United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

General Technical

Report RMRS-GTR-7

May 1998

A Forest Born of Fire

A Field Guide

Penelope A. Latham

Raymond C. Shearer

Kevin L. O’Hara

Miller Creek

Demonstration Forest

In cooperation with
The Authors

Penelope A. Latham, at the outset of this report, Research Specialist, School

of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812. Now, Research

Ecologist, Oregon State University Research and Experiment Station, 569

Hanley Road, Medford, OR 97502.

Raymond C. Shearer, Research Silviculturist, Intermountain Research

Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Missoula, MT 59801.

Kevin L. O’Hara, Associate Professor of Silviculture, School of Forestry,

University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812.

Acknowledgments and Cooperators

This project is the result of a cooperative research agreement (No.

INT-94944-RJVA) between the University of Montana, School of Forestry,

Missoula, the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station,

Missoula, and the Flathead National Forest, Kalispell, MT. It would not have

been possible without the dedication and commitment of Peter Stickney of the

Rocky Mountain Research Station who contributed the results of long-term

understory vegetation studies at Miller Creek. We also appreciate the personnel at the Flathead National Forest Supervisor’s Office and Tally Lake Ranger

District, and the graphic assistance of Marcia Laritz of Media Works in

Bozeman, MT. The principal author considers the hours spent becoming

familiar with the Demonstration Forest to be a privilege and a valuable educational opportunity.

Contents

Page

Miller Creek’s Ever Changing Forests.............................................................. 1

History of the Miller Creek Demonstration Forest ............................................ 3

How to Tour the Forest .................................................................................... 3

Research at Miller Creek.................................................................................. 4

How the Forest Develops ................................................................................. 7

Tours of the Demonstration Areas ................................................................... 8

Prescribed Fire Tour ........................................................................................ 8

South-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned ....................................................... 8

West-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned ........................................................ 9

East-2: Clearcut and Slashed, Unburned ................................................... 10

East-3: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned ....................................................... 10

Wildfire Tours ................................................................................................. 11

South-8: Clearcut and Slashed, Broadcast Burned, Later

Reburned by Wildfire ............................................................................... 11

South-13: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire .................................................... 12

South-14: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire, Salvage Logged,

Windrowed and Burned, and Helicopter Seeded .................................... 13

West-4: Clearcut and Slashed, Prescribed Burned .................................... 13

West-5: Old Forest, Burned by Wildfire, Salvage Logged .......................... 14

West-6: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire ....................................................... 15

West-7: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned by Wildfire .................................... 15

The Future at Miller Creek ............................................................................. 16

Glossary ......................................................................................................... 17

Background Reading ..................................................................................... 18

Cover photographs: Visitors attending a field workshop in 1987 receive information from Ray Shearer at

the top of unit South-8 before they walk the Wildfire Trail, Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.

In the evening of August 7, 1968, a prescribed fire on clearcut East-3 reduced the amount of slash, litter,

and duff and enhanced quick establishment of a new forest by natural regeneration.

We want to hear from you!

Please send us your:

• Comments on results of past and current research at Miller Creek

• Comments on management of this Demonstration Forest

Interested in a group tour? Interested in having the traveling display come to your school?

Let us know.

Tally Lake Ranger District

Flathead National Forest

USDA Forest Service

1335 Highway 93 West

Whitefish, MT 59937

406-862-2508
Miller Creek Demonstration Forest

A Forest Born of Fire

A Field Guide

Principles of Ecosystem Management Emerge From

Research and Adaptive Forestry

Rocky Mountain Research Station

324 25th Street

Ogden, UT 84401

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 1

Miller Creek’s Ever Changing Forests ________

Welcome to Miller Creek Demonstration Forest in the

Northern Rocky Mountains. The Demonstration Forest is

part of the Flathead National Forest in Montana. Miller

Creek tells a story about forest change and the role

of disturbance, primarily fire, in that change. The

Northern Rockies contain “fire-dependent forests,” meaning

that most of the plant communities here require fire

for their continued existence on the landscape. Several

decades of forest practices and fire suppression have

changed naturally occurring processes of fire disturbance,

thereby altering the structure and composition of many of

these forests.

Western larch, a key feature of Miller Creek forests, is a

fire-dependent species. Larch, as with many other species

in the Northern Rocky Mountains, have specific characteristics that allow them to survive and regenerate following

fire. Mean fire-free intervals in western larch forests range

from 24 to 130 years—a relatively short time in the life of a

300–700 year old larch tree.

