GEOLOGICAL Slm.VEY CIRCULAR 114 ( 

' 

June 1951 

~ ' 

THE WATER SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES 

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE 

TO GROUND WATER 

By 

C. L. McGuinness 

With a Summary of the Current Water Situation by States 

Based on Data Supplied by Field Offices 

of the 

Water Resources Division 

Adapted from a Report Prepared for the President's 

Water Resources Policy Commission 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Oscar L. Chapman, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. E. Wrather, Director 

Washington, D. C. 

Free on application to the Geological Survey, Washington 26, D. C. 
UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMElf! OF THE INTERIOR 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Washington 26, D. c. 

THE WATEh SITUATION. IN THE UNITED STATES 

WITH SPECIAL Rr3EBEHCE TO GROUlW WATER 

c. L. KoGuiDDess 

With a. Suaary ot the 

current Water Situation, by States 

Baaed on Data Supplied by 

Circular 114 

Field Offices of the Water Resources Division 

Adapted trom a Report Prepared for the 

President's Water Resour.ces Policy COIIIIliasion 

CONTENTS 

Introduction • · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 

Ground water in nature • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I 

The hydrologic cycle • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • S 

Ground water in the hydrologic cycle • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 6 

The underground reservoirs ••••••••••••••• •·• • • • • 1 

Water-table and artesian condi tioiis • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 12 

Operation ot the ground-water reservoirs •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • 18 

Recharge • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~ • • • • • • • • • 18 

Meveme:nt • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 22 

_Disch&rc• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 26 

Effects ot olimatic fluctuat.ion.s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 29 

Ground water ud stream flow • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 33 

lmportance ·of quality of water • • • • • • • • • • • • • •.• • • • • II 

Effect of land-ult practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • to 

Ground water as attected by use •••••••••••••••.•••• • • 4:9 

Effects of wi thdrawa.l from wells • • • • • ·• • • • • • ~ • • • • • • 49 

Addition of water to underground reservoirs •• ~ ••• • • • • • • • 64 

Management ot ground-water reservoirs.. • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • 68 

· Sustai:ned. yield vs. mining • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 69 

Salvage. of natural waste • • • • • • • • ·• • • • • • • • • • • • 8J 

Artificial recharge • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • ~ n 

Salt-water 8lloroachmen t and con tam ina tion by wastes. • • • • • • • • • 72 

Ground water and ~he aational economy • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 81 

Use of ground water • • • • • • • • • • • ·• • • • • • • . • • • • • • • 81 

The current s i tua ti on • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 96 

Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 98 

East-central region • • • • • • • • • • • - • • • • • • • • • • • • .• 101 

Great Plains region • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 108 

Western moun"b&in region • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • • • •· • • • • • • ll1 

Other areas • , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · ll3 

Federal concern ~ water resources • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~ • • • 11? 

Basic·da~ PI'Oiram • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ll'7 

Acoomplillll\ents .and defici@cies • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. ll9 

Specific water projects • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 128 

Legal interest1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 130 

OuP a.tiona.l water poli oy. • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 132 

S.eleoted ·r.dinc lt.•t. • • • · • • • • ~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • 136 

Appendixt SUIIIII&J7 ot current water situation, by stat .. 

i 

LLUSTRA1'I ONS 

Figure 1. The ~drologio oyole. · A. ~taoapherio and 1alid-surtaoe features 1 

B. ground-Wa.ter teat· rea i • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • • • • • • 4 

2. Zones ot s.ubaurtaoe wa; er. i • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • ~ ' 

3. Ground-water nuotuati · in different climatic enviromaenta • • 20 

4. Diagram showing relati n of influent streams and ettluent atre8Ju 

to the -.ter table • • • ; • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • 22 

5. Typical l'lydrograph or tA~~UR flaw sholfiDg aepara.t·iem ot. surtaoea.nd grnund-water run rr.~ •••••.•••••••••••••. ~- 28 

6. · Vfllri8.tion in stream f'l ilt basins of close proximity. • • • • • 28 

7. ~rouT'!d-WA.ter f'luatut~t.ti na ~nd surf'aoe runoff in a hUmid region • 12 

8. Grourd-Wilter f'luctuati ns · ln a semiarid region ot hea'9Y draft. • S2 

9. Idealized diagrams sh· ingl relation.ot fresh water to salt water 

in a coastal area 1 • ~ • • • • • . • • • • . 74 

10. Use of ground •ter to irfip.tion. 1946 • • • • • • .• • • . • • • H 

11. Industrial use of gro d water. 1945 ••••••• • .• • • • • • '' 

12. Municipal use of gro W.~er. 1945 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 94 

13 ~ Rural use of groUDd wa er • i .1945 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 9ft 

14. Total use of ground wa. r.j1945 • •.• • • • • • • • • • • • • • 94 

15. Uat:t of grotmd water· in mettaopoli tan areas. 1945. • • • • • • • • 94 

16. Use of ground -.ter • · in4.ustries. in 20 · selected Jlletropoli tan· 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

areas • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 

Ground-water areas in he United states •••••••• • •••• 

Areas of substantial ound-water iDtormation in the ·United states. 

Average ·monthly precip tat~on and runott tor two Ohio streams. 

showing equalizing e teet ot storage tn the ground-water 

reservoir • • • • • • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·• • 

ADnual preoipi tation rb.ott tor two Ohio stream&, showing 

etfeot of storage in the: ground--.ter reservoir. • • • • • ·• • 

K 

98 

122 

122 

122 

THE WA'J.T.R SITUATION D THE tBimD STAT&S 

WITH SPil:IAL UPmtBWCI TO GROtlfD WATIR 

B7 C. L. · JlcGuinnaaa 

D'l'RODOO'l'IOI 

'l'b1e report conetitutea appendixes B and C of a report prepared in 

April 1950 b7 the Geological Sune)" at the request of the President• a Water 

Resources Policy Co-tsaicn. 'l'he full report waa entitled "Water facta in 

relation to a naticmal water-resources pol107 .• The brief text, entitled 

"Water in relation to the natic:mal econ0111r,• and append!x A, entitled "A 

SUJIIIII&l7 of the water situation. in the United States, with special reference 

to ground water,• wre dratted by A. 11. Piper of the Geological Survq and 

are to be published aeparatelJ', in slight:cy- modified form, under his n ... 

This report discusses the occurrence of ground water in nature and its 

relation to surface water and to the naticnal water picture as a whole, and 

it lists numerous existing water probl .. and discusses. their solution. 

The report would not be complete without aclcnowledglalt of the part 

played b,y agencies other than the Geological Surve,y in gathering the data 

on which the report is based. These include especially the cooperatmg State, 

county, and local agencies that torm an indispensable part of the FederalState teaa of water-resources investigators. Included also are State agencies 

with which f'o~l cooperation is not in ef'tect or bas begun onl7 recentl7, 

but which furnished a large part of the data on ground water in such States 

as Illinois and California. Other Federal agencies, especially the Bureau 

ot Reclamation, the Army Engineers, and bureaus of the Agriculture Department, 

furnished a large amount of the data used in the report. Ccmsulting firma 

1 
and contractors engaged in water-project design and construction, :including 

man7 well drillers, work closely with the Geological Surva7 and regularq 

furnish data essential to the studies ot the Surve7, as do man7waterworks 

operators and private water users. Such data were used free~ in the 

preparation of this report. To all these agencies and ind1viduala the 

Geological Survey expresses deep appreciation, and regret that limitations 

ot space and time did not permit mentioning them all b,- name; specific 

mention of a tn is not intended to indicate that tbey ccntributed more than 

others not named. 

In order to save the tiE and expense required to set up tbe report 

in the usual style for Geological Survey circul.ars, it is reproduced here 

from the same negatives and plates used in duplicating copies tor ~he Water 

Resources Policy Commissicm. A tn minor t)'POgraphical errors remain, but 

they do not seriousl7 atfec.t the •aning of the sections of the report 

concerned. 

Kost of the illustrations were adapted from published reports or 

previously drafted exhibit material. They were prepared or selected by 

a coJDJDittee consisting of w. P. Cross, c. 11. Roberta, and G. G. Parker, 

and were drafted b7 Ross A. Ellwood and Rodney Hart. Figure 17 was compiled 

b7 H. E. 'l'h.omas for his report to the Conservation Foundation (see p. 97). 

Jlr. Cross drafted the summary of cost analysis on pages 82 and 83. 

W. W. Hastings drafted the statement on qualit7-o!-water studies on 

page 125. W. B. Langbein drafted the statement on public lands on pages 

129-l)O. A. 11. Piper drafted the list of basic-data needs on pages 126-127 

and the list ot principles on pages 133-134. 

2 
GROUND WATER II !JA!CRI 

The Hydrologic Cycle 

Water is like a living thing. Essentially all ot 1 t that ia uaable is 

in motion--a part ot ·the vaat oiroulatory ayatem mown aa the eydrologic cycle. 

In this cycle water eWLpora-tes wherewr it is ezpoaed to the air • but especl~lly from the ooe8DIJ rises into the atmoaphereJ travel• aa a part of vast 

air •••e• over ooea and land J ia condensed when an air ••• rises to pass 

over another or over a mountain range, and falls aa rain or mow. Much or it 

falls on the ocean. In some areas a aubatantial amunt is condensed directly 

tram the air onto the land as dw. !Jot all the rain ed mow that falls 

reaches the earth--some of it eftporates in tal ling or tall a on a tree or other 

plant and is naporated trom it, and so completes a cycle very quickly. 

We begin to count our awUable water aa it reaches the surface. Tbat 

which reaches the surface -.y travel a straight and simple path or a tortuous 

and complicated one, but it all is destined to go back to the ocean, the 

primary reservoir. 

Some ot the water evaporates imnediately; some of 1 t penetrates the soil 

and is held there tor a time (the amount depending on the kind ot soil and its 

previous moisture content), later to be evaporated or transpired by thirsty 

vegetation, some or it f'alls directly an the river chamlels and thus contribute• immediately to river discharger some is shed by the ground and reaches 

the streams very promptly. It the rain continues, some ot the water may pass 

below the reach ot plant roots, a part reappearhlg as wet-weather springs or 

seeps, and a part going farther down into ·the unsaturated subsoil zone above 

the water :table where water is held in the pores bJ capillary force aa it is 

3 
in the soil (fig. 2). This zone baa. ita mois'ture•holding capacity too--equivalent in some areas to many inches of' wai"Altr•-and it it has been partly dried 

out by slow evaporation during a 1 ong rainless period 1 ts moisture must be 

replenished. Finally. af'ter the moisture demands of' the soil and subsoil 

han been satisfied, at least in places if' not throughout a whole area, it 

the rain still continues or it repeated rains occur there is an excess that 

can reach the water table. A drop enters at the top of' the saturated soU 

and another drop is pushed out at the bottom; that drop enters one of' the 

larger saturated capillary openings in the subsoil and pushes_ out another 

farther down, much like successive drops of rain on a dirty window P$De form 

a little crooked rivulet, from the bottom of which a drop r1ms ott whenever a 

new one is added at the top. 

Finally some of the drops reach the water table--the top ot the acme in 

which the openings in the rooks are 1'ally saturated and in which the water can 

flow under the influence of gravity as it does in a river, though much more 

slowly. Just before reaching the water. table the water becomes a part of and 

passes through the "capillary fringe"--the zone where water is held up above 

the water table b,y capillary force and where, though the capillary "threads" 

are connected to the water table, the water in th• still will not tlow into 

a well. 

Now, the raindrops have become ground water, but only after submission 

to many prior claims. It the rain falls slowly over a long period the ground 

water may be replenished before any water runs oi'i' at the surface, but commonl7 

the rainfall rate exceeds the inf'U tration capac! ty of' the soU for a time while 

the subsurface demands are still unsatisfied. and water is rejected and runs 

off at the surface. In cold climates there may be much rejection of' this kind 

4 
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THE WATER TAB 

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SURFACE ~ZONE OF AERAJIDN 

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FIGURE lB. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 

GROUND-WATER FEATURES 
GROUNDWATER PlANT 

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ZONE OF SATURATION (GROUND WATER} 

FIGURE 2. ZONES OF SUB-SURFACE WATER 

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because rains may tall while the soU is still trosen and tight. But, 

regardless of whether ground-water recharge or surface runoff predominates 

at a given tiM and place, on the whole they share the lowest priority on the 

water that falls from the sq. 

The gro\Dld water tlows slowly through the rooks--slowly because or the 

triction between the water particles and the sides of the small pores or 

cracks in the rocks. It moves, always under the influence of gravity, toward 

some lower area of natural or artificial discharge. Uhder natural conditione 

the discharge nay be into a river through a spring, or simply by slow seepage 

that is not concentrated enough to be called a spring. Or it may be· by 

evaporation or transpiration along the river's edge, or :in a awamp, or in and 

near the bed of a dry salt lake :in the West. A part of the liquid discharge 

is directly into the ocean rather than into streams 1 the amount is large in 

an absolute sense but it forms only a small traction of the total ground""'W&ter 

discharge. By far the largest part or the total ground-water discharge is 

in to streams in humid areas. 

It the water enters a. streaa it still 11a7 DOt reach the ocean. The 

atrea11 ay be. one that flows to the :tloor of aa enclosed basin ia the WtJet.-lihe 

dr7 salt lake of the last paragraph, there to be e'f'&porated. Water ia, ot 

course, lost almost continuousl.J' from &Dl' stream by evaporation. Water a'T 

be takan froJa the atreaa anc:l used by an, and returned in part or not at all. 

In the West particular 11', the stream 11&7 leave a JDOuntain gorge and seep 

into the sandy bottom. of an allUYial vall871 thence to tlow underground t.o 

another atre&lll or even to the lower part, ot the 8&118 atreaa, where it cc:aea 

to the surface once more; or to flow to the dey or salt lake that represents 

5 
the destination ot both ground and surface water of the ecorea ot ccloeecl 

basins ot the West. Or it_,. tlow to a well and be pumped out for irrication, in part being diachargecl b7 wapo-.tra:nspiration and in part ret.ura1ng 

to the water table, to move unclergoad to the ..._ or another well or to 

its natural place ot discharge. 

The many wa7s in which water circulates are illuatrated ill tipre 1, which 

depicts the tqdrologic cycle in a generalised way. 

This description .ot the principal parts ot the b1'drologic .c)'Cle-there 

are .ID.8Il7 important moditicat1011a, such as detention ot water tor a time in the 

form of snow and ice -aenea to point out 8ll all-important. tact. water 18 

water--it is vapor at one tillle, rain, snow, or dew at another, surface .ot' ground 

water at another. It ay be surface •ter one JDOMnt and grOUDd water tbe 

next, and vice versa. But it 18 all water, and it aust be considered. as a 

whole-each phase in relation to the others ancl to the entire bTdrologic CJCle. 

wfe cannot diseuse ground water and forget t.be surface water that teed.a it ill 

some places and is· ted b7 ·it in others. We cazmot discuss either and forget 

the precipitation that tor• the ultilate source of replerli.ahment tor both. 

It thi3 report did nothing more than to bring out the necessity tor aa :lategrated approach to the whole vtater problem., it would have served its . purpose. 

It cannot. be emphasized too strongly that such integration is the priJDar7 

~equisite tor an orderl.J and sJstematic investigation ot our water resources. 

Ground Water in the Hydrologic C)rcle 

1'he place ot water-bearing formtiona in the tqdrologic cycle is twofold • 

Aa tunctioll&l elements ot the natural drainage s7stem, they tranamit water 

trom one place to another, sometimes for long distances, and they act, as the 

Nation • s greatest storage and regulating reservoirs. Our Wlderground reservoirs 

6 
have an enorJDOua capacity -to store surplus water in wet periods, by virtue 

of the fact that water entering them is prevented by friction tro.cn draining 

away as quickly as it would in streams., 'l'hey :have a_ sind Jar capacity to .P&7 

out Ylater slowly in rainless periodf, sustaining the flow of streams in which 

all direct ·surface runoff has passed downstream after the laat rain, and which, 

except for the ground-water discharge, would be dz7· The usable storage 

capacity of our underground reserV'oirs cannot even be approximated on the 

basis ot our present data. In the Sacramento Valla,. alone, the total storage 

capacit7 between depths of 20 and 200 feet ia estimated at about 34 ad lli on 

acre-feet,_/ equiY&l.ent to something like one and a quarter times the usabl.e 

J Poland, J. P., and others, Ot-oun.d-water storage capacity of the 

Sacramento Valley, Calif. u. s. Geol. Sur'Yey rept. prepared for publication 

b7 the_ California D1v. Water Resources, November 1949. 

cat:acit7 of Lake Jlead. Bot all this capacity ia usable, but a large part ot 

it ie. The usable capacity in the sacra.mento Valley is much l.arger than the 

a~era~e for ground-water reservoirs of comparable size in the Nation as a whole. 

but it shows that the total ie tremendo~ times that in all man-aad.e 

surface reservoirs, which in 1946 am.ounted t,o more than 160 milllon aare-feet.J 

J Harbeck, G ... B., Jr., Reservoirs in the United statesa U~ S. Geol. 

Survey Circ. 23, fig. 1, March 1948. 

The Underground Reservoirs 

!he underground reservoirs or aquifers of the Ration are its rock tormationa_/ 

_/ Keinzer1 o. B. 1 The occurrence of ground water in the United states, 

with a discQ.Ssion of principles: u. s. Geol. SurYq Water-Suppl¥ Paper 489, 

1923. 

7 
uaing the work "rook" to describe both oonaolidated tormatians and the unoaoaolidated sediments like gravel and sand. The foundation of. the United Statea 

consists of dense rocks like granite known aa "basement rocks.• These ro~ka 

come to the surface in the hearts ot our major mountain chaine, in the Piedmont 

Plateau from New Jersey to Alabama, and in some other scattered areas. 1'hq 

lie beneath a covering ot young glacial clay, sand, and gravel in New England 

and northern Wisconsin. Elsewhere they are covered by stratified rocks ranging in thickness fro. a few feet to many thousands of feet.· !be stratified 

rocks are consolidated sedimentary formations like limestone, sandstone, and 

shale, unconsolidated sediments auoh as gravel, sand, and clay, and volcanic 

rocks such as the great lava flows of the West. 

The capacity of the rocks to absorb, store, and yield water depends on 

the abundance and the size and shape of openings in them. There is nearly 

an infinite range in size of the openings, frca submicroscopic pores in 

clay and shale to huge tunnels in lava flows and caves in limestone. The 

op~ings are primary--such as pores in aand, gravel, and clay J or aecondary--

auch as fissures in rocks that bave been indurated and then cracked by earth 

movements. 

The occurrence of water in rock for-mations depends not only on their own 

character but on their position with respect to the land surface, their structure--

the way they dip or are folded or faulted, the way in which they alternate 

with nan-water-bearing rocks, and the extent to which they are exposed to recharge and the extent to which water is available for recharge. 

All but the tightest rocks--clay, soft shale, volcanic ash, or danae, 

unfractured hard rocks--will yield at least a little water where the other condi tiona mentioned above are auch as to permit water to enter and move 

8 
through the rocks. fhere are eXtreme variations, ·hO\teYer, 'in tbe' eapacit7 

ot the ditferent rocks to hold _;and tb yiel.a'iwater~·- ·"l'hEI'iii6st·proii.tic water 

bearers are the cavernous limeStones such as those: which· ·stippl.i ·the h.uge 

limestone springs in Florida ·and lfi.ssouri at'ld1 the lava rocks suCh as ~h~se 

which feed the springs along the Snake ·River in Idaho. _j ·Far outweighing ,• 

_/Meinzer, 0. E., ~rge springs in the United states: U. s. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 5571 1927. 

these in national .importance, however, are the widespread and varied deposits 

ot gravel and sand which yield the bulk of the ground water the count.r, over • .J 

_/ Meinzer, o. B., op. cit .• (Water-Su!!>ly Pcwer 489 ), pp. 117-118, 1923. 

Sandstones are less productive than sands becau8e their pores are till8d --~ ' . . . 

b7 cementing -.terial; indeed, some important sandstone· formations yield mori 

ot their water troa cracks rather than pores. The least productiTe roclca 

that ,-iel.d. usef\tl supplies are those in which the water occ\lrs in ·small cracks 

' rather than large pores or caverns. !hese include the bulk of the consoli-. 

dated sediment&r7 rocks and the •basement rocks• ·as well.. Such rocks, however, 

are very widespread. and are generaU., capable of yielding the s.:U supplies · 

ot water needed on the tara. .llao, iihese rocks, and even iihose less 

produc1iiTe ones that wUl yield a little water but not enough tor a household 

well, sane an important purpose, tor a rock formation that will y.l.eld onlJ': 

a little water to a well ,.,. sene as an important storage · anc;i regulating 

resenoir when its whole ext;ent is considered. 

!he total storage capacity of the Hation•s· underground reservoirs is 

corJIIOua. According to the available data, which at-e not adequate for more 

9 
thaD the rousbeat ol eat:laatea, it 1a aD7 tiMe geater than the e&JacitJ' ot 

all the streams and lakea and reaerYoirs, excludiDg the GNat Lakes. the 

parts ot the Great Lakes within the United st.ates hold enousb water to cover 

the Uni~ed states to a depth ot aor41 than 6 t~, ~ timas the 

combined capacit7 ot all other lakes-, atreus, ud resenoira-but. the srouad.-

water storege is thought to exceed even that creat uoant. 

!here is a most important ditterence between total storage anc1 usable 

storage, ho118Yar. Un~r natural oonditioDs the p-ound-water reserYoirs ·can 

till up to a certain point at a giYa'l rate ot illput before their spill equala 

that rate. i'he higher the rate ot repl.tnishment the higher their level JaUSt 

rise betore the discharge reaches an equal rate. Whm repl-.iahment stope the 

reaervoirs continue to drain out., at a grad~ deer-iDs rate, untll 

another period ot replen1ahllent occurs or atil th8J dra1a dGIIIl to the leYel 

ot tha streams that form their natural outlets. .As a practical matter, 

however, complete draining seldom occurs, except troa thin dissected deposita 

perched on billa ot tight rock, like the a-J J er patches ot the terrace 

deposits ot OrtUlle-colored cla787 graYel near Waah1D.gton1 D. c. Thus. the 

average usable storage capacitr under natural conclit:J.oDa 18 represented b7 

the "effective porosit7" or draiDable pore space in the SOil8 between the 

average · hi§lest and lowest l8'1ela ot the •tar table. Kuch water remaina 

in storage belOll the lowest natural stage of the water table 1 however, and 

some ot this storage can be utilised b7 pumping •ter tram wells. 

Also 1 usable storage capacitJ ie less than total b7 the amo\Ult ot 

water retained in the s•l l er openings b7 capil.lar7 attraction, against the 

pull ot gravit7. Thus, when a saturated rock ia drained, tilms of water 

remain behind, coating the graina ar lining the crevices • !he smaller the 

openings 1 the larger the part ot the water so held. · In a clay, the pore 

10 
space. may amount to aore than 50 percent of the total volume and may be . ' . . ' -'~.-. _,_ .-:. 

filled with water, yet eveey bit of the water may~ held against the pull 

ot gravity so_ that it cannot -flow into a well or stream. In a clean coarse 

gravel the porosity may be only 20 or 25 percent but the amount of water 

retained against gravity may be only a small traction of this. 

P'inal:q, usable capacit7 is less than total where the stored water is 

ot poor quality, as it is at depth in Blll7 aquifers. Here, economic considerations may co• in be·eause water useless for c:me purpose •7 be good 

for another 1 and in some places the poor water can be displaced by good 

water artificial.l7 recharged from the surface. ·aowever, the saline parts 

ot many ground-water reservoirs are of little· use either in the natural 

eyele or to man; indeed, they •Y complicate efforts to obtain fresh water 

b7 discharging s•ll quantities ot poor water in such a way as to· spoil a 

fresh-water supplJ• 

From the standpoint of usefulness for· water suppl71· it Blight be well 

to consider the underground reservoirs as divided into two great classes, 

though it should be pointed out that there is no sharp line-indeed, a 

complete gradation-betweell them._/ The first are those with a high rate 

/ McGuinness, c. L., Recharge and depletion of ground· water supplies: 

Jul. Soc. Civil Img. trans., Paper Mo. 2318, vol. 112, 1947, PP• 972-998. 

of recharge, transmission, and discharge, and which therefore are capable 

of yielding large perermial supplies. The secc:md are those with a low rate 

of recharge and small perennial yield, wbere beavy withdrawals by an are 

largely troa storage and cannot be continued ~definitely'. Some of the 

second type have yielded large supplies of •ter over the years, howrever, 

11 
and with proper management can continue to be useful both tor water suppq 

and as storage reservoirs. Examples ot the first class are the lillestones 

ot Florida, the alluvium of some of the Westem basins, and the productive 

glacial gravels ot the Ohio Valley and the Pacific Northwest. Examples of 

the second class are the sands and gravels ot the High Plains, lcftown as 

the Ogallala for•tion, the Dakota sandstone ot the Dakotas and States to 

the south, and the ccmsolidated limestones 1 aandatcmes, and shales in the 

lliddle West. 

Water-Table and Artesian Conditicna 

Before going. further into the part the ground-water reservoirs pla7 

in the national water picture, it would be well to take time to make the 

important distinction between water-table and artesian conditions. Under 

water-table cCI'lditions the top of the zone of saturation is a •tree" water 

surface at atmospheric pressure, and the ground water behaves much like 

water in a surface reservoir, except that fricticm Ekes it move much more 

slowly. The zone of' saturation extends downward to impermeable rocks that 

prevent the water from descending further toward the center of the earth. 

This depth varies from place to place but 18 ganerall7 -.r17 hundreds ot teet; 

however, in man7 regiCils on1y the upper few hundred teet is of importance. 

Under artesian conditions water becomes confined under pressure between 

two bodies of impermeable rock. It does so by entering the ground, reaching 

the water table, and then flowing down with the slope of the water table to a 

point where the zone of saturation is interrupted b)" an illlpermeable bed. Part 

of the water •Y pass above the bed and continue to flow under water-table 

conditions, and part of it flows beneath the bed. Now it is cmf1ned, pressing 

12 
upnrcl apiDat the imperM&ble bed wit.p a head. equJ:nl.ellt to the clitf'erenoe 

in elrtation between that point ancl the el.natioD of the water table in the 

area ot recharge, lee• the loae 1D heacl r .. ultills troa trioUOD ~ .,.,._nt.. 

This i• confined ar artea1aa •ter; it will rise in a tight.q cased well to a 

height above the bottODL ot the oontia1Dg· becl equiftlent to the preuure hM 

at that point. U the head · bappeu to be &boTe the land aurtaoe, aa it. 

commonly 1a in the Yall87s or along the ooaat. 1a ar•• obaraoterued b7 

artesian f'or-.tions, the well wUl tl.ow. (See tig. 1.) 

Water-table ancl art.eaian aquifere differ ark~ in their usable 

storage capacit7. Artesian aquifers are comparable to qat- ot pipinaJ 

thq are full of' water at all tiMs, receiving water at the upper end of 

the system and discharging it at the lcnru. Whm •tar ill ld.tb:lra• tr. 

such an aquifer at a giv• point, as through a well, the water 1a cleri'Yed. 

from storage b7 compaction of the aquifer and b7 the al.1lbt apansion ot 

the water itself' as the pressure is lowered, untU the etf'ect of the withdrawal extends back to the intake area and r .. ults in a lowerin& ot the 

•ter table there and perhaps in an :Increase in the rate of recharge, or 

to the discharge area where it results in a reduction of uatural discharge. 

When •ter ia withdrawn tram a water-table aquifer it coaea troll storage 

b7 actual draining of the tree or •gravit7" •ter troll the porea; here agaia 

the withdrawal trom storage continues untU it is balanced b7 an increase 

in recharge or a decrease in natural discharge, or both. J 

.J KcGuinneaa, c. L., op. cit. 1 P• 973 • 

1.3 
The usable storage capacity of a •tar-table aquifer, caJ.led ita 

specific yield,_/ is much larger than that of an artesian aquU~r, called ita 

_/ lleinzer, o. B., Outline of ground ater h1dr01o17, with definit:ionst 

U. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 4941 p. 281 19~. 

coefficient ot sti:Jrage • .J The apecitic Jield ot a water-table aquifer (the 

J 'l'heis, C. v., u. s. Geo1. Surver, !he relation bet"Vreen the lowering of 

the piesometric surface and the rate and duration of ·discharge ot a well 

using ground-water storage: Am. Geophys. Union Trans. 1 19351 PP• 519-524. 

traction ot a cubic toot of water that will drain out b7 gravity from a cubic 

toot ot saturated rock) m&"/f range from 0.01 or 0.02 to more than 0.40 and. 

coDIIDOlll.y is 0.10 to C.2S._/ The coefficient ot storage of an art.esian aquifer 

.) lor example, see Stearns, Borah D., Laboratory tests on physical 

properties of wat~-bearing materials& U. s. Gaol. SUrvey Water-Suppl3' 

Paper 596-F 1 PP• 164-169, 1928. 

(the traction ot a cubic foot ot water released trom ·storage in a vertical 

column of the aquifer l toot square when the head ia lowered 1 toot) •7 

range trom 0.00001, or even less, to o.oo;, but sel.dom mor-commonl7 0.0001 

to o.oo1._/ 

_j Unpublished data in f:Ues ot u. s. Geol. SUrver. 

Water-table and arl#esian aquifers ditter importantl3' in their reaction 

to withdrawal ot water .trom wells. The water table ot an Wlcontined aquifer 

and the piezometric surface ot an artesian aquifer-the imaginary pressure 

surface showing the level to which water wril. rise in artesian wells-behave 

in exactl.7 the same way when wells discharge, but in vastl.y different degree. 

14 
Because of the larger amount ot water available fran storage in an unconfined 

aquifer when the water table ia lolrered by pumping, the •cone of depression" 

caused by pumping spreads much more slowly than the analogous cone ot depression in the piezometric surface of an artesian aquiter. Thus the unconfined 

or water-table aquiters have a much larger usable storage capacity than the 

artesian aquifers 1 and they functi<m to a larger extent like surface reservoirs 

in that a large part of their stored water can be withdrawn between periods 

of replenishment. !be artesian aquifere function more like conduits between 

recharge and discharge areas, and the effect• ot withdrawal reach the outcrop 

areas relatively soon, att.er Vlhich the rate of decline of the water level slo\18 

down as water is withdrawn from storage in the water-table part of the aquifer, 

and eventuall.7 the decline IJl17 stop it the l.onring of the -.ter table induoes 

increased recharge or cuts down natural diacharge. leverthelesa, the storage 

tunctioo of artesian aquifers is 1Blportant, because until the effects of 

witbdrawal reach the outcrop area all the water has to co. from etorage, and 

in extensive artesian aquifers like the Dakota sandstone or soma of the sands 

of the Atlantic and Gult Coasts JD8D1' )"NrS .:y pass before the water levels 

are adjusted to the pumping and the withdrawal from storage and acCOJDp8ll1'ing 

decline in •ter lwel cease. 

Only water-table aquifers are accessible to recharge directlf frau. 

above. Artesian aquifers are recharged. b7 JIK)Vem.ent ot water from areas 

where the upper cDDtining bed is absent and water can enter trom the surface 

or trom an overlying aquifer. In general, water-table aquifers are those 

with the greatest recharge and yield and those most. euaoept.ible to art.ificial 

management. 

15 
Qeeration of the Ground-water Beaervoira 

·Let us consider in a little more detail the operation of the ground-water 

reservoirs as a part of the natural wa~er system. water enters--recharges--

a ground-water reservoir by one of several processes; moves through it under 

the influence of gravity, fo.rming, while it is there, a part ot the Nation's 

stored supply; and discharges from the reservoir, again by one of a number of 

different means. It should be pointed out that the water,. if not used when 

available in the reservoirs, discharges frca them and continues to move in 

the hydrologic cycle; it is not conserved at that place by simply failing to 

use it. The storage function of the aquifers has been touched upon already. 

The other phases of the ground-water part or the hydrologic cycle need s~ilar 

explanation. 

Recharge 

Ground water is recharged principally by one ot two processes--infiltration 

of water from precipitation and infiltration from surface-water bodies. The 

source of the water in both cases is precipitation. No important reCharge ot 

ground water occurs other than from precipitation--"meteoric water"--though 

in a few volcanic areas a little "juvenile" water is believed to be added from 

cooling igneous rocks, and there is much lively debate among geologists as to 

whether "juvenile water" added a little at a time throughout geologic ages is 

not the ultimate source of all our water. Also, there are a number of minor 

ways in which recharge can occur. A heavy dew could add enough water to a 

saturated soil to cause same recharge, though such an occurrence would be rare. 

Dew, however, does meet a part of the moisture demand of vegetation. Recharge •Y 

even occur by movement to the water table of water in the vapor stage. Such movetaent always occurs when the humidity of a body of air increases over that ot 

18 
an adjacent body- •moisture gradient11 is set up from t~ more hQIDid to tbe 

drier airJ a similar gradient is set up also traa a warmer bod.r to a. cooler 

one, as the formation of dew itself shows. How important this twe ot ground.-

•ter recharge is we do not 78t know-probabJ.7 not ve-q important where the 

depth to the water table is substantial--but resear~h is needed to evaluate 

the process to determine its place in the hJdrologic c70le. 

Speaking very generall.y, it IIJ&1 be said tbat recharge troll precipitation 

is the dominan1i process in the humid last, and recharge troll atreaJI f'low 1ri the 

arid West. In the hwaid areas there is enough precipitation, at least during 

part of' the rear, to aatisf7 in substantial degree the prior cl.aims tor 

evaporation and soil-moisture replenishment and still to l'ield an excess tor 

ground-water recharge and surface runof't. In the arid areas the potential 

evaporatio~he amount ot water that the air could take away it it were available-so tar e.xceeda the precipitation that onl.7 hea'VJ rainstorms are able 

teaporarill' to OYercom.e this deficienc,y and to provide water tor 'ground--.vater 

recharge and surface runoff'. 

ltecbarge ia a seasonal phenomenon in practicall7 all parts of' the countrr • 

There are parte of' the 7ear when., because of' such t.tdnga ae great.er-than-average 

precipitation, reduced demands tar evaporation and plant use \transpiration) 

caused b7 cold weather 1 or release of' water f'rta snow and ice caused b7 wara 

weather, enough ater ia avaUable to saturate the soil and reach the water 

table or run ott. !he . aeaaoa when this happens ia not the 8&1118 in one part 

of the countey as in another, nor, indeed, in one part of the country tiY8r'J' 

rear, but in each major region there ia a characteristic pattern. 

In the humid Northeast, Jli<inat, and Jorthwest, recharge ia precioldnantl7 

a springtiJae phenomenon. !ypicalJ3 t.he water table is ·J.ow aa a result ot 

1'1 
winte~long drainage of ground water into the streams, without compensating 

recharge because the soil is ·· trozen and tight and the , aV&ilaba water is 

locked up as ice and snow' and so a maxiJJl1Jm amount of usable storage space 

is available in the underground reservoirs. When wara weather conies, the 

frost in the soil and the overlying snow mel.t, the temperature is still not 

so high as to cause auch evaporation, and the vegetation has not 7et begun 

to use auch water 1 and thus .much water is available to saturate the soil 

ana to recharge the ground •ter and hn ott at the surface • .} Spring rains 

_j llcGuinness, C. L., U. s. Geol. Survey, The importance of snow in 

relation to ground-water recharge: Central States Snow Conf. Proo. 1 vol. 11 

Lansing, llicb., PP• 166-1721 December 1941. Prepared in cooperation with 

Ki.chigan Geol. Surve7 Div. 

add to the available water in most years. U the melting takes place too 

quickl71 much surface runoff may occur before the soil is completely thawed 

and capable of transmitting water downward, and disastrous floods ma7 result. 

HeaV7 rains occurring at the same time will add to the floods 1 as in the 

1936 floods in the Northeast • .} 

J Grover, H. c., and others, Floods of llarch 1936: U. s. Geol. 

SurveY" Water-Suppl.J Paperer 79ts JJ 79g I and 800 I 1937. 

At ~rate, 1n the humid areas ground-water recharge generall7 is greatest in the spring, and the &DI)unt of· water stored, as shown b7 the water 

levels in wells, reaches a maximum. As spring gives wa7 to summer, the rains 

ma7 continue or even increase, but evapc;rati~n and transpiration increase 

even more rapidly and soon dispose of all or near~ all the rainfall; cml¥ 

exceptionally heavy rains are likely to produce substantial ground-water 

recharge in these areas during the summer. Thus, because ground water continues 

18 
to drain out even though recharg~ is not occurring, the aaomt ot stored 

•ter is c:liminished and the •ter table declines durin& the suaaer. . In the 

tall it is generaJ.l.T at a low stage. U it then rains more than heavil.J 

enough to restore the soil moisture depleted during the long, hot JBODthe, 

·£round-water recharge may occur during the tall, though the water table selciola 

rises as high as it does in the spring. After the tall recharge, it a117, 

the water table declines through the winter, though at a decreasinl rate 

because the decl.ine gradually reduces the slope toward the streau that 

causes the water to move toward them. and the water table reaches a low point 

in the spring Jun before the thaws that send it upward apiD. 

nuctuations ot the water table in a twical humid area having colcl 

winters lPennsylva.nia) 1 showing changes in ground-water storage as a resul\ 

ot recharge and natural discharge, are shown in figure 3· 

Recharge ·in the hUiitld. but; warmer Southeast and· Sou:t.h is s1m11 ar to 

that in hUIIid areas farther north, except that teapor&r7 storage in the fora 

ot ice and snow is less iaaportant or nCDexistent, and recharge occurs whenever rainfall supplies enough water to exceed the highc en.po-Ven8piraUon 

losses and soU-moisture requirements.. In the main. or continental part, ot 

the Southeast recharge occurs .mainly' during a period of high rainfall in 

the first few months of the 7Nr 1 and there is generall1' a second period of 

high raintall and a secondar7 period of recharge in late awaner and tall. 

In the southernmost areas along the Gulf and in norida the cLimate tends to 

be subtropical and a large part of tbB recharge takes place in the suauer 

and i"all, when rains are heaviest. TJ"pical fluctuations ot i;he water table ill 

Florida are shown in figure 3. 

In the great midcontinent Great Plains belt of aubhWiid to semiarid 

19 
cli..mate east of the Rockies, ground-water recharge is similar to that in the 

more humid areas except that it is less because ot reduced precipitation and 

increased evapo-transpiration, and it may be very low or nonexistent in a dry 

year or even, in the drier parts of the belt, in a normal year. Fluctuations 

of vtater level in a typical part ot this belt (North Dakota) are shown in 

figure 3. 

In the arid West, ground-water recharge is greatly different from that 

in the East. The region is a vast desert, dotted with mountain ranges which 

receive much more precipitation than the adjacent basins-amounts comparable 

to those received in the East. The mountains are relatively cool and they 

are built mainly of dense, impermeable rocks and have steep slopes. Thus, 

they tend to shed a large part of the precipitation thq receive, though 

even beneath steep mountain slopes there may be· enough ground-water storage 

capacity to even out and prolong considerably the·runoft resulting from 

rainfall and snow .melt._/ 

J For example, see Dennis, P. E., Geology ot San Antonio Canyon, Calif'., 

in relation to ground-v~ater storage; u. s. Geol. SUrvey manuscript report; 

Troxell, H. C. 1 and others, Hydrology of' the San Bemardino and eastern 

San Gabriel Mountains, Calif'.; U. s. Geol. Survey water-supply paper, in 

preparation. Prepared in cooperation with San Bernardino County Flood 

Control District. 

Thus, the mountains act as catchment areas tor precipitation and as 

sources ot water tor the adjacent desert valleys, which not only receive much 

less precipitation but are hotter and flatter than the mountains • Onl7 

exceptional precipitation on the valley floors themselves is capable of 

producing direct ground-water re~harge. It is believed that, in tbe average 

20 
~ 6 

~ 

1.1.1 8 -- - ! I 1\ WELL 33 OTY OF HATTON. 

olo 

j 

~ g 12 

"' . NORTH~ 

I \ 1946 

~ 

~ I 

\ f'-.1 Ll ,~ 

t:; 

~ 14 

~ 

~ 16 

118 A M J J A s 0 N 

NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS 

1 ~ :1 I ~1 I I I ({._! J I I I 

f2 ~ 20 

~ m ml I I I I I I I I I "..t: I 

~ 30 1936. 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 

Z SOUTHWE&T 

FIGURE 3. G~NO-WATER FLUCTUATIONS 

IN DIFFERENT CLIMATIC ENVIRONMENTS 

:::iE 

~ 18 

d 16 

<( i ~ ~ 

~ 12 

z 

~~ ~ z ~ 2 

0 

~2 

8 

A /'.. 

II\ lf_ 

\ \ 

[\j ~ 

- ............... 'l///. 'l/// 

V///. V//- <'///. '///. 

J F M A 

14 WELL Sl96 

~6 

~ 

[WE caM'Y. FlORDA 

1945 

,......, 

J " 

~ ~· 

~8 

~ 

l: 

t\1 I J . '~VERAGE FOR 1946. PENNA. 

I \ ( I 

I \.,_.-f-'\ N \ J \ 

v """' -..1\.--, 

I I I 'l//,t 1946. PENNA. V///-V///- '//// '////. 'l//,t '///. 1'///. '77Z 

V///Y//h V///-V///-'Y///, V///. "////Y////. '////. V/.0 'l'"//- V/// -'l'"//. '///N///.1 1'///. '///. '///. 'l///. V///,~ '///. 

Ml J J A s 0 N 0 

NORTHEA'ST 

1 ~Jl 

\ ~\J 

f'l I"' 

I "' ~ ~ 

~10 

~ 

~12 

~ 

~ u 

;1: J F M A M J J A s 0 N .0 

SOUTHEAST 
year. the direct recharge trom precipitation is very s•ll, or, in the hotter 

' _/ 

areas, even nonexiatat. Reasonably good data tor the southern High Plains 

_/ Turner, s. F., u. s. Geol. SurTey, Personal comunioat1on regarding 

central Arizona, Karch 18, 194:9. 

in Texaa, which are s•iarid rather than truly arid, show that an average 

_/ Barnes. J. R., and others, Geolo17 and ground water in the irrigated 

region of the southern High Plains in TexasJ Progress Report No. 7z Texas 

State Board Water Eng., PP• 24-26, Karch 194:9. Prepared in cooperation with 

u. s. Geol. Survey. 

of only a small traction of an inch of the roughly 20 inches of precip~tation 

per year reaches the water ta.ble, and there is evidence that the recharge 

takes place mainly in the exceptionally wet years like 194:1 and to a very 

slight extent or not at all in the long intervening periodip (tig. 3). The 

even greater inability of a nor.mal precipitation of 5 to 10 inches to recharge 

the ground water in the drier valleys farther west is obvious. 

The intermountaill valleys of the West are basins formed by the downdropping 

ot blocks of the earth's crust when the adjacent mountain blocks were raised. 

As gradually the one block dropped and the other rose, streams attaoked the 

newly forming mountains and eroded them, reducing their height and tilling the 

basins with rook debris. From the mouth of each valley a stream debouched 

onto the plain, dropping first the coarser fragments and then the smaller, and 

carrying the tine sediments to the lowest part of the valley. As the streams 

built up their beds with the eoarser fragments, their level frequently rose 

above the adjacent plain and the streams breached these "natural levees" and 

took new courses across the plain. Thus were formed the coalescing alluvial 

fans, each with an apex of coarse, generally well-sorted gravel at the canyon 

21 
mouth and, down the slope, crooked stringers of coarse channel deposita 

fingering out through tine Mteriala deposited adjacent to the channels 

as the flood waters spread out and lost their force. 

All of which goes to uplain the existence and importance ot the 

ground-water basins of the West and the way in which ·they are recharged, in 

a region where the climate is so dry that one would expect large groundwater supplies to be nonexistent. We have the mountains as sources ot 

surplus water that leaves them b7 way of streams. We have the adjacent 

basins filled with alluvium. deposited b7 those same ~ and ideall3 suited 

to receive water from them whenever they tlow. Typically the streams sink 

into the valle,- tloor soon after they leave the mountains, and the water 

flows underground to the lower part of the basin where it comes to the 

surface and either evaporates or· tlows out ot the basin. Here we have our 

second principal type of ground-water recharge-infiltration from stream 

flo;v·--and it is the principal way in which recharge occurs in the arid West. 

The streams are called •losing" or •influent" streams (fig. 4). 'they can 

be contrasted with the "gaining• or"effluent" streams typical of the more 

humid areas, where ground-water recharge !rom precipitation generally is 

adequate to keep the water table above the streams and the ground Wa.ter 

moving toward them except when they rise sharply in time of flood; Yhen 

they, too, lose water to the ground as "bank storage,• which returns in 

large part to the streams as their levels fall. 

llovement 

·rhe subject of movement of ground water is one that is simple in 

br<E.d outline though complicated in detail. Ground water obeys exactly 

22 
------..... E ,~~ 

_y; /!T_f:fi-_r_!.Y.l-~ / i ~ ,~ ----------- INFLuENT STREAM 

EFFLUENT STREAM 

FIGURE 4. DIAGRAM SHOWING RELATION OF INFLUENT 

AN·o EFFLUENT STREAMS TO WATER TABLE 
the same Pb1'sical laws as its counterpart on the surface-there are no 

JQ"sterious, inexplicable rooveamts though it ie harder to pin groundwater movements down because they take place out ot sight and au.tst be 

measured indirectly. Both ground and surface water flow always under the 

influence of gravity, from points ot higher potential to points ot lower 

potential, alvJays taking the most direct possible path, which producee 

the steepest "pressure gradient" and the .ma.xi.mwa rate of flow. 'the one 

important difference is that ground water generally moves so slowly that 

the intemal tx·iction bet\'leen its particles is relatively low and its 

fio-n io "laminar" or "streaml.ine11 or "viscous. u In such flow the rate is 

e.xactly proportional to the "hydraulic gradient"--the dit.terence in head 

bett1een two points divided by the distance bet·Hen them • .J Surface water 

_/ Wenzel, L. K., Kethods .tor determining permeability o! waterbearing materials, with special reference to discharging-well methods: 

u. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 8f!/7, p. 3, 1942. 

too can move slowly enough tor the tlow to be laminar, but ordinaril7 its 

velocity is such that there is greater turbulence and thus mre loss of 

head through friction between the water pal"ticles. !he turbulence does 

not increase gradual.l1', but rather suddenly _when the velocity reaches 

a certain point that depends upon the size of the conduit and the roughness o.t its walls. Once this •critical velocitY" is exceeded the rate 

of flow varies approximately as the square root of the hydraulic gradient._/ 

.J For example see Tolman, c. r., Ground water, PP• 19Q-200, New York, 

llclZraw-Hill Book eo:, Inc., 1937; Jiuskat, llorris, ~he no·• of homogeneous 

fluids through porous media, P• 58, New York, llcGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 

1937· 

23 
Ground water m.oves wherever there is a hJdraulic gradient-e difference 

in head-between one point and another, and a hydraulic connection through an 

opening large enough to permit the pull of gravity to OV"erco.me the "capillar7 

attraction" between a particle of •ter and the walls of the opening. Kovement of ground water can take place through extremel.1' small pores it the 

. difference in head is great enough, but; the finer-grained clara and similar 

"tight• rocks are essential.l.7 impermeable under the gradients that are COJIIIlOn 

in nature. 

Practically speaking, however, ground •ter tlowa in relativel.J 

permeable rocks and between or around relatively' impermeable ones. U, in 

fiowing through a 'body of alluviwa, it encounters a buried ridge of tight 

rock, it is daaaed up, rising until it can tlow over or around the ridge. 

Perhapa the ridge is somewhat permeable; then, after the ground water rises high 

enough on one side there _,. be enough head to induce t1ow through the ~ 

rier 1 as in the South Coastal Basin near Los Angeles • .} It the water-bearing 

..J Poland, J. F., Ge.rrett, A. A., and Sinnott, J.J.len, Geology, hydroloQ", 

and chemical character of the groun~ •ters in the torrance-Banta llonica area, 

Los Angeles Count71 Calit. u. s. Geol.. Surv'ey manuscript, report, 1948. 

Prepared in cooperation with Los Angeles County nood Control District and 

others. 

bed is 1:Jllderlain and overlain b7 tighter materials and grades into similar 

materials down the s-lope of the hydraulic gradient,· the movement is impeded 

but the head will buil.d up, inducing movement by slow percolation through the 

tighter materials, untU the ground-water bod1' is "backed up• to its recharge 

area and spills aver to another outl.et, after which the head can be buUt up 

no more. Water may pass between impermeable beds and be confined under artesian 

conditions, as outlined previously 1 and wUl move so long as there is some 

24 
hfdraulic .connection with an outlet and a h7draulic .gradient toward that 

outlet. Where it is contined it· may actual.ly flow upward in a bed whose 

dip is opposite to the hydraulic gradient, but there is nothing more remarkable about this than the upward flow of water in a pipe under pressure. 

!Wen under water-table condition.• water ~an flow upward-but al•ys down 

the h7draulic gradient-as· it does to enter a stream cutting and drainin& 

an unconfined aquifer (fig. 4J. In this case the water in a particular 

stream line 1a actual.q confined between its neighboring atreaa linea, forming what ia somnhat analogous to artesian water at that place. 

The movement of water is profoundly affected by and takes place in 

accordance with the geology--that is, the character and structure of the 

roclcs. This is nothing more than to repeat that water flows in permeable 

rocks and between or around impermeable ones 1 following the path of least 

resistance just like surface water. We cannot hope to cover all the in.tinite 

d.etaila of rock character and structure that affect the tlow of ground water 

in the different geologic formati011s of the United states 1 but we can 8&7 

once more that water moves through the rocks wherever there is water to do 

so and openings in the rocks that are continuous to some point of outlet at 

a lower elevation. 

Discharge 

If water enters and moves through the rocks it must discharge from 

them, by one means or another. As i.n a surface reservoir, the water level 

rises as water enters a ground-water reservoir untU it spills aver or untU 

the water is exposed to the air or to plant roots over a broad enough area 

to be discharged by evaporation and transpiration. Ordinarily discharge of 

25 
a groWld-watar reservoir takes place both b7 outnow ot liquid ·water .and by 

evapo-transpiration, just as in the case of a surface reservoir. The outnow 

may be to a stream that drains the basin or undergroUnd to an adjacent basin, 

though the latter case is relatively rare and is most common in the alluvial 

basins ot the West. In the Bast, most ot the discharge takes place by liquid 

outflow to the streams, but substantial evapo-transpiration occurs near the 

streams where the water table is close to tho surface. Where the surface is 

flat and reJ.ativel.y undissected by streams, the water table tends to build up 

near the surface, and, because the h7draulic gradient toward the streams is 

low, the bulk of the discharge mq be by evapo-transpiration, as in the Florida 

Everelades ._/ 

_/ Ferguson, G. B. 1 U. s. Geol. Survey, The plan and progress of recent 

surface-water studies in the Everglades: Florida Soil Sci. Soc. Proc., 

vol. 4-A, 19421 p. 84. Prepared in cooperation vdth Florida Geol. Survey, 

Dade County, City of lli&Jili, and others. 

In the West the t)"P8 of discharge depends in part on the opportunity for 

outflow of water in liquid form. Jfany basins are crossed by, or are the 

sources of', streams that are able to carry water away, and under natural 

conditions an important part of the outfiow is over the surface. Examples 

are the Rio Grande Vall.e7 in Ne\f Mexico and the Central Valley of California. 

There are_, however, many closed basins in the West, particularly in Nevada 

and Utah, that have no surface outlets. Some have undergroWld outlets 

through which a part or all ot the ground water leaves the basin. The typical 

closed basin, however, has no underground outlet. It is completely surrounded 

by tight rocks, and all the water that falls on the basin is ultimately 

discharged by evapo-transpiration. Each basin has a low spot or "playa" 

26 
toward which the ground water 1 as well as any surface fioVI th~t JDL\Y occur 

durLag sto~a, .IIIOYea and is naporated troJi1 the surface of a dry salt lake--

salty because all the llliDeral atter picked up by the water in traveling 

over and through the gro\l.'ld iu lett b8hind-or transpired by water-loving 

vegetation that fringes the •playa." 

Over a long period, the liquid c:liacharge of a ground-water reservoir 

1a eque.l to the average recharge minus loss bJ evapo-transpiration. '.l'he 

storage or impounc11ng effect of the reservoir is such as to "even out• :irregularities in recharge, and the larger the reservoir, or, more correctly, 

the larger ita usable storage capacit71 the greater the evening-out. In 

the smaller reservoirs, as in the saall., well-drained basins and sub-basins 

tJPical ot much ot the last 1 the ground-water discharge into the streams 

varies considerably, being at a maximum during or shortly alter periods of 

maximum surface runoff, but its variation is al~s less than that of the 

surface runoff, andthe more capacious the ground-water reservoir the greater 

the disparit.7. Figure S shows the part of the tlow ot a t)'Pical stream formed 

by ground-water; discharge. Figure 6 shows strikingl1' the effect on the surface-runoff characteristics of differences in underground storage capacit7 

between two basins near each other in Indiana. The basin of Wildcat Creek is 

underlain b7 relatively impermeable glacial drift that has a low rate of 

intake and a lov1 storage capacit7; the basin of the Tippecanoe River contains 

several l.ak~ and is underlain by thick, permeable glacial deposits capable 

of absorbing, storing, and paying out water remarkably evenly. Figures 19 

and 20 show similar contrasts between the basins of the Jlad and. Hocking Rivers 

in Ohio. 

In extensive reservoirs, ironing out of fluctuations in recharge may be 

27 
virtwly complete, so that the discharge remains nearJ.r coaa~t. This ia 

partic\.Llarl.y true tor ext;ensive artesian aquifers. The water table near tbe 

outcrop of the aquifer rises and .tall.s with variations in the rate ot recharge, 

but the piezometric aurface som distance away toward the discharge area 

ehows almost no fluctuation at all; that which does occur is due to .tluctuations in atmospheric pressure and to pumping trom ~lls rather than to 

changes in the rates of recharge and discharge. 

28 
z 

0Cf) 

~~ 

a..~ o- w z 0 ,_____,..,.,.,.,.,. a:::-

0.. 

~ 

w 

w 

lJ._ 

8 

.. I 

~~6 .:.JO l.J._@ 

:E(/) 

<( Wl.J._4 a:::O 

~(/) 

(/)Cl 

z 

_(/) ~<( 

<C=>2 

ClO 

:c 

~ 

~ 

0 12 

MUSKINGUM RIVER 

AT DRESDEN, OHIO 

. GROUND-WATER RUNOFF 

18' 24 30 6 

JUNE 1927 JULY 1927 

12 

FIGURE 5. HYDROGRAPH OF STREAM FLOW SHOWING SEPARATION OF SURFACE 

ANn ~ROUNn-WATER RUNOFF ,3e7, 
tw 

VARIATION IN STREAM FLOW IN BASINS OF CLOSE PROXIMITY 

Great Differences Caused By Natural Factors As Shown By Two Streams Only 50 Miles Apart 

1500 

~ 1000 

I 

0 

z 

0 

0 

w 

U) 

z 

I.&J 

<.!) 

r:r:: 

<I 

:X: 

0 

(/) 

0 

500 

200 

100 

0 

200 

100 

0 

FIGURE 6 

WILDCAT CREEK 

NEAR 

GREENTOWN, I NOlANA 

DRAINAGE AREA, 166 SQ. MI. 

7l6 ., ) 
study the effects of observed climatic fluctuations on our water supply and 

take them into ~ccount in planning water use for the future~ It does the average 

farmer - or the resident of New York City - no good when ratn is insufficient 

this year to reflect that the 10-year average precipitation probably will be 

close to normal. He needs water this year, and information should be gathered 

to show how storage facilities or supplement.J.l a.ources of water can be made 

available to bridge the d~ years. 

Evaporation and replenishment of soil moisture have the highest priorities 

in their demands on the available water from precipitation. Only when these 

demands ar.e satisfied or the maximum rate at which they can occur is temporarily 

exceeded by rainfall or snow melt, is water available to run off. over the land 

surface or recharge the underground reservoirs. Therefore, when rainfall is less 

than normal, evaporation and transpiration get a larger percentage of t~1e rainfall 

and proportionately less water is available to run off over or through the ground. 

Whether ground-water recharge or surface runoff has the higher priority on 

the remaining water depends on the relation of the rate at which water becomes 

available at the surface to the rate at which the soil and subsoil can transmit 

it downward to the water table. It depends, therefore, on both the character of 

the soil and subsoil and the rate of a~cretion of water at the surface. If the 

soil and subsoil, and the water-bearing rock below the water table, are permeable 

and if the rate of accretion is not too high, the bulk bf th~ water will go into 

the ground and the rate of surface runoff will depend on haw quickly the water 

can move underground to the streams. If the soil and subsoil are tight, the 

~'tar-bearing rock not ver,y permeable, and the rate of rainfall or snow melt high, 

the bulk of the available water will run off directly over the surface. In the 

same area, t~e proportion will differ with the intensity of rainfall and snow melt; 
in different areas with the same rate or accretion or water, the proportion will 

dif'ter vith the undersround conditicma. In all areas, because both ground-wter 

recharge and surface runoff' represent w·~r left after demands or higher priority 

have taken thei~ toll, their amount and relation to eaoh other will vary even 

more widely than the rate of accretion of water - that is, more widely than the 

fluctuations in climatic conditions. 

'i'he relation ·of seasonal availability or water from precipitation in a 

normal year has been touched on in the disettssion or recharge. Here we are 

concerned mainly with the effects of abnormal conditiors, such as exist traa 

time to time everywhere in the United States. Though average precipitation 

ranges from a few inches to more than 100 inches in the United States,_/ no 

_/ Bernard, Merrill, U. s. Weather Bur., Precipitation; Chapter 2 ill HydrologJ"t 

Nat. tiesearoh CouncU, Physics of the Earth Ser., vol. 9, pp. 32-55, New York, 

McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1942. 

section or the United States is i1DD'llme .fran occasional droughts or floods. 'DuriDg 

a drought, even in a normal..ly humid area the bulk of the precipitation mq be 

evaporated m:td transpired and stream tlov and ground-water recharge redl1cecl ellarp:cy', 

so that the availability of vater depends on the extent to which surtaoe and undergrown storage can be utilized. During a wet year, there ID8Y be a great excess 

of water over that required to meet the demands for evaporation 8lld transpiration, 

\lh!ch tend to be less than normal because of greater humidity, ground-water storage 

may increase to a maxinam, and stream nov also will be greater than normal. 

lt,igure 7 shows how ground-water recharge and stream fiow_ in Ohio, a normal..ly 

humid. area, differed from 1941, when ground-water recharge was nearl:7 lacld.ng and 

stre&~ tlov was reduced sharply because the deficient precipitation was disposed 

of largely by evaporation and transpiration, to 1943, when precipitation, grOUDdwter recharge, am stream flow were high. The graph or streao tlov show that in 

31 
1941 a large part of it was derived trom the ground-water reservoirs J it these 

reservoirs had not been present there would have been a f'ev :ninor f'J.ooda in the 

streams and nothing in between. Too, there are soma aquifers along the streams 

that depend mostly on river water tor their recharge, and these bad less than a 

normal supply in 1941. because or the reduced s.tream tlov. 

Evidence is accumulating that arid regions are likel)" to be characterised 

by intrequent years or period or years in whioh the bulk ot the ground-water 

recharge occurs, separated b.Y long periods vhen little or no recharge occurs. 

This is true both for areas like the High Plaine ot Texas (fig. 3) where mu.ch ot 

the recharge occurs directly from precipitation,_/ and areas like the basins ot 

J Barnes, J. R., and others, op. cit. (Progress report on the High Pla1ns1 

1949). 

nalifomia,.l where the bulk of the recharge is tr<a stream tlov (tig. s). In 

_/ Ebert, F. c., ~ction on California a W'atet· levels and artesian pressure 

in observation wella in the United States, Part 6, Southwstern States aDl 

Territor;y of Hawaii a U • s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 911, PP• 106-l.CS, 

1941. Prepared in cooperation with State ot Calitorrd.a aD4 otben. 

areas like that covered by figure 81 which is a graph tor a well in the Santa Ana 

River basin, the disparity between wt and dry periode is accentuated by inoreaaecl 

pumpiDg ill the dry periods alld reduced pumpiD& in the vet. Thus, in tbe West, it 

appe_..s that it is mainly the abnormal rather than the normal condition which 

produces the important ground-water recharge. lDasmn3h as little or no recharge 

occurs even in an average year, the :reduction ot precipitation in a dry year has 

relatively littla effect on ground-water recharge. 

The par-t pla;red by the ground-water reservoirs in meeting our water demands 

vill be discussed :-:ore tuJ.ly later. Here it should suffice to point out that it 

is the are~s underlain by the large and produotive ground-vater reservoirs that 

are affected relatively little by extreme climatic fluctuatioDS. There, during 

32 
~ MIAMI I RIVER AT HAMILTON, O'HIO 

Oo 

CDZ 

=>o 

(.)(.) 

w 

ZCJ) 

(.!)w we::: ~~,~ a::: a_ 

<t.,_ 

Iw Ow C/)1.1.. 

0 I -

0 

0 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 

. ~ 201 WELL '29-1, MIDDLETOWN, OHIO 

~ ~25 Oa:: 

d~3o~----~~--~------~----~~~--~~--~~~--~~--~ 

CD 

t-- ~ 351 \ I a I \ I I J ' .. ~ 11'\J v '• I I \ I I '1 \ I 

tt:=> 

1.1..~40~--~~~~~~----~--~~----~~--~~~--~----~ (.!) 

45~--~----~----~----~--~~----~----~--~ 

FIGURE 7. GROUND- WATER FLUCTUATIONS AND 

SURFACE RUNOFF IN A HUMID REGION '1J(f13 
rz 

0 

Q_ 0 

<.9 

z 

0::: 

:::> 

~ 10 

w 

~ 

3:20 g 

~ 

G:i 30 

w 

lJ.. 

z 

.. 40 _J 

w 

> w 

_J 

0::: 50 

w 

r-

~ 60 

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 

FIGURE 8. GROUND-WATER FLUCTUATIONS IN THE WILLIAMS WELL, 

730?3 SAN BERNARDINO~ CALIF .. A SEMI-ARID REGION OF HEAVY DRAFT. 
droughts, the ground vater ia avaUable tqr uae when .artaoe runott ia 1ov 8DCl 

ar1;1t1c1al reservoirs are depleted or do not exist at all and it ia the groundwater reservoirs that provide whatever stream nov occurs between rains. When 

the climatic oond.itions swing to tbe opposite extreme and too much water 18 

available 1 the areas with the larges\ ground-water reservoirs are again tortuDate 

because ot the extent to vh1•k "he ~ water is stored underground and paid 

ou.t s~, so that tbe severity ot the floods is moderated (tig. 6). 

The iJiportaD.oe ot the water-bearing formations aa balancing reservoirs 1D 

reduciDg flood peaka aDd sustaining lov flows in streams bas been touched on 1D 

a general W8J'• We have not yet brought ~t, however, the actual quantitatiw 

importance ot ground-water discharge as a source of strea tlov- an importanoe 

that is not generalq recognised. The corollar7- the importuce of stream tlov 

as a source ot grown water- 1a obvious when it is remembered that streams are 

the maiD source ot ground-water recharge in the arid West, where water is most 

prec1oaa. 

The most speotacul.ar additions ot ground water to surface nov are represented 

b7 large springs. Mew_../ described 65 spriDgs. of the tirst magnitude, vhioh he 

J Heinser, O. E., I.rge springs in the United statesa · U. s. Geol. Surft7 water--

~ Paper 5~, P• 4, 19'Zl. . 

defined • .those yielding an average ot 100 cub1o teet per second (44,900 gallons 

per minute) or more. Among the largest are the ThousaDd Springs and others issuin& 

from lava roob alq the north side ot the Suke River between Milner aDd KiDg 

Hill, Idaho. The total spriDg discharge in th1a 4CL.mile stretoh was 3,885 oubio 

feet per seaond in 19<R, and in 1918, after the tlov had been increased by irrigation 

33 
developnents on the uplands, it amounted to S,C:SS cubio teet per second • ../ other 

../ Meinzer, o. E., op. oit., P• 43. 

large springs include the limestone springs ot the Ozark region ot 1-oiissouri and 

thoso ot Florida. 

Spectacular as the large springs are, their discharge is but a small traction 

of the total flow ot ground water through springs and seeps into the Nation' a streams • · 

The average annual precipitation iD the United States is abou.t 30 inches. Ot this, 

a little more than 21 inches is evaporated and transpired and a little leas than 

9 inches runs into the ocean.-/ The 9 :f:nchea represents an average tlov ot about 

../ Langbein, 'W. B., and others, Annual runott in the United States& U. s. 

Geol. SUrvey Giro. 52, p. 51 June 1949. 

11800,000 cubic feet per second. Ot this, it is estimated on the basis ot the 

available incomplete data that between one-third and two-titths, or between about 

600,000 and 7001 000 cubic feet per second, bas passed through the ground-water 

reservoirs before entering the streams • ../ This is the part that can be discriminated 

.J Langbein, w. B., Personal coDIIIUllioation, Mar. 131 1950. 

:readil.7 on graphs ot stre~ now (fig. 5). A lerge additional part -under saae 

conditions perhaps v1rtually all - ot the remainder may pass through temporary zones 

or sa.turation near the surface as •subsurface storm f'lowl' and issue as wet-weather 

springs and seeps in time to be counted as a part ot the •direct surtaoe runoff •" 

This discussion brings out rorcetully the importanoe of ground water as a 

contributor to stream flov. But it also Slphasizes what has been stated before 1 

that we cannot talk about ground water or surface water bu.t must talk about ~. 

Diversion of water from underground reservoirs 1 to the extent that it is not returned 

to them, and to the extent that it is not accompanied bJr a reduction in evapo34 
transpiration losses, represents a depletion of stream tlov. Thus uses ot grouDd 

vater and surface water are competitive to an extent depending on. the net etteot 

on enpo-transpiration, and it ve are to keep a ba1811C8d approach to the water 

situation this compat1tioa JILlSt alW11J be OODS:lderede 

The competition Deed not alWQB be destzuotive, however. Where extensive 

g2'01Ud-water reaervoira are conoeraed, there "1147 be a considerable lag between 

the time of withdrawal of a large qu.an1;it7 of water tram underground storage 

and the time when the oorreapond.ing depletion ot stream. nov occurs, and the 

depletion M7 not oocar during the ._on ot low tlov in the r-iver, when oompetition amoD£ uses ot its water is at a max1mma. The greater the storage capaoit7 

of the UDdergl'OUDi reservoir 1 the greater the lag in the effect on strea tlov 

ot vi thdraval f'rom. or addition to ground-water storage. For eDmple 1 the tlov ot 

the Metollua Rivet; in Oregon, fluctuates relatively little because the UJldergrou11d 

storage capacity of its basin 1s exceptio~ great; the effects of vet and dry 

qcles show up with a lag ot S ,-ears. or more as compared with those on the nov ot 

the nearby John Day River 1 vhose basin has a lllUoh smaller UDClerground storage 

capacit7 • ./ There would be a similar delay in the effect of large withdrawals ot 

./ McDonald, c. c., and LaDgbein, w. B., u. s. Geol. Survey, Trema in 

r\llloft in the Pacific Horthwesta All. GeoPbl's. Union Tr8118., vol. 29, no. 31 

PP• 394-396, June 1948; Piper, A. M., u. s. Geol. Su.rve7, Runoff troa rain and 

anova Am. Geop!Q'a. Union Trans., vol. 29, no. 41 PP• 516-518, Augwst 1948. 

ImMrt.apqs ot Qzel ity ot Watp: 

Water containing abeolutel;y no iJaparitiea would be a curiosit7 in D&ture, 

as indeed it wuJ.d be practically impossible to prepare in a laboratory. water 

is the universal solvent - it is capable of disaol v1ng m.ore ditf81'8Dt subatanoes 

and more of them than &IV" other solwnt. From the instant that ita gaseous 

35 
molecules condense to form droplets in a cloud, it begins to dissolve or absorb 

things - OJey"gen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and rarer gases trom the air, various 

gases and i'ine particles or ash resultiDg trom volcanic eruptions, bacteria and 

plant spores, and even industrial gases and smoke particles resulting troni the 

activities or man. \/hen raindrops fall they already contain substant.ial quantities 

of these constituents, though we are accustomed to tb1nldng ot rain water as about 

the ;)urest water there is. Water that talle 1n !rosen form ~ take on less ot 

these substances, but :!.t, too, is not pare. 

From the moment that water reaches the ground and begins to pass over the 

surface or through the soil and rocks, it attacks them, dissolving or entering 

into ohao.iaal combination with them. Already containi.Dg 801118 carbon dioxia, it 

dissolves more fron the soU, adding also some ot the complex organic acids 

resulting rrom plant decay 1 and becomes an even more powrtul solvent. Aa laboratory acids go, this solution of' carbonic and organic acids is pretty weak, l:ut 

given time it can do an enormous amount or chemical work. All minerals dissolve 

to at least a slight extent in water; most are even more susceptible i!l the presence 

of the weak acids. The carbonate rocks - limestone and dolomite - that fan:a an 

important part or the stratified sedimentary rooks or the United States are especially susceptible to solution b,y water contaiDing carbon dioxide and other weak 

acids. It is this solution that forms the great caverns like 1-I&JIDOth aDd Carlsbad; 

in a less spectaaular vay it has operated over the ages past to enlarge the tev 

cracks :In many dense, impermeable limestones and convert them into important 

aquifers, and to make in1 tially good aquifers like the porous Tamiami limestone 

or the Hiami area even better .J 

../ For example, see Parker 1 G. G. 1 U. S. Geol. Survey, Notes on the geolog 

and ground water of the Everglades in southern Floridas Florida Soil Soi. Soc. 

Proo., vol. Jv-A, 1942, pp. 47-76, Prepared in cooperation with Florida Geol. 

SUrvey, Dade County 1 City of J.fiemi 1 and others • 

36 
Ground water 18 1n lcmger aDd more int*te contact with earth •ter1ala 

than surface runoff, and it tends to be more h1gh:b' m1neral1H4. This teda to 

llm1t 1te uaetul.neas in oomperiaOD·. to that of surface water having a lov mineral 

oontent. However, tbe mineral qual1't7 of ground water tends to be relati'N]l' 

UDitora, vhioh s:lmplitiea its treataaellt where neoeaeary, and the two most """"01' 

objeotiouable features, high iron content ad bardDees, U8Ul.l7 oan be removed at 

reuoDable ooet. Surface water, though gene~ leas mineralised on the avena•, 

mq fluctuate widei7 h qual1t7 aa ita melee-up varies from near~ pure raiD vater 

ormov 1118lt in time ot tlood to essential.l1' nothi.Dg blt, gl'OUDC! water in periods ot 

minillull nov. This variation, plu sedimeDt content, complicate the treatment 

of aurtaoe water. 

Beoauae ot the extent to vhioh water is filtered in passing tbroagh the aoil 

and rocks, nearly all grol1Jld water 1e ot goo4 sanitary or bacteriological qualJ:t)r, 

whereas surface vater is sate to drink vithca.t treatment onl7 'When it is derived 

trom 'Wlcontuainated watersheds. The chiet e.xoept1ou to the general purit7 of 

ground water lie in the cavernous lilleetone and lava-rook aquifere, where polluted 

water mq pus into and through the ground essentially without tilteriag, and in 

shallow, poorl.7 ooDStra.otecl wells located too near sources ot contn1natlcm suoh 

as privies and ba.J:trQvda.J 

.J Rural water-auppl.J' sanitatioDJ ReoOJDDlendations of the· Joint Committee on 

Rural Sard.tationa u. s. Ptlblio Health Service, Public Health Repte., Sappl..,t 

Ho. 185, 1945. 

