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Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

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Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Analysis of Transportation and 

Logistics Challenges Affecting 

the Deployment of Larger Wind 

Turbines: Summary of Results

J. Cotrell, T. Stehly, J. Johnson, J. O. Roberts, 

Z. Parker, G. Scott, and D. Heimiller

Technical Report

NREL/TP-5000-61063

January 2014
NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

15013 Denver West Parkway

Golden, CO 80401

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov

Analysis of Transportation and 

Logistics Challenges Affecting 

the Deployment of Larger Wind 

Turbines: Summary of Results

J. Cotrell, T. Stehly, J. Johnson, J. O. Roberts, 

Z. Parker, G. Scott, and D. Heimiller

Prepared under Task No. WE11.0640

Technical Report

NREL/TP-5000-61063

January 2014
NOTICE

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. 

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express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of 

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trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, 

or favoring by the United States government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors 

expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government or any agency thereof.

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Cover Photos: (left to right) photo by Pat Corkery, NREL 16416, photo from SunEdison, NREL 17423, photo by Pat Corkery, NREL 

16560, photo by Dennis Schroeder, NREL 17613, photo by Dean Armstrong, NREL 17436, photo by Pat Corkery, NREL 17721.

Printed on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 10% post consumer waste.
4

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Table of Contents

List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................4

Project Motivation and Objectives...........................................................................................5

Project Approach and Summary of Results............................................................................6

Perceived Regulatory Blade Tip Height Limit .........................................................................9

Nacelle Hoisting Challenge ....................................................................................................12

Blade and Tower Transport Challenges................................................................................14

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................16

References ..............................................................................................................................17

List of Figures

Figure 1. Average land-based wind turbine size and levelized cost of energy through 2012, and 

range of state-of-the-art turbines that could be deployed by addressing barriers ....................... 5

Figure 2. Summary of the transportation and logistics breakpoints affecting U.S. land-based 

turbine installations ............................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 3. Comparisons of selected transportation and logistics breakpoints for land-based 

turbines in the United States............................................................................................................... 8

Figure 4. The maximum size of land-based turbines that can be installed if selected transportation 

and logistics challenges are addressed in the United States.......................................................... 9

Figure 5. United States Annual Average Wind Speed at 100 m ........................................................... 10

Figure 6. New deployable land resulting from increasing hub height from 96 m to 110 m .............. 11

Figure 7. Hub height that crawler cranes can hoist conventional turbine nacelles (with the gearbox 

and generator hoisted separately) [7] and the number of cranes estimated to be available in 

2012 based on discussions with crane industry representatives ................................................. 12

Figure 8. New deployable land resulting from increasing hub height from 96 m to 140 m .............. 14

Figure 9. Estimates of trucking cost and capital cost in 2013 for conventional tubular towers 

calculated assuming a 300-mile trucking distance, $0.50/metric ton/mile, and base sections 

constrained to 4.3 m in diameter ...................................................................................................... 15
5

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Project Motivation and Objectives

The average size and height of land-based wind turbines installed in the United States has 

increased over time as indicated in Figure 1. At the same time, the levelized cost of energy 

(LCOE) from wind turbines has, for the most part,

1 declined in part as a result of the increased 

economies of scale associated with larger turbines [1]. Technologies that enable larger wind 

turbines on taller towers create opportunities for further LCOE reductions. However, 

transportation and logistics challenges limit the size and tower height of land-based turbines that 

can be deployed in the United States. Addressing these transportation and logistics challenges

will allow for deployment of larger state-of-the-art turbines, which may accelerate the 

development of new markets in low- and moderate-wind-speed regions in the United States and 

enable LCOE reduction pathways for all land-based wind turbines.

In addition, although U.S. manufacturing opportunities are not clear cut, the components

required for larger wind turbines, such as the blades, can be manufactured more costcompetitively in the United States as opposed to being imported [2]. As a result, domestic 

content and U.S. manufacturing competitiveness may be increased by addressing challenges that 

limit the deployment of larger turbines.