Miller Creek Demonstration Forest

A Forest Born of Fire

A Field Guide

In the mountainous terrain at Miller Creek, fire’s variable

effect has created forests now in many stages of development. The diverse plant communities and stand structures

that result create habitat for many species from rare plants

such as the tiny moonwort to large mammals such as

moose. The long-term consequences of natural disturbances tend to enhance biological diversity.
2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Humans also played a role in structuring the

forest. Scientists believe that early Native Americans had

a major impact on North American ecosystems by repeatedly burning the vegetation. These fires, generally set at

times other than naturally caused lightening fires, had

varying effects on vegetation, contributing to the mosaic

of plant communities and classes of development.

In recent years, trees recolonized sites too slowly following the use of prescribed fire. Forest managers wanted to

know why. Research at Miller Creek explains the relationship between fire and regrowth in western larch forests

and creates an understanding of how management practices such as clearcutting and prescribed burning mimic

natural processes of disturbance.

 The photographs in our mini-poster show forest development that began after a wildfire in Miller Creek on August

23, 1967, in virgin forest on a south-facing slope. They show

an abundantly regenerating forest. Other forest stands at

Miller Creek have different vegetation structures, thus creating a mosaic of diverse ecosystems. These forests of contrasting structures and disturbance patterns function differently and are suitable for meeting a range of ecological

and management objectives. While forest communities

and structures continue to change, management that

is tied to ecosystem integrity may help to retain

disturbance processes such as fire that historically

structured these landscapes. Continued research and

results of adaptive management practices enable forest

managers to understand the effect of treatments on

the land.

Native American fires, and

this prescribed fire on

September 5, 1968, on a

west-facing slope (West-4),

usually produced lower

intensity fires.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 3

History of the Miller Creek Demonstration

Forest ____________________________________

Research began at the 5,000 acre Miller Creek area in

1966 to study the effect of prescribed fire and silvicultural

treatments on regeneration. In 1989, the Flathead National

Forest set this area aside as a Demonstration Forest to protect the study area and to encourage continuing research

and education.

Past research at Miller Creek measured how prescribed

fire, conducted over a range of fuel and site conditions, affected air quality, vegetation development, conifer regeneration, water quality, erosion, and small animal populations. Current research focuses on how conditions

existing during stand initiation combined to affect forest

processes (such as germination, seed dispersal, and competition) and subsequently, to produce different forest structures (different physical sizes and distribution of trees).

Forest structures are important because they affect understory plant and animal habitat, biological diversity, and

productivity. Future research will be concerned with extending studies of stand level (a large group of similar

trees) to the even larger scales required for ecosystem

management—the management of many different

kinds of stands over large landscapes that also encompass rivers and lakes and mountains and valleys

and all the plants and animals inhabiting the area.

How to Tour the Forest ____________________

Your best tour of Miller Creek Demonstration Forest

starts with a study of our map. This map contains keys to

study sites for easy reference and gives the approximate

mileage between stops. Once you are in your vehicle and

into the forest, you will find self-guiding trails with interpretive signs that explain points of interest. Keep this book

handy for site-specific information. After the self-guided

field tours, the amphitheater in South-13 or Council

Rock in East-3 are ideal places to have lunch and discuss what you’ve seen or just enjoy the view. Group

tours can also be arranged with the Tally Lake Ranger District (see inside front cover).

Forest Service guide Peter Stickney discusses changes in stand

development at the amphitheater within the wildfire-burned South-13 .
4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Providing public information is an important part of

Miller Creek Demonstration Forest. A traveling display

shows the intimate relationship between initial site conditions, disturbance, and forest development. A glossary at

the end of this booklet explains forestry terms that may

be unfamiliar.

Research at Miller Creek ___________________

Before the 1960’s, prescribed fire was used in the Western

United States to reduce fire hazard after forest stands were

harvested. But managers did not have enough information

about the effect of fire on vegetation to predict effects on

tree regeneration and response of other plant life. Although

scientists knew that western larch, a valuable timber species in the Northern Rocky Mountains, was associated with

naturally occurring fire, adequate natural regeneration was

difficult to obtain. Western larch was assigned the highest

research priority.

