyingthe history of naval invention, but equally important is the as yet unwrittenhistory of the application of such invention to operations and combat at sea.What sailors do, and are capable of doing, surely influences technical innovation,just as technology shapes what is expected of sailors as they sail, steam, and fighttheir ships. It is a question of education, training, drills, responsibilities, andschedules, just as much as it is a question of big guns, planes and missiles, armorplate, boilers, nuclear reactors, radios, radar, and electronic warfare. All of thesefacets come to define naval tactics, tactical doctrine, and command and control.The extent to which all of these considerations came to shape American navalstrategy has never been analyzed. They may in the end prove to have been asimportant as the writings of naval theorists, even Alfred Thayer Mahan himself.

The third area needing further attention is defined by the question: "Whyshould other historians care?" Naval history will not come into its own as anacademic discipline until naval historians are more successful at spelling out theconnections between their subject and the concerns of the broader historicalprofession. Opportunities for such research abound. The development of naviesand naval technology is not only an important element in national strategy anddiplomacy, but in the history of the industrial nation state. The very existenceof a navy is dependent on the choice of a state to invest in developing and

Rosenberg    419

maintaining the industrial capacity to build and sustain it. The centrality of naviesin the history of European states has long been acknowledged, particularly withreference to Renaissance Venice, imperial Spain, and modern Britain. In theUnited States, however, the relevance of the Navy to the era of nation-buildinghas rarely been considered. In particular, the rise of the American Navy after theCivil War rested not just on national policy, but on the availability of industrialmanpower, the advancement of steam technology, and major breakthroughs inunderstanding and applying the laws of thermodynamics.

During the twentieth century, the American Navy began to operate in threedimensions: on, over, and beneath the oceans, ultimately fostering and employ-ing such technologies as nuclear power, nuclear weapons, guided and ballisticmissiles, and a full spectrum of computer systems. The role played by the Navyin the creation of new technology has been acknowledged, but the part the navalestablishment played in sustaining new industries and shaping them to meet itsneeds has not been assessed. Further, the role the Navy played in these mattersin contrast to the Army and the Air Force offers a fruitful avenue for furtherresearch. As America moves to adapt to a post Cold War era and the end ofnearly fifty years of constant mobilization for war, such analyses would be ofgreat service.

But what of "traditional" naval history: of sea fights, and diplomatic ac-complishments, and the evolution of policy and strategy? Certainly in the lattercase, asking and answering as best we can the questions just outlined shouldenrich such studies. For too long the history of policy and strategy has beentreated as the self-fulfilling motion from words to deeds, without carefulattention to the means—economic and financial, scientific, technological andindustrial—which would translate one into the other. Knowing who made upnavies, what they do and why they matter cannot help but enhance ourunderstanding of the long-standing concerns of naval historians, from prepara-tion in peacetime to achievements and failures in times of war.

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