Figure 1. Average land-based wind turbine size and levelized cost of energy through 2012, and 

range of state-of-the-art turbines that could be deployed by addressing barriers

 

1 An array of factors contributed to the temporary increase in turbine prices in the mid-2000s, including increases in 

raw material prices and energy prices, supply constraints, increasing OEM profitability and labor costs, and 

manufacturer warranty provisions.
6

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In general, there is relatively little literature that characterizes transportation and logistics 

challenges and the associated effects on U.S. wind markets. The objectives of this study are to 

identify the transportation and logistics challenges, assess the associated impacts, and provide 

recommendations for strategies and specific actions to address the challenges.

Project Approach and Summary of Results

The authors primarily relied on interviews with wind industry project developers, original 

equipment manufacturers, and transportation and logistics companies to obtain the information 

and industry perspectives needed for this study. They also reviewed published literature on 

trends and developments in increasing wind turbine size, logistics, and transportation issues.

The information obtained from the interviews and literature review helped identify the mass, 

cost, and size breakpoints (the point at which transportation and logistics costs begin to increase 

much more rapidly with size) for the wind turbine blades, tower, and nacelle. The breakpoints 

can generally be exceeded but at a substantially larger cost. The breakpoints were ranked 

according to their impact on current and future wind turbine installations. Figure 2 summarizes

the size and mass breakpoints identified. The colors indicate the timeframe that the transportation 

and logistics issues affect wind plant installations. Each challenge is described in more detail in 

the following sections.

Figure 2. Summary of the transportation and logistics breakpoints affecting U.S. land-based 

turbine installations
7

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The authors also performed analyses to: 1) identify which transportation and logistics challenges 

affect wind plant installations today, and 2) determine the increase in turbine size that could be 

achieved if the transportation and logistics challenges are solved. They considered several 

different metrics as the basis of these analyses, including turbine nameplate rating, blade tip 

height, and rotor diameter. Rotor diameter was selected as the best metric as it tends to correlate 

well with the masses and dimensional characteristics of the wind turbine blades, tower, and 

nacelle.

Figures 3 and 4 contain the results of these analyses. Figure 3 identifies which transportation and 

logistics challenges affect wind plant installations today. Figure 4 indicates the potential increase 

in turbine size (as indicated by the arrows) that could be achieved if the transportation and 

logistics challenges are addressed (given the assumptions listed in the footnotes).

The black bars in Figure 3 represent the range of rotor diameters that could be affected by each 

transportation or logistic challenge considered. The magnitude of the range is caused by the 

variability in the different wind turbines design assumptions (for blade geometry, tower height, 

and specific power ratings) that are necessary to relate the transportation and logistics constraints 

to the rotor diameter. The numbers in the colored boxes in Figures 3 and 4 represent the average 

value of the range as a point of reference.
8

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Figure 3. Comparisons of selected transportation and logistics breakpoints for land-based 

turbines in the United States
9

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Figure 4. The maximum size of land-based turbines that can be installed if selected transportation 

and logistics challenges are addressed in the United States

Perceived Regulatory Blade Tip Height Limit

Uncertainty regarding a perceived Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) height restriction for 

wind turbines has affected wind turbine manufacturer and wind plant developer willingness to 

develop plants and technologies with blade tip heights above 152 m (500 ft). An FAA

spokesperson has stressed that although there is not a 500-ft limit, as of April 2012 it was not 

approving structures over 152 m until it established new rules, policy, and procedures for

marking and lighting [3]. However, in late 2012, two wind plant original equipment 

manufacturers (OEMs) and developers indicated that they had received determinations of “no 

hazard” from the FAA for installations of turbines slightly taller than 500 ft. Nevertheless, 

NREL’s discussions with a wind turbine OEM and a developer indicated that they were 

unwilling to develop projects and technologies that exceed 152 m in height because of this 

perceived restriction.
10

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The United States has strong wind resources that have helped make it a global leader in wind

deployments. The U.S. regions with slower wind resources (see Figure 5), such as the Northeast, 

Southeast, and West, will benefit the most from the use of taller towers and larger rotor 

diameters that reach the faster winds at higher altitudes.