Western larch is a key component of Miller Creek

forests and an important resource for both humans

and wildlife. It occurs naturally only within a relatively

small area from southern interior British Columbia south

into western Montana west of the Continental Divide, and

in central Idaho and west through northern and central

Idaho to the crest of the Cascades (see range map). This

beautiful tree is well known for the quality of its wood,

aesthetic appeal, and importance to wildlife. Research at

Miller Creek shows that “fire is the most dramatic ecological force in western larch forests.”

The 11 study sites on the tours show different combinations of silvicultural and fire treatments. The

original research plan was to study the effect of clearcutting and prescribed fire. However, before all the treatments were completed, a wildfire on August 23, 1967, created a great natural experiment. Some of the units burned

in the wildfire had been cut but not broadcast burned, others had been cut and burned, while still others had not yet

been clearcut. Now scientists could compare the effects of

wildfire on tree regeneration and subsequent vegetation

development to those of prescribed fire.

This free-standing

display describes the

effect of disturbance

treatments on stand

development as a

result of research at

Miller Creek.

Developed by the

University of

Montana’s School of

Forestry and the

Rocky Mountain

Research Station in

Missoula, MT, this

display is available for

use by community

and government

groups (see inside

front cover).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 5

discusses only those studies pertaining to tree

regeneration, changes in stand structure, and

the development of understory vegetation following disturbance. Regeneration and understory development studies continued for 30

years, and the stand structure and vegetation

succession research will continue indefinitely.

All 60 of the original study sites are in a 200

to 250 year old forest, on similar sites with

similar fuels, and were equally distributed on

north-, south-, east-, and west-facing slopes.

The selected 10 acre study sites were scheduled for clearcutting and broadcast burning

under different conditions in 1967 and 1968.

Scientists counted new seedlings in small

temporary plots systematically placed

throughout burned study areas. They measured the heights of the tallest seedlings of

each species, and later measured the stem diameters when the trees were large enough.

These researchers also collected data related

to fire intensity and the effectiveness of the

treatments in preparing the site for tree regeneration. Tally Lake Ranger District

crews—sometimes with students from nearby

towns—planted western larch, Douglas-fir,

Range map of western larch.

Research simultaneously began in many disciplines to study the

effects of the treatments. For example, scientists studied changes

in small mammal populations and smoke dispersal. This book
6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

and Englemann spruce on 13 clearcuts (three of the demonstration areas) to compare height growth of planted versus naturally regenerating conifers. Fifty seedlings of each

species were planted in May of four consecutive years,

1970 through 1973.

Researchers measured the vegetation development on five

of the demonstration areas along two adjoining transects,

which were subdivided into blocks of different sizes. Height

of trees, shrubs, and herbs within each block was recorded.

No treatment other than the initial harvest-fire treatment

was allowed on these transects.

In 1990, the researchers established permanent plots to

study stand development and its effect on species composition and abundance of the understory plant community.

These plots are on five of the demonstration areas (see

table). The plots were thinned to six trees per plot, keeping

the best trees of each species. Shrubs were removed on half

of the plots (weeding) in a 20 foot radius around the plot

Descriptive information and permanent study plots located on selected units, by tour, Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.

Permanent plots

Phase of subalpine Treatments Kind of Stand

Tour/unit fir/beadlily Harvest Fire regeneration Soil water Succession development

Prescribed Fire Tour

East-2 Fool’s huckleberry Clearcut, slash None Advance, natural No Yes Yes

East-3 Fool’s huckleberry Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn Natural, planted No Yes No

South-1 Beargrass Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn Natural Yes Yes Yes

West-1 Beadlily Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn Natural, planted No No No

Wildfire Tour

South-8 Beargrass Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn, Natural Yes No No

wildfire

South-13 Beargrass Uncut Wildfire Natural No Yes Yes

South-14 Beargrass Uncut, salvage, Wildfire, burn Natural, aerial No No No

windrow windrows seeding

West-4 Beargrass Clearcut, Slash Prescribed burn Natural Yes No No

West-5 Beargrass Uncut, salvage Wildfire Natural No No No

West-6 Beargrass Uncut Wildfire Natural No Yes Yes

West-7 Beargrass Clearcut, Slash Wildfire Natural, planted No No Yes
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 7

center; weeding will continue at each 5 year measurement.

An unthinned 1 acre plot was established within each study

site to compare differences between vegetation development

on thinned and unthinned plots. Researchers monitor conifer regeneration, development of shrubs and herbs,

growth of natural and planted trees, and soil moisture.