It goes w:Lthou.t sqiDg that water drtmk b;y human beiDgs or ued tor washiDg, 

bathing, or prepari!lg food 111118t be baoterial.lJr sate, l:ut for acme uaea bacterial 

purlt7 is not essential. Practi~ eveey use, however, ElSt take into account 

the chemical character of the water, thongh in SOM it is much .less important than 

in others. Water to be druDk 111118t not contain amounts or iron, chloride, magnesium, 

37 
and certain others in excess of sate limite tor palatabWt7 or toxioit,'. Water 

used tor cooking aDd washing has some of these and other limitations 1 princ1~ 

iron content, hardneea, and bicarbonate. Water used tor irr:lgation should not be 

too highly' mineralized DOl' have an exoess of sodium over other aJ.kaliDe constituents. 

l'later used by induat17 must Met certain speo1t1cations, which Var'J widel7 with the 

use and. some ot which are much more critical than f(tandards for driDld.ng water .• 

Iron content for dJ'eing; hardneea, sodium, bicarbonate, and silica tor high-pressure 

boilersJ and even hardness tor camdng peae are 81D0J21 the Dl8Jl1' factors that Jlllet 

be considered • ./ Taaperature, though a physical rather than a obemioal proper't71 

./ ~foore, E. W., Progress report of the CoDIIDi ttee on Quali 't7 Tolerance ot 

\-later for Industrial Usee: Nev England Water Works Assoc. Jour., vol. S4, PP• 263, 

271, 1940. 

is another factor of extreme importance in JI8D1 uses • 

It becomes apparent, then, that 1D one sense water is not always water. Seastimes the water moleaules are there, and plenty of them, blt the other molecules 

and particles mixed in make the water useless, or impossible to treat eoonomic~ 

for any use tor which water is needed at the tme and place concerned• Such water 

might as vall not be available at aU 'UDleee and until its condition can be ohar.aged 

practicably. In so• cases there is not Eoh that can be done to change it, as 

in an area vhere all the water is natu:raJ.:b" salty, and the water goes to waste ar 

seneiJ only a very low use such as cooliDg. Where cur water supplies have been 

contaminated as a result of our O'Wil actions, howver, ve must consider whether 

steps oan be taken to reduce the contaminatioD and so to make the vater available 

for useful pu-posea. 

In a:tJ.7 event, we can never ignore the quality of the water, vhich is always 

a matter of importance aDd in~ oases is the limiting factor rather than the 

38 
physical presence or absence ot needed quanti ties. Through adequate basio studies 

or the quality ot the water, as related to the geologic and climatic background 

of the area in which it ocau.rs, we can predict. successtu11y what kind of water vlll 

be available; through adeq:uate planning based on these studies, we can use tor one 

purpose vater not suitable for others and can make usable water that is unsuitable 

in its native colldition or that has been made unsuitable through our ow fault. 

39 
EFFECT OF LAND-USE PRACTICES 

We have here a subject about aa controversial as any in the field ot 

hydrology. At the outset it should be admitted that a complete anner cannot 

yet be given to the many questions that exist; so tar only a traction ot the 

scientific research necessary to answer them as they relate to the best use 

ot our water resources has been done. But we can aay confidently that the 

research can be done, the questions can be answered, and we can then plan to 

use our water tully, yet wisely, safeguarding both it and the land tor the 

use or future generations. In this report we can only hope to t~eat the sub• 

ject superficially and perhaps point the way to revealing and laying same ghosts. 

From the standpoint or water perhaps the moat critical question is this--

Is the way we use our land causing our water supply to diminish and floods to 

increase? We are told that the water table is declining gradually and that 

our underground reservoirs will eventually go dry. We are told on the ane 

hand that our stream flow is diminishing and on the other that it is too high 

but at the wrong t~es. We are told that our climate is changing, tor some 

unknown reason or because we are overcutting our forests; that improper measures 

ot cultivation are causing water to run ott too tast and reducing the infiltration to the water table; that the pumping tram wells in our industrial cities 

is lowering the water table under whole States; and so on, and on, and an. 

How much est all thi a i a true? Some ot it is true, in part, and some of it is 

false. Some or it is true at one place or time but not true at another. 

To relieve undue public anxiety on these questions, but even more to know where 

we are going and what we must do to go in the right direction, we must get to 

the bottom of these matters. 
We have discussed the effect on water of climatic fluctuations and have 

said that there is no reason to believe that there is &D7 permanent trend 

toward reduced precipitation or increased temperature as a result of natural 

causes. We can go further and aay that there is no reason to believe that the 

activities of man have had a substantial ettect on regional climate. The 

Weather Bureau has shown that precipitation occurs \ihen favorable canditions 

are created b7 the relative movements of huge air masses, and changes in the 

local moisture content of the air caused by local drainage or cultivation 

practices are not significant in causing or preventing precipitation._/ The 

_/Kincer, J. B., op. cit. lis our climate changing?), pp. 19-34· 

teasibilit7 of inducing precipitation by seeding clouds with dry ice or other 

substances is a subject of much interest now, but it remains for the future 

to determine whether this vd.ll be an important tactor in our national water 

situation. We should do everything we can to make artificial precipitation 

feasible, it at the same time '!ile can demonstrate that we can control it so 

tbat the beneficial effects will outweigh any nonbeneficial ones. 

Assuming, then, that so tar our land-use practices have not changed the 

climate on a large scale, we .must consider what else ·ne ma.y have affected. 

In some places farm drainage has materiall7 modified the l.anchwater relation. 

There is no question that soil erosion is a.serious national problem. It has 

sent countless tons of soil from. improperl1' farmed lands or lands that should 

not be farmed at all dovm our streams, not only choking our streams and reservoirs but robbing us of a part of our present food-growing capacit.y • ~osel-7 

related is the pollution of many of our largest streams with industrial and 

domestic wastes and mine drainage, making them unsightly, destructive to fish 

and wildlife habit.ats, and useless or nearly useless for purposes for which 

41 
they are needed. We have depleted some of our ground-water reservoirs and 

contaminated others. All these things must be corrected, and ways must be 

found to correct tham economically and in a coordinated way, so that alleviation of one condition without regard to the effect on others ~t.Lll not create 

still more problema. 

The Geological Survey bas been gaging streams since 18881 gradua.J.l1' 

increasing the coverage until now daily or continuous measurements ot stream 

.flo'Ji or stage are made at some 6,000 stations on the principal streams and 

m.any tributaries. lla.ny of the records are nov.- more than 40 years long and of 

considerable and increasing reliability for use in forecasting. They show a 

tendency, in some parts of the country, for the runoff from a given amount ot 

precii1itation to decrease slight~._/ Analysis of the records bas not y-et bean 

_/ For e.xample, see Hoyt, W. G. 1 and others, studies of relations ot rainfall and runoff in the United States: u. s. Geol. Survey Water-8llppJ..7 Paper 7721 

PP• 96-llO, 1936; Harbeck, G. E., Jr., and Langbein, V. B., Normals and. 

variations in runoff, 1921-45: U. s. Geol. Su.rTey- Water Resources Rev., 

Supplement No. 2, 1949. 

complete enough to sho1.r the extent to -«hich this tendency may be due to 

variations in the intensity- of precipitation, to increased temperature. and 

correspondingly increased evapo-transpiration, to land-use practices, or to 

other factors not yet identified. A categorical statement cannot now be m&de 

that land-use practices have or have not affected the total runofi'1 but we 

can say that, it they have, they have not affected it very much in the country 

as a whole. 

The+e is a very Vlidespread national impression that the water table is 

declining the country aver. This impression is due to many things, such as 

reported or observed declines ot water level in farm wells, declines in 

drained areas, declines in irrigated and industrial areas, and the reported 

drying llp of springs. Many of these things have happened, but they have not 

42 
happened the country over, and where they have happenecl they can be explained. 

Recharge of ground water occurs where both the land surface and the 

underlying material are capable ot transmitting water under the inf'luence of 

gravity • The highest infiltration rates per unit ot area occur where soil 

is absent or is of negligible importance in either assisting or impeding flow--

aand dunes, gravelly river terraces or river bottoms, terranes of cavernous 

limestone or lava rock, and so on. But the area of such terranes is only a 

small traction ot the· total; most ot the water that reaches the water table 

must pass through the soil to do so. The condition ot the soU, therefore, 

is a critical element of the hydrologic cycle and one that is particularl7 

sensitive to the activities of man. These activities IJJAY affect the amount 

ot water entering, stored in, passing through, or discharging trom the soU 

and so 1JJa.'3 change the natural land-water rel.D.tionship; they must be taken 

into account in an:r attempt to evaluate the reliability and permanence of our 

ground-water resources. 

In this vital field the SoU Conservation Service ot the Department of 

Agriculture has made a substantiAl beginning through at~ at experiment 

stations throughout the count.r71 particularly at such research cent;ers aa 

that at Coshocton, Ohio. lluch remains to be done, howrever, in the field of 

infiltration and ground-water recharge and the e.f'fects on them ot cultintion 

and land-use practices in general. the research by 'the Soil Conservation 

Service n$8ds to be expanded greatly, therefore, t;ogether with that b7 the 

Forest Service, and that by the Geological SurYey in the little-lmown field 

of unsaturated tlow above the water table. 

Perhaps, at this point, we sl_lould nail down one important; point. . The 

measurements of water level. in about 15,000 wells obserYed b7 the Geological 

Survey and cooperating agencies show that, in areas not affected b1' artificial 

43 
withdrawals, there is no measurable tendency tor ground-water levels to decline. 

The levels go down in dry periods and up in wet, but" on; the ·average the7 remain 

about the same • ..) Most ot the observation-well records are DOt· as long as the 

J For example, see a symposium on fluctuations of gr~und.-water level published. in Am. GeoplJ7s. Union Trans. 1 19.36, .pt. 21 pp • .3.37-390. 1 

more complete stream-t.low records, but the few long records show no long-term 

tendency for. the water table to decline except as affected b7 pumping and other 

withdrawals-tor example, records on .Long Island extending back nearly ;o years 

and occasional prior records made as early as 18;l.J 

..J Leggette, R. ll., U. s. Geol. Survey, Long-time records of ground-water 

levels on Long Island, H. Y.: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., 1936, pt. 2, PP• 341-

.344. Prepared in cooperation with lew York Water Power and Control Comm. 

Water levels have declined in many areas of withdrawal, even in farm walla 

where the amount withdrawn is only a fraction of that recharged on the fara 

itself. Such declines may be due to increased pumping, the extent of which the 

farmer himself may not realize. Thus, when the well "goes dry" he believes that 

there has b~n a general decline of the water table, not realizing that with bill 

new electric pump he is viithdrawing more water than he ever did before, and that 

water levels must decline when pumping increases. On farms where drainage is 

practiced the viater table is lowered, as intended, and the lowering I'DIA1 be refleeted in the farm.er 1s well. 

A part of the widespread impression of decline of the water table on the 

farm is due to the survey made in 1910 by W J McGee, who obtained data on 

declines in water levels in a large number of wells throughout the United. states 

and published. figures on average declines._/ o. E. lleinzer,J however, showed 

.J KcGee, W J , Wells and subsoil water: U. s. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soila 

Bull •. 92, 191.3 • ..J lleinzer, 0. E., u. s. Geol. Survey, Review of the work ot W J KcGee 

on ground-water levels: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., 1936, PP• 386-.390. 

44 
that the declines were more apparent, than . real, tor the cia ta -~'lere based on 

measurements made in the fall, the season when water ~evels in most parts of 

the count~ covered are normal.ly at their. lowest stages, and in 1910, a dry 

year_ in much of the countey. These levels were compared with the farmers• 

statements, based largely on JD.elrJ0%7 rather than measureJneDts, of original 

water levels. Under these conditions it uould be natural for a farmer to 

remember and report the high est sprir..gtilt'e stage in a wet rear. Thus the 

assumptions on which llcGee' s 1·eport were based were erroneous 1 but the report 

had a profound effect tha~ still persists. 

Observational data on the effects of drairAge ditches are few. It properl7 

installed, they, of course, accomplish their intend~d purpose, to lower the water 

table and permit cultivation earlier in the year, or cultivation where it would 

not be possible other\dse. The water drained reaches the streams sooner than 

forr.terly, and its total quantity may be greater because the lowering of the 

water table tends to reduce evapo-transpiration losses. Ii' a ditch taps an 

extensive aquifer far from a natur&l ouUet, Jll8ll7 .months or even years mar be 

required for the water tab~e to become adjusted to the new level of discharge. 

In .most drained areas, however .. the ne.tural outlets are not far away and the 

adjustment ma.r be expected to be essential.l1' complete within a year or two. 

The time required can even be determined in advance b7 existing forwlas,_/ 

_j For example, see Ferris, J. G., U. s. Geol. Survey .. A quantitative 

method tor determing ground-water characteristics for drainage design: .Am. 

Soc. Agr. Eng. Jour., in press. Prepared in cooperation with Jlichigan Geol. 

Survey Div. 

if the necessar7 hydrologic data are obtained. There is no evidence that the 

vrater table tends to be unstable at its new, lower level, once the adjustment 

has been made. 

The etfe~s on the hydrologic cycle ot re100val ot native vegetation and 

4:5 
subsequent cultivation are widel.7 discussecl and d.iaputed. It 8hoUld be made 

clear that the field is a complex one :ill which there is m.uch .Passionate conviction 

but, so far, only a .traction of the scientific data tluit .lllUSt -be collected to 

answer the question. Under certain conditions of geology, soil, and climat,e, 

improper land management can lead to erosion of the soil, hardening and tightening of the subsoil, reduction of infiltration to the water table accompanied 

b7 its lowering a..n.d the drying up of springs, and increases in flood peaksin short, conversion of a useful area into a useless and even harmful one. 

How extensive such conditions are should be discovered by systematic investigation, and the causes of and best remedies for them should be determined. 

The Soil Conservation Service has made substantial progress in these studies. 

It should be stressed that the same practices do not produce the ~e results 

in different areas, so that it is necessary to predetermine, by adequate 

research, the resul.ts to be e~ected under given conditions, in order to 

produce the result intended and not another. 

Forests have been widely regarded as protectors of the soil and safeguarders of our water supply. There is no question that they play an important 

part in our national water econo.rq. However, the impression is widespread 

that reiOOval of forest vegetation can have none but evil effects on water; 

this thought has been carried even further, to the point where it is assw.ned 

that planting of •shelter belts" in areas not nm-t forested will increase 

precipita.tion and total water supply. The idea as to increased precipitation 

has been pretty well dispelled,./ and some of the other ideas are being 

.J K:irl..cer, J. B., op. cit. (Is our climate changing?). 

adjusted to the facts developed by research of the Agriculture Department, 

the Weather Bureau, the Geological Surve,y, and their cooperating agencies. 

For example, it has long been a popular belie£ that deforestation 

46 
automatically is reflected by reduced :infiltration to the water table. Where 

the deforestation is accoml~ed by destruction of the soil and great reduction 

of its infiltration capacity there is no question that this can occur. However, 

it does not ~ccur everywhere, and it does not follow automatically in every 

case thc:.t restoration of the infiltration capacity of the soil will be reflected 

in a rise of the water table. In e:<perim.ental areas in Colorado and California, 

comparison of the water yields of small drainage basins that were deforested 

with those of adjacent basins that remained forested showed that both total 

and low-water runoff were increased in the deforested basins • .J The increase 

_/ Bates, C. G., u. s. Dept. Agr., Forest Service, and Henry, A. J., 

U. s. Weather Bur., Forest and stream-flo-« experiments at Wagonwheel Gap, 

Colo.: U. s. Vleather Bur. Supplement 301 1928; Wilm1 H. G.,- and Dunford, E. G., 

Effect of timber cutting on water available for str~am flow from a lodgepole 

pine forest: U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 968, 1948; Hoyt, W. G., and 

Troxell, H. c., U. s. Geol. Survey, Forests and stream flow: Am. Soc. Civil 

Eng. Trans., 1934, pp. 1-30; discussions, PP• 31-111. 

in total. runoff was as expected because the trees, which formerly used large 

quantities of water, were gone. That low-water runoff increased was revealing, however, because it com.es tram ground-water storage; thus deforestation 

in these cases actually led to an increase in ground-water recharge. In the 

Coweeta National Forest, N. C. 1 it was discovered that total runoff waa increased b7 deforestation by approximately' the amount of water former~ used 

by the trees,_/ and the increase was accompani~ by a rise of the water t,able._/ 

_j Hoover, )[. c., u. s. Dept. Agr., Forest Service, Effect of reooval 

of forest vegetation upon water yields: Am. f'..eophys. Union Trans., 1944, 

pt. 6, pp. 969-975. J Munns, E. N., u. s. Dept. Agr., Forest Service, pers~ commur:dcation, 

Jan. 12., 1950. 

In all cases it ~s been found that the runoff decreases rapidly as vegetal 

gro·wth is renewed. 

This is not an argument for deforestation; forests have incalculable 

47 
value for economic and esthetic reasons as well as for protecting the soil. 

Hov1ever, it points to valuable principles for application in land and forest 

management. It emphasizes also that scientific research tends to disclose 

facts not. even suspected in popular thinking--facts that sometimes po~t in 

a direction opposite to previous beliefs. We have here, therefore, considerable 

evidence that unlimited reforestation may not be the answer to our water problems; following up these thoughts a little, we can see promise that proper 

land management may be able to increase the water yield of a drainage basin 

without introducing undesirable conditions; and that in some areas now 

devegetated and in need of soil conservation it may be economical.J¥ preferable 

to revegetate them with small plants._) 

J Croft, A. R., u. s. Dept. Agr., Forest Service, A water cost of 

runoff control: Jour. Soil and Water Cons., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. JJ-15, 

January 1950. 

What should cOJne out of this discussion of land-use practices is not that 

we should sudde~ abandon one tightly held line of thought and take up 

another. Rather it is that we should realize how little we really know about 

this vast field and should make it our business to support and to do the 

tremendous amount of scientific research that remains to be done before we 

can predict that one land-use practice will produce one result and another, 

another; we co.n then plan confidently our future practices knowing what ve 

are doing. 

48 
GROUND iv.ATE:t AS u·ltECTED BY· USE 

Under "Ground water in nature" we considered •inly the part played 

by ground water in the hydrologic cycle under natural conditions. Now let 

us consider in a general way.the modifications introduced by artificial 

wi thdrawa.ls from or addi tiona to the underground reservoirs by man. Conditions in specific areas will be described in later sections of this report. 

Effects of Withdrawal from Ylells 

Under natural conditions the ground-water reservoirs; like natural 

surface reservoirs such as lakes, are in a state of approximate dynamic 

equilibrium. Their levols rise in wet periods and fall in dry, but over a 

long period the water added to them is balanced by discharge t'ro.m t~. The 

withdrawal of water from wells represents a neVI discharge imposed on the 

natural system, and it Jmlst be balanced by an increase in recharge or a decrease in natural discharge, or both. Until it is so balanced,- water is withdrawn from storage and the ground-water levels decline. Ultimately, it' the 

withdrawal is not in excess of the extent• to which recharge can be increased 

and natural recharge reduced, a new state of equilibrium is reached. If the 

withdrawal, however, is greater than can be balanced in this way, the loss of 

water from storage continues until the water levels are drawn down i;o the 

bottom ot' the aquifer at the point of withdrawal, or to the lowest practicable 

level of pumping, after which the yield is gradually reduced until a state 

of equilibrium is reached for that particular aquifer and that particular 

distribution of wells. 

It must be remembered that the ground-water level must decline if 

water is to be withdrawn from a well, in order that a hydraulic gradient may 

be set up to induce water to flow to the well to replace that withdrawn. 

When vd thdrawal begins the water level in the well is lowe-red and a "cone of 

f9 
depression," with apex at the well and pointing dow.award, begins to tor.m 

around the well. The slope of the cone is steeper near the well than farther 

away, for the same quantity of water must pass through an ever-decreasing 

cross section of the a~ifer as it approaches the well. The shape of the 

cone of depression depends on the water-carrying capacity of the aquifer. 

Steep, narrow cones form in the less permeable aquifers, shallow ones in the 

more permeable aquifers. 

At first all the water comes from storage in the aquifer, and the cone 

of depression must deepen and grow laterally as more and more water is withdrawn, until it diverts to the well an amount of water equal to the rate of 

withdrawal--water that for.merly discharged elsewhere or that represents increased recharge. The rate of growth of the cone of depression depends on 

the storage capacity--specific yield or coefficient of storage--of the 

aquifer; the larger that capaoi ty the more slowly the cone grows • Thus, as 

discussed previously, it grorm much more slowly in an unconfined or watertable aquifer than in an artesian aquifer, whose storage capacity may be 

hundreds of times smaller. This might be a good place to point out that~ 

if the withdrawal is large enough, the water level in an artesian aquifer 

may be drawn below the bottom. ot the upper confining bed, so that the upper 

part of tm aquifer is unwatered, the piezometric sur face in the unwa tered 

part is now a water table and the storage capacity typical of water-table 

conditio~ exists there, and the rate of lowering of the water level is 

correspondingly reduced. In any event, however, the cone of depression must 

grow until it diverts enough water to supply the well. 

It is apparent, then, that aquifers differ in the amount of water that 

can be withdrawn with a given amount and rate of lowering of the water level; 

that for a given lowering more l'tater oan be withdrawn from ·widely spaced 

10 
than from closely spaced wells J and that to obtain the maximum effect in 

increasing recharge and reducing natural discharge, wells should be located 

as close as practicable to the areas of recharge and natural discharge. 

It is important, therefore, to be able to predict the effect on a given 

aquifer of withdrawal of water from wells, in order to guard against spacing 

wells so closely together that their cones of depression will overlap unduly, 

causing excessive local drawdown when more vddely spaced wells would yield 

the same amount with less drawdm7.n. Such predictions are possible through 

analysis of data obtained in ~ping tests, by methods developed principally 

_/ 

by the Geological Survey in the last 20 years. 

I For example, see Wenzel, L. K., op. cit. {Water-Supply Paper 887) 

and other papers listed in Partial bibliography of published and unpublished 

literature concerning ground-water hydraulics and applications of quantitative methods, with special reference to work of the Ground Water Division, 

u. S. Geol. Survey (duplicated), 9 pp., December 1948. 

The two fundamental properties that govern the effect of artificial 

withdrawal on an aquifer are its water-carrying capacity or •transmissibility• 

and its storage capacity, the "specific yield• tor water-table conditions and 

the "coefficient of storage" for artesian conditions. The transmissibility 

is determined by the permeability of the material and its thickness·, that is, 

for equally permeable material a given aquifer will carry twice as much water 

under a given hydraulic gradient than one halt as thick. The unit of permeabili ty commonly used by the Geological 8\lrvey tor field work is the number of 

gallons of water a day that will pass through a strip of the aquifer 1 foot 

thick and 1 mile wide under a gradient of 1 foot per mile. The transmissibility is the pe~eability times the thickness of the aquifer in feet. 

11 
The units used for storage capacity have been defined previously, under 

~ater-table and artesian conditions.• 

These fundamental properties or an aquifer can be deter.mined b,y properly 

controlled pumping tests. They vary from aquifer to aquifer and from place 

to place within an aquifer, so that for an ade~ate deter.mination a number of 

tests must be made. When the coefficients have been determined, they oan be 

used to predict the effect on any aquifer of withdrawing water from any 

given combination of wells. The for.mulas originally used. assume an extensive 

and uniform aquifer in which all withdrawals are from storage. Later modifications permit the successful prediction of the effects of withdrawal on 

nonuniform aqUifers and those limited by barriers or having areas of recharge 

_; 

or discharge within the range of pumping effect. 

I For example, see Ferris, J. G., u. s. Geol. Survey, Ground-water 

hydraUlics as a geopeysical aida Jlichigan Dept. Conservation, Geol. Survey 

Div. Tech. Rept. 1, March 1948. 

We have said that the ground water withdrawn comes fran storage until 

the withdrawal is balanced by an adjustment in the recharge and natural discharge of the aquifer. Let us now discuss a little how such an adjustment 

takes pln.oe. 

Natural discharge from an aquifer occurs because there is a hydraulic 

gradient toward an outlet where water is discharged in liquid form. or is 

evaporated and transpired. The effect O·f' artificial withdrawal is to lower 

the water level and reduce the gradient toward the areas of »atural discharge. 

Tlus the quantity of water flowing toward them and discharging in them is 

reduced and the difference represents water diverted to the well. It the 

lowering goes far enough the gradient toward the natural discharge area may 

be reversed, and, instead of' water discharging into a stream, water will seep 
from the stream into the aquifer. This is "induced recharge." ...... 

Artificial withdrawal increases the hydraulic gradient toward the well 

from. areas of recharge and increases the flow of water from them. If the 

rate of recharge already is at a max~. because of limited precipitation 

or the inability of the soil to transmit water to the water table as rapidly 

as the aquifer is able to transmit it away to discharge areas under natural 

condi tiona • the lowering of the water level caused by artificial wi thdrawa.l 

cannot increase the recharge. Tms the withdrawal. if it is to be stabilized. 

must be derived entirely from a reduction in natural discharge. This condition is common in the arid West. It. under natural conditions. however. the 

potential recharge is in excess of the rate at which the aquifer can transmit 

water to areas of natural discharge. the water table is built up as high as 

it can get and surplus water entering the ground spills over into streams 

crossing the recharge area or is evaporated and transpired. This is •rejected 

recharge • • and it is common in the bmd.d East. If the water table is lowered 

in the recharge area as a result of artificial withdrawal. space is provided 

in the aquifer for some of the water that formerly spilled over. and the increased amount of water can travel through the a~ifer because of the increased 

gradient set ~p by the artificial withdrawal. This. too. is "induced recharge, • 

and here too the process can be carried far enough to prevent water frCBD. spilling over in the recharge area and even to induce surface water flowing tram 

areas upstream to infiltrate from the stream channels into the ground. Such 

"induced infiltration" from streams has always occurred where wells penetrating permeable aquifers near a river have been pumped heavily enough to reverse 

the natural gradient of the water table. but it is being done deliberately on 
_/ 

an increasing scale along such rivers as the Ohio. 

_/ Xa.mnann, R. G., River infiltration as a so·urce of ground-water supplya 

Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Proc., ~ol. 73, no. 6, pp. 837-853, June 1947. 

Addition o£ Water to Underground Reservoirs 

Man's activities result in the addition of water to underground reservoirs 

in several ways besides the "induced recharge" or "induced infiltration" 

described above as resulting £ro.m withdrawals from wells. Deliberate addition 

o£ surface water or of used ground water, by methods known as "artificial recharge," will be discussed later. Here we will consider briefly more or less 

unintentional additions which, however, are of great importance in same areas. 

Application of water for irrigation ia an important source ot groundwater recharge in most irrigated areas. It is necessary to apply more water 

than is needed to meet the demands for e~aporation and crop growth. This 

excess water or "excess irrigation• serves the P\lr,Ose of keeping the soil 

flushed of the salts that acCUJDillate when the water is evaporated a.ad transpired and that otherwise would soon make the aoil unfit for cultivation. The 

excess water, called "irrigation-return water,• seeps downward to the water 

table, adding to the ground-water supply. It not diverted by pumping it may 

flow to and drain into a stream and be used over again for irrigation or some 

other purpose, or flow to an area where it is disposed of by evaporation and 

transpiration. 

The irrigatiop-return water represents an important source ot water, 

and in planned irrigation projects it is always taken into consideration. It 

does not represent new water, but it reduces the net requirement. It is not 
enough. however, simply to determine the amount or irrigation retQrn and 

figure on its reuse. Each time the water passes through the soil its load 

of dissolved mineral matter increases, and its use must be regulated so that 

it does not becaDe too concentrated. Where the water initially applied has 

a low mineral load and where the soil and rocks through which it passes contribute little mineral matter, the water can be reused several times before 

it becomes too concentrated. However, reuse must be limited where the original water is high in mineral matter, the soil and rocks contain much soluble 

material or are so tight that water moves through them slowly and has more 

opportunity to dissolve the soluble material, and water or good quality is 

not available for diluting the irri~ation-return water. Such conditions are 

common in the arid West. 

Where the soil and rocks are not very permeable, or permeable but drain 

slowly because or the distance to natural outlets. irrigation with surface 

water may raise the water table, so that the low spots become 'vaterlogged, 

the water is discharged by evapo-transpiration. and the salts in it accumulate 

in the soil. forming "alkali" conditions. IDatallation of adequate drainage 

systems or pumping to lower the water table is neoessar.y here. 

Thus the gradual accumulation of salts in the water and the waterlogging of land represent potential problems associated with nearly all 

irrigation projects. which must be solved through careful study or all 

these factors if the projects are to be successful. An excellent example is 

_/ 

the Salt River Valley in central Arizona. There the application of irriga-

_/McDonald. H. R. • Wolcott, H. N., and Hem, J. D •• Geology and ground- v~ter resources of the Salt River Valley area, Maricopa and Pinal Counties. 

Ariz. U. S. Geol. Survey mimeographed rept., February 1947. Prepared in 

cooperation with Arizona State Land Dept. 

tion water raised ·the water table, waterlogging the lower tracts and 

55 
threatening others. Wells were installed and pumped to lower the water table, 

and the water was used for additional irrigation. .Soon the practice of pumping water for irrigation was recognized as a practical way of accomplishing 

subdrainage and reuse of water and was extended until now the area is seriously 

overpumped·. Overpumping need not occur where a project :ts properly planned and 

carried out on the basis of adequate basic information, however, and the pumping of watar to keep the water table down and to provide for reuse of water 

can and should be an integral part of many projects. 

The building of surface reservoirs may result in the addition of water 

to underground reservoirs. The addition may be inadvertent, where a reservoir 

thought to be tight proves to be leaky, and may even lead to failure of the 

.../ reservoir to meet its intended purpose. It may be deliberate, where the 

_j For example, see Bean, R. T., Geology of the Roswell artesian basin, 

N. Mex., and its relation to the Hondo Reservoir. Manuscript report in files 

of U. S. Geol. Survey. Prepared in cooperation with Bur. Reclamation, State 

Engineer, and State Bur. of Mines, and to be published by one of the State 

agencies. 

permeability ot the reservoir bottom is recognized and the effect of the 

reservoir in adding to the ground-water supply is taken into account or, 

indeed, may be the purpose or l:nilding the reservoir • as in the case of the 

.../ Santa Clara Valley~ter Conservation District in California. 

_j Conkling, Harold, and Bryan, E. N., Santa Clara investigation• California Dept. Public Works, Div. Water Resources Bull. 42, 1933. 

In humid areas where the water table normally slopes toward the streams, 

a body of water impounded by a reservoir may act as a dam for a time. It 

causes the ground water flowing toward the reservoir to aoo\UIIllate until, 
together with water seeping from the reservoir. it tills up the new uunderground reservoir" that has been formed. and eventually spills over at the 

new, higher level. The effects JJJAy be beneficial in raising the water table 

and making ground wa. ter more easily available. or harmful, it the rise ot 

the water table waterlogs valuable land, but they should al'Wll.ys be considered 

when a reservoir is planned. Such "bank storage• i~ same reservoirs is 

equivalent to a sizable traction of the surface storage; it adds to the total 

storage and must be taken into account in planning additions to or withdrawal 

from. storage. Studies by the Geological Survey now in. progress show that the 

"bank storage" in Lake Mead is equivalent to roughly an eighth or the total 

_j 

storage capacity. 

_j Langbein, W. B. • U. 8. Geol. Survey, personal ccmmiU~ication, Apr. 3, 

1950. 
Mana'!!"lt of Ground-Water Resenoira 

We have aeen ha. important the ground-water reservoirs are as 

storera ot water and regulators of stream tlow. We have 4esoribed same of 

the etfeota ot artifioial wi thdrawal.s and addi tiona and ha.-..e hinted at tbe 

poes ibil itiea of looating well a so as to inoreaae reob&rge and reduoe wasteful 

natural diaoharge ed thus to make the resenoire more useful to man. Let 

us now oonsider more tull7 the aanaga~.ent ot our underground reservoirs as a 

part of our D&tional water econom;y. Praatioally all ot our ground--ter probleas 

are the result ot miamanag•ent, in the sense tbat uncontrolled developnent 

has produoed reeulta tbat wre not forseen, or oould not be foreseen em. the 

baeia ot an.ilable intormation. Without prQper management we oan look forward 

to nothiDg more than aggran.tion of existing probl.a and oreation of new onus. 

With it we oan modify the natural regbae to make the ground-wat•r reaenoirs 

take in more •ter and waa'te lese, we oan utilize their storage hnotion more 

etteotinly to reclaoe wasteful 811d deatruotiw flood runott in the wet season 

and periods of wet ,-ears and make JD.Ore •ter available in the dry season and 

in periods of dry years when it is needed moatJ in short. w oan ~· ground 

Water assume ita rightful plaoe in our eoon0Ja7, a place it auat ooouw if • 

are to continue to grow in strength tmd w.!tllbeing. 

58 
Sustained Yield va. Mining 

Each ground-water reservoir has a sustained ~to which it can be developed for human use. This quantity or feasible rate of withdrawal depends 

on the natural characteristics of the aquifer--its extent, thickness, permeability, and structure, and those of overlying and underlying rocks (same 

aquifers are so sealed off as to be virtually unreplenishable); the topography, 

climate, soi1s, and vegetation in its recharge and discharge areas; and the 

extent to which water is available for recharge and the opportunity for natural 

discharge as governed by these and other factors. It is not a fixed quantit.y; 

it depends importantly, too, on the way in which the developments are made, 

for one distributio~ of wells and pumping may produce a total dependable yield 

vastly different from another, depending on the effect in increasing recharge 

and reducing natural discharge and on the overlapping of cones of depression. 

By designing his installations properly man can accelerate the circulation of 

water through the reservoirs and thus make them take in more water, available 

for useful purposes, than they did in their natural state. 

Opposed to sustained yield is m~ing of ground water. There is always 

some withdrawal of water fran storage as the hydraulic gradients adjust ~;:themselves to new conditions of discharge. However, if the reservoir is to be 

used indefinitely at its sustained yield, the loss in storage can go to the 

feasible limit but no farther; the water levels will decline to a stage at 

which, on the average, they will be stable, though in the operation of the 

storage function of the reservoir they may be alternately drawn below that 

average stage and made to recover above it. In the mining of ground water, 

hmvever, there is a progressive loss of storage as the withdrawal continues 

to exceed the extent to which natural losses can be salvaged and increased 

recharge can be induced, and ultimately the ground-water levels reach the 

59 
lowest practicable stages, after which the withdrawal must be reduced to the 

rate of natural recharg& less remaining natural discharge. An extreme example 

of an area in which ground water is being mined is the southern High Plains in 

.J 

Texas, where water currently is being withdrawn at more than 20 times the 

_( Barnes, J. R., and others, op. cit. (Progress report on the High Plains). 

estimated rate of replenishn:.ent. Mining even more important quantitatively, 

though not on a percentage basis, is occurring in such areas as central and 

_( _/ 

southern Arizona and in California. Still other cases of mining, involving 

_/ TUrner, S. F., Arizona ground-water levels continue decline. U. S. 

Geol. Survey press release, Aug. 12, 1949, based on annual report on groundwater levels in Arizona for 1948. Prepared in cooperation with Arizona State 

Land Dept. 

/ Poland, J. F., U. S. Geol. Survey, Ground water in California: Am. Inst.~n. and Met. Eng. Trans., vol. 187, Min. Eng., pp. 279-284, February 

1950. Prepared in cooperation with California Dept. Public Works, Div. Water 

Resources, and others. 

withdrawal of water from artesian storage rather than under water-table 

conditions such as prevail in the High Plains, have occurred in the artesian 

basin formed by the Dakota sandstone _/ in the Great Plains and probably in parts 

_j Wenzel, L. K., and Sand, H. H., Water supply or the Dakota sandstone in 

the Ellendale-Jamestown area, N.Dak.: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

889-A, 1942. Prepared in cooperation with North Dakota Geol. Survey 

or those formed by the Cambrian and Ordovician sandstones or Illinois, Wisconsin, 

and adjacent areas. 

Thus, considering both sustained yield and mining, we might adopt the 

concept or optimum yield - the rate at which it is found feasible and desirable 

to withdraw water from an underground reservoir. We can regard each reservoir 

as raw material, which we can adapt for our uses as scientific investigation 

60 
and thoughtful planning make it possible -- even to the extent ot exhausting 

stored water in aquifers having little replenishment, if we decide thatihe best 

interests of an area or ot the Nation as a whole are thus served. 

We have used freely the words "'feasible," "practicable,'' and "desirable." 

These bring into the concept of optimum yield the factor of economics. We may 

do only what we can afford to do. We can provide installations for increasing 

recharge and reducing na·tural discharge, tor drawing the water levels down 

the needed amount to achieve these objectives, but we can do these thing&. only 

if' they are profitable. Obviously, certain uses of the water we develop will 

be more profitable than others, and a given use will be more profitable at ane 

time than another. In Chicago water is. lifted as much as 800 feet from wells 

for industrial use. In Calif'or.nia it is lifted trom depths of' more than 500 

feet in some places tor irrigating valuable cropSJ if the prices of' the crops 

decline enough the pumping coat will be excessive and irrigation trom wells 

will have to be reduced or stopped. Thus we have another and controlling 

variable in dete~ining the optimum yield of' an aquifer. 

81 
!he max:l.aual ttsef\rlnesa of the ground-water reservoirs over an 

indefinite period obriousl7 oal.la for d.evelo!Dent ot their austame4yield rather 

than miniug of their •ter. In certain oases, however, involving aquifers 

whose perennial Ji.eld is aaall, at least so tar as the present distribution 

ot withdrawals is oonoerned, it may be necessary to aodity this prinoiple. 

Take the oase of the southern High Plains of Texas, tor example. There the 

average annual replenishment of the ground water, though ~ot known accurately, 

can be taken as roughl7 60,000 aore-teet, and the current withdrawal is oonaiderablymore than a Ddllian aore-teet per yeat and is tnoreasiQg rapidly. 

Furthermore, the natural disoharge of roughly 50,000 aore-f'set, by seepage ~d 

evaporation at the edges of the plains and in saae or the valleya oroasing 

them., baa not yet been appreciably reduced beoause the lowering of the water 

table has not extended that tarJ thus, essentially all the ourrent withdrawal 

is f'rCIIII. storage. On a peremdal baaia the net withdrawal obvioual7 oannot 

eJEoeed the rate of reoharge, and even this assumes that all natural discharge 

would be stopped. lfow, if it had been possible to oontrol the withdrawal 

right trca the start, should it have bee renrioted to the rate of reoharge? 

This would have left untouohed the T&at amount ot stored water aoC\D.Ulated 

over the past. &laOunting to perhaps 150 million aore•feet in the irrigated 

part ot the southem High Plaine .J 

/Barnes, J. R., and others, op. ait. (Progress report on the High Plains). 

P• il. 

62 
Here is an example of one of the most difficult problems of hydrology. economics. and philosophy that we .have to face. We must first dete~e 

the available water resources of such areas--the amounts of water that can be 

withdrawn under various condi tiona and the lengths of time ove,r which the 

withdrawal can be continued under each procedure considered. Than it must be 

decided whether the stored water is to be mined in whole •. in part, or not at 

all. In the southern High Plains of Texas we are already committed to mining 

the water; what can we do to obtain supplemental water, or to provide substitute gainful activities if it is not practicable to get enough water to 

continue irrigation? The High Plains problem is a classic example of one 

that has developed because the limitations on the ground-water resource were 

not recognized. If we can solve it we will have a key to solving others, 

but so far no lang-range effective solution has been devised for the High 

Plains, and every year of delay will make the solution more dif'ficul t. One 

thing is certain: In such areas we should know the hydrologic facts early 

in the game; no intelligent action can be taken without them. 

The Central Valley of California is another even more important 

hydrologic and economic unit faced with the problem of' overdevelopment of 

ground water. Here the solution appears to be in sight, and though it will 

83 
be expenaiw it will provide an example ot what oa.n be done where the water ot 

a major basin is regarded as a 1Jilit and plana are devised tor uaing it to the 

JII&Xi.Dl1a pracrtioable exten-t. In simple teras the problem is one of replenishing 

the depleted ground-water suppl7 ot the south~ San Joaquin Valle,, tnd1reotl7 

through liSe or water trcaa idle wnter northern part of the Central Valley. 

The present overdraft in the eouthem San Joaquin Valley is on tbe order ot 

1 to 1-1/2 ailliOD aore-teet per year • ../ It is proposed to divert tlood water 

_j Poland, J. F., op. csit. ( Grolm.d •ter in California). 

tram. the San Joaquin RiTer, now us eel :tarther north, to underground storage ill 

the southern part of' the valley, making it aftilable tor use whm stream flow 

is low, and to replaoe the part o~ that •t•r now used farther north with 

water f'rom. the northern part of' the Central Vall.,-. The underground reservoir 

of' the northern or Sacramento Valley part of' the Central Valley will &lao be 

used to store f'lood water tor later use .J Thus the underground reservoirs 

_j Poland, J. P., op. oit. (Ground--ter storage oapaoi1:y ot the 

Sacsramento Valley). 

will be dra11l down ill dry periocla and reftlled in wet, ao that there will be 

neither a shortage o~ •ter in dry aeaaons and years nor waste ot nor daaage 

from flood waters in wet seasons and years. The project ia not yet •out of 

the wo·.)ds." The preset plana will not proTide as ~oh water aa ia needed. 

64 
e:1d man,- prooedurea remain to be planned and oarried out. For ezam.ple, it 

has not yet been determined where and how the artiftoial recharge of the 

underground reaenoira oan be oarried out moat effectively and eoonQI.ioally, 

but the diftioultiea are reoopized and the baaio geolog:l.o and hydrologlo 

awdiea are under wa,-. Here we will have a ke7 to the kind ot aoientitio 

inveatiption and analy-aia, eoonall.io thi!!king, and engineering planniDg that 

n will have 1;o provide tor aiailar probl.s elsewhere. 

Salvage of Natural Waste 

An important part of the management of our water resources must be the 

salvage of natural waste. We have spoken ot salvaging "rejected recharge" 

and reducing the natural discharge of the ground-water reservoirs, and so 

making more water available to wells. Part of the rejected recharge and 

natural discharge goes into streams and sel"V'es to maintain their flow, and 

part of it goes into the air through evapo-transpiration. 'l'o the ext.ent that 

ground-vtater withdrawals can be made to reduce the wasteful loss by 

evapo-transpiration, we can increase the net usable water supply, even if 

those same withdrawal.s result in some depletion of stream. flow. Let us recall 

that, of the approximately 30 inches of precipitation received annually in 

the United States, about 21 inches is discharged by evaporation and transpiration and only 9 inches in liquid form into the ocean. The amount of water 

discharged by evapo-transpiration is staggering. On a hot mids\lOllller aftemoon 

in the United St.ates, water is pouring into the air, molecule by molecule, at 

a total rate equivalent to more than 10 times the maximum recorded flood flow 

of the ~1ississippi River at Vicksburg. We can hope to recover only a Sl!'..all 

65 
fraction of this, but all we recover will be added to our potential maximum 

water supply. An important part of what we can recover is that discharged 

by evapo-transpiration from the ground-water reservoirs. The much larger 

amount discharged from the soil without ever reachlng the water table is 

less eas~ reducible, but we should make thorough studies to determine 

where and how a ~rt of it can be salvaged, as through land-use practices 

that will reduce the loss without iDjuriDg the soil or reducing crop growth. 

On the basis of meager 1 incomplete data 1 it is estimated that 

phreatophytea (water-loving plants whose roots tap the water table or the 

capillary fringe above it) grow on some 15 .million acres in the 17 Western 

States and discharge perbapa 20 to 25 million acre-feet of water annue.J.4r • ..J 

_j Robinson, T. W. 1 Areas and use of water by pbreatophytes in the 

Western United states. Unpublished memorandum in the files of' the U. s. Geol. 

Survey, Jan. 71 1949. Prepared in cooperation with State Filgineer of' 

Nevada. 

This figure includes only pbreatophytes that have no beneficial use; beneficial ones, the most important of' which is altalf'a, are excluded. Also not 

included, of course 1 is the use by upland vegetation of' soil moisture that 

never reaches the \'later table, the total amount of' which is many times larger. 

The 20 to 25 million acre-feet essentially wasted by phreatop~es in 

the 17 Western States is about; half again as great as the annual flow of 

the Colorado River. Though the Colorado is not even among the first 20 rivers 

of the United States in flow,_} its importance in the arid Southwest is 

J U. s. Geol. Survey Circ. 44, Large r.i.vers in the United States, 

P• 5, lfa7 1949. 

attested by the vigor of the current dispute over distribution of its waters. 

66 
The importance of studying, evaluating, and developing as fu.l.ly as possible 

an additional source in the West whose total amount is greater than the 

floiv of the Colorado is equally obvious. Not all the water used by 

phreatophytes in the West can be salvaged, perhaps not even the major part, 

but a substantial aJJK>unt can be and will have to be it the development of 

the West is not to be stifled by lack of water. 

Artificial Recharge 

Artificial recharge is the addition of water to underground reservoirs 

by man. It represents a means of increasing the practicable rate of withdrawal, \Yhere it proves to be necessary and feasible. Inasmuch as we have 

already discussed "induced rechargeu or llinduced infiltration" and the addition of water through irrigation, this discussion will be brief and wllJ. 

be limited to the deliberate rather than the incidental addition of water. 

The different methods are discussed and numerous references are given in 

a paper by Sayre and stringfield._/ 

_/ Sayre, A. N., Chief, and stringfield, V. T., Senior Geologist, 

Ground ~fater Branch, u. S. Geol. Survey, Artificial recharge of ground-water 

reservoirs: Am. Water Vlorks Assoc. Jour., vol. J..O, no. 11, pp. 1152-ll58, 

November. 191*8• 

The two principal methods of recharge are those known generally as 

nv.-ater spreading" and the injection of water through •recharge" or "return" 

or "injection" wells. Water spreading at present is used on the largest 

scale in California. There, water from streams is passed over permeable 

ground as a sheet or in basins or furrows. Ordinarily fiood water is used, 

but if it contains much sediment it may be bypassed until the .flow is reduced 

67 
and becam~s clearer. In same cases the natural channels of the streams 

themselves are used tor recharge by release of stored water from reservoirs, 

inasmuch as the principal recharge occurs from the channels anyway. In 

this way flood water, flawing at a rate exceeding the infiltration capaci~ 

of the channel, is stored in surface reservoirs. Later it is paid out at· 

a rate no more than enough to satisfy the infiltration capacity of the channel, 

with perhaps an excess to meet surface irrigation requirements in and downstream from the recharge area. 

Artificial recharge by Kwater spreading" already is important in the 

West and will play an increasingly vital part.in water-resources manag~ent, 

as in the Central Valley of California. Similar practices are followed 

to some extent in the East and Middle West, as at the Runyon Waterworks 

and the Duhernal Reservoir in New Jersey, the Des Moines Waterworks in Iowa, 

and the Dayton Waterworks in Ohio. It is practiced also to a considerable 

extent in Europe. _/ 

_( Sayre, A. N., and Stringfield, v. T., op. cit. 

Artificial recharge through wells is much less important on the basis 

of total quantity recharged, but in the areas where it is practiced it is 

vital as a·means of conservation. The outstanding area is Lang Island, N.Y., 

where, in accordance with a State law, the Water Power and Control CommissiOn 

requires that ground water used for cooling and other noncontaminating uses 

be returned to the ground. _/ The amount returned through more than 300 wells 

/ Brashears, M. L., Jr., u. s. Geol. Survey, Artificial recharge of 

groundwater ~n Long Island, N. Y.: Econ. Geology, vol. 41, P• 603, 1946. 

Prepared in cooperation with New York Water Power and Control Commission. 

68 
and several pits has amounted to more than 60 million gallons a da7 during 

the sunmer. In 19491 a total withdrawal of 270 .million gallons per day was 

reduced to a net of about 150 million gallons per day b7 return to the 

water table of about 120 million gallons per day through artificial-recharge 

wells and pits, septic tanka, etc. 

At Louisville, Ky., two plants producing industrial alcohol during 

the war were forced to recharge their wells artificiali1' to maintain an 

~dequate yi.-el.d. They used cold city water from the Ohio Ri 'VeT during the 

winter, thus not only increasing the supply but providing water that was 

colder than average and thus more effective for cooling, the principal. uae._/ 

J GuJ'l;on, W. F., U. s. Geol. SurYey, Artficial recharge of glacial sand 

and gravel with fUtered river water at Louisville, If1'.: Econ. Geology, 

vol. 41, p. 644, 1946. Prepared in cooperation with Kentucky Dept. Kines 

and Minerals and City of Louisville. · 

Such recharge with cold city water derived from a surface source has great 

promise, where aquifers are depleted b7 concentrated pumping in industrial 

cities and where city authorities will cooperate by supplying water at a 

special rate. llost water plants in such cities. can produce surplus water 

cheaply in the winter, when the no:rsl demand is low, and could sell it for 

artificial recharge at a rate low enough to make the practice attractive. 

Artificial recharge through wells is practiced widely in parts of 

Florida • so tar not so auch to increase the supp]Jr as to dispose of storm 

water and industrial wastes • .} The water and wastes are discharged into 

_/ For example, see Unklesbay, A. G., and Cooper, H. H., Jr., U. s. 

Geol. Survey, Artificial recharge of artesian ~stone at Orlando, Fla.: 

Econ. Geology, vol. 41, no. 41 pt. 1, PP• 293-3C17, June-July 1946· 

Prepared in cooperat.ioa with Florida Geo1. Surve:r • 

69 
cavernous limestones, creating, in some places, problems of contamination._/ 

.. / Op. cit., P• "iOO. 

Artificial re~harge through wells has been practiced on a smaller scale 

in several other places, including Indianapolis, Ind., _I and Hopewell, 

_I JlcOuinness, c. L., u. s. Geol. Sur~y, Gromd-water resources of the 

Indianapolis area, -Marion County, Ind.: Indiana Dept. Cmservation, Di"Y. 

Geology, January 1943 •. 

Va._/ At Camp Peary, Va., Cederstrom_/ made an experilmlt on a well 

_/ Cederstrom, D. J., t'. s. r.reol. Survey, perscm.al communication, 

April 1?, 1948. 

I Ceder strom, D. J., Artificial recharge of a brackish-water well, 

U. s:ileol. Survey mimeographed report, 1947. Also printed in the Commonwealth (Va.), December 194?. Prepared in cooperation with Virginia 

Geol. Surve7. 

nor•lly yielding water moderately high in chloride, showing that fresh 

water could be recharged and recOYered without excessi"Ye mixing with the 

high-chloride water. 

In a unique develop•nt on the island of St. '.rho-.s 1 in the Virgin 

Islands, rain water is to be collected from the paved runway of the airport 

and recharged through an infiltration gallery into a thin sandy aquifer 

that now contains only brackish water. 

Artificial recharge, especially that through wells but including that 

by' water spreading, is complicated by clogging of the recharge well or basin 

70 
by sed.iJnclt in the water or b7 sro~lth ot bacteria and algae, except where 

the recharge is into cavernous rocks that are not readily clogged. Where 

clogging occurs, I>rovision must be made tor periodic cleaning of the wells 

or scraping of the sides and bott.oms of the recharge basins, or for treatment of the water to prevent clogging. 

Complications are introduced also by geologic conditions. For eJCaJDple, 

permeable materials capable ot absorbing water freely may underlie the 

surface, but unfortunately they may be separated from the depleted aquifer 

below by impermeabJ.e clay. Complications of this kind exist in the West 

Basin near Los Angeles, Calif., where artificial recharge appears to be 

necessary but will have to be done through wells or shafts because the 

aquifer is capped b7 .material.s of low pe.rmeability.J Si mi 1 ar conditions 

J Poland, J. P., Garrett, A. A., and Sinnott, Allen, op. cit. 

(Torrance-santa Monica area, Los Angeles County, Calif.) PP• 459-472. 

exist in part of the upper San Joaquin Valley where artificial recharge is 

to be practiced,J and detailed geologic studies are now under way to 

J Livingston, Penn, Ground-water features of the San Joaquin Valley 1 

Call.t.; a review of published and unpublished reports and papers. U. s. 

Geol. SUrvey duplicated report, January 1944. Prepared in cooperation 

with the Corps ot Engineers, U. s. Arllt3· 

determine the areas where it can be carried out, as mentioned previously • 

The cost of artificial recharge varies widely. That done through wells 

is most expensive per unit of water recharged.. However, in concentrated 

industrial districta the cost of land tor recharge basins JJJJii7 be prohibitive, 

so that if artiticlal recharge is practiced at all, it m.uat be through wells. 

In all cases, of course, it ia practiced where it forms a means of maintaining a necessary water supply more economically than by importing water from 

another source. 

71 
Sal t-llater Encroaobmltnt and Contamination by Wastes 

So far the disc.ussian of the effect on ground-water reservoirs ot 

the act~vities of man has related largely to the effects in lower~ng water 

levels, increasing recharge, reducing natural disol1arge, eto.--eftects involving mainly the quantity of water involve~. In some areas, particularly 

along the coast, limitaticm~ on the withdrawal of ground water are imposed 

by the possibility of encroaclment of •lty nter., rather than by such factors 

as pumping lift. In some o1:her areas there is contamination by waste~. 

Where permeable :rraterials are in contact with the sea, the salt 

water tends to fill them up to sea level except as it is depressed by fresh 

water that literally floats on the heavier salt water. The physical principle 

that governs th.e relation is that of the U-tube, in 'Which one column is tilled 

with salt water and the other with fresh. The fresh-water column must be 

hifiher than the salt because the fresh water is lighter, and it is higher in 

proportion to the difference in specific gravity. The specific gravity of 

sea water varies considerably bu-t ·averages about 1.025, or about 1/40 heavier 

than fresh water. Thus, the fresh-wa.te:r· column must be about 1/40 higher 

than the salt. Inasmuch as the top of' the salt water is at sea levell a 

"olumn of salt water is balanced by a column of fresh water 41 feet high, of 

which 40 feet is below sea level and 1 foot above. !hat is to say, it near 

the coast t.b.e water table or piezometric surface ot fresh water in an aauif'er 

open to the sea is 1 toot above sea level, there theoretically will be 40 

f'eet of' f1•esh water below sea levelJ if 2 feet, 80 feet of fresh water, and 

so on. There is never quite 40 feet below sea level for each foot above 

because there is always some mixing near the contact, illcreasing the specific 

'72 
gravit)t ot the treah water ao that leas than the tull 41 teet is required tor 

balance to aziat. 

The treah water-salt water bal&DOe exiata where 8117 aqu1f'er is open 

to the aea, whether uncontine4 or ocmtiD8d. Building up ot the treah~ter 

8 lena• ia possible, ot oourae, beoauae tricticm. preventa the water trom running 

into the sea so rapidly aa to dieeipate it. For a given rate ot tresh .... ter 

accretion, the more permeable the aqulter the tbimler the lens J tor a g1 ven 

pen1eability, 1he greater the accretion the thicker the lena. 

'Mlen water ie w.1 tbdraa trca the aquifer the tresh water-aalt ·water 

contact eventmlly rises 40 teet tor eaoh toot the treah-.a.ter head is lowered, 

as shown in figure 9,. There ie a lag, ot course, correap CDU.ng to the time 

required tor th8 water to be w.lthd.rum from etarage as a result or formation 

ot tbe cone or depreseion. 

Jloat artesian aquifers along the coast were tilled or nearly tilled 

w.lth salt water several tiDes within the last mlllicm years as a result ot 

rises of sea level during interglacial stages ot the Pleistocene epoch or 

Great Ice Age. These aquifers were flushed ot t:art or all ot the salt. water 

during glacial stages, Tlh.en the sea level was lowered, depellding on their 

perdabili ty, ~e amount or treah water available tor reohar;:e, 8Dl tbl treedom 

with which water oould pass throup their UDleraea extenaions, 'Where they 

commonly grade into leas permeable aterials. HGrtever, nany ot them, in the 

part;s near or \Dlder the sea, have not been flushed completely and still contain 

water 'Which, though not so salty as sea water, is still too salty for moat uses • 

71 
!his water encroaches on wells in exactly the s&118 wa7 ·as sea water when the 

w1 thdrawal is so he&'YJ' as to create a hJ'd,raulic gradient between the part ot 

the aquifer containing aal't:J' 'ftter. and the we;Lle. 

In order for w:lthdrawa.l ot fresh water near the sea ·to be aat'e., 

therefore, it must be at amh a r&te that., throup the tull thickness ot the 

treahwnter aquifer, the head will r8111Lin high cough between 1he wells au.\ 

the part of the aquifer containing salt w.ter to prevent ihe ·Salt water from 

rising into or moving toward 1he wells. rua does not·IIW'&D that ·the water 

levels cannot ·be lowered below sea level at the wells J they c&ZI. be lowered 

as tar as desirable or practicable· so ·long as the head r8Dilins hich enoup 

between the wells a.nd the salt water. Obviously • the more prodll)tive and 

heavily recharged tbe aquifer • 'the less the head needs to be lonred to 

produce a given quantity or water and the more water is available to flovr 

around the oone of depression to maintain adequate bead between the wells 

and the salt water. 

In the past moat. 'Withdra.wal.s ot fresh ground water near the coast 

were made without recognition of these principles., and in ll8llY places salt 

water has encroached sooner or later as the tresh-n.ter head has been lowered· 

and the stored fresh 1mter replaced by salt water. Among the important 

areas where salt- or braok:ish48.'ber encroaobmlmt has oocurrecl are western 

'' 
~· I 

NATURAL CONDITIONS 

IDEALIZED DIAGRAM SHOWING RELATION OF FRESH 

WATER TO SALT WATER IN A COASTAL AREA 

SALT INTRUSION 

A REMEDY 

. c .. 
..1 _/ _/ 

Long Island (Brooklyn). N. Y., Miami• Fla., Mobile, Alae~,· the Torrance-

_/ Brashears, M. L., Jr., u. s. Geol. Survey, Artificial recharge of 

ground water on Long Island, N. Y.a Econ. Geology, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 503-

516, August 1946. Prepared in cooperation with New York Water Power and 

Control Commission. 

_/ Brown, R. H., and Parker, G. G., u. s. Geol. Survey, Salt-water encroachment in limestone,at Silver Bluf'f', Miami, Fla.a Econ. Geology, vol. 40, 

no. 4, pp. 235-262, June-July 1945; also Parker, G. G., and others, Water 

rest>urcea of southeastern Florida: U. s. Gaol. Survey water-supply paper, 

in preparation. ·Prepared in cooperation with Florida Geol. Survey, Dade 

County, City of Miami, and others. 

_/ Peter.son, c. G. B., U. s. Geol. Survey, Qround-water investigations in 

the Mobile area, Ala.: Geol. Survey Alabama Bull. 58, 1947. 

Santa Monica and Long Beach-Santa Ana areas near Los Angeles, Calif., 

_/Polan4, J. F., Garrett, A. A., and Sinnott, Allen, op. cit. (TorranceSanta Monica area, Calif.). 

_/Poland, J. F., and others, Hydrology of the ·Long Beach-Santa Ana area, 

Calif., with special reference to the watertightness of the Newport-:mglewood 

structural zone. U. S. Geol. Survey duplicated rept., June 1946. Prepared 

tn cooperation with Orange County Flood Control District and Water District, 

Los Angeles County Flood Control District, and City of Long Beach. 

and the Hawaiian Islands, especially the HOnolulu area, Oahu. In these and 

_/ Stearns, H. T ., and Vak:avik, K. N ., U. s. Geol. Survey, Geology and 

ground-water resources of the Island of Oahu, Hawaii a Hawaii Div. Hydrography 

Bull. 1, May 1936. See also Bull. 2, g,ologio mapJ Bull. 3, bibliograp~J 

Bull. 4, records of well&J Bull. 5, supplemeut. See also Palmer, H. s., 

Univ. Hawaii, The geology of the Honolulu groUDd-water supply• City and 

County o'£" Honolulu, Board of Water Supply, 1946. 

76 
other areas where salt-water encroo.ohr.ent has occurred or is threatened, 

the geolo£iC and hydrologic conditions, the distribution of wells, and the 

possible met.ltods of solving the problem differ widely, so that each represcmts a separate case • All must be studied, however, in the light of the 

general principles described. 

Encroaohnent or water of undesirable quality occurs inland as well 

as along the ooast, wherever such water can find access to an aquifer or is 

already present in a part of it and is induced to flmr toward wells. Many 

of the closed or partly closed alluvial basins of the lfest are characterized 

by the dry salt lakes or playas described previously. The water beneath and 

adjacent to the playas has been concentrated by evaporation aDd 'lrJlY be even 

saltier than sea •vater. Wells located too near the playas, drilled too 

deep, and pumped too heavily may be salted in exactly the same way as wells 

near the coast. In the Tularosa Basin, N. !ii3x., the ground water in most 

of the basin is salty and fresh water is available only in scattered areas 

around the edge._/ The developnent of fresh water, once it is located by 

_/ lleinzer, o. E., and Hare, R. F., Geology and water resources ot Tularosa 

Basin, u. llex.: u. s. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 343, 1915. Prepared 

in cooper11tion with New Mexico Agr. ~per. Sta. 

78 
geologic study and test drilling, is constantly complicated by the problem 

or salt......a.ter .encroachment., as in the search for an adequate water supply 

in the vicinity or .Alamogordo,./ 

_/Murray .• c. R., Memorandum on the possibilities of developing ground 

water far the .Alamogordo J.:nrr:f .j,ir Base. Manuscript repor-h in files of 

u. s. Geol. Survey. April 1947. Prepared in cooperation with State Engineer 

of New ~oo. 

Ground water of poor quality occurs in humid areas as well as arid. 

The artesian sandstones or the Chicago area contain highly ~ralized water 

at depth and. to the south, down the dip or the beds, and there is a limit 

to which fresh water can be obtained and, once obtained, pumped so as to 

avoid encroachnBnt or the poorer water,./ 

I .Anderson, c. B., The artesian waters of northeastern Illinoisa Illinois 

Gaol. Survey Bull. 34, 1919. 

In a large interior region underlain by stratified Paleozoic sandstone, shale, limestone, and, in places, coal beds, extending from New York 

southwestward to Tennessee and Alabama and westward to the Great Plaina, the 

rooks typically contain water of poor quality at depths more than 100 feet 

or so belovot the level of streams., so that heavy pumping may induce poor 

water to encroach on or rise into ihe wells. In the northern part of this 

11 
region the Paleozoic rooks are overlain by glacial drift that contains 

:nany good aquifers and is the princi nal source of water. In the southern - .. 

part ground water of good quality is scarce in many places._/ 

.J IJeinze.t-, o. E., op. cit. (Water-Supply Paper 489), P• 311. 

Water of poor quality rre.y be present in a stream and rray encroach 

on adjacent wells. For example., the water of the Arlaa.nsas River is salty 

below Great Bend, Kans., and tends to contaminate the ground water in the 

adjacent alluvium, which is of good que.li ty where precipitation is the 

principal source of recharge. At Wichita, Kans., public-supply wells tapping 

tl1e alluviun of the Arkansas River ware abandoned in favor of wells drilled 

in another aquifer dist~t froD the river._/ 

_/Williams, c. c., and Lohnan, s. w., u. s. Geol. Survey, Geology and 

ground-water resources or a part of south-central Klansas, with special reference to the Wichita mtmicipal water supply: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 79~ 

PP• 159-183, July 1949 • 

. Water of poor quality in \va.ter-bearinr; fornntions generally is 

native to the araa concerned, but chemical contamination t.'l-trough nan's 

activities has affected some as_uif'ers. For example, a considerable ~rt of 

the salt in the ground water in the Arkansas Valley area has resulted from 

dmnping of brine fror.1 oil wello into the river or into pits in tho alluvi UinJ 

78 
so~ contamination has occurred also through wells tapping salty -r~ter under 

pressure in rocks below the all uviua, which has moved through the wells into 

the alluvium. Chromium-bearing waste contaminated certain industrial wells 

at Waterbury, Conn.,.Jduring the war. Disposal or arsenic-bearing waste 

_/Unpublished data in tiles of u. s. Geol. Survey. 

contaminated certain wells at tile Pine Bluf.'f .Arsenal, Ark • .J Even the 

_j Unpublished data in files of u. s. Geol. Survey. 

spilling of gasoline or leakage from storage tanks nay contaminate grrund 

water, as in a recent oase at Arlington, va • .J 

I. Cederstrom, n·. J ., The Arlington gasoline-contamination problem. U. S. Geo • Survey mimeographed ;rept., May 14, 194'1. Prepared in cooperation with · 

Virginia Geol. Survey. 

On the 'Whol•, the gromd-wa.ter reservoirs are inherently safer from 

contamination by induatrial wastes than are surfaoe..IW'8.ter bodies, though 

cases of contamination o a.n be expected to increase in number under some condi tiona, as where there is increased practice of "induced infiltration" along 

streams containing impuri ti.es that are not removed by the natural til tration. 

They are even safer from pollution by organic wastes because of the natural 

'19 
filtration that tends to remove bacteria even where it has no etf'$C1Lon 

dissolved chemicals. However, contamination once introdmed is more dif'f'icul t to remove from underground reservoirs than from surface water, so that 

great vigilance is necessary to prevent it. 

Sal t~ter enc,roachment can occur in streams as well as Ullderground 

reservoirs. Fresh surface water flowing into salt water t~s to mix with 

it more freely than does ground water, but in places there is a remrkable 

lack of' :m:l.xing. In tidal streams the fresh water tends to f'lOI'l over tb9 

heavier salt water, and at high tide there my even be a landward flow of' 

salt water be:neath seaward-flowing fresh water. Obviously, depletion of' 

the f'resh-'118.ter flow by drought or by withdrawal f' or h,~n use 'Wi 11 cause 

the salt water to move landward m1til it nay enter in~akes installed tor 

nan's use, or rray even contaminate ground-water bodies. For example, at 

Miami, Fla., reduo tion of fresh ·canal f'low, caused by drainage practices 

and intensified by drought, permitted sea water to flaw along the bottom of 

the Miami Cana 1 to a point opposite the nain public -supply well field, where 

it flowed out into the permeable lim:Jstone a:rrl contaminated the wells, 

principally on one occasion in 1939 but also several tiliBS later,./ 

..J Parker, G. G., and others, Water resources of southeastern Floridas 

u. s. Geol. Survey water-supply paper, in preparatl.on • 

. eo 
GROUND WATER AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY 

Water is the life blood of our economy and national life. It enters 

into everything we do or hope to do •• The. object of our national water 

policy must be to provide sufficient water for present uses and for the 

future so long as our Nation is to endure. To do so we IIDlSt appraise our 

needs and determine our ability to meet them. 

The United States is used to plenty of water. Our ·:Per-capita use undoubtedly exceeds that of any other major nation. Both total and per-capita 

use have increased at a tremendous rate, and so long as water can be made 

available at reasonable cost they will continue -c;o do so. A cen'ry ago the 

per-capita use of water probably was only a few gallons per day. ~he total 

_/Sayre, A. N., u. s. Geol. Survey, Water resources of the United 

States. Paper presented to panel on water sponsored by Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 

New York, January 1950. Mimeographed by Geological Survey. 

per-capita use now can only be guessed at because of the lack of reliable data, 

but it may approach, or even exceed, 1,000 gallons per day, for a total of 

something over 125 billion 'and perhaps even 200 billion gallons per day. This 

is for uses excluding hydroelectric-power generation, navigation, and reoreation. An amount of water equivalent to roughly four-fifths of the total 

runoff passes through hydro-power plants (liDlch of it, of course, the same water 

passing through plants at successively lower elevations), but here the water 

suffers only a change in position from a higher to a lower elevation, which 

would happen an~y, and except for its loss of potential energy in so falling 

its use~~lness is not impaired. 

81 
We have seen that ground water is not an independent resource but a 

part of the common water supply, a.nd its use Dllst always be considered in 

relation to the effect on surface supplies. Prior claims to water or 

riparian rights must be kept in mind in planning -.tar-supply developments. 

Generally the decision .as to the source or sources of supply to be utilized 

will be based on an economic study so that water of specified quality in 

desired quantity will be obtained at the least annual coat. 

jll possible sources or supply should be considered in preliminar,y cost 

analyses. Same of the factors to be considered area 

1. Distance from source to distribltion or tre~tment point, and its 

effect on coat or pipe-line construction and pumping. It. often is possible to obtain ground water from wells at the po~nt desired, particularly 

if the desired quantity is small to madera te. 

2. TEIIlpera'blre of water at source and point of use. Ground water 

is comparatively unitor.m in temperature and is cooler than surface 

water in the S'WDID.er • 

3. Cost of chemical treatment. Ground water generally is more 

highly mineralized than surface water in the same area but is more 

uniform in composition and is almost universally tree of sediment. 

Ground-water reservoirs are inherently safer tram contamination by 

industrial and organic wastes than are surface-water bodies. 

4. Cost of reservoirs. Surface-water reservoirs require the 

construction of a dam and the ac~isition of the flooded area. Use 

of ground-water reservoirs removes little or no land from other use, 

and usually the water is not subject to as great an evaporation loss 

as that in surface reservoirs. However, the operation of groundwater reservoirs generally is less efficient and more difficult than 

82 
that of surface-water reservoirs, and the ·seepage loaai,:'·trdiir·grO\lnd• 

water reservoirs to surface streams or elsewher'e may 'b~~- coiisid~r .• bfe. 

5. Effect of withdrawal on other supplies. Beoal.lse of the 

close interrelationship of ground water and surface water;· ·a withdrawal from one source usually reduces the supply available at 

another. A development that salvages natural waste in effect. adds to 

the common supply, and in general ground-water supplies achieve.~his 

result more economically than do surface-water developments. 

6. Effect of uncertainties in design on the cost. Factors of 

safety are necessary in any design, and the more uncertainty concerning any feature the larger the factor of safety necessary. Generally, 

in surface-water developments there are more data. on the source 

(stream flow) and less uncertaint,y as to the available supply and 

storage than is the case in ground-water supplies. This tends to 

reduce the factor of safety required, and correspondingly reduces 

the total cost, for surface supplies. Adequate gr·ound-water investigations will change this situation. 

Use of Ground Water 

For both ground and surface water the. data on past and present uses 

and future requirements are woefully inadequate. At a time when use of· 

water is_increasing rapidly and is approaching the feasible limits of developI!l&nt in area after area, and wrun there is a growing national awareness or 

the true importance of water in our economy, we must admit that we do not 

even lcnow how much we use, to say nothing of how much we have that can be 

used. Provision has never been made for a systematic national survey of our 

water uses and reqQirements, and only now has the Geological Survey been able 

83 
to make a very small and inadequate start in that direction. 

The data for use of ground water are a little better than those tar 

surfe.ce water, principally because the industrial use of surface water is 

a largely unknown quantity. Go:rtorrf estimated the use of ground water in 

./ Guyton, w. F., U. s. Geol. Survey, Estimated use ot grouJJd water 

in the United States, 1945. Paper presented to Geol. Soc. Washington, 

Jan. 8, 1947; abstract published in Washington Aoad. Sci. Jour., vol. 391 

no • .3, PP• 105-106, Mar. 151 1949. Full paper prepared for a committee 

of the Am. Soc. Civil Eng.; submitted to the Society for publication, also 

crJ.plicated by the u. S. Geol. Survey, 1950. 

the United States in 1945 to be as tollowst 

Irrigation 

Industrial (excluding water 

fran municipal 81Btams) 

Mu.tdcipal. 

Rural (excluding irrigation) 

Total 

Billiop gellops per d&y 

10 

5 

3 

_z_ 

20 

Though more recent data as complete as those ror 1945 have not yet been 

compiled, the use of ground water is lm.own to have continued to increase • 

~ estimates that the use tor irrigation now may be about 15 billion 

_/ Guyton, W. F., U. S. Geol. Survey, Industrial use of ground water. 

Presented before Tech. Assoc. of the Pulp and Paper Industry, New York, 

Feb. 20, 1950. To be published in Tappi, journal of the Association. 

gallons per day, tor something like 5 million acr•-• The other uses doubtless 

have increased elso, but possibly not enough to change the order of magnitude 

of the figures given. The total euttent use 1 then, is estimated to be about 

25 billion gallons per day • The figure could easily be in error by 10 to 25 

percent. 
The use of s~rface water tor public supply is estimated rather reliably 

_j 

to have been about 9 billion gallons per day in 1945. The current use 

_j Langbein, li • .B., U. S. Gaol. Survey, Municipal water use in the . 