Figure 5. United States Annual Average Wind Speed at 100 m

(Source: NREL and AWS Truepower)

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) performed a preliminary analysis to 

estimate the possible effects of restricting turbine blade tip heights to less than 152 m [4]. The 

analysis calculated the increase in U.S. land area that became significantly more attractive for 

development by increasing the hub height of a GE 1.6-MW turbine with a 100-m diameter rotor

from 96 m to 110 m (an increase in blade tip height from approximately 146 m to 160 m). The 

gross capacity factor (GCF) was computed for U.S. land area elements of 20 km2. Land area 

elements that showed increases of gross capacity factors to more than 30% were considered 

economically feasible for development as 30% is generally considered the minimum GCF 
11

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necessary to attain in order for a wind plant to be economically viable.

2 However, as wind 

technology advances and local power prices change, the potential of other low-wind-speed areas 

may also increase.

Figure 6 illustrates the new land area (in green) that crosses this 30% threshold. The map 

displays only the change in land area—not the land areas which already meet or exceed the 30% 

threshold. The land that could be “unlocked” by addressing the perceived regulatory height limit

is approximately 320,000 km2—much of which is located in the east and southeast regions that 

tend to have slower wind resources. Theoretically, this land area equates to nearly 1,000 GW of 

new wind deployments if the rule of thumb of 3 MW/km2 of potential wind turbine capacity is 

used [5].

Figure 6. New deployable land resulting from increasing hub height from 96 m to 110 m

 

2 To compute the GCF, the long-term wind speed distribution at each wind turbine is combined with information 

provided by a power curve to derive the total annual energy produced at each turbine location. The gross capacity 

factor for a wind plant is calculated by taking this total renewable energy and dividing it by the energy that would be 

produced at the wind plant if all the wind turbines operated 100% of the time at their rated power (i.e. nameplate 

capacity). Typically, the gross capacity factor ranges from 30% to 55%, depending on both the type of turbine used, 

and the wind resource at the wind farm [6]. In this case, long-term adjusted hourly wind speed data was obtained 

from AWS Truepower at 200-m resolution and binned at 20-km resolution. The maps and statistics exclude all 

urban areas, bodies of water, national parks, and other protected land categories but do not include wind turbine 

losses that are included with the net capacity factor.
12

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The authors recommend that wind industry stakeholders continue to work with the FAA to 

reduce any remaining uncertainties associated with this issue. In addition, demonstration of wind 

turbine installations with blade tip heights exceeding 152 m will further reduce the uncertainties.

Nacelle Hoisting Challenge

Hoisting the nacelle onto the tower requires the largest crane capacity of all wind turbine 

components to install because of the lift height and mass. The masses of a 3-MW nacelle and a 

5-MW nacelle are approximately 78 metric tons (t) and 130 t, respectively, without the gearbox 

and generator (104 t and 173 t with them installed). The availability, scheduling, and logistics of 

the larger crane classes (such as 1,250-t and 1,600-t crawler cranes) required to lift progressively 

larger wind turbine nacelles onto taller towers is increasingly challenging. Crane availability 

decreases drastically above the 600-t crane class (see Figure 7), thereby making it difficult to 

ensure that large cranes will be available for the nacelle lift. Wind turbine OEMs can take 

measures to reduce the nacelle mass that must be lifted onto the tower. For example, drivetrain 

components such as the gearbox and generator can be hoisted and installed in the nacelle after 

the nacelle is installed. However, such methods increase the cost and difficulty of the installation 

and can only reduce mass a certain extent.

Figure 7. Hub height that crawler cranes can hoist conventional turbine nacelles (with the gearbox 

and generator hoisted separately) [7] and the number of cranes estimated to be available in 2012 

based on discussions with crane industry representatives

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

600 1250-1600

Aproximate Number of U.S. Crawler Cranes

Maximum Hub Height (m)

Crawler Crane Class (metric ton)

Approximate number of cranes

3-MW nacelle

5-MW Nacelle
13

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Another challenge associated with the larger crane classes is the difficulty of transporting and 

maneuvering these large cranes within the wind plant, between wind plants, and in complex

terrain. For example, a 1,600-t crane has a width of nearly 13 m (41 ft), which is wider than a

typical two-lane interstate including shoulders. In addition, cranes of this size require more than

100 semi-tractor trailers to transport between projects making transportation difficult between 

wind plants.