How the Forest Develops __________________

After disturbance—such as fire or harvesting—forests go

through a series of changes. Early ecologists thought that

one or a few species became established on a newly disturbed area and then dominated that site until conditions

were sufficiently changed by their presence so they could no

longer reproduce. These “pioneer” species were then replaced by other species until a self-sustaining “climax”

plant community developed. Disturbance was regarded as

an event that interrupts this orderly progression or succession of species. The climax plant community is similar to

all other undisturbed, old forests on like sites with similar

climates.

Since ecologists became aware that disturbances

are a vital part of naturally functioning ecosystems,

they now embrace a broader view of “succession” or

stand development. In this view, the species present on

a newly disturbed site are the result of the disturbance.

Further vegetation change then depends upon the unique

characteristics of each species present and the advantage

each has at different times. Chance events such as destructive storms, droughts, bad seed years, and severe wildlife browsing affect developing vegetation.

This gives an advantage to some plant species over

others. Long-lived trees such as western larch, ponderosa

pine, and white pine persist in old forests. These trees were

traditionally labelled “early successional species” and were

thought to be replaced at climax.

While ecologists generally agree that long-term and shortterm vegetation change can occur in forest ecosystems, they

also now increasingly accept forest development based on

individual characteristics of plants. As overstory trees interact with each other and their environment, they go

through periods of development defined by ecological processes, such as germination, establishment, and competition. Processes change as the stand develops, as does the

stand’s structure—that is, the physical size and distribution of trees.

Science—and scientists—keep progressing by seeking information on larger, more complex systems

called ecosystems. Now, scientists study forests over

larger landscapes such as entire National Forests, watersheds, and river basins. And in these studies, they look at

four broad stages or classes of development—all of which

are common on the Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.

Follow along with us by studying the computer rendering of the four classes in our mini-poster.
8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Tours of the Demonstration Areas __________

You can see the Miller Creek Demonstration Forest in two

tours. One tour illustrates the effects of clearcutting and associated activities with and without prescribed fire. The

other tour emphasizes effects of wildfire. Trails provide

access to both areas, and signs give additional ecological

information.

We selected the demonstration areas to compare the development of vegetation on similar sites after different

types of disturbance. Harsh site conditions (as seen on

south and west aspects) and severe plant competition sometimes combine to favor some species over others. Plant communities in the south and west units, however, are more

the result of different development patterns of species that

started growing after the disturbance. While the disturbance helped determine which species would grow first,

once the initial vegetation was established, most changes

were limited to species abundance and height and crown

development.

Prescribed Fire Tour _______________________

The three stops on the prescribed fire tour demonstrate

differences in forest development on four clearcuts that

were either broadcast burned or left unburned. Be sure to

take with you a separate that describes what you will see

on these trails.

South-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned May 18,

1968—In the three decades after clearcutting, much of the

area within unit South-1 is still in the stand initiation

stage. Following clearcutting, the prescribed fire left a continuous layer of duff on the soil surface and killed only the

aboveground portions of herbs and shrubs. Duff is decomposing organic matter lying over mineral soil on the forest

floor. As most conifers need mineral soil for germination,

this surface layer encouraged the development of surviving

vegetation, mostly herbs. The dominant shrub before disturbance was blue huckleberry, which is slow growing and

thus unable to regrow quickly enough to dominate the new

vegetation.

Stocking on South-1 is low but slowly increasing. Regeneration density

is greatest on the north and east sides nearest to the seed source.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 9

As the burned duff disintegrated with time, more growing

space became available, and conifer seed dispersed from

nearby seed sources then germinated. This process will continue as long as growing space is available. Delaying conifer

establishment prolongs the period that valuable wildlife

shrubs such as Scouler’s willow, serviceberry, and buffaloberry remain in the stand.

West-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned July 27,

1967—Moose Pond and Old Forest—This area demonstrates the contrasts in vegetation and structural diversity

that can occur within a limited area in mountainous terrain.

Diverse habitat such as this riparian forest complex surrounding Moose Pond is

ideal for the large moose population at Miller Creek. Smaller species limited in

their mobility may be restricted to a small portion of Miller Creek.

The vertical and horizontal patterns produced due to the

species diversity of a forest stand are important for a variety of wildlife species and are part of what makes forests

fascinating to humans. Disturbances such as fire, wind, or

insect epidemics can cause similar contrasts in habitats undisturbed by humans.