United States: Am. WaterWorks Assoc. Jour., vol. 41, no. 11, pp. 997-1001, 

November 1949. Data based on Inventory of water and sewage facilities in 

the United States (as of 1945), u. S. Public Health Service, 1948. 

probably is larger, but how IJDlCh is not known. The rural use, excluding 

irrigation, is not known but is believed to be a billion gallons per day or 

less. The use for irrigation is not known exactly, but probably about 4~ 

acre-feet per acre per year is taken from streams for same 20 million acres, 

or about 90 million acre-feet per year or about 80 billion gallons per day. 

A part of this water is lost by s~epage tram canals before it reaches the 

irrigated tracts, and that actually delivered to individual far.mers or projects 

amounts to perhaps 3 acre-feet per acre. The water lost by seepage is available, in part, as "irrigation-return wat~r." 

The great unknown is industrial use of surface water. The largest use 

(excluding hydro-power use) is for steam-power generaiie ·a.cl .the cpaJlti tf is 

uncertain. Various estimates have been made, based on the 'W8.ter requirement 

per ton of coal burned or kilowatt-hour of energy generated. Depending on 

what estimate is correct, the use for steam-power gener~~~on ma7 range.traa 10 

or 12 billion to more than 50 billion gallons per day but probably is samewhere near the middle of this range. A substantial part is salt or brackish 

water in tidal areas, so that the fresh-water requirement is correspondingly 

less. Requirements for other industrial uses are even more uncertain percentagewise, and the total industrial use of surface water may be anyvrhere 

be~veen 30 or 40 and 100 billion gallons per day. 

85 
In the face of suchuncertainty. obviously one of the first.thi~gs,we 

must do is to make a systematic survey of' our water uses, area by. area. and 

use by use, to provide a basis for judging our fUture requirements. 

It should be pointed out that the uses cited are gross, not net. In 

same places the same water is used over and over again, such as in the case 

of irrigation-return water in the West. the water used for industry from 

such rivers as the Mahoning in northeastern Ohio. and the water discharged 

from the sewage, system of one city. and reclaimed, in part, for the use of' 

another city downstream. We have. therefore, another variable to consider 

in computing our net water requirements. 

Following are tables from Guyton• s paper "Estimated use or ground water 

in the United States, 1945,• showing use of' ground water by States, use in 

53 areas of industrial and municipal pumping where the total draft is 20 

million gallons per day or more, and uses by type of industry in 20 selected 

metropolitan areas where inventories have been made. ·Included also are the 

illustrations from that paper. comprising maps showing, by States, irrigation, 

industrial, municipal, rural, and total use of ground v~ter in 1945, a map 

showing use in metropolitan areas, and a graph shmving industrial use in 

the 20 selected metropolitan areas (figs. 10-lS). 

86 
EST n.!l..tim FSE OF' GROIDID YIATER IN TEE ID\ITED STATZS, 1945 

(million Eallons per day) 

Rural 

State Irrigation Industrial Munic~.pal {excluding Total 

irri~a.tionl 

Alabama ..... 30 ciS 30 165 

Arizona 1,760 30 60 15 1,865 

Arkansas 420 50 25 30 525 

California 5,000 300 400 100· 5,800 

Colorado 400 25 20 25 470 

Connecticut ••••• 60 5 20 85 

Delaware ••••• 15 10 5 30 

District ot 

Columbia ••••• 10 • •• ••• 10 

Florida 100 175 100 20 395 

Georgia ••••• 150 45 50 245 

Idaho 125 10 25 20 180 

Illinois ••••• 265 115 60 . 440 

Indiana ••••• 350 100 45 495 

Iowa ••••• 150 100 75 '325 

Kansas 100 100 55 55 310 

Kentucky ••••• 100 20 40 160 

Louisiana 380 250 50 30 710 

Mline ••••• 15 10 15 40 

Jlary1and ••••• 50 20 20 90 

!laasachusetta ••••• 100 60 15 175 

Michigan 5 165 100 50 320 

lfinnesota ••••• 100 50 65 215 

Mississippi ••••• 25 35 35 95 

:Uissouri ••••• 130 40 45 215 

Montana 25 15 10 25 76 

Nebraska. 450 35 86 80 650 

Nevada 1~ 20 10 5 186 

New Hampshire ••••• 15 10 5 30 

New Jersey 5 400 150 20 575 

New Uexioo 380 20 35 20 4.35 

New York 25 310 250 70 656 

North Carolina 5 40 20 50 115 

Borth Dakota ••••• 5 10 25 40 

Ohio ••••• 400 150 60 610 

Ok1a};loma 10 15 30 35 90 

Oregon 75 35 25 26 160 

Pennsylvania ••••• 250 135 90 475 

Rhode Is land ••••• 20 10 5 36 

South Carolina 6 20 16 26 66 

South Dakota 6 15 20 36 75 

Tennessee ..... 110 60 40 210 

Texas 740 300 270 140 1,460 

Utah 200 20 35 10 265 

Vermont ••••• 5 10 10 25 

Virginia ..... 50 15 40 105 

lVashington 125 100 100 30 355 
EST mATED USE OF GROUliD WATER IN THE UNITED STATES, 1945--Continued 

(million gallons per day) 

Rural 

State Irrigation Industrial :Municipal (excluding TQtal 

irrigation) 

West Virginia ••••• 35 20 25 80 

Wisconsin ••••• 100 90 55 245 

Vfyoming 25 10 10 10 55 

Total 10,495 511050 3,076 1,800 20,420 

88 
EST DaTED USE OF GROUND WATER IN .Aima.s WHERE WtGE . AMO'UN'lS ARE USED FOR 

INDUSTRUL OR MUNICIPAL PURPOSES, 194:5 

(million gallons per day) 

Area Total Industrial Municipal 

toe Angeles, Calif. 

Long Island, N. Y. 

Houston, Tex. 

l.iem.phi s, Tenn. 

San Antonio, Tex. 

East St. Louis, Ill. 

Peoria, Ill. 

(Philadelphia, Pa.-

(Cemden, N. J. 

Dayton, Ohio 

Chicago, Ill. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Clinton, Ind. 

Spokane, Wash. 

Baton Rouge, La. 

Charlestown, Ind. 

Kansas City, !lo.-Kans. 

Kalamazoo, Mich. 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

Savannah, Ga. 

St. Paul-Minneapolis, !lUm. 

Cincinnati, Ohio 

Louisville, Ky~ 

Phoenix, .Ariz. 

Des Moines, Iowa 

Jacksonville, Fla. 

Baltimore, Md. 

Canton, Ohio 

Brunswick, Ga. 

Middlesex County, ~i. J. 

lJia:mi, F 1a. 

use 

360 it; 280!/ 

170 

106 

1ooy 

89 

85 

85 

85 .Y 

84 . 

84 .Y 

80 

67 ]:/ 

63 

60 

60 

52 

48 

47 

47 y 

45 

45 

45 

44 

41 

40 

38 

37 

~7 y 45 

use 

60 

100. 

102 

'14 

15 

85 

66 

55 

50 

48 

68 

80 

'1 

59 

60 

60 

44 

45 

32 

47 

40 

45 

10 

24 

22 

40 

23 

37 

22 

11 

1/ Includes use for irrigation. 1r/ Includes uses for irrigation and recreation. 

-rtJ Estimated for 1946 instead of 1946. , Y, Estimated tor 1947 instead ot 1946. 

]/.Estimated for 1937 instead of 1945. 

!(Estimated for 1941 instead of 1945. 

use 

80 

150 

68 

31 

38· 

4 

19 

30 

35 

36 

16 

•• 

39 

4 

•• 

•• 

8 

3 

15 

•• 

5 

•• 

35 

20 

19 

•• 

15 

•• 

15 

34 
ESTIVATED USE OF GROUND WATER IN AREAS WHERE LARGE AMOUNTS ARE USED FOR INDUSTR~ OR MUNICIPAL PURPOSES. 1945--Continued 

· (~llion gallons per day) 

Area Total Industrial Jlmicipa1 

use use use 

Fernandina, Fla e 33· 33 •• Terre Haute, Ind. 33 . 33 .. Middletown. Ohio 33 29 4 

:Mobile, Ala. 32 32 •• South Bend. Ind. 29 16 13 

Columbus, Ohio 28 28 •• 

New Orleans. IA. 27 27 •• Lake Charles.· La. 27 25 2 

.Akron, Ohio 27 25 2 

Jlilwauk:ee, Wis. 27 23 4 

Rockford, Ill. 26 13 13 

Sioux City, Iowa 25 18 7 

Pensacola, Fla. 25 19 6 

Binghamton, N. Y. 25 8 ·17 

Wichita, Kans. 25 7 18 

lAs Vegas, Nev. 24y 8 12 

Chillicothe, Ohio 22 21 1 

El Paso, Tex. 21 11 10 

Schenectady, }J. Y. 20 6 14 

Tacoma, Wash. 20 10 10 

Boston, Yass. 20 7 13 

Hamilton, Ohio 20 16 5 

lfasaillon, Ohio 20 20 •• 

Total for 53 areas 3,046 1,865 859. 

l:/ Includes use for irrigation. 
USE OF GROUND WATER, BY TYPE OF' I11J:USTRY, Ili 20 AREAS VlHEHE nNElU~RIES 

HAVE BEEN MADE 

(million gallons per day) 

Chicago, Louisville, Minneapolis- BDaaa 

Type of st. P&ul, Philadel- CitY~ industry Ill. Ky. lliinn., phia, Pa. lCans. 1945 1945 1937 1945 1943 

Oil refining ••• 3.0 ••• 1.4 9.6 

Paper manufacturing • • • • • • • •• ••• . .. Jletal working 9.3 3.5 ... ... • •• Chemical manui'acturing 6.7 ••• ••• 2.4 • •• Building, air conditioning, and 

refrigerating 1~6 3.7 9.7 3.0 ••• Distilling ••• 9.2 ••• 12.0 • •• Ice manufacturing 

and cold storage ••• 2.6 3.3 2.7 3.1 

Food processing 19.3 ~6 .2 1.2 ••• Rubber manufacturing ••• 11.4 ••• ••• • •• Jleat packing 6.0 2.0 ••• 1.1 8.1 

Brewing ••• 3.1 10.2 ••• • •• Railroad yards i.6 ••• .6 1.5 .3 

Gas and electricity ••• .a ••• 3.0 ••• 

Dairying .5 2.2 4.3 1.1 ••• Electric equipment 

manufacturing ••• • •• ••• ••• • •• 

Aircraft assembling ••• • •• ••• ••• a.o 

Resinous products 

manufacturing ••• • •• ••• ••• • •• 

Soap manufacturing ... ••• ••• ••• 4.0 

Laundering • 3 ••• ••• ••• • •• Glass manufacturing ~ ... • •• ••• ••• • •• 

Rope milling ••• ••• ••• a.o ••• Ship yards ••• • •• ••• ••• • •• Tobacco processing ••• ~9 ••• ••• • •• Miscellaneous 3.9 1.9 12.5 9.2 2.0 

Total 48.2 44.9 40.8 40.6 35.1 

91 
USE OF GROUND WATER, BY TYPE OF INDUSTRY, IN 20 AREAS WHERE INVENTORIES 

RA.VE BEEN MADE 

(million gallons per day) 

Type of Houston. E. St. Louis, B.ttsburgh. Peoria, Dayton, 

Tex. Ill. Pa. Ill. Ohio industry 1945 1945 1947 1946 1946 

Oil refining 45.8 14.8 1.7 •••• • ••• Paper manufacturing 18.1 .... 1.5 1.0 11.5 

Metal working 9.6 16.0 15.1 10.0 6.5 

Chemical manufacturing 4.0 30.6 7.2 •••• .9 

Building, air conditioning, and 

refrigerating 1.7 .6 9.9 .. 3~6 1.7 

Distilling •••• . ... .... 26.0 •••• Ice manufacturing 

and oold storage 4.4 •••• 6.2 •••• 2.2 

Food processing •••• • ••• 2.7 9.5 2.5 

Rubber lt'.B.nu!acturing 6.4 .... •••• •••• 2.3 

Meat packing 1.1 11 .. 4 3.2 •••• .3 

Brewing 2.0 •••• 1.4 1.2 .s 

Railroad yards 2.5 6.2 6~0 •••• .3 

Gas and electricity 2ol •••• 6.a ..... 5.7 

Dairying •••• .2 2.0 .5 .a 

Electric equipme~t 

manufacturing •••• • ••• •••• •••• 10.4 

Aircraft assemblins .... • ••• .... •••• . ... Resinous products 

manu faoi..-uring .... •••• •••• .... •••• 

Soap :rna.m'facturing •••• •••• •••• •••• ~3 

lAundering .a •••• •••• .3 .6 

Glass manufauturing •••• •••• 2.3 • • • • •••• 

Rope milling •••• .... •••• •••• •••• 

Ship yards 1.2 •••• •••• .... •••• 

Tobacco processing •••• •••• •••• •••• . ... Jiiscellaneous 2.2 5.6 1.8 14.0 3.5 

Total 101.9 a5.3 67.8 66.0 50.0 
USE OF GROUND WATER, BY TYPE OF INDUSTRY, IN 20 A.RE.&S iVliERE. INVENTORIES 

BAVE:aEENMADE 

(million gallons per day) 

Type of Mobile, Akron, Jacksonville,Chilli- Pensacola, South 

Ala. Ohio Fla. cothe, Fla. Bend. industry 1945 1944 1945 Ohio 1945 ID.d. 

1945 .1945 

Oil refining •••• •••• •••• • ••• . ... • ••• 

Paper manutacturing 16.0 2.0 4.1 20.0 8.2 .... Jletal working •••• .4 • ••• •••• • ••• 7.2 

Chemical manufaoturing •••• 5.0 •••• • ••• .... • ••• 

Building, air conditioning and 

refrigerating 11.0 •••• 2.7 •••• . ... 2.3 

Distilling •••• •••• • ••• • • • • •••• •••• 

Ice manufacturing 

and cold storage .... •••• '8.2 • • • • •••• .7 

Food processing •••• •••• •••• • ••• • ••• •••• 

Rubber manufacturing •••• 16.0 . . . . • ••• • ••• •••• 

Meat packing •••• .3 • ••• •••• • ••• •••• 

Brewing •••• •••• .5 • ••• • ••• l.S 

Railroad yards •••• • ••• 1.4 •••• •••• .a 

Gas and electricity • • • • • ••• .a •••• • • • • •••• 

Dairying •••• .a • ••• •••• •••• .3 

Electric equipment 

manufacturing . . . . •••• • ••• •••• •••• .... Aircraft assambling •••• • ••• •••• •••• • ••• •••• 

Resinous products 

manufacturing .... •••• • ••• •••• 8.2 •••• 

Soap manufacturing •••• •••• . •.. . ..... . ... .... laundering •••• . ... . . . . .... .3 

Glass manufacturing •••• .... • ••• •••• •••• •••• 

Rope milling • • • • •••• . ... • • • • . ... .... Ship yards •••• • ••• • • • • .... •••• •••• 

Tobacco processing .... • ••• •••• •••• • ••• .... Miscellaneous 6.0 .6 4.1 1.0 2.7 2.5 

Total 32.0 25.0 21.8 21.0 19.1 15.'1 
USE OF GROUND WATER, BY TYPE OF ~IDUSTRY, IN 20 AREAS vVHERE I~l\7'E!NTORIES 

HAVE BEEli MAllE 

(million gallons per day) 

Type of Jli1wa.uk:ee, Miami, El Dorado; Oklahoma Num.b'er 

Wis. Fla. Ark. City, Total of industry 1944 1945 1946 Okla. areas 

1945 

Oil refini!lg •••• • ••• 6.2 1.0 83.5 8 

Paper manufacturing . . . .. • • • • • ••• •••• 81.4 9 

:Metal working 3.2 •••• • ••• •••• 80.8 10 

Chemical manufaoturing •••• • ••• 3.1 . ... 59.9 8 

Building, air conditioning and 

refrigerating 2.3 1.6 •••• .6 55.9 15 

Distilli!lg •••• • ••• . ... •••• 47.2 3 

Ice manufacturing 

and cold storage ..... 4.7 • ••• .7 38.8 11 

Food processing 1.2 • • • • •••• • ••• 37.2 8 

Rubber ruanufacturing •••• • ••• •••• •••• 36.1 4 

Meat packing 1.1 •••• •••• 1.0 34.6 11 

Brewing 4.1 •••• • ••• .3 24.9 10 

Railroad yards •••• • ••• •••• .2 21.4 11 

Gas and electricity •••• 1.2 •••• •••• 20.4 7 

Dairy-ln.g •••• 2.2 • ••• •••• 14.9 11 

Electric equipment 

manufaoturin.g •••• • ••• •••• •••• 10.4 1 

J.iroraft assembling •••• . ... .... .6 8.5 2 

Resinous products 

:ms.nuf'acturing •••• • ••• •••• • ••• 8.2 1 

Soap manufacturing •••• .... •••• • ••• 4.3 2 

Laundering • • • • . ... .... .2 2.5 6 

Glass manufacturing . . . . . ... .... •••• 2.3 1 

Rope milling . . . . • ••• •••• . ... 2.0 1 

Ship yards .... . ... •••• • ••• 1.2 1 

~obacoo processing •••• • ••• • ••• •••• .. 9 1 

Miscellaneous 3.0 1.4 •••• .l 77.8 19 

Total 14.9 11.1 9.3 4.6 755.1 20 

94 
• 

• 

• • 

FIGURE I 0- USE OF GROUND WATER FOR IRRtGATION - 1945 

AREA OF CIRCLE DENOTES 

AMOUNT OF USE IN STATE 

Scote:. 

25..... • 

•so• e 

1,000 m9d 
FIGURE II - INDUSTRIAL USE OF GROUND WATER - 1945 

(not including water supplied from municipal systems) 

7 

AREA OF CIRCLE DENOTES 

AMOUNT OF USE IN STATE 

Scale: 

10 mgd 

75 mgd 

500 mgd 

• 

• e 
• 

• 

• 

• • 

• • • 

FIGURE 12- MUNICIPAL USE OF GROUND WATER - 1945 

73673 

AREA OF CIRCLE DENOTES 

AMOUNT OF USE IN STATE 

Scale: 

10 "'9d • 

75 m9d • 

500 ~d e 
• 

• 

• 

• 

• • 

• • • 

FIGURE 13- RURAL USE OF GROUND WATER - 1945 

(not including use for irrigation) 

7:U7) 

AREA OF CIRCLE DENOTES 

AMOUNT OF USE IN STATE 

Scole: 

10 .... • 

so-. • 

100 m9d e 
• 

• 

e • 

e • 

FIGURE 14- TOTAL USE OF GROUND ·WATER - 1945 

73673 

AREA OF CIRCLE DENOTES 

AMOUNT OF USE IN STATE 

Scale: 

25 mgd e 

150 mgd e 

1,000 mgd 
FIGURE 15 - USE OF GROUND WATER IN METROPOLITAN AREAS - 1945 

(only areas with 20 t:n9d or more total use are included) 

73673 

AREA OF CIRCLE DENOTES AMOUNT 

OF TOTAL USE IN AREA 

SOLID SECTOR REPRESENTS 

INDUSTRIAL USE 

20 mqd total use 1 8 

15 rngd industrial use j 

100 mqd total use l r:\ 

25 mqd industrial use ) '61 
0 20 40 60 80 

Oil Refining (8) 

Paper Mfg. (9) 

. Metal Working (10) 

Chemical Mfg. (8) 

Bldgs., Air Cond., Refrigerating ~15) 

Distilling (3) 

Ice Mfg. a Cold Storage (II) 

Food Processing (8) 

Rubber Mfg. (4) 

Meat Packing II) 

Brewing (10) 

Railroad Yards (II) 

Gas a Electricity (7) 

Dairying II) 

Electric Equipment Mfg. -(t 

Aircraft Assembling ~ (2) 

Resinous Products Mfg. (I) 

Soap Mfg. ~ (2) 

Laundering ~ (6) 

Glass Mfg. a < n LEGEND 

Rope Milling ~ (I) (5) Number of areas 

having this type 

Ship Yards ~ (I) of use. 

Tobacco Processing I (I) 

Miscellaneous ~ 

- (19) 

0 20 40 60 80 

MILLION .GALLONS A DAY 

FIGURE 16 -USE OF GROUND WAT·ER BY INDUSTRIES 

IN 20 SELECTED METROPOLITAN AREAS. 

ll,.P (Not including water from municipal supplies) 

100 

100 
It is estimated rough17 that the use of ground water in the united 

States approximately doubled from 1935 to 1945--f'rom about 10 to about 

20 billion gallons per day. and as stated above. it is now in the neighborhood of 25 billion gallons per day. It meets now fr~~ perhaps a fifth 

to an eighth or our total 'Water requirements; in the future the use or 

ground 'Water and perhaps its proportion or the total water use will increase. 

It is up to us. then. to learn more reliably how much water we need and are 

likely to need, and to find it, always considering the availability and cost 

or both surface water and ground water and the relation between them. in each 

area and basin. 

95 
THE aJRRENT SITUAT lOB 

We have laid. the background for an understanding ot the occurrence of 

:water in nature and as affected by use, with special reference to ground 

water. Let us now consider the general water-resources conditions in the 

United states, again with special reference to ground water but with 

recognition of the intimate relation between ground and surface water. It 

is not possible in a single report to give a coaprehensive picture. We have 

only a small part of the information, and even it we had it all some 

hundreds of thousands of pages would be required to set it down. We oan, 

however, present a general picture and oall attention to some ot the mox-e 

important problems, possible solutions, and potential sources of water. 

Water has always been an important factor in the settleent and 

development of our country. Cities and farms were located Where favorable 

conditions existed, and water was always one of the principal determining 

factors, for domestic use, transportation, industrial use and power 

generation, and irrigation. In many places, howfJV'er, factors other than 

water, such as soil, climate, strategic location on trade routes, and 

availability of raw materials, have resulted in the dfJV'elopment of areas 

beyond the ability of the local water resources to keep up with the demand-. 

As a result. and in too many cases because of lack of foresight, onc8-plentiful 

water supplies have become inad~uate, and such problems will become 

progressively more numerous and serious until we give water its rigbttul 

place in our thinking. 

The water supplies are most inadequate and the problems most serious in 

the arid West, where there never has been and perhaps never will be enough 

water for full development of the great agricultural and indust.rial potential. 

The relatively well watered East has numerous but so far less serious problems; 

enormous supplies remain for development and they can be made still larger 
and more aecure by reducing the widespread pollution of our atreaJ'U. 

The general fea-tures of the tour principal regions ot the United States 

and a few of the lll08t important water probleJII are described in the followin8 

sections. 

Figure 17 is a •P ot the United States showing areas in which individual 

wells generally are capable ot yieldiDg at least 50 gallons per minute ot 

water containing not more than 2,000 parts per aillion of dissolved solids 

(the map includes some ~eas where more hi&hl7 mneralized water is actuall7 

used successtull.7). Five types ot areas are ahowna those with unconsolidated 

aquifers, those with consolidated-rock aquifers, those with both, those 

alluvium-tilled Talleya or ~watercourses• where perennial streams recharge or 

can be made to recharge. the alluvium, and siad.lar valleye not now occupied by 

perennial atre8118. 

Figure 17 ia baaed on a •P prepared tor the Conservation Foundation, 

New York, N. Y. The Foundation ia making a au.rYey ot the ground-water conditione 

and problems of the United States; the ap is to fora a part ot the Foundation's 

report, which will be a broad treatment of the ground-water situation aa a basia 

for its evaluation in relation to other national problems. The map was compiled 

b7 Dr. H. E. Thomas, district geologist ot the Geological Surve7, Salt Lake City, 

who wa.s on leave trom the Survey and *• h oharge ot the Foundation 'a ground-•ter 

stu<q. It is based on data furnished by the field oti"ices ot the Geological 

Survey and by other Federal and State agencies. It varies in accuracy in 

accordance with the comprehensiveness of the available data tor the different 

parts of the country. For some large areas for which ground-water data. are 

scanty the map must be considered only tentative; it is subject to revision 

throughout as additional data are obtained. 

97 
Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains 

The Atlantic and Gulf' Coastal Flaina begin at the northeast~ With th'e · 

group of' sandy islands and capes including Long Island, Cape Cod, Marthas 

Vineyard, and ~antucket Island and extend south and west to include the 

sot*heastern half' of' Texas. The regiqn includes the Mississippi Embaym~t, 

which extends up to Cairo, Ill,., and includes the corners of' Missouri and 

Kentucky. The region is prevailingly humid, except for the subhumid to 

semiarid western part of the Texas section of the region. The climate is 

generally warmer than that of the east-central region, however, and the 

evaporation is higher though it is exceeded by the precipitation in much of 

the region except the southwestern pa1-t. The average runoff is mostly around 

20 inches in llew Jersey and the adjacent area and 20 to 30 inches in southern 

Alabama and Mississippi. It is generally 10 to 20 inches in the rest of the 

region as far west as east-central Texas, whence it drops off to the west to 

an inch or lesso 

The region is underlain by co~stward-dipping strata of sand, clay. marl, 

and limestone. The total thickness ranges from a feather edge at the inner 

border or Fall Line, vvhere the underlying hard rocks oome to the surface, to 

many thousands of feet in the extreme south. Except for the limestones of 

Florida and the adjaoent area in Georgia and South Carolina and those of the 

Edwards Plateau in Texas, the rocks are largely mconsolidated. The limeatones and sands of the Coastal Plain constitute some of the most extensive 

and productive aquifers of the United states. Because of the favorable 

structure e;f' coastward-dipping pemeable sand and limestone beds alternating 
!TED STATES 

'b 

:.. 

<') 

.., 

"l 

.., 

<:> 

"' 

t-1 

';>-

'2. 

LEGEND 

copo~~Yofa:ite~d7n~h~w~n~~ida~51a ~;lrser~oQn ~m~"ora~u~::r o~e~~~~ { containing not more than 2POO p.p.m. of dissolved solids (includes areas where more highly mineralized water is actually used). 

~ Water course.s in which ground water con be replenished by 

~ perennial streams 

1' '~-:::{ I &uneo volleys not now occupied by perennial streams 

Unconsolidated and semicansolidated aquifers 

~ Consolidated-rock aquifers 

m Both unconsolidated and consolidated-rock aquifers 

,----, Not known to be underlain by aquifers that will generally 

L__j yield as much as 50 g.p.m. to wells 

G U L F 0 F NEXICO 

Figure 17. GROUND-WATER AREAS IN THE U_ S_ 

t 

'Y 

... 

" 

() 

" 

~ 

DE,..,..,TMI!:WTorTI!• I..,...JUOJO, 

u•o~•uRvrt 

~ 

~ 

~ 

Compiled by H. E. Thomas 

Conservation Foundation 

1950 

Bond on dolo lu•nfslll"d by U. S G•olotlcOI Sur,.y, 

oil'••• F•d•rol og•neiu, 011d Stol• oq.n-ein. 

__ " ............... ...., :_:::-=-Ill. C.. __ ...., 
~ith· ti~ht clays and marls, artesian conditions_ prevail throughout the 

region except in the beds near the surface. Flowing wells own be obtained, 

almost eve~here along the coast and in the deeper valleys extending back from 

it. The \'l;·ater of' the limestones is hard but in much of the region that in the 

sands some distance down the dip has been softened naturally by base exchange 

(exchange of sodium in the sediments for the hardness-producing calcium and 

magnesium picked up by the v~ter in the recharge areas). On the Whole, the 

Coustal Plain is perhaps the most productive ground-water region in the _j . United States, though in some areas incomplete flushing of the salt water 

_/ Stringfield, v. T ., U. s. Geol. Survey, Artesian water in the 

Southeastern States. Paper prepared for symposium on mineral resources of 

Southeastern States, held at the University of KentuCk,y, March 1950, and to 

be published by the University. 

that once saturated the beds ~es it difficult to obtain good water. The 

Tamiami limestone of southeastern Florida is the most permeable aquifer ever 

investigated in detail by the Geological Survey. Its transmissibility averacea 

several million gallons a day per foot, in comparison with transmissibilities 

in the general range of 50,000 to 5001 000 for some of the productive aquifers 

in other parts of the country. The Floridan aquifer, comprising the Ocala 

limestone ·and associated limestones of northern Florida, southern--Georgia, and 

southeastern South Carolina, supplies some of the largest springs and flowing 

and pumped wells in the country. The Edwards limestone of Texas supplies the 

largest known flowing well in the world at San Antonio, yielding nearly 25 

million gallons a day. 

!he water supply of the region ia large • but there are maerowt probl-. 

99 
Middlesex County, N. J., is hea~ly pumped and about fUlly developed, but much 

ground water remains untouched in the southern half of the state. In the 

Philadelphia - Camden area there is local overpumping, and contamination of 

the ground water by polluted water from the Delaware River. The area presents 

an interstate problem that can be solved through cooperation such as that 

providing for development of the Delaware River. 

The Baltimore area is heavily pumped and there is a salt-water-contamination 

problem. The Washington, D. c., area is not heavily pUJJlped but ground water 

is hard to get in some places where it is needed for damest,ic and industrial 

use and public s·upply for suburban housing developments. Southeas·tern \'lrginia 

and northeastern North Carolina are characterized by limited supplies of good 

ground water, though brackish water is abundant. The Savannah area, Ga., is 

overpumped so far as long-term salt-water encroachment is concerned, but 

enoraacbment is many years away, additional ground water 1s available to the 

west, and the city bas developed a supply from the Savannah River. 

Ground water ot good quality is scarce in the Everglades area and extreme 

coastal area of southern Florida, and loeall7 alGQg the eo.at elsewhere, but 

on the whole Florida 8Zld adjacent areas in Georgia and South Carolina form 

one o:f' the moat productive ground-water areas 1n the country. 

Heavy pumping bas caused local encroachment of salty water at Mobile, 

Ala., aDd Texas City, Tex., and may be causing it in the rice-irrigation area 

of southwestern louiaiaxaa. Ground water is naturally brackish in the New Orleans 

area and in muCh of the southern Texas coastal area. The Grand Prairie region 

in eastern .Arkansas is overdeveloped. The Memphis, Baton Rouge, and Hous'lon 

areas, amcmg others, are very heavily pumped and there may be some over• 

development in parts ot the latter two areas. 

On the whole, however, ground-water problems in the Coastal. Plain are 

local, and tremendous supplies await development in most parts o:f' the region• 

100 
Surface water is abundant throughout most of the Coastal Plai~. 'There 

are numerous problems of flooding because of the low gradients of the streams, 

and problema of erosion in the higher areas and contribution of silt to the 

streams, organic and chemical pollution from sources both upstream and within 

the region. salt-water encroachment in the tidal portions of the streams 

during periods of 16W flow, and inadequate surface storage to provide 

increased low flow, protection against floods. and dilution of the pollution 

load. On the whole, however, with adequate investigation to determine the 

ground-water potential and stre~flow characteristics, intelligent development 

of ground and surface water, ·and reduction of pollution, floods, and soil 

erosion, the Coastal Plain will have ample water of good· quality for the 

indefinite future. 

East-Central Region 

The east-central region can be defined as the part of the United States 

east of the Great Plains and north and west of the Atlantic &lld Gull' Coastal 

Plains. The climate is generally humid. The precipitation decreases from 

south to north, but so does the temperature and with it the"potential 

evaporation" or amount of water needed to meet evapo-transpiration demands. 

Precipitation generally exceeds potential evaporation, except in'the 

western part. The runoff is relatively high, though it decreases from east 

to west. It is 20 inches or more in the mountains and in most of New England, 

l~eVI York, and Pennsylvania, and 10 to 16 inches in much of the area to the 

west as far as the Mississippi River, and in Missouri and Arkansas beyond. 

It then falls off rapidly to half an inch to a couple of inbhes at the edge 

_j 

of the Great Plains. 

_/ Langbein, Vf. B., and others, Annual runoff in the United States: U. S. 

Geol. Survey Circ. 62, pl. 1, June 1949. 

101 
The region is underlain by consolidated roCks - crystalline rocks in i, ·~ ~ ... 

New England, the Adirondacks, the Blue Ridge and Piedmont,~. and Xl<)r-bhern 

Wisconsin and Minnesota; and folded or flat-lying sedimentary ro()ks" e.lsewher~~ 

These rocks are prevailingly ot low or moderate pe~eability, and at depth 

they generally contain little water or water of poor quality. The principal 

exceptions are deep-lying fres~water-bearing sandstones in Iowa, Illinois, 

and Wisconsin and some of the limestones of the Appalachian Valley and 

Ridge Province and the Ozark region. From the limestones ot the Ozarks issue 

some of the largest· springs in the United States, but the water travels 

principally in large solution channels that are difficult to locate in 

drilling wells, so that as sources of well water they are not especially 

important. 

Throughout New England and Hew York, in northern Pennsylvania, and 

farther west in the area generally north of the Ohio and Missouri Rivers, the 

bedrocks are covered by glacial drift ranging widely in thickness and 

permeability. It is thickest and most permeable in Michigan and northern 

Indiana, but in all except the extreme western part of• the region it contains 

coarse deposits of glacial outwash gravel; also, the valleys of the Ohio, 

Missouri, and Mississippi Rivers and their principal tributaries contain 

thick and productive glaoial gravels from which large supplies can be developed 

by "induced infiltration." In western Minnesota and the eastern Dakotas the 

unconsolid~ted mantle consists mostly of clayey lake beds or glacial drift 

derived from the sof't shale bedrock, and stringers of sand and gravel are fflfl 

and far between. 

In southern Indiana, southern and western Ill1nois, northern Missouri, 

and part ot Iowa the g~acial drift is thin and not especially produative. In 

these areas and also to the south the bedrocks are the principal or only source 

of ground water, and with the exceptions noted above they are not highly 

10% 
productive. Domestic sup,t?l1es are available. generally. howeVer·, though even 

_/ 

these supplies are meager in such areas as the Bluegrass region· of Kentucky-

_/ Hamilton. D. K., Areas and principles of ground-water occurrence in 

the inner Bluegrass region. Ay; Kentuc~r Geol. Survey Bulletin, in -course of 

publication. Prepared in cooperation •vith u. s. Geol. Survey •. 

and the Pennyroyal country of southern Kentucky and northern Tennessee. In 

the last-named area the drainage is largely underground through cavernous 

limestone, but.it takes place so quiCkly that only small year-round supplies 

are available. Ground water is difficult to obtain in the uplands of much of 

eastern Kansas and in Cklahoma east of the Panhandle, but river alluvium and 

terrace gravels yield small to moderate supplies in ma~ places. 

New England's present water problems fortunately are minor in comparison 

to those of some other parts of the country. On the average there is a 

surplus of precipitation over evaporation, and the runoff is high and rather 

well sustained because of the uniformity of precipitation during the year and 

the blanket of glacial drift and ·weathered bedrock. Total water use is not 

heavy except for power production, and large additional supplies are available 

from productive watersheds and from permeable glac1al gravels in many valleys. 

The chief problems in the past have been caused by floods, droughts, ·and 

stream pollution. All have been under vigorous attack in recent years and 

the situation has improved and is continuing to do S'?• Reservoirs have been 

built to provide flood control and increased lo~water flow. The increased 

flow. and steps taken under the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control 

Compact, are helping to reduce stream pollution. Domestic users of ground 

water are turning from shallow dug wells. readily depleted by drought, to 

more reliable deeper drilled wells. 

10.3 
New York ~ate has an abundant v·1ater supply but more seriou-s problems of 1 • 

water shortage due to heavy and iil.oreasing use, and a hit;her degree of stream. 

pollution in the densely populated areas. The current New York City water 

shortage has sparked the recent greatly increas.ed national interest in water. 

It is serious now but will be em.eiiorated by construction now under way • 

after a period of considerable discomfort and inconvenience. In the 

meantime it will nave served as an excellent examp~e and warning to other 

water users that "it can happEJJ:L here." and eventually it may prove to be 

a blessing in disguise. 

Pennsyl~4ia has a f•w ••rious problems, including heavy stream pollution 

and local overpumping of ;rouud water at Pittsburgh and contamination of 

grotmd water by polluted Delaware River water at Philadelphia (in the 

Coastal Plain). The stre~pollutian problem is under vigorous attack b,y 

the State. 

The Piedmont and Blue Ridge provinces extending from Pennsylvania to 

Alabama make up an area ot gtnerally ample but widely polluted surface water 

and generally anall gro~4~-.ter supplies, which •. however, meet the needs 

of rural users, most small towns. and many industries. Adequate flood. 

sedimentation, and pollution-control measures will make the surface-water 

supply adequate and sate, and there is a promise that ground-water research 

will make possible more suco•ssful location of productive wells. Moderate 

to large supplies, hitherto almost untouched, can be developed by induced 

infiltration in the thin alluvium of the river valleys. 

The AppalaChian Valle,y ~d Ridge province west of the Blue Ridge has 

large surface- and ground-water supplies but considerable pollution of the 

' 

str~ams, and also of the ground water because much of it occurs in 

104 
cavernous limestone. There are difficult problems of mine drainage, and much 

research is needed on the occurrence of ground water. 

The Appalachian Plateaus &Dd lnterior Low Plate•u• extending from 

western Pennsylvania through West Virginia and southeastern Ohio southward 

to Alabama and west to the Missis,aipp1 River form a re.gion of variable 'Vfater 

supply. The rocks are of low average permeability, with some marked exceptions 

such as the alluvium of the Ohio Biver and its larger tributaries and the 

limestones of the Tennessee Valle,y, and the plateaus are.well dissected by 

streams, so that runoff is flashy and there are problems of both floods and 

deficient low flow. There is serious pollution of the Ohio River and its 

tributaries by sewage and industrial wastes and of smaller streams by ac1d 

water draining from coal mines. More adequate storage of surface water would 

go far to solve all these problems. 

The Great Lakes States have an ab~dant water supply but numerous local 

problema of inadequate water-supply facilities to meet increasing demands, 

and pollution of streams and of the Great Lakes themselves at the larger 

cities. Stream flow is well to poorly sustained, depending on the local 

thickness and permeability of the glacial drift that blankets most of the 

area. 

Greatly increased development of ground water is possible in many 

parts of the area, particularly northern Indiana and the Lower Peninsula of 

Jlichigan. Possibly the outat"anding gro\md-water problem. is that in northeastern Illinois but there are many others. ~creased use of ground water 

in areas now lightly pumped and provision of more adequate surface storage 

for dry-season water supply and flood and pollution control may be expected 

to meet the mounting water demands of the area, though good reservoir sites 

are scarce because of the flatness of the terrain. 

lOS 
The Great. Lakes themselves are a large .ar.i.d. obvious soure•· :of wat•r•. 

Though dependable data on precipitation on and evaporation frOlil the lakes .. , 

are meager,. i~ is apparent th~t, on the avera·ge, precipitation. exoeeds 

evaporation. This excess and the water from trib.u~ar,y streams add up ·to a 

total natural discharge into the St. Lawrence River averaging 226,000 cubic 

_/ 

feet per second. Even the large diversions for power and other uses 

_/ u. s. Geol. Sarvey Ciro. 44, Large rivers of the United States. 

P• 6, May 1949. 

reduce the flow over Nia:gara Falls by only 60,000 to 60,000 cubic feet per 

second, and of course the water diverted for power at the falls returns to 

the Niagara River below the falla. Navigation requirements preclude excessive 

lowering of the lakes and diversion of water f;rom the lakes must be governed 

.by international agreements, but even so, large additional use would be 

feasible, as mos~ of the water would retur.n to the lakes. Control of 

pollution, especially in ·~he highly industrialized areas in Ohio, Indiana, 

Ulinois, and Micidgan, is one of the principal problems, for both present 

and possible future uses. 

Thb part of the region between the belt surrounding the Great Lakes and 

the belt just east of the Great Plains has somawhat similar problems. It 

includes Iowa, Missouri, southeastern Oklahoma, and northwestern Arkansas. 

Surfac' watBr is generally abundant but storage is needed to even out the 

a,ycle of floods and low-flow deficiency. Large ground-water supplies are 

restricted mainly to the valleys of the principal streams, and to scattered'· 

areas of permeable bedrock like that supplying the springs of the Ozarks. 

There are numerous problems of chemical and organic pollution and heavy- silt 

loads in streams~ Additional surface storage and prospecting for and development of untapped ground water are called for. 

106 
ftle belt just e&at of the Great PlaiDS is ODe of C8JMtrall7 deficient 

water suppl7, with ooaaiderable oversuppl7 at times in the form of floods. , 

The rook formations are generallJ ot rather low peraeabilit7 ad both total 

and low-wa:ber runoff are leas thaD iD the more humid areas to the east. !he 

Jlissouri Ba.sin developm•t ia a coordinated program to provide more water tor 

the northeltn part of the belt. Bepl.atiOD of the Arkansas and llecl ll1 vera 

aDd their trilutariea would do the .._ tor the aouthem. !here are serious 

probl_. f!l ohGioal pollution, both MD•taade a.nc1 natural, eapeo1allJ in the 

southern ~. &d heavy s~lt loads in nearly all streams 'throughout the 

belt. One 1 of the principal ground-wa:ter problema, calling for interstate 

oooperatiOJI& and oa.retul planning of withdrawals, is that of the Tri-State 

area in southeastern Kansas, northeastern Oklahoma, and southwestern Missouri. 

Jmple aurt&oe water oan be dweloped in that area, but Dot always at .-11 

coat to towns and industries distant from the larger streams. 

'.! 

len 
. Ore. at Plailll3.: RegiQil, · 

~ .: ' . 

The Great Plains region includes the part of the country, east of the 

Rocky Mountains, .exten~ .f'rom easte~ Montana to sout~central Texas and 

including western North. Dakota,- most of South Dakota and Nebraska, western . . ' .. . . ' 

Kansas and Texas, the Oklaha:aa Panhi.Ddle~ and eastern New .Mexico. It is an 

elevated east-sloping prevail.ingly semiarid pl.ain or plateau. PotentiSJ. evaporation 

exceeds precipitation in p~actioally the whole. region, s'o that if the precipitation were distributed evenly there woul.d be little. su;f~ce runoff or groundwater recharge. The runoff is most:cy an inch or less exci.ept in 'the sand.,;..hills 

• ' L ' 

region of Nebraska, where the sands absorb precipitation very readily and pay 

it out slowly around the margins of an area of severaJ. thousand sqUa.re miles, 

so that the runoff is 2.5 to S inches. 

The region is underlain by gently dipping stratified sedimentary rocks, 

mostly sandstone and shale and some limestone. The sandstones are the ·principal 

water bearers ·in these bedrock formations. They are of low permeability and 

yield in comparison to more productive aquifers elsewhere, but they supply 

thousands of domestic;, stOtlk, and public-suppq wells in parts of the region 

where better aquifers are not present. The Dakota sandstone, which underlies 

most of the region, forma one of the largest artesian reservoirs in the world. 

Though the sandstone :i.s not very permeable, its water was originally under 

h:t.gh pressure because of the high altitude of its outcrop areas in the foothills of the Rockies and the Black Hills and o.f' the presence above it of a 

thick, tight confining bed of shale. J4aey of the wells when drilled had 

pressures of more than 100 pounds per square inch (230 feet of water_) at the 

surface and naws of several hundred gallons per minute._/ The highest re-

_/ ~·lenzel, L. K., and Sand, H. H., Water supply of the Dakota sandstone in the 

Ellendale-Jamestown area, N. Dak.: u. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 889-A, 

p. 5, 1942. Prepared in cooperation with North Dakota Geol. Survey. 
ported pressure was 250 pounds per square inch (575 feet of water), possibly' 

somewhat in error. A well at Redfie.ld, s. Dak:., had a pressure of 177 pounds 

per square inch (410 feet of water) • .J The highest reported yield by natural 

'_j Op. tCit. 

now was 4,350 gallons per minute from a well at Chamberlain, s. Dak.J 

.J Darton, N. H., PreJ i m.i na.rr report on artesian waters of a portion of the 

Dakotas, !.!! U. S. Geol. Survey 17th A.nn. Rept., pt. 2, P• 6CIJ, 1896. 

The bulk of the water was derived from artesian storage, hoWever, and the 

head was dissipated rapidly' in a large region, particularly the Dakotas. Now 

JB8D1' wells have ceased to flow and most of the rem.aini ng ones flow oncy a few 

· gallons per minute, as in the Ellendale-Jamestown area, N. DaJ< • .J 

_/Wenzel, L. K., and Sand, H. H., op. cit., PP• 39-40. 

In the northernmost part of the Great Plains the bedrocks are overlain 

b;y glacial drift, but it is neither extensive nor highly permeable and is not 

a verr productive source of water in most places. In the High Plains, however, 

extending from eastern New llex::i.co and the Panhandl.e of Texas nort;h to Nebraska, 

the bedrocks are overlain b;y an extensive sheet of sand, gravel, and cla;y washed 

out trom the Rocky Mountains since they were raised. These deposits are 

rather permeable and prodll.cti ve and furnish large T-telds to we.Lls. They are 

recharged at a rate ranging from a small traction of an inch per year in the 

south to several inches in parts of Nebraska. Where the recharge is low and 

the pumpage b:l.gh, as in the southern High Plains of Texas, the withdrawal is 

larg~ from storage aooum.ul.ated in the past and event~ the pumpage must 

be reduced or the recharge increased by artificiaL means. 

109 
The Great Plains is a region ot prevailing deficient water supply, with 

fUll de-velopment or overdevelopment of ground or surface water in many areas. 

Current projects of the Bureau of Reclemation and the Corps ot Engineers are. 

designed to provide additional water supplies and to reduce flood damage and 

sedimentation problems in the northern part of the region. 1ncludiJJg the basins 

ot the Pla.tte and Republican Rivers. 'l'he Arkansas end Canadian Ri wrs are or 

soon will be :f'ully developed in their headwaters areas • and their lower cOurses 

are characterized by high silt loads and very heavy chemical contamination. 

both 'natural and man-made. 1'ransmountain diwrsion from the Colorado River 

basin will help the southern part of the region to some extent. The Pecos 

River basin• though strictly not a part of the Gre-at Plains• oa:n be included 

tor the purpose ot discussion. The surface water is tully developed; ground 

water is owrdeveloped in same areas in both New Mexico and Texas and there 

I 

ia depletion of stream tlor~ e.s a result. The water or the Pecos River in the 

southem part of New Mexico and adjacent area in Texas is very salty-. as the 

result of reuse and of the natural discharge of salty spring water • and is 

aome of the most highly mineralized water 1n the world used for irrigation. 

There ia some possibility or reducing the salt load 1n the lower reach of the 

river by intercepting some of the salty spring water in New Mexico. The riwr 

is freshened by springs and tributary inflow before joining the Rio Grande. · 

Ground water is scanty in the northern part of the Great Plains • though 

caref'll exploration reveals supplies e.dequate for amall towns and industries. 

In the High Plains there is a tremendous .amount of stored water. but the reoha.rge is lor1 except in the sand-hills region of Nebraska• and la.rge withdrawals oame from storage. ~e diti'iculty in deciding what to do about this 

large but essentially irreplaceable resource ha8 been discussed elsewhere. 

A point that might be mentioned here 11 the 1Dt;erstate interference that is not 

110 
importaut so far but that w::LLl inevitably appear as deveJ.opment increases. 

On the whole, oD.cy' the fullest development of the available supplies, 

careful.q planned to take into account the relations of surface and ground 

water and the problems of interstate interference and establ:i.shed water rights, 

will su.t'i'ice to meet the ex:LstiDg and prospeoti ve needs of this regl.on. 

Western Mountain Region 

The western mountain resion includes the remaining part; o1' the country", 

west of the longitude of the east front of the Rocq Mountains. It is a large 

region and coul.d well be broken up into a number of regions on the baais of 

geology, pblfSiograpby, or climate. It has the greatest range in altitude, 

from bel.ow sea level to more than 14,000 feet above, and in climate, from subtropical to arctic. It includes t~e driest areas in the coun:t;ry, with practically no precipitation, and the wettest, w.Lth more than 100 inches. However, 

the region is characterized as a whole by" mountains and high plat~ recel..,... 

1ng relati vel7 abundanti precipitation and acting as sources of water that flows 

into l01rl.a.Dds which receive relative:cy- little precipitation and contribute 

little runoff. katptions to the general. rule are the coastal lowlands of 

the Pacific Northwest, which receive abundant precipitation, and, on the other 

hand., the· lower mountains of the southernmost part of the region, which receive 

very little, even though more than the adjacent basina. 

The :rb.a:limum. runoff ranges from 10 to rare:Q" more than 20 illches in the 

Rocq llountaLDs, 20 to 40 inches in the higher part; of the Sierra Nevada, and 

40 to SO inches in the Cascades of Oregon and Washington. In the Great Basin 

between the Sierra Nevada and the Rockies it is rarely more than a few inches 

even in the mountain ranges and is mostly an inch or less in the lorllands -

111 
less than a quarter. of an inch in the driest areas. Many streams carry- heavy 

silt loads and, in some stretches, highly mineralized vreter. 

The region is characterized by mountains built of dense rocks of low 

per.meability, though in most places having a fairly per.meable surface mantle 

of weathered rock; high di.ssected plateaus formed of stratified rocks .of which 

only the lava rocks of the Northwest are highly productive aquifers; and river 

valleys and intermountain basins partly filled with alluvium washed from the 

adjacent mountains. The river valleys and alluvial basins are the most important ground-water reservoirs of the region. From the developed ones is pumped 

more ground water than in the rest of the country combined, w-1 th California in 

first place and Arizona in second. The lava plains are important contributors 

to stream now, but so far the ground water bas not been developed heavi~ by 

means of wells, except in a few areas. 

'fhe water problems of the vrestern mountain region currently are the Nation's most serious and complex, and those calling for the most prompt .and comprehensive stuqy, most careful planning, and most complete interstate and international coordination. Because of the general deficiency of and great value o! 

water the region is characterized by the Nation • s most detailed Jvdrologic 

studies, most ambitious water developaents, and greatest development of systems 

of establishing water rights. But the approach so far has been piecemeal, and 

there is a lack of fundamentaL hydrologic data and of an adequate understanding of hydrology on the part of both water users and the courts, and conflict 

both between ground18ter and surface-we. ter rights 'and between rights based 

on different concepts of law in adjacent States. The present situation is one 

of serious overuse of ground or surface water or both in sa11e areas, while 

water remains for devel.opnellt or is wasted in others; a p~ of the water not 

112 
now t:sed for beneficial prupo&es cannot be developed under existing laws because to do so woula interfere with established rights. 

1'hJ water needs ot the West oan be met to a large degree, though the coat 

will be great and many complex problans wUl have to be worked out. Large 

developnEilts in the major r:l ver basins will have to be made with a:n understand• 

1ng of their relation to each other and to the basin as a whole. 

The closed basins of Nevada and Uliah• on the whole • are incompletely 

developed, and they offer considerable promise for increased use of water 

through sal'ftge of evapo-transpiration waste and storage of tlood waters that 

still esoape UDUaed to the playas, there to be evaporated. These basins tom 

one of tbe brightest spots in the West em water picture • tor many ot them can 

be dewloped successfully on the baaia of soientitio inwatiga.tion-largely 

UJ:Jdone so fa.r--T~ithout im;erbasin and interstate ca~tplicationa. The serious 

water problems of' the West have arisen in parts of the major basins. 

other Areas 

Water problema in which we are in-volved are not confined to the 48 States. 

Some brief ·mention should be made of problana in the territories e.nd island 

possessions and :in foreign anas where we haw interests. 

Ot the territories and island possessions the one tor which moat intoma.~ 

tion is ava.Ua.ble is the Territory of Hawaii. There surtaoe- and ground-water 

studies have been under way for Jn8l1Y years • but muoh additional into mu1tion 1a 

needed. The islands are ot ~lcanic origin and are oomplex geologically and 

hydrologically, the water situation ranging from island to 1al8Zld and ewn 

within an island from one ot abundance to one of mreme scarcity. There 1e 

heaTY dewlopment ot water, where available, tor irrigation and municipal and 

military uses. On Lanai and Kahoolawe, the driest islauds• relatively little 

water is available and there is a constant need tor more. On Hawaii• the 

largest island, there are large supplies and considerable use, bub :much water 
remains for development. On Oahu, the most heavily developed island, numerous 

water problems exist, ·principa.Lly" those of public water supp:cy- for Honolulu 

and water for naval installations and irrigation. The general geology and 

ground....,-ater conditions are described in a series of bulletins prepared by the 

Geological Survey in cooperation with and published by the Territorial. Division 

of Hydrography. :Much detailed work remains to be done, however 1 to assure 

adequate water for the principal uses, especia.Lly" on Oahu. 

Alaska is largely unknCMU territory so far as water is concerned. Verr 

large potential. sources are known to· ex:Lst, but the growing importance of the 

teiTit~r.r as a part of the United States and as a key point in our def.ense 

means that we will have to accelerate our program or collecting watex-resources 

information to meet the increasing water demands. Water is abundant in maD1' 

areas but scarce in ma.JV' areas or use. In the Yukon and Tanana Valleys there 

are enormous supplies of water, but the surface water carries fine "glacial 

fiour11 that settles out slow]Jr and is hard to remove; most of the ground water 

is high in iron and organic matter. Jla.D3" communities, especia.Lly" those along 

the coast, are in areas of poor water conditions and have difficulty in obtaining good water at feasible cost. The occurrence of permanently frozen ground 

( permafrost) and the freezing of wells and pipe lines flre a nrious complication that is not encountered in most parts of the United States. 

Surface-water and ground..,.ater~vestigations in Alaska are oncy in. their 

infamy. Only a few streams are gaged, and only" the briefest of groUJld-water 

reconnaissances have been made, in a small part of the area. The increased 

water developments necessary in stepped-up industrial and defense activities 

will be very cost.Ly if hydrologic studies are not made praaptl.y to permit 

economical. design. 

114 
Puerto Rico ~s a small isJ.and of rather large water resources and use. 

A reconnaissance study of ground water made in cooperation with the Puerto 

Rico Aqueduct and Sewer J.uthori ty showed that probabJ.y more than 250 million 

gallons per dq of ground water is pumped, mainly for irrigation of sugar cane 

on the south coast. Large quantities of surface water are used for irrigation, 

public supply, and power production. The general poverty of the island and the 

rapidly increasing demand for water create problems difficult_to solve, but 

strenuous efforts are beiDg made to provide adequate safe water for domestic 

use. The heavy, increasing, and uncontrolled development of ground water 

along the south coast is boUlld to cause overdevelopment and salt water encroachment eventuall.y,; they have already occurred in local areas. A large part; 

of the· island's ecollOIIIY depends on the sugar cane raised in this coastal strip 

of less than 200 square miles. Large ground-water supplies are avail.able along 

the coast in certain other parts of the isJ.and and small supplies in the ir» 

terior. Surface runoff in the interior is moderate but steep slopes make it 

rapid and necessitate storage reservoirs. The island has a rather large additional water-resources potential, but projects the island can afford are difficult to achieve. Some stream gaging is done by the Water Resources Authority 

• 

but much more is needed, together 1vith detailed ground-water studies, particularly a..Long the south coast• 

The American Virgin IsJ.ands are sma.J.l islands of little water use but 

very small avaiJ.abJ.e supplies. Reconnaissances by the Geological Survey for 

t,he General Services Administration, which is developing public supplies, show 

that water is scarce and expensive to develop and al~s will be. Detailed 

ground-water studies are needed to make possible the most economical. and J.argest 

possible developments, particularly on St. Croix, where there is considerable 
_irrigo.ble land but apparently only a small over-all water supply. There is 

no surface runoff fron the islands except during occasional atoms • and storage 

of surface water is difficult because of steep gre.dienbs ot streams and a high 

evaporation rate. 

Guam has a perpetual problan of scarcity of water for public and military 

uses. The Geological Survey has !done considerable work on the island and has 

outlined the principal needs for additional data. Many of the islands occupied 

b.y the United states in the Pacific have water problatlB, inoluding the other 

Marianas Islands. The Geological Survey has made brief studies of lD8Jl1' of the 

Paoifio islands, principally duriug the J.&st war. The most recent study by 

the Geological Surny waa on Angaur Island in the westem Carolines, where a 

salt-water-e:ncroachmeut problem is involved. :Many additional studies m the 

Pacific are needed. 

• 

116 
F.IDl§t.AL CONCEml IN WATER RESOURCES 

The :interest of the Federal Government in 111ater resources can be 

summarized briefly as follows: 

1. Gathering and interpretation of basic data. 

2. Specific water-control and water-development projects 

including those tar flood and pollution control, 

1 

reclamation and irrigation, navigation, recreation, 

fish and wildlife protection, and others; water 

development for Federal institutions and public 

lands; and farmstead water supplies on private lands. 

3 • Legal interests. 

4. Development of a sound national water policy. 

Basic-Data Program 

The Federal Government has a broad responsibility for gathering basic 

data on the occurrence, quantity, quality, and availability of water resources 

and for making the data available to the public promptly in such form as to be 

most useful in assisting and promoting sound, economical water developments, 

both by the Government itsel.f and by other public and private agencies. The 

responsibility and justification tor this activity are similar in principle 

to those for providing a sound national currency 1 unitorm laws regulating 

interstate commerce, and an adequate national defense. In this phase of its 

participation in the water-resources picture, the interest of the Federal 

Govemm.ent is, first, in providing general information useful in the development of .v-1ater by anyone 1 no matter what the purpose; and, second, in providjng 

basic information essential for Federal projects involving water. 

The basic data are in two principal classes: (1) Data on precipitation 

and potential evaporation and on the general occurrence and movement of water 

in the atmosphere; and ( 2) data on the occurrence of water on and under the 

ground surface. 

The first phase is chiefiy the responsibility of the Weather Bureau. Other 

117 
agencies, however, make intensive studies of precipitation, evaporation, and 

other meteorological-factors as part of intensive hydrologic studies or in 

connection with specific water-development. projects, and the resulting data 

are published in part by the Weather Bureau. 

The second phase is chiefly the responsibility of the Geological Survey. 

A number of other Federal agencies make similar. or related studies as a part 

of development projects or as a part of research on such subjects as stream 

pollution and utilization of water by crops and other vegetation. These 

studies are made in part with the collaboration ot the Geological Survey and 

in part independently. The principal other Federal agencies are the Bureau 

of Reclamation, the Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service and Soil Conservation 

Service ot the Agriculture Department, and the Public Health Service. 

llost states participate in the basic-data program on surface and ground 

water. Their participation is largely in financial. coeperation with the 

Geological Survey, on a SQ-50 basis., where the information produced is of the 

generally useful type that justifies Federal participation. .All the States 

cOoperate I m stream gaging and most cooperate in ground-water studies. 

Certain States-~ine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Illinois, Kissouri, 

South DakoU., and Montana.-do not cooperate in State-wide ground-water studies 

at present. Considerable work by the Geological Survey is being done in 

South Dakota and Montana under the Missouri Basin program, and a very small 

amount of work is being done in the others Wlder the program of Federal 

observ~.tion wells. The studies by the States range in scale from rather 

large, as in lllinois, to very small, as in the upper New Fllgland states 

Vlhere ground \'later is not developed heavily so tar. In many of the other 

118 
states the cooperative programs are on a small scale. 

Uany county and municipal governments and water or fiood-control districts 

make water studies, mostly ctlrected toward specific objectives. Where Federal 

participation is warranted in the public interest, mB.ny of these studies are 

made by the Geological Survey as cooperative project'S. 

Finally', water studies are made by private companies and consultants. To 

a large extent the~e studies utilize basic data gathered by the Weather Bureau, 

the Geological Survey, and the State agencies as part of their over-all 

programs, and additional basic data are gathered only where those available are 

inadequate. The studies by private agencies are directed toward developing 

water supplies to meet specific neecis, and they go beyond the Federal basic-data 

studies in thnt they involve computation of' costs, selection of specific sources, 

and design of water systems. 

Accomplisrunents and Deficiencies 

Tfie Weather Bureau obtains precipitation data at about 9,000 stations 

and evaporation data at about 220 stations equipped with standardized instru-

-ments. Q-..,:ing to participation by thousands of unpaid observers, the data are 

more comprehensive than wou.ld other.rrise be possible, but they are far from 

adequate. Many more precipitation and especially evaporation stations are 

needed. Funds are needed for basic research on existing and needed data on 

the movements of v..ra.ter in the air 1 in order to permit more reliable prediction 

ot occurrence and amount of precipitation in all parts of the country, on 

development and movement of storms, and on evaporation requirements. One of 

the most important needs is research to permit calculating evaporation on the 

basis of the lmown physical properties of' water and air, rather than by means 

of empirical formulas based only on observed data. 

119 
fhe Geological Survey has been gaging streams since 1888 and now measures 

stream flow at about 61 000 stations in the United States. The data are published in 15 annual volumes covering major drainage basins and groups of 

basins. Some ot the recorcts are now more than 40 years long and so are of 

considerable and increasing reliability for predicting flO'H 1 but most of the 

records are stlll too short. ·Some fairly large streams are still ungaged1 and 

many more stations are needed on small tribut#ary streams in headwater areas 1 

particularl.1' those contributing large quantities of water. As important as 

the need tor more data on floW is the need for research in surface-water 

hJd,rolo§ 1 a field that has had to be neglected because ot the demand· for more 

and ever more data on flow. Such research, which :would involve largel.1' the 

correlation ot stream flow with ground water,precipitation1 evaporation, 

water uses, and the geologic characteristics of the drainage basins, would 

permit more reliable predictions of stream flow from short records, permit 

the extension of records from sta tiona of long records to those with short 

records 1 and even permit reasonable prediction of flow from small ungaged 

basins. In short, the needed research \'fould increase the value of existing 

records, and those to be collected m the future, .ma.ny times beyond_ its cost. 

The status of ground-water hYdrology is paradoxical. As a science it 

is considerably advanced; yet, so far as national coverage is concerned, it ia 

cnly :ln an early stage. The studies so far 1 and to a large extent those ot 

surface water, too, have been largely on a "disaster-relief" basi-they have 

been made in response to compelling needs for information in regard to . specific 

water ne~ and water shortages. Thua, detailed studies have been made in 

areas of existing or proposed heavy withdrawal, and the need for making 

reliable estimates, yet with a m:inimum expenditure of tim8 and money, ot 

:i.2o 
quantities of water available has stimulated research to the extent that 

methods have been developed for making quantitative ~stimates under wide~ 

different hydrologic conditions. At the same time, the basic studies to 

determine grotmd-water conditions throughout the Nation have lagged. The 

reason is that provision has never been made for a coordinated national 

study of either ground water or surface water, to say nothing of water as 

a whole. The bulk of the money available has been st;ate funds and the matching Federal funds and the studies have had to be directed toward specific 

needs. Unobligated Federal funds, though increasing, are still inadequate 

for the balanced approach to the over-all occurrence and availability of 

water that is the indispensable prerequisite for a sound national water polic7. 

Nearly 2, 000 reports and papers on grotmd water have been published bJ 

the ~ol.ogical Survey and cooperating agencies. Those published through 

January 1946 are listed in Water-Supply' Paper 992,_/ and several hundred 

J W..Z.ing, G. A., and Ke:inzer, 0. E., Bibliography and index of publlcations relating to .ground water prepared by the Geological. Survey and 

cooperating agencies: U. s. Geol. Surve7 IVater-Supply' Paper 992, 1947. 

have been published since. Also, several hundred unpublished reports are in 

the files of the Geological SUrYey. The reports represent_ a large amount of 

scientific investigation, but the coverage is far from complete. Perhaps a 

quarter of the country is covered by basic reports, some a good deal. more 

complete .than others, describing the general geology and occurrence and quality 

of ground water. For. the rest of the country only reconnaissance studies have 

been made. or DOne· a't alls 1n the latter areas the OD17 way ot predloting the 

oocurrence of ground wa:ber 18 from the geolog. ao tar a.a lalolll1 trom geologio 

studies made fer other purposes, and the climate. Probably less than S percent 

121 
of the COWltry is covered by detailed studies that permit reasonably reliable 

statements as to actual quantities of water available and the basic conditions 

governing their development for useful purposes. Figure 18 shows in a general 

way the areas for which substantial information is available--areas for which. 

existing data represent a large fraction of those needed for proper planning 

of future developments so far as they can be predicted. 

In addition to--or rather as a f,undamental part of--the studies needed. 

to provide adequate information on our ground-water resources is research on 

the following important subjects, aau:a.a others:_/ 

J Meinzer, 0. E., u. S. Geol. Survey, Report on ground water b7. the· 

Restarch Committee of the Socie'tf'of Economic Geologists: Econ. Geology, 

vol. 421 no. 7, pp. 672-675, November 1947• 

1. Hydraulics of ground water. The fundamentals of ground-water flow 

und_. ideal conditions are fairly well known, but there is a possibility that 

additional research would make fundamental changes in existing concepts. Also, 

because aquifers in nature do not meet the ideal conditions assumed in the 

basic equations, much additional laboratory and field research is needed to 

permit determining ground.-water flow in noJ?.uniform aquifers 1 such as those 

bounded by impermeable rocks or sources of recharge like rivers, those which 

change rapi~ in thickness and permeability 1 those artesian aquifers having 

leaky c~in.ing bed.s1 and those aquifers bounded by faults which may either 

impede or facilitate the flow ot water. 

2. Physics of soil moisture in relation to. ground-water recharge, 

discharge, snd storage. Intensive studies have been made by soU physicists 

ot infiltration into the soil, but these studies are not complete and the 

related subject ot unsaturated flow above the water table is. li'\ftle lalown. 

122 
DI:PM........,.OPftiZ..-rsfUOil 

a&OLOOJCAL.Wft,.... 

'b ,r; .... 

.\. f \...__.._ ... 

I) I 

... I 

C) 

(':. 

':11!. 

~ 

'& 

.- I .'~ 

I \ 

\. r---

' ., 

~ 

,., 

G U L I' 0 I' ••zzcO 

,.., 

~ 

" 

~ 

,. 

~ 

(, 

~ 

(J 

(;OIII .. ILfD BY 

U. S. IEOLOIIC:AL SUIIV£Y 

IIAII(;H Ul50 

t 

0 50 100 150 200 1!10 300 IIIL£S 

FIGURE 18. AREAS OF SUBSTANTIAL GROUND-WATER INFORMATION 
(,/) 

LLJ 

:I: 

(.) 

z 

HOCKING RIVER AT ATHENS. OHIO 

(1921-45) 

s~~~~~~~~--~~~~~ 

4r---------~~+---~------+-~ 

3[? li I 

21 ~75757/7J TI""\T A I I 

0 

(,/) 

LLJ 

:I: 

(.) 

z 

-

MAD RIVER NEAR SPRINGFIELD, OHIO 

(1921-45) 

5r-~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 

4r-~--------------~+-----~ 

PRECIPITATION 

3 

2 I 

TOTAL 

RUNOFF 

0 

0 N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 

MONTHS FIGURE 19 MONTHS 

AVERAGE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION AND RUNOFF FOR TWO OHIO STREAMS SHOWING EQUALIZING 

EFFECT OF STORAGE IN TH~ GROUND-WATER RESERVOIR ,.., 
AVERAGES {GROUND WATER 4.09 INCHES 

(DIRECT RUNOFF 9.98 INCHES 

TOTAL 14.07 INCHES 

50~--~----~----~----~----~ 

401 I I I I I I I I I -I ,......., I I 

(/) 30 

w 

:J: 

(.) 

z 20r--+-~-H~~-----+~~-+----~ 

IOr//////A n···;·::·:·?·•:;•, ,~ I///I.I/!'~¥~"X'.~ ,4=J"'i 1/J 1111 

0 

1921 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 

YEARS 

HOCKING RIVER AT ATHENS, OHIO 

AVERAGES/GROUND WATER 8.341NCHES 

(DIRECT RUNOFF 4.99 INCHES 

TOTAL 13.33 INCHES 

50~--~----~----~----~--~ 

401 I I I I I I I I I I I I L I I 

(/) 30 

w 

:J: 

(.) 

z 

FIGURE 20 

TOTAL 

20 ~ I ~ I I Fjq I I 

10 

0 

1921 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 

YEARS 

MAD RIVER NEAR SPRINGFIELD, OHIO 

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AND RUNOFF FOR TWO OHIO STREAMS SHOWING ·EFFECT 

OF STORAGE IN THE GROUND-WATER RESERVOIR 
3 • Artificial recharge. Research is needed to develop practical methods 

for artif'icial recharge, in relation to different geologic conditions, qualit7 

ot water., and variable rate of supply. 

4. Correlation of records of water-level nuctuations in wells. The 

water levels in wells show the stage of the underground reservoirs. Their 

nuctuations reflect all the natural and artificial factors that affect the 

passage of water into 1 through, and out of the reservoirs 1 in addition to 

such forces as changes in a+~spheric pressure; tides in the earth's crust# 

changes in load on the earth's crust as a result of tides in coastal areas, 

changes :in water level in lakes, streams, and reservoirs, and even the 

passage of railroad trains; and earthquakeo. llethods must be developed for 

separating and identifying fluctuations caused by the different agencies, in 

order to permit interpreting the fluctuations in terms of quantities of 

water available. 

5· Geophysical exploration. Geophysical techniques, some alreadl' used 

widely in searching for oil., are finding increased usefulness in locating and 

identifying Aquifers as a low-cost supplement to test drilling; in determining the precise depth to water-bearing and non-water-bearing beds in drill 

holes and the approximate quality of the water; in exploring wells to locate 

leaks and determine movement of water between separate aquifers in which the 

water i~ under different heads; and in many other ways. lluch additional research on :instruments and methods is needed. 

6. Texture and structure of rocks in relation to ground water. 1'he 

occ~ence in and movement of -i;ater through rock formations in relation to 

the texture of the rocks and the attitude of water-bearing and non-..vater-bearing 

123 
rocks is incompletely understood. A good example is lim.estone, perhaps the 

most variable water-bearing rock. 

7• Geochemistry of ground watE:;r. Research is needed to determine the 

sources of ch~~cal constituents in ground water and the way in which they 

are dissolved. This field has great promise in identifying sources of ·water 

and routes of movement, and in studying the occurrence of minerals in the 

deposition of which ground water may have bad a part-for example., uraniumbearing minerals of the Colorado Plateau and the iron minerals of the Great 

Lakes region. Such research may lead to more success:tul and economical 

prospecting for and estimation of reserves of such minerals. 

8. Salt-water balance. Considerable work has been done in coastal 

areas 1 but much remains to be learned concerning the physical principl.es 

governing the occurrence and movement of salty ground water. The importance 

of such research to the JD.any" coastal areas depending on ground water is 

obvious. 

9. Bacterial and industrial pollution of ground water and the purifying 

• 

capacity of rocks. This broad field, of great and increas:L'lg importance, is 

still poorlf understood. Coordinated research by hydrologists., bacteriologists, 

and sanitary engineers is much needed. 

10. Interrelationship of ground water and stream flow.. studies in this 

vast field, one of the most important in hydrology and one \dth which we will 

be concerned more and more as the use of water increases, are in a ve~y early 
The Geological Survey has been making studies of \'later quality and sedlment 

loads of streams for nearly half a century. In coordination with stream-flow 

studies, the suitability of water supplies for municipal, industrial, or 

agricultural uses is determined by systematic sampling programs at nearly 

200 points in major drainage basins throughout the United states. Observations 

of temperature of surface waters are also being made at hundreds of locations 

over the country. Measurement of fluvial sediment transported by streams is 

undertaken at more than 100 regular stations in several major drainage basins, 

notabl3' in the western part of the United states. The data are published in 

annual volumes 1 bringing under one cover all such information avaUable for 

the United States during &rQ particular year. Not'lodthstanding the scope of 

past and present studies, there are vast ar~s in the United States where 

little or no information is available concerning the chemical quality and 

suspended loads of the surtace-?J$ter supplies. Present comprehensive studies 

are being made ot surface ~tera 1n OJllJ a few areas 1 largeJ.3 in cooperation 

with State agencies as local needs arise. Though water quality has been 

considered in previous ground-water :investigations., there are wide areas ot 

the countrr for which litt,le or no :information is available concerning the 

chemical composition ot ground-water supplies. In addition to deficiencies 

in the scope of such basic programs, research in certain .tundamental problema 

in s~nt transportation and factors governing the chemical composition ot 

natural waters would be fruitful. SUch research would be pointed to the 

fundamental factors governing the quantities of material in solution and in 

suspension in natural waters, including the variations in suspended and 

dissolved material as related to precipitation, topographic and geologic 

features, vegetation, and h\U1811 activities •. 