One potential solution is to use more than one crane to hoist the nacelle onto the tower. Modern 

individual crane controls can be linked to reduce the risk of human error in multicrane lifts. 

Using two cranes simultaneously roughly doubles the capacity of a single crane and can help 

stabilize the lift allowing heavier nacelles or taller towers to be installed. For example, a 600-t 

crawler crane is projected to be unable to install a conventional 5-MW turbine even if the 

gearbox and generator are removed. However, two 600-t crawler cranes can be used to install a 

5-MW nacelle to a hub height of approximately 130 m assuming the generator and gearbox are 

installed separately and that the combined crane lift capacity is derated by 25% due to the 

complexity of a two-crane lift.

NREL extended the preliminary analysis portrayed in Figure 6 to taller hub heights that are 

possible with larger cranes or dual lift installations. The maximum tower height was increased

further, from 96 m to 140 m, as opposed to the 110-m hub height used for the previous analysis. 

In addition, NREL assumed a larger 2.4-MW commercial turbine with a 117-m rotor diameter

(for both tower heights) instead of the 1.6-MW turbine to help offset the cost of the taller tower

through increased production capacity. The increase in new deployable land area for the 2.4-MW 

turbine on a 140-m tower is roughly 614,000 km2 (see Figure 8). In states such as Alabama, the 

unlocked land area approaches nearly 50% of the state’s land area. Up to nearly 2,000 GW of 

new wind turbine capacity could be available in this “unlocked” area in the United States if the 

same 3 MW/km2 rule of thumb is assumed.
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Figure 8. New deployable land resulting from increasing hub height from 96 m to 140 m

An obstacle to using two cranes to hoist the nacelle is the confusion between OEMs, developers,

and crane operators about the reasons that dual crane lifts are not used in the United States as 

they are in Europe. For example, in discussions, one crane operator indicated that OEMs would 

not allow their turbine nacelles to be hoisted using dual crane lifts. In contrast, one OEM said the 

crane operators would not permit the dual crane lift. To reduce the confusion associated with 

dual crane lifts, the authors recommend the use of workshops and working groups to facilitate 

interaction among stakeholders. Demonstration projects with dual crane lifts could also be used 

to collect and communicate information about this potential solution.

Blade and Tower Transport Challenges

The blade transportation challenge is caused by the difficulty of transporting long wide blades

around turns, through narrow passages, and beneath overhead obstructions on U.S. roads and 

railways. Although alternate side roads can sometimes be used, the road weight limits on these 

side roads were cited by one industry member as limiting the effectiveness of these alternate 

routes. This challenge generally limits the length of blade that can be transported over roadways 

to between 53 m and 62 m depending on the design characteristics of the blade such as the 

amount of precurve and type of airfoils used.
15

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Transporting the large diameter tower sections that are the most desirable for use in very tall 

towers creates a challenge similar to those associated with transporting blades. Tower sections 

are generally limited to 4.3 m in diameter, or, in some cases, 4.6 m if routes permit, to fit under 

overhead obstructions. Despite this limit, it is possible to transport conventional rolled steel 

towers sections to reach hub heights up to 160 m by constraining the tower diameter to 4.3 m, 

increasing the tower wall thickness, and shipping shorter sections that meet the weight limits of 

U.S. roads. However, this practice results in a rapid increase in the mass and capital cost (see 

Figure 9) of rolled steel towers, which makes towers tall enough to unlock new low- and 

moderate-speed land areas uneconomic. This increase in capital cost is of greater concern than 

the cost to transport the tower sections as the cost of transportation is less than 8% of the 

combined capital and transportation cost of the towers.

Figure 9. Estimates of trucking cost and capital cost in 2013 for conventional tubular towers

calculated assuming a 300-mile trucking distance, $0.50/metric ton/mile, and base sections 

constrained to 4.3 m in diameter

Innovative solutions for technologies that will mitigate the blade and tower transportation 

challenges, such as segmented blades and on-site tower manufacturing, are being explored by 

programs such as the Department of Energy; however, scaling up cost-effective technologies 

from low technology readiness levels (TRL) to commercialization will take time and require 

significant investment in research and development. Continued or expanded financial support for 

low TRL technologies, which are often developed by small and midsize companies, will help 

bridge the gap to commercialization of these technologies by larger companies with more 

substantial resources.