Research at Miller Creek helped define the processes that

allow different vegetation types to develop. Future research

will address these

questions:

• Can desirable old

forest attributes be obtained sooner by silvicultural practices that

encourage large trees,

or move a forest stand

through the stages of

development more

quickly?

• What species composition and spacing

will lead to structures

beneficial for biological

diversity, wood production, and aesthetic

appeal? This decomposing snag is a structural legacy

from the previous forest. Such features allow

wildlife use to continue while stands regenerate.
10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

• How can a landscape approach to forest management

help sustain healthy forest ecosystems?

East-2: Clearcut and Slashed, Unburned—Since the

harvest and slash treatments in East-2 were completed in

1968, new conifer establishment has been slow because of

the absence of fire. The soil was covered with a nearly continuous thick layer of litter and duff. The surface was

shaded by an increasing cover of fast-growing shrubs and

other vegetation. Unlike the hot and dry conditions found

on unit South-1 that limits conifer establishment, East-2 is

cool and moist, but the intense competition for light limits

tree survival. Both units receive abundant seedfall from

adjacent mature forests. Seedling subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce that were not slashed were released and now

form the major tree component on the area. Because shrubs

were abundant in the forest before disturbance, and burning did not occur, shrubs dominated immediately after

clearcutting. The age range of regenerating conifer trees

will be wide. Competition in the developing stand is among

all vegetation rather than only between trees. Only a few

western larch and lodgepole pine trees regenerated. As a

result, the structure of East-2 differs from stands that regenerate following stand-replacing fire.

Monitoring of the vegetation development plot will allow

scientists to determine the effect of this pattern of overstory

development on the structure and diversity of the understory plant community.

East-3: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned August 7,

1968—East-3, in contrast to East-2 or South-1, has abundant tree regeneration. Yet all received similar seedfall.

Burning in mid-summer reduced shrub competition and

duff on the forest floor allowing herbs, quickly followed by

conifer seedlings, to establish. The surrounding forest

abundantly produced spruce seed, so when East-3 was

clearcut and burned, that nearby forest contributed the Larger spruce and subalpine fir have primarily grown from advance

regeneration too small to slash after harvest. Open-grown larch and

some spruce and fir may also have initiated after clearcutting.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 11

large number of spruce in the natural regeneration. Stand

development has been rapid but not uniform within the unit.

Portions of the stand have been artificially thinned and

can be contrasted with the unthinned control. Light thinning during the stem exclusion stage may prolong the time

a stand is in that stage as vigorous trees may reclaim growing

space. Heavier thinning may accelerate the stand into a

At Council Rock in East-3

you will have a good place

to view the Miller Creek

landscape, have lunch, and

discuss the implications of

research results for

ecosystem management.

prolonged or temporary understory reinitiation stage with

development of more complex overstory structures.

Stands in this stage provide habitat for many animal species.

Wildfire Tours

The two stops on this tour show differences in forest development on clearcut and uncut units affected by the August

1967 wildfire. One series of units occurs on a south-facing

slope while the other series is on a west-facing slope. One

of the west-facing units, West-4, was broadcast burned and

did not burn in the wildfire.

The south-facing units are connected by a trail at the top

of South-8 (on Road 2876), which extends to Road 9807 below unit South-14. Be sure to take with you the separate that

describes what you will see on this trail. You will need to

arrange for shuttle transportation back to the top of South-8

once you are through or simply return along the same trail.

The trail through the west-facing units is a loop that begins near the bottom of the units and returns along the

road at the top of the units to the parking area. There is

not a separate for this trail.

South-8: Clearcut and Slashed, Broadcast Burned

on August 8, 1967; Later Reburned by Wildfire on

August 23, 1967—The broadcast burn under dry summer

conditions reduced most of the forest floor layer to ash and

killed or set back the existing understory vegetation.
12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Water-can analogs such as

this unused one allowed

researchers to measure fire

intensity on sites receiving

prescribed burns.

Two weeks after treatment, this stand was reburned by a

wildfire that burned the residual duff and all of the surrounding area killing most trees and dramatically reducing

the available seed source from offsite trees. Yet regeneration on South 8 is no better than on South-1.

Today, most of the unit remains in the stand initiation

stage of development. At distances greater than 300 ft from

a conifer seed source, only a small proportion of sound seed

is dispersed. The hot and dry south-facing aspect confined

the limited conifer regeneration to shaded microsites producing individual or groups of trees. A small patch of western larch regeneration developed at the top of this unit

adjacent to a group of larch trees that survived the wildfire.