Time bas not been avail.able !or a review ot the accomplishments of other 

125 

' 
agencies -.Icing baaie-data studies on water, such as the Soil Conservation 

Service, the Forest Service and other agencies of the Agriculture Detartment, 

the lt.rmy Engineers, the Bu.reau ot Reclamation, th~ Public Health Service, 

State agencies, universities. and private companies and consultants. All of 

them have made substantial contributions to hydrology, and all of them have 

much work yet to do. A general review of deficiencies in ~rologic intor.ma-

_/ 

tion is found in two reports of the National Resources Planning Board. Jlany 

I Deficiencies in basic hydrologic data: Bat. Resources Coani ttee, 

Septeitber 1936; Deficiencies in ~rologic research& Special Advisory CODDi ttee on IG'drologic Data, Bat. Rea01rcea Planning Board, 1940. 

ot the agencies will be preparing reports tor the Water Resources Policy Com-

.. mission tbat will renew their past.work and the needs tor future studies. 

Though a more coaprehenaive picture of the needs tor basic data and 

research on water would be desirable, the preceding is sufficient to show that 

we are still a have-not Bation in basic information on water. The most oriticaf needs tor basic data. might be 8WIInari&ed as tollowsa 

1. A comprehensive inventory of all water uses--in terms ot gross volume 

at source and of net volumes dissipated and rendered un£1 t tor reuse, by areas 

which are both economic and hydrologic units. Once established, this inventory 

should be maintained on a current basis. Only the crudest of o~er-all estimates 

are now available. 

2. A comprehensive appraisal of the liation'a water-yielding capacity, by 

natural hydrologic units. Here, "capacity" bas the sense ot all water a'ftilable in each unit area, whether in the streams or in the ground. We have onl7 

incomplete, basic records, largely not analyzed. 

3. A contimal detemination of water quality--in terms of chemioal 

constituents, temperature, and sedi.Jaent--tor both nainral waters and domestic, 

126 
industrial, and irrigation effluents. We have only fragmentary information, 

by no means up to date. 

4. A balance-sheet accounting ot all available waters against current 

and prospective uses--with appropriate encumbrances tor the dilution or wastes, 

conservation of fish and wild life, navigation. an_d other obligations. Suoh 

an accounting should be insti 'blted just aa soon as a nucleus ot basic facta 

can be assembled, as it is essential to economic securit.y. 

5. In general, a store of water data adequate to assure economical 

design and ultimate fUll-scale operation of water projects now contemplated 

or apt to be xweded in the not-too-distant f\lture. For no State or •jor 

drainage basin do currentl7 available water facts satisfy this standard. 

Against the needs or a decade hence. adequate strengthening ot basic networks 

ot wat.er-uasuring stations should be undertaken promptl7. 

127 
Specific Water Projects 

The largest naction programs 11 in the water field in 'Which the Federal 

Government participates are the comprehensive flood-control and navigation 

projects of the Ar.m;,y Engineers throughout the country and the reclamation 

projects of the Bureau of Becl.amation in the 1? Western States. Cl.ose:cy- related are the soil- and moisture-conservation and. farmstead water-supply 

projects of the Soil Conservation Service on private lands and of the Interior Department on public lands, and the forest-management work of the Forest 

Service. 

Increasing Federal participation in water projects is inevitable, especially where interstate and international drainage basins are concerned, or 

where the economy of an important segment of the population is affected even 

though the basin is entirely within a State--for example, the CentraJ. Valley'· 

of California. In order that the projects may be carried out in accordance 

with the Constitution and the rights of the States and of private enterprise, 

there must be close cooperation and coordination of effort among Federal, 

State, county, municipal, and private agencies. Nothing could be more damaging to the effort to make our water supplies secure than a feeling on the part 

of Federal agencies that onlY Federal interests need be considered or on the 

part of State and local interests that the Federal Government bas no place in 

the solution of water problems that affect the public welfare. 

The Federal Government has a direct interest in providing water supplies 

for Federal institutions and public lands. Among these supplies are those for 

military installations both here and abroad, veterans 1 hospitals, Coast Guard 

installations, lt,ederal prisons, national parks and monuments, stock and domes128 
tic uses on public and Indian lands, public systems developed with the assistance 

of the General Services Administration, Federal housing projects, and others. 

These water supplies are developed by the responsible agencies or by contract 

with private construction firms. The Geological Survey is general.:cy" asked to 

furnish the data upon which to base the design; in its work on water problems 

of Federal installations and public lands the Geological Survey often furnishes 

consulting service also. A substantial part, of the Survey's water-resources 

investigations are financed by direct appropriation for Federal needs or by 

rep~nt by the agency concerned. 

The water problems of the public lands, in the solution of which the Survey- acts both as source of basic data and consultan:t, are discussed below in a 

litt.Le more detail, as one phase of Federal water activity in which the Survey 

plays more than its usual part. 

The water probl.ems of the public lands center largely on (l.) their utilization for grazing, (2) safeguarding the water supplies of the streams that 

originate on the public lands or flow through them, and (3) mai.ntainj ng the 

productivity of the pUblic lands. 

The efficient utilization of the public lands for grazing requires, as 

an ideal, sources of stock water at a maximum spacing of 6 miles. Such a 

distribution has been attained in few areas so far. Vast areas of forage are 

ungrazed or lightly grazed because of remoteness from water; others close to 

water are overgrazed to the poilrt of destruction of the range. Geologic and 

hydrologic studies are needed to develop additional water supplies. 

Wells, where they can be developed, are the idea.L source because of their 

dependability. Impounding surface water in reservoirs prov.i.des dependable water 

in Dlail¥ places, but the water is dependeut. on rainfall, and the reservoirs are 

129 
subject to evaporation, seepage, and sedimentation. As a result, many stockto~ater reservoirs are failures. However, suoh rese!"'roirs are the only feasible means or developing water in many parts or the range. Studies are needed 

to determine places where surface-water supplies can be developed, and the 

basis or proper design to asSUl•e dependable water. The question as to the 

a~gregate effects or the large numbers of stock-water reservoirs upon downstream water users has been raised in many quarters. Very little is known 

about the matter, despite the importance of the problem in the Western 

mountain region. 

Soil erosion on the wblic lands, particularly gullying, is a serious 

problem. The gullies, most or them now 60 to 70 years old and some ot thaa 

as deep as 40 to 50 teet and tens or mlles in length, are subdraining JD8ll1' 

valleys ot their ground water and lowering the streams so that they are no 

longer useful tor irrigating pasture or farm lands. The causes of this largescale erosion are as yet obscure, and coordinated studies by soil scientists, 

hydrologists 1 geologists, and ecologists are needed to work out the basic causes, 

so that practical methods can be evolved for arresting or retarding the f\lrtbar 

development or the existing gullies and to prevent nev ones from forming. 

LeiM Interests 

The Federal Government has the responsibility of making agreements providing for the division of the waters of international drainage basins, and 

for seeing that the conditions ot the agreements are met by this countr.r. 

Among the international agreements made thus tar are those made under the 

jurisdiction or the International Joint Commission, set up in accordance with 

the treaty ot 1909 betveen the United States and Canada. v/ater questions 

130 
involving the United States and Mexico are under the jurisdiction of the International Boundary and Water Commission. 

The Federal Government also has a substantial interest in the formul.ation 

of interstate compacts covering agreements on water questions. Among the tn»-

ical iut;erstate CCIIlpacts are those for the Colorado, Delaware, Republican, 

Arkansas, and Pecos Rivers and the Rio Grande. llany' more are in existence, and 

a still larger number will have to be made in the future as water development 

increases and the lmotty problEIIIB of interstate division of water are worked 

out. Interstate ·ground-water problems have not yet come to the fore in most 

parts of the country, but they are bound to be increasil'lgl.y important, and 

future agreemeut;s will have to take all water, surface and ground, into account. 

The Federal Government also has the probl• of protecting, by legal means, 

the water sup~ of Federal installations 1 and of determining the extent to 

which the Government is bound by State water J.aw. Such problems have not been 

serious so far but more are bound to develop as water use increases • 

.A. large part of this report has dealt with the necessity of coordinated 

development of the water resources of the Nation and with the great possibilities offered by manipulation of the underground reservoirs and the associated 

surface streams to provide adequate 'W&ter supplies when and where needed and 

to prevent or min1m1ze floods and pollution. Such manipulation means legal 

control. Intelligent development cannot be made except within a framework of 

law that will permit achieving the desired objective and preventing activities 

that wouJ.d defeat the purpose of the devel.opnent. The subject of water law, 

which will be covered in a separate report, represents one of the most complicated phases of the water-resources picture and one of the most d:l.fficul.t to 

1.31 
treat, yet legal problema must be worked out if our water developnenta are to 

be successful and our water supplies secure. 

The Geological SUrvey, as a basic-data agency, has no part in the entoreement of water law. It has, however, an illlportant part to play in helping to 

evaluate, from a hwdrologic standpoint, the soundness and enforceabilit.y ot 

existing or proposed legislation. Much of the existing water law is unsound 

hydrologically and can be enforced not at all or only at the expense of efficient development and maximm utilization ot water. It is essential, therefore, 

that a body of workable water law be built up and put to use. The degree of 

regulation should be the minimum necessary tor effective control. Voluntaey 

cooperation by water users is essential and should be depended on so far aa 

possible J w1. thout such cooperation, achieved. through an adequate educa tioDal 

effort, any law, even the most stringent, is likely to be partially or wholly 

unsuccessful. 

It is the opinion of the Geological SUrvey that, constitutioDal objections 

aside, a uniform Federal law tor control ot water would be impractical because 

ot the wide variation in occurrence and utilization or water and in existing 

state laws. It is believed that legal problema involved in the control of 

water oan be enacted m.ost effectively at the State level, and interstate problema can be handled by ooapaota. What should be uniform throughout the country 

is the soundness or the state laws trom a hfdrologic standpointa It they are 

sound eydrologically then those or adjacent States will be ccapatible. or. if 

not based on the same principle of law. at least Will not interfere with formulation of interstate compacta where they are neoeasaey. 

Our Hational water Policz 

Should there or can there be such a thing as a lfational water policy? 

The tremendous variety ot water conditions in the Nation, the extr_. eaae 

with which large supplies or good water can be obtained 1n som.e ar•s and the 

132 
difficulty and expense of getting e"Ven small supplies or poor water in others, 

the shortages of water in some areas and the undisturbed natural oondi tiona 

in others, all point to the difficulty or establishing a unifor.m over-all 

policy. Yet on all sides we can see a trend toward increasing use of water 

and increasing coat of getting it, and so we can come to the conclusion that 

if a National water policy will help to :make our •ter supplies secure tor the 

future we should establish one. With respect to such a policy, the Geological 

Survey suggests consideration ot five principles within the scope ot ita direct 

concern, as tollowsa 

1. The Federal Governaent will gather, analyze, and disseminate comprehensive and balanced water facts· ade~ate to O'Vercame the deficiencies outlined 

previously; also, commensurate with its responsibility for the economic and 

physical security ot the Nation, and with its "action" programs tor development 

and manag•ent or water and soil resources. 

2. Recognizing a mtuality or interest in water problems, the Federal 

Government will colla borate with states and their agencies in acqa:tring and 

disseminating supplemental water facts essential to state functions. Currently 

the Federal Government bears not to exceed half the total cost of such investigations. 

3. To assure the integrity and impartiality of suoh service and to assure 

public confidence, the deter-mination of these basic water taots shall, to the 

maxt.wa extent practicable, be a responsibility or an agency or agencies administratively distinct from those charged with Federal waction" programa. 

4. The current water situation shall be reported to the public as prcaptly 

as teaaible, in understandable terms. The American public, heretofore inadequately informed about water and somewhat complacent as to its availability, is 

becoming aroused to the gravity of water problems and will welcome assistance 

133 
toward prudent. long-range water .management. It can so act only with an 

understanding ot the impact that each new development may have on the opt~ 

wate~ oapacity ot each basin involved. 

5. The Federal Government will encourage enactment ot State laws and 

interstate coapaots that foster water management tor optimum yield. especially 

with respect to ground water. Present water law involves some principles incoapatible with ground-water hydrology-. and with fundamentals of baain...,ide 

optiJDum.-yield ma.na~ement. In various localities the growing demand soon may 

force water users to achieve equitable allocations through mutual and bydrologioally sound action within a framework or hydrologically sound statutes. 

134 
SELECTED ~~.DING LIST 

Follo-.dng are a number of general references in the field of 

hydrology. Specific reference has been .made to many of them in the body 

of the report. To these coul.d be added many othersj including the 

numerous short 1 general papers prepared in the last few years. 

General hydrology 

Foster, E. E., Bainfall and runoff, Hew York, Macmillan Co., 1948. 

Hoyt, lY. G., and others, Studies of relations of rainfall and runoff 

in the United states: U. s. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 772, 

1936. 

Johnstone, Don, and Cross, Yl. P., El•ents of applied hydroloQ, 

Hew York, Bonald Pres& Co., 1949. 

Linsley, B.. K •. , Jr., Kohler, Jl. A., and Paulhus, J. L. H., Applied 

hydroloQ, lew York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1949• 

Kead, D. w., Hydrologya !he. fundamental basis of b7draulic engineering, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. 1 1919. 

Keinzer, 0. B., and others, HydroloQI Nat• Research Council, Physic& 

ot the Earth Ser., vol. 91 lew York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 

1942. 

Keyer, A. F., The elements of hydrolog, 2d ed. (rev.), lew York, 

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1928. 

Wisler, c. o., and Brater, B. F., Hydrology, Hew York, John Wiley and 

Sons, Inc. 1 1949 • 

Hydrology handbook, prepared by CoJJIIli.ttee on Hydrology of the lf7draulics 

Division, Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Kanuals of Eng. Practice No. 28, 

1949· 

Ground water 

Bennison, E. w., Editor, Johnson National DrUlers Journal, Ground water, 

its development, uses and conservation, st. Paul, Ecbmrd B. Johnson, 

Inc. (printed by H. H. Smyth Printing Co.), 1947 • 

135 
Gatewood, J • S., and others 1 Use of water by bottom-land vegetation 

in lower Safford Vs.lley, Arizona: u. s. Geol. Survey WaterSUpply Paper 1103, 1950. 

Meinzer, 0. E., Ground water in the United States, vd,th a discilssion 

ot principles: U. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 489, 192.3. 

--~---' Outline of ground-water hydrology, vrith definitions: 

U. s. Ueol. Survey Water-SupplJr Paper 494, 1923. 

--~~--' Large springs in the United states: U. s. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 5571 1927. 

--~--~' Plants as indicators of ground water: U. s. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 5771 1927. 

--~...-..--~ Outline of methods for estimating groWld-water supplies: 

U. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supp~ Paper 638-01 19:32. 

--~---' and stearns, N. D., A study of ground water in the 

Pomeraug Basin, Conn. 1 with special reference to inte.ke and 

discharge: U. S. Ueol. SUrvey Water-Supply Paper 597-B, 1929. 

Witchelson, · A. T. 1 and 14uckel1 D. c., Spreading water for storage underground; U. s. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 578, 1937. 

stearns, H. D., stearns, H. T., and Waring, G. A., Thermal springs in 

the United States: U. s. Geol. SUrvey Water-Supply Paper 

679-B, 19.35 •. 

Theis, c. V., The source of water derived from wells: Civil :Eng., 

vol. 101 no. 51 pp. 277-280, Jlay 1940. 

Tolman, c. F., Ground 112ter, New York, KcGra•·l-Hill Book Co. 1 Inc., 

1937· 

Waring, f.:i. A., and Meinzer, 0. E., Bibliography and index of publications 

relating to ground water prepared by the Geological Survey and 

cooperating agencies: u. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 992, 

1947· 

Wenzel, L. K., Jlethods for determining permeability ot water-bearing 

materials, with special reference to discharging-well methods; 

with a section on direct laboratory methods and bibliography on 

perm.eabUity and laminar tlo1JI1 by V. c. Fishel: U. s. Geol. 

~ey Water-Supply Paper Set'/, 1942· 

136 
Surface water 

Corbett, D. K., and others, stream-gaging procedure, a manual describing 

methods and practices of the Geological SurV"ey: U. s. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 888, 1943 lreprinted 1945 with corrections). 

Grover, N. c., and Harrington, A. w., stream flow, Nev1 York, John Wiley 

· and .SOns, Inc., 1943. 

Harbeck, G. E., Jr., Reservoirs in the United States: U. s. Geol. SUrvey 

Circ. 23 1 Ke.rch 1948. 

and Langbein, rl. B., Normals and variations in runoff, 

1921-45: U. s. Geol. Survey, Water Resources Rev. Supplement 

No. 2 1 1949. 

Jones, B. E., Potential water power in the United states, 1949. U. s. Geol. 

Survey mimeographed report (issued annually). 

Langbein, W. B., and others, Annual runoff in the United statesl 

U. s. Geol. SUrvey Circ. 521 June 1949. 

U. s. Geol. Survey Circ. 44, Large rivers in the United States, lfay 1949. 

Quality ot water 1 pollution, and sedimentation 

Collins, W. D., Temperature of water availabl.e for industrial use in the 

United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 52o-F, 1925. 

Lamar, W. L., and Lohr, E. ~1., The mdustrial utility ---of~p-ub~li~.~c water supplies in the United States: U. s. Geol. Survey 

Water-Sup!Jly Paper 658, 1934· 

Eakin, H. 111. 1 Silting of reservoirs: U. s. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 524, 

July 1936; revised by c. B. Brown, August 1939. 

Happ, s. c., Rittenhouse, Gordon, and Dobson, G. c., Some principles 

ot accelerated stream and valley. sedimentation& U. s. Dept. Agr. 

'l'ech. Bull. 695, llay 1940. 

Proceedings of the Federa1 Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conference, Denver, 

Colorado, May 6-8, 1947. Duplicated by Bureau of Reclamation. 

Ohio River pollution control& 78th Cong., 1st sess., H. Doc. 266, 1944• 

Part 1, Report of the Ohio River Committee; Part 2, Report of the 

U. s. Public Health Service, \dtP supplements. 

'l'h• wat·er problem: Chem. Eng. Kag., PP• ll9-126, July 1949. 

17/ 
Legal control of water use 

Hutchins, Viells1 Selected problems in the law of 1·rater rights in the 

viest: U. s. Dept. Agr.lfiac. Pub. 418, 1942. 

Thompson, D. G•~ and Fiedler, A. G. 1 Some problems relating to legal 

control of use of ground water: Am. Vlater v~/orks Assoc. Jour., 

vol. 30, no. 71 pp. 1049-1091, July 1938. 

State water la-a in the development of the West: Nat. Resources Planning 

Board, Water Resources Comm., Subcomm. on State Water Law, 

JWle 1943. ._. 

Desirable principles of State water legislation: Nat. Reclamation Assoc., 

1947. 

Water lawa in the United States of Americat .1 selected reference list 

ot publications with some reproductions, basic excerpts, and 

lists of contents ot special interestt FOod and Agricultural 

Organization of the United Nations, 1948. 
APPmDII 

StJIO(ARY OF CURRPl{T WA'lZR SI'l'UATIOR 

BY STATES 

The accompanying table was prepared to accompany the report to the 

President's Water Resources Policy Commission entitled, Wiater facts in 

relation to a national water-resources policy.n Although the table does 

not give a complete picture for any State, it presents some of the general 

water conditions, problems, deficiencies in basic data, a"l.d steps that 

have been taken or could be taken to solve the problems or provide additional water supplies. 

The table was prepared mainly from the data that could :be assembled 

in the field offices of the Geological Survey in the brief time available. 

Because the investigative programs vary widely from State to State in 

scope, completeness, and objectives, and because time was not available 

for thorough coordination of the data, the presentation is spotty, in 

places the data are inadequate, and the emphasis is most uneven. The 

table does, however, give some idea of the tremendous number and variety 

ot water problems in the Nation, and its very inadequacy serves to emphasize the lack of uniformity and coordination that exists in both water 

investigations and water projects. 

The table presents information on all phases of water problems and 

possible solutions as the Geological Survey understands them on the basis 

ot the available data. It is not intended to illlpJ.7 that the Geological 

Survey is concemed direotl7 with problems outside the basic-data field 

1 
and the solution of water problems on the public lands-that is, that 

the Survey is concArned with problems involving the economic eraluation 

or selection of water sources, design of systems, or enforcement of water 

law. Thus, when specific mentim is made of the apparent availability 

or unavailability of an economical source of water to meet an existing· 

deficiency, or of the need for data an feasible methods of pollution 

control, or of the need tor regulation of ground-water use to avoid overdevelopment, it is intended only to point out the existence of a problem 

as lmown to the Geological Survey, whether or not the Survey is directly' 

. ccmoemed with ita solution. The position. of the Geological ~prvey is 

set forth in the following statement adapted from "thited States -Geological 

Surve,y: Water-resources responsibility and participation," prepar~~·f'or 

the President's Water Resources Policy Commission as a part of "Agency -

Reports-Legal," item I: 

The responsibility of the United States Geo:logical Survey in the 

field of water resources relates essentially to its recognized position 

as the primaryr agency or thf' Federal Government for the collection of the 

relevant basic data. Although the information it collects contributes 

importantly to the development 1 utilization, and conservation of' the water 

resources, it is not directly responsible for such activities, except 1n 

connection with some aspects or the administration or public lands. It 

performs research and functions in advisory phases or land-use practices 

.for the land-management agencies or the Interior Department c<ncemed 

with the above-mentioned responsibilities. Its- participation in all these 

activities is, however, indispensable to the assurance o! •oundl7 based 

programs of water-resources development, utilization, ~d conaervation. 

2 
The Geolopcal Survey's primary function in regard to our wa.ter 

resources is to perf'orlll surveys • investigations, a.nd research covering 

the •ter resources ot the. United States and its territories and possession~, 

and to publish and disseminate data relative to these activities. It engages 

in the inveati~tion and evaluation of the Nation's water resources tor all 

uaea. both govermnenta1 and nonsovenunental, insofar as they relate to the 

public interest. It ia a research and service agency whose findings provide 

the basis tor innumerable projects. large_ and s-.11. Its activities provide 

a guide to the formulAtinn of wa.ter-dewlopment plans. Furthermore. its 

tindi~~- are impartial, ~nd it h~s no authority to enforce the acceptance 

ot ita ooho1uaions. 

3 
.IPPEIID!r 

SUMMARY OF CURREN'l' WATER SITO'.ATIOB BY SrATPS 

~ 

About 50 m.g.d. of grOUnd water and 100 a.g.d. ot surface water used tar public supply'. Moderate to large supplies ot ground water available in 

Coastal Plain and in parte ot area of Paleozoic rocks in northern part of State. Smaller supplies available in Piedmont, where larger municipal and 

industrial uses are from streams. Few water problems except in limited areas. Ample liater available it properly investigated and developed. SaDe 

small towns may have ditti'cul.ty ~ financing adequate developll8nts. Additional gaging stations needed, and studies of problems relating to flood 

flow • Studies of ground water needed to determine sate yield in developed areas • Studies needed also in Piedmont Plateau of east-central Alabama. 

Arf'a or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

sub1eot Current silua_'f;_iQil_ ____ _____ ~--- ___ intQ1"DDation further develoanent 

Mobile 

't\uacaloosaB1rminghamGadsden area 

Montsa.r.r 

Selma 

Encroachment of salt water into shallow 

aquifers 1 by infiltration from bracld.ah 

Mobile River. Public suppl1' as now developed inadequate tor present and 

tuture needs. 

No serious problem at present, Bil"minghaa 

will need expanded suppl.J', possi~ within 

S years. Base tlov ot streams in 

Birmingham-Tuscaloosa part of area inadequate J storage needed. Base tlov in 

Gadsden part of area adequate. · Gro\md 

water in Bi.rming~Tuscaloosa part inadequate for large developnent. Black 

Warriar River polluted tram BirmiDgbaa 

past Tuscaloosa. · 

Increased demand and lowering ot water 

levels 1n closely spaced wells in old 

well fieldha'Ve necessitated a nev wll 

t1el.4. 

Possible inadequao;y ot p!'Ment wll.s • 

Int.ormation on ground-water potential 

tor industrial use • 

G1'011Dd.-water potential tar amall=.ecale 

industrial and other use • 

Intensiw studies to determiDe aoUnt 

ot ·groa.nd water available trom wells 

located over an increasin&l1' larger 

area. 

lf1'draulio cbaraoterietios ot aquiters 

and proper sp&oirlg of wells. 

Mobile is building new surtaoe publicsupply reservoir to provide adequate water 

tar domestic and imustrial use. Additional 

grown water may be available from deeper 

aquifers within and north of cit)" tar industrial and suburban WJe. 

Ample supplies probably oan be obtained by 

ruUding storage reservoirs on small stre&III8. 

Additional Wa.ter appears to be available. 

from wells 1 but they should be located 011 

the basis of detaUed studies. that· haft 

not been made • Water available tr<a 

Alabama River it ever needed, either 

directly or by ri?er infiltration. 

.Additional water available .trom proparq 

located vella • Water available f'rca 

Alaballla River it ever needed. 

..... 
Altbne--CQntinued 

Area or Detioienoiea fn Corrective measures and 

aubioqt Currtpt PiWt;tm 1nformaf;ipn furthar deulo11!!8ut · 

Huntsvllle Large supply developect from BuntsvUJ.e area Spring. 

Twloumbia- Large ground-water developiiiiDta made • Sheffield area, 

Dothan area, 

Andal.UPia area 

Detailed stu~ needed to determine 

dependable y1el.4. 

Detailed studies needed to guard against 

overdevelopaant. 

Ul 
kJr.la 

Second largest ground-water user in Nation. Groum lister overdeveloped in principal basins ot southern Arizona because ot increasing withdrawal tor 

irrigation ot new lands and to supplement aurtaoe-water supplies made inadequate by drought in recent ,-ears. Intensive studies ot sate 7ields of prinoipal 

basins and ot potential 7!elds ot a number of undeveloped basins needed. lo •jor source ot water to reduce overdratt apparent, except Colorado River. · Total use about 5 million acre-teet in 1949, 1.8 surtaoe water and 3.2 growx1 water. Waste by nonbeneticial vegetation estimated crudely at 1.4 million 

acre-teet per ;rear, ot which about halt possibq could be salvaged. 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

subJect eurrept situat19Jl ipfoJWtipp f);Jrth&r deul9J!!!Ont 

San Simon Basin, 

Cochise COW1't7 

WUlcox Basin, 

Cochise Count;y 

Douglas Basin, 

Cochise COWJ.Q' 

Upper San Pedro 

Basin, Oocbise COUDtJ' . 

Cooonino CowltJ' 

Withdrawal ot ground water 5_,800 ao:reteet in 1946, larger now. AboUt 1/4 ot 

water trom flowing wells wasted or used 

inetticientq. Hew developnent starting 

in Rodeo area, in Hew Mexico part ot 

basin. Potential interstate water 

probl-. 

\Taste ot water by water-lovi.Dg plants 

(phreatopbytes). Withdrawal tram 

wlls about 281 000 acre-teet in 1949, 

aboo.t 751 000 acre-teet wasted b;y 

evapo-transpiration in and near WUlcax Pl.qa. 

At present rate ot development, sate yield 

ot basin mq eventually be exoeededJ withdrawal 301 000 acre-teet in 1949. ~in 

ia part of larger basin extend1Dg into 

MeldOOJ possible international interterence and legal oomplloatiom • 

Man1' ot old fiovi.Dg artesian valls are leaq and much vater is lost UDdergrouDd. 

This loas ·and that b7 phreatoph1tee alob& San Pedro River channel mq exceed 

81llOD.Dt ot vater used b7 crops • 

Surtaoe-water npplies not reliable in 

time of drough~. Larp BUpplies ot 

groaDi water probablJ' not avallable 

except with extra.. :puaping litts. 

Acourate determination ot peremial 

yield or basin. Information as to 

etteot on present development or 

new developnent in Rodeo area• Amount ot artesian water discharged 

undergrouDd at shallow depth 

because ot inadequate~ cased 

vella. 

Determination ot 81IIOUIIt of water 

salvageable from present waste • Sate 

yield or basin under present conditions 

and with salvage ot some ot natural 

waste. 

sate yield ot basin as a whole • 

Amounts ot water used and lost an4 

sate yield ot basin not knolm at 

preaent. 

AvailabUity ot grouDl water. 

Stopping underground leakage trom detective 

wells and increasing efficiency ot use mq bring withdrawal within sate limit, 

it not increased otherwise. 

Salvage or natural waste would ma.k8 present 

withdrawal sate and perhaps permit iDcreasiDg 

it substantiallY'. 

Developnent or ma:rl.mum safe yield by international agreement. 

Salvage ot losses-. 

Giound water mq be available tar vae ot 

towns 1 l::ut probabl7 not rcr irrigation. 

~ 
Ar' p,...CODtimJe4 

Area or Detioienciea in Corrective Jll8asurea and 

sub1ag$ gurr.pt ait.wrt;'gp Sptgrpe1;ipp tur1;htr dm1cztaJ$ 

Globe-Miami area, 

Gila COUD't7 

Sattord Bum, 

Graham Coun't7 

Cactue FlatArteeia area, 

Graham Count,' 

Duncan Bum, 

GreeDl.ee Coant7 

Salt springs in 

Greenlee Count7 

Salt River Valley 

area, Maricopa 

Developed suppliea of water ot good . 

quallt,' inadequate; water ot poor 

quali'b7 used troll mines. Acid 

draiDap tn. waste pllea at mirlea 

.Nported 

leWnl wel.la 

to m.w 

aapp17iDI ~ domestic 

water at Mial. Towaa and Jdnea 

are aearch1Dg tor DeW suppliee. 

321 000 acres irrigated, ~ f'rcD 

Gila River and ~ traa wells, 

depending on availabllit7 ot river 

water. ot 2101000 acre-teet used 

in 1949, 40,000 or 19 percent was 

tr011 wells. In 1946, 62 peroent ot 

th8 total ot 1851 000 ~ traa wells. 

About 301 000 acre-teet per year is 

wasted by phreatop~s in lower 2/3 

ot buin. 

Withdraval from artesian wlls abcut 

161 000 acre-feet in 1949. water lost 

through leaky well casings and b7 non- beneficial phreatoptq'tes. 

. Possible interstate problem, u buiD 

is part ot larser Duncan-Virden Buin 

extenc11.ns into Nev Mexico. 'Withdrawal 

about 151 000 acre-teet in 1949 tor 

41700 acres in Arizona .aDd 31 000 in 

Nev Mexico; bas ranged from 1 1350 to 

:n,ooo acre-teet since 1939. 

Salt springs discharge into San Francis09 

River, and into GUa River near west 

border ot C01l!l't7. 

Ground water overdrawn, surface water 

inadequate. Draft from wells 116801 000 

acre-teet in area in 1949. Declines in 

water level most rapid in Deer Valley 

and ·Queen Creek areas and others 'Where 

little or no surface water is available. 

Salt content ot grouJld water increasing 

at west end or Salt River Valley area. 

AvaUa.blllt7 tJI ....... w ....C.. 

wa:ta-. vitlda reuonable 41:stauae. 

Practicability of eliminatiDg 

phreatop~s. Ownership of the 

water that wuld be saved it the 

phreatopb1tes were eUaine:ted. 

.Amounts ot water lost a1ld praaticabiliiiJ' ot reduo!Dg vas"- _. .~. 

Safe yield ot basin as a vhole1 which 

is not known. Close relatioDBhip ot 

groum-vater developments to tlov ot 

GUa River. . 

Detailed study of . springs 1 includ!Dg 

posaible methods of intercepting saltwater tlow aJJd disposing ot it. 

Determination or safe yield of ground 

water under different conditions ot 

stream flow; minimum outflow necess8.1"1 

to keep selt oontent down; use of water 

by phreatophytes e.nd possible salvage. 

~OW!lB . .a mines could cooperate to briDg 

in sutticient quantities ot water trca 

nearest depemable saaroe • 

Salvage ot waste by pl.n-Pato~s •. 

Repair ot leaky well casings; salvage ot 

water now wasted by phreatoplq'tes. 

Maximum safe developnent by interstate 

agreement. 

Interception of salt 'later trould improve 

conditions in entire part of Glla Basin 

below i the springs • 

Burea\t of Reclame.tion proposes to divert 

112001 000 acre-teet per year trom Colorado 

River £or Central Arizona project. Salvage 

of water vested by pbreat.ophytes • Intercep... 

tion or salt vater upstream on Salt River 

would improve conditions in Salt River 

Valley area. 

.., 
~-cont1.nued 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

suMeot ____ Current__situation __ --'-- ~---- _ _ _ _· ---~-_infm-:mation _ ~-- _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ fur_tb.er· develoaaent 

GUa Bend nrea, 

l-iaricopa Count:y 

t.Taterman Wash 

area, Maricopa 

Count7 

Colorado River 

Valley 1 Mohave 

Coa:at;y 

Santa Cruz Basin, 

Pinal, Pima, and 

Santa Cruz 

Ccmatie• 

Avra area, Pima 

eounv 

Wellton-Mohawk 

area, Yuma 

Count7 

Yuma area, 

includil!£ •south 

Gila Vallq 1 • 

Yuma eounv 

Dateland area, 

Yuma Oolmt7, 

aDd Byder az:ea, 

Maricopa Count:y 

Salt content ot groum water increasing, 

owing to decreased outtlov. Withdrawal 

about 701 000 acre-teet in 1949; water 

levels declining only in areas of 

heaviest pumping. 

N'!w developnent starting. Available 

~ lJ1V be small. 

Irrigation from shallow wlls along 

Colorado River flood plainJ question of 

wate~ rights. · 

tl'OilDd-water withdrawal in 1949, 111001 000 

acre-teet in lower part, 1501 000 in 

middle, and 311000 in upper. Sate yield 

exceeded, especially in lower part where 

recharge is estimated at 135,000 acre-teet 

per year; situation less serious so .far in 

upper part. Sttpply supplemented by surf'aoe 

water only in northeastemmost part ot 

basin. 

Water levels decl~'-ng at northern aDd ot area because ot local pJmpiDg and pJmping 

to the north. 

Ground water overdeveloped (withdrawal 

491900 ac,..e-teet in l~h salt content or water increasing because ot decreased 

iDf'lov. 

i-later table rising 1n tleo<\ plain because 

or irrigation with Colorado River water 

on both .flood plain and higher "Yuma 

Mesa•; 14aterlogg1ng f'l1d salt accumulation 

oocurri.Dg. 

Small areas between WelltOJM.fohawk and GUa 

Band areas. Withdrawal 51300 acre-teat in 

Dateland area in 1948; developaent just beginnin~ in Hyder area. Eltisting or potential problems s:illlUar to those in WelltcmMohavk area. 

Methods o.f decreasing salinity ot 

ground water, by inereasing outflow 

through salvage or waste aDd reduction 

ot withdrawal. Use or water b7 

phreatophytes and possible salvage. 

Determination ot sate yield. 

Etf'ect or ground-water w1 thdrawala on 

tlow ot Colorado and on prior rights· 

to its water • 

Better determination or sate yield and 

or practicable wi thdrawala in eaoh part 

ot basin. Possibilit7 ot salvaging 

waste by phreatoplqtes 1 eepecialJ.1' at 

north end ot basin along Gila River. 

Intormation on sate Jield. 

Determi.ntltion of m1n1mm Ollttlow 

necessary to keep aalt content down. 

Practicability or stoppil'lg rise or water 

table and accumulation or salt. 

Determination or sate yield. Determination ot miJrlmum outtlow necessary to keep · salt content down. 

Proposed Central Arizona project 'b7 Bureau 

ot Reclamation would increase iDtlov. to 

this area. 

Bolding w1 thdraval to sate yield. 

Reduction ot withdrawal to sate yield. 

(WEloy critical area• established b.J 

State in 19423; no nev developaeDt 

permitted.) Importation or water tt 

available • Agre8118Jlt vi th Mexico• into 

which upper pert or basin extende, mq 

eventually be necessa17. 

Bolding or reducing wi thdraval tO sate 

yield. 

Holding grQund-water withdrawal to sate 

yield. Bureau ot Reclamation baUd1ng canala 

f'or importation trom Colorado River. 

PumpiDg to lo'WI3r water table and prevent 

waterlogging (already done in plaoea-) J 

use of' water in such a W87 as to prevent 

salt a~oumulatian. 

Holding ground-water vi thdrawal to sate 

yield. 

• 
Arizona-Cont.inuecl 

Area or Detioienoiea in Correoti ve measure a and 

Subieat Currani: aii:uation intol'Mtion f\lrther_ develoo.ent 

st. Johns and Bunt areas, 

Apache County 

Lower San Pedro Basin, 

Pinal, CoChise, ~' 

and Graham Counties 

Arivaipa area, Graham 

County 

Centennial Waeh area, 

Jlarioopa Co•tJ 

Valentine and Wiokieup 

areas, Jlcbave Co\Dlt)' 

Holbrook ancl Show Low-

!aJlor area1, lavajo 

Co\Dlty 

Chino Vallq, Yavapai 

CoUDty 

Principal ~ound-water development is Amount of additional ground water 

from Coconino saud1tone. Water is under available. 

artesian pressure. Some surface water 

1a available in st. Johns area. Successful irrigation wells have been developed. 

Sate yield of area has not been exceeded. 

Present develo}aellt is principally from Det.erminat.ion of sate yield ot basin. 

nonartesian aquifers, a few successfUl Amount ot water used b,y phreatop~es. 

artesian welb have been developed. Practicability of elimin~ting pbreatolonbenetioial use ot water by phreatophytee ph)'te1. 

along river bottom. 

Small amount of ground water p\llped tor 

irrigation. Some 1urf'aoe water in 

nerthern end of area. Allo\Dlt of arable 

land probably will Uait ground-water 

developaent. 

Develotaent ot ground water i1 inoreaeing alowlJ• lDorease in depth to •ter 

in a northliesterl7 direction probabl7 

will lilli t clnelopaent. 

Ground water usecl to irrigate a t• 

s-.11 traota in Valentine area and to 

1upplement aurtao.-.ater supply in 

Wiokieup area. Total pumpage is aall. 

Cooonino aanclstone 1a principal aquifer 

troa which water 11 being developed at 

present. Beoharge area of sandstone 

1a along southern rili ot Colorado 

Plateau. !he water in the sand1tone 

near Holbrook 1a under autticiant 

pressure to produce flowing wells. 

Ground-water clevelo:taent il on small 

scale. 

Arteeian qat• 1e being depleted by 

loss to permeable beds at 1hallow depth 

because ot inadequate oaain& in 1011e 

welh. 

Sate Jield ot area. Jlore information 

about ground-water movement in area. 

Sate Jleld of area. 

Sate 7ield of areas. Availability of 

additional supplies. 

Amount ot additional ground water 

available. 

Determination of amoUDt ot water d11• 

charged tram artesian s71tem at the 

surtaoe and as loss to permeable beds 

at ehallOII' depth. Sate :yield ot basin aa a whole. 

Some additional ground-water development can be made without exceeding sate :yield. 

Salvage of waste b7 eliminating phreato- p~es. Bold development to annual sate 

Jield. 

Bold development to sate yield. 

Bold development to sate 7ield. 

Bold development to sate Jield. 

Some additional ground-water development 

can be made without exceeding sate yield. 

Stopp1Dc underground leakage from inadequatelJ cased wella. Controlling all 

nonbeneticial surface tlow. Bold developMnt to sate Jield of basin. 

~ 
Area or subject 

Bouse area, 

Y\m& Count7 

Curreat situation 

Area o£ new gro'UZI.d-water development 

tor irrigation. Difficult and expen• 

sive to looate and develop a satia• 

taotoey irrigation well • 

~--continuecl 

Deficiencies in 

information 

Annual safe yield ot the area. 

Corrective measure and 

further development 

Hold development to annual sate 7ield. 

b 
11 
.A.rlcaD.su 

ielative}¥ few water-8Upl)l7 problems, that in Grand Prairie region most ser1ou. Large reserve euppliee available in JD&DY other areas. Water-resources data acant7; information needed on qua.ntit7 and qual.it7 Of water available from emaJ.ler atreams and OJ.l extent and 7ield of 

grouacJ.-water reael"'f'oira. Ot-ouad water eepec1al}¥ important in Coas.tal Plain, surface water in northwest half of State. n.ood control needed, 

e~ecial.}¥ in Ooaatal. Plain • 

.kea or Deticienciea 1a Corrective meaaurea aad 

ea.bJeot Ourrent situation information tu.rther a~..;;el;::;OJ!l:.:;;;;;-en;:;;.t--. __ _ 

.kiam.sae 11 ver Vallq 1a 1Pal.Mso1c uplazL4• 

(aorthn•t halt 

ot State) 

· 1Paleoso1o 

upland1 

Stream• in 

Coastal Plaia 

( eouthe-.et half 

ot State) 

Grand. Prairie 

region 

E1. Do rfldo area 

Q;uali t7 of river water uatui table for 

irrication of certain tT,Pes of soils, 

aa4 river carries sedimant. Large groua&.. 

water ~lies ~ail&ble froa river 

alluvi•, aad cleyelopaeat on a large scale 

probable. 

Onl.7 111114111 to moderate croun4-va.ter supplies ~ailable. 

Impouad1Dg etreams generall7 not practicable 

because of low.gre41ents; thua onl7 large 

streams like .A.rkansas, 8t. Jrancis, Ouach1 ta, 

White, Red, aDd KiasisliPJ?i livers are c1e- . 

pendable for large sustained 7ielda. .kkanaaa 

liver water of ppor ~allt7 and river carries 

aedimant. lled liver carries he&'f7 sediment 

·lou. Lower Oaachita ~r po1,1:1ited ana 

n•ed• treatment tor many- uses• · Flood 

problema in valleys of larger streams. 

Information on availabili tT ot water frOB 

allai:a, and on present qual.itT of water 

and posli ble changes wi tb. pull»iDg. · 

More data on availabili t7 of ground water 

where surfac ... vater developnct 18 impracticable. Information on water from 

the smaller streams. 

General studies of pollution and flood 

control. 

Shallow aquifer overd.Weloped b;r pumping for-.'\ Effect of application of surface wnter on 

rioe irrigation; water from deeper ~ifers shallow groun~water. Practicability of 

insufficient to make up defieienCT or too reob.arge ot aurplua eurtaoe water into 

costlf \o develop. shallow aquifer. 

Some loveriDf; of groun4-water levels d:a.e 

to local development of more than 10 mil"tion 

gallons per d.q. 

Dnelopiuc gro'Wld water in au.ch a WB1' 

aa to prevent undeeirable chaagea 

in ~it7 of the water b7 11nduced rechar~• from river. · 

Large supplies of surface water of 

good qual i t7 available from base now or b7 constructing storage reservoirs. 

Very large additional developments of 

surface water poesible. Pollution 

should be reduced and erosion checked 

in headwater areas to-re~e sediment 

content, where·these conditions exist 

and cor:uction 1a feasible. J'l.ooclcontrol mea~ea needed. Lar~e auppliee 

of ground water available .in ma.DT areas where surface-water development ia too 

coattT. · 

Development of B\\rface-water supply to 

supplement ground water. ProJect now 

proposed b;r ~ lngineera, to get 

water from White liiver. 

Decline not believed to indicate 

regional overdevelopmen t; more grount'!. 

water available outside area of b.ea'V7 

:pumping. Ouachita River, ll In1lea 

northeast, potential source if needed; 

treatment of water re~ired. 

t: 
~u-Oontinued 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

subject Ourrent situation infornation __ further -~e~~l~ent 

Crossett area 

Pine Bluff 

Arsenal 

Ground water in 

Coastal Plain in 

general 

Local decline of ground-water_levela_ due 

to he&VT pumpiag. 

Contami:a.atio:a. of certain wells by arsenical 

waste. 

Recharge of ahallow aquifer (eastern. quarter 

of State) and of some deeper ~fera 

limi tecl by overl.7iDc impermeable beda. 

Supplies generall7 abaclult ezoept 1D 

looal. areaa. 

Occurrence ancl potential yield of aquifers; 

quality of water in different a~ifers and 

at different deptha. 

Regional overdevelopment not indice.ted. 

More ground water available outside he~:vily pumped are e.. Ouachita River 

nearby if needed; treatment required. 

Contamination readily controilable 

by proper disposal practices and 

well-construction methods. 

L&rge ~pplies available from both 

shallow and deep aquifers in aroea 

not now heevily pumped. WithdraYalc 

sl\ould be made in accordance with 

results of basic studies still to be 

made. 

t: 
California 

Lead• lation in total use of ground water and in use of surface water tor irrigation. Amlual runoff bas averaged 70 million acre-teet but in 

driest 10-year period of record averaged only balt as JaUch. In areas of bea"f7 water use a large part of runoff does not reach the sea. Present water use (excluding hydro-power) about 20 million. ultimate requirement according to state about 39 million acre-teet per year (includin& 10 million for 

Great Basin area). Total water supply. including that UDder Colorado iiver rights, adequate to meet needs but extensive systems required for transporting water, mainly from relatively wet north to water-short south. Flood-control works necessary in all parts of StateJ Jll&llY can be combined with 

conservation works. Full use of storage capacity of ground-water basins needed in California Water Plan. Salt-water or other chemical oontaaina~ion 

occurring in several important areas, principally Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, Salinas and Santa Clara Valleys, and South Coastal Basin in Los An&eles 

and Orange Counties; levels declining in part of Sacramento and JaUch of San Joaquin Valleys and in 29 of 36 other principal ground-water basins# actual 

overdraft known to be occurring in small part of Sacramento and much of San Joaquin, and in parts or all of 13 others. 

Area or subject 

~orth Coast area 

Includes 10.1 percent 

ot area of state and 

337,000 (2 percent) 

ot total of 16,670,000 acre• of 1rrigable 

land, but baa 41.4 

percent of runotta 

largest undenloped 

1ource ot water. 

Average annual run- ott 29 million 

acre-teet, present use i million or lell, and ulti.ate 

only 1 million. 

Modoc lava plateau 

Santa Rosa Valle, 

Currct aituaticm 

Detioie11c1e1 in 

intorat1on 

Bo important problema except flood control Better data on runoff as source or surplus 

on lower Saitb, Bel, and Russian Rivers. water tor other areas. 

Only one of the half do&en ground-water 

basins in Borth Coast area now developed 

appreciably; estimated lO,ooo-15,000 

acre-teet pumped annually. Bo over-all 

depletion but some local shortages. 

Increased irrigation develo~nt expected. 

Local bacterial contamination of wells, 

including iron bacteria in Santa Rosa 

city wells. 

Ground-water potential. 

Perennial yield of ba&inJ ground-water 

studies now in progress. studiea to 

determine necessity tor and practicability of illporting Russian River water. 

Corrective measures and 

further development 

Large yields of wells in Butte area suggest possible grouud-water develop-

..uta in Modoc plateau to utilize 

water now escaping to ocean or ataos• 

phere. 

$: 
Califoluia--Continued 

Area or Deficiencies in 

s·,tbject Current situat1cm i~forme.tion 

San lrancisco ~$1 

area 

Includes 2.8 percent of total awl 

5.2 percent of 

irrigable land 1D. 

State. Averace 

runoff 1.4 percent 

of total, or 1.211-

million acre-feet 

per year; in.drieat 

lo-year period vaa 

onl7 half aa IIUCll 

and in drieet year 

le88 tbu. 1/8 ... much. 

Petalwaa Tellq 

!tapa aD4 Sonoma · 

ValleT~ 

Ypacio Vallq 

Ltv•~~• Taller 

Water re~irament nov half a million 

acre-feet per year, u1 tillate 2. 72 million or 6.9 percent of State total. Area depanda in part and 1411 continue to d8J)end on imported water. 

Ground water not nov overpumped but develo~ 

ment limited by bracld.lh water beneath tide 

lands; increase in draft brobablf not more than J,OOO acr.-feet per yee.r nov) mq ca.uee 

aalt-water encroacbaent. 

Present draft on cround water 10,000 to 

15,000 acre-feet per year. No general over- draft apparent, but locel ahortacea due to 

poor aquifere or brackish water. IncreMed 

draft II18J' cauae salt-water encr~achment. 

Locally boron content of ground vatera is 

too b1Cb for irrication. 

Wi thclravala probably exceeded safe )"1eld 

of ground vatera 1D. past. 

Ground-water draft about 17,000 acre-feet 

in 1911-S for irrigation, ind11Strial, and · 

municipal supply, 1D.cl.ud1nc a well field 

tor SaD lrancisco. Saall overdraft. 

Analysis of stream-flow records for 

prediction of average and minimum ~·ields. 

Safe yield of ground water under present 

conditione end with importation of water. 

Stu.q now under wa;y. 

Safe yield of ground water ( etuq under 

~). 

studieiJI (nov UDder WI bJ State) to detarJdne whether iJiportation ot wter vlll be 

lll8Ge88817. . 

Corrective measures and 

further develonment 

Conservl'.tion works to increase supply 

from locel sources; increased use of 

irrigation-return water from ground-

~~ter reservoir as importetions increase: incre~sed importation from Sierra 

Nevada, from present sources and from ?ro~osed Jolsom Reservoir on American 

Diver or Oroville Reservoir on Jeather 

liver, proposed as part of Cal.UOZ'Dia Water 

Plan. Possible importation from north 

coastal streams. 

Importation of lu.ssian River water if 

safe yield of ground water proves inade~uate for present and proposed needs. 

Importation of water if necessary. 

Water nov &Yailable from Contra Coeta 

Canal of Central Valley ProJect. 

OTerdraft on cround water has created 

usable undercround. storage capaci tt of 

about 100.000 acr~feet; poasibly can be utilised by construction of detention 

reservoirs on .Arro7o Kocho aud .Arroyo 

del Valle, which would permit nocA 

water nov wasted to recharce cround,-

vater reaeryoir. 

t:· 
Area or a,ubject Current situation 

Central Valley Sacramento Valley part of area ia one ot area surplus water and San Joaquin one ot I~cludea 3?.4 shortage. Central Valley Project, initial 

percent ot total unit ot California Water Plan, designed to area and 59.8 distribute water more evenly, prevent 

percent ct irri- waste, provide flood control, and halt en- gable land. croachment ot salt water in Upper Bay and 

Average runoff Delta region. Shasta Reservoir will pro48.6 percent ot vide flood control and water tor power 

total, or 34 generation, navigation, and salinity con- million acre-teet trol, and tor irrigation and other uses per year, but in in Sacramento Valley and delta area; and 

individual Jeare water tor lower San Joaquin Valley, via 

has varied from Delta Cross Chamlela and Delta-Mendota a fourth to twice Canal, to replace water now used trOll San aa much. Ultimate Joaquin River. Ground-water storage 

requiremeat 52.? capacity of San Joaquin Valley will be 

percent of State used to bridge dry years. Friant Reaertotal, or about voir, via lladera and Friant-Kern Canals, 

18.2 milliOD will supply water to central and upper 

acre-teet plus San Joaquin Valley, now largely pumped 

2.4 million tor from wells. Artificial recharge ot 

salinity repul- aquifers in upper San Joaquin Valley will 

sion in Sacra- be essential to restore depleted supplies 

mente--San and store flood waters. Additional proJoaquin Delta. jects proposed by Bureau ot Reclamation 

Runoff ot Sacra- and ~ Engineers will provide tor irrimento Valley gation of 3 millicm acres not now irriportion over 2/3 gated, tor other usee, and tor flood 

ot total, irri- control and power production. 

gable land a little oftr 40 

percent. 

Saoraaento Valley Local OTerdraft of ground water. 

"Peaoh Bowl" area ot Sutter County 

west of feather 

River and parta 

ot Yuba aad Placer 

Countiea ... t ot 

river. 

California--Continued 

Deticienoiea in Corrective aeaaurea and iDt~raat~ioa . _ ~hrther develouaent 

Addi ticmal stream-flow data on \IDI&ge4 

str•ama ad aD "leases aDd spUl traa new reservoirs; analyah of recorda to 

enable better prediction ot water 

available in different parts of Central 

Valley. storage capacity ot ground• 

water reservoirs in Sacramento Valley 

(preliminary report prepared.) Location ot favorable areae and methode 

tor artificial recharge in upper San 

Joaquin Valley (study in progress). 

Data on quality ot water--natural 

runott, irrigation return water, l.lld 

ground water, to assist in operation 

ot project; data scant ax.oept; in delta 

region. Data OD SediaeDt m IJtre.a 

where reserroira or tlood-oontrol worka are planned. Data on oontaaination by 

industrial waste and sewage. The principal need is tor careful investigation 

ot the ooourrence and movement of 

ground water and the underground storage 

volume and recharge potential of the 

San Joaquin Valle,y. 

Present 'roaa draft on ground water 1a Sacramento Valley is 1 aillion aore-~eet per year, 

net dratt 'lese thaD halt as auch. More unused 

groUDd-water storage available than 1a ~ 

other area of state. Ground-water storage 

capacity between depths ot 20 and 2CO feet 

estimated at 28 million acre-~eet. Utili£atioa of ground water not only would provide 

useful storage spaoe but would salvage lar&e 

amount ot water now wasted bJ phreatophytea, 

providing additional surplus water tor export 

to south.-

Importb.g water trOll adjacent areaa of high 

water table caused by aurtaoe-water irriga• 

tion (now UDder i:aveatigation by state). 

~ 
Area or 

subject 

1Cels8JT111e area 

j'airfield a:-ea, 

S9lano County · (part of SanJrancisco Ba.y 

area) 

Southwestern 

Sutter County 

ArH-1 irr1-

gat.e4 from Cache 

Creek b. Yolo 

County 

San Joaquia 

Valle7 

Ourra.t litv.atioa 

Groua&-water. draft of 11J.,ooo. acr ... teet per 

Fe&r; overclratt eat11late4 at 5,000. 

OTerclratt of gr011Dd water; aquifere thill 

and storace rirtaall7 depleted. 

lncroacbment of salty water c8118ed by hea"f7 

pgmpinc from vella. 

B1ch 1X»ron content in irrigation water. 

Calitorni~Conti~ 

Deti cienoi es in 

1nfol'lllation 

Draft estimated at 7 million acre-teet tram 

lJ.o, 000 wells in year ending March 1948, of 

whioh 1 million was from deep wello on west 

side. Water levels still high and only' 

local overdraft. in Xern River fan and in 

and north of Xings River fan. Severe ovel'-

4ratt on east side of valley between Xings 

Practicability of artificial recharge 

ana: best areas for it. Available data 

not adequate to assume success of the 

project. 

~..nd !:ern River fane and south of Xern River 

faa, eatimate4 i to 1 million acre-feet per 

J'e&r. Severe overdraft also on west sta.e 

south of J'reano-Kerced Oount7 line, estimated 

at s million acre-teet per 7ear or more. 

Shallower waters h1ch 1n aal t, which ie b eiDg 

a44ed to land u.d muat be cliapoae4 of. Water 

levels clecliniD& aD.cl Jll8l' reach economic lim~+. 

vitb!D the ~ti~ DNr lU'Qift. *lot 

ac~tion Ja7 .1Uin 181'1• areas ot produot1w 

llllld. 

Corrective measures aD4 

further develooment 

State stu.dJing methode of alleviating 

overdraft. 

Importing water from main part of Sacramento Vallq, or constrtlction of Monticello Reservoir. 

Reduction of clratt and importation of 

water. 

Importation of better water. 

Jor east s14.e, art1f1c1al. recharge w1 th 

fiood water tor use in dry 7eare, ae part of Central Valley project. AI much 

as 16 .... '18 million acr.,.feet must be 

put underground, at rates of as much ae 

3 millioa per 7ear, vi thout waterloggiag · 

land, and must be available by pumping 

from vella. Jor west aide, 1mportatioa 

of water to halt overdraft and prevent 

salt accumulation in soil. 

tS 
.Area or 

subject 

Santa Clara 

Talle7 

Central Coell; area 

Includes 7.1 percent of total and 

3.7 percent of 

irrigable land in 

State. Bunoff 

2.9 percent of 

total or 2 milJ.ion 

acre-feet. 

Hollister area 

Salinas :Basin 

CuJ'ama Valley, 

Santa :Barbara 

County 

Current situation 

Ground water chief source· of water. Draft 

now probably more than 200.000 acre-feet 

per year. Water levels in· Santa Clara 

County declined average of lOS feet from 

1915 to 1934, recovered 70 feet to 1943, 

and have declined nearly 100 teet since 

1943. Present deficiency of water estimated to be 38,000 acre-feetJ ·possi~ 

lOqc>OO ultimately. Serious salt-water encroacl:mlent from bq. 

California--Continued 

Deficiencies in 

information 

Detailed st~ of water resources,4ow 

being completed in Santa Clara County 

and started in Alameda County b7 State. 

Ultimate re~irement ab~t 1.5 million acre- Additional stream-flow data in most of 

feE:t per year; supplies now available slightly area; fairl7 good data available for Santa 

deficient on average and seriously de- Barbara County and Salinas and Ban :Benito 

ficient in certain areas, pa.rticularl7 some (Hollister) Basins. Grounc1,..water data 

in Santa :Barbara Count7. needed for most of area; goocl data available for SantaBarbara County and Salinas 

Basia. Data on quali t7 and .ecliment content of water needed. for much of area. 

Southern extenaion of Santa Clara Valle7, 

but draina to Montere7 :Sq. Ground-water 

draft estimated at 60,000 to 70,00·'J acrefeet per ;raa.r; overdraft exists but 

magnitude not known. hceBB boron in 

ground water in eastern part of area. ' 

Ground.-water draft of 360,000 acre-feet per 

year IIU.pl)lies most of irri&ation requirement. !otal water aupply in basin exceeds 

ultimate requirement but overdraft exist. 

in two maJor subareas. Salt-water en~oachment from Montere7 ~~ and concentration of 

salt b7 evaporation of shallow water ala o create problema. 

Grouut-vater draft about 20,000 acre-teet 

in 1948, nearq twice est:lmated perennial 

recharp UDder natural conclitiOD8 J local 

concentration or salt in sou. 

Perennial 7ield of bc.sin (now being studied 

b7 Bureau of Reclamation). 

Corrective measures and . 

further develop~~e~n~t __ __ 

Reduction of overdraft to halt saltwater encroachment and drive salt 

water back. Existing and proposed 

stora&e reservoirs will reduce deficiency 

in part; reclama.tion of part of 250,000 

acre-feet per yee.:r of sewage effluent 

discharging into San francisco »~ being 

considered. liew reeerv•ir on Coyote Creek now under constrUction. 

J'u.l.l development of water reso,u-cea of 

area, with importation of water as needed. 

Construction of e. s tore.ge reservoir or 

use of ground.-water storage created b7 

overdraft, to salvage flood waters, if 

found economically fee.aible. 

State suggests salva&e of natural waate 

and more efficient irrigation pr3ct1ces; 

possible use of se~e effluent for 

irrigation; repair of defective wells; 

~ 

<» 

and pumping and transportation of water 

from areas of surplus to those of shorta&o. 

Construction of storage reserToira on 

tributaries of Saliaas Ri~r. 

Importation of water. 
Area ot 

subject 

Santa Maria Valley, 

Santa Barbara 

Coaty 

Santa Ynea River 

Valley, Santa 

Barbara Countr 

Goleta Buin and oit7 

ot Santa Barbara, 

Santa Barbara County 

Carpinteria Baain, 

Santa Barbara Co\Dlty 

South Coast area Includes baaine drain• 

ing to Pao1tic frCII 

Ventura County south· 

ward. Includes 6.8 

percent of total and 

12 peroe:nt ot irrigable land in State. 

Runoff 1.4 peroent of 

total or 1 milliOD 

acre-teet per. year a 

Calitor.Dia--Continaed 

Deticienoie1 in Corrective measurea and 

Current eituaticm , intoraa~ion _ tur1;her ~~elopa•t 

Ground ...... ter draft about 100,000 acre-teet Conservation of flood waters to taper year, pereanial Jield under preseDt crease total supplJ and prevent flood 

condition• about &a,ooo. Salt-water intru- damage, MJ DOt meet ultimate req,uir.-

lion will occur 1t present overdratt con- ment and importation of water uy be 

ttDues. neoesaar,y. 

lnoludee laTeral ba11DI alcmg Saata Yne& 

RiYer • 'fotal P"OUDd-water dratt &bout· 

30,000 acre-teet per J8&rJ replenishaent 

depeDdl in part on uount of runotr in 

river. .lYerage annual r\Dlotf about 

124,000 aore-teet. Sea-water encroach• 

aent possible, but only with inoreued 

gi'Ound-water dratt. 

PreseDt ground-water dratt in Goleta 

Basin about 9,000, perermial yield 

under natural oondition1 about 1,100 

aore-feet per year. Salt-water oontaai• 

nation threatened. Siltinc ad drought 

forced t .. porar,y di1u1e ot 1urtaoe 

reservoir ot City ot Santa Barbara ancl 

dra.tt ot about 1,000 acre-teet ot 

ground water in 1948 J oontillued puaping aay cause sea-water encroachment. 

Gro\Dld-water 4ra.tt a,ooo to &,000 acre- teet in recent years; estimated perennial 

yield under natural oonditions 1, '100 acre- teet per year. Sea-water enoroaobaent 

appears to be starting. Ground water high 

in boron in cm.e area. 

C&oh--. .Baaenoir \Dlder oonstruotion 

by aareau of •claaation will atcr.e 

210,000 acre-teet, reducing waste ct 

water to sea and flood damage and 

making an.ilable part . of proposed 

ultimate yield ot aa,ooo &ore-teet 

per year tor use in Santa Ynea liver 

Vallq. 

C&ohuma project will 1uppl7 water 

troa Santa lne& River to overcame deficiency in Goleta Basin and City 

of Santa Barbara. 

Caohuma project will supply water to overcome detioienoy. 

Area 11 one of severe deficiency. Developed praotioally all looal water bJ 1900 and 

began import ill& water, fir at troa Owene 

Valley and then tram Colorado River. Loss 

ot flood water to sea ooours irregularlJ 

and salvage ie illpractioable. Sed~ta• 

tion of reserYOirs a serious proolea. 

Surfao....,ter da'M ta1rlr adequate except 

tor special studies. GI'Ound•Wfl.ter •tudies 

substantial but more adequate data needed on pereanial yield and •thode ot increas• 

ing gi'O\Dlcl-water reoharge and baltinl saltwater encroaoblaent. Date. needed on quali t7 

and sediment content of water, including 

praotioabilit7 of reolailling sewage. ComprehensiYe gro\Dld-water data available tor 

parte of are&J more acourate detel'llliDations 

ot aafe yield needed. 

laportation ot water to meet deticienGJ. 

Looal oontamination ot surtaoe water by 

irrigation-return water bigh in chlor1cle. 

and by industrial wastes in Loe.A.ngelM ad 

San Gabriel Rivere. 8oM aurtaoe waters 

!:; 
Area ot 

subject 

ultimate requirement 3.3 million 

acre-teet per 

year or 8.4 percent of State 

total. 

Oxnard-Santa Clara 

Basin 

San Fernando and 

San Gabriel Valleya 

Coastal Plain in 

Los Angeles and 

Orange Counties 

Current situatiOD 

!ligh in borOD. Ground-water basins., and 

water of area as a whole, about as tul17 

developed as in ~ area ot the United 

States. Current annual pumpage is about 

l miilion acre-teet. 

Ground-water draft about 200.,000 acre- teet per y-ear. Draft in Ouard Plain., 

where water is largely artesian., about 

60.,000 aore-teet and overdraft in dryperiods about 30.,000 aore-teet per y-ear. 

Water levels now below sea level in muoh 

ot plain; salt water encroaching in vioinit7 of Ventura and threatening entire 

coastal section. Santa Clara part ot 

basin inland recharged treel7 b7 Santa 

Clara River and not overdrawn. CODtamination by industrial wastes possible locall7. 

'fatal ground-water dratt about 200,000 

aore-teet per y-ear. Basins not appreciably overdrawn but water levels declining in San Gabriel Valley. Co:rrt:aaination by recharge traa polluted waters 

ot Loa .Azl&elea and San Gabriel Riwrs is 

principal problea. 

Ground water principal source except tor 

Owens River and Colorado River water used 

tor public supply and two water distriotSJ 

surtaoe water diverted tor irrigation at 

Whittier Barron and in Santa Ana Canyon. 

Ground-water draft about 400.,000 acre- teet per y-ear., 80 percent in •in basin 

and 20 percent in Weat Basin. Dratt. in 

Min baein about 26,000 aore-teet aore 

than recharge as ot 1947J about twice recharge in West Basin. Water lenla below 

sea level in most ot coaatal plain, aDd 

salt water encroaching along coast of We at 

Basin in Loa .Aacelea Count7 and ot JD&in 

California--Continued 

Deficiencies 1n CorreotiTe measures and 

information ~ £urther___daey~ea.l~o~olii.I'C!IlWIIIeD..,.t'--------

Availability ot water within basin to 

meet deficiency (now under study by 

Santa Clara Water Conservation Db.• 

trict). 

Studies of methods ot pollution control 

(under way by state and Loa A.ugelea 

County). 

Feasibility ot artificial recharge and 

reduction ot pumpage to raise 'water 

levels at coast; reclamation ot sewage 

water (under study by State and local 

areas). 

About 100.,000 acre-teet annually needed to 

meet deficiency and future needs and prevent 

salt-water encroaobaent. It found to be not 

available within basin through conservation, 

surface storage., and utilization of ground• 

water storage, importation from outside basin 

will be needed. 

Alluvium ot San Fernando Valley being used 

tor artificial reohar,e·or some flood water 

and some •ter trom Owens Valley; water 

levels have risen since 1934. 

Water of West Basin under adjudication by 

state1 water being imported from Colorr.do 

River Aqueduct. Attempts being made to reduce 

dratt in main basin to rate ot replenishment; 

adjudication may be necessary. Pollutioncontrol measures under ~· 

N 

0 
Area or 

subject 

Upper Santa AD& 

Valley 

San Diego Comty ooa~tal basins 

Great Baain area 

Includes area east 

ot Sierra Bevada 

except Goose Lake 

Basin and area directly tributary to Colorado 

Rivera M.8 peroat ot total and 

11.3 peroat ot 

irrigable lad in 

State. Baott 

4.3 percat of 

total or about 3 

million aore•feet 

per ,-ar. 

Owens Valley 

Current situation 

basin in Orange Comtyr has moved as auoh aa 2 miles inland. Contamination also by 

oil-field and industrial waates, troa sur• 

f'aoe and t:roa Los .Azlgeles River. 

GroWld-water overdraft ot about 20,000 

acre-teet per year. Water ot Santa AD& 

River system tully utilized. Contamination by industrial wastes and other water 

ot poor quality possible looally. 

Total ground•water draft about 30,000 acre- teet per year. Salt-water coroaohael1t in 

Santa Jlargarita, San Diego, and 'fia J\I&D& 

Valleys. 

Ultimate water requirement aooording to 

State is about 10 million aore-teet. .Area 

thus is seriously deficient in water it 

such a requirement is to be met. 

In 1929·31 Los .Aaceles pumped a total of 

340,000 aore-teet ot watel" frc:a wlla, 

and water levels deoline4. 

Calitor.aia--Continued 

Detioienoiea in 

intormation 

Pollution-control studies ( mder way by 

State and looal agencies). 

stream-now data tor area north or Lake 

Tahoe, in vicinity ot Salton Sea, and 

tributaries of Owens River. Ground water 

largely unstudied. 

Corrective measures and 

further d8V'elopments 

Importation of water. Certain local 

agencies are planning to join Metropoli• 

t.n Water District and use Colorado River 

waterJ this and perhaps other outside sources will be used to meet deficiency. 

Pumpage curtailed by State in Tia Juana 

Valley, water supply under adjudication. 

Colorado River water beiDJ imported 

(10 1 000 acre-teet in 1948). Additional 

importation will be necenary it about 

400,000 acres ot land suitable tor irrii&• 

tion or bome sites are to be utilised. 

For area as a whole, importation ot water 

would be necessary to meet ultimate re- quirement. Large ground-water storage 

available in certain valleys but perennial 

recharge probably small because ot aridity. 

Moderate developments probably feasible, 

however, it adequate studies are made. 

Basin tully recharged now and ooaparatively 

little use 1a made of ground water, wbioh 

aoutitutes a reserTe supplJ tor Los Azl&eles. 

~ 

~ 
Area or 

aubjeot 

IDcllaD Welle 

ftll" (Ia,okem 

area) 

All'telope Vall.,-

-:Mo3&Ye llinr 

.)taa1ae 

Coaoltella. ad 

lapertal Vall.,-• 

Currea.'t ai tuatioa 

About 100,000 aorea aui't&ble tor acrtoul'ture. 

PeNDilial Jield of ground water eatiaated iD 

1912 'to be autticien't onl7 tor perbapa 

1,600-2,800 aorea, onl7 800 under oul1:1~ 

ti011 b7 1919. Currcb draft about 2,000 

aore-teet per rear. 

Total aT&ilable wa'ter aupplJ eatt.ated at 

63,000 aore-teet per year, net draft about 

109,000 acre-teet ill 1947. Iaportatioa of 

about toa,OOO aore-teet aimually needed to 

•et ultt.ate requ1r .. ute. About 7,000 

aore-teet recharged troa Owens Valle7 aqueduot 1D rear 194.6-47. 

Inoludea large and 1110re or leaa oozm.eoted 

alluvial baa1Da aloag JlojaYe RiTer. Beobarge largely tram riYer. 

two baa1De lie ill a etruotural depre .. iOA 

Nl4 are eepara'ted b;y Salt011 Sea. CroUIUl• 

wa'ter withdrawal ill Coaohella Valley about 

125,000 aore-teet per rear and -r be withill pereanial ;yield. ac.. water iaported 

trc:. Colorado Jlinr. U •r• ia iaported, . •w"'IOIiill _, deYelop near Salton Sea, 

ae iD Japerial Valle;y where gi'Ouad water 

1• ut abUIUlut uad irrigatiOA with Colorado lliYer·water haa railed water table 

ill the elichtly per.able Talley till. 

CalitOl"'lia••CoDt1Due4 

l>eticienoiea 1D 

1Dtonaat1oa 

llore aoourate deteraiD&tion ot per8Dilial 

;yield. 

PeraDDial ;yield. · 

Sate. Jield ot Coaohella Valley ud aetboda 

to awid waterlogginc it irrigatiOD 1a 1Dcreaaed. Drainage oollditiona iD Iaperial 

Valley (ooapreh81llin atudiea made bJ Soil 

Coll•erratioa SerYice). 

Correoti n JUuurea and 

fUrther developaeut 

Iaportation ot water and utili&&• 

tiOil ct ground-water 1torage, a1 

tea1ible, to meet detioiency and 

pravlde tor additiOil&l development. 

Denlopaant ot auiawl 1upply, in•. 

oludlla& 1alvage ot natural waste b7 

phreatoph.Jtelt eltiiu.ted bJ state at 

40,000 aore-teet per 7ear. 

N 

N 
23 
Col~ 

More aurtace water orlainatea in Colorado thaD. in adJacent Statea but lllU8t be ahared. vi th Statea in which downstream parte of basins lie. Surface 

supply east of Continental DiTide lona onrcleveloped; euch more irripble land than water tor U. Diversion from vest side only aource of large new surface aupplles; such diveraion, and development of area vest of divide, will be accelerated nov that upper Basin vatar of Colorado River has been 

allocated. Data needed on availability of aurf'ace water tor epecific purpoaes; on relation of eurtace to around water; and on occurrence of ground water 

throU«hout State. Prinal pal around-water suppliea are east of divide. 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

subJect Currellt _81 tuatlon information further develo1111ent 

South Platte lU. ver 

Valley and adJacent 

vall8)1 

Larae withdrawal of around water for irrisation, aupplied llainlJ by infiltration of 

aurtace water; about 154,800 acre-teet in 

1948 between Bardin and Starlin«, Colo., 

and 43,500 acre-teet between Sterlinc, 

Colo., and Pu:ton, Bebr. lo data for area 

west of Bardin and for moat of tribut&rT 

valle78, but pu11pace believed large. 