100-m 

tower

120-m 

tower

140-m 

tower

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

1 2 3 4 5 6

$

Turbine Namplate Rating (MW)

Capital Cost

Trucking Cost
16

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Conclusions

This project identified several transportation and logistics challenges posed by the deployment of 

land-based wind turbines that continue to grow in size and height, assessed how they affect cost, 

and provided recommendations for specific actions. The tower diameter transportation constraint 

and perceived blade tip height limit are currently the constraints most affecting wind installations

today. The authors recommend that DOE and industry continue to seek innovative technical 

solutions and reduce remaining regulatory uncertainties associated with these issues in the near 

term.

The challenges and costs associated with transporting taller towers and very long blades with 

wide chord lengths also affects wind plant deployments and will become more constraining as 

wind turbines increase in size and height. Similarly, trucking heavy nacelles and blades with 

larger root diameters could become challenges meriting additional attention. These challenges 

could be addressed with continued support for the research and development of mitigation 

technologies.

The problems associated with hoisting heavier nacelles onto taller towers are also affecting wind 

turbine installations and are expected to become increasingly important as these systems grow in 

scale. A number of potential solutions exist to address these problems. One potential solution is 

to use more than one crane to hoist the nacelle onto the tower. The authors recommend the use of 

workshops and working groups to facilitate interaction among stakeholders to reduce the 

confusion associated with dual crane lifts. Demonstration projects with dual crane lifts could also 

be used to collect and communicate information about this proposed approach.

Addressing these transportation and logistics challenges is expected to enable the deployment of 

larger wind turbines on taller towers. These larger machines can greatly expand the deployment 

of wind energy into low- and moderate-wind-speed regions in the United States (such as the 

Northeast, Southeast, and West), enable LCOE reduction pathways for all land-based wind 

turbines. In addition, although U.S. manufacturing opportunities are not clear cut, the 

components required for larger wind turbines, such as the blades, can be manufactured more 

cost-competitively in the United States as opposed to being imported. As a result, domestic 

content and U.S. manufacturing competitiveness may be increased by addressing challenges that 

limit the deployment of larger turbines.
17

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References

1. Lantz, E.; Wiser, R.; Hand, M. (2012). IEA Wind Task 26: The Past and Future Cost of Wind 

Energy, Work Package 2. pp 4-8 ; NREL Report No. TP-6A20-53510.

http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/53510.pdf

2. James, T.; Goodrich, A. (2014). “Supply Chain and Blade Manufacturing Considerations in 

the Global Wind Industry.” NREL/PR-6A20-60063. Golden, CO: National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/60063.pdf

3. Zipp, K. (2012). “To be precise, the FAA has no 500-ft limit on turbine towers,” Windpower 

Engineering & Development. http://www.windpowerengineering.com/construction/to-beprecise-the-faa-has-no-500-ft-limit-on-turbine-towers/.

4. Roberts, J.O. (2013). Land-Based Wind Potential Changes in the Southeastern United States

(Presentation). NREL, 16 pp.; NREL Report No. PR-5000-60381. 

http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/60381.pdf

5. Denholm, P.; Hand, M.; Jackson, M.; Ong, S. (2009). Land-Use Requirements of Modern 

Wind Power Plants in the United States; NREL Report No. NREL/TP-6A2-45834. 

http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/53510.pdfhttp://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/45834.pdf

6. Lowenstein, J. “An Overview of Meteorological Towers and Wind Resource Assessment 

Studies,” Own Energy. http://www.ownenergy.net/blog/wind-resource-101-jason-lowensteinphd

7. “Terex Wind Power Crane Brochure,” (2013) Brochure Reference TC-PB-E-Wind Power06/13.http://www.terex.com/cranes/en/idc03/groups/webcontent/@web/@cra/documents/we

b_content/ucm02_054906.pdf