Finally, the presence of fast-growing ceanothus shrubs has

provided strong competition for existing and subsequent

tree seedlings years after the disturbance.

Three decades later, the continued dominance of shrubs

on South-8 confirms the importance of an onsite or nearby

seed source for conifer regeneration.

South-13: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire August 23,

1967—In contrast to South-8, which is located immediately

above South-13, conifer regeneration is abundant because

mature seed was present in the crowns of trees killed by

the wildfire. The seed fell from the cones into the soil soon

after the fire. Shade provided by the standing dead trees,

called snags, further aided germination and survival of tree

seedlings. Fast-growing lodgepole pine and western larch

Western larch, while requiring full

sunlight, often regenerates in the

shade provided by standing snags,

by down wood from the previous

forest, and by rocks. Temporal

shade is particularly important on

hot, south-facing slopes.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 13

were able to grow above the ceanothus shrubs that appeared following wildfire, thus avoiding overtopping by the

shrubs.

Three decades after disturbance this stand is dense and

growth is slowing in many areas and, like East-3, has been

thinned. The area immediately surrounding the vegetation

development transects (near the amphitheater) has not

been thinned and provides a contrast with the thinning

treatment. In this early period of stem exclusion, most tree

canopies are at the same height, giving a uniform structure

to the stand. Competition thrives, tree growth is reduced,

and some trees are dying because this stand was not

thinned.

South-14: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire, Salvage

Logged, Windrowed and Burned, and Helicopter

Seeded With Western Larch— South-14, like South-13,

was uncut at the time of the wildfire, but the fire-killed

trees were subsequently salvaged. Bulldozers piled the

slash into windrows, and then the slash was burned. Intense heating of the soil occurred under heavy concentrations of woody debris along the burned windrows, sterilizing the soil and delaying colonization of these areas for

years. Nitrogen-fixing shrubs and herbs still predominate

these strips. Helicopter seeding with western larch produced a dense larch stand that is now slowing in growth.

Mortality of understory species is beginning. While western

larch predominates, Englemann spruce and other species

grow in large enough percentages to begin forming a more

complex, stratified, mixed-species stand.

West-4: Clearcut and Slashed, Prescribed Burned

September 5, 1968—West-4 is the only site on the wildfire

tour that escaped the wildfire on August 23, 1967. After

clearcutting, it was broadcast burned in late-summer 1968

when the site was wet. The outcome of harvest and fire

treatment on West-4 was similar to South-1, which received

a spring prescribed burn. Moist conditions during the burn

resulted in a patchy fire and little duff reduction. Conifer

seedlings occurred on less than 25 percent of the area.

Plants are slowly revegetating windrows caused by slash piling

and intense burning following salvage logging.
14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Larger subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, and spruce have developed from trees too small to cut during clearcutting (advanced regeneration) and that survived the fire treatment.

Diameter growth of these conifers has been good after release from competition by the overstory trees, but height

growth is slow.

West-4 remains open and it continues in the stand initiation stage. A large local moose population heavily browse

the study site. Several more years will pass before this induced edge provides thermal or hiding cover for large mammals in addition to browse the stand now provides.

West-5: Old Forest, Burned by Wildfire, August 23,

1967, Salvage Logged—Less is known about West-5 than

the other study sites. The intensity of the wildfire was reduced by the time it reached this unit in the early evening.

Because conditions were not monitored on West-5, interpretation of its development is speculative. We do know that

because lodgepole pine were the primary source of mature

seed in crowns of the trees at the time of the wildfire, it became a major regeneration species.

Growth of trees on West-5 is beginning to decrease. Thinning would prevent stagnation and accelerate the stand

Ecosystem “edges” are created by differences between two

ecosystems. Forest harvesting, wildfire, avalanches, and strong

winds change the amount of edge. While increased edge may favor

species such as moose or white-tailed deer, some species that live

near edges are more susceptible to predation.

Lodgepole pine canopies develop quite uniformly and decrease

vertical foliage diversity in a stand. Mature seed in the crowns of

such pine will eventually help regenerate the forest, even after fire.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 15

through the strongly competitive stem exclusion period. A

low-intensity ground fire would have a similar beneficial

effect within the stand.