Ground water and surface water closelJ related and fol'll a COIDIDon auppl7. Some over- developaent in tributa17 vallqa 8Uch aa BiJou and Blc Beaver Creek Valle7B, Boz ~lder Valle7 near Wellinaton, and Proapeot 

Valle7 (latter area nov recover1Da). Some 

preaent ancl potential waterlorcina· Potent1al problem of interstate interference 

troa cround-water pwaplna. 

Studiea above Bardin and in tributary 

valle7a, and continuinc studiea 1n ll&in 

part of valle7 needed to determine all 

factora related to aate 7teld of basin, 

eapeciall7 relation of cround and aur- face wat~r and posaible ealvace of waste 

b7 coordinated development. 

Coordinated development of basin to 

prevent local overdevelopment. vaterloggin«, and waste of water: 1nteratate acreement on cround water as well as surface water to permit full 

da.elopment. 

I! 

Hlp Plaine of 

northeaatera 

Colonulo 

Surficial aancla and aravele (Opllala and 

A.rlkaree fol'llations) fora an lllportant 

croun4-water reaervoir: thia an4 minor 

aquifers furnish all water used in area. 

Practicall7 no atudiea made eo tar. 

Data needed on all phaeee of occurrence and quallt7 of wa~er. 

Development of auppl7 to full pot~nt1al, 

but held w1 thin eate limite; can be 

Denver baa in, 

1nclu41n« •Denver 

arteaian buin• 

llo known areaa of overclevelopment 7et, but eoae areaa have onlJ acant7 aup,pltea; also, 

there ie a poaeib1lit7 tB&t 18ZIS·•cale de- . velop~aent wauld have aue reault aa in 

poloclcall7 alailar llip Plalna of tezu. 

&.all to •oderate auppllee of around water 

ot cood ·to fair qual1t7 available. Irrigation II'Uppllea not available. •Denver 

artealan basin• overdeveloped. 

AvaUabilit7 and qualU7 of water throuch· ou~ baaln. S~udiee llacle eo far onl7 in 

Blc Sanq Creek area and ~o a l111i ted atent in •Denyer arteaian baatn•. Sate 

Jiel4 of latter not ~~:Down. 

done onl7 on bade of s tuc\iea not 78t 

ll&de. 

Deterainiac aate Jield of •Denver 

artedan balln• and holdlna wl thdraval to lt: developlac remainder of 

baaln aatel7 in accordance with reaulta 

ot ·atu41ee yet to be 11114e. 
Area or l\1bject 

Arkansas ll.1. ver ::SaBin 

ltigh Plaina of 

southeast em Colorado 

::Bear Creek ••••tan area, . ::Baca County 

Arkansas 

Valley artesian 

area 

Canon City 

artesia.u area 

San Luia 

Valley 

Colorado--Continued 

Deticienciel 1n Corrective measures and 

Oa.rrant situation information further develol)IDent 

Conditione and problems aimilar to those of · 

South Platte ll.tver Valley. Qu.ality of river 

water deteriorates downstream. Overdevelopment of tribut8.1"1 valle;ys possible, but data 

inadequate. 

Condi tiona similar to those in northeastern 

Colorado except that aquifer 11 less productive. Irrigation supplies available only 

in favorable parts of area. Bo serious 

problema eo far. 

Bo ienoua problem eo far. Overdevelopment 

likely if too many irrigation wells are drilled. Interstate a~ecta. 

.trteaian water available in .A.rk8l'lsas Valley 

from Pueblo: County to XBl'lsas line. Uater 

of better qual.Uy than tbat in alluvium, 

has been overdeveloped locally as at Roclq 

J'ord, and has hs4 to be replaced b7 hard 

water from alluvium or river. 

Small but productive area; larger yields than 

average from Dakota sandstone, and large 

yield of highly mineralilecl water from a deeper limestone. · 

J. maJor baain having both artesia.u ancl unconfined water. Irrigation w1 th Rio Grande 

water aud pumping from wells. Waterlocg1ng 

Bl'lcl accuamul.ation of salt in low area ha8 

migrated westward, ruining more and more farm 

laud. · PumpiJic from shallow beds baa lowered 

water table and interferecl with practice of 1 11Ubirript1on1 (irrigation clependin,; on 

shallow water.table rather than application 

of water at surface) in other areas. Bo 

problema of overpumpinc yet; local ovel\-

development possible south of J't. Garland if 

too JDaDT vella are drilled. 

CoJIIllrehensi ve watel'-resources stu~ of 

whole basin. Ground water studied so far 

only in upp~r ::Big Sen~ Creak area and in 

Huerfano County. 

Stu~ of ::Baca County, coverin& most of 

area, completed. Studiel needed for rest 

of area. 

Sate yield of arteaian water. 

Potential y1eld of artesian aquifers. 

Information on sate yield. 

Sate yield of basin as a whole and of 

individual parts. Jeasibility of increasing irrigation w1thdrawala from 

wells. lossibilit;r of locating drains 

in waterlogged area and discharging 

water into ll.to Grande in exchange for 

increased diversions upstream. loor. 

qu.&Lity of this water 11 a problem, because of standards set in :Rio Grande 

Compact. 

Coordinated developmeut of water, 

considering interrelationship of 

ground and surface water and interstate 

p.spect. .A4di Uonal irrigation develo~ 

ment feaaible in parts of basin if 

adequatel7 controlled. 

Development based on sound b7drolutc 

information, to prevent overdevelopmen\ as in lti&}l Plains of Texa.a. 

Bolding w1 thdrawal to sate yield. 

Int~rat1on of use on either dele of 

State line. 

Artesian water represents .valuable 

supply in area otherwise having only 

hard water. Development should be 

held within safe limits in each 

locality. 

Controlled development to hold witbdrawal. to aaf'e y1eld. 

Coordinated development of basin to 

permit maximum beneficial'use and 

el1m1nati~n of waste by ~eatopbltea, 

and yet adhere to terms of :Bio Ch-~:nde 

Compact w1 th regard to quantity· and 

quality of water pass inc the New · 

1-lexico line. 

a 
Colorado--Continued 

.Area or Deficienciea 1n Corrective measures and 

subject Oun-ent 1;ituaUon information __ ___ turther_denlo~ent 

.Alluvium in 

valle7s of 

Colorado River 

and tributaries 

1n western 

Colorado 

Grand June tion 

arhsian basin 

Bo problem at present. 

.Artesian supplies available in an area of 

otherwise sca.nt7 supplies; local overdevelopment has occurred. 

l1xtent to 'which water om 'H developed 

from alluvium within this part of 

Colorado, where ,;rouna,..water supplies 

are scant7. 

Detailed atu4:r •. nearinc ooaplet1011. 

Development appears to be practicable onl7 in limited area.a. Relation of groima,..water use to BUl'-

face water must be considered .. 

Wider epacin& of wells to prevent 

local excessive drawdowna sh\lttiDc 

ott all now1111 -.us •• DOt 1D 

= 

uaea repairing or plugging leU, oasinpit 

Artesia artesian 

•• 1D 

MOntrose artesian 

bum 

•t•r of good quality f~• tlcnd.D& arteaiaD 

wells supplies s.veral ..all towna • 

Artesian supplies available looall7 1D an area ot otherwise soantr supplies. 

Geologic ooourrenoe ot water • Uaita 

aDd extent of aquifers, qualit7 of 

water, potential 7ield. 

Data laokiD& as to quanti t7 and qual1t7 

of ·water, extent of area, and depth to 

aquifer. 

JUrther dnelopMnt a&7 be possible. 

Additional 4.velopMra tor need-.! 

atoot and doaestio -.ter depend~ 

upon studies ,.t to be •4•• 
• 
CoD.D.eotiout 

Some looal water probl•• but cood promise tor additional denlop&ent, as 80uroes are looated and evaluated by scientific investigatiOD. stream 

pollution aerioua in acae areas but being abated. lio serious declines of ground-water levels, but local contcuaination by salt water or by wastes in 

etreaae. Large additional ground-water supplies appear to be available in still Biver, Canaan, QuiD.D.ipiao River-Farmington, northern Connecticut Valley, 

WUlimantic-Shetuoket River, and Quinebaug River areas, need evaluation. A.ple eurtaoe aupplie1 appear to be available for prospective uses also, but · not readily reached in all cases. Irrigation with ground water in tobacco-vegetable-growing area in northern Connecticut Valley especially promiain,. 

Baa1o data on availability and quality of water from aall streams and ground-water reservoirs rather aeagera needed tor water-supply, hi,hway and daa 

deaign, and PQllution-abateaent purpoaes. 

Area or subject 

Streaa pollution 

nood control 

Bridgeport area 

Current s1 tuat1on 

ot 5,000+ailes of stream. ohannell, about 

200 ailea are excessively and 400 acre miles 

detrimenta~l;y polluted. About 196 million 

gallODa per day ot domestic sewa,e, 62 percent treated, and 120 m.g.d. of industrial 

wa.tes, 20 percent treated, are discharged 

into streaas. Principal badly polluted 

streams are Byram, lioroton, still, liaugatuok, 

Qu~ipiao, PeqU&buok, Park, Mattabeaset, 

Soantic, Bockanua, WillD&Dtic, Yantic, 

Little, ~uinebaug, French, Koosup, Paohaug, 

&n4 PaWcatuck Rivera and Roaring and 

az.~oxo Brooke. 

Probl•• exilt at aoattered localities. 

Local onrpuaping has 1Dduoed salt water to 

encroach into ground-water bodies, and care 

11 nece••&r7 to aToid oontaa1nation b7 in• 

filtration of polluted eurtace water also. 

Deficiencies in 

intoraaatica 

Economical methods tor eliminatin' 

pollution or treating polluted water. 

Data 011 ground-water withdrawal and • 

detenaination of sate ;yield with 

T&rioua distributions ot wells. 

• 

Corrective measures and 

further develo~t 

Excellent pro,reu made throllih State and 

private action. It is expected that wi*• 

in 6 yeara 96 percent of sewage and 76 

percent of industrial waste will be 

treated. 

Projects alread;y.in operation on Connecticut River and tributaries in Hartford 

area. Projects under way on Shetuoket, 

latchaug. and Mad Rivera. Projeots UDder 

consideration by J.nq •gineers and state 

include .Azldover Dam on Bop RiTer, CoventJ7 Dam on Williaantic River, !houston 

Dul on llaugatuok River, and ooapreheneiTe 

project tor llouaatonio Biver. 

Reduction ot puaping in looalitiel ot 

laeavieat withdrawal, wider spacing ot 

wells, and reduc~ion ot pollution 1D 

eurtaoe water. Substantial procreaa beinc 

Jl&de. 

I 
Area or 

subject 

!lew Haven area 

WaterbUl7-

!Tau,;a tuck area 

Current s1 tua.tion 

Local ov~rpumping has lowered grounA-water 

levels snd induced encroachment of saltJ- snd 

polluted water from Loll& hlsnd Sound snd 

Q.u1nnipiac and Mill ll.ivers. Withdrawal of 

a'bout ~.4 m.g.d. does not exceed sr..fe yield 

of area as a whole. Water used mainl7 for 

processing .and cooling, where bacteriological 

qualit7 is not so 1mporte.nt. 

Care ia· DeCA8AI) to avotfi··cmt.araiD&tion of 

grQQDCl·-~ inclust'I"D1···and .. -~-· 1a ·k~ ·~. ·· "Sa'te"'7ield ·of area •• '. •bql.• not exceeded bJ withdrawal of abo~t. u~~ . 

Conneoticut--Oontin~ed 

Deficiencies 1n 

information 

Determination of safe :rteld. Data 

largel7 lacking. 

Determination of safe yield and of' 

relation of distance from river to 

extent ·of pollution. lilv!l.luation of 

nearb7 sources of ground water. 

Corrective ~~e.sures p.nd 

further develo"'OIlent 

Similar to »riaseport area. 

L~cating wells as far as possible 

from river: reduction of pollution 

in river. Additional ground water 

available in tributaey valle7s. 

~ 
hhYVI 

Relatively fev serious problems, blt basic data on surface water inadequate am almost lacking tor ground water. Considerable promise tor 

additional developments it based on adequate data. Supplemental irrigation with gr<JUJJd water promising 1n southern part ot State. Present use only 

a aall traction ot potential. 

Area or Deficiencies 1n Correctin measur88 ad 

subject Current aituaUon intomation_______ _ __ 1Urther develoament 

W1lmington area 

Rev Cutle area 

Laws area 

Stream pollutioa 

Drainage problema 

IreD in ground 

water 

Ground-water withdrawals 1D southern part ot area approaching or exceeding recharge • Brandywine Creek (source of city npp]7) 

polluted. 

Local overdevelopment at ground water in 

shallow terrace deposits used by cit7J 

problem ot contamination also. 

Salt-water encroachment into aqtd.tera 

through overpumping aDd cODStru.otion ot a canal admitting salt water. 

Delaware River and Bran4:J'v:l,ne Creek pollutedJ 

also lowr stretches ot most other principal s tre81111S. 

Large areas, especially southvaatem Kent 

and northvestern Sussex Counties, have too 

Jlllah water and need dra1D1Dg. 

Most gl"OUIId water :ln State bu ezoeasive 

1roll content. 

Detalled study to detel"'liDe sate yield. 

s~ to determine avallabUity ot water 

:ln terrace deposits outside area of heaV)' 

JQDaping, and 1n deeper aquiters. 

Sate yield UDder present condi tio1111 J 

avallabillt;y ot additional supplies vithh 

economical distanae • 

Extent of pollution aDd methods ot abatement. 

Stud;y to dettmldne areas Deedhg dra!Dage 

and most economical methods. 

Study ot methods ot rem.ov1Jag :lroa econom- _1cal.ly tor dCIID88t1c use. 

HoldiDg ground-water withdrawal 

to sate yield. Additional water 

avallable .trom Brand;ywi.De Creek 

by collStruotion ot storage reservoir. Pollution beiag corrected 

bf Brandyvine Valley Aaaoaiatioa 

alld others. 

Well tield. installed on oppoait• 

side ot town trom. oontamiDated 

field. 

See Wilmington area. 

It is proposed eventually to drain 

300,000 acres in Sussex COD.Dty 

m:t 150,000 ill Keat Counf17. 

\A) 

0 
.Area or 

subject Current situation 

Public suppl7 

Ground water 

Public supp~ di wrted from Potomac 

River in Jrarylancl. Imr now about 

SOO m. g. d.; withdrawal about 168 

l!h I• d. in 1949. Water in river 

polluted. 

Ground""'''ater 'llithd.rawal not ·iarge 

because of lack of industrr., 

District of COlumbia 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

. intomatig_IJ. ---~-~~- --~ ~ furliher develo.PJMaDii 

GroU'DI:l-n.ter data badq needed; no adequate stud;y eTer made. 

W'ater-suppl¥ source adequate but additional 

treatment and distribution facilities needed. 

Pollution control, possib~ in part b7 upstream storage to obtain larger loa- now and 

greater dilution, is a posaibilit7. 

Small supplies available for domestic use in 

northwest part, small to large supplies in 

Coastal Plain, increasing to southeast. .Adequate data would assist de'V8lopment for 

"heat-plllp" heating and cooli.Dg installatious 

and other uses. 

~ 
Florida 

General situation fawrable. Large supplies available for developaent in most of State. Current total use of water about l billion gallons a dq; about 850 mill1on gallons used in a dozen areas of hea'V7 development, about ?0 percent ground water and 30 percent surface water. Water of 

good quality mt abundant in some areas. General int'o:rmation available on most of State, but insufficient det&1.led data to form adequate basis for 

present and prospeotiw tu.ture uses. State includes some of most productive limestone aquifers· in the world. 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

subject Current situation information further dewlomcmt 

Jacksonville• 

Femand:lDa area, 

Duval and Nassau 

Counties 

Total draft about 90 million 

gallons per day, almost entire~ from 

limestone aqu11'er. No overdraft. 

'Kingsley La.ke area, About S m. g. d. pumped for use in 

Clay County m1n:l.ng heavy minerals. 

Hastings area, St. 

Johns County 

Fl.OII':I.Dg wells used for irrigating 

truck tams, draft unlmown. 

Sanford area, Semi- Water from 2, 000 wells used to irr:l.-

nole County gate ? , 000 acres of truck cropsJ 

draft about lS m. g. d. Some water 

salty. 

Indian Bi ver area One of areas Where artesian water is 

salty, as is caJIDX)n in southern part. 

ot Florida Peninaula. Surrace water 

and water from shallOW' aquif'ers used 

tor public supp.lies; inadequate in 

places. Contamination by upward 

seepage of artesian water at Ft. 

Pierce and Stuart well fields. About 

100 m. g. d. used for irrigation, 

mostq surface water. 

Information on quality and availability 

of deeper water at Jacksonville. 

Determination of draft and of ;vield from 

adequately spaced wells. 

Occurrence of salty water, to dete:rmi.De 

whether salinity is increasing. 

Extent of salt-water contamination, availability of surface water, effec'ts of drainage on quality and availability of surface 

and ground water, perennial yield of 

shallow aquifers. 

Large additional supply available from 

properl7 spaced wells. Uae ot artesian 

water at J acksoDVil.le mat be doubled if 

studies show deeper water to be of good 

quality. Black Creek and St. Marys River 

available it needed. 

Large addi. tional. supply available trom 

grou:od and surface water. 

Large additional sup~ available it 

properl:y deftloped.. 

Water supplies undoubtedly adequate, but 

only if properq developed on basis or 

better data than now available. 

w 

N 
~-Continued 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

subjtQ'to _ Current situation information _.further. developnent 

Southeast coastal 

area 

Miami area 

Everglades area 

Highlands area of 

central norida 

Area of heaviest water use in 

State, and of most productive 

aquifers ever i:lves't.igated by 

Geological Survey. Total use 

about 145 m. g. d., of which i20 m. g. d. is ground water. Use soon expected to be 200m. g. d. 

IDeal problems of salt-water en- croachment, floods, drainage, 

and pollution. 

Salt-water encroachment along 

shore, and via canal. into 

principal well field in 1939 and 

later, due to excessive loweri.Dg 

of water. table and reduction of canal 

flOW' by drainage. 

Ground water. of good quality scarce. About 110 m. g. d. used 

in area, mostq from lake 

Okeechobee and drainage c&D&ls. 

Lack of water Jndry season, and 

tloods in wet season, create 

c011plax probl... OverdraiDage baS 

pel'llli tted d171Di of JIUCk soU and 

settliDg of as much as 6 feet in 

last 35-40 years. 

About 200 m. g. d. used, most~ 

for citrus grow:I.Dg and packing 

and phosphate Dlin.1.Da; about 90 

percent ground water. Principal 

area of recharge of artesian 

water of central Florida. 

Comprehensive water-resources stud;y made, 

cont1nuing studies needed to gu.ide design 

of pro jeots to eliJD1nate problems. 

Comprehensive study made. 

Basic hydro.J.og:Lc data seriousq lae.lci.ng 

for design of control structures. 

Data on recharge of artesian water and on relations of water at various depths, to 

detem:i.De how to obtain maximUm yield with 

least drawdown. 

Water available to meet tota.J. expected 

demand and much more, if proper steps are taken. Projects are needed to con- trol both floods and exoessi ve drainage, 

to halt salt-water encroachment in and 

beneath drainage cana.J.s, and to eliminate 

pollution of Biscayne Bay by sewa~e. 

(Pollution control now under way. ) 

Dams in tidal canals will keep water level 

up and prevent encroachment both in canal 

and beneath it in pe:nneable limestone. New 

well field located for development as needed. 

Ample water available but control is difficult and bandicapped by lack of basic data. 

IDeate wells so as to a void lowering levels 

of lakes, which would impair their moderating 

effect on temperature and permit more :t'reezing of citrus groves. 

~ 
.&rea or subject 

Southwest coastal area 

Pinellas County 

Western B:Ulaborough 

0oUDI;7 

PeD&aco.J.a area 

Current situation 

Water obtaimd moatq troa 

wells. About; 45 •· g. d. used. 

for irrigation, mostq b1gb.:q' 

a1neral1sed water from artesian 

nlls. Public supplies from 

shallow nlls and surface 

sources, about 6 m. g. d. Some 

salt-water encroachllla along 

tida.L stream&. 

.About 21 a. g. d. used in couut7, 

ll from ground, l. from stre8DI8, 

and 9 from wells in nstern 

Hillsborough Comdi7. Overdratt 

on ground water has caused saltwater encroachment aJ.ong moat. et · coastal part of peDiDaul&, totaliDa abQUt a fourt;h of its area. Lake Tarpon availabJ.e but water 

sut7b~auseofwd~~ 

connection With. sea. St. 

Petersburg abando.aed wells in 

1930 and dnai.oped new weJ.l. 

field in Hillsborough CoUDt7. 

Area closeq rel.ated to P.t.nel.lu 

Co'DDt7· About SO •· g. d. used 

in area, about 6o percent 

ground water. Salt-water eu- croacbaeut along coast; Tapa 

wells abandoDed and s~ de- ve~oped troa B:Lllaboroup BiYer. 

.About 35 •· &• d. of ground 

water used at PeDSacoJa. Saltwater e:aaroacblent troa Ba;rou 

Chico ruined old lavaL Station 

weJ.l field and se"fU'al iDdust:r.lal 

weJJ.a. 

Florida--Continued 

Deticiencies in 

intormatiOJi 

lktent of salt-water enoroacbmem, 

ettects on grouDd-water le'Y8l.s ot 

drainage and pumpiDg, aw.il.abil1t7 

of water from streams, qualit7 of 

water. 

PosllibiJ.it7 of clo81ng cormection ot 

Lake Tarpon to sea. laouut of groazd 

water rema:l ning tor developaent in 

center ot peniDsula. 

Potemi&L 7ield ot ground water UDder 

coDditiODS preftllti.Dg aalt-water en- croacbaent. 

Streaii-tlow c:brta tor · resdf'Yoir · desisn u lld'Ce88&'1'7• . hrtlter·1Jtud1es to guide 

development of ground water in such a 

•7 as to aToid salt-water. encroacbment. 

Adequa"e water a'9'8ilab.Le to aeet expected ·nee4s, but available data 

iDSutticie~ for economicaJ. de'N.Lopment. 

Water a~ble from Lake Tarpon it 

connectiqn with sea can be closed; in 

northns~em B::l.ll.sborough Count7 and 

Pasco Cojnt.7; and, ii' necessa17, Weekill'atc,hee ~rings 25 mil.es to north. 

.AJri>le !wateJ" available to meet future 

~eds~ both surface and ground water. 

O:found water should be developed at 

su.rt!pient distance from bq. 

dditioDal ground-water supp.lies 

a if d.eftl.oped a m1le or aore It enaacola Bq. Large surface ·ruuotl. 4 availabJ.e also. 

~ 
~--continued 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

subj§Ci Current situation in.t'ormatioll_ further deveJ.opnent 

Panama .City area 

Pollution problems 

Floods 

About l3 m. g. d. used, mostl.1' 

by paper mill. Salt-water en- croachment has ruined a .t'n mill 

wells. 

Availability of ground water under 

conditions preventing salt-water 

· encroachment. 

Pollution by untreated wastes of 

several inland lakes, lower stretches 

of' St. Johns River and several 

other rivers, and shallow coastal 

waters in Nassau, St. Johns, 

Volusia, Brevard, Indian B:Lver, 

St. b1cie, Jfartin, Palm Beach, 

Brolrard, Dade (lliami), Lee, Cbarlotte, Sarasota, Manatee, Hillsborough, Pinellas, Citrus, Lev, 

DiJd.e, Wakulla, FrankUn, 

GW.t 1 . BaJ', Walton, Okaloosa, Santa 

Rosa, Escambia Counties. Pollution of ground water in Suwannee, 

lfarion,Oranp, and Polk Counties 

by waste disposal through well.a. 

Everglades, timi1 and other 

coasta.L areas; Kissimmee, upper St. 

JohDs, and Smrarmee R1 ver areas 

and Taapa area; and certain 

smaller areas are subject to 

f'.Lood damage, particularJ.T during hurrioaDea. 

More adequate surface-water data for 

design of control structures and 

bridp open:l.Dp. 

More water available, but only by dispersing wells widel.y and locating than sufficientq far from salt water. 

Adequate pollution-control measures to prevent danger to public heaJ.th and adverse 

effect on tourist industr.y. 

~ 
~ 

Large water resources available and largel:y UDlewloped blt limited 1n some areas ot rapid indutrial aJld IIUdcipal expansion. Only moderate 

flood damages and local pollution so tar blt potential danger vith turther dewlopment. Lack ot basic data hampen planning. Amoag principal problema are limited grouJld-water supplies in Piedmont section; rapid growth ot North Georgia industries and towns overtaxing water-suppl.7 and sewage-disposal 

syateme; waste ot tloving artesian water in Coastal Plain; potential salt-water encroachment along coast, especiall:y in Savannah area; contllct betveea ~r ud vater-euppl:y uses ot lov river tlovs; design ot bridges across broad SWBIIIP1 flood plaiJis; siltation ot reservoirs uc1 SaYanDab Harbor; 

lack ot good reservoir sites and ~o-power 1D South Georgia and adjacent norida; control ot potential widespread pollution; potential flood dange\" 

1D Coastal Plain as 1Ddust17 develope there to utilize abmdant groUDd- and surface-water supplies and river navigation; agricultural supplies tor 

supplemental irrigation and stock water; rural supplies adequate tor electric-driven rumdlag-water s:vstema. 

Note: Estimates ot water consumption include most daaestic and JIIUDicipal supplies blt are very incomplete tor induatrial supplies. 

Area ar Deficiencies in Corrective aeanres ed 

aubie~ -~-------~~•t situatioa intormation ____ . _ turther develouaent 

Mountain aDd Piedlmlt areas ot hard rocka 

Northwestern area ot 

Paleozoic rocb 

Upper Coastal Plain 

Moderate ground-water npplies 

available in J~~&ey places blt 

meager in Dllch ot Piedmont 

area; generall.7 adequate tar 

tovDs no larger than 21 5001 ar 

equivalent demaucl. Surfacewater supplies available most.l7 

b7 using small stre&JU bat 

require treatment plants and 

resenoJrs. Eatiaated c:to.atio 

and amioipal use or ground 

water 34 m1l.l10D gallona per 

clq; known use or aurtaoe water 

about 115 mllliOD gallaas per 

dq, including scae ot the 

manutaoturiD& use. 

Estimated cbaestic use ot grouDil 

water 20 llil.liOD gall.caa per cJq 1 

ot surface water 5 million gal.loDa 

per dq. 

Scarcit:y ot shallow grouD4 water 

tor domestic suppq in SCII8 

areu. Domestic use ot artesian 

water estimated 22 m1l.lloD gall.ODs 

per dq 1 ot surf'aoe water 18 

JDi.l.l.1CD gallGDs per dq. Drainage 

and tlood problema; 11 peroent ot 

lands subject to overnov. PoteDtial pollution or streama. 

Data on ground water to permit 

increased use; data on tlov ot 

small stre81118. 

Data OD aw.UabUit:y ot water trca 

wlla aad spriDgaJ on strea tlov. 

Oocarrence and potential )'1e14 ot 

artesian aquifere J avail.abUi't7 ot 

•reJected recharge.• Data GD 

atreaa tlov aDC1. potential power-d• 

sites. 

Large surtace-vater supplies available but 

reservoirs needed. Small stre&llll with 

reservoirs will be main source or water tor 

all but a rev or the largest citiea. Control 

ot pollution imperative. Moderate ground-water 

supplies available 1t adequate studies are made to evaluate ditterent types ot rocks u aquitera. Erosion control on .f'81"118 and roadaides essential to prevent sUtat1on ot 

reservoirs. 

Eatmated 300 111l.liOD gallODa per dq available traa vella and spriDgs. Large surface 

supplies avallableJ reservoirs needed. 

Large undeveloped suJJP17 ot arteaian water -

recharge area tor lower Coastal Pldll. Large 

eurtace supplies avaUable becauee ground-water 

reservoir• provide natural equalization ot 

seasonal tlov. Potentially one ot the finest 

sources ot great aounts ot best-qaalitJ industrial supplies J area lacks onl.:y tr81'18portatiOD 

facilities tor development. 

~ 
~t1Daed 

Area or Det1ciencies ill Corrective measures and 

suMeat Current situatioll_ _ illtomat1on turt;bar <lavelowent 

Lower Coastal PlaiD Estimated domestic and SDdustrial use ot groulld water 150 lll1111on 

gallaDB per day, ot surface 

vater 6 mlllion gallons per da7. 

Much waste ot fiowing artesian 

vater :In low areu. No regional 

overdratt ot groul'Jd water, blat 

potential salt-water encroachment :In Saftllftllh area. Sballov 

ground water scarce ill so. 

areas. About 15 percent ot 

lands subject to fioodq. 

Scarcit7 ot daa sitee tor pover. 

Sate yield ot ground-water reservoirs, 

especian,. 1n coastal areas where 

overdratt 1D87 cause salt-vater 

encroachment. Data on atre811l tlov, 

especially ot small streams • IDtormation especially needed on tlov iD 

swamps 1n broad river bottoms and 

across deltas • 

Larse supplies ot grouDi aDd surface water 

available it properly developed. $-.11 

rivers require large reservoir storage tor 

development. Larger rivers, vell reg-oll.ated 

by ground-water storage in upper Coastal 

Plain, have abundant water but riTer swamps 

remain flooded tor long periods. 'ExteDS1ve 

drainage, fiood protection, and bridging 

needed. 

w 

...., 
1.4* 

Id.eho is a ma.jor contributor to stregs originating in or passing through State. Sut"fr,ce we.ter is lergely epnropriated or e~ri!IF!.rked in mP.ny basins, 

however, and much irrigable land remains which must be irriga.ted with ground WAter, if at all. Irrigation mainly in southern part of StRte, less essen- tial in north, which contributes much water used for power generation downstream. Data on groUDd water are grossly in~dequA.te to detet'IDine areas of 

l)otentiE!l irrie,ation from WP.lls, and of the effects on su'rle.ce water so as to permit co"rdiMted development and prevent both interference 'and wp,ste. 

Potentir.·lities are CCinsit:erable, but basis for design and development is largely lacking. Im.ta on quality of evfilable water end changes caused by use B.re needed to evaluate life of existing ar.d proposed p-cojeet.-. EstimP.ted ground-water draft for irrigation ~1 thin 2 to 5 ye~re will be perhaps 4 mil lion 

acre-feet, plus a large P..mount for other uses. 

Area or Deficienciea in. Corrective measures BDCl 

subject Current situation information further devPlopment 

XooteMi River .Basin 

Clark Fork-Pend Oreille 

Basin 

Sookene River Basin - RPthdrum Prairie 

!'lood-oontrol problems. Coordinetion of present and proposed power developments with 

British Columbia, Washington, am 

Oregon. Little i rrigEttion with 

surface water; most ia "aub1rrt.p. 

tion• in areas of shellow veter 

·table. llrcess ground wa.ter reauirea drainage. 

Little use of surf~ce water in 

Idaho, acept. for tnnapor\at1oa 

of logs and for recrf'~.tion. lio. 

iJ111'X)rtant ground-water problema 

within surface drei~~e basin ex- cept determinAtion of underflow 

froJD Ieke Pend Oreille. 

Flood threat above Coeur d'Alene 

LRke. Sedim~nt8tion and mining 

pollution of CoP11r d'Alene River. 

Hayden Lake, which has no Mtural su'."'f~.ce oatlet, has just risen 

to }ltghest st~e of record, and bo~iering recreational_property 

is being d.ama€ed. Present groun\- ~et~r development largelY for 

domestic and farm sunpliea. 

AlterDRte means of flood control 

and utilization of WB.ter, esoeeially 

for -power generation, eoordineted 

with downst:eam u.~era; effecta of 

'PT'O'DOSAd projects uostreaJD (Libby or alternative project); rAl~tion of 

river level and wate~ table; sedimentation in rive,. chAnnel; continued obt~~ervation of g1'0and-water levels to guide 

dreinage operations. 

Possibil~t,y of increaAi~ storage in Pend 

Oreille ·LPke; of sdjtistme~t of stor~ 

Arid fl~~ re~i~ements to recreational uses. Flow an~\ slope of Clark Fork River for use in dam design, especially to permit co~ 

nerison of flow and slope between Sandpoint 

and Alb~ni Fslls before end after construct ion of ment Falls Ian. Date needed on 

Co~rdtnated development of surface water 

for different uses. Drainage of waterlogged ereas, guided by E!dequate infor1112tion. 

flaw of tributeriea. General ground-water 

data needed, especiallY on quantity ~f underflow from Leks Pf'nd Oreille to Spokane Ve~ley. 

StwUea of ru. terhqte means of flood control 

and w~ter uUlization. Dete-rmins.tion of p'."'~sent gro'xnd-water flow into Sookane River 

And of "'T.'Obable chonges c:Aused by propoaed 

new irrigation p!"oject on :&thdrum F-rairie 

and by increased stnrege in Pen~ Oreille Lake, 

in relAtion to power and ir~igation uses do~ 

stream. Intensive 'tudy of ~P.lations of 

ground snd su'!"fa.ce WA.ter P.nd of hydroloe,1.c 

regimen .as a whole. 

w 

()I) 
Area or sub.1e.c.t 

Clearwater Biver Basin 

Selmon R1 ver .Ba.ain 

Weiser River Basin 

P,qet te Basin 

Current situation 

nood and sedimentation probleme. Few large ground-water 

developments. Overdraft in 

Moscow area; inteTference b&-

tween uses in same aqu.if ere in 

Idaho. and Washington. Lewiston 

and some other towns have had 

trouble in getting enough water. 

ielativelf little development 

in basin; about 100,000 acres 1 rriga.ted. 

About .60,600 scree irrigated, 

about a third needs supplemental 

water. .Additional land susceptible to ir~iga.tion. _ _».cu_1J)pJ!lent 

diffica.lt because of aca~tere4·-­

irrigated and irrigable acresges;--

Difficult, in obtaining adequate 

ground water in places~ as for 

Ci'ty of Weiser. 

Beed for adjustment of water 

rights in connection with proposed 

increased-irrigation and export~ 

tion of water to Boise Basin. 

Waterlogging in lower ~ette 

Valle7. Adjustment of storage in 

P91e~te Ie1te to fit increased re- crflati,.,nal use. Balance between 

surface-water and ground-water uaf!ll. 

Deficiencies in 

infon.ation 

Basic data on surface water to 

guide existing and proposed 

developments are very meager. Information need on ground-water resources of whole basin. Palouse Basin promising 

for research on relation of ground-water 

levels to stream now, for predicting l~w flows. Local cruality-of-water studiea 

needed. -

Opportuni tiee for reseAl'ch on some relations of runoff to geology and topograp~, 

precipitation. temperature, and vegetative cover in a major basin 11 t tle affected by 

regulation. Data needed on ground water 

in Lemhi and ;PaaiMrol Vl!ll.leys, eaoecialcy 

if surface-water irrigation is developed 

as proposed. General ground-water studies 

needed in main part of be.sin to detel'lline 

potentialities; detailed studiea needed in 

local areas. 

Additional stream-flow recorda and reser- voir-content data to facilitate distrib~ 

tion of water for irrigation. Pbssibility 

of furniShing additional water for new or inadequately irrige.ted laDis (considerable 

studi•s made b,y Bureau of Reclamation). St~ needed to determine grolm.d.-water 

potential, relation of potential pumping 

to reclamation of wet lands, etc. 

Additional streem-flow records to guide 

reservoir-operation, water "routing," 

runoff prediction; more accurate data on reservoir content. ~orougb ground-water 

st~. 

Corrective measures and 

further develooment 

Po~sible undeveloped sources in or neer Moscow area. Ground-water potential con- siderable but largely unknown. 

Possibilities for intermountain diversions 

to other basins. Several plans proposed, 

but o~ reoonnaiesance studies made so fu. 

.Additional surface- and ground-wa.ter 

development appears to be possible if adequate studies are made. 

Pumping to relieve WAterlogging and peTmdt 

increased irrigation. Considerable increased development of surface and ground 

water possible if done on bAsis of better 

data than now available. Large diversion 

to Boise Basin being considered. 

~ 
Area or sub.iect 

Boise River Baain 

Snake Biver Basin 

Uoper Beain in IdahO 

(downstream to Milner 

Dam) 

Current sit~tion 

Boise River essential~ ful~ 

used for irrigation, ad.d.i tionsl 

water needed, even in aver~ 

yeE'rs. lktensi ve waterlogging from 

irrigation. SediJEntation of 

Arrowrock end Iuclq Peak Reservoirs 

and river channel above Jegle~ 

Id•hp - Ooatipyad 

Deficiencies in ~nformation 

Comprehensive ground-water st~ 

needed to detennine feasibilit7 

of dr~inage end supplementel 

irrigation 'b7 pumping from wells. 

Large basin of diverse geologic Forms large and complex hJd,rologic 

and hldrologic chal"actedstics. tmi t in Idaho and adjacent Str:>tes in 

Can be divided into Opper and which basic data are scat tend and 

Central Basins at Milner Dam, R.bove greatl1 inadequate to guide maximum 

which appropriation is so complete use and equitable allocation of water. 

that in time of low flow only 9nrface water and ground water cannot 

enough water passes dam to meet down- be considered separate1J. 

stream power ri~~tr. 

Corrective measures and 

further develol)Jilent 

Available data indicete substantial 

part of wetcr nP.eded can be obtAined by 

pWilPing from wells, which would also lower 

water lev8'ls and reli~e waterla,glac. 

Diversion of surface water to Moatain Home 

district considered; to be replaced in part 'b7 di Yersioa froa Pa,ette Buia. 

Integrated development of w110le ba.ain baseQ. on hydrologic studies· of which onlf a small 

fraction have been made. Follo,•ing discuasion gives Onlf a piecemeal idea Of COIDplexitJ of problem au:l need for data. 

About 1,175,000 acres irrigated; .AdditioDal stream-flow data for operation Palisades Reservoir and Hoback Reservoir in 

total diversion in 1949 irrigation of Palisades and Bobeek Reservoirs and W1oming proposed for storage of l,~oo,ooo 

aeaaon.7,S40,000 acTe-feet. Six for operation of compect. Additional and about. 1,250,000 acre-feet, respectively. 

reservoirs stons 2,8'72,000 acre-feet. snow surveys for prediction of runoff. Uoper Snake River Qompact ~proved by Idaho 

Industrial uses small, except for Ground water in Beneya Fork and Teton and Wyoming. Minidoka. North Side Pumping 

power. Additional storage needed Basins. Stream-flow data to determine Division and private users plen to pump up to 

for proposed inc-reased irriga.tinn. contribution frCJD stream to ground water 600,000 acre-feet per 7eer. Increased irriga--

Problems include insteratate division in Lost Bive~aver ~k district. De- tion in Bladkfoo~ortneuf district should be 

of water with 'ly'oming, segregation of teiled ground~at'!!r atuq !of entire lost controlled so as to intetl'.~l':"8 __ a.a little as 

natUl"al and stored water, possible River-Beaver Creek dfstrict;. availability possible with downstreAJD4_.U8ea9 ~et !"educe or interference between surface-water of grown water at econ'llllical depth. prevent wa.terlogging. Iricreased storage in 

and ground-water uses, and allocation Depth and availability of groU!ld water be- Raft River Valler: integn;-ted development of 

of water within basin. .Additional neath Central Lava Plain; rela.tion to sur- ground water and surface water. 

water needed in Lost River-Beaver face wtttl'!r af proposed Minidoka and other. 

Creek district. Leek of sufficient develonments. Additional stream-flow data 

over-all supply for Mtn Lake-Beaver for Bl~dkfoot...,Jtortneuf district, including 

Basin; interfey-ence between ground- effect on return flow of increased irriwater and suT"f'ace-water. uses. W."iter p.tion A.t Fo.rt Ball and Mi_cha.ud. _Rela~io" 

Hede4 tor Central lava Plala, DDV of 6&01D1Cl water :ut lfatt !l1ver Yallq to 

aaecl -~tor grasiJtc. Critical Late·Walco~, Jtosaibil1t7 of grow:Jd. water 

Med tor mre irrigatioa •ter ia uae 1a Gooae Creek :Baaia to relieve sllortlatt 11vezo Val.lqt. Sbortap ef ...,. ace ot surface water. · face water tor good arable laa41a 

Goose Creek aDd Salm• ra:us Creek 

:&ulna; conflict vUh 

t 
Area or subj~~t___ Current sUuation 

Unper '&.sin in Idaho 

(down stream to Milner 

Dem 

( :-ontinUPd) 

Central Basin (Milner 

Dam to Hells Cel\Von dam 

site; exelwiing tributar,y Boise, Payette, and 

Weiser Basins, t~e~ted 

sepgrately). 

Me.lad-Deep Creek 

District 

Nevada interests over water r~hts. Shallow gTOund water 

polluted by ur.dergroUDd sewage 

disposal at Burley, lmpert, and 

ma~ other localities. 

Irrigation along main stem smell so fsr; ;:)l')wer use extensive and in- e~easiQg. Superimposition of ~roposP.d on existing ~rojeets 'rlll ere- ate difficult problems of management 

and allocation of water. Sttrfaee 

~~·~ · fully eppropt"iated in Wood 

River Basin; additional water needed; 

interference between surface-water 

and increasing ground-water use. Surface water rather fully appropriated 

in TWin F8lls district and groundwater use ine'!"eal!i.ng; interference 

between. wells and with surface water; 

interstate rights; waterlogging from 

irrigation, especia1.17 in South Side 

project. Water needed for extensive 

anreclaimed la.nde in Mountain lbme 

district; waterlogging will occur aa 

soils are tight. Similar problems ill 

Orand View-Bruneau district in eonn.ec>-

tion with~ropoeed.Braneau ~roject. 

Probl•s of water shortage. wa.t·Jrloeging, drainage, . ..ate ••. in parte of ~e Basin in<IdabD similar to . those in Payette 8nd lJOiae Ba.siu. 

Drains to Great Basin. Considerable 

ground-water developrnent in Malad 

Valey but probably DO overdevelopment. Severe shortage of surf ace 

water in Deep Creek Valley. Shallow 

ground water not abUDiant. Poesible interfe~ence between ground-water and 

surface-water usee; interstate aspects. 

Idahp - OontiDU!d 

Deficiencies in 

infometion 

Availability of water for large unre- elaimed Areas b~tween Milner and Weiser. 

Effect of propo_~ power, flood-control, 

and reclamation projects on ~resent projects. Data for ooeration of·snak~_River 

Compact. 'Be11ition of Magie nroject to . others proposed in Wood R:h'er Basin; atent af interfP.renee bet~een surfaee-~ter 

and ground-wate~ uses. Chf.lra.eteristies of 

aquifers in Twin Falls district and proper 

well-construction methods. Feasibility of 

ground-water pumping and other drainage 

methods to prevent waterlogging in Mountain 

Home project. Same for Brunetm. project and 

Owyhee Basin. 

Comprehensive ground-water. studies in 

whole di~triet, especially in Deep Creek 

Valley to dete-rmine avei lability of deep 

water, and to determine rela.tion of s\Wface water to grOund water. ~ta for 

control of artesian wells end underground migration of water in MAlad Valley. 

Co!"reetive mel'lsures and 

furtper development 

frol)Osed irrigetion developments include 400,000-aere Bruneau project and 

jSO,ooo-aere MountRin Ebme project. 

Carey BeserYoir on Little Wood Biver 

l'eing enla.:tged. Ground-water development· 

may b~ posSible in p;::arts of Wood River 

Basin to relieve surface-water shortage. Same in TWin Falls district. but complicated by low yields of wells. Proposed 

tirst unit of Mountein Home project involves diversion from Boise Basin for 

230,000 acres, to be reolaeed in part by 

water from P~et.te Besin. Operation of 

entire ).buntain Home project to avoid 

weterlogging; same for proposed Bruneau 

project. Ground-water pumping mq be more economical or otherwise preferable to sUl'-

fAee-owater use in parts of Bruneau project~ 

Efforts to seal Elkhorn Reservoir con- tinuing. Samaria Reservoir No. 2 and 

Deep Creek Reservoir No. 2 completed 

reoentlf. Additional small reservoir 

units proposed on Mal ad River tri but aries. 

~ 
I1em - ContiDU!C\ 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective .llleasures end 

aub iect Cu.rrjmt tit]lation information furtl"..er development 

Bear River Basin Drains to Great Basin in Utah. 

About 1,000,000 acre-feet per year 

used in Idaho. W.Joming, end Utah, 

-but about 7SO,OOO BOre-feet "Der yeer 

wastes to Great 3al t Lake in fleoda. 

Controversy aDDng St~tes on water 

rights. 

Comprel"o..ensive water-resources inventory; basic data of ell types veey 

meager. 

Additional storage to prevent flood 

waste and dr,y-season shortage; interstP.te 

compact. Integrated development ~f both 

surface water am ground water. 

t; 

Illinoi! 

Ov-er-all water resources adequate and cspable of large additioDal development. Problems of local shortagea, fiood control 8Jld routing, pollutioa, 

end reservoir sedimentation. Ground water scarce in southern pert of State for substantial uses, except loca1}7. Coordinated studf of interstate aspects 

Of deep aquifere of northern Illinois am southern Wisconsin eventuall7 1187 be needed. State Water and Geological Sorveys have made extensive ground• 

water studies aDd are actively purauiug qstematic prograaa. Surface-water data needed for some of smaller streaaa. 

Deficiencies in Corrective mee.sures and 

-~ .sub~t _ Current aituatioa information further develooment 

Draince and flood 

control 

Stream pollution 

'Reservoir sedimentation 

Ground water for IIWd.-

cipal use 

Bortbeaytern Illinois, 

includinc Chicago and 

Joliet area.e 

Widespread and increaailtg troblell8, due 

in part to encroachment of growing cities on river flood plains, and restriction or lack: c£ maintenance of channels. 

Pollution by domestic ani industrial 

waste. ia a awaber of heavily populated areas. Financing amicipal treatment works is a major problem. 

Mmy mnicipal reservoirs have lost a 

substantial part of their capac1t7. 

A DDDber of cities, as demand bas increuecl beyond capaci v of local groUDd.-

water sources, have shifted from ear~ 

ground-water to surface supplies for 

public use, inclalinc Springfield, 

BloomiDgton, Decatur, and aome IIID8ller 

cities aDd towns. 

Chicago and some 59 other amicipali ties 

in metropolitan area obtain water from 

Ieke Michigan, but 1118D7 industries in 

Chicago mi some suburban Blmicipali ties use ground water, approxilllateq 23 percent 

from aballow limestones and glacial drift 

and 77 percent from deep aquifers, chiefly 

Galesville sanistone. Deep aquifers had 

large initial rtelds but appear to be of o~ derate permeability, aDd heavy 

p:lq)iJtC is at expense of vi thdraval from 

storap. BoapUIIIpiDg levels, formerq near 

Studies of effect of ei ty growth 

in decreasing infiltration and increasi~ rapidity of nmoff. 

Studies of flood routi~ 

Studies of extent and effect of 

pollution and methods of reduci~ 

it; being made by State but hampered 

by lack of funds and personnel. 

Studies of extent of sedimentatioa 

8Dd methods of erosion control 

(beiug made by State). 

More data on availability of ground 

water, to determine whether aclditional development might be more 

economical than surf ace-water develop- ment~ being gathered by State agencies 

in State-wide ground-water studiea and 

in detailed atodies of problem ~eaa. 

Increase in channel capacities as needed 

to compensate for increased runoff; prevention of encroachment on chaunels. 

Systematic, continuirlg program of channel 

maintenance. 

Public education on necessity c£ control; 

making rapid progress. A number of iD--

dustries have made substantial progress 

in alleviating pollution by industrial 

wastes. 

Problem receiving increased recognition. 

Baed for erosion control and for 1Dw 

creasing reservoir capacity for a given 

size of drainage Bl:'ea. 

State agencies have been actively The economics of deep pump settings, a dis- at~ this area since 1942, greatly couraging factor in further ground-water 

exteming previotlS stll.dies; will re- development. is stimulating a shift from 

sult in <JD8!1ti tative apuraisala of ea:fe ground water to lake water. The effect on P<>tential yields in the areaa of heavy lake level probably will be negligible. 

development. However, increased withdrawals. if 8111, 

from the lake for sewage dilution in the 

Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers J111J'3' require interstate and intel'Dfl.tioDal agre&-

ment. 

~ 
Illinois - continued 

Deficiencies 1a 

Area or aub..ittct_\ _ _Qur.rent_ •ituation __ intorm.tioa 

Borth8aatern Illinois, 

includiDC Chicago aDd 

Joliet areas 

(continued) 

Peoria area. 

Champa.ip-UrbaDa Area 

Eaat St. IDaie Area 

the il"'\1114 mrface, are DOW froa 

300 to 450 feet below it, but etill 

850 to 1,000 feet above the top of 

the Galesville eandetoDe. Increasing depths of P\liiiP aettiDgS b7 reason of cost are discouragiDg 

further groundr-water development ia 

the local heavil7 pumped area &lid 

encouragiDg an increasiQg use of 

Lake Michl&an water. SaM aquifers 

tawed in southeutera Wisconsia aDd 

to a emaller exteat in Jbrthwestern 

Indiaaa; potential interstate probl•. 

but Degl.igible so far. 

~cal overpw~piDg reported. 

Fo1'118r local overpumpiag largeq 

remedied by develop!Blt of new growat\-

water sources outside citJ', based on ctensi ve studies by State. 

IDeal overpu~~piJIC reported, but water 

table DOt yet depressecl enough to iaduce larp-acale b.f'iltratioa fra 

Missilaippi liver. 

Stmies to determine groundwater potential outside area 

of bea.V)F pnmpiztg, 8lld also the 

practicability of artificial recharge and "induced infiltratioa" 

potentiality of llliDo1a River 

(extensive studies being made by 

State). 

Detailed geologl.c eDd }Vdrologic 

at~ of alluvial~~ateriala with 

respect to ri ver-infiltratloa possibilities; Wlier W8J b7 State. 

Cbrrective measures and 

further devel0'1:11118nt 

Available data suggest that IlliD01a 

River J1t1!J:1 recharge water-beariZJC 

gravel& substantiall.T; thus, sdd1 tional 

water might be obtained by locatiDg wells 

1'188.rer river. 

Large additional au:ppliea probably available by induced infiltratioa from 

Mississippi Biver, or froa wells located 

awa:r froa present areaa of hea'97 pumpiag. 

t 
!!!!~ 

Bo serious over-all shortage of water. Some local problema of shortage, IDBDJ of which are due more to economic than to h¥drologic factors. Problema of flood cnntrol and prediction, qydrologic factors in bridge design, and pollution of streams and local pollution of ground water. Present water 

use, exclusive of power production, estimated at 660 lllillion gallons a dq, :t'IS surface water am 385 gt"'und water. U:l.t"ge increased use pouible in most 

areas, but basic data inadequate for locating additional supplies to meet deficiencies and provide for increaaed uae. Data on quality- of water end sedimentation especially meager. Iergest ground-water supplies available in n<rthern t11110-thirds of State. 

Area or tu.~;:;.oo.ir.::oe .... ct....__._ ..... 

Flood control 

Pollution 

Public water 1uppl7 

Industrial groundwater euppl7 in 

general 

Car:rent 8i tu.ation 

Flood problems exist in practie4l.y all 

basins of State, especially serious in 

Wabuh aDd White River besine. Lack of 

data on flow of small basins hamper• 

proper bridge and culvert desip aDl 

erosion-control activities. 

Widespread pollution of st~s and some l.Ws. Local pollution of wells. 

Genet"ally adequate. lack of known 

additional supply hampen lllJlicipal 

and industrial growth in JD8D1 localitiel, especially those dependent on ground-water suppq. Original develop-

'!tP.Dt generally aot baaed on adequate at~ of bfdrologic factors. Critical 

shortages at Bloomington aDd potential 

shortages and pollution problems in 

lbacatetack Biver Basin. Potential 

ground-water shortages at New Castle, 

Elwood, and J118D7 others. 

Few serious shortages reported. Mm7 

industries unable to l~cate in otherwise 

desirable erees because of lack of assur- ance of adequate water supply. 

Deficiencies in 

infol"lDEltion 

Data on flow characteristics and 

maximum discha~ge relations under 

varioua levee condi tiona ere inadequate. Studies of major basins 

under W8'3 by Arrq Engineers and of 

miaor basins by IDiiana nood Control 

and Water Resources Conmiasion. Data 

on floOO. flows and flow characteristics o~ small basins inadequate. 

llbttent of pollution end methods of 

abatement, especial]Jr for treating 

industrial wastes for ptiblio-bealth 

end recreatioDal needs; situation 

not knnwn. Area.s of ground.-water 

pollution not determined. Pollution 

of major streams and basins beiDg 

studied by Indiana Pollution Board 

and State Bo8rd of Health. 

Information on surface-water supply 

generally adequate except for SIDall 

basins, IIISDY or which are used for 

.lllWlicipal supply. Data on extent, 

recharge, and perennial yield of gro~water reservoirs inadequate. 

Detailed ground-we.ter studies needed 

to determine adequacy of local sources which ~ly 281 of 323 municipal 

_,atems and 92 of the 260 million gallons a dq used for municipal supply. 

Data on asfe yield of ground-wF.t.ter 

reset"Voin inadequate; needed to en- cout"age industrial growth. 

-------·---------

Storage reservoir considered for 

Bloomington. Reserv'>ir needed for 

Musca.tatuek Basin. 

lftrge sunplies available but muat be 

developed on besis of data yet to be 

gathet"ed, to prevent overdevelopment. 

~ 
IDdiay • ContiDa.ed 

Daficienciea in Corrective measures and 

~or a~ect Om-rent ei tuation iD:f'ormation further development 

~lity-of-water aDd Serious lack of data on quality of water 

sedimentation problem• and suitability for various usee. BO sedimentation studiee under WQ. 

Indianapolis area Present supply for Indianapolis adequate; more surface storage or greater use of ground-water storage necess817 

for future growth of city. Ground-water 

situation critical in 1941 but baa t.-

proved since, owing to reduced consUJIIPtion and increased ~recipitatioa. GroUDd 

water used mainly for indutrial purpoeea. 

Chemical quality-of-water data 

needed generally, especially in southwestern part of State. Sedimentation 

studiee needed especially in Wabash, 

White, Maumee, and St. Joseph basin• 

and in 81D8ll basins in southern part 

of State. ~ity-of-water data now being collected ae part of ground-water 

investigations. 

Bevised estimate of perennial yield; 

relation of pumping to flow of West 

Fork of White Biver. lavestigation 

of grOUDd-water supplies in residential 

fdnge area of Marion Count1 DOW in 

progreee. 

~ 
!e 

'lo ewer-all shortage of w.ter, bQt Dlllerous probleu of flood control, drainage, inadequae'l' of water in drf periods, pollution, and sedimentation. 

Local critical shortages of tm.rf'ace and ground water. Basic data inadequate. Only cities on Mississippi and Missouri Rivera have aesur811Ce of large 

surface-water supplies without building storage reservoirs. Estimated total use of gronnd water .340 million gallons a day, modere.te to large edditioJUI]. aappliea available outside heaviq pumped &Naa ia mrtheastera two-thirds of State aDd along Missouri 8!Jd Mississippi Rivers. Bo estimate of 

surface-water use available. 

ArM or _aub.ie_ct_ ~ _ ~rent ai tuation 

Ground-water shortages 

Surface-water shortages 

and pollution 

nood and sediment 

problema 

Southern Iowa 

Water levels down to critical point in 

shallow aquifer at Cedar Bapids. DeeliM 

at Mason Ci q; si taation ID81' beco• 

critical. ~ become critical also at 

Oskaloosa. 

Inadequate water in atre818 duriu: 

period of low flow to provide safficien1i 

water auppl7 and dilution of pollutilte 

materials. Situation critical at Ottumwa, 

Mason City, Waterloo. and Fort Dodge; 

serious at Des Moines, Ames, aD1 Cedar 

Rapids. Similar situations may develop 

in any city of 10,000 or more in next few 

yeara. 

Acute flOod proble• on Indian Creek at 

Council Blaffa, Des Moiaea River below 

Des Moines, Black Hawk Creek and Cedar 

River at Waterloo, Per17 Creek at Sioux 

City, Iowa River and tributaries at 

Marshall town, Iowa River below Iowa City, 

and Boyer, Cbariton, and Grand Rivera, 

MlODg ~ others. Problem co~licated 

by deposition at silt in dwmela. 

In rougblr southern two tiers of counties 

productive aballow aquifers are genera 17 

absent and base now of streams is therefore lOw, cauaing shortage at water in period at low now, eapecial17 in drought 

yeara. Deeper aquifers not adequate]¥ 

tested. 

Deficiencies in 

infoma.tion 

Safe yield of aquifers used 

at present; potential addi• 

t ional supplies. 

Additional stream-flow data to 

determiae dependable yield of 

basins and '\o guide reservoir 

design, pollution control, water uae and conservation, flood COI)oo 

trol, rmd bri:i&e deatp. 

Studies to determine moat 

economical methods of flood and 

sediment control. Additional 

sediment data. 

Careful at~ to locate all 

potential sources of growld 

water. ~~face-water studies 

to locate sites for reservoirs. 

Corrective measu!"es and 

further develo-pment --~-

Deeper acpifers available at Cedar 

Rapids but wells more expensive. 

Storege reservoirs needed to permit 

increasing low flow; size and cost will 

depend on extent of pollution abatement 

found p~aeticable. Des Moines infiltration gallery depends on Baecoon River, 

supplemented by artificial recharge. 

Possibly other cities could make stmilar 

developments. 

Erosion and sediment control. Soil 

Conservation Seriice.has begun large 

soil-conservation project in Little 

Sioux Baain. 

Increased aartace-water storage based on moat economical design. 

t; 
!9.!A - Contigcl 

DeficieDCie• in Corrective mea.euree and further 

Area or IUb iect _ ~··- _ _ ____ . <brrent •1 tuation iAfonaation _ _ __ __ ~ develtmDJe~--- __ -----~ 

We•tern lo• Procluctiw acpifen larC'l7 

abMDt beneath upl81148 8Dd iD .ull 

van.-. bllow aquifere of low 

pemeab111t7 mre wideap~ tbaa ia 

aouth, bowftr, aa4 bue flow of 

•tre .. mre adequate. 

.... 

~ 
~ 

Precipitation increases from west to east; productive water-bearing formations mainl7 in west and lacki~ in JDW:h of east. Thua surface runoff is 

relatively high in east, but low flow poorly sustained and ID8D,.V' -proble• of alternati.Qg fiood and shortage, 8114 erosion aJld sedimentatioJl. Ground water 

relatively abundant in west, but recharge low in High Plains upla:ads. ~ly one area of ground-water shortage in State at present, aDd gn-atq increased develop~~~nt possible, but it should be guided b7 proper estimates of optf.aJm yield. Mu.ch increased development of surface water possible; storl!&" needc 

in 1110st cases. Basic data reuonabq adequate for substantial part of State but investigative prograa far from coq>lete. Ground-water Sid sediment 

sta:lies needed to guide in-igation and sediment control. Streaa-flow data especially ladd.D& for aouth-central and southwestern parts of State. 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or aub.1ect Qsrrent aJ.,t,!lA1iion information further development 

Sou.tbeaatern Kansas 

High Plains 

Arksm as Val.le7 

Saliae and Republican 

Valle7e 

Water af gorxi quality from deep aquifer 

but pereDnial supply p~bBbly less tban 

current wi tbdrawal. Aquifer extends into 

Clcl.abcJia and Missouri; interst?te problem. 

Aquifer similar ~raulicall7 to Dakota 

sa.Distone. Problem of drainsge of llines 

in eballowerwater-beariDg limestones. 

Much water in storage aJXl ~ productive 

wells. Recharge low, however, though 

higher than in Texas; problem of determining bow to utilize stored water. 

Abundant ground water, but c'L poor ~i ty between Crea t Bend aDd Arkansas 

CitJ'. 

Ground water highly mineralized in 

places. 

Qumti tative appraisal of 

aquifer as a whole in the 

three States. Availabilit7 

of water from other sources. 

1\!ttermination of perennial 

yield and yield from ator918 

under various conditioas of 

development. 

Studies to determine how IDIIXillum 

amount of water of good qualit7 can be developed. 

Stalies aa above. 

Graduel reduction of draft on basis of 

interstate agreement, development of 

other sources as necessB17. Water 

available in shallower limestones but 

qualit7 not as good; may be useful for 

some purposes. 

Development of water to produce maximum 

benefit for longest time. 

'8 

lG 

ltepf:Mq 

Ovw-al.l water s1JPP].7 adecplte. MaD7 probl .. of alterDatiQg flood and ~rtage. GroUDd. water scarce 1n DIUCb. of State, and data scanty except 1n 

a ff!IW aDBl1. areas. Imento17 of present and pE'OspectiTe demaD4a is nece88817. 

Detic1enc1ea 1n 

Area. or ap.biect Ounnt eituation 1Dto~tion Corrective measures and further deveJgpgept 

Ohio Iii ver flood plain 

louisville area 

Jackson Pnrcbaae (area 

west of OamberlaDd River) 

Platean of Miaaiaaippia 

rocks 1n central, southcentral, and wet--central 

lentudl;r 

Ierge surface IUP'P17 aT&ilable fraa Cll1o 

Blver, and large undeYeloped grounkater 

aupply from valley fUl beneath plain. ~tal DlllD1c1pal use about 85 m1111on. gallone per dq, about 81 811!'face water 8Dd 

4 ground water. ~tal imuetrial use un- :k:Dovn, but more than SO million gallons per 

dq of . groUDd water and more than 600 

million· gallons per dq of surface water 

(gree.ter part for st~r generation). 

Blver badly polluted; too wazm 1n saamer 

for ~ industrial uses. Flood ~ 

serious al.oDC main st.. 

Oro~ter eituation critical earl7 1n 

-.r; iDp'oved great!¥ by cooperative 

fGIJrg!'My effort after safe yield of u:ist1Dg installations detel'ldned by comprehensive e1iu.4. ~1ment and use of Ohio 

Blver water still COJII)licated by pollution. 

Bapid 1Ddnstr1al apansion apected, due 

to cheap power and river transportation. 

lfeecl for cool water for 1Ddnstrial use 

will increaae rapidly. Lem4-draiDsge and 

fl.ooQ..c:ontrol probl .. due to flat svface. lbUcipal use of . ground water is 

S Jld.Uion. gallons per ~. of surface 

water(Paducah) • 3 million gallons per 

dq, 1Ddnstrial use UD1mown. 

About 4.5 million .gal~ne per 419 of 

surface water used for 24 towns and 1 

lld.U1on caJ.lons per da¥ of groUDd 

water for 21 towna. Inbtrial use ..U 

ba.t 1Dcreas1Dg. OroUDd •ter acant7 in 

aome areas, aa ie low flow of stnaa .., from main ataas. l1ood problaa aloDg 

lower Qaberl8114 11Ter. 

Availabili t7 of groUDd 

water aloDg river, mai.Dl7 

by '1ndu.cecl iDf'il tration." 

Studies of pollution and 

flood (X)ntrol. 

Couprebensive at~ of 

a.;roUnd -water resources. Data on flow of ..U 

streams, and on cpal1 ty 

and se4iment content of 

water. 

Ava11ab1li ty of ll"'UD4 

water for .all 1Ddnatries 

and towDa. Data on flow 

of smell streams, eapecial~ 

1n Green Biver :Baein. lata on quality, talq)erature, 8Jld 

Hd:lment loa4 of streams. 

Gr.tl.y increased use of ground and surface 

water possible. Rednotion of pollution 

needed, am gradu.aJ.l3 getting under wq by 

cooperative efforts of States and indnstries 

1n basin. Development of groUDd water by 

illdnced infiltration promisi~~g, aa water is 

cooler in SUDIDer even though derived large!¥ 

from river. Passage of water through river 

bed and ground appears to remove pollution. 

Flood control by construction of reservoirs on tributaries and protection structures on main strean. 

Large ad.di tional grouncloowMer supplies 

shown to be available northeast and southwest of city by induced infiltration. 

Large IAlPPlies of surface water available, 

but cool water needed in summer. Isrge 

ground-water Sllpplies known to exist, but 

almost no data on oCCUITenCe, quantity, and 

quality. 

lege supply available along Cl11o liiver. 

Modera.te to large ground-water supplies 

available in some areas unJ.erlsin by li•stone. 
Xentnsp - \9ptinue4 

Ana or aub:iect _ _. ~-~ ~t__ai~tion 

Western ooal field 

:Bl.uegraea regl.ua of 

mrtbeaa1;..eeatral leatadl;r 

.. tezon coal field 

About 2 million gallons per daT of IUI'-

faoe •ter \1884 for 14 to11D8 and 1 m11Uon 

galion. per dB¥ of gJ"OUDd water for 9 

toWill. IDduatrial uae mt 1aJovn. · .. a.J.l 

«ff&Dt1 ties of arteaiz ground watel' w1clel¥ 

avaU.able· but larp aappliea acarce. Dac11De ot water level at Bu.Yer DaD. Care 

needed to awid pollution of &round water o;y oil-field wastes; vater needed· tar repressuriDg. !'loocl and drainage p:-oblems, and dry-

,.-.u.nn shortage ot surf'aoe water. 

lluld.cipal -· of _._ 13 ll1l.lJa 

gallona ·per . &Jr of mrtaae water for 34 

1Daa. -" 1.5 to 1. ?5 .UU.On. pllou l)el" ~ 

of crouna vater tor 14 towns. Moat ground 

water· Uae4 18 tJ.oca il)riDp. ID4Datrial 

aD4 Nra1 uae mt kDoWil ba.t fairq lez'll• ~tal lrriptioa t1'0il wlle probab-t 

q viU 1D.creaae greatJ.7. Orotmd wter in 

outer part of regl.oa aca:rca aDd p:»or in 

cplity; aappl.iea for atock rai.ailtc cU.tfS,.. 

c:»l.t to obtain. •ter 1D limeatozae of mDel' BJ.aecraa• region erratic 1D occmTeDCe 

8114 abJect to pollution 1D pl.acea. Probt.a of atre• pollution, aborta&e 1D d'q 

pel'io4al and - f1oo41Dce 

About 5 million gallons per c1e¥ froll 

..u.-s 8114 2 million gallons per day 

froa wlla uaed for Plblic 111PP17. IndQ.t 

trial uae mt 1aJo1m but cbataDtial, ... pecial.q for coal1Dduatr7. local abortages of ground water w1. tb increaaiDC popo.-

la.tion of towna; Corbin and IoiJdon baft 

abaDdoDid wells in favor of aartece water. 

low grouncl..water •tora&e leada to tlaah 

nooc:ta end low flow 1D at:reaaa in dry 

weatbar; Pollution of stre••• eRJ)C!ciftl.ly 

at low etepe. 

Def"icieDCiea 1D 

information 

Ani.lab1l11i7 of ground 

wter and deptmaable yield 

vi th different well apao- iDca· lletboda of 'llDdel'-· goUDA diapoaal ot oi],.. 

field waates without pb],. 

lutiDc usable water. Data 

on flow of ..n • .-... IID4.qaalit7 ol water. 

Occurrence at groUDd 

water in outer p8' t of 

recion. Data on flow of 

.aller at~, pollution 

arxl ID8thoda of flood control. 

QroUJ14..water atudies to 

ea.coo.rage li8Z1Iml economical use of th1ll resource. Stream-now clata for desip of noo&-mntro1 and 

flO¥-stabilization reservoirs. lAta on ¢1 t7 

of water, extent of pollotion, end aUt load. 

Corrective measures and: further deve1opuent 

Wider apaci.Dg of wells at Beaver Dam; poaaible ultt-.te use of surface water, now 

'be1o1Hl ecoDOIIic reach. Oouiderahle additioDal devel.l'-pnent of goaad water and 

eapeciall7 aurfaoe water possible if' pl.azmed on baaia of sound data. Isrp water BDPPll' 

aailable alo»g Ohio B1ver. 

~tar at~ 1D 1lmer Bluegraaa rec;J.on 

showed cloae correlation aiiODC geolog, topograp!v', aDd water, end 1ea great~ 1ncreaaeCl 

chance8 for obtaining 111Cceaaful wells. Similar stud~" Dee4ec:l 1D outer region, where con- 41 tioDB are evan more spotty. large auppq 

available along Ohio B1ver. 

~ 
knW'-

Ve17 large nppliu avail.&ble traa l.arp riftl'lt Missiasipp11 Atchatalqa, Red (qull\7 poor), Pearl, 8ld Sab!De RiYeN, aDd troll gr<JQD4. Mdzl 

probleu are fiood control, ctraiDap, aDd dz7 aeucm shortage ot eurtaoe water, and aome looal aDd ewn reg1oaal cmtrdevelopment ot IJ'OUDd water. 

!otal grouul-water •• eatiaa tecl to be mre tba 800 aW1o11 gall0118 per day. Buio data iiUidequate tor eOCDOIIioal plama1.Dg ot water 0011trol aDd ue. 

Little or no growd wter ot good qaaU.v a'ftilable ill aall area ill ws1i-oentral part, ill extreme soutberll part, ud ill sOIDe areas ill DOrthwatem 

.,..n ot State. 

Area or Detioielloies 1ll Correoti'N •asurea aD4 

nb.faat. Otlrrallt aituatiaa !:n.f'amatian ~ da'ftlOIIM!lt 

Southveaten Looieiaa 

Lake Oharlee area 

lev Orle8D8 area 

Joroo area 

Seucmal plllp1Dc trca nrtaoe 

•tree. to irrigate rioe laDda 

exoeed8 Datural. t1ov duriDc 

periods ot bal.cN-Dor.l I'VIJIItt • DviDI tbese periods, salt water 

illtrudes illto the strea. and causes Ol'Op 1088811 ot greater or lese depoee. .lboat 6601000 

aore-t88t ot nrtaoe water vu uec1 1D 1949. GroaD4 water 1a 

1l8ec1 to Srrigate Mar~ halt 

the total aoreqe UDler rice 

oaltivaticm; withdrawals---' 

to 400,000 to 600,ooo acre-tan 

per ,_.. OJ.ooaDCl.oowater lewl8 

118Dt 

cleol1JWtcJ 

beU.aftcl 

salt-vater 

OOOUI'I'111ce 

~ 

GrouDl-vater vitbdra.:L illorN8ecl 

1'I'Oill 2 llillioD gal.loDs per cJq 

m 1m to 60 Jdl.l.1oD gall .. per 

dq 1D 1949. Looal cwwpapiDc• 

PollutioD ot sartaoe water. 

Publia aappl1es troa M1ss:lssipp1. 

RiYer. .ur-ooadit10D1Da MMt 

1ndutr1al p.apege f1"CCIl wella Js · 50 aUliOD gallau per dq or 

more. Water lew1 deol11l1Dc• 

Poaeible salt-water ~. 

DralDage ani nooct-oontro1 pro~. 

GI'OUIIIII-water draft ot 20 ldllloD 

gal.l.oaa per cJq tor oU reliniltc• 

DeolJDiltg •tar 1ewlaJ •lt-wter ~t po11e~ ooaurr1Dc• 

CcaprebeDSiYe vatez-resouroea iJrntetigaticm (DOV UDder vq) sbaal4 be 

oont1Duecl to giw taotaal data 

requ1recl tor alleviatiDc worb to 

be OODStracted 011 8Urtaoe atrea. 

aDd detel'tliDatioD ot ..U.. Jiel4 

ot groUDd water vitbout salt-water 81101'0~nt, ud to guide .... ..,. 

_..... tor aasariDg acleqaate onzaU~. 

Detailecl •ter-reaoarou iDwa~ 

gatiaaa as above. Exteube ad 

CODtiDaDu reoords Oil qaallt7 of 

vater. 

StlJ47 to 4etea1De max1Jul rate 

ot ptlllp1Dg without 1Dduc1Ag saltwater 811C1'0achmeDt f'I'CIIIl 

Mississippi River or other aoaroea. 

DetaU.ecl ll'OUJIII-vater 8'tllcQ- - a bow. 

Storage or cli'teraion to • 8ft nood waters nov vaated to Galt ancl as~ dz7-eeuon 

aftilabllit7 ot wter, to meet present deticieDG7 &lld tu.ture Deeds J am to pemit reduomc ~ter vithdraval. to sate 7leld. Artificial reobarp it feasible. 