West-6: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire, August 23,

1967—Both West-6 and South-13 were uncut and burned

by the summer wildfire. The afternoon crown fire in South13 killed all the trees in the surrounding area, whereas the

evening ground fire in West-6 left much of the surrounding

area unburned or lightly burned. Not all of the trees in

West-6 were killed, which left a seed source. In contrast, on

South-13, in the first year after fire, most conifers established from surviving seeds in the fire-killed tree crowns. In

addition to seed from the fire-killed and surviving trees,

West-6 received seed from nearby offsite seed sources and

is developing a more complex overstory structure than

South-13. By 1989, western larch density was 20 times

greater on West-6 than on South-13, and total tree density

was four times greater.

West-7: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned by Wildfire,

August 23, 1967—West-7 experienced more intense wildfire than the other west units. Unthinned areas are dense

with western larch. A planting trial in this unit (as well as

West-1 and East-3) helped scientists study the height

growth of planted trees of three species versus height

growth of natural regeneration. Natural regeneration on

this warmer site is outgrowing planted trees, in contrast to

East-3 where the natural regeneration is not doing as well.

Crews installed permanent growth plots in 1990. The plots

are adjacent to the trail. Most of the species in the original

stand reappeared soon after the disturbance; however, Pacific yew, a shade-tolerant species present in the original

stand, has not reappeared in the subsequent three decades.

Vertical forest structure—the

layering of herbs, shrubs, and

tree canopies—contributes to

the diversity of a forest.

Variable tree canopies permit

diversification of life forms in

the understory.
16 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

The Future at Miller Creek__________________

• Integration of research and management

• Education

• Public Information

Miller Creek Demonstration Forest offers an unusual opportunity to apply research results in ecosystem management. Study sites such as Miller Creek provide long-term

information about the cause and effect relationships of forest development. Most studies of vegetation change use

study sites in the same vegetation type but at different ages

Thinning left the best of each species on the permanent plots. Removing shrubs

reduced competition.

Researcher Peter Stickney and

volunteer Mary Sloan collect

data on a vegetation

development transect.

in different places, and differences in forest structure and

composition are assumed to be due to time. But long-term

studies at Miller Creek show that vegetation development

differs in many ways as a result of stand history alone.

An imposing task: Managing our forests to preserve

ecological integrity, diversity, and productivity for

future generations. Information from research at Miller

Creek will assist foresters here—and worldwide—in making more informed decisions to meet the objectives of ecosystem management.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 17

Glossary _________________________________

Advanced regeneration—Inconspicuous, pre-existing but

suppressed understory tree regeneration with the potential to release and grow when suppression factors

are removed

Aspect—The direction a slope faces, such as north or east

Broadcast burn—A silvicultural treatment where the

slash is scattered over the area, and then burned to reduce the fuel load and prepare the site for regeneration

Clearcutting—A method of regenerating a stand with a

single age class, or cohort of trees develops in a fully

exposed microclimate after removal of all trees in the

previous stand in a single cutting

Climax plant community—The culminating stage in

theory of plant or forest succession. This community

theoretically develops and perpetuates itself in the absence of disturbance

Cohort—A group of trees arising after a single disturbance

Colonizer—A seedling plant germinating after disturbance

Duff—Decomposing organic matter on top of mineral soil

Forest structure—Abundance and distribution of species

in addition to horizontal location and vertical layering

Fuels—Plant material on a site capable of carrying a fire

Germination—The initial growth and development of a

plant from a seed, bud, or spore

Growing space—All the resources needed by a tree or

other plant to exist on a site

Herb—An understory plant such as wildflowers or grasses

without a woody stem

Induced edge—Transition zone between two ecosystems,

artificially produced; such as the boundary between a

clearcut and mature forest

Off-site seed source—Seed from plants outside the area

of disturbance. May imply seed from plants not genetically adapted to site

Old growth, old forest—A structural condition or stage of

stand development that is usually characterized by

large, old trees, and structural diversity. May also be

characterized by the absence of disturbance. However,

for many forest types (such as ponderosa pine or western larch), disturbance is prerequisite to maintaining

old forest features

On-site seed source—Seed within the area of disturbance

and present at the time of disturbance

Pioneer species—Rapidly growing species adapted to invade open environments
18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Prescribed fire (burn)—The application of humancontrolled fire to wildland fuels in a predetermined

area to achieve resource management objectives

Regeneration—Seedlings or saplings in stand; or the act

of establishing young trees naturally or artificially

Seedfall—Seed deposited naturally on a site either from

existing trees or surrounding trees

Silviculture—The art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of

forests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs and

values of landowners and society on a sustainable basis

Slash(ing)—Removal of noncommercial trees on a site,

generally within some diameter limit

Stand—A spatially continuous group of trees similar in

species composition and structure

Stand initiation—A stage or process during stand development when trees and shrubs invade a site following

a disturbance and reoccupy the growing space

Stand structure—The distribution of trees and their

crowns in a stand

Stem—A tree trunk (supporting tissue for a plant)