Wells caD be diatribltecl to avoid 1ooal onrpmlpiDg, bat queetioD whether 0011b1Ded draft 

tor 1Dduatr7 1 pabU.c np~, aDd rice 1rr1ptt.oD 

mq be in ezcess ot uta 1bdt. Pollutioa 

abtate.Dt 'M7 be DBcea...,.. Ar\Uioial 

Ncharp it practicable. 

Bo1diq ground-water vitbdraval. to sate 

)'ielcl. SprqdiDg valls aDc1 cieYel.O)al«lt ot 

DBV areu VOQJ.d poeaibl7 illcreaae 71el.c1. 

Art!ticial. recbarl8 it praaticable. 

0 above. 

¥! 
Ana 01' 

nbjeot 

Baton Roap area 

Other 4eol1Des 1D 

~terlewl8 

S011theutem LoaisiaDa 

Ie»H'm.....CC.t1DM4 

ean..at altutlaD 

Groaat •• 18 am soaroa f• 

pablic·llllll ctcaest!a 1IH8 aDS a 

larp IIOUI'Oit f• 11adutrial -· J Dll10h rlYer water uecl f~ :ladu8-

t17 SA v!DW. Gz:o\m~Sooww 

J~~DP~• abcMt '70 ll1ll1oJa gall.C1118 

per c!q. Water. left1s SA "llhallov" .... deoliiWI&, ~ oww4eftloped 1D 1Dc!utr1al dilltrJ.ot. 

Va\er lna1s cleol.lDiDc at 

Spr1DpW.~ lliadeD, RocJce, MoDroe1 

ButJoop, AeDndrla, aalll.lsabeth. 

ANM DOt. detlDl~ kDcNn to be 

Oftl'deftl.ope4. 

Waste ot water hoa tlCNI.Dc 

artesiall wll8 (est!mate4 35 

aUl.1aD gall.au per dq 1D 

st. '--7 Parlsh alaae). 

Muoh water 118e4l tor a'travbeft7 

1rrSpUaD 8llll pllbllo IRIPPlT. 

lo ser!Du probl• at ~t. 

DetloleolM 1D 

iDtomatioD 

Avail.abW\7, quDtlv, qaaliv, 8114 

temperature ot water troa deeper 

aqalten and Mlsslsalppl River 

allU'dua. 

CoaprebeDalw vater-resouroea ill'rest1aat1oas to deterad.De sate 71el4 ot 

kDo1lll aquiteJ'II, possible ooow:z eaoe ot other tresh-vater-baer1Dc II&Dila, 

ad posalble utlllsatlon ot .adltlonal. 

8111'f&ce-vater nppllee. 

GeDeral stud7 of water resources. 

Correotlft •uures aD4 

turther deftlop~at 

X..• npplles na1lable troa deeper aquifers blt water WUII8re Large supplies ot 

cool but bani water available trcll 

M1uualppl River allunwa, bQt pr1Dolpal.l7 

ao:roea rlwr trcm Baton Roue•• PoaslbUlt,' 

ot aak1Dg greater 1188 ot M1asias1ppl Rlvw 

ad ec.lte River waters • 

Water probebl7 &ftllable outside areas of 

deollDe 1t cle'NJ.oped pl"Opez"~ • 

Ve:r:r large auppl.J ot soft IJ.'O\Uflll water appears 

to be &ftllable bo.t neecls evaluation. Waste 

ot flowing artesian water, though it has aot 

caused overdevel.opaant1 should be reduced. 

Lara• aupplles ot good surface water aftllable. 

,., 

~·· 
~ 

Ablmda.nt over-all water aappl.7, with capa.cit7 for greatl7 increased development. 'lhree-quartera of State forested a.Di very ligbtl7 populated. 

Probabl7 aouethiDg leas than 10 million gallons per dq of groUDd water used b)' some 65 public qst•s and more than 8.:1 million gallons per dq of ~ 

face water b)' about 95 8)'8tema; total of 201 co.awrl.ties served. lew data on other uses of water. Some problema of pollution and flood control, 8lld 

local or d17-ceason shortagea of water for amaller uaers. AJ.ma. t m ground-water illforma.tion available for State. 

Deficiencies in ())rrective measures and 

Area or aub:Ject ~nt situation informatioa further development 

Stream pollution 

nooda 

GrountHra.ter supplies 

Farm water IU.l')olies in 

geaeral · 

Moat of Jllllin rivera show some pollution. 

A.ndroacoggin, Penobscot, am. Kennebec 

Rivers are tiiiOit£ 11<11 t serloua. Pre8UIIpscot 

River excessively contalllinated below 

Westbrook am. Se.co Bi wr beavil7 contaminated below Biddet<rd 8IId Se.co. 

Jloods are JM>t a seriov.a probl• in .,. t 

areas, partly becaa.se of regulation of 

rivers b7 reservoirs built for powr productiOD. Oreateat flood on record, ia 

1936, cauaed ~· of about 16,soo,ooo. Probl•s will increa.M with growth of 

population on land subject to overflow. 

Ground water used on only a Blll811 acale eo Geaeral ground-water at~ of 

far. 'Jhe few studies made so far, at whole State. 

:Bangor, lewiston and .Anlnrn, and PortlaDd, 

show no overd.evelopnent, 8Dd the few obae'!'lvation wells show DO decline. Ground water 

ia locall7 scarce, as at CoriDDa where ~ 

face wter is polluted aDd test drillinc for 

ground water bee been unsucceaaful so far. 

Shortages COIIDOn in dr7 weather. 

Pollution control began on Androscoggin u result (£ legal action. ~-r on Penobscot and Richmond on XenneO.c be.ve 

bad to bUild elaborate treatment plants 

to obtaiJl good water for public suppq, and Richmoud 1s seeldDg a new supply. 

Additional pollution control Deceasar,r. 

nood walla built at Madilon and Bumf'ord 

br private interests. 

Large ground-water supplies probably 

available in plac,s, principal17 glacial 

outwash gravel in vel.le)'B and plains of 

eoutb slope. Adequate studies needed to 

la:ate productive aquifera and so to erPcourep develop.nt, am to vovide basia 

for prevent1ag overdevelopaent. Town. ot 

South Paris has located an 8111Ple sup-plJ 

of £rowd water; Clinton auppl.7 Adequate. 

Artesian water known to be ave1lable at 

Portage aDd Presque Isle. Abundant !round• 

water supply loe~tted at Patten, for future use. 

Development of more adequste SUJ>Dlies, particular]¥ for fire protection. MeDT poDds now being built for this purpose. Ground 

water a ~ising source in ~ome Breas, but 

1Af.,nrm..ticnlackiJtC. 

'&'-

lltrzlg 

• over-all mortice of water. !otal uae of grouDd water about 100 llillion pl.lona per~. of fresh eurface water about 400 llillion gallou per 

dq (about 90 percent tor Baltimore aDd Wuh1Jtgton); plua about ~ llillion pllcma per~ of bracldah water traa Patapaco Rber tor induetrial uae 1D 

Baltt.ore. Probl- ere cbiefq econsc, re(!Uiriag careful stuq to find 110et ecoDOIIical solution, and baaic data on streaa flow, groom water, aD4 

q_aal.it;r ot water are tar fl'Oil adequate. ,-

Deticiacin in Corrective meesurea 8lld further 

Area-oor !9b legt Qu:rpt aitytion iuroration deve).ownt 

Appalachian area (western 

third of State) 

Pi~nt Plateau 

Coastal PlaiD- Weatern 

Sbore · 

Bal. tt.are area 

WaahiDCton IO.barbaD. .... 

Total use of water emall, bu.t abortapa 

occar 1D d17 weather becaDIIe of low 

ground-water atorap; etre.e ~. 

Ground water wide]¥ available 1D -.11 

quantitiee, but DO lJrp euppliea. Soil 

eroaion 1D 1BD7 farmed areaa aa1 etrea. 

geparalq turbid. 

GrouD4 water aoderate:q to hi&bl7 4eYeloped traa Bal.tilaore aortheaetward, w1 th so• cwerdnelopment. Iron content ot 

gi'0\1Dd water hi&b 1D eo. of the area. 

Local OYerpuiiPiag; eDC1'08Cbaent t1 ealt 

water troll Patapeco B1 wr in luge -part of 

area. of iDdwstriel vute in placee, 

larpq through defective vella. 7ew -.Jor 

well fie14a free of contaaination. !btal ~ter wi th4rawal .50 llilUOD. pl. lou 

per a., or mre in 1942i DOW 35 to IIJ liltlion l*llou per dq. Public eappl7 fl'Oil 

Guapowd.er ralle; sate ;rield. of 1" .Ulion 

gal. lou per U, esceeded ( 190 ~lllon cal• 

lou per ~ in 1949). 

DtwlopMnt of 81iburi»aal water eapo~, froa 

PatuDrtt Biwr 8Dil htbfeat Brancb of 

Allacoetia Biver, le bare!¥ k8ep1JtC }aCe 

Data on groua4 water 8114 

etre• now. ~ 

Beaercrch on occurrence of w.ter 

in the CCIII)lsX rocke, to cletermi:ae whebr cr1 teria C8Jl be 

eetabliahed for mre ew:cee8hl 

location of tboasaade of f81'11 ..a 

euburban wlle 

Buic etmiee of groml water 

hmer _, in practicall7 tbe 

whole area>. 

Oomprebenaive ground-water 

·~ completed. 

with dauDcl. .Aaacoatia River w.ter polluted. 

IDcreaaecl clevetop.mt of groUDd water vbere 

poaeible; etorage reeerYOire on atreaae u 

needed. 

Soil-conserYation practice• aeeclecl in 110M 

areaa. 

Ierp croand-water aappl1ee aYallable outside 

t.aviq puq;l8d areaa but potential ;rteld not 

known for entire area. EqJpl.e.ntsl irrigation 

fral vella p-oldaiDg if dane on bub of adetPtte date. 

llepair ot wells, spreSding of pumpage as practicable. 'l'mmel from Patapaco River neari~~g 

COIIPletlon; will add SO million gel lou per 48¥ to pabl1e auppl.7; or 95 ldllion gallou 

per 487 when proposed reaerYOir b boil t. 

About 35 ldllion pl.l.ona per ~ of sewece effiuent treated for i.ncSnetrial use to peradt 

retlaction of draft on contaainated vella. 

~ Gorce dam on Pa.tUDDt Biftr, to be co• 

pleted. in 1953, will increase total auppq to 

/IJ ail lion pl.lOD8 -per ~. ADecoatia Biver 

aappl.Jr _,.be abandoDecl. Consideration beiac 

civen to l.arpr aaDitar;r diatrict inclwliac 

lllicott City, Jnllapolia, Upper Marlboro, u4 

lockY1lle; available water fl'Oil Patuxent 8111 

l4.ttle Pat\lDilt -poaaibl;r about 150 aillion cal• 

lou par dq. 

"' • 
MsrzlaDd- Continued. 

Deficiencies in Corrective meaaurea aDd 

Area or aub.1ect Q.uorent situ.ati_QIL ___ ~ _ ____ _ ___ iD(Ql'Jll~ion --···-- ___ ftl!"ther devel()l)JIIent 

Coaatai Plain - lutern 

Shore 

Crisfield. 

Ocean Cit7 

Cambridp 

Baa to a 

Pocolioke 

Pollution aa4 eediMnt 

probl .. 

jbout 20 llillion pllona per cla_v of 

cround water used for public and doastic 

supplies. Stre81D8 aall am 1118DY brackilh in lower courses. Ground water high 

in iron in manr places. 

Ground water of -poor cpali \7. 

Ci t7 takiDg IDBXimD. 8110Uilt available 

vi th present pampa aDd wlls. 

Salt-water contamiation tbroa&b 

'lealq wells. 

lfa:Dicipal1t7 ad bdustriea clerive 

water from five aquifers ranciDc in , depth to u IUCb as 1,188 feet. 

UncertaintJ u to adequacv of 

present aappq. 

Potoaac Bber polluted b7 acid aiM 

draiDSP, 1Dluatr1al wute, aDd eewap 

in Id:e-Cbaberl&Dd area. aDd b7 aewap 

at lfaa!licton. Ji)DDoaq Biver carries 

ailt froa aoU eroaioa. Patepaeo Biver 

coat8111Dated 'b7 1D4uatr1al wute. 

Baaic ground-water atudiea 

(now under way in part a of 

area). 

Availability at better water; 

emal7ais at available data. 

Pampinc testa and other atu.diea 

to detel'lline yield of the 13 

iDdividual wells and of the 

different water-beariDg formationa. 

Detailed stuq to c!etel'ld.De 

levels at which 881 t •ter 

enters wlla. 

Detailed atuq ·to detel"'line 

quantity taken froa aDd safe 

yield ot eech aquifer. 

Yield aDd drDdowD of present 

wells; pamping teat of new well a. 

Studies of pollution ad ailt 

control (UDder we:~ for Moaocaey lliver). · 

Large additioDal ground-water supplies available if properl.7 planned and located on baaia 

of adequate date. Supplemental irrigation 

froa wells especial)Jr -prom!siDg. 

:Reconstruction of vella to aclade aelt water; 

l?cation of J;l8W vella 1f neceaaary to avoid 

contaainat1on. 

:a 
Maeaachusette 

Water &Tailable to aeet practica1.17 8f17 ~~eed, but ecoDOaic factors lild.t some of amaller devel~ta. Allloet all water soft (bard grOUDd water la 

"eetem llMatoae belt); growld water PD8l"al.l7 corrosive aad ao• h1&h in iroa. eapeciall7 ou. Cape Coc1 8Zid in northeastern Middlesex Coanv. Jfo silt ~robl-. Soae drought aDd fiood probl818. GroUDd water aYailable principa1J7 ia glacial depoal ta throQ&bout the State, especi8ll7 in eastern, aoutheaatem 

( includiDg Cape Oocl and nearbf islda), aDd west-central (Oonnecticnt Valley) parte of State; in bedrock in ext!'811118 western part and in parts of Oomaectica.t 

Val.lQ'. Beclrock fundabea small supplies for doMatic use throughout the State. .a.,ng basic-data needs are nov of small atreua. groundl-wa.ter studies incla41uc teat drilliDg and geopbpical studies 8Zid detel'llination of sate y1eld, aDd qUB].ity data for iDdustrial 8lld pollution-control uaea. 

Deficiencie1 in Corrective meRIUI"H a4 

Area or 1ub iect Oarrent si taatioa iDf'or-. tioa further d.evelgpnt 

Public ad iaduatrial 

aapplJ 

Pollution 

Salt-water encroacDaent 

Oroucbt• 

Groalld-vater depletioa 

Ia 1948, of 260 public q~teml aerviJtC 

98 percent t1 populatioa, l50 used lOO 

aillion pl.J.ots per 48ty of ground water 

aDd 110 used 300 llillion gallou uer ~ 

of lurface water. About 100 ld.llioa callou per 4a.T of groual wat• uae4 'b7 iadut!7, 81111 UDlr:DowD but II1Ch le.rpr .aoaat 

of surface water 'b7 indllatJ7. 

Serious problea of streaa and tidewater 

pollutioa. .About 33J llillion pllou per 

de7 of treated ad mltreated eewap 411-

eharpcl (300 into tidewater Dear Bolton), 

plus II1Ch i*strial waste. 

lot a aerioas probl• at present. Occurred 

in 011e public-auppl;r well field on Cape Cod 

and allo reported in one or mre cru.be1'!7-

irrigation area. 

Considerable d&.ta &Tailal)le; 

more needed. 

Proble UDder at• by aeveral 

a&enciea. 

Shortages coaaon in 8118l.ler towns vi th leal 

adequate supplies. · Occurrecl in 44 of 260 

co.wlitiea havinc public aupplie• ia 1949-SO. 

1lo pneral decliae of ground-water levels. 

llaJv' lballow well• "failed in laat 2 yeara 

becaaae of elm Qlht. 

Mach additional water available, but studies 

needed to locate unpolluted aource1 that caD 

be developed economically. 

Stre•a being cluaified by state hblic 

Bealtb Depa.rtmant5 Pollution-control moaaure1 

aaler _,. or beiJtS studied. 

Development of ground water near cout in 

accord.ance v1 th local hJdrologic condi tiou 

(not completel.7 known for MusachUMtta) aDd 

kDown physical prinei plea of fresh watel"-aalt 

water relatioDS. 

Probl8118 are eeOD.Oilic or due to lack of 

plmming. In both cases more adequate buic 

data J1B1 pe!"llit a eatiaf'acto17 solutloa. 

In moat caHI deeper wella have given adequate 

sappq. 

f) 
Area _or_ mb..1ect 

no• 

Suppleaantal irriptioa 

Water powr 

Quoreat aitaatioa 

J'loocl8 ia 1927, 1936, and 1938 affected 

36,000 acre• aD4 C8118ed ~of about 

tw,ooo.ooo. 

Practice 111 growi~~g- 2,049 acre• ill 

1939 ad U,3SS acrea in 1944. 

Larpq cleftloped - reported total 

24S, ?00 kilowatta, Jlo new larp 

reservoir a it •• P"ailable. PreaeDt 

atorace reported at s,a,ooo,ooo 

Cllbic feet. 

Kasaaohuaetts--ContiDued 

Defieieaciea ill Corrective measures aDd. 

iDf'onf.ltioa farther develOJ?J!!nt , • , .... , ••• 

Studies to detel'lliM 

availabili t7 ot the relative]¥ IIID811 aapplies Deecled, 

and to prevent local ove!'ldevelopment. _ 

local protection works mnstructed at 

Sprb&field, West SpriDgtield, BoJ.7oke, 

Qlloopee, Borthallpton, Haverhill, !Dwell, 

8Dil J'i tcbburg; in progress at .Adame u4 

Borth Adame. Three flood-control reservoirs 

built in State; one in Ve!W)nt and four ia 

lew Ballpabire on atre•• tributarJ to the 

Cormecti.-t aDl Merrimack Riven above 

Mueachueetts lille; 21 more ecbeduled for 

future, 110atl.7 in Vermont aD111Jew Baapshire. 

Practice baa lllCh promise. 11 tber surface 

water or grow¥1 water ean be used, depeDdiDg 

on which is available or cheaper. 

Uadeveloped power variousl.7 estimated at 

18,000 to l06,SOO kilowatts. 

(1-

,_., 
llichilau 

Nearly surrounded by the Nation's larcest fresh-water lakes, Michigan is often erroneously considered tree of water problems. State has enoraoue water potential, but there are local problema of groUDd-water overdevelopaenta etreaa and ground-water pollution, undesirable lake•leYel fluotuationsJ 

and floods and drainage. Moderate to large ground-water supplies available generally throughout the State with the exception of perimeter areas IUr* 

rounding the "!humb" and the western halt of the Northern Peninsula, available locally 1n the excepted areas. Basic data on ground water adequate tor a tew area&J accelerated ground-water, surtace-water, and quality-ot-water studiee needed. 

Area of Deficiencies in CorrectiTe measures and 

subject ~_rent e_ituation inforation -~ __ ___ f\lrthe~_~Telq~nt 

Water eupply Public-supply and doaestic use about 700 QuantitatiTe data on stream Establish a workable water-rights IJatea tor 

Drainage 

Flood control 

Late•leTel stabilisation 

aillion gallons per day, about 200 million flow and ground-water re- proper allocation of water and protection ot 

gallons per day ground water and 500 ail- sources. all water rights. 

lion gallons per day surface water (Detroit, 375 million gallons per day). Industrial use eattaated at about 2 billion 

gallons per day, aostly surface water. Irrigation use about 26,000 aore-feet for 

62,000 acres in 1949; inoreastns rapidly. 

Mostly surface water so tar but groundwater use increasing because of relatiTe 

aT&ilability and contused legal status of 

surtaoe-water rights. 

About 14,000 square ailes drained, soae inefficiently or oTerdrained. About 211 

million gallons per day pumped from iron 

mines in Iron RiTer district alone. Direct 

costs ot drainage range from 20 to 30 cents 

per ton ot ore produoedJ indirect coste 

perhaps 5 to 10 ti•s as great. 

Flood probleas in lower stretches of Kawkawlin, Clinton, Rouge, Huron, and Rail1n 

RiTers and in parts ot lalamaaoo, Grand, 

Au Gree, 8t. Joseph, &Dd. Saginaw Basin• 

aD4 on Bed Run. 

Ccmtliotin& demands for recreation, irri• 

gation, &Dd. drainage ues. 

Establishment ot relation 

between drainage, flood con• trol, ground-water leTele, 

and lake l«ela. EcoDOJRio 

studies of drainage of agricultural land and mines, in• 

oludtng adequate program ot 

reaearoh on design of agrl• 

oul tural drains. 

Baeio data on stream flow, 

precipitation, and eiltatiOD. 

Topographic aapping only one- third oc-pleted in'State. 

Comprehena~Te colleot10D of 

pertinent lqdrologic data ud 

comprehenaiTe inte.rpretiTe studies on inl.nd lakes and ~1 draiDage baa ins. 

State legislation patterned atter Ohio's 

Water ConserTancy District laws to prOTide 

tor the handling ot major drainage-basin 

improvements. 

Enactment of ConaerTancy District legiala• tion drafted to coordinate the study 8D4 

mutual solution of all water proble:ca• to 

the benefit ot all interests. 

llerilion of state law, g1 ring the ~ate 

greater reapGDSibilit7 in etabilistD& lake3 

and coorcl1Jaat1Dg late-lnel control with 

other water-reaouroes probl .... 

~ 
Area of 

subject 

Pollution of stream.s 

Pollution of &round 

water 

Battle Creek area 

Kalaaaaoo area 

Flint area 

POntiao-o.tland area 

LansiJI& ar• 

Kichi§an--Cont~ed 

Currct s1tatiOD 

Serious problema iD st. Joseph• Kalamaaoo, 

Grand, SaglD&W, Black, Clinton, Rouge, 

b.1a1a, &iMI ~iae• Biv•r•, and others. 

Local polluti~n ot ground water by use ot 

wells and pita tor aewace and 1Dduatrialwa.te disposal. Widespread contamination 

ot water iD clacial dritt in Saginaw Bay 

recion by highly mineralized water leaktn& 

upward through abandoned ooal-exploration 

holes and salt wells. 

Oround.....ater withdrawal about 6 aillicm. 

callons per day tor public supply ad 10 

million gallons per day for industry. 

Aquifer connected with surface streams. 

Large ground-water developaents tor public 

supply and eapeoially paper mills depend 

in part on recharce from Kalamaaoo atver, 

which is impeded by deposition of waste on 

riTer bottoa. 

Public supply troa Flint: River; use about 

26 million &allons per day. Low· flow ot 

river inadequate and conservation measures 

ordered several times in past. Future 

srowth ot city depends on solution ot 

water probl-. 

BeaTY and increuinc use ot sround water 

tor public and industrial supply. Decline 

ot water levels in Pontiac. Surtaoe supply 

troa Clinton River developed tor Pontiac 10 

7ear• ap but abandoned because ot lDaclequate treat.ent taoilitiea. 

About 20 aU lieD pllcms per ely wi thdrawa 

troa sandstones tor public &Del 1Ddustr1al 

use, ._ter lnels baTe declined. 

Deficiencies .in 

inf'orll&tiOD 

Comprehensive collection ot 

pertinent data and interprettre •tucliea of quality-ofwater fluctuation trr-. operation ot natural causes. 

eo.prebeDaive and ooiltinumc 

prosram ot quality-of-water 

samplin&• lntendve surveys 

of seology and hydrolog- ill 

affected areas. 

Maintain continutGg prosram 

of data collection and study 

ot local developaents. 

Delation of lake levels to 

recional sround-water withdrawals to assist stabilization. 

Comprehensive information on 

recional hydrolo&Y to penait 

determination of sate yield 

from available sources. 

A8 above. 

A8 above. 

Corrective measures and 

further .Sevelopaent 

Pollution abatement by cooperatiYe means or court order. 

'Large sro\IDd ... ter developments in Sas1Daw 

Bay area now limited to induced-infiltration 

supplies near streams. Contamination by oil 

wells controlled by ·adequate statutes since 

1929. Similar control needed tor abandoned 

water wells. 

Pollution- and flood-control measures abould 

reoopize interoounection ot surface and 

sroUDd water to avoid depletion or contamination ot grolmd .water. 

POllution-control measures that will prevent 

seal in& of river bottom. Control of base flow 

ot river needed to assure recharce and alao to 

stabilize sroUDd-water levels. 

Possible sources of increased supply are a reservoir on Flint RiTer, pipe line to Lake 

Huron, and cround water. Studies needed to· 

determine moat eoonoaioal aouroe. 

Lake-level stabilisation needed• Poaa1b111t1ea 

ot reoharcin& srouncl-'ater aquifer with Clintola 

River water should be inveatisated. 

Wider apactac ot well& it potential lep.l 

probl•• can be worked out. Inveati&ate poaal• 

bllit,. ot 1Dcluoed•int1ltrat1on supply ~ 

craYela alcms Grad and Red Cedar .iiYers, 111lth 

artificial reobarse ot sandstones through present wells durq periods of peak river flaw. to 

provide water tor periods of lOW' tlOW' wh• 

induoecl-intiltration supply llight be inadequate. 

e; 
Minnesota 

Large available auppl,y of ground water aDd few serious probl••· Ground water available in glacial drift over 1101 t of State, (but good aquifers scarce in extreme western part) and in Paleozoic bedrock in soutb.eallt. BeooDnaissance ~ter studies ll8de for whole State but data lacking on current uses and local problems; detailed studies made in onl7 three at"eas, onl7 ODF •vering a whole county. Some stre• pollution froa a:micipal, 

11ining, and industrial waate; drainage and fiood-control probleu. 

Deficiencies in Corrective JDeasu.res and 

Area or subJect Qurrent sitUation information further development 

Twin Cities area 

Iron ~e 

l!'lood control 

Dreine.ge aDd 

l.ake-ontlet daaa 

Streaa ~llution 

Pu.blie and some 1Ddu.strial supplies from 

Mississippi River. Off-river industries 

aDd suburban cOIDIII.Uli ties p~ water from 

deep wells. Considerable decline in water 

levels in hemly p~d areas, bu.t thought 

to be approachiuc stability in Minneapolis 

at present wi tbdrawal. Contamination of 

deep aqu.ifera by polluted or milleralized 

water from shallower beds through which 

wells pass. 

Detailed study to obtaiD 

reliable estimate of dependable yield umder given 

eondi tiomt of withdrawal. 

Area bounded by Mississippi and South Comprehensive water-resources 

Xawishi Rivera; lies on divide aDd streams studJ to detel"ll11ne moat economical 

within at"ea ere small. Ground water scanty sources of water, including wells, 

except in iron-ore bodiea, water drained mines (research needed on drainage 

frOID which is used for such clttee aa deal~, and streams. 

Vi rgirda end BibbiJti:. Ooneentration of lowgrade ore will require large amounte of water 

for processiJti: and inereaaod d.,mestic use. 

All large river basimt in the State are subject to floodiag from abuol'IIIBl conditions of spri»g nmoff. Most 11118l.l basins are eubject to flooding from hea'f'Y concen- trations of rainfall due to local atoras. 

.About 10 percent of total area iB ewa~~p; 

llllCh of eoil Ye'f7 rich when draiaed. CbDfiict aong .draiuge aa:1 recreation and 

oonaervatioa interests. 

Problema widespread; moet critical ill 

droagb.ts of 1929-39 and woald be repeated in snoth• drought. Present 

eri tical areas inelaie Minnesota liver 

troa MaDbto to muth, Crow River below 

Watertow., ZIBbro River at lbeheater, 

Detailed studies of relation of 

drain• and cultivation to runoff 8Dd lake levels. 

Effective legal control by local or State 

agency to limit PumPing to safe SDOunt 

and require sealing or repair at welle 

contaminating aQQifera. 

Formation of a conservancy district iB a possibilitJ. Water available from 

Mississippi amd South Kawishi Rivers if sources within area are show by careful at~ to be inadequate. 

Projects in operation on Bed River of the 

North and Minnesota Rivers; being considered 

for Boseau.. ~'hitewater, f:iDd Boot Biven 

sad others •. 

IntegTation of effect of drainage oa lakelevels to serve ell interests. 

eontrol measures baaed Oil adequate 8~ 

to deteNiae most economical methods. 

~ 
Minnesota -Contim!!d 

DeficieDCiea iD Corrective •asurea and 

.. or sub:lec;\ ChrreJ11..!ita&tiQD illform!tiop further develome:.~=D::.t=--------

Streaa pollution (ContiDuecl) 

Blae larth Ri wr aDd tributariea 

at lail'llOUDt am Blue Barth Ri 'ftt' 

at WiDM'baco, Ie laearl:l.ver at 

Waseca, Stra1gbt Ri•er at OwatoDD&t 

ad Calmon liver at J'aribaalt. Streau 

in iron J'BD&8• affected bJ 111• talliDP 8Dd waste <hllpa. 

$ 
111asi!s1RPi 

Well-watered State with abund&t auppliea but 80118 aerioua water probl._, which include floocls, erosion, pollution, Md local overdevelopment of 

gromJd water. Moat rain in winter when water needa are IIID8l.leat. Moat of State in Coaatal Plain and ground-water euppliea abundent in mat areas arxl used 

for great majority of domeatic, llUDicipal, and illdustrial uses. Whole Sts.te covered bJ recolmaisii8DC8 groUDd-water atudies and about half by more detailed 

stmi•. Azmual nmoff about 20 inches, bu.t at~aw data needed particularly for aell basins where llCII t problema occur. QuU.ity-of1ater data meager. 

Daficienciea in Corrective meeau.res and 

Area or aubjact Current sitaaticm information further development 

noods 

lrosloa 

Pollution 

Ground-water level• 

Salt-water encroam.nt 

into aquifere 

~ JIC'lBtly to agricultural landa, chiefq 

in ta.zo. River flood plain. Problau on 

Opper Tallabatchie River at New .Al.b&IV', 

Pearl River and Town creek at Jackson. 

Tombigbee River and Imapalila Creek at 

Colt11bua, Sowaabee Creek at Meridic, leaf 

R1 ver at Battieaburg, Mississippi Biver in 

southwestern part of State, and loca11J on moat of other streams. 

BaMreds or thowumda of acres ruined, mch 

penumentll'. 

Problema aot as u.ere u 1D higbq iadutrialized States; priDcipal oaes at 

Jackson, Meridian, Latrel, aad near GW.tport. 

Soaa declinea ba.-n occurred in large parts 

of State, in part bJ wute of water from 

flowinc wlb. Bo regional Upl.etioa ba.t 

tome local overdeTel.os-nt. 

~acblent occurrecl locally cla.riJt£ war; 

lib~ to occur apin as developJMnt of 

eout b7 induatriea and resort• iDCreUH. 

Studies of flood flow in wide, 

shallow vall8JB, pa.rticularl.J 

in small basins, with respect 

to control ·measures and highwq, 

bridge, aDi railroad desiga. 

Stadiea of ecoDOIIical ao11-

Col'J8ervat1on and silt-control 

aeeeures; of flood flows and silt t~ortation in .&1 streeaa. 

Data on flow and parifJi:ag capsci t7 

of stre.s receiviuc sewap. Studies 

of ~and-water contaldnation. 

Basic aD1 detailed ataliea of' Jield 

of' aquifere. 

Depeladable rield of aquifers near COIUit. 

Flood-control reservoirs on four 

largest tributaries of Yazoo under 

construction by A.rmy ~neersi will 

large~ solve problem in Delta. Sbnilar measures needed for the other areaa. 

Erosion control baaed on ad8QUB.te 

studies. 

Sewsge-treat~~~tnt plants deaigned ecoDODd.-

callJ on basi' or good data. 

Reduction of waste from flowing wells: 

development of' ground water based on soUDd iDfoTmRtion. 

location of developments and regulation of' 

withdrawal to prweat encroachment. 

~ 
Hiamuri 

.Ample over-all water aupplJ". Few problema, chief ones being flooda and drainage. Some local pollution. Moderate to large ground-water auppliea 

s:vailA.ble in southern part of State, ltZ"'UUJd "'sark uplitt1 aDd ill Coaatal Plain in southeast; in northern part of State abwxlant supplies available only 

al.oDC present IIBjor atreams or in buried preglacial val.leya. '1\lo-thirda at public-aupply syat•s uae ground water aDd larger ones use surface water. Total 

U&e of gMu.nd water estimated at 150-alO lllillioll gAllons per a.. Spring diaebarp, main17 in Olarka, about 2.1 billion gallon• per dq, 181"gely u.nuaed. 

lTo estimate of aurtaee-water use available. QJalltT-Of'-'lfater aad silt data needed. 

_ -~e~e. ~OJ~ _8Jl,b_je~c_t_ 

Gromul-water tme d 

proble118 

Joplin-Carthage district 

end rest of southwestern 

Missouri 

St. louie area 

Ozark area 

SedU.ntation aDd 

stream pollutioll 

Flood 8Jld drainege 

probleu 

Current aituatioa 

Principal areaa of heaYy uae are 

Columbia, Jetferaon City, Spri!tcfield, 

Joplin-Carthage diatrict, Beoabo, and 

Sedalia. Water-leYel decl.inea in deepwell areaa, but loeal. 

Good water from deep aquifer but recbarp 

and transmission rate• rather low. 

Oroaad water of &ood qaal.iQ' 11aited; ~ 

.all area of peneable Miasiaaippi Rl..r 

alluvi• oil St. Ioais aide. Deep vella 

yield little water or poor water; ea. probleM Of CODtali!latiOn of aballow water 

through defective or abandoDed deep vella. 

So• groUDd-wa.ter pollution in areaa of 

lbeatone aiDkholea. 

Pract ieally all atre.. e&r.r7 aaeh ail t in 

fiooda; Miaaouri Rhw, ad ita tributar1ea' 

above Osage, eart7 silt .,,t of tU.. 

Chatioal qaalit7 generallJ" good. Preaent or potential pollution at St. Iouia 8D4 

Kuau Oit7 aDd aeveral miaor areu. 

Jlooding of agricultural landa in practieellJ" all atreaas, principally on Miaaouri. 

GraD!, aDd Misaiasippi Rivera 8Dd in Coastal 

Plain or "delta1 in aoutbeut. .Alao .,.. t~ac in lower Meraee Jaain (St. lDula) 

aDd at St. Joseph, lt8DIIas City, u4 otber 

cities. 

Daficiaeiea ill 

illfomatioa 

Detailed atadiea in areaa of 

heavy use to determine yield 

under various ooDditiona of 

vi thd.ntwal. 

BegioDal st~ ot priDcipal 

aquifer and otber -possible aoareea. 

Data on flow at aull 

atre8118 is lscldng for 

deai&n of ~ flood,..eontrol 

proJects. 

Corrective 111888urea and further 

U.eloment · 

Sappliea a:vailable outaide areu of hea'¥7 

pumpiJ!C, or in some areaa from other aquifers. 

Integrated development of aquifer in Missouri, 

l'anaaa, and CklsboM; difficult because of UDeertaintiea aa to concept of •aate yield" of 

this type of aquifer. Shsl.lower water 1a harder 

ba.t 1187 be Wleful for aome purposes; create• 

llliae-drai:aap probl ... 

lepair or aealirw; of lesk;y deep vella. 

Cbloriaation or other sterilization; readilr 

practiced on larger supplies but difficult 

tor domestic aaera. 

Silt- and pollution-control measures baaed on adeqaate data, not now available. 

ktenai Ye flood-eontt"'l structures ba'le been 

bW.l t or are under construction. Future projecta could be designed more economical]¥ if 

baaed on more adequate data. 

0"' 

...., 
llolltua 

Water lituation variable. Alternatizl& floods and soaroit7 in 1118DJ areu. lxtenaive irricated areas waterloged; detailed grouncl-water investip.• 

tions required pr~l1minaey to drainage. Ground water auppl1ea 80,000 people in '18 oc.aunitiea and practicallr all of rural population. Some large 

ground-water reservoirs 1n state, capable of developaent tor irrigation, mmicipal, or industrial usee, in some areas with beneficial etteot on waterlogging. Ground-water data al.Jiost lacld.JIIJ onl7 recent studies being •de as part ot K188ouri Basin prograa. General dai"On ab'rta'i'e )later. collected 

but inadequate for detailed appraisal. Qual1tr aDd sediment data Mager. 

Area or 

subject 

Northeastern area 

lorth-oentral area 

Western area 

Current aituation 

Local abortagea of ground water tor some 

of principal towns. Ground water largel7 

of poor qualitr, eftn 1n productift a~~uiters in Missouri River flood plain and 

buried vallers under Medicine Lake and 

Culbertson-Bainville area. Surface supplies inadequate except along Missouri 

Vallq. 

Ground water generall7 of poor qual1t7 in 

western part of area, except in alluvial 

depolite whose occurrence is poorl7 tnoWD. 

Looal depletion and encroachment of poor 

water at Havre, now shittinc to llilk River 

tor public supplf~ Potential serious 

problea ot wterloa1Dc in propoeecl Lower 

Karia• irrigation project. Extena i ve waterlogg1J1& alone Milt River and looall7 on Teton River, Blackfeet Indian Reaen-ation, and Valier projects. Shortage ot 

eurtaoe water tor irrigation in dey eeaaon. 

Belativel)' abund8Dt surtaoe water and limited irrigable area. Draiaage needed in 

Kieaoula Valle,. KiaaiOD Vall-.,, llatheacl 

IDdian Reservation, Little Bitterroot 

'Valle,.. and between laliapell and rlli:thead 

Late. 

Detioienoiea in 

info ration 

Bxtent to which irrigation might 

atteot qualit7 of water in prin• 

cipal aquifers. . llore adequate etre~flow recorda tor deaign 

ot reservoirs. General ground• 

water atudiea •de along lli18ouri 

River and in eastern Sheridan and 

Rooeevelt Counties to .valuate 

ground-water euppl7 and posaibilitr of waterlogiq troa future 

irrigation. 

Gaeral ground-water atudiea. Onl7 

Lower Kariae area atudied to date. 

str ..... flow and qual1t7 data inadequate, eepeoial17 011. tributaey 

atr ..... 

Ground-water data inadequate. 

Jlore str ..... flow recorda needed 

for cleeip of irrigatiOD, tloo4-

oolltrol, drainace, and power 

develo....,ta. 

Corr.ecti'" meaiurea·. NUt . turther·develo~t 

Storage rese~oi~ ' oanala to provide 

irrigation water on tributar7 streams. 

Drainage ot waterloged land a, baaed on 110re adequate ground-water studies. storage reservoir• for hcreased irrigation 

supplies. Coordinated irrigation development to achieve maxia• utilization ot 

water azul prevent waterlogging. 

Area baa considerable proaiee tor addition• 

al dtrvelo}aent, 1t adequate atudiea are made. 

,. 
.Area of 

subject 

Upper Kia~ouri Riwr 

area 

Central area 

Southeastern area 

South-central area 

Southwestern area 

Currct aituaticm 

Large Ulldeveloped ground-water reservoirs preseut iD Helen& u.d Townsend 

Valleys. ·Drainage DHded iD parts of 

all principal irrigation projects, iDcludin& Sun River, Helena ValleJ, 

Townsend Valley, u.d White Sulphur 

Springe area 011 Sllllith Rinr. SUrfacewater supplies of tribut&r,r streams 

tul17 utilised up to lilllita of present 

ator&&e• 

Large Ulldeveloped ground-water reser- voirs belie~ to exist in Judith 

Riwr Basin u.d along Jluaaelahell 

Valle7. Irrigable lancl in Judith 

River Buin exceeds &?&ilable aurtaoe 

supply, u.d etorace ie clittioult because of tl~ flow. Silt oonteat 

of water hip in lower Jlussel8hell 

Basin. l>rainage DHcled in Musselshell 

Vall •• 

Surface water cenerally deticieat e~ 

oept on Yellowstone River u.d major 

tributaries. Drainage needed along 

Bighorn, Little Bighorn, and Yellowatone Ri Yera. Much of ground water 

1a ot poor quality. Silt content of 

moat atreama is a problem, eapeoiall7 

alODg Powder R1 ver. 

Drainage needed in some irrigated clia• 

triots. l'u.aclequate water tar irrigation 

north of Yellowstone RiYer and OD Peyor 

Creek south ot river. 

Large Ulld.veloped ground-water reser- Toira present in all principal V&ll8J'Se 

Shortage of surface water tor irrigation ot higher lu.da. Large areas waterlogged in lower parts of Gallatin, 

Beaverhead, Jefferson, and Madison 

Vallers. 

Jlcmtu.a-Continued 

Detioienciea iD 

iDtorlll&tiOD 

Ground-water studies aade reoentl7 

in Helena Valley aD4 parts ot Towns• 

end Valler• Data needed elsewhere. 

Ground-water atudJ' needed in Judith 

River basin u.d lluaaelabell Valley. 

Bo recent atucliea in area. Beoorda 

of ..Creaa tlow needed to deteraine 

possibilities of further developaent. 

Detailed ground-water atud7 to deter• 

aiDe beat aethoda of drainage (plana 

aade tor atud7 of Buffalo Rapids project Bo. 1 near Glendive). studies 

of availabilitr of water for potential 

B7J1thetic-fuel plants. Surtaoe-water 

data laoking for small streams. 

Praot icall,- no data on ground water J 

studies needed to determine posaibili• 

ties of development. Data on flow of 

aaall streams, especially tributaries 

of Shields and Yellowstone Rivera, 

needed for desi~ of flood-storage 

reeerYOira. 

•o recent ground-water studies. Jleeded 

in all irrigated areas, especiall7 

Gallatin, Beaverhead, Jefferson, u.d 

JladiBOD Valleys. 

Correcti?e aeaaurea and 

further developmeat 

Possibilities of ground-water developaent 

in Helena and Townsend Vallep to lower 

water table and proTide irrigation supplies 

should be considered before large aurtace 

supplies are imported. Siailar poaaibiU• 

tie• exiat in other valle71 and should be 

studied. Additional surface atorace to 

.pe~it fuller utilisation for irrigation. 

eapeoiall7 in Sun and ~ith River baatna. 

Coordinated development of ground and surface water. Poaaibilit7 ot groUDd•water 

development tn Kuaaelahell Valler to 

relieve waterlogging and increase aupplf. 

Coordinated irrigation deTelopment to relieve waterlogging and provide increased 

water tor irrigation and other purposes, 

including synthetic-fuel plants. 

Increased surface-water storage north ot 

Yellowstone. 

Coordinated development of grouad water in 

Gallatin Valley -~ other areas, to relieve 

waterlogcinc and provide water tor lu.cls 

not now irrigated. Some increaae b7 surface 

storage posaibleJ data reasonably adequate. 

$ 
Bebruka 

Water auppl7 pnerall7 adequate aa.cl ffltl aenoua probl•• eo far. State contl'lbuttona about 4.8 of 6 million acre-feet of water that non out of it each 78&1'· Baae flow of etre•• clraininc north-central ar• (Biobrara, Loup, and Borth Platte Rivera) unusually large and 

stable because of large cround-water recha:rce and storage 1n sand hills and underl7inc aquifere. GroWld water widely available: scarce only 

in uplands of eutern quarter of State and extr•e northeast and northwest. About 1,000,000 acree irrigated, 700,000 b;y graYity ditch and 

300,000 froa wells. Ground water and surface water cloael7 related. General data more adequate than in 11&D7 other States because of lonecontinued cooperative atudiee; however, detailed info~ation, 1nclud1ac quality and aediment data, badl7 needed for design of specific proJecta, to prevent expenaive overdesign or disastrous underdeeign. Preaently authorized construction will coat more than a billion dollars and 

will have to be baaed on recorda of onl;r 4 yeara for sedimentation and quality of water, and with few exception• records of leas than 20 years 

for aurface and ground water, insufficient for aoet economical detign. Coat of nverdeeip necessary for aafet;r will be many times that of 

atudiea that should have but have not been made. 

Area or aubJect Ourrent situation Deficiencies in Corrective measure• and 

liobrara Biver baain 

lorth Plat\e River baain. 

South Platte Blver buin 

Local minor problema of dJ7-seaaon ahortage 

and tlooda. Potaible minor shortage• in 

tiae of drolJCht when developaent increaaea 

to cont.-plated aaxt.um; alao potential problem of waterloKiDg fros increaae4 irrigation. 

Svfaoe water alaoe t tully utilile4 for 

il'l"ipUon. One of the 1101t coapletel7 

d.neloped etreaaa in count17; now larpl7 

atabilise4. Su.rtace water and. grouad 

water intillately related. •en with full 

utilization of available auppl7 there 11 

not autf1cient water for all irr1pble 

land. 

Jlov of river allocated by interatate c~ 

pact. 1\xcept for flood non not con- trolled at preaent, water enterinc fl'OII 

Colol'a4o 11 tully utilised. Ground-trater 

deYeloJaent 1ncreaa1Dc and will interfere 

with surface nov. 

inforaation further _develop!ent 

Stream-flow data greatly Greatly increased development 

inadequate for design of ~ossible for irrigation 

irrigation and power pro- (lOO,OOo-200,000 acres addiJecta. B7drologic atudies tional propoaed for irrigation), 

needed for prediction of and for hydroelectric power 

effecta of development, becauae of large baae flow and 

which will chance -~tural availAbility of dam aitea. 

conditione. Relatively large potential pumpage of ground water for irrigationi should be integrated with 

aurfac ... -at~r developaent. 

Studiee of coaplex relationahip between ground 

water and aurtace water. 

Studies of water use and 

water loaa to determine 

how much eal vace caa be 

accompllahed, and the 

ul tillate developaent that can be aade. CGI.alit7 of 1rrlpt1on-re~rn water 

e8pec1all7 important. 

Btfect of preaent and future croun.4-.ater puaptnc on river tlow; extent to 

which aal vage of DA tval 

vaa te will be poallble. 

Increue of irrigation with 

ground water 1a poaaible to 

extent that it will relieve 

waterloccinc and aalvage natural 

waste by evapo-tranapiratlon. 

Integrated devel~eat to re4uce 

waterlocging and nat~ral waate b;r 

&Yapo-traneplraUon and ach1ne 

aaxt.am utilisation of water vitb 

ainl.um effect on quali~ of water 

leaving baaiu.. . · . 

~ 
Area or eubject 

Lover Platte BiTer basin 

Loup RiTer sub-basin 

:ilkhorn ll1 Ter eub-buin 

Xaneaa ll1 Ter builll - ~bllcan BiTer 8Ub-bu1a 

laneu BiTer buillBlue BiTer eub-buin 

lebruka -- Con$ba.ue4 

Current eituation 

A maJor basin requiriac lntecrated deTelop-

•ent of the 1ntiu.tely related surface water 

and cround water. OTer-all eupply appean to 

be adequate, but there are probl .. a of interference vlth eurface-water rlpta caueed by 

1ncrea8lnc cround-vater puapage not now con- trolled. by 1•: of lose of water froa buln by 

uadercround tlov to Bepu.b11oan R1 Ter froa 1ande 

south of Platte BiTer lrrlcated by Platte B.lTer 

water, also creatlDC a lecal probl•: of local 

declines of cround-vater leTela as ln Grand 

Ielan4-Kearney area, with aore likely to occur ae cround-water deTelopmeat increuee; of drai~e, 

also likely to lllcreue; ~d of tluh flood• on trlbutariee. 

Buaoff, stabilised by croun4-vater atorace 

in B&lld-hille recton, is aore than 1,500,000 

acre-feet per 7ear, aore than adequate for 

expansion of irricated acreace from present 

39,000 to 350,000. Bovner, prior ripta to 

flow for power ceneration complicate deTelopaat. Some dra1nace problema, aore will 

dwelop. ftoode in lover buin. 

Serious floods in lover basin, thouch flow in 

upper reaches 18 stabilised. by aand-hille 

atorace. ,Little irricatlon dft'elopaent eo tar. 

Ground-water reeerYolra lees iaportant than 

in Platte Jaein, base nov' 1eae, and tloode 

and 4ro-acht• enere. 

BelatiTely little dft'elopaent except for 

power; Blc Blue BiTer alaoat c011pletel7 

dneloped tor power. Ground water ree- erYolra lese important thaD in Platte 

buill. noode enere. 

Deficiencies in 

infonaation 

CoaprehenelTe bJdroloctc 

etudles to guide design 

of projects to wold local 

ehortace or vaterlofC1DC 

(under W8l', in part}. 

Data on diltrlbutlon and 

etorace capac1 t7 of croundwater reserTOire and their use for repla tiac and 

tran•i ttbc water ln operation of proJects. 

Studies of relationship 

of ground water and .surface 

water and how operation of 

projects will be affected b7 

this relat1ouh1p. Q.uallty 

of irrigation-return water 

especiall7 i111portant: also 

effects of channel aggradation and decradation. ______J 

As &boTe. 

As aboTe. 

Ca.preheneiTe hfdrolocic 

atudies to predict effecte 

ot 1rr1cation and deteraine 

potentlali tlee of Cl'OQadvater pUIIJMICe ae part of 

coordinated deTelo~ent. 

Soae etudiee in procre••· lltfeotJ of channel agra4at1oa and decra4ation. 

C~rebeae1Te hTc1roloi1c 

atudiea aa aboTe (ia procreea, in part). 

·Correcti've •euures and fUrther 

deTelo}8ent 

Propo1ed to proTide auppleaental 

water for 418,000 acres now irrisated and proTide water for 

1,270,000 acres of new land; lecal 

control by State oYer water of 

basin as a whole needed, which 

alpt be a ltwlbllq block for 

whole pi'OJect. Subltantial progreee be in& mad.e in dft'elo~en t u a whole. 

Inte,;rated deTelopment for power, 

irricatlon, aDd flood control. 

Ground-water deTelopaeat as 

nece••ar.r to control waterlocsi~~& 

and circulate water for reuse. 

As aboTe. 

&Qrface-water etorace to stabil11e 

tlowe and reduce effects of flood 

and perait ezteneion of lrr1catioa. 

Denlopaeat proceedinc rapiclly by 

Bureau of llec1aat1on and Corpa of 

ID.cineere. 

Jlood•control reaerToira.would reduce flood damac• but are oppoeed 

by oaen of land that would be inundated. Conllderable add.i tloaal 

1rrlcat1on aad eome power deTel~ 

aent poeeib1e if adequately pluaed. 

;:J 
.&.rea 1or 1u'bJect 

Basin• of minor tributarie• 

of Mi11ouri Biver 

Bebruka -- OonUnue4 

CurreAt 11tuat1on 

Little development of water re1ource1 10 tar. 

Irr1cat1on need le•• than in drier we1tern 

part of the State. Low cround-water 1torace 

end Ievere tloo41. 

Defictenci81 iil 

illfomaUon 

All above. 

Cor~ettive meuure1 and t.ur~er 

develot:~~~e n t 

llood control complicated by relation to 

flood flow in Kieaouri River and by potential tediaentation of prop<l8 eel control 

re1ervoira. Many proJect• being detigned 

without adequate bae1c data uel will baTe 

to be ezpen1ively overdea1gne4 to be aate. 

pj 
73 
.!!!:!!! 

Oae of the fw ar14 State• of the w,..- where croua4 •ter 11 oD17 aU.&htlT 4nelope4. h.rtace auppl7 larplJ' appropriated.. future clnelopant 4epea41 oa eal-.ece of noo4 nove .till eeoapt.ac to ar ... below pola.h of 41-.aret.oa, there to be waporate4, and of CJ"'1UUl water naporate4 

u4 truep1n4 aloac etn•• ucl t.a the_,. cloee4 'balbe. Of the aore tllaa. 30 pmclpal croua6-wter bulae oD17 Lae Vecae Yallq 1a full7 aa.4 

Pllluwlp Talle7 al.IIOet hll7 4welopecl. total ue la 1949 about 2 alllloa acr .. feet, about 1.1 nrtace •tar aa.4 0.2 CI'OUDcl wa\er. Loae b7 e-.apotl'allapln.Uoa. about 1.5 111111oa. acre-feet, of which po111bl7 o.4 alllloa coulcl be •a1•11C'4· llulc cla\a la.aclequate but cooperative etucllea are belq carried on u raplcll7 •• poeelble to aenn full ucl aate clft'elo,aeat •. A-.a11able eeUaahe of cro111l4-1fater potential in coat caaea an pro11111UI7 u4 haTe a.ot beea. 4etvalu4 Nllabl7 b7 ad.equte atu41ee. 

Area or nbJect 

lallloa. J'alle Creek bula 

(Saw as.-.er clraluce> 

Ov;rhee 1!-.er baela (lute as.-.er 4raluce) 

. Cb'eat llula • bbol4t as.-.er bae1a 

:11to area, :llko Coat,. 

Cneoea.t Yalle,., ..,. .. 

u4 Lancler CoaaUee 

lene 11Yer Yal.lq, 

l.u4er Couat,. 

CIU'rat altuUoa 

About 8, 000 acr .. feet per J'e&r uecl 1a 

.... ad.a. Coatro•en7 betVMil •••r• ill 

•nacla aacl lUho OTII' •ter ripte, . 

.&bout 70,000 acre-f .. t per 71&1' ue4 

ill hYacla. Soae noo4 prob1••. 

.&bout 288,000 acne lrrip~ecl, nrtacewater requtr•at abott 401J,OOO aon-fMt. 

Probl•• 11lc1l14e noocJ. oozatrol, 4n.luce 

1a Lcwelock Tal1q, effect of tutve upatr- etonce oa qull t7 of water below ~Joe Patch leeenolr, a4 lalftll of "apotrueplrattoa l011e1 1Jl a14clle M RlOil of l'lYII'. 

Oarr•t craa4-water ue 1,500 acn-t .. , per ,...,., future ••e 3,000 .,,...., .. , b7 

1970. OoO\ll'l'lllce of vara to bot •ter 

locall7 U.al '' ue. I.oca1 4ec11M of 

water l"ele. 

Our.t ci'CIQIUl-vater ... 1.000 ---~eet 

per 71&1'• 

Pneat croua&-vater ue 1,000 acre-fHt 

per 7'e&l'• PoteaUal polUlkater ,.S.e14 

25,000 to 35,000 acre-teet per ,.ear, 

plll"tJ.T at ezpea.ae of now of ioll'o14t 

l.iYII'; lecal probl•. Welle baTe low Tt.elcle. 

Detlclenclee la Correct1Te aoaeurea u4 further 

l&fomaUOD. 4e•el~@~----~· ----~--

Data oa flow abCPre poiata 

of 41-.eraioa la X...ad.a. 

l'lov data tor Iouth J'ork of 

01q'hee Jll Til'. 

J'low 4ata u4 coaprebeulTe 

atuq of crouacl,.•ter coa4ltloa tor at.44le eec\1oa of 

r1Ter lf ul.Yap of water h 

to be atte.pte4. 

Ocourreaoe aa4 quell \7 of V&l'll water; atu.Uee of 

proper wll •J&Cbc· 

Pnclpl\atloa 4&\a, 

etr--nov recor4e, ue of water b7. phrti&t~tee 

u4 clata oa tinct eraporatt.oa, tual1 'T <I vat•. 

OCOlli'NIIAI u4 cbaraoter 

of equttva. to t..hmae peH~mial 71•14. fopocraphlc 

..,.. 

Iatentate acre.-a.t 'baaecl oa 

better 4&ta •• to to\al coatribution 

1a •w.u.. 

.Acr••ezat with 14abo aa to ue of 

water. Po .. lble aalYace of •oae erapo-traaeplr.atloa ve~te • 

A441t1oa.al upotreaa etor.,e voul4 

preYed vet-7oar waite of water to ar• 

an4 loverlzac 

below 41Yeraioaa. 

of water table 

~ 

'- reduce eyapo-traaap1rat1on would 

eal.Yace aoae water. 

late Tt.eld aeieral tlaee preeeat 

••• 1f pro:pa 1'17 4nelopecl. 

total ot. abo11t 10,000 aor ... feet per 

Jeal' f;)f crouacl water &TaUable. 

AI abo"· StU7 of beat well- Intecrate4 clft'elo~•t to aalftCO 

colletructloll aelbote. waete an4 ala.ialle laterter•nce with 

rlftr. 

i! 
Area or aubJec\ 

lar..U.ae ValleT, Buabol4t 

Cowat7 

Grua Tallq, lenhiac and 

IUabo14t Couat1ea 

Lcrt'elook T&l.le7, l'erthiDc 

Count,-

Great lalla - truckee 

11Ter bu1a 

truckee Meadow• - leao 

lpark1 a.r-. Vuboe 

CCNAt,-

Great luin - Canoa 

BiTer buill 

Careoa ValleT, Dou,la• 

Couav 

Great Buill - Walker BiTer 

Buia 

lna4a - Collt1nue4 

Current ai~tioa 

Ollrrat croun4-water Wle 1,000 acre-teet 

per .,ear. 

Preeea.t crouac!.-water uee 300 acre-teet per 

,-ear. lotea.tlal 15,000, in Jll.rt at apu.ae 

ot Buabo14t Jl.lTer; 1epl P'Ob1•· 

Currat CZ'01lll4 .... ter Ule 1,000 acre-teet 

per Tear. Bich17 a1aerallse4 water 1a. 

1outhern part and. IIUOb ot aor ~en part. 

Dniuce nHclecl. 

Currezat •urface-water u• about 300,000 

acre-teet per 7"&r. 1ac11141ac 41Ten1on of 

210,000 acre-teet to lew1an4a ProJect in 

Careoa. BiTer buin eD4 10,000 acre-teet 

tor public ue in Beao-Spara area - 1arce•t IUJ'tace-water ute tor public 1upplT• 

la8Uffic1e».t 1torace to e\abilise leYe1 

of Lake tahoe. ftoo4-control u4 drainace probleae. In ten tate lecaJ. prob1••• 

CJrowul-vater uee about 4, 000 acre-teet per 

,-ear, perbape 10,000 in future. Vara water occun 1ooall7. Po11ible pollution b7 eeptlc tak1. 

About 48,000 acr .. in leYa4a abOTe Laboatan 

Jle1enoir irriptecl with about 129,000 acre- teet ot tv.rface water per 7Hl', and 50,000 acre• in Bewland1 ProJect wi\h 470,000 acre- teet, includinc 210,000 cliTerted troa 

!ruckee ll'rer. Part of water wutecl. Soae 

flood probl••, and 4rainace problema oa part of llew1aadl ProJect. Interstate 

probl••· 

Ourreut cro'Wlcl-water ue 5,000 acre-teet 

per 7ear. Hip water table in 1U1D7 areaa; 

dratnace needed 1ocal17. 

ATer-ce total flow of rlYer about 300,000 

acre-teet per ,.ear, uaed aalnl7 for irricatlnc 110,000 acre• in BeYa4a aa4 California. Str ... about f\1117 controlled. Soae 

flood and dra1Jt.8C8 prob1 .... 

Deflc1enc1ea in 

iato l'llatlon 

AI &boTe. 

AI &boTe. 

41 abore. 

Ad41tional ttr ... -tlow 

record•, naporatien 

da\a on Lake !we for 

full 7ear. 

AI Ullder Cretcent Tal.lq. 

Al.•o occurrence of ther11&1 water. 

Streaa-tlow data to determine aacnitude of eTapotraaaplration watte. 

As under Creacent Tallq. 

Su.rtace flow into Saitb 

Talley a• source of grot&nd. 

water; now of Walker BiTer 

into Walker Lab. 

CorrectlTe a ... uret an4 further 

d8Til0111181lt 

fotal ground •tar aYailable, about 

15,000 acre-feet per 7ear. 

AaabO'f'8. 

Sate 7leld aeyeral. u... current 

uae. We111 on northeast flank of 

valley will cet better water. 

Upttreaa 1to~e to et&bi1iae leYel 

ot Lake fahoe and pera1 t inoreuecl 

uae. Poa1ibil1 ty ot lalYaciDC about 

50,000 acre-teet per 7ear tlovi:ac 

into P)rraaid Lalte. Sal.Tace of water 

b7 drainace in truckee Meadow east 

ot lleao and of eTapo-traupiration 

lo••••· 

fotal ot conaiderabl7 aore than 

10,000 acre-teet per 78&r ot t;r.wu1 

water &Tailable. Sewage-41epo8al. 

a71ta needed. 

More upatreaa atorage to pr~ent 

wet-1eaaon waste and exce1a irrication, iaproTecl irrication practicee 

to preTent wute, aal"Yace of natural 

evapo-trantpiratioa waste. and. 

salvage o! water by drainage. 

Total of about 10,000 acre-teet ot 

t;round water per ,aar &'Yailab1e. 

Power de'Yelopaent pollible. SalT&C• ot water wasted b7 evapo-trantpiratlon would perml t increuecl 1rr1-

pt1on. 

~ 

'c,, 
Area or •ubJect 

S.Uh Valley, L70a Coua\7 

Ka1on Valley, Lyon Couat7 

Great Baaia - croun4-water 

buin• not draialrac to 

priacipal 1tr ... 1 ot la.a4a. 

Qad.an l.iTer Talley, Humboldt Couat7 

lith Lake Valley, ~•eralda Couat7, Ba.a4a, and Moao 

ant ID7o Count1 .. , California. 

Bewark Val.lq, White Pial 

and krek:a Cowat1e1. 

Diaon4. V&llq, ~ ud 

Slko Cowath1 

Dixie Valle7, Churchill and 

Peruunc Couatln 

Buena Viata Talle7, 

Perfhinc Co11At7 

lnlld.a --Continued 

Durrent a1~t1on 

tlroud-water •e 2,000 acre-feet per 7MZ· 

About 5,000 acre-feet per 7ear could be 

vi thdrawn,· depentlq oa laterferace wUh 

flow of Valbr l.iTer. Probl• of drain-

-c-. 

Current crouncl.-water ue about 1,800 acre- feet per year. Poalible future uae 5,000 

acre-feet, depeD41q on interference wUh 

flow of Walker l.iTer. &xceai1T117 hip 

water table ill Jartt of the Talle7. 

Current ground-water uae about 800 acrefeet per 7-.r. 

Current annual use of crount water about 

5,000 acre-feet from tpriac• and .3,000 

froa well•• 

Cvreat annual cround water ue about 5,000 

acre-feet froa apriact ant 100 froa vella. 

»et1c1enc1ea 111 

1atonaat1oa 

At for Cretcent Talley. 

AI abGt"e. 

AI abal'e. 

AI &bOTe. 

AI abc:w e, plu1 

tprlag-tlow data. 

OIJ.rreat anmaa1 crount-water uae 4,000 acre- AI abOYe, ·plu• apriac -

feet froa aprinc• u4 1,000 troa vella. flow data ud data on deep grouad water in relation to a1n1QC. 

OIJ.rrent annul crouad-water use about 500 

acre-feet. Vater of poor qua1.1 ty in part• 

of Talley. 

OIJ.rreDt ann'Ul crouad-water ue about 100 

acre-feet. 

AI aboTe 'DlUI occurrence ot water of poor quality. 

AI &boTe. 

CorrectiTe measures ant further 

. - .44lY..ttl011Uil\_ 

Sal.Tage of water by puaplJSC in 

area~ of hip watez- table, or b7 

aean1 of draiD&C~ ditch••· 

AI abore. 

Total of about 15,000 acre-feet of 

cr'Oilll4 water per Jl&r aTailable. 

Total crou.nt water aYailable 

annually estimated at 15,000 acrefeet under preeent condi Uon1 and 

,30, 000 under lone-term average precipitation conditione. Propoted 

da.elO}lment of 100,000 acre-teet 

per year for 1rricat1on probably 

will be 11a1ted to annual recba~e 

by State UDder «Eltt1ac law. 

Total crouncl.-water 1Upply ab01 t 

20,000 acre-feet per Jl&r. 

Total c~nd water &Tailable ett1-

u.t.a at 15,000 to 20,000 acn-teet 

per ,ear. 

Total of 10,000 acre-feet per Je&r 

of crouD4 water aTallable. 

Total cl about 5,000 acre-feet per 

year of ground water aT&ilable. 

~ 
Area or •ubJect 

Bail road Talle7, l;re, 

White Pine, &D4 Liacoln 

Oouatlel 

lot Creek Tallq, l7e 

Coat7 

Bic •oq. Tall.,, lt7e, 

Lander, and Kuaeral4a 

OouaUe• 

Goahute-jatelope Talley, 

illko Ooun t7 

Olcwer T~le7, mko 

Oouv 

Bub7 Talley, &lko ad 

Wbite Pine Ooulltle• 

Iaake Tal.le7, Wh1 te 

Pine Oount7, lwada, ud 

Utah (lna4a part) 

Spnzac Talley, White Piae 

Coat)" 

Steptoe Tall.,, White 

fue and :llko Oou.Uet 

Butte Talley, White 

nne Oouv 

LoDe Talle7, Vhite fue 

Oout7 

AU lleadov1, -,_ 

Oouat7 

Nwada - _Qont1put4 

Current ai tuatioa 

OurreDt IUUlUal. croua4-water uae 10,000 .ereteet froa 1princa and 1,000 froa well1. 

Ourret annual croun4-water Ule about 1, 000 

acre-feet froa aprinc• and 100 froa welll. 

Ourrlllt aDilual croun4 ... •ter Ule about 1,000 

.ere-teet. 

~ficienciea in 

---~tion _ 

As abOYe, plua apriacflow clata. 

Aa above. 

Aa above. 

Current annual cround-water use about 2, 000 acre- .&a above, plu• •Pr1DCfeet from eprinca and 300 fr011 vella. Water of flow clata, occurrence unsuitable quality at some placee, of water of poor qual1t7. 

Current annual ground-water use about 3,000 

acre-feet from epnaca and 100 frOil vella, 

Ourreat &AAU8l cround--water uae abwt 

5,000 acr .. feet froa spnnc• and 100 

froa vella. 

S..eral thou1ud .en-feet · froa epriDcl pro• 

'bablJ uae4 ammal17 for irrigation, plu 

&bout 1,000 froa vella. 

Current unual CJ'OUD.4-water u•e about 

5,000 acre-feet froa epriac• end 1~000 

froa vella. 

CurNDt annual croad-water Ule about 5,000 

acre-teet froa apring• and 1,000 froa well•. 

Our:rat anmJal CJ'OU&d-water Ule 100 IICJ'Ifeet fl"'Ol wllt. 

Oa.rrat unual croua4-water ue 50 acre- feet froa vella. 

Ovret uaua1 CJ'OUild-water ue about 500 

acre-feet fJ'Oil lpl'iJlCI. Bich water table and 

lack ot lu4 auUable tor 1rrlptloa. 

Aa above, plus apriactlow clata. 

.Aa abOt'e, plu• acl41-

tiollal eprincatlow 

recorda and special attention to occurrence of 

poor-qualitJ water. 

Ae above, plus apr1ncflow data. 

A.e above, plue ep-iactlow data. 

Aa abOYe, plua epr1nctlow 4ata. 

.Aa abwe. 

Ae abore. 

AI abcwe, plue epriacnow 4ata. 

Corrective aea1ure1 and further 

dneloD~~eu.t 

Total of about 25,000 acre-feet 

per 788Z of ground water available. 

!otal of about 5,000 acre-feet 

per year of croua4 water available. 

tOtal of about 20,000-30,000 acre- foet per )'8 ar of ground water available. 

Total of about 2,500 acre-teet per 

year ot ground water available 

trom aprinca and 2,500 from wella. 

Larce ••rcency wi th4rawale from 

atorage poaaible, as duriag laat 

war (true· for JDan7 baliaa). 

Total of' about 5,000 acre-feet per 

7ear of ground water ava1lab1 e 

tro~_spring' .end lO,COC fro• vella, 

Total ot about 20,000 acre-feet per 

year of gr~nd water available north 

of lranklin Lake. 

Totel ot about 10.000 acre-teet per 

year available from w ella. 

Total ot about 25,000 acre-feet J'er 

year of' grouad water available .. 

Total of' about 45,000 acre-feet per 

year of crooa4 water available. 

Total of about 5,000 acre-feet per 

J88Z ot cra.ta4 water available. 

Total ot abcm. t 2, 000 acre-feet per 

year of CJ'OUAd water available. 

Total of about 10,000 acre-teet 

per ,ear of croa.nd water available, BOlle 

poaei\ly for export. 

~ 
kea or nbJeot 

Pahruap Talley, Clark 

M4 lye·Couatle• 

Colo N4o ll:LYer 'ba•ia 

Colorado River (main stem) 

Lu Tepa Tal.lq, Clark 

Couaty 

Vhite l11Yer Talle7, 

White Pine, Bye, ad. 

Liacola Oounti .. 

HNAow Talley Wuh abo'le 

Caliente, Liacoln County 

Pabraucat Talley, 

Liaoola CcnuLty 

T:Lrc:La lliYer clraiuc• 

IIUq Jlyer Drala-

•· 

18Ya4a ·- CoaUaue4 

Oarr.at eltuatloa 

Current armul croun4-water ue 20,000 acreteet troa vella aa4 apr:Lac•. 

Present use· ot Colorado River water in 

Nevada less than 20,000 acre-teet per 

rear, at Basic MagnesiWll Plant at 

Henderson. 

Current CJ'OUI14-1r&ter use about 35,000 acre- teet per ,.ar, equal to eetS...te4 armul 

recbarce. Local OYer4ratt at Lu Tepa. 

Vater of JIOOr qual. :I. ty 1ll eouthera part of 

area, but aot lr::nown to be enorouhiac. 

Cuneat crowat-water uae about 20,000 acre- feet per year froa epr:Lnc• and. 1,000 t~ 

vella. 

Oarraat uaaal crount-water ue about 3,000 

acre-teet. Water locall;r of poor qual:L ty :La area of lrr:Lcatlon paaplac 811.4 aear Calieate. 

Current anaual crouact-water ue about 15,000 

acre-feet troa aprlaca an4 1, 000 troa welll. 

Waterlouiac froa epr:Lac now :La ezce .. of 

ue. 

Oarnnt UAUa1 ue of rlYer water about 

10,000 acre-feet. Qaal:Lt7 poor, e8pec:Lally at low now, u4 uable oal7 'b7 

eal\-hleraat crops. Silt coateat hJ.ch 

c1ar1ac noo4a. 

Current Ull1l&l ue of river water abov.t 

20,000 acre-feet ancl of Jround Rtlft" about 

4oo acr ... teet. 

Det1c:Luc1e• 1a 

A8 abow, plu epr:Lacnow clata. 

Aa tor Creeceat Tallq. 

plus data on occurrence t£0

:-!r:Laca and. on aprlac 

.A.s abofe, wUh epeclal. 

attention to occurrence 

ot water of JIOOr 

qualit7. 

Aa &bare, plue coaprehenelYe etwl;r of epr1DC•. 

qpal:Lty-of·-ater clata. 

Lack of lone-term •troaa- now reoor4e. 

CorrecUYe •ann• at further 

4..,elo•at 

!otal of about 2,3,000 acre-teet 

per year of croun4 water •allable. W:Lth4raval.s ahoul4 be Mlcl 

to eate 71el4. 

Propoeed future cle'lelopaent aloac 

r1Ter an4 ln Laa Tecaa Talley to 

:Lncre .. e total to 197,000 acre-teet 

per )'8&r. 

Potential water demand eattaate4 

so,ooo acre-feet per year by 1970. 

OD17 &])P&rea' eource of increaaed 

uaout 1a Oolora4o B1ver. Water 

41atrict forae4 aad necotiatlona 

under way w1 th Oolar a4o 11Yer 

Coaaieeion. 

!otal crouad water uailable 

asmually, about 4o,ooo acre-teet 

froa springs;ancl 19.000 from welll • 

!otal croun4 ·water a11a1lable 

armuall7, abo~t 6,000 acr .. teot. 

B.ettriction or puapiac in ·-· areas to preTat encroachaea' of 

water of poor qul1t7. 

Total epriDC cl:Lacharc• about 25,000 

acre-feet per year. Poaaible pmp1nc 

from wella to diapoae of ~ua 

water reoharce4 tra aprlDC flew and 

provi4e for a441t1onal lrrlcatioa. 

Propoae4 additional use about 

15,000 acre-teet am.auall7, :Ln part 

by puptnc from Lake Hea4. nood 

control an4 a torace for 1rr1pUon- aeuon require.ente aee4e4. 

01 
:lew Bampahire 

Ample water ot good quality aTail&ble, anc\ few water-npply probl••· Of total population of 525,000 to 550,000, about 290,000 are aerved 

vUh 32 million gallona per dq of aurface water and 110,000 with 10.4 JDillion gallona per 4q of cround water fr011 public auppliea; remainder 

uae largely ground water ia rural areaa. Bo great coaceatraUoaa of indue try and no aerioua ahor til&•• of auppl.T. 

Area or aubJect 

Water power 

Irrigatioa 

Pollution 

1loode 

Ground-water auppliea 

Current ai~tioa 

!otal dnelopec\ power 328,100 kilowatt& in 

1948. Principal atorace 30 billion cubic 

feet. Coordination with recreational uae needed. 

Minor eo far, but aay increaae in next 

few Je&H. 

Bot aerioua from water-apply atanc\poiat; 

affect• chiefly recreatiollal act1Titiee. 

llooda of 1927' 1936, auc\ 1938 nooc\84 

34,000 acrea aD4. cauaed 4au&e of 

$31,300,000. 

Bo aerioua probl••; aoae fail'ure of priTate vella durinc droUCbta. 

Detlcienciee in 

iufol"'I&Uoa 

Baaic data largel:r lacJd.ag 

except for aoae ea public 

auppliea. Vater•lnel data 

needed to guide tuture deTelopaent. 

CorrectiTe aeaaurea and 

further d.velou.ent 

:iatillatea of feasible undeTelopc\ 

power r&DC• from 121,000 to 422,700 

kilowatt&; teaaible aew etorage 19 

billion cubic teet. OonaerTat1oa 

reaervoira uaed for po~er ~~~· eoae fiood coatrol and a u.bilizatiioa of lake 

lnela for recreational ueea. 

State atuqinc po .. i'ble 1rr1cat1on 

lan to . preTent probl•• froa a rieiac. 

Coord1uatioa of pollutioa-coatrol 

meu,uree aad iacluetrial aeed.a (doae 

b:r State). 

Conllderable control afforded by 

power reeerYo1re and b:r fiood-control reaerroira of ~ Bnciaeere. 

Coaaiderable additional 4ata aeeded. 

KanT product1Te glac1al-grarel aquifere present but location and poteat1al yield larcely unk:Aowa. :Bedi'Ock 

;rielda ..all luppllea. 

~ 

..0 
· Bew Jer•!t 

.. 

0 

CJaerall7 .-ple npplhe but aerioue ehort.cea or other prOl»l•a in 101l8 areaa. ftoo4 control needed OD Ceriain 8\NUI, a4 proJeo\e 

propoae4 or wu\er WI'• Pollution ot aoae i.tr._a aerloua. Supp1•ental irrtcaUoa growt.ac rap1417 8Jl4 will lead. to •~ prol»l••· 

Ar• or aubJed 

Northern aetropolitaa 

dhtrict 

Soutbera aetropolltaa 

area 

Atlantic Coa~\al r~ioa 

~rreat aitQatloa 

!hirt7-three publlc-auppl7 •7•teaa have total 

dependable 7leld of about 370 a1111oa calloaa per 

clq, 85 percent surface water and 15 percent ground 

water. About 525 million gallon• per c1q needed b7 

1975 and 600 million gallon• per 4q b7 2000. 

Ground water developed rather tull7 aa in Middleaex 

Count7. 

Area about 20 allea w14e parallel to Delaware 

B1 ver troa PriDOeton to Sal• Coun t7 liae. '!otal. 

auaici~ aDA industrial uae &bout 125 aillloa 

cal.loat per U,, aubatantial.l7 OTer halt grouad 

water. AddUiooal large quanti tlea ot aurtace 

water are uted tor coollas. •eea 200 million 

gallon• b7 the 7ear 2000. Ground water he&"t117 

developed in Camden area; aome interference between 

Cuden and Philadelphia. 

Area froa Bar1 tan to Cape Ma7, aalnl7 a reaort area but lnclwlt17 1Dcreuinc. Total uae ot 

water &bout 6o a111ion calloaa per dq, about 3/'4 

ground water. Beed mq be 100 million gallon• per 

c1q b7 2000. Salt-water encroacbllent 1D aeveral 

placea, aotabl7 the coaatal part of MU.dlnex 

Count,. and the area from Beach Haven to Cape...,-, 

which 1ac1114ea Atlutlc Ci t7. 

Deticiuolea 1D 

iafol'llatloa 

More detailed atudlet of 

ground water to evaluate 

potential euppl7 and 

relation to aurtace water; 

surface-water ttucU.ee to 

penal t moat economical 

de alp. 

Aa abOTe. 

Sate 7ield of coastal 

ground-water auppliea; 

additional gaglag etationa on atreaae. 

Corrective aeuurea in 

further . 4-n.~lot,••••t 

About 25 million gallou per 4.,-

can be denloped troa laapo 

lt1ver; and another 20 million 

galloaa per 4q troa Bockavq 

Biver tor Jere., Ci~. !r:l.bUtarlea of lari tan and Delaware 

lliYera could brine total to 

about 600 million galloaa per 

a..;,,, -- ·inclucU.• water tbat 

..,. be made avail& ble from aala 

at• of Delaware liver. Perhapa 

abo• 25 million pllou per 4q 

ot ad4U1oul cr-aA water cou14 •• 4whlaptll. 

att.Uoaal water available fi'Oa 

Delaware BiTer tor trenton. Uae 

d.ownatream lia1 ted b7 pollution 

and aal t water. Much grcuad water 

&Tailable in Coaatal Plaia outaide Camden and adJacent area, 

particularl7 Burl:l.Dgton Comnt7 

and Jla rt of kercer Couty; aate 

7ield uncertain but atud1ee under 

wrq. Delaware B1 Yer lllll' be aubatantial aource ot recharp at 

Caaden; it ao, draft coul4 be iacreaeed, but pollu\lon ..,- aake 

r1Yer uadea1r&ble .. eoarce ot 

recbarge. 

.Ample water &Yailable U' developed 

properl7 to prevent salt-water eacroed1-

ment. 
.&.rea or aub.ject 

Southern interior 

dhtr1ct 

J'lood control 

Suppl•u.tal irrigation 

Bew Jeraer -- Contiauecl 

Ourrat ai tuatioa 

Preeent use about 25 alllion galloaa per 

dq. 

Problem on Paasaic B1 Tor and other 

atr ... a. 

Practice growing rapidl7. J'roa 4 to 12 

iachea of water 8ppl1ed troa aoet con- Yelu.t source, lacluding soae froa 

pUblic suppllea. Per.baps 30 to 100 

million gallons per dq nov uee4; total 

will lacreaae greatl7. Water larcal7 

naporated aD4 tranaplred; not &Tail• 

able for route. 

Deticieacies ia 

intol'll&tioa 

Deutlecl grouad-water 

1tudies; additional caciag 1tatioae on 1treaaa. 

J441tlonal •treaD-flow 

data, and ana1711e of 

data to predict flood 

trequ.eaclee. 

Sate 7ield of groundwater reeerroira in cult1-

Yate4 areaa; data on flow 

ot aall atreaa• usable 

tor 1rrlptloa. 

Correct1Ye meaaurea ia further 

deY el <rDJaen t 

jStiaated sate rleld of ground water and 

eurtace water together about 500 million 

cal.loaa per dq. Daa lit .. lacking; nec .. sary to use uarqulated flow of sur- taco atreama. Uee of ground water in 

perioda of low atream flow and of •ur- tace water in wet weather would keep grouad-~ter reeerroir1 recharged and 

pena1t aaxilnul deYelopaent. 

Propoaecl ~ iftBineera pro3ect would proTide mul tiple-pu.rpoae resenoira abar e 

!wo Br14ce•, plu• chaanel iaproYeaent. 

Coaeerration pool w~ld be aY&ilable tor 

limited recreation uae and tor water 

auppl7, power, incr8a8e4 low flow, and 

pollution abatement. Dr,r detention res- eno1r abOYe would proTide flood coatrol. 

Cb.amael illproY•u.t coaplete4 on tour 

other 1tream1 and work planned on others, inclu4i~lome detention re1erro1re. 

Begulatory authorl tr oYer 1urtace water• 

lack1ng. State haa authori t7 to control 

ground-water w1thdraval.a, and ah01ld be 

able to do so on the balil of good data 

to preYent oTero-deYelopaent but &Told 

diacoureging full daYelopaeat. 

..: 

,. 

, 
Bev Mateo 

LarcelT seai-arid State with relaUYelT uall oYeJ:Iooall water supplJ. Draiaed b7 Rio Graade and Pecos, Canadian, Gila, and San Juaa 

(Colora4o RiYer tributa17) Jltyers. llio Grande ud Pecos full7 deYeloped; some aYailable troa Caaa41aa and Gila: about 800,000 acre-teet 

per 7ear troa hD Jwm uader Upper Colorado Jliyer Compact. Soaethia,: aore tbu 500,000 acre-teet ot grouad water uee4, chief17 tor irricattoa. Some additional aupplies aYailable b7 NlYa,;e ot natural vute. Iaale data needed on grouu4 water, qualltT of water, silt probl••, and tlow ot certaia streaae. 

Area or subJect 

High Plaia• 

Lea ~t7 Irriptioa 

Curreat si~tion 

Little aurtace ruaott ezcept in storas. 

Chief use ot ground water in other than 

deyeloped areas 18 for IIWlicipal, ranch, 

and oil-well-drilling •upplies. Rich 

fluoride content in 1ome of ground water. 

Ground-water recharge low: heaYT dnelo~ente deplete atored water. Situation 

siailar in principle to that in aoutbera 

Rich Pl.aias ot 'fa:aa. 

District Heav,r deYelopaeat of crouad water for 

irrtption atarted in 1948; 39,000 acre- teet puape4 in that 7ear. Water leYelJ 

lowered 2 teet oYer 24 square mllea in a Teal' and will contiaue to fall. 

Deticieaciea in 

inf'ol'llation 

Ga,;in« ot ephemeral arro7oa tor 

deeicn of tloo4-detent1on reaer-

•eira for recreation and other uses. Data on availabilit7 of 

ground water for towna and amall 

irrigation districts. 

Contiauing recorda ot puapace 

and water levels to show rate of 

depletion ot croun4-water atorace. 

Portalea ValleT IateaaiYe deyelopaeat of ground water Ae aboye. 

tor irrigation started ia 1930; 44,000 acreBoueearea 

Pecos Yall8T 

Boswell BaaiD - arteatan water 

teet puped 1D 1947. Water leYele declined 

20 teet or aore 1n 11 aquare miles troa 

1942 to 1~ and will continue to tall. 

Iateaaiye cleYelo,..at ot crouad water tor 

1rr1ptton ata.rtecl ia 19'10: 4,000 acreteet pwape4 ia 1948. Water l8Yel declined 

6 teet or 110re in 2.4 square allea, 1942-48, 

and will continue to tall. 

Peooa lliYer Coapact proYiclea that lew Mateo 

will aot deplete riYer below 1947 conclitioa•. 

IntenaiYe ue ot ground water tor irrtcatloa etartecl 1a 1915: 211,000 acr .. teet 

withclrMm ill 1948. Vater leYele declt.aet 

aYerac• of 11.8 teet troa 1941 to 1949. 

All abcwe. 

AJlout 16 new gagtac station• 

needed tor ~iniltration of 

compact and operation of 

exiatiac and po1aible new 

proJecte. Stu4T of eedlaent 

load ot Pecos lUv•r• 

Detailed data on puapace and 

water l8Yela to caide control 

by Stat.e. Btfec t on crowad 

•tar of proposed noocl-cont.rol vorke. Stuq of pollible 

Correct1Ye aeaaures and 

further deYelo~ate 

~cept for areae described below, deYelopmeat 1a light. Control of w1 thdrawals 

necessary; probably possible under State law, 

but difficult because of uncertainty as to 

beat uae of an exhaustible resource. (~ee 

discussion of High ~lains of Texas in text). 

J4ministrat1Ye decision ae to beet war to 

control depletion of atorage, Further 

extension of irrigation stopped b7 State. 

Optimum deYelopaaat difficult to determine because of uncertainty aa to beet uee ot an exhanetible reaourcee 

As abcwe, but dnelopaeat not ~t curtailed by Stat.e. 

AI abot'e. 

Acldi tlonal uae of aurtace water 

po11ible onlT b7 reduc1D& waate b7 

phreato~rtea, pr1nc1pall7 aal tcedar 

in Lake McMillan, and by il!por tat ion 

ot water. 

Irrigation with artesian water probablT will etabilile at about preaent 

leYel. Poaeibility of meteri~ vella 

to p1'8Yeat withdraA<als from aome in 

exceea of water ri~hts. 

~ 
Area or eubJeot 

Boevell Baein .-

. ahallov crguad water 

Boavell Baeia -- Salt Creek arteeiu area 

C.rleNA ar• 

Bio Graa4e fallq 

Rephut htte 

ITTicatioa Diatrict 

Bev Mexico -- Con Uauecl 

Current eitaatioa 

InteuiTe ua e of ground. 1111ter for 

irrication atarte4 in lq3bL12l,OOO acre-reet p~ed in 1948: water 

levela declined 20~tee~ or more in 65 square milea, 1~2-~8 and will con trnue to lower. J'u.rt!er d~le­ tion of flow or Pecoa Biver will occur aa a result. Some land DIN 

be tor~r' oui oftcultivatlon ow1~ t,g_ d.!c.J ne o wo. er level. 

lntenaive 4eYelo~nt of croua4 

water tor irrication atarted in 

1948. Pwapace not knova. Dft'elopaeat aicht n4uce ealt-water 

eMI'OMUeat 1ato ll&1a buill 'but 

..,.. llUlT wlll MOelera&e lt. 

IahnelTe ue of croud water tor 

irricatioa atartecl in 1948 aainl7 

to auppl•at water fi'Oil J»ecoa 

!liTer. ~not known. Vater 

lft'el lowered 6 t .. t or aore la 1&. 

aquare •11••, 1948-49. Pwa.piac will reduce fiow of Pecoe 111 Til'. 

Maxlll\lll dft'elqaea t reached vi th 

preeeat water nppl7. •• Ma:ioo 

baa ben uaable tor paet 7 7..,.1 

to deliver to tezaa full amoant 

required ua4er Jlio Graa4e Co.,.ct, 

oviac larc•l7 to 1ncr ... e4 wu te 

b7 aaltceclan abo-.e Saa Marcial. 

&inr carne• auch 111 t, coatribute4 aoe t17 b7 Obaaa, J •••, 

heroo, u4 Salado 111 Yen. 

Use ot croua4 water tor eupplemutal 1rrlptioa atarted la 

1948. aouat ued eo tar coa- paraUYe17 lUll. Jlaapinc 

will n4uce now of riYer. 

Deticieaciee in 

iafol'll& Uoa 

eal t-•t•r a.oroacblleat from 

northeaet part of bae1a, iaclu4inc ad4it1oaal quall\7-of-water 

clata. 

More data on effect of pap1ac on · r1 yer nov. Swq of poaaible 

aalvace b7 eltainatiac ealtce4are. 

Con t1au1ac clata to p14e repla tion 

b7 State. mttect of withdrawal oa artellan 'buia; qual1 t7 4ata needed 

tor thle purpoee. 

· Jitfeot of development on main Boawell Baain an4 on flow of Pecoe 

BiTer. ~lt7 data badlT aeeded. 

Poaeibilit7 ot interception .a4 

418poaal of ea1t eprinc water 41 ... 

cbarcla« about 325 tone of aalt 

per '- lnto J»ecoe at Malaca Ba4. 

Qul.UT-of.;.water data to ueht in 

dete:rm1nlac eource u4 ..... , ot 

trellh aa4 ealt water la ana. 

Poeelb111t7 of re4ucinc waete 'b7 

.al'ceclan (ua4er atu47 b7 Co~• 

of Zacineere aa4 Bureau of BeclaaaUoa). 

CoaUau1ac 4etallecl clata on water 

leYel• a4 etteot ot puapiac. 

Corrective meaeuree and 

further deTelo~ente 

further eztenlion a topped b7 State. Adjuetmeat 

of lev Mezico-!aae lntereata ae attecte4 b7 

tloo4 control. 

JQ.1m1Dat1on of artificial aad aatural vaa t• ao 

far u poaelble. DeTelopment etopd b7 State 

to prevent an 1acr.-e in rate of depletion. 

Bxtension of present 1rr1cation atopped b7 

State to prevent overdevelopment, 1nJur.v to 

main baa1n, and interference with prior rights ~ere. 

Re~atlo~ b7 State to prevent overdevelopaent 

aad to aatief7 ter.ae of Pecoa River Compact. 

Jloo4-eontrol and eilt-atorage reaervoira 

au tho riled tor Chama and J •••. lla&Onvheel 

Gap d.u on lio .Graa4e would hrther atabll1ze 

tlow and reduce e1lt movement. Poeaibil1t7 of 

diversion from San Juan Jaein (Colorado BiTer 

draiaace) to increue auppl7 tor Rio Grande. 

Uae ot crouncl-water at6race b7 pwaplac will help 

provide water to thoae haviQ& welle when eur- tace auppl7 11 low, to the detrtaeat of thcle 

vi thout vella. iegll].& t1oa nee4e4 to a43U t lnequitlee 'between thcl e haY1ac no vella aa4 thoee 

who to and who also rece1Ye a full llhare of 

eurtace euppl7. Pupizac ·~ ealyqe aall 

amouate nov waete4 'b7 ev.po-tranapiratloa. 

<» 

\..-
A.rea or aubJect 

Middle Bio Grande 

ConaerTancy District 

Valle Grande area 

Upper Rio Grande 

Talley in lew KGiOO 

Bluewater area 

a.aiacler of Rio Grud.e 

Talley 

lew Mexico - Continued 

Oarreat aituatioa 

Poaaibla deterioration in qQ&lity of cround 

water pumped for Albuquerque public supply. 

Drainace probleaa acute because of riae of 

water table cauaed by nrtac ... vater irricatioa and riae of river bed C&Qaed by ailt 

depoaitioa. Sediment load 11aita uaefulneiB of aurtace water. lnt•aive IIWlicipal uae of ,;round water atarted. la 1940, 

current total uae 15,000 acr ... feet per 

year. Little lowering of water level. 

Papiac will reduce now of Rio Grande, 

a1reeq iaadequate. 

!entatlnly propoaed uae of J,OOO acrefeet of gl"O\lD.d water per year for Loa 

.Alamoa, would deplete by like uouat the 

now of water uaecl by Indian pueblo• 

alone J••• lliver. Hip fluoride in aome water of Valle Granda area and 

hi&b boron la hot aprizac 'water • . Chief •• of crcnmG. water 11 f~r Loa · .Alamoa& pUn 8.-laad fer ltaa .Alaoa 

likely will be aet by walla weat of 

Rio Grade. Puaplac will eventuall.7 

recluce now of river at Otowi, te7 1&&"-

iac atation for operation of llio Grande 

Coapaot. 

Iatnalve uae of ,;rouad water for 1rr1-

ptloa atarted la 1945: 9,JOO acr .... feet 

ueed"i:a 1948. Avera,;e •tar level lowered. 

8.2 feet, 1946-50. haplac will affect now of eprlDp into Bluewater lli.Ver. 

Uae chiefly tor ~chea. 

Deticienciea ia 

infol'llatioa 

Studiea of cbaQgea in quality, 

methode of drainece, and ee41• 

ment (latter under wa7). 

Posaibili ty of aalvacizac evapotranapiratioa waate. Kffect 

of developaent of cround water 

upon over-all tupply. Lecal 

relatio:aahip of crouad and aurface water. B'eecl for 69 new 

caciac • ta tiona in mldclle llio 

Grande for atuqiag waterconlerTation poaaibilitlea 

aad metboda of rebabili tatiDe preaent irript1on 1yat•• 

Stud~' u:ader we, to det·C'mine 

aerioueneaa of problea. 

Detailed data on effect of 

pwapi~~g on river now, lac 

in effect, and adeqQACy of 

aupply. 

Corrective meaaures and further 

develoJM~eat 

Reculation to prevent over-u•e of water 1uppl7 

aa a whole. Continued abortace of aurface water 

h providinc iJ:Icenthe for developaent of ~rou.nd 

water for irrication. which in turn may cause creater ehortace of surface tlov. · 

AdJustment. if needed, of intereet; of both 

Loa Al.uoa and Indiaae, aubJect of recent necotiationa. Propora e4 auppl.r would not be developed for Loa Alamo• if adeqaate water could be 

found to the eut. 

To be detem1nflll after further atudy. 

StudT of possible adverse effect Jloo6-control measures that will not affect 

of ~oposed flood-cqntroi meaa- water ri&bta adversely; ad.Juatment of water ures on Indian water ri.thta; richh for effecta of puaplng. 

effects of pump1Dg on prior rights. 

Effecta of pump1Dg on quality of 

water. 

Qul.lty-of-wter and tecliaent 

data. Stucllea of pound-water occurreace to deteralae belt 

areaa for ranch well• and poaaibilltlea of local lrricatloa. 

Stu4181 to determiae whether 

flood-deteatioa dame on arro10a 

will lncreue recbarge aad total 

water auppl7 of vall•7• 

~ 
Area or eubJect 

CloaH. bullle 

Gila llinr Baalll 

ill lev llezioo 

(Vi rdell 'allq) 

Cfarreat el\u.Uoa 

lo aurtace outnow, except froa aorthwat 

part ot Virtea Vallq (pari of lateatate 

Daacu-Vlr4eal V&1le7), &raiaed lllto 

.lrisoaa b7 Glla l!nr. 

lrrlsatloll froa.etr ... a aa4 w.lle. 

hair& ot laterul 4raluce 1a •• Ke:itico 

Crow llate area and'fexaa. &mcceaatul 1rr1gat1oll from 

(extellcle late !~vella ill fexaa part baa le4 to more tha 

ae lalt Jlate ar .. l,OOO homestead appllcatioaa in lev 

Kuloo. lacroachaeat of aal t water troa 

loveat part. ot baela ._, be cauaed b7 

puaplac.. . - ful.uoaaltula Grout water Mial7 of poor qul.U7. · Water nppl7 of Alaaocorto ucl Holloau 

Air J'oroe Baae iu4equate; n.ppl••'-17 

IUJ:Pl7 of latter laoreaelac ill ealt con- teat. lleclaarce of bula Utall. 

latanc1.a Vallq 

S,.n A~~ttn Pleiae 

Intend•• ue of crouncl water for 1rr1-

cat1oll atartecl in 1948: 5,4oo acre-feet 

vithclraw 1a that 7ear. · Vater lne1 

4eol1aecl 1 foot or aore 1a 72 equan a11n, 1948--.g. Water of poor qu11 t7 

t.a n.ab of bula. 

Pr01ent 1110 DiDl7 on ranohee. 

lev llulco - Coatlnuecl 

~lcienciee in 

laforaatioll 

A4ditloaal cacinc etatlone to 

cleteraiae ianow ot etreuae into 

uae oloeecl bulaa, u part of atucliea 

to cleteralae crouaA-vater recbarce 

an4 poaelbillt7 of lnc~lac it 

b7 coutrw:tinc 4aa oil arro10a to 

oatoh fioocl vaten now .atecl to 4rT 1pl.,.. 1*••· 

S~cllea to-cleteralae eate 7ielcl. 

ltu41ea to 4eteralae poealb1lltioe 

of cleYelo,.eat aD4 effect• of 

paaptac. 

lftcllea to 4eteralae eoul'Ce of 

acl41 Uoaal water for Alaaocorto area; 

of ocea.rrence ot lal.t water a4 of 

poaalble fnah water for lrrtc&tloa 

an4 other ••• la all parte of 

bula.. AY&lla'blll t7 of water tor 

lh1 te a.au lronac Graul. 

Stu41ea of peremdcl ytel4; occurrace of aalt7 water u4 mcw•eat 

UDAer ~lac ooaAltloae. 

Stadtee to determine ~ether larbe 

tuanti ties of •ter of coot qaal.U7 are &'t'&llable for lrrlcatlon or 4efeaee .. ta'bll*baeata. 

CorrectiYe meaeurea and turther 

deYelo•ellt 

Additional 4-.elo,.ent appean poaeible. 

Should. be coor41aated. vi th uee lll Arlsona 

to prodace maxt.aa ut111sat1oa ancl 

equl table 41atribut1on of water. Good. 

reaen-olr al tee at looter and led. loot. 

Laac1e aear Gila, Clltf, aa4 lec1 Book 

ooa14 ,. ll'l'lc&'e4. 

Potential 4&Yelop:ent likel7 to be smell. 

leed.e4 are re,ul*ion of exceaalYe 4e.elopaent 1a order to llal t eacroacblaent of 

aal t water: coorclination ot clnelop~ent 

-~~--. . 

Reg-Jla. tiofl. to prevent oYerdeYelopment 

and sal t-vater encroachment. 

Pro':Abl¥ mer c w:;..~er 1a av.a.lla~lc than. 

11 belnc ued.. 

~ 

,. 
Area or aub.1ect 

Miabrea Talle7 

.&aimu u4 Plqaa 

Tall•,. 

O~r oloae4 baelaa la 

a~ater.n lew Kezlco· 

San J"UJl Bu1D 

BanJo leaenauoa 

Cua41aa liTer buln 

a.a1D.C1er of lew Mateo 

lew Mexico - Oontilule4 

Current al tuaUoa 

lnteaelTe·uae of crcnm4 water tor lrrlcation atane4 1D 1923; 58,000 acre-t .. t uae4 

ln 1948. Water lnel lowered. 10 teet or 110re 

in 10 aqure ailea, 1942-48. Becharp •inl7 

from Mlabrea liTer, reduced b7 full claTelopaent 1D hea4watera. M croua4 water 18 

puape4 aaial7 fro• atorace, water laTela 

rill continue to lower. Soae water hlp 1D 

nuorlde. 

Inteaa1Te uae of croaad water tor 1rr1cat1on 

ataned in 1948; 7,000 acr ... t .. t vlthdran 

in that 7ear. Water 1 .. e1 4ecl1ne4 3 teet or 

110re in 4 •ca.ure ailH, l94s-IJ9. later 

rather hip in ao41ua ad_,. ciTe troub~ 

oa MaT7 aolla: bi&:b t.a fluoride in aoae plaoea. 

Uae aow ob1et17 en naobea. 

l(ey Mateo all~t•-.t. abnt !00,000 acnteet per 78&r UDder upper Colorado liTer 

CoiiJI&ct. Jleporte4 loaeea fi'Oil Sea Jwm 

liTer ngelt auba\uUal uD.C\ertlow 

from State or napo-traaap1ratioa. 

•ts..atea probabl7 in enor. 

Vater needecl tor Incl1a tchoola aad 

••ttl•eatt. Water acaroe aad caretal 1nTeat~~tloa aeeclecl to locate ecoaoalcal nppllea. 

Irr~tecl areu on Cturron, lqaclo, Te1'1le.1o, 

aa4 upper Oaaacllaa liTera now deflci•t ia 

wate:r ftPP17• 

Wate:r aee4el tor auniolpelitlea, r.achea, 

aa4 def8D.Ie 88\&bli&baeata. Irrlcatloa 

would be deal:rable alae. 

Det1c1eno1ea ln 

lnfonaUoa 

Coatlauimc recorc18 ot JN111P8Ce 

aa4 water lwela needed to 

ahow etteota of puaplac ut 

rate of depletion of atorace. 

Determlm tlon of perennial 

71•14. 

AYallablllt7 of water for 

maa1c1pal1tlea and per.bapa 

fo:r 1:r:rlpt1oa. Jtoal1b1l1-

'T ot laonaalac reclaarp 

lt7 ...UC &I'I'OlM io oakla 

f1ecll tlowa. 

Ca!"@t.l •tu~ of lo~te~ te 

cleteralae effect• oa upper 

Colorado liTer eo.p.ct. 

Studlea UD4er w~; •~14 be 

coatiaued to conr 1"88ei'YaUoa. 

CorrectiTe .... urea aa4 fUrther 

dwelo•ent 

Becalatlon in .accordaace with po11C7 4ec1tlon 

aa to beat wq to utilise water where w1th4rua1 uceeda recharce, u la dwelop~ 

areal of lllch Plaine. hrther developllent in 

Mia area atoppe4 'b7 State. 

Hold vlthclrawal to perennial 71el4, ·or make 

4ecit1oa aa to beat rate of depletion of 

atorage lf recharge proTea to be amall. 

So•• clevelOJilellt of groua4 water for lrrlgatioa me, be poaaible. 

v,e ,! Ya~~~ t~ be deter.21n~d att~~ ~t~~r 

atu!T. 

Seyea a441t1oaal caciDC at~ Posaibility of diversion r~ ~d Ri.er 

Uoaa needed to cletentlne amount ( tributaey of llio Grande) when diveraion 

aa4 4iatrlbut1on of water in 1B made from San Juan to llio Gra.nde, tor 

atreua; qual.U7 of t.rrlptloa• uae in Antelope Talley in Rqado River 

return water from 'fucuacari buln. Poaa1b111t7 of etoring water on 

ProJect la relation ~o reuae. Vte Creek, tr1butar.r to Canadian. 

Stu41ea to locate auppllea. Dnelopll8nt of ground water tor lrr1p.tloa 

1a local arM8 probabl7 feuible. Oo&&trol 

m&7 be needed where now of atre•• aq be 

affected. 

s 

lfew York 

'taat water-reaources potential and large uae. Lese thAm 5 percent of' watershed area d8'f'elope4 so tar. Much of' rsa.ining water used tor power but 

aoat plants are •run of' the river• rather than depending on atorage, and interference between power and other uses is amall. water-supply problaas acute 

in f'flfl placesJ chiefiy eooncaic or caused by delay 1n develop!lent, rather thea h)'drologio or engineering dif'f'ioultiea. S0111e flood problema, largely under 

control or in process of being controlled. Considerable stream pollution. Ground water abundant on Long Island and in present or buried preglacial ve.lleys 

in Upstate New -YorkJ auppliea from bedrock aa.ller but development• of 0.1 million gallons per day or more posaible in much of' western part and in scattered 

areas elaewhere. OTerdevelopment in western Lang Island; only local depletion el•ewhere. State has 1 area using more tban 1 billion gallons per day (New 

York City}J 6 areas using 100 million gallons per day to 1 billionJ 6 using lQ-100 million gallons per dayJ and 47 using 1-10 million gallons per· da.y(large 

power plants and pulp mills not included). Stream•f'low data good an the wholeJ more data on IIJB&ll streams and analysis of' all data needed tor use in 

specific projects. Ground-water information good tor Long Island and Upstate studies progreaaing. Quality-of-water data badly deficient. 

Area or Detioienciea in Corrective measures and 

1ubjeot Current aituati~~-- ~~-~---- 1nt~~tion turther development 

New York City 

Public supply iD 

general 

Supplies a little more than 8,000,000 

people in the ti ve counties of' New York 

Cit.y plua large population in Weatohester 

County and communi ties above catskill and 

Cr•ton Aqueduota (32 aillicm gallons per 

day to these areas outside city in 1948). 

Daaand rose to 1,200 aillion gallons per 

day by- 1949, about 20 percent beycmd dependable yield (116 lDillicm gallons per 

day fr0111 Croton, 10 from Bronx and Byran, 

625 f'rca Schoharie and Esopus, 20 aurtaoe 

water and 80 ground water trca tans Island, 

and 5 ground water trom staten Ialand.J will 

~e increased by up to 100 (not d.ependable) 

trom. .Bancl~t Creek into catskill Aqueduct 

at Lackawaok). .AbOTe-nonaal precipitation 

permitted. OTerdratt in 1945-48, but drought 

of 1949 reduced aupply. 'War and court 

actions have delayed addi tiona to IUpply iD 

laat 16 ye&ra. Storage was 90 percent of 

oapacit.y (122 percent of normal) at 8Dd ot 

J'ebruaey 1~49 • ~ 100 p•roan1! g th• c4 · 

of .April; wae aa low aa 33 or , .. penn.to 

ot cqac:U7 late ia 1949 aD4 at ead of 

Jeb1'UU7 1950 waa 47 .,-rcent of capacU7 

(64 ~rc•' of aonaal). 

In 1948, 3M. surtao.-water Sflt•a aened 

10,891,482 people in 61'1 oouaun.ities, 4'19 

ground-water syst.s 1, 749,115 in 4'19 oa1111Dlities, and combination auppliea 123,624 

in 43 communities, tor a total population 

ot 12,'164,321. Rural population (remainder 

Data on present water demands 

and tuture needa. Local studies 

aa needed to determine moat 

eoanaaioal sources. 

DeaaD4 reduo.t by 200-JOO million callona 

per ~ by conaerration measure•. It i• 

now propoeed to 4iTert 100 million gallons 

per 4aT from Budeon River to Catskill 

Aqueduct by late IUIIIler 1950. lle1'e1opnent 

of upP8r Delaware eupply beinc rushed. • 

GrouacJ...owater pumpace on X.onc Ielu.d beiac 

accelerated to perms_·adble II&Z1mwll of 100 

million gallons per ~{averaged 55 millioa 

plloat per clq in 1949). liondout supply o:f 

100 and V.veraink supply of 105 million 

gallon• per clq to be completecl in 1953; 

»aet Branch Delaware supply of 335 m11Uoa 

galloaa per dq 1a 1956. Total dependa~le 

yield will then be 1,495 million galloat 

per ~; expected deaand 1,350 in 1956. 

.A.cfditioaal d8'f'elopteatl aeeded for expecte4 

continu.4 iacr ... ee in deaan4 after 1956. 

Continued coaaerYatioa·neede4 unt11 

neenoira retun to aoraal atace•, and 

'atterwa.r4 ua\11 4.velol!Mnt catches up 

with d...U.. 

Principal needs tor increased supply at 

present are New York Cit.y and in nortbweste:m part of State. 

I 
•• York -- CoDtiAued 

Area or Deticienciea 1D Corrective measures &D.d 

aubject Carrct ai~tS.~-- intoN&tiOD further deve~~ct 

BortU..atern area 

(Brie, Niagara, OrleazJ.a, 

Cleneaee, llcmra., IDd. 

Wayne Countiea &D.d. parte 

ot Livington &D4 CDtario 

Cot.m.tiea) 

OrOWli water in Upstate 

In York 

ot total now eat111ate4 at 1,, T&O,OOO) uea 

larcely grouncl water. · 

JJ1 ana .. t eut ea4 ot Lake Brie and. aouth iiu· ·or ~l.a.b · ora:tario- aoit: oa..uDi ts:eif'nHct 

to apmd. their ·water wpply, u ahown 'bJ' 

ettecta ot d.roupt ot 19,9. Ill 19.i8, · 

1,,57 ,615 people were aern4 with 216,881,000 

gallCIID.a per d.aJ' ot awtace water, ,,2,1,000 

ot Croulld water, and. 1.621.000 frca OCIIIlbinatiCID 

aupplies, ~d d.-.ncl has increased al:a.oe thea. 

!otal cround.--ter uae about toO 111llica 

gall•• · per d&J• Large wpplie' t-10 

million pllcma per daJ', clneloped. CIID.l7 

in •Sou-thern !ier• ot countiea &D.cl in 

east. Princi~: areaa are •triple C1 ties• 

(Bingbaton, JobnaCID C1 t,., and. End.i oott), 

10 mill1011 pllons per daJ'J Sohcectacly 

area_, 25 million gallon• per dayJ .Jiaeata., 5-8 ailliCID callona per d.ayJ Corninc, 

5 a1lliCID gall one per day; llmi.ra-Horaeheacla, 

'a1111oa. gallon• per dqJ Cortland, •-5 

ailliCID pllGDa per d.ayJ plua 1 to 'million 

gallaaa per c1ay at 15 to 20 other plaoea •. 

Local water-lft'el d.eclinee 1D aneral 

placea, notably !rlple Citiea aDd ~eata.D, 

but D.O repoa.al O'ftrd.ft'elopaent mOille 

Droupt ot 19.-&9 attecrtecl ~ aballaw 

rural wella ID4 llao lhallow publ1o well• 

ot La~ Water Diatr1otJ 11.0 laac-tena 

d.eolinea. Qaali t,. 11m1 ta cro\m.cl-.at.r 

d.erelopact 1D acae areaa, eapeoially 1D 

eutwaz+.narrowiDs belt ut&d.1Dg trca 

Buttalc tbrftlh SJ.racue aD.Cl Utica nearly 

to Jlba.J'.; 

lztenlion ~r present OO'ftl"a,e · 

'bf cooperative atuclies 1f1th. 

State Water Power U1cl Coutrol 

Calmaiaaion to cover the maD.J' areas ot detioient croUDd-.ater 

and quali t,.-ot-wa ter 1Df'o.rmation. 

Record.• ot only 10,000 ot eatimated. 500,000 wells collected. 

so tar. Data need.ecl 1nolucle 

record.a ot uae ot grouncl water, 

quality data, cCIIIlpletion ot 

geologio mappins, location ot 

aqmitera _, ceolocic atucly, 

teet d.rill!nc, and. r;eophJaioal 

atwliea, mel abaervatiGD-..11 

· rt$OOrd.a in both paaped ad 1Dlpulllpe4 areaa. 

Borthweet.vu Be~ York Water .A.uthori t7 

Dhtrict foraecl, u recoaeade4 ia 

Bolliacer Deport ot S~te Committee ou lorthweeter.a Bew York State Water 

Suppl7. Bec-eadecl to dwelop 121 

millioa salloaa per daT Gf graY1t7 

eurfue water 1JUecliatel.7, ao1tl7 at 

•• th edc• of area. Poaatble later 

coaatruct10a of pipe llae froa Lake 

&rle •ut about to llocheater. Buffalo, 

llocheat.er, and aoae other large cU1e• 

mar derelop auppllea 1a41Y14ual17 

rat. he,. thaa liJUl•r aa utMrU7. 

ero1Dl--. ter appl1ea not &T&ilab1e 1D 

ail&ble qua:t1tl• a:~ poaeibl7 1A 

bvlecl .... lley 1a Ga••• at..,.. 'llulD. 

Demands to increase, ae 1n !riple C1 t1ea 

area, Schnectady, Cortland, poeeibly 

certain placea in Weatchester County, 

Beacon area, Latlwu 'Wa~er Dietrict near 

.Albany, Rcaselaer, Utica, SJrl.cuee, and. 

Rooheeter. Greatly increaaeci developaeat 

appea.ra poslible it based. on good. data. 

State considering extena10l1 ot preaent 

legal authority over r;r~d......ater with• 

drawal on Lone Illand to whole State, to. 

provide agatnat overdevelopment. 

~ 
Area or aubJect 

Flood coa trol 

follutioll 

Long leland 

JJev York - Ooatillue4 

Current lltuatloll 

Prillclpal problem oil Suaquehanlla and Geneeee 

B.ivera aad OaollUga Creek above S7racuae, also on Bu4aoa, Mohawk, Booeic, and Little Hooaic 

B.lvera and linderhook Creek. 

Special Committee Oil Pollution Abatement lieta 

549 1ourcee of atreaa pollutioll, 44 percent 

aevace, 19 percent milk-plant waatea, and 37 

percent other. Huclaon fl.ivar from !ro7 to .Hew 

York Ci t7, liia«ara B.lYer, •hawk RlYer, and 

Onolldaca Lake are aaonc principal polluted 

aurface-water bodiea. 

One of tbe moat pro~cttve grouad-water ar ... 

in country, foraed larcely of 118114¥ claclal 

depo1ita uaderlaln by Coaatal Plain depoaita 

1nclu4.iJ1C some sands. Limited surface runotf, 

1arcel7 reflectlnc drainace from ground-water 

reaenoir. Average potential gro~d·water 

recbar.- eatiaatecl at half of precipitatioa 

or 1 million gallons per dq per square aile, 

or 1,374 mill1oll cellon• per de, total. 

Miniawa d17•7ear potential reoharce eatlated 

at 955 million callona per dq. lecharce reduced by about 90 million pllona per clq by 

p«vGmeelts, bu1141ac•, draiaace 1n to severe, eto. 

•u•ted. aate puapace, 1,284 a1111on plloaa 

per da7 in averace year and 8b5 millioa callona 

per dq in drt.eat Tear ( reqainac vella ecattered 

over entire hland and requlrla& return ot ,.rt 

ot water to crouacl. all alone ahore ~ pnvent 

aal t-vater eacroacbment). Withdrawal ln 1949 

Deflciellclea ia 

lllfonaatloa 

Aaalyala of ulttiac and 

future atre.a-tlov recorda 

to detenalne deliCD of 

B78t .. a providiQg adequate 

dilution at low tlow. Data on ailt aa a phase of pollution. Preaeat stream-flow 

record• veey inadequate to 

deteraiae claaaifioatioa 

of atre&JU uder aew law. 

Coatlnuiac detailed studies 

to ~ide control b7 State; 

additional data wherever 

aev p-obl•• arise, aa increased pumpinc by lew York 

City in Nassau Count7 and 

iacreaoed irrigation developmente in eastern part of hland. 

Streaa-tlow data inadequate 

to guide pollutioa control 

and operatioa of flab-rearlnc 

ponds and ahellflah lnduatr,r. 

vu 270 million pllona per d&T lncludiac 55 b7 Bev 

York Cit7; net pumpage reamced to 1~0 aillioa callone 

per da7 b7 recharc• throuch artificial•recherce 

vella and baaina, treatment pleats, aeptic tanka 

and ce18poola, etc. OverdevelopDent and eel t-"ater encroachaeat 

ln Ki~e and ~een• Counties, thoucb 1~•• thaD fo~erl7. 

Bowcwer, accelerated puapiac in Baaaau Ccnm\7 b7 JJew 

York Cl t7 1a preaent. water ahortace 1a beiac vatche4 

caretul17 to see that salt-water encroacbaeat 4oea aot 

reault. Local probl•• of pollution by orcanic or other 

~·!••,.~uch •• prob~em of hlch nitrate in shallow aquifere 

Corrective meaauree and 

further da.elouaeat 

Suequehuaa proJect by Ana7 ._ineen 

la coo.peratlon wi\b State lnvolvee 9 

4aaa (4 completed), and 14 local improvement• (12 completed); total coat 

f82, 007,300. Other proJeote con- structed or authorised total 

$126,701,720. 

Sewage-treataaent plata aei'Ye 

6,964,000 people; 4,694,000 more are in communitiea having eever BJWt .. a but no treatment. Under conslderaUoa are 111 new proJects. lew data 

available on ind~trial-vaate probleaa. Water Pollution Control Board 

fol'lled under lav recentl7 ta aaed. 

Contiaued reduction of aet pu.page 

1n lings and l.i;ueena Countlea by reduced withdrawal and artificial re- charge until it 11 within safe peld. 

Large additional d.evelopaente poseible in umpumpecl areu of Naaaau 

County and eapeclall7 Suffolk Count7 

where concentration of pumpiac ia 

l ... t. Supplemental irrication 

from vella pr01118lnc and be reaet.nc 

rapi417. 

'8 
91 
Borth Carolina 

Larce potenti.al auppl7 with proper dn-elopaent. Local: ahonacea of aurface water and oTerpamping of ground water are common. but problema are mainl7 economic ard there ia no regional oTerdn-elopaent. Str ... pollution is moat important surface-water problem. followed b7 flood control and drainage. Main ,;round-water probla 11 need for information on occurrence and aTallab111t7 of -.a.ter of good qua11t7. to ·permit 1101 t 

economical solution of probl•• of oTerp'Wipiag and iacreaeiac 4-.4. MaD7 additional recorcls of flow of 811811 streams needed, aa these will 

be tapped increasincl7 for new supplies. 

Area or aubJect 

Coaatal Plain 

Piedmont nateau 

~rrent situation 

Area not industrialised heaT117 but development 

increaainc, especiall7 for paper ailla and ateampower plan ta. Surface-water supplies lares and of 

cood cn•ical quali t7 except near mouths r,f atreama 

and for iron-bearing hi8h•color watera iD Diaaal 

Swamp recion. At leaat 50 million gallons per dq of 

surface water uaed at paper 1111.lla.and ateam-power 

planta baTe maximum demand of more than 45o million 

gallons per dal'· About 3,000 honepower of qdropower deTeloped at aaall mille. About 25 million 

callona per da.y of surface water used for 20 public 

arateraa. About 16 million gallons per d.~ of 

ground water used for 90 public auppllea; about 50 

million callons per da.y for industrial usee. 

During the war defense eatabliabaenta used about 

20 million sallona per dar. all from ground vater 

except it. Brege, vh1ch uaea aurtace water. Pollution common, ea}ICbll7 in Beuae, Joanoke, and upper 

Cape .lear Ri Tera. Major fiood problema in lioanoke, 

Cape lear, and Beute RiTeJ' buiaa. Ground· vater hich 

in fluoride north of GreeDYille, hieh ln lron in 

JDan7 pMts of area, and sal t7 in MD7 cou tel areas. 

Moat hesv117 populated and industrialised recion. 

Water of cenerall7 good cbellical qualit7 except 

for iron in &rO\llld water in places. More than 

520,000 horaepover of hJ'd.ro-pover, and ate--

power planta capable of uaiac 900 million callona 

per 4q of surface water. Amouata uaed for other 

indultrial purpoaea unknowa, but larcer mUla 

dnelop more thaD 20,000 honepower of hldro-power 

vith aurtace· 'Water. About 63 mlllloa ca11oaa per 

4q of aurface vater uaed for publio auppl7 in ~ 

communities; about 5 million callona per 4a7 of 

around vater for 53 commun1t1ea. Groua6-water 

auppllea in bedrock uall to 1104erate; h•Ti17 

pumped tor tovna and iaduatrlea and locall7 oTerdr•n. S11reaa pollution acute in Daa llt.Ter, •••• RiTer belov Du.m.t, Bav an4 Deep RiTera, hea4-

quartere of iock7 Ri Yer, u4 Ye4k1n ltl Ter from 

Deficienciea in 

infoni&Uon 

Occurrence of crou.d water 

ot cood qualitr: llttent of aaltvater encroachment, if anr: aate 

7ield of aquifere aa a whole, 

but especially with recard to 

local deT~lopmenta and ~Tailabilltr of fresh water near coaat. 

Research on problem of iron in 

water. 

Occurrence of cround water in 

bedrock, to help locate aucce••- tul wells (conalderable data 

alreac~T p.thered). now of 

aaall atreama and reaearch on 

relation of crowad.-water ln-ell 

to atreaa flow to aaaiat in pre41ctlac lov tlov. Increaalnc 

need for t.aperature data. on 

ground and aurtace water. 

Inforaatloa on silt moTement 

in atreama and aUt depoaita 

1a reaenoln. 

CorrectiTa meaaurea 

and further deTelovaent 

Very larce cround-water 

potential if adequate 

data are obtained. 

Control of nooda in 

Beuse and Cape lear 

Baain1 needed; will be 

effected to aoae llttent 

on Roanoke liTer when 

Buggs Island BeaerToir 

in Virginia is completed. 

Pollution-control meaaures would lncreaae 

availabill tr of aurface 

water, liMited b7 thia 

and b7 aal t vater ne~r 

coast. 

Pollution control needed. 

J'lood-control ••urea propoaecl tor atudT 1n 

maJor problem areaa. :lroaion and allt control 

needed in areu ot aevere 

eroaion. Wider apaclnc of 

velll in heaT117 pumped 

· areaa vlll aol Te aoat probl•• of local oTerdratt. 

Studies show moderate to 

larc• suppliea aTailable 

from thin alluTium alODC 

atre••: alllo" untapped. 

IS 
Area or 

aub.1ect 

Appalachian region 

North C&roltaa -· Continued 

CUrrent 81 tua tion 

Wilkesboro to Winston-Salem. Flood problema on 

upper Yadkin Bi ver and on cape Fear and Neuse 

Rivera. Local ahortagea of surface water and 

ground water common, especially at ~leigh and 

Wlnaton-Sal•· Soil erosion and aedimentation 

problema. 

Use of water not heavy. Water ot good quality. 

rive large plants use 110 million gallons per ~ 

ot surface water. About 11.5 million gallons 

per day ot surface water used tor S6 public 

supplies. 900,000 gallons per day of ground water 

tor 26 public supplies. Hydroelectric-power 

development more than 500,000 horsepower. St~ 

pollution serious on French Broad R1 ver troa 

1\0 8lll8ll to State line • Tuckasegee Bi ver trom Sylva. 

to Fontua Reservoir, and Pfgeon R1 ver troa Canton 

to State linea also trCIIl -.ioa-plant waste in 

•orth 'Ice River. Flood probl• in French Broad 

R1 Ter J less serious elsewhere. Drainage ot scae 

high plateau lmd needed tor agriculture. 

Deficiencies in 

information 

As above. 

Corrective measures and 

further develocment 

As above. 

\S 
North De.kota 

Water is limitiDg factor in developnent or almost all or State. Bulk nt 15 to 22 inches or precipitation occurs in growing season and is consumed by 

evapo-transpiration, leaving little tor ground-water recharge and stream tlov; nmott an inch or less in almost all of State. Ground water used tor ovar 70 percent or domestic, stock, industrial, raUroad, aDi public supplies. Surface-water use mainly along Missouri and Red Rivers. Increased surface vat"r 

to bP. made avdlable under Missouri Basin program;· irrigating will increase ground-water supplies in some areas rut will lead to drainage and salin:ity 

problems; increasing farming, and industrialization resulting from increased ~o-power, will increase demam tor ground water tor domestic and industrial use. Ground wter available in limited quantities in glacial depodts in northeastern two-thirds or State, in bedrock mainly in western halt but some water from Da.Jcota sandstone in eastern part. Few large supplies except along major streams. Water from Dakota sandstone generally or poor qual tty; that 

fran glacial drift and from other bedrock aquifers also poor in III&IV' places. 

Area or Deficiencies in 

suhiect__ OUrrent situation intormation 

Principal problema are lack ot water ot good 

quality to meet all municipal, industrial, and 

irrigation needs; and ot water ot an:y quali1i7 

tor sewage dUutioh. Infrequent but severe floods on al~ streams; tor example, recent 

floods on Red Rivtn", which were most severe north ot international boundary. Pollution in 

lllall1' streau~~. Drainage in Red River Valley, 

and lack ot suitable reservoir sites; reservoirs 

would ccwer value.ble land and would have high 

evaporation losses. Soil erosion and sediment 

in streams. 

.. 

~a~s~~ft ot ~OODd-vater stu~iea 

under l"fissouri Basin program aM 

in cooperation with State to proYide adequate data tor most economical solution ot local problems. 

Quality data tor this purpose and 

to guide irrigation development 

when large . return fiovs bec<~~e 

avaUable. Increased stream-flow 

data and analysis, in relation to 

tlood and low flows, mcwement ot 

salty return water from irrigated land~;~, proposed flushing ot salty 

water trc. Devils Lake basin into 

SheyeDDe River and Bed River. Sedi-

•ntation in relation to res81"'10ir 

operaticm and lite • 

Corrective measures and turther_develo~nt 

Adequate surfeoe watP-r along 

Missouri River; storagP. in reser- voirs at Garrison 1 N. Dak. , and 

Oahe, S. Dale. 1 will provide irrigation water tor northwestern and 

central parts ot State. Di.version 

from Missouri. to Sheyenne and then 

to Red River at Fargo will help 

eastern area. Ground water can be 

made available tor most domestic 

needs, but not always at low coat or or good quality. Full coordination ot Federal, State, count1, 

and municipal activities Deeded to 

achieve maxiJma use ot the limited 

water resouroee. 

.,. 
~ 

Generally a.ple water supply but sane probl.u of local overdevelopment, stream pollution, flood control, soil erosion, and sedimentation. Problema 

largely economic rather than hydrologic or an_gineering; solutions exist but cannot alwaya be applied economically. 

Area or Deficienoies in' Corrective measures and 

subject Current ai tuation information further developnant 

Ground water 

SUrface water 

Quality ot water 

Ground-water use about 550 million gallons per 

day, 400 by industries and 160 tor public supply, 

m.oatly fra gravel-tilled preglacial valleya. Kuoh 

ot water derived trom streams by induced intil• 

tration. Similar aquifers scattered over state 

but m.ostly in southern halt. Limestones yield 

moderate supplies in western part and scattered 

sand,atonea in east. Ground-water pum.page of 1 

million gallon• per day or more in 33 areas. Kill 

Creek Valley tully developed as a whole J local 

overpum.ping in aom.e other areas. Ground water 

s()4Lrce and of poor quality • except locally, in 

area adjacent to Lake Erie and eastern and 

aou'theaater.n areas. 

Probl_. similar to those in other heavily farmed 

and industrialized States in humid ·regiODJ large 

auppl7 but pollution, floods, anc1 erosion and 

aeclim.entation widespread. Use of surface water 

not kn01111 but very large, much larger than ground• 

water uae. NUileroua cases of local shortage or overdevelopmentJ YQungltown area on Mahcming 

River il outstanding aample, where river water 

is reused many times and heavil7 polluted and 

heated. Ohio Biver exteDaively polluted. 

K01t ground water • and river water in time of 

low flow, 11 hard. water in poorly productive 

glacial depoai t1 near Lake Brie and in bedrock 

below 1tream level likely to be highly mineralized. · 

Adequate general 1tudiea com• 

pleted in only 7 counties and 

under way in 9 moreJ quantitative 

studies ·Jade m ODl1' a tew areu mcJa as Cinciimati. Jla¥ton, aucl 

OIDtonJ under way in a fn others. 

General studies needed in rest 

of State and quantitative atudi .. 

in all areas of heavy w:l tb.drawal. 

Kore adequate mapping of sandatones in eastern <Jlio, where 

substantial ground-water supplies 

are otherwise limited to buried 

valleys. 

Stream-flow recorda reasonably 

adeqaate except tor a dozen ungaged basins of 100-400 square 

miles, mostly adjacent to Ohio 

Rl.ver. Analysis of data needccl 

tor correlation of tlow with 

ground-water level1, tlood prediction, relation of runoff to 

precipitation in cultivated and 

uncultivated areas, etc. 

Quality clata extremely scanty. 

Geological Survey had .ade le11 

than 100 analyses of ground water 

in state and baa short-tezm r.ecords 

ot river-water qualit.J for.only 

about 26 stations. Sediment data 

to be collected on Maumee Biver, 

first Geological Survey 1tatiOD 

in State. Quali t.J data needed el• 

pecially tor ground water in area• 

where it ia not abundant. 

Buried valleys, especially Ohio 

Valle7 where there are tn large 

developments so tar on Ohio lide, 

have great pQtential tor large 

1Uppliea by.induced infiltration. 

water slightly more mineralized 

than river but bacterial and 

aaae industrial pollution largely 

filtered out. Effect of induced 

intilt~tion on flow of smaller 

streams must be considered. 

Economical development of additional supplies, in addition to 

collection and analysis of streamflow data, depends on control of 

floods, pollution, and channel 

and reservoir aedbnentation. 

Miami and Muakingum River tloodcontrol projects are outstanding 

examples. Pollution-control 

projects of stmilar scope are 

under way. Gaging stations need 

rehabilitation (true for moat of 

country). 

~ 
.Olclahoma 

A semiarid to subhuJrd.d State in vhich water 1s not sufficiently abundant to be developed or used haphazardly, but in which caref'ul development,based 

on better hydrologic information than now exists,will be able to meet present and future needs. Use limited b.Y quality rather than quantity in some areas. Surface supply large but poorly distributed in .both time and place and highly variable in quality; best in quantity and quality in eastern halt. Ground 

water widely distributed in l'l'UJill->rous aquifers, underlying total area or less tharJ, halt or State, whose occurrence and distribution are known in detail in 

rev areas; quality highly variable. Few highly productive aquifers; especially lacking in most ot eastern OJtlahoma, where, however, surface water 1s 

most abundant. Total grounCI.-water use estimated at 48 million gallons per day (about 55,000 acre-feet) in 1945 and substantially larger now; includes 

domestic water tor about 68 percent of population. Total surface runoff from State about 321 0001000 acre-feet per year 1 ot which 18,700,000 originates in 

State. Surtace-\18ter use in 1949 estimated at 131,000 acre-feet ror public supply and industr;y, 27 ,ooo tor irrigation, and 3,800,000 tor hydro-power. 

Flood ani sediment problems and low now in dr;y season indicate need tor storage. 

Arkansas River Basin 

Northern tvo-thirde ot State. Surface water scarce in west; surplus in east. Large stored supply of ~ va'ter in High Plains but recharge limited. 

Ground water also in alluviwa and, in west,.Jin terrace deposits flanking streams which are above stream level and not subject to induced infiltration. 

Ground water also in Rush Springs sandstone in vest, Garber and Wellington sandstones and Vamoosa and Belagoney formations in center, and Boone tormat!Qn 

and Arbuckle group (including Roubidoux formation) in northeast. 

.Areia or sub.:iect Oarrent situat1ou 

High Plains and rest or Cime.rNm and Canadian 

River basins 

Low runotr; large storage necessary for 

use of 81ll"f'ace water, limited by deep 

entrenchment ot streams. Cimarron and 

Salt Fork Rivers cross salt beds in 

Woods end Alfalfa Counties and largely 

unusable· downstream; Cim8:rron one of 

chief contributors of silt to Arkansas 

River. Borth Canadian River will be most 

tully developed stream in State; heavily 

polluted by industrial waste below 

Oklahoma City. Local groum-water supply 

at Enid overdeveloped. Floods and heavy 

sediment load in main Canadian River • Ground water along North Canadian below 

Oklahoma City polluted by industrial 

waste; Shawnee W~~~lls abandoned. Heavy 

pumpine trom Garber end Wellington formations in Oklahoma City- Borman area but no serious overdevelopnent. 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

information rUrther develotae_nt 

Add1 tional data on stream 

flow and sediment ioads and 

analysis for economical design or -storage and floodand pollution-control projects. Expanded groandwater studies to locate 

aquifers and evaluate supply 

in heavily pumped areas; 

present data largely on a 

•spot• basis • 

Control of silt needed in Cimarron Basin. 

North Canadian u.,ed by Oklahoma City and may 

be Ulled tor Enid, which is also considering 

ground water some distance from city. Canton 

and proposed .Optima (Hardesty) Reservoirs will 

control Borth t::anadian River tully; good 

irrigation possibilities with full development. 

Interstate compact needed among Oklahoma, Texas, 

and Bev Mexico tor JD8.in Canadian River. Proposed Eufaula Reservoir near mouth would provide 

silt detention and flood control; P.ros ion 

control needed in basin. Pollution control 

needed. High Plains Rquifer and terrace deposits yield good water but recharge is tram 

precipitation and is small; careful development necessary to prev~nt depletion. Alluvi'UIIl 

yields large ground-water supplies bat relation 

to quantity and quality of river· water must be 

considered. 

'8. 

Verdigris~ Heof!ho (Grand) 1 Floods on all streams. Possible over- Illinois, and PoteaU development of good water in Roubidoux 

River basins formation in ottawa County and adjacent 

S~ of regional sate 

yield of RoubidOUX f'ormatiOJ&e Oologah Reservoir designed to control floods on 

Verdigris; authorized reservoirs on other streams 

will control th• and provide verr large supplies 
Area_ or. •ub_lect ~nt si~g~n._ ______ _ 

area in Oklahcaa, Kansas, and Missouri. 

Declines ot grouDd-vater levelS in 

Miaai and adjacent &l"8& • (loc8l.l7 overdeveloped). 

Qkleb=p Oontimle4 

Deficiencies in Corrective meesures and ~tion turther !}g~'alXJowrd!!liWIDLIIt.__ ____ _ 

Red liver Basin 

tor power, navigation and recreation, and 

irrigation as needed. Coordinated interstate 

development or grOUJJd water in Roubidoux needed. 

This supply could be supplemented or replaced 

by surface water, wt at considerable cost in 

areas distant troll atreal8. Among tol'JilatiODII 

abcm{he Roubidoux, the Boone is pramisiJls 

source or grOUDi water, vhich, however, is 

hftrdgr and more subject to contamination. 

Li.'llited development ot ground water possible 

from alluviumJ additioDal. into1'118tion needed 

on occurence and quality ot water. 

Southern third ot State. !cute probl.a. ot water IIUPPl7 tor smicipalitiee and irription, and tlood and sediment control in western part. Considerable 

aurtace water anUable 1n east. GrOIUid water in alluvi1a ot .ajar atreus, terrace deposits and Blaine (?) formation in vest, Rush Springs aandstoDe and 

Clear lPort aDd Wiahita tO'l'llatiou in !lMtllter, aDd Trinity group in south-center and southeast. 

Red River balin west 

ot Washita Riftr 

Washita River buill 

Gener~ shortage ot vater tor all des1red 

uses, especially irrigation and lllDicipal. 

Irrigation vith sroum water in Duke area 

expand!rig; water traa. Qp8UIII beds and ot 

poor quality tar other uses. 

Area or gl'etltest need tar water CODII8Z'fttion and developaent · in State. Pt.tblio 

supplies iDadequate · or ot poor qualit)r at 

several places, including Clinton, . 

Anadarko, aDl Ghickasha. nooda and sedi-

•ntation ar~ serious problema; also nov ot mineralised water trca QPS\UI beds into 

Washita River. Irrigation vith water trca 

Rush Springs sandstone increuing rapidly in 

PODd Creek basin in western Caddo Colurt7. 

Additional stream-now data 

and analysis. Additional 

ground-water and qua.Uty-otwater studies. 

Expallded grou.nd-vater studies, 

especially in regard to 

DIUJ'dcipal supplies. Data on 

tl!)V ot amall streams • 

V • C. Austin project on :North Fork ot Red RiYer 

is ODl.y major irrigation project completed so tar in State (501000 acres). Additional water 

will be D&eded vhen irrigation is tully developed. 

Salt Fork, Elk, otter, Cache, and Beaver Creeks, 

and Deep Red Run are possibilities wt f'lov 

data inadequate f'or evaluation. Elk City baa 

developed water in alluviua ot lorth Fork ot 

Red River. 

Storqe rea8P.f01rs to iDOJ'tlaR. &ftilaldllf.7 

ot water tor irrigation aDd liiUJlicipal supplies 

and to provide tlood. control. Erosion control on uplands is improving conditions there wt 

tlooda vill stlll occur on 118in str8818. Pond 

(Cobb) Creek promising tor additional wter ot 

good quality it storage provided. 

~ 
Oklahoma,--continued 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subJect_ Current situation -information turther__develoment n -

Easten part· of Red River Water problema less acute, principally 

basin floods, and low-flow shortage on small 

streams. Surface water generally ot good 

quality. Sanda of Trinity- grou.p 7ield 

water or veriable quality-; pumping of 

fine sand is a probl•. 

Additional flov data for 

sl'l&l.l stre'lJIIS • Detallecl 

study- of Trinity group 

(under vq in McCurtain 

County-)· to determine potential 7ield; data on proper well-construction 

methods. 

Texoma Reservoir provides flood control, 

recreation, aDd pover. StoNe! needed on 

small streams to provide flood control, and 

water supply in time or lov flov; includes 

Mountain Fork, L1 ttle, Kiamichi, and Boggy 

Rivers. 

ci 
sassm 

Streams rather ~ly appropriated 1n State as a 'Whole, eepecially in d17' ye~s; additional water can be provided b7 storage in most areas. Maey 

flood-control 1\nd drainage problems. Conflict of' interests among irrigation, powr, flooct-control, navigation, f'ish, and recreational interests may 

crf!'ate shortages even on streaJII8 having little consumptive use. Surface water h-rigates about 1,200,000 acres; total diversion probably 2,000,000 to 

3,000,000 acre-teet per year, net diversion perhaps .25 percent less· becauae of' return f'lov. Gr.OWJd-vater occurrence variable. Large supplies available 

in some areas.but relation to surface water must alwaya be considered. Probably no overdeveloped areas but considerable interference between same welJs 

in Valla Valla, The D&l.les, and Prinet'Ule areas • 

Deticiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subJect. _CUrrent ..aJ.tuation _1Dforl'ia:t.ioJL ______________ ._!urt~___MHlo_nunt_ 

Surface water 

Ground water 

Surface water in Alvord Lake basin over- appropriated •. Pollution in lower Malheur 

River, but does not affect irrigation. 

Flooding in PCMler River below Baker 

and in upper Grande Ronde River. Satae 

flooding on Walla Walla and llmatUla 

Rivers and on WUlov Creek at Heppner • Floods and pollution in WUlamette Jliver. 

Flooding in Umpqua and Rogue Rivera J 

pollution of Bear Creek. Control and 

management of' Snake and Col1Dibia Riveri' 

for multiple parposes tar fraa complete • 

tJse of' grouni water ~t known; small in 

comparison with surface water. Considerable .pumpiDe in Wlllamette Vallq. MlltcmFreewater area in Walla Walla Basin, 'fhe 

Dalles area, and Prinevllle area hl.ly 

developed. Deyelopne.nt ot trash water in 

sands of' Pacific beaches just begiml:tng. 

Irrigation pumpiDe near Y~ and Summer 

Lake may be depleting f'lov of' lost and 

Ana Rivers, respectively. GrOUDd-vater 

l+"vels about normal according to available 

records. 

Much additional streamflow data and analysis 

tor design of' the numer- ous power 1 f'lood-oontrol, 

and irrigation developments 

proposed; tor ex811mle, no 

good records a~ C"ek• 

where 1903 flood kUled 

200 people and no flood 

protection yet ~. 

Grou!ld-water data adequate 

tor only a tev areas; ·not 

even reconnaissance data 

tor most ot southeaotern 

part of State. 

Substantial additional storage possible in 

most basins. Streams not hl4 appropriated 

include Ana River (Summer Lake basin), · 

Wallowa River below Minam, Grande Ronde River 

below Elgin, lowr John Day River (not much 

irrigable land near r-iver; "Proposed Clarno 

Reservoir would provide water tor northern 

Gllliam end Morrow Counties), lower Deschlltee 

River {irrigable land 1,000 feet above rift!'~),, 

lower Umpqua River, and Rogue Hiver. 

Coord~ated development of Columbia and 

Snake Rivers necessary·because of interstate and internatiOJ"lal aspects. 

Considerable pranise for additional de'Pelop.. 

ment in the few low-l;ying or bm!in areas of' 

State; Wlllamette Basin is the largest. 

Dalles...Umatilla lowlarn is another, but 

developed near the Dalles • Some basins in 

south-central and eastern parts of State, 

includiDg some nearly enclosed fault-block 

basins such as those in Lake County. Ground 

water present bemath plateau "and mountain 

areas in rest of' State, but mostly nqt mch 

above stream level a:nd too deep to reach 

econaaical17·except in river valleya. ~ 

large ground-water developlllents must be con- sid~ed in relation to strealllS 1 t.,r hich are f'ed 

by grOUDd.-vater discharge in time of low tlov. 

GrOUl'ld water may be more economical to develop 

than surface water for many small to moderate 

uses, particularly for small tovns, bat data 

inadequate. 

~ 
Pewglyp!e 

About halt ot 33 tl"ill1on gallons ot water tal.llng on Pennq1venia runs ott 1D streams aDd is a'ftilable tor use - about 4,500 gallou per dq per 

capita, yet serioue wter prob1au uiat 1D State • ..A.mCilg them are floods lilce that ot 1936 ad droughts like that ot 1930-31. Stream pollutioD seriCIWI nov bllt excellent progress be1Dg made. Data on tlow ot small streama inadequate. ReOOJmaissamce grotmd-wate:r studies made tor vhole State l:at JII8DT 

detailed studies needed. 

Area or subjeot 

Surface-water supplies 

noo4 control 

Stream pollution 

Gl'OUD4 water 

ClD'1"eelt situatioD 

Drought ot 1930-31 C&U8ed severe shortages 

tor DlllllJ' cities having inadequate storage. 

Use ot surface water not 1movn but V'fll:7 

large 8lld increasiDC• 

. Seftl'e tlooda have dama&ed mBD1' areas 1D 

past ud still threaten -.zv • 

Pollution widespread in streaa trca 

sewage UJd 1Dd1Uitrial wastes • .A1alg prob1• areas are Pittsburgh and~ enu 

in soutbwstei"D P8DD811vania1 u4 

Philadelphia - Reading, Allentown - Iuton, 

.Utooua- Johnstovn, Barrisbarl- YorkLallcaste:r, WUkes-Barre - Scranton, 

PottsvUle- Hazelton, VW.lallport- . Look Haven, and acid Jllilw waters a:nd 

coel wastes in antbracite-miDing area ot eastem Penns71w.n1a. 

Deticiencles 1n 

lntormation 

lf1drologic data tor small watersheds. More thaD 90 percent ot p~blic aartace-water supplies 

troa watersheds ot leu thaD 20 

square llilea. 

Stream-flow records and 

aD&l7ais tor economical deaip 

ot protectiOD wrta. 

Studies ot ecoDOIIIlcal pollutiODcontrol measures. QUalitJ' data 

adequate onl7 tor upper· 

S~lkUl River basin. 

Corrective meuurea and 

further developaent 

Mu7 cities have conatructed storap 

reservoirs since 1930-31 ancl tendeDc7 to 

10 to small uplaJid watersheds increasing 

to a'901d ue ot polluted larger stre81118 • Baiabara baa shifted trca Susquebamla 

River to 22-square-mile Clark Creek buiAJ 

Bethlehsl t.rca z.bip Riftl" to 17-.quare.. 

mUe Wild Creek basin. State has bail.t aix 

tloocJ,-control. aDd recreation re881"YYJ.ra 011 

streams drainiD& 1 to. Y1 square .Uea. 

J1an7 additioul. developumta possible blt 

data tor eCODOIIdcal deaip lacld.Dce 

Subetantial procreas ... Pittsbar&h 

nov larael7 pl'Otected; also cities like 

Wilkes-Barre, WUliamaport, and Sunbn7 

vhioh wre llMl"~ destroJ'ed bJ 1936 flood. 

More thaD 200 other projects OOJDpletacl 1D 

last 5 ,..are;~ more needed. 

Substantial progress beiDc made UDder 

State clirection. B7 Jlm8 11 19S2, all 

municipalities aDd industries are achedulect to p~t pollution-control measures into operation • 

Large additional supplies avaUable 1D 

glacial gravel in AllegheD7 am Ohio River 

Vall8JS outside heavil7 pumped part ot 

Pittsburgh and in main vall.e7B or northeastern am northwestern parts ot State 

8 

Total use (194S) estimated at 100 m1111on 

gaUODS per dq tor public supp~, 250 

a1l.UGD gallons per da.y tor llldustrJ, and 

90 m1ll.iGD gallons per dq in rural areas; 

substantially larger now. Principal areas Beaver tpl AUegheiQ' Counties (Pittsburgh 

and surrounding area) 1 tee m11lion gallons 

Raconnaiasanoe studies made 

tor State. Detailed studies 

needed in areas ot present or prospective development, espeoial.ly continuiDg studies in 

Pittsburgh and Philadelphia 

areas aDd new studies 1n such 

and alona Delaware River abo'¥8 Pb1ladelpb1a1 

bu.t location and potential yield ot aqulf'era 
ANa (# nb.1eot 

bpp¢m1,__,_t!Dae4 

OarreDt altaati.Am 

per da;r, Pb1l.adel.pbla. area _.. than 30 

ldll.1ae p1loDa per da7' BaGb Coan'Q' 

18 ailllGil gallODI per dq • Seriou 

~-pollution ill Pb1ladelph1a 

area, c1u.e ill part to 1Ddue4 1Dtiltntion troll Delavan Ri'ftiZ'• lall dlnel-

~t 1D TriaD&le area ot Plttebar&hJ 

110M local overpapiDg. Probl .. ot 

ll1De ardD&a• 1D ut.braoite ana, botb 

d1tftaul:ty am GpeDM ot drah1»c aD4 

tol'll&tion ot ac14 waters that pollute 

streams. l'Dtertertmee betweD fJJ'O'JDdvater devel.opleate lD Pb1ladelpbia aDd 

c..ta, 1. I. Paapeae mq be approaahUc peremd.al. 1ie14 1n l.aTp area ot ·~ JIDdezoatell' pro4uctlw roote, .aD1J !riuelo, tapped tor 1Ddu'fa7 

and pul;Uio supply north ot Philadelphia, 

in Buob and Mon~ Counties. 

DetioieDc1ea ill 

illtom&Uoe 

anu u .Utooa, Jolmetcna, 

Harr1aburg, Bet.blet.a, 8114 

.Ulcmtown. st.Uea ot relatiGil ot groaa!-vater lnele 

to stream nov to ualet 

induaviea clepeDd1Da • lov tlov, 8UOh u atudiea 

.a. b7 Pezm87lV&Dia Pouar 

eo. uai.Dg Geological Su.ne7 

dataJ 80118 wort be!Dg done 

at Forest Servloa aperi-

.at station 1D Pooono 

MoalltaiuJ liOrk DM4e4 ill 

Sohul'lkUl, Leld&h, aa4 

BraadJv!ne Baa1Da. Ocaa:rrenoe ot wter ila U..atoae 

8114 1D crev1oe4 zocta 1D a ctheut. ID'tellei"t"8 ataci;J 

ill Morriarille area 1lbeft 

aev large ateel p1aat la propoae4. Artitlcial-recbarp 

atudlea ill belt ot friaado 

rocka to clete1'JdDe poaai~ 

it,' of arreatD& declinee at 

nah pl.acea u Laadale. Looatioa 8114 nal:aatioll ot pro4Dotiw ..a anct ll'&ftl 

aquitera 1D aorthweat 8114 

D.O!"'iheaat. Coaat,.-\7r-COW1t.Y 

.... 

1Dvctoriea , .fUt.ve o:t DMd.a,- ~­

poaalbl.e 80111'088' u 1D meabeDI', Bauer, a.trraec, 

--.~. PbU-lpld.a, CbeateJ 811111 

Del.awn CloalaU.-. 

Cornotlw ......,.., u4 

farther clevelopact 

poar]7 lalovD. S.U. to moderate appl.le• 

aftilabl.e elsftbere bat wratic OCCID"'l"8D88 

ot productiw roob neoesaitatea Jll1ol1 

research ad detailed local atudiea-. Oromdvater auppllea cam be developed more eocmcaloall7 than sartaoe-water aappl1es 1D Jl8lll' 

places tor ..U tovDa, industries., aal 

aa.pplemeDtal irricat.ioD, bit Olll.7 on buS.. 

ot aore detaile4 uta thaD nov available. 

.... 

fJ 
Bh2dJ. llliDi 

Industrial activit7 per square mile of area greatest in Nation. Water resources are most valuable resource and are adequate it properl7 developed. 

Froblems include local shortage of water suppl7, stream pollution, and minor flooding. · 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subJegt Qurr~t sitytiop information further dueloll!lent 

Ground water 

Stream pollution 

Surface-water suppl7 

Floods 

Irrigation 

Local areas ot heavy pumping scattered 

throughout State but no serious overdevelopment noted. Local declines at Providence 

and Woonsocket, but involving onl7 closely 

spaced wells ot individual industries. 

Total pmRpage a tev tens ot millions of 

gallons per d871 including 14.5 mUlion 

gallons per dq tor public suppl7 in 

cities and towns over 1,000. 

About 85 percent of municipal sewage bttt 

onl7 10 to 15 percent of irdustrial wastes 

receive treatment. Grossl7 polluted stre8l'll8 

include stretches of Blackstone River bel0\7 

Woonsocket and Pawtucket 1 the Mosbassuct 

River 1 and short stretches on other streams. 

Providence wate-.r suppl7 used by' halt of population (386,000}; f'rom Scituate Reservoir ·on 

North Branch Pavtuxet River. Designed sate 

7ield 85 million gallons per day'J use in 

1949 about 37 million gallons per daJ'; no problem. Pawtucket suppl7 short in 1949. 

Bristol-WarreD-Barrington, East Providence, 

Woonsocket, and Bevport supplies proba'bl7 

inadequate for tuture needs. Total use ot 

surface water far public suppl7 in State (for 

towns over 100) was i/7 .6 mlllion gallons peldq in 1949. 

Relativel7 minor problem. Greatest fiood in 

1886. Lesser fioods of 1927, 1936, and 1938 

caused damage amounting to only 1.2 percent 

ot total tor Nev England. 

M1Dor so far bat increasinc. About 53 million 

gallons used in 1949 from 1.35 ponds fed by 

precipitation and ground wter, 14 ponds and 

reservoirs fed by' precipitation and surface 

runott, and ? river sources. 

Detailed studies made in 

Woonsocket 1 Pawtucket, and 

Providence areas; needed 

for rest of State to outline 

ground-water potential. 

Stud7 ot po3sible salt-water 

encroachment along Woonasquatucket River in Providence. 

Methods for economical waste 

treatment, especiall7 at 

textile plants not discharging 

waste into municipal sy-stems. 

More stream-flow data, 

especiall7 far small basins, 

to guide. future surface-water 

developnents tor all uses 1 

including pollution control. 

Data on economical sources ot· 

ground water aDd surface 

water. Studiea to determ1De 

safe 7feld of groaM-water 

reserygirfl. 

Gr01Uid water used by' ~ industries and small 

cODIIIIWli ties and much turther developnE!nt possible it done properl7. Best souroes are gravel-fUled valley-s, including ~ not nov occupied by stre81DII 1 particularl7 in northeastern, centre.!, P.nd southern parts of State. 

Substantial progress being made. Blackstone 

Valle7 District Sewer Commission formed in 1947. 

Rev trunk line sever and trea~nt plallt Ullder 

construction to serve municipalitietand 

industries in the lover. Blackstone lf6l.lq. Bev 

treatment facilities plknned for Providence, 

East Providence, Cranston, Warren, and Newport. 

Supple:ment&r7 ground-water supplies dtWeloped 

for Pawtucket and' tor Bri~tol-Warre~arrington. 

Ground-water source located for East Providence 

but not 79t developed. Increased storage on South Branch Pavtuat River possible tor 

tuture needs, including power. Headwaters of 

Pawcatuck River also promising but· remote · 

tram highly. developed part of State. 

Some flood control desirable tor lower 

Pavtuxet Basin bat not thought economically 

justified. MarJ;y swuape and ponds, and reser- voirs intended tor other uses, provide con- siderable proteotioD. 

Greatl7 increased developaent ot supplemental 

irrigation possible, as in much ot hulaid East. 

i 
~ CarglipA 

Large available water supply bu.t basic data veey inadequate. Problems include fioods, sUting ot reservoirs, stream pollution, local overdraft or salt-water encroachment 1n grOUDd-water reservoirs, and problems of chemical qualit;y ot ground water. Total use of grOUDd water in State estimated at 

70 mllllon gallons per da;yJ no estimate of surtaoe-water use. 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subject Current situation info~t~OJl tarther develo}:llleDt 

Coastal Plain 

Pied11ont 

Mountain area 

Large use ot surface water tar industries, 

p11blic supply at Charleston and Orangebura, 

and pow.r at Santee-Cooper project. Stream 

pollution not serious so tar, blt sa11D1t7 

ot coastal stretches ot streams llm1ts usetul.Dess • Surtaae water ot good cbela1cal 

qualit;y tut high in colar. nooding videspread because of flat slopes end inadequate chalrnel capacit;y ot streama; slov 

.drainage leads to prevalenoe ot malaria 

1n some areas. Some sUUDc of reservoirs. 

Ground water high. 1n 1roD in central coastal 

pl.dD and 1n nuoride near coast. Possible 

local overdraft at Georgetown and neal" 

Florence. Sal t-wa tar enoroaohJDent 1n 

Georgetovn, Beautart, and Charleston areas. 

Most heavU;y populated ad developed part; 

ot State. Larae surtaoe-vater use tar 

illdustries, tor public suppq ot most cities, 

and tor power. Stream pollution beOOJiiDC more serious. Extensive tloodi.Dg in vall.e7B arur sUtiDg ot reservoira, eapecial.l7 those 

ot power plailta. GrouDd water used tor 

amall towa and lJl&JI7 iDdustries J ;yields ot 

wells less than iD Coastal Plain. · 

Little use of vater. Oouid.erable tloodiDg 

1n valle;ya • 

stream.-tlow reoor4s ot 

short length an4 illadequate 

coverage. Ground-water 

studies needed. tor whole 

area, including stuq ot 

iron and fluoride an4 pouible sou.roes of good water 

1n attected areas; sate 

;yield ot grouDd-vater reser- voirs in developed areas, particul.&l'~ near coast. 

Additional stre--nov data 

tor flood. and pollution Q)ntrol and proposed power projects. DetaUed growdwater studies, especial.ly ot ooaurrenoe ot water 1n the 

harcl rooks and possibUit7 

ot more successtul. prediction of well locatioaa tor 

marl•• yields. T•perature 

data tor surface vater and 

grOUDd water. 

Str.am-tlow data tor propoeed 

power and flood-control projects. Ooourrenoe ot ground 

water 1n alluvitlll in vallqa. 

Flood control and drainage needed for 

reclamation of land and malaria control. 

Large additicmal ground-water supPlies 

available J wlla average 300 gall.ODS per 

miDute and yield up to 2,000, bllt occurrence ot aquifers inadequately tmovn. Large expan.-

sion of supplemental irrigation with surface 

water and especial.l1' grouud water possible • 

Considerable additional use ot both surf'aoe 

water and groancl vater feasible it basa4 

on better data. 

Large additional development. ot surtaoe water 

possible, and development of gl'OUI'Jd wter in 

valle;ys it ·areas ot· thickest allun-. are 

located. 

... 

s 
~~ 

Semiarid to subhumid State of generally deficient water supply under natural conditions. Most of precipitation occurs in grov:lng season, permitting 

productive agriculture but being dissipated by evapo-transpiration. Principal local source ot surface runoff and ground.-water recharge is melting ot 

winter snowfall. Generally lov storage capacity of grO\md-water reservoirs and low streaa now in SlDBier mean that substantial use of surface water 

depends on impounding water. Eastern part of State poorq drained and laold.Dg in good reservoir sites because of nat slopes and large reservoir losses. 

Missouri Basin development will provide substantial additional water and improve situation considerably. 

Area or subject Current situation Det~!=i:n in Corrective measures aDd turther develoment 

Grotmd vater 

Surface· water 

Ground-water sources not tulq exploited ad 

potential yield unknown. Ground. water occars 

in alluvium along Missouri aDd priDCipal 

tributaries, in glacial deposits in eastern 

part of State, in shallow sandstones in northwest, in some rocks near Black HUla, and in 

the Dakota sandstone beneath most of State 

(more than 2, 000 teet deep in western part 

except beneath major stream valleys and in 

vicinity of Black Hills). 'Ground water is 

source of 70 perc&nt or inore of domestic, stock, 

JllllJlicipal, industrial, and railroad needs. 

Ground water is generally or substandard 

quality. Dakota sandstone artesian pressures 

reduced by waste from flowing wells (presently 

estimated at more than 20,000 acre-teet per 

year). . 

Floods in spring and inadequate dry-oeason 

supply. Some strAams draining Black HUla 

have better sustained flow; one such stream is 

Rapid Creek but its low now is tull.)" utilized. 

Even with maximum developll8nt or surface water 

there will not be enough for all desired uses. 

Detailed. ground-water studies 

needed in all parts of State 

to locate productive aquifers 

and evaluate yield in area 

ot present or proposed developnent and to determine possibUi ty of waterlogging froJil 

ttl~ irrigation. Study of 

ground-water recharge and 

movement especially needed in 

Black HUla area where streams 

lose water to exposed bedrock 

formations. Need for detailed 

studies being psrtly satisfied 

by current studies under 

Missouri Basin development 

program. 

More stream-flow records 1 

especially on small stre.ams 1 

to guide tuture municipal and 

irrigation developments and 

flood-control projects. Especially important to permit 

most efficient use ot water 

in view of over-all deticieDQY 

in water even with max1mulll 

de'Velopaent. 

Ground water available for ~ future develo~ 

menta, especi.al.q in alluvium of Missouri 

RiTer and in 80JIII bedrock formations near Black HUla • Substandard qualit7 and high 

cost of deTelopment will cause many problems. 

Drainage needed in acme areas 1 as Putney Sloagh 

and Sand Lake area of James River Valley. Vasta 

trail flowing wells should be reduced~ Future 

irrigation will increase ground-water recharge 

and improve quality in certain areas but· mq 

cause waterlogging and create new demands for 

domestic and other uses in areas where local 

supply wlll not be !mp:i-OYed by irrigation. 

Application of irrigation waters should be 

within limits of control by economical drainage 

measures. 

Additional storage reservoirs even on Black 

HUla streams, including Rapid Creek. ReJ.a.· 

tively few large reservoirs so far; one on Belle Fourche River 1 built in 1906, was first 

large one •. Multiple-purpose reservoirs on Cheyenne River at Angostura and Grand River at 

Shadehill nearing completion; oth~rs. being 

studied. Reservoirs being constl"'1Cted on Missouri at Oahe and Fort Randall vUl control 

river completely and proTide mch additional 

water 1 includiDg .-tar for a mUlion acrea 

J 

in James River Vallq. Need tor caretal 

integration of all water developaeDte to provide 

max1mua supply and m1n1mua waste. · 
105 
'~'PP"''' 

Large over-all water suppl:r bot...,. probleJIB ot tlood control, pollution, aDd water suppJ.7 remain, even in placea vithin 'tennessee Valle;r where mob. 

work toward control ot the river tor tlood prevention, navigation, aDd power p:roduotion hu been completed. Central Basin is area moat seriousl:r deficient 

in gr<mDd water and dr;r-aeason flow ot streams.. Basic data iDadequate tor ground water aDd ..Uer stre811111 ~ 

Deficiencies in Corrective •aaures aDa 

Area or sub:lect Current situation inf'ormatiaa turther develotlll!nt 

Bl• Ridge 

~ge and Valle;r area 

Cumberland Plateau 

MaD7 springs bu.t oDJ.7 small groulld-vater 

supplies available t:rca wells. Chiet 

function ot ground water is in 8Witain1Dg 

low tlow ot streams. Area probabl:r vill 

Dlftr be h18bl:r developed tor groundwater suppi:r. Surtace water used in 

Elizabethton aDd Copperhlll areas; low nov 

ot stre811111 suppl:ring thest areas supplemented by aurtace storage most ot the tiM. 

Pigeon, Fr!Dch Broad, and Ocoee Rivera 

polluted and contaiDated. 

GrOUDd water ma1nl7 in calcareous rooks; 

quantit;r bighJ7 variable trem place to 

place. · Heav;r 'U8I at Chattanooga, Knom.l.le, 

and Elizabethton. Ground water hard and 

subject to pollution as in most areas ot cavernoua l:!Mstone. Seriona problema ot 

mine drainage J in some casts cost is so high 

as to limit ore production. IDiustrial U8f' 

ot river water baa created pollution 8nd 

contami.xlation problau, espec1aJ.l7 at 

Bristol, Harriman, lingsport, lnoxvill•, 

and Chattanooga. 

Stream tlow poorJ.7 sustained at low tlow. 

Area thinl.;r settled. Ground water aTailable 

tor domestic use. Lcjcal shortages ot V.ter 

tor public suPJ)l7. 

Ground water appears to be &Willable in sutticient ~tities tor domestic and small 

industrial use. Mineralized water encountered 

at depth. Stream nov poorl;r to well suatained. GI'OUDd water probabl;r poll~ted locall:r as in other limestone areas. Lower · Pine;r ~ver is serioUsl;r polluted. 'there is also 

pollution on the main, Cuaberland River ud on Sulphur Fork ot Red Jliver. 

Data on tlov of aal.l 

stre ... · 

Detailed ground-water studies, 

especiallJ ot ocour.rence ot 

water in limestone in relation 

to water-suppl;r aDd mintdrainage probl... Data aa small str .... 

Almost no. gr~ter data 

&ftilable. Data on small 

etre .. needed. 

GrouDd-vatel:' aDd sui-racewater data to guide inoreu1Ds developaent, u tor Air 

Corps research center at 

'ful.lahoma, where estimated use ma:r approach total tlov 

ot Elk liver. 

Large supplies Ot good water, cold moat ot 

year, available from strtas, espe~iall:r when 

low tlov is supplemented by storage. Pollution 

cobtrol needed. 

Large add~tioDal. suppl~a available tram surtace 

water and properl:r located vell8 1t based on adequate data. Pollution oontrn"! needed. 

Grolmd water probabl;r aTailable tor ao. municipal and industrial uses but occurrence not well understood. Storage possible to 

increase ·1ow tlow ot s trea.. 

Coneiderable additional development mar ocour, 

and should be baaed on better data to provide 

water supPI:r, tlood protection, and pOllution 

control at feasible cost. 

i 
TIJ!!lt8se.....Oontinued 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or suMaot Current situation information __ . ____ furt.ber_.develoanent 

Central Basin 

JUasissippi ~nt 

Ground water generally scanty 1 but domestic 

supplies generally available. Critical 

shortages of water tor some public supplies 

and difficulty 1n maldng economical developaents. Stream flow poorly sustained. 

Flood-control problems on Ouaberland, Duck, 

and Elk Rivers at towns along their ca~mses, 

such as Shelb;yvUle, ColUilbia, Fayettmlle, 

and laahvUle. Few good daa sites available 

on smaller atreams. Polluticm 'b1 sewage 

and indUstrial waste below principal tOVDS, 

moat seriou at Columbia on Duck River and 

laahville on Cumberland River. On the whole, 

the IIIIO&t critical area in State as regards 

aftilabil1t7 ot water at reuouble cost. 

Moat produot1'" grOUDd-vater area in State. 

GrOUDd water or good quality except tor 

iron. Large. develOJ.88Dts rev except at 

Meaphis (120 m1111on gallons per day), aDd 

no apparent areal or resioul depletion in 

apite ot declining water levels at ~hie. 

. Relatively little use or surface water, bllt 

probl.., ot floods, pollution (especiall.7 

Volt River in·~is area aDd Forked Deer 

Riwr at Jackson), drainage 1 and soil 

eroaion. 

Ground-water data meager 

except for some local areas; 

imperative need tor additional 

ini'ormation. Small streams 

almost entirely ungaged; data 

needed for guiding storage proj ects, especially bt-cause most 

economical design 18 or u:treme 

importance. 

Continuation ot studies in 

Maaphu area to evaluate 

perennial yield under given 

ccmditiOilS ·ot pmaping and 

water levels. Studies in 

rest or area to evaluate 

aquiters. Data needed on 

naw· ot- small streams. 

Flood and pollution control, additional 

developments for public water supply. 

Large ground-water and surface-water supplies 

remain available tor . developaent and shoald 

be developed on basis or better data thaD 

nov available • 

• 

s 
tuM 

Average ammal precipitation rqea from 8 inches in the vest to 55 inches in the east; nrt-ece runott trca leas than 0.25 inch to nearlJ 20 

inches. With coordinated clewlopaent ot surface- and ground-water reaources in east Tuaa, water ot satiatacta17 quantit7 aDd qualit,. vUl be 

more than ample tor foreseeable needs, bat storage tacUities generall7 necessar;y tor nrtace-Wftter auppliea. lD west Texae water resources, vhell 

properl.7 developed, ample tar f('!'eseeable needs ill localised areas but geaeralq deficient 1n quant1t7 and ill so• places alW878 deficient ill 

qualit7 even it dewloped. Use ot water large and mq double in next decade. Additional data needed on surface-water nov, qualit71 temperature, 

8Jld sediment, particularly 1n small streams, and on ground water to guide foreseeable dewlopmente. Total quantit7 ot water used, exclDdiDg }Qdropower, estimated at 71140 million gallons per da7 in 1949, about three-t1tth8 surface water and tvo-fittha ground wter; about s,ooo million gallODB 

per day used tor }Qdreelectric power and reused in pal'1; tor other purposu, remainder aftUable tor fUture uses. Corrective measures and farther 

development require public education tar efficient utU1sat1oD. 

Area or • Deficiencies 1D Corrective •asurea and 

subject Current situation iDt01'118tioD further denlo11181lt 

Northern High PlaiDs 

(north ot Canadian 

RiTer) 

Southern High PlaiDa 

(including tbe 

CaDadian Ri't'V) 

Total aupplJ, vi th m!Dor excep. Evaluation ot grounct-water 8UJ)I)l.7. 

tiona, 0011188 trom well.e. Surtaoe 

runort small and intermittent, 

surface storage limited to 

Dlinor activities. Large BIDOIJir~ 

ot stored groa.nd water l:ut recharge 

small. Amt 8 ldlU.OD gal.l.ou 

per dq pmaped trom wlla to 

irrigate 0:!= acres ill northwestern COWl1iTJ pampag~t 

1n center ot district exceeds 

recharge. About 50 million 

gallons per day pumped in SunrqEtter, Herring, and Kq 1Dtwltrial areas bllt no aeriows 

depletion ot storage. 

Total supply 1 with minor ezoepotions, nov comes from wlll. 

SUrface runoff small except tor 

Canadian River. Storage l.11d.ted 

to minor actirltiea • !bout 

11050 million gallons per dq 

(11155,000 acre-teet) pul1lp8ct 

DetaUed studies to get better 

estimates or recharge and ot local 

and regional storage capacity; 

records or pumpage and depletion 

ot storage. 

traa vella in 1949, about W 

percent to irrigate 1-2/3 million acres 

50

ot land. Recharge ~ 

1000 acre-teet per -rear 1D irrigated cUstrict. Average annaal 

recharge onl7 about 5 percent ot 

current pumpage. Total storage estimated at 1501 0001 000. acre-teet. 

- Creation ot local ground-water couerYaUOD 

district beillg considered under recent State 

legislation. Large quantit7 of stored water 

available 1 bllt perennial yield ama11. 

(See discussion in text.) Storage ou 

Canadian River being considered tor amicipal 

and industrial supply • Creation ot local 

ground-water conservation district be1Qg 

considered wxler reoent State legislation. 

~ 

a 
/ 

'f.uii-Contiuued 

Area or Detioienoiea 1D Corrective measures aDd 

subject CarreDt situatioD 1Dt01'1UltloD further devel.O]I!!Dt 

El Paso area 1D 

Te%811 

Salt Basin, 

Hudspeth aDd 

Culberson Countiea 

Pecos van.,-

Winter Garden 

area, Ds.:tt, 

Zavala, aDd 

Maverick Oo\mties 

PriDcipal JIIUilicipal aDd :l.Ddustrial 

supplies obtained trom wells, 8Ul"taoe 

water trca Elepballt Bv.tte Reservoir 

aupplies about 400 mlll:lon gallona 

per dq tor irrigation of aballlt 

801 000 acres of !aDd. Total pmapage 

from deep wells in E1 Paso area aD4 

in Juares, Mexico, about 22 m:lll:lon gallons per dq 1D 191.8. Storap reduced 

bT pumping 1D part ot "Mesa• ~teq 

north ot cit,' • Water in artesian aquitera 

subject to salt-water encroaohlllent. 

Total auppq, v.lth ldnor ezcept:laDe, cc.es 

tram wells • Closed basin 1D a s.:t-deaert 

region of western Texas into vhiah atreaa 

d:ischarge small quantities of water cml7 

after heav,y rains. Developl*1t ot stored. 

g1'0UDd water recently begun tar 1rr:lgat:lollJ 

1n 1949 about 16 mlllion gallom per dq 

paaped tor 6,000 acres in Dell Cit7 area Dear lfev Ma:lco l:l.De ud about 14 Jdll:loll 

gallou per da7 in Lobo Plata area in 

eoa.th. 

Surface su.pp1T ~ appropriated tar irrigating 32,000 acres. Peooe River water 

salt7 bat aat:istaotory 1t enoagh ill applJ.ed 

to leach salta 1'ro1l soU. Groual-water 

deftlop1e11t 1Doreaa1Dg rap:ldl7 in scattered 

areas J vater ~ mineralisecl in sa. areas; about 881000 acres irrigated. Spr:l.Dgs 

at Fort Stookton aDd Balllorhea yield about 

53 llill:lOD gal.loDII per da7, . tul.l7 utilised.. 

Pecos area believed overdrawn.· PumpiDg v1ll 

eve~ attect flow of spr1ngs. 

About 17 ,ooo acres irrigated trom laeoes 

RiYer and tributaries • .Abotlt 50 m:llliOD 

gallons per da7 paped tl'OJil wlla, 98 percent used to irrigate 501 000 acres. Pwlpace 

about twice recharge. 

Stwl:les of available storage 

beneath MeaaJ or oocuneaoe 

ot Hl.ty water in valle7 

aDd methods to reduce enoroach-

.ntJ of aT&ilabilit7 of flood 

waters tor artificial recharge 

of grown water • 

Studies ot recharge, stored. 

ground water, aDd possib111\7 

ot encroachment ot salt water 

trclll •plqa" lakes 1D ld.ddl.e 

ot basin. 

Studiee to dete:rmiDe -nama 

yield or ground water 111 all 

parts ot basin aJid relation 

to tlov ot springs • Da:t)" ot 

vater tor irrigat:loD. 

Stream-nov data tor 8DI8ll 

streams tor eoonoa1cal design 

ot storage reservoirs • Poaa1-

bUit7 ot artificial recharge, and additional geologic studies. 

More growJd vater aT&Uable beneath Mesa 

farther north. River water and sballov g1'0l1Dd 

water, though ot poor qualit;r, beiDg treated 

at El Paso waterworks Wilt in 1943. AdclitiODal 

fiood water appropriated b;r El Paso and storage 

anticipated. Foreseeable demand exceeds poteDtial auppq. 

Perennial grou.nd.--vater ;yield mq be amal1 and 

ma;y alreadT be exceeded locally'. Mq be another area of lov recharge. Scae additicmal withdrawals 

possible in undeveloped areas. 

Water neecls exceed reaouroes. Need tor reduction 

ot water ooDIIUDiption b7 •pbreatopb;vtes• alq 

streams and canals J tor rebabUitatiOD ot c8D8l 

SJBtem8. Creation or ground-water conservation 

district in Pecos area being couidered UDder 

recent State legislation. 

Future water needs v1ll exceed resources. Moderate 

quantities ot surface water available b;r additiODal. 

storage on Nueoea River aJid tribatariea. 

.... 

~ 
tlaa-Oontinued 

Area or Deficiencies in Corrective aeuures aDd 

subject . u Ourre~'t. s.~~tion 1nt'onat1on turther develop8Dt 

Lover Rio Grande 

Vallq, principally 

1ft Hidalgo, Cameron, 

and Willaq Counties 

Atuooaa Counv 

San Antonio area, 

Bexar County and 

adjacent area 

Coastal Plain 

About 600,000 acres irrigated troa um-egulated tlov ot Rio Grande, requiring aboot 

1,100 million gallons per dq traa tt. 

river. Water shortages oooar d13r1Dg .,.t 

,ears. Lands becoming waterlogged ud 

aineral concentration or water increasing. 

Municipalities use about 11 aUlioo gallcma 

per dar trom surface-water sources. Ground water of good quality not a'V811-

able in large quantities. 

About 300 acres irrigated vith surface 

water. Average runoff about 100 a1ll.1on 

gallODS J;»er dq; tlov erratic • About 

41 000 acres irrigated trca wells. oarrent 

draft about 14 ldllion gallons per dq 1 

about 40 percent 'b7 UDControlled tl.OVe 

No overdev,lopment appareut. Salt-waterencroachment possibUities amall. Barface- and grouDd-water resources capable 

ot fUrther developaent • 

Medina Reservoir, vith oapaoiv ot 82.6 

billion gall ODe, supplies vater tor ift"igation ot about 201000 acres. Groardwater resenoir 1D F.d:wards limestone 

yields about 130 million gallcma per dq 

to wells in Bexar County au! supplies 

springs yielding about 400 m1llion 

gallona per dq between Uvalde aJJ4 Auath, 

hcluding 200 million gallons per da7 at 

Comal. Springs, Hew Braunf'els, whiob 

supplies most of lov tlov ot Guadalupe 

River and 1a used tor power 8lld irrigation. 

About 560 million gallona per day ot 

groUDd water ri 11 525 mUlicm gallcma per 

dq of surface wter uaed in 1949 h upper 

part, from Victoria to Sab1De River; and 

about 30 aU11on gallons per day ot groUDd 

water and 516 million gallons per dq of 

surface water in lower part, extendiDg to 

l:ut not including Rio Gratlde. Danger ot -~uution by o~1 !'ieU. vas'te lD ~ ~aclnto, 

Comprehensive ~logio 

stuq ot the irrigatecl area, 

1nolud1Dg s~ of chemical 

qualitJ' ot water, tor 

improving drainage • Dut,-

of water and most effective 

•thod of application not 

Mq known. 

s~ ot sate 71814 ot 

ground water. Basic data on water resources ot small 

streama. 

Caaprehenaiw IQ'drologio 

studies to detel"JJliDe water 

~ of all reservoira 

and relations ot groan4 

water and surface water. 

Buio data on water 

resoarcea ot small streama • 

ContimliDg groand-water 

studies to evaluate gl'O\JDdwater supplies, especially 

in pumped areas as draft 

increases. .Anal.yais ot 

surface-water records to 

permit economical design of 

water-supply and other 

surtace-water projects. 

Tba Rio Grude, an international stream, 1a 

pr1noipal source of water for tuture developaenta. 

Average nov about 4,600 .Ulion gallans per dq. 

Through treaty, Mexico may use abollt halt ot total 

tlow. Construction ot Falcon Resenoir near Zapata will begin soon. It w1ll partly regulate 

flow am relieve most water shortages for currently 

irrigated areas. '1'wo other upstream reservoirs 

proposed tor tuture. Proper regulation of tlov 

will permit some expansion iD irrigation, IIIUllicipal, 

and industrial development. Heed tor practice ot 

moat conservative t1pe ot distribution and application ot water to prevent waterlogging. 

Proper storage would permit expaDded use of surface 

water. Additional developuent may be possible 

tram adequately spaced wells, and b)" utllizing 

all water trom flowing vella. 

Integrated developaent ot surface- and ground-water 

reaouroea. other than Medina Reservoir, faoilitiea 

bave not been built to utW• surface-water resources. No ma3or developments can be susta.ined wt develop.. 

meD't ot runott on selected small streams would permit 

expuded uses ot surface water. 

Total demand probably vUl double in next decade. 

Probably not more tban 10 percent of groum-vater 

resenoira .are being drawn on heaviq. Large reserves in UDpllDiped parts ot area, particularly 1n a belt 

40.50 miles wide extending from Victoria County on the Guadalupe to Jasper and Newton Counties on the 

Sabine. Limit of pumping 1s largely a matter ot 

determining whether pumping from greater depths is 

cheaper than importing surface water, or ground 

..... 

..... 

0 
Teype--Qontillued 

Area or DeticieDoiea 1D Corrective measures and 

subject __ Qur.reDt situatioll iDtorMtiOD further develOJ!!Dt 

TrillitJ'' leohes' - Sabille Bu11la' 

espeoial.l7 duriDg perioda ot lov 

nov. Also salt-water eDOroaohlaDt 

troa Galt 1D abow-Damed rbers at 

lov tlov. Water f'1'0Jil Bruos Riwr 

bas been developed to pendt reduoiDs dratt on wells ill Tau 

Cit7-Galveston area and Freeport.. 

Velasco are&J Ponua KiDgdca 

Reservoir (oapaci't7 2Q. blllioD galloDa) on· Bruos Rber 600 .Uea upstream 

aida ill stabilising that river'• nov acrose the Coastal PlaiD. B11cbenan 8Dd 

Marshall Ford Reservoirs (combined oapacitJ' 

ot COD&ervation storage about 670 bllliGD 

gallODB) on the Colorado Ri't"er in central 

Tezaa stabUizea tlov ot that stream across Coastal PlaiD. In additiOil to 

the production of power, these rivera 

auppl.7 irrigatioD vater tor abollt 

400,000 acres ot rice OD tbe Coastal Plam. Ground wter ot poor qualitJ' aat~tb ot Corpus Christi and ill moat ot 

Chabers CCUDt7 aDd sat~thel"'l Jefferson 

Count7. ODq areas ot known 0\'81'deftlopaent are Texas Cit7 aDd the .Uta Lcaa wall t1el.4 

ill Gal't"estoD CouD'tJ'J PaaadeD& induatr!al area in Bania COUD'tJ' aD1 Freeport-Veluco 

area ill Brazoria Caan\7 a)? be ~. 

Dauger of growd-wter oontam1Datica 1D 

oU-tield 

iD Kat7 rice-gl"'W'iDg 

areas. Groulld-\Jater 

area west ~ ot Hoaatou, 

blt not believed important. In OraDge ~ 

mppl)? ot fresh groUDd vater 18 11111te4. 

Reav pumpillc 1D lutk!D-Iacogdocbae area baa 

love:red water levels wt gi'OQDl-vater reaer- '9011' thought not to be overdrawn. 

~ ot possibilities ot groundvater contamination 1n oll-field areas. ContiDu.ed detalled stadiea 

1D Houaton-Paaadaa-Ship ChannelBaytown area, where more grO\m4 

water is pumped tor manicipal 8lld 

ind'UStrial uses tban anywhere else 

ill Nation except westem LoDg 

lalud. Studies 1n Lut'ld.DNacogdoches area, most heavil7 

pmaped in northeast Texas. Studies 

ot surface water available ill 

811811 creeks. 

water trom adjacent light~ pumped areas. Total surface ru.nott (including Sabine alld 

Rio Grulde) averages about 11.3 blllion 

gallODS per dq. Houston has developed an industrial water auppl.J' trom unregulated tlov 

ot San Jacinto River, now turniahiDg 30 mllliOD 

gallODS per da7 to Pasadena area, and 18 pl.aDDiDc a large storage reservoir to increase 

sUppJ.7 • Additional large supplies are avallable trom Sabine, Trill;lt7, Neches, Brasoa, aDd 

Colorado Rivera. In additioa to existing 

reservoirs, the Corps ot Eng1Deen 1a nov 

coutructiDg eight -.Jor reservoira in the 

Brasoa, !rinii;)-, aDd Jlecbes watersheds that 

vill further regulate the water supplies ot 

these streams on the Coastal PlaiD. State 

river authorities and other agenciea are 

pl.amdJ:lg the construction of other noodcontrol and conael"Y&tion reaerYOira. 

.... ,... 

.... 
Area or 

subject 

Da 1 1Rs-Fol"t worth 

and adjacent area 

Current situation 

Large &r9a extending trom HUl County to 

the Red River • Qround-water reservoir 

overdrawn in Fort Worth area and ma7 be 

overdrawn, though less seriously, in the 

region as a whole. Total pumpage from 

wells about 34 million gallons per day, 

about 16 milUon gallons per day tor 

industries at Fort Worth and Dallas • Bridgeport, Eagle Mountain, Lake 'Worth, 

Lake Dallas, and Hountain Creek Reservoirs, 

having co~bined capacity of 251 billiaD 

gallons, provid.e water tor industrial 

and most municipal uses or Dallas and 

Fort Worth. In 1949 Dallas used an average of 52 millinn ~allons per d~, 

and Fort Worth used about .30 million 

£allons per day. 

Iuu-Continued 

Deficiencies in 

information 

Safe yield or ground-water 

reservoir under various con- ditions of development. 

Basic hydrologic data on small streams, chemical 

quality and temperature 

investigations. 

Corrective measures and 

further development 

Four more flood-control and storage reservoirs 

vith capacity totaling 1,600,000 acre-teet are under construction by Army Engineers • Ample 

water vUl be available and there are still more storage possibilities it needed. However, individual cases may involve economic hardship where 

wells must be abandoned. 

~-- ....... 

N 
113 
Wilh 

State prevaUingly arid or semiarid and contains mch more arable land than can be irrigated with present am prospective water supplies. However, 

ground water in Jll8l'J,Y valleys or Southwestern Bolson province (Great Basin) 1s UDdeveloped or only partially developed, and these potential supplies and 

the unused part ot the Utah share ot Upper Colorado River supply will permit developments substant1ally larger than the present. Surtace-wter data 

greatly inadequate tor increased developments nov proposed. Ground-water studies made in only a rev basins and DllSt be e:.z:panded greatly it groundwater potential is to be realized. Quality and sediment data meager tor almost whole State; will be essential to successtul developments • State 

grouDd-vater law ot 19.35 has assisted in orderly development, and has been invaluable in preventing overdevelopment. 

Area or sUbject 

Sollthweatern Bolson 

prov:lnce 

Current situation 

Surface-water available at time ot 

need· is tullT appropriated. Local 

overdevelopment probablT exists in 

part of Escalante Valley. Problems 

include extensive waterlogging; 

floods, including destructive Dllld 

tlows; present or possible interterence between ground-water and 

surrace-vater use J occurrence ot 

salty vater; waste ot water trcm 

tloviDg vella, etc. Present 

be.}l8ticial use ot ground water more than 200,000 acre-teet per 79ar, l:ut 

accurate data not available; demand 

increasinc rapidly in basins at east 

edge ot the provinae • 

Detioiencies :ln 

information 

Surface-water data inadequate 

tor practically all or proposed and possible developments. Ground-water studies 

needed in all basins • Prelimblary studies made in Cedar 

City, Parowan, Escalante, Pavant, 

northern Juab, Tooele, Jordan, 

and Cache Valle,a, Bountitul 

district and Ogden portion ot 

Weber Delta district ot East 

Shore area, and northerll part 

ot Utah Lake Vall.,-. QaalitJ-ot• 

water data meager. Grouud-vater 

potentialities should be s'tudied 

thoroug~ betore detailed plane are made for large trems-basin 

diversions into the valleys, to 

insure most beneficial use ot 

all water avaUable. Fairl7 e»- tensive observation-well progra 

in operation since 19.35 vill be 

ot great value in tuture studies 

and in guiding increased development. Virtually notbiiJg is 

knOWA ot water resources ot the 

very dr7 valleys in the extrema 

western part ot the State, aDd :lD 

the &Ut ~ Desert a!Vl the adjacent Skull and Dugway Valleys. 

Corrective measures and 

turther development 

The principal surtace-water developments 

that appear to be practicable include surplus 

Bear River supply of 750,000 acre-feet per 

year wasting into Great Salt Lake (distribution among Utah and adjacent States should be 

determined by compact); Weber River project 

to make about .300,000 acre-teet per ;year ot 

snov-runott water available; and proposed 

Central Utah project to divert 6001000 acre- teet per year from Colorado River basin. 

Basins that may be capable of some further 

ground-water developnent. {though a tev are local~ overpumped) include Beaver, Blue 

Springs, Cache, Cedar, Curlew, Goshen, Grouse 

Creek, Jordan, Juab• Lover Bear River, Park, 

Parovan, Pavant, Rush, Snake, Tooele, and 

Utah Lake Valle;ya, Sevier Desert, aDd the East 

Shore area. Water wasted b7 man or b:y evapotranspiration or unused stream tlov into dry 

or salt lakes amounts to considerably more than a million acre-teet per year (includi.Dg 

Bear River surplus), mob of which could be 

salvaged by building storage reservoirs, grouDdvater pumping, elimination ot phreatopbytes, 

ad control ot pollution tbat mates 80118 ot 

surface-water wmaable. Coordinated development ot ground and surface water vi th comprehensive knowledge ot quality v:ill be essential. 

Drainage needed in Utah Lake, Jordan, Tooele 1 Escalante, Beaver, aDi Lover Bear River Valleys, 

Sevier Desert, aDd East Shore area. 

.... 

r-' 

~ ... 
Utab-Contimled 

Area ar Deficiencies iD Corrective measures and 

subject Current situation iDf'Ol"'latien further devel2e,.n~ 

Montana-Arisona 

Plateau Province 

Northern RocJq 

Mountain8 prodnoe 

GroUDd-vater supplies small u.oept iD the 

Uinta Basin and a tev valleys. The Green, 

Colorado, and San Jwm rivera carr.r large 

8110tUlta ot water, cbietly t'r<ll outside th8 

area, acrose the plateau. So1l8 geM~ 

thin, ud ezoeeaivaly alkal1De in mu.r areas. Substantial ground-water dcmilopMnta in Central Sevier, Sanpete, aD4 

Fremont valleys. Colorado River 81ld Sea 

JU8D River areas in southeastern Utah are 

poor grotmd.-water areas, even stock 8Dd 

da.stic auppliaa being dittioal.t ~ 

ezpeuive to obtain in maD7 places. Oal7 irrigable l.aDd is alODg Colorado 

River and ita larger tril:utariea. 

Area contril:utes vater to Southveetern 

Bolson and Montana-ArisoD& Plateau prodncea. Little wter used in area itaelt, 

except t~ Dlmic1pe.l mwl7 tor Ogden, 

trout artesian well.a COYared b,y water ot Pineview Reservoir 1n Ogden Valle7, 8Dd aaaa use 

iD Bear lAke van.,. 

Almost notbiDg 18 kDOWD of ground 

water in tbia large area, aDd ver'1 

little ot surtaoe vate:r except the 

tlov ot large etre ... Prelia1Dar7 

etudiea ot grouad water have been 

made in Sanpete V all.e7 aDd 1n the 

Aahler Vallq portiOD ot the 1Uata 

Bum. A recent ~ogic reconnaissance or Green River show that 

iaportant poasibUities mar exist. 

Very little known ot ground water. 

Prel.iud.Darr atud7 made 1n Ogdan 

Val.l.e7. Considerable strea»-tlow 

data available, l:ut oJJ17 a traction 

of that needed tor proposed development. 

State plans to divert mch of' Upper 

Colorado River supply allocated to 

Utah from this province to tbe 

Southwestern Bolson province. There are soma potentialities tor groundwater development, as in the Upper, 

East, and ·::antral !:ievier, Sanpete, 

Fremont, aDd Grass Valleys, and the 

Uinta Basin. Drainage needed in 

Sanpete, Central Sevier, and Castle 

Vallers. Grou.nd-water prospects in 

Castle Valle7 not prolliaiJtg. 

Area includes several intermountain 

val1878 or bas me, aolll8 or vhioh have 

some ground-water possibUities. 

Included are Ogden, Morgan, Heber, 

Kimball, Upper Bear River, and Bear 

Lake Vallqa. 

I:: 

"" 
.!t:at.U 

Large potential water supplies and relatively light uee. Precipitation or 38 inches aDd runoff' generally trom 20 to 30 inches make large surt'ace 

supplies available. Public supplieo serve most 1Ddustries, relatiVely rev developiDg their ovn tlms tar. Public-sup~ use about .30 m1111on galloDa per 

4q of' surtace water and 6 mlllion gallons per day of' grcnmd vater tor 61 percent or population. Remainder uses large.q groUDd water :tor do•stio use. Obemical quality of' water generally goode Some problems of flood control and pollution• Basic data OD surface water needed tor small basins tor desigll 

ot small dams, culverts, etc. Very little iDf'ormation available on ground .water. 

Area or subject 

Ground vater 

strea pollution 

noods 

Oun-ent situatioD 

Small supplies tor dc:~~estic use avaUable 

trom consolidated rocks aDd trca glacial 

drif't on uplaDd.s. Larger supplies .trca 

glacial deposits 1D vall8,18. Use net 

large bat increasins• Ro deolinea 

reported except tempora1'7 cmes ill 

droughts 1 which have attected J118n7 

shallov wlla on uplallda. 

Moat aevage discharged 1mtreatec1 but 

dilution generall7 adequate. Pollution 

at St. Albans, Manchester, aDd Brattleboro 

suttic1ant to iDterf'ere with recreatioDal. 

uaes. 

Deficiencies 'lll 

intormation 

Basic data of all typea. 

Very little iDtormaticm 

is available. 

CorrectiYe measures and 

f'urther developaent 

Largest supplies at shallow depth ill glacial 

gravel in valle,-s of Connecticut Ri"VW and 

tributaries, Lamoille River, and stretches 

ot Winooski, Poultney, and Hoosic Ri'V81'8 

and Otter Creek. '!'rend toward deeper domestic vella in bedrock to awid shortage in 

cJrousht. 

Primar7-treatment plants built at st. Albans 

and Manchester; needed at other cities. 

Chlorination during IIViDdDg hours at 

Brattleboro. State has reserved all bodies 

of water used tor public supplies, inoludiDg 

tributaries, and all others larger than 20 · acres, ilfcluding tributaries. 

'l'hree tlood-control reservoirs bQUt iJa 

Vinooski Basin and one in Connectic.t Baain 

~ 

lJ'loodl of 19271 1936, aDd 1938 cawse4 

damages ot 162,1001 000 and, in 192'7, 

lolla ot 84 lives. nood1Dg ooacm in valle78 bu.t not aa serioas aa in 

other parts ot countrr • 

Surface-water data tor 

economical design ot 

future projects. by Arllr¥ EDgineera. Six more to be bllUt in 

Connecticut Biw:r basin. other needed projects depend on economic teaaibility • Power 

reservoirs provide considerable ·tlood protection. 

Power H,dro-powr clevelopDBDt considerable 

(173,299 kilowatts installed capacit,' 

in 1949), plue some ate• and :lnterulcombu.stion. About 2201000,000 kllovatthours of' pover imported :ln 1948. 

Projects considered at Waterl:Qry Dam, Boulton 

Falls, and American Woolen MUla on W:lnoosld 

River, on Conneot1cu.t Rb·er below White River 

and near junction, aDd on Moose River ne.ar Victor;y. Project under construction at 

Wilder Dam on Connecticut Riwr. 
117 
Virgipia 

Large over-all water supply. Problems include shortages in droughts and as a result of greatly increasing dE>.mand; flood and sedimentation problems; 

and stream pollution. Basic data inadequate tor economical design or many projects proposed tor construction in near ruture. Use of water tor municipal 

and industrial purposes about 1.6 billion gallor.s per day, about 90 percent surface water. 

Deficiencies in Oorractive measures and 

Area or subJect _Qurren_t_ situati_on_ __ ---~-~--- __ _ _ __ inf'orma_t_ion _ _ _____ hrther__deYelom_ent 

Coastal Plain 

Piedmont Plateau 

Local heavy withdrawals ot ground water tor 

industrial use, particularly south or James 

Rinr. Ground water used by' most small 

communities and tor almost all rural uses. 

Pumpage ot 7 million gallons per day at 

Franklin has lowered water levels ft:Yl' 20 miles, 

blt area not overdeveloped. About 6 mUlion 

gallons per day pumped at West Point, .and 2 

million gallons per day at Hopewell in SUJIIII1er. 

Difficulty in getting adequate water for towns 

and industries in some areas, such as northern 

part near Washington, and in southeaetern part 

where most ot grOlUid water is brackish. Lowwater nov ot strP.ems small and storage ditticul t because ot flat gradients; streams brackish 

tar inland in time or low tlov. 

Reconnaissance ground-water studies 

made in most of Coastal Plain and 

detailed studies in a rev areas; 

needed in all other e.reas or heavy 

pumping. Test drilling and pumping 

tests needed to outline productive 

aquifers, particularly in northeastern part or area. Quality data 

inadequate to show character ot 

water ill deep~~r beds in northeastern 

pert ot area, not developed much to 

date. 

Large additional ground-water withdrawals 

possible in central and northeastern parts 

ot Coastal Plain, including parts of E~~tern 

Shore. Large developments of good water in 

Norfolk-Hampton Roads area must be made in 

areas ot proved supplies such as between 

Franklin and Bacons Castle. Development 

farther east and southeast must be cautious 

to avoid salt-water encroachment. 

Large additional developments must be made 

from surface water, but a moderate increase 

1: 

Relatively small water supplies available from 

the hard rocks or the province tor domestic 

use and small towns and industries. Sustained 

flow of streams higher than in Coastal Plain 

and storage possibilities better. 

Research on occurrence ot we.ter ill 

the hard rocks, to permit better 

prediction of successful well sites. 

Quality of water in rooks of different types; rev data available. 

1n pumping from wells may be possible and there 

is promise or larger yields from carefully 

l90ated wells. 

Blue Ridge 

Valley and Ridge 

area 

Vater needs are 1JJ118ll, chiefly for domestic 

use, and likely to remain so. No serious problems eXCept occasional floods and need tor preventing pollution ot streams at lov tlov. 

Considerable ground-water developaent at 

Roanoke (10 million gallons per day or more), 

WQDesboro (20 million gallons per day or 

more), and Elkton. No overdenlopment known. 

Stream tlov well sustained, largely because of 

ground-water flow f'rom cavernous limestone. 

Research· on ocourrenoe ot water in 

limestone, dolomite, and shale to 

permit successful well location and 

construction. Few data on qualit7 

ot water available. 

Some possibility of obtaining limited 

quantities of ground water locally in thin 

alluvium of mountain streams, it needed, at 

lower cost than filtering surface water. 

Large iD:lustrial expansion probable in southwestern part ot area. Both ground water and 

surface water are available. Occurrence of 

water in the rooks somewhat erratic probably 

because or variable stratigraphy and structure; 

more detailed information needed on both 

quality and quantity of water. 
Virgip1•--0ontinued 

Area or subject CurrentJ_it.uation _ De~ienctts 1n Corrective measures and - -- - orma j)D further develomnent 

Appalachian Plateau 

Stream pollution 

and tloode 

Includes only anaall !'lrea in southwest. 

Ground water not abmidant, low nov ot streams 

poorly sustained. Yater short in drought~ 

UDl.ess storage provided. 

Pollution has been serious on James, upper 

Roanoke, South Fork SheDandoah, and North 

Fork Holston Rivers, and locally elsewhere. nood damage on main streams and oertain 

tributaries. 

General information on ground 

water, and on flow ot small streams 

to aid construction ot reservoirs 

where needed. 

Surface-water data tor design ot 

combination flood- and pollutioncontrol reservoirs. Few data on 

sediment in streams available; no sediment-sampling stations in State. 

Demand small and likely not to increase 

grf!!atly; howeYer, observation wells needed 

near areas ot proposed reservoirs tor re- charge and quality studies. 

Substantial progress 1n pollution control 

being made by Virginia State Water Control 

Board, though much remains to be done. Arm7 

Engineers propose combination reservoirs tor 

tlood and pollution control_and increased 

lov flow tor water !'Upply. Erosion control 

needed, especially in some areas 1n Piedmont. 

= 
WashWton 

Large over-all water supply, with surplus in west and local or regi~ deficiency in east. Runoff' ranges from less than half' an inch in eastcentral part to 20 inches in northeast corner and 40 to 150 inches in Cascades and along coast. Reservoirs east of Cascades have total usable capacity 

of' 7,101,500 acr~feet"' of which 5,975,700 is .nsed for power. Consumptive use of vater from streams (depletion) east of' Cascades about 1,410,000 acrefeet per year. Use of surface water for cities and industries in State more t~ 275,000 acre-feet per year. Ground vater supplies most smaller cities, 

. 1D8llY industries, and irrigation; use is more than 300,000 acre-feet per year in the 13 principal areas of use. Large additional developments of ground 

vater and surface vater can be made, blt mutual interference and interstate and international aspects must be considered. Problems of dry-season shortage, 

floods, pollution, and reservoir sedimentation. liTigation in eastern part of' State predominantly from surface vater; in ultimate irrigation development 

of' western part ground and surface waters probably will be used to about the same extent. State law requires that sufficient water for maintenance of 

£.ish life must be left in the streams • 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subject Current situation im.'ormation further develoment 

Northeast~rn area 

North-central area 

East-central area 

Spokane River is most heavily used stream, 

·ror municipal, industrial, power, and irrigation use. Large ground-water reservoir 

in and northeast of Spokane Valley adds about 750,000 acre-feet per year to river. 

, 

Much irrigation vith surface water practiCed 

in Okanogan Basin and some in ColvUle Indian_ 

Reservation, but much more could be done. 

Some ground-vater development (about 8,6oo 

acre-feet per year) in Lower Okanogan area. 

Considerable irrigation practiced; to be ex- panded by 1,000,000 acres in Columbia Basin 

Project. About 45,000 acr~feet per year of' 

ground water pumped for irrigation in Quincy 

Basin.· Quincy-Winchester area about at maxirum. yield. Also heavy pumping in Moses Lake area. 

Studies of' hydrology of river, 

under present and proposed f'uture 

conditions. Data needed on Little 

Spokane and Colville Rivers and on 

ground water in their basins and 

along Columbia and Pend Oreille 

Rivers. 

Very little information on availability and relationship of' surface 

water and ground water. 

Effects of' new diversion on flow of' 

Columbia River and·tributary streams 

and on ground water J ground-water 

studies especially needed. 

Major diversion proposed in Idaho. This and 

effect of proposed increased storage in Lake 

Pend Oreille will change regimen of Spokane 

Rive~ and necessitate some changes in.present 

uses~ Area in Washington not likely to become 

critical if' developments are based on·sound 

hydrologic data, hoveve~. Ground water available along Columb~Colville, Pend Oreille, 

Spokane, and Little1 Spokane ValJeys; also west 

of' Spol--..ane, but effects of' development on 

stream flow unknown. 

Ground water available along Okanogan River, 

may be available elsewhere but data not 

avaUable. 

Increased irrigation with Columbia River water 

vill raise water table, making . increased 

supplies available and halting water-level 

decline at Quincy, but 'will create waterloggihg problema. 

6 

Central area west 

of Columb'ia River 

Large irrigation developments from surface 

wnters, particularly in Yakima Basin where 

deple.tion is about 1,000,000 acre-feet per 

yf!'ar and more water is needed, yet critical 

drainage problems have developed. About 

251 000 acre-feet of g.ro~tnd water per year 

now pumped in Yakima area. 

Surface-water data for design of 

storage reservoirs to supplement 

summer supply; ground-water studies, 

especially in Yakima Basin, to de- t~rmine feasibility of drainage and 

supplemental irrigation by pumping 

from wells. 

Use of' ground water in YakiwB Basin and of' both 

ground water and surface weter in others can be 

increased, but basic data n~Qessary for economical developments. Ground water believed to 

b~ available in Ellensburg and wenatchee areas. Increased .irrigation in Yakima-Sunnyside erea 

will depend largely on g. round water. Wanas 

and Ahtanum Valleys and others mieht be helped 

b'IJ artificial recharge. 
VashingtoQ--contiDued 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or 9Ubiect Qu;,.ent situotiop information fur:ther develnprp:t -··-----

Southeastern area 

South-central area 

Southwestern area (lower Columbia 

River basin) 

Pacific Coast and 

Puget Sound areas 

Present surface-watm: and ground-water supply 

tully developed in summer in Walla Walla area. Local overdraft ot ground water at College 

Place near Walla Walla and at Pullman; regional 

overdraft not indicated. 

Potentially valuable agricultural areas virtually undeveloped because ot low precipitation. 

Future ot area dependent upon complete u~Uisation ot surface and ground water. 

Industrial aDd irrigation use ot water increasin& rapidly. Current status as fisheries 

sanctU817 prohibita turther large dams. Federal-state program f'or increased salmon propagation is under way. 

Area ot he8'V)" and increasing water use. Sup.. 

plemental irrigation increasing. Pollution ot 

lower Chehalis River and small streams near Shelton, Taooa, aDd Seattle. Flood problema 

in much ot area1 sedimentation ot nooctcontrol reservoirs, especially in lookaaok aDd 

Skagit River basins. Local overdraft ot 

ground water near Everett. 

Detailed studies ot ground-water 

potential and ot availability ot 

water trom Palouse and 'l'ucannon 

Rivers and othere. 

Basic data ot all -eypea inadequate f'or design ot power and 

irrigation projects. Little 

ground-water information available. 

Increasing development has 

created a critical need f'or data on available water resources, including extent, character, and 

sate yield of' aquifers. · 

Detailed ground-water studies to 

determine sate yields of aquifers 

and methods of' developuent· to prevent salt-water encroachment along 

the coast and near Puget Sound. 

Data OJi f'low (')f small streams f'or. 

design of headwater reservoire. 

Some additional surface storage and artificial 

·recharge ot ground water may be feasible in 

Walla Walla area. Ground torater widely available 

in southeastern area rut little known ot potential yield and relation to surface water. 

Considerable power production and irrigation 

probably feasible, it done on lasis of' good c:lata. 

Development must be made to conform to requirementa ot Lower Columbia fish sanctuary. · Ground 

water probably available in Glenwood and Goldendale areas and in Horse Heaven Plateau. 

Considerable potential power and irrigation 

development. Ground water available in Clark 

County am Jackson Prairie-Qovlitz River area but potential unknown. 

Increased use of ground vater and develop11ent of 

reservoirs in headwater areas will be sorirce of 

most of' increased supply. Ground water known 

or believed to be abundant in much of' Puget 

Basin area. Flood, pollution, and sediment 

control essential. 

s, 
& 

West Virginia 

Substantial raintall and runoff bo.t steep slopes and rocks or lov average permeability cause rapid runoff and short surface-water supplies in summer 

and fall unless storage is provided. Except along major streams developments are not large but they are widespread and or critical importance in each 

area. Serious problem of water quality in coal:-min1ng areas. Large ground-water supplies along valley of Ohio River. 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subject __ n. Current situation information further develoanent 

Ground water 

Surface-water 

supply 

stream pollution 

Few areas of large use but many or small use 

totaling about 116 m.g.d. About 70 percent 

of people get domestic water from wells; 

Parkersburg is largest city using ground water. 

Drainage of acid water from coal mines pollutes 

streams, requiring costly treatment or makl.Dg 

ground-water development necessar,y in places 

where supplies can be devel,.oped only with 

great care. At Bramwell, such a development was un~1ccesstul because wells vere spaced 

too closely. Local overdevelopment at Pennsboro. Many mining communi ties have inadequate supplies of poor quaJity developed mainly 

tor use at the mines and especially inadequate 

in dry weather •. 

About 175 cOJIIIUimities, including all large ones except Parkersburg, use surface water for 

pdblic and ~.ndustrial use. Major centers along 

Monongahela River below Clarksburg, Kanawha 

River below Kanawha Falls, and Ohio River. 

Shortage of water from polluted West Fork 

River for Clarksburg and from Elk River at 

Charleston. Other towns with occasional shortages are Glenville 1 MU ton, Richwood 1 Weston 1 

and reportedly West Liberty am Bethany. 

Similar industrial shortage in dry years, es- pecially at Charleston. 

Pollution by acid mine waters serious problem, 

especially at times of low flow; West Fork 

and Monongahela Basilia partictllarly affected. 

Strip-mining operations will lead to future 

sedimentation problems. Ohio River badly 

polluted. 

Basic data inadequate in all parts 

ot State. Information needed on 

ooaurrence of ground water, quality 

and quantity available in areas of 

use and for future uses in un- tapped areas. Except for large 

supplies along Ohio River, requir-e 

ing comprehensive studies such as 

that made at West Virginia Ordnance 

Works at pt. Pleasant, most of 

supplies to be developed are small 

and adequate data can be obtained 

through modest studies. 

Data on flow of streams to determine necessity for and to permit 

economical design of reservoirs. 

A recent request for data on 

quantity and duration of f~ow at 

.34 localities could be answered 

definitely for only 7 and by 

rough estimate at others. Quality ... 

of-water studies needed. 

Data on qual:i.ty of water to determine degree of pollution and 

methods of control. 

Small to moderate ground-water suppHes (7 ,ooo80,000 g.p.d.) available in ~ain par~ ~r State. 

In area of Permian rocks in northwest, wells 

seldom yield more than 20,000 g.p.d. In ar~as 

of folded rocks in east,limestonAS yield 100,000-

6001000 g.p.d. to deep wells and supply all 

lN·ge springs. Largest supplies available in 

alluvium of Ohio Valley - almost unlimited 

supplies qy induced infiltration where alluvium 

is thick and permeable. Slll8ller supplies in 

Kanawha, Little KaDP.wha 1 anc Monongahela·Valleys 

and possibly from thin alluvium in tributaries 

of Potomac. Wheeling considering ground •mter 

to replace polluted water from Ohio River. 

Surface water probably nece~sary at Pennsboro. 

Storage on tributary stre&ma to provide ample 

watnr in dry season, and flood and pollution 

control as well. Tygart Dam on Tygart River near Grafton is good example. Probable large 

tuture synthetic-fuel development will require 

great quantities of water and make storage 

imper~tive. 

State actively engaged in control or sewage 

and industrial pollution, except that from 

mine drainage, so far exempt by law. Ohio 

River problem under attao~ in eo~~ration with 

other States in basin. 4dditional storage 

needed for dilution in time of low flow. 
West Virs'n'•~ntinued 

Area or aub.1ect _ Curren~_aituation 

Floode Flash floods 1n spring cammon on UDregulated 

streams. 

Deficiencies in Corrective meaBUres aDd 

iDfm:omation turther develoment 

stream-now data tor reserYOir 

design. 

Federal flood-control U.. oa tnart; llwr aear 

Grafton am Bluestone River at R1n'tOD, alld West 

Penn Co. dam on Cheat River at Lake LJ!m, Pa., 

provide considerable protection in their basiDB, 

also greater low flow tor water aupp]JP 8IJd. 

dUution of polluting material. Dam UDder 

construction on Elk River at Sutton, Navigation dams on Cllio River provide no flood 

pz-oteotion. Additional dalu on tributaries not nov regulated are Deeded. 

s 
~ 

Wisgopain 

Average precipitation about 30 inches; no noticeable decrease since 1837. Runoff about 10 inches; distril:ution in.year about same as in past. 

Stream. flow fairly well sustained because ·ot blanket of glacial drift and JD.BDY lakes that act as regulating ~servoirs • Some minor f'lood problems • Some problems of pollution of' stre8JllS and lake~ by industrial and municipal wastes. Large over-all water supply and relatively few serious problems. Lar~e grOUJld~water supplies in glacial valleys and plains in all bat southwestern part of State, and in sandstones in southern, western, and eastern 

parts. About 280 m.g.d. of water used tor public supply; other uses not known. · 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area_m!" subject ~Current situation ____ information ___ _further develooment 

Surface water tor 

public and industrial 

supply 

Irrigation 

Ground water 

Surface water used for 26 ot larger cities; 

about 145 m.g.d. supplied. Most industries 

in these cities use water trom public supply, 

except in Milwaukee area where J118DY wells are used. Considerable power developnent, 

especially on Wisconisn River, on~ ot most 

completely developed streams in country. 

Increasing rapidly; nov being done in at 

least 35 ot 71 counties; about 12,000 acres irrigated in 1948 with 3,600 acre-teet of 

surf' ace water and 1,400 acre-teet of ground 

water. 

·-

. Ground water used by 3A5; ot 411 Dlllnicipal 

supplif'ls (about 135 m.a.d.) and al.Joost all 

rural uses. Most industries use public 

supplies bat some have their own wells, particularly MilwaUkee and Green Bay areas. 

Additional stream-flow data tor 

resArvoir control; analysis in 

conjunction with observation-well 

records to predict stream. flow, as by Wisconsin Valley Improvement 

Company. Records on small streams 

to guide increasing development, 

especially irrigation. 

Stream-flow data as above. Groundwater studies to locate and evaluate areas of possible irrigation, 

which are incompletely lmovn. 

Grolmd-water studies on small 

scale so tar. Substantial. increase needed to evaluate supplies 

1n both developed and undeveloped areas. 

Large additional development possible. 

Large additioDal 4ewl0J111811t possible. GrcnDIIIwaw. use l.1Dl7 to. inorease faster than nrtaaewater, espeo1all7 in central saDCJ,.pla1D vea. 

Jntepoated clewlopaent needed iD saM-plaiD. area, u g1"011Dd· •ter ftPpl.ies all strea flow ...,. that ot Wiaoaastn River 1tselt 8114 mob of that 

1D t'lr7 ........... 

Greatly increased use possible in most o·r State, even in vicini t:r ot heavily pumped areas it 

well!S e.re spaced properly. Especially promising sources are glacial valleys and plains, and 

sandstones. in middle part ot State in and near 

recharge area. Glacial ftllqs are poorly known; 

they include valleys ot Wisconsin and Rock Rivers 

and a· valley ext£·in1ng through Lake 'PUdka'fiiB7 

and Green Lake in Green Lake and adjac·n~~ 

counties. Bedrock in northern· part of. ·state 

poorly productive and glacial ·aquifers more 

scattered than elsewhere; surface water relativeJ..7 

abundant. · · 
Wiagsmsig-Continued 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or subject ~Jlt_eituation ____ u _ __ _______ _ __ irlf!:>ma:liion__ further develo•ent 

MUwaukite-Waukesba 

area 

Green Bay area 

Fond duLac 

MarabtieldNiellaville area 

Arteaiall area away 

f'roa centers of 

heaVT puaping 

About 20 m.g.d. pumped traa artesian sandstones 

in Milwaukee County plus SOIIl8 in eastern 

Waukesha County. Water levels have dropped 

continuoualy at least aince lttl7, maximum lmown 

lowering '370 teet. Lovering in shallow aquifers 

also. where wells tap both shallow and deep, 

and some local overpwaping of shallow aquitera 

where do•stic wells are numerOU8. 

Pwnpage about 10 m.g .d. for public BUpply and 

all other uses exc.Pt irrigation, and cooling 

nnd vaahing with surface water at paper mills. 

Water levels have dropped. maximum of about 

400 feet since 1886. Decline also occurring 

above Green Bay in Fox River Valley beyond 

DePere. 

Difficulty in obtaining adequate ground vater 

tor public supply because sandstone is thin 

arid low in permeability. 

Dif'ficul ty' in getting adequate public suppl.Jr 

trom thin glacial depoaits above impervioua 

bedrock. 

studies under way; continuation 

needed to provide. estimates ot 

yield under variOU8 condi tiona 

ot pumping. 

Studies under way; continuation 

needed. to provide estimates of' 

yield under various conditions 

ot pumping. 

Problem largely economic-a matter of pumping 

lift-so far, as aquifers have not. been un- watered. Problem similar to that in other 

artesian areas distant f'rom area of' recharge 

(Chicago area, Dakota sandstone) where withdrawal is largely or entirely f'rom storage ao 

far. 

As above. Additional ground water available 

west of area of' heav,y pumping. Surface water 

available from Fox River and Green Bay but 

polluted. Surface water from unpolluted part of 

Lake Michigan available to east across peninsula 

by means of pipe line 25 to 30 miles long. 

Ground-water studies under way. Test wells being drilled in areas indicated by 

Gaging stations needed to dete~ studies. Lake Winnebago available but water 

availability of water .from streams. of poor quality. 

As above. Ground-vater possibilities not exhausted though 

not highly promising. Surface vater probably 

avail able but data needed. 

Water levels have declined because of discharge General studies, detailed studies 

from flowing am pumped wells and most have in areas of use. stopped fioving. No serious problema yet, but 

great lowering ot vater levels will occur in 

areas that are heavily pumped in future, es- pecially in southeast as distance froDl recharge area increasea. 

~ \oft 
Wyomin« 

Sa.bstant1al precipitation on and runoff troa mountalaoua areu. Practicall7 all water originates within State and much of U must be allowed to 

now out for downstream uses under existinc decrees. Shortage of water, lack of irri,;able land, or high alt~tude and cold climate in areas of cood soil 

limit irrigation deTelopment. Green Ri:yer basin 1a onq maJor basin where water supply h belieTed to exceed need under conditions oftu.l deTelopment. 

Ground water aYailable in allurium of principal streams; !rert1a17 rocks 1n northeasteru, southeuteru, southwestern, and west-central and northwestcentral areas; and pre-~ertiary artesian atratain a few narrow belts. Serious problema of erosion and reaei'Yoir sedimentation and ~lity ot water. 

Basic data deficient on small streams, ,;round water, and quality of water. Some studies being made in cooperation with State and under Missouri Basin 

program. 

J.rea or Deficiencies ia Correct1ye measures and 

subject ~rea,t situat1oa information further developJDent 

:lorth natte 

.Biyer basin 

Iouth Platte 

Jlinr baaia 

Powder, Belle 

Jourche, 

Cheyeue, and 

longue Jliyer 

baains 

Big Bom JU.yer 

baain (tncludinc 

Wind B.iyer 

basin) 

Area of largest water uae, principally tor 

irrtcation. J'urther deTelopment limited by 

court decrees. Serious sediment and waterquality problems. Ground water used for 

irrigation and other purposes in Go.shen 

County and adJacent Scotts Bluff and Morrill 

Cou.nt1e1, :lebr., Glendo area, Pumpld.a Creek: 

area, Horae-Bear Creek area, Laramie area, 

and northern Platte County. 

Only small part of' basin lies in Wyaaing. 

Ground water used tor part of public supply at 

Cheyenne. Used tor public supply and especially 

tor irrigation in Egbert-Pine Blu!f's-Oarpenter 

area (13,500 acre--teet in 1947). 

Oonli4ered area ot aoat de:f'ici •t water nppl.J' in State under present con41 tiona. .U teruating 

noods and deficiat low flow in atr•••· 

Serious seataentation probleas. ~d vater 

used for domestic, stoCk, and limited railroad 

and industrial use. 

Baain ia area of heaT)" water use. lxtensive 

irrigation along Wind and Btc llo~ Rivera and 

tributaries. l'lash floods on tributaries and 

ice-Jam nooda on Big E'orn Rinr. Serious 

preble• of sedimentation, and of changes in 

qualit7 reeul.t1nc froa irrigation. · kiatiDg or 

~i;al\t;\•1. .~"i..,~l"'~-1."': -t2 •8117 areas. 

Greatly increased ground-water studies 

to evaluate aquifers. Some general . studies made in Goshen County and in 

Laramie, Wheatland Flats, nnd Glendo 

areas. 

Sate yield of JcberWine BluffsCarpenter area. 

Careful inYen tory ot cr011lld .water in 

entire area to 4etermine a'f'a1labtli v 

for poasible large future developments. 

Detailed sediment, quality, pound-wat~r, 

and streaa-now studies to permit more 

adequate plamling of basin d&Telopment. 

Reservoirs on the two principal streams 

pro't'ide flood protection. Conaiderable 

,;round-water development possible in 

areas named in first column, especially 

Go.shen County, and in Wheatland J'lata 

area, in Sweetwater Valley, and _in 

Laramie, Carbon, and Platte Counties. 

Interference with surface water should 

be considered~ Sal.yage of waste aad 

4rai:nace woul4 be useful effect. of 

denlopa&t ln parte of Goshen County 

and in Wheatland l'lata area. 

Some additional ground-water·development feasible outside present areas 

of' pumping • 

.A4d1 tional surface atorace to prevent 

floods a.D4 proTide increased low flow. 

Soil-conaena.tioa and other aeUmen'licontrol meaaurea. Ground-water auppliea 

appear to be cener~ly small but should 

·be caretally studied because arnthetlcfuel industry mq dnelop. J.lluiua 

offers promiae for large dry-seaaon 

supply if recharged naturall7 or artificially from stream flow in tille of 

·flood. 

Careful d&Telopment of basin to proYide 

mazimum water and minimize floods, lowflow shortage, s edimentaUon, and wate1"-

logg1ng. Ground water available ia 

alluYi• of main streams, in small 

quantitiea and of poor quality ln 

!ertiar,y rocks in moai o~ baaln, and in 

R,.ta•iD1'1 •+..,,.+• ...... • .11 .f 

:,.~ 

..;. 
~-Continued 

Deficiencies in Corrective measures and 

Area or sub:Ject Qurrent situation inf'ormotion .further cieveloqpent 

Green River basin 

Snake River balfin 

Bear River ·basin 

nau 

Irrigable area about 500,000 acres J about 

halt receiving water 1 ohietly for bay. 

Little use of ground water, chiefly municipal, 

stock, and do.st!c. 

lo aerioua probl- yet. 

Interstate atioeaa. !boat ·750,000 acre-teet 

per year wastes to Great Salt Lake in Utah. 

Distribution ot water among Wyoming, Idaho 1 

and Utah disputed. 

General studies to outline 

ground-water potential. 

Sediment 1 quality, and flow 

data on l!llD&l.l streaDB. 

General surtaoe-vater and 

groaad-vater studies to ou.tline tuture possibilities, 

espeo1ally in regard to division or water with downstream users. 

Comprehensive h1drologic 

study ot buill in all three 

States. 

Apparently more surface water available than 

needed for irrigable area. Large ground-water 

-.Jpply in alluvial fan at west side ot Wind 

River Mountains; essentially undeveloped so tar 

lut coatributes to tlow or Green River. Onl7 

small. supplies available in bedrock in most 

otbaain. 

Large surface supply available; also ground 

water in alluvium. aloag streams. Considerable 

additional d evelopaent feasible.; 

Integrated developaent under compact to reduce 

waste and provide maximum utilization and 

equitable distribution or water. 

5