Stem exclusion—A stage or process during stand development when new seedlings are excluded from development by a pre-existing cohort of trees or shrubs

Survivor—A plant subjected to but not killed by a

disturbance

Understory reinitiation—A stage or process during

stand development

Weeding—Shrub and small tree removal to reduce

competition

Windrowing—The movement of logging slash into long

rows that are usually burned; slash burning with behavior fuel concentrations usually creates hotter more

severe fires than prescribed burns

Background Reading ______________________

Arno, S. F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465.

Davis, K. M.; Clayton B. D.; Fischer, W. C. 1980. Fire ecology of Lolo National

Forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-79. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station: 77 p.

DeByle, N. V. 1981. Clearcutting and fire in the larch/Douglas-fir forests of

western Montana - a multifaceted research summary. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT99. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 73 p.

Habeck, J. R.; Mutch, R. W. 1973. Fire-dependent forests in the Northern Rocky

Mountains. Journal of Quarternary Research. 3(3): 408-424.

Hunter, M. L. 1990. Wildlife, forests, and forestry: principles of managing forests for biological diversity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 370 p.

Johnson, C. G., Jr.; Clausnitzer, R. R.; Mehringer, P. J.; Oliver, C. D. 1994. Biotic and abiotic processes of eastside ecosystems: the effects of management

on plant and community ecology, and on stand and landscape vegetation dynamics. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-322. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p.

Kay, C. E. 1995. Aboriginal overkill and native burning: implications for modern ecosystem management. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 10(4):

121-126.

Knudsen, G. M.; Arno, S. F.; Habeck, J. R.; Blake, G. M. 1968. Natural distribution of western larch and subalpine larch. Res. Note 7. Missoula, MT: Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 2 p.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998 19

Noble, I. R.; Slatyer, R. O. 1977. Post-fire succession of plants in Mediterranean

ecosystems. In: Proceedings of the symposium on environmental consequences of fire and fuel management in Mediterranean ecosystems; 1977

August 1-5; Palo Alto, CA: 27-36.

O’Hara, K. L.; Oliver, C. D. 1992. Silviculture: achieving new objectives through

stand and landscape management. Western Wildlands. Winter: 28-33.

O’Hara, K. L.; Latham, P. A.; Hessburg, P.; Smith, B. G. 1996. A structural

classification for inland northwest forest vegetation. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 11(3): 97-102.

Oliver, C. D.; Larson, B. C. 1990. Forest stand dynamics. McGraw-Hill, Inc.

467 p.

Robinson, E. A. 1942. “Tristram”, the collected poems of Edwin Arlington

Robinson. New York, NY: The MacMillan Company. 1498 p.

Schmidt, W. C.; Shearer, R. C.; Roe, A. L. 1976. Ecology and silviculture of

western larch forests. Tech. Bull. 1520. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 96 p.

Shearer, R. C. 1976. Early establishment of conifers following prescribed broadcast burning in western larch/Douglas-fir forests. Proceedings, tall timbers

fire ecology conference. 4: 481-500.

Shearer, R. C. 1984. Effects of prescribed burning and wildfire on regeneration

in a larch forest in northwest Montana. In: New forests for a changing world:

Proceedings of the 1983 convention of the Society of American Foresters;

1983 October 16-20; Portland, OR: 266-270.

Shearer, R. C.; Stickney, P. F. 1991. Natural revegetation of burned and unburned clearcuts in western larch forests of northwest Montana. In: Nodvin,

S. C.; Waldrop, T. A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural

perspectives: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20-24;

Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 429 p.

Shearer, R. C.; Stickney, P. F.; VanDenburg, J. H.; Wirt, R. S. 1994. A longterm management and research partnership facilitates ecosystem management opportunities in a Montana western larch forest. In: Foley, L. H., comp.

Silviculture: from the cradle of forestry to ecosystem management: Proceedings of the national silviculture workshop; 1993 November 1-4; Hendersonville,

NC. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-88. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 258 p.

Stickney, P. F. 1980. Data base for post-fire succession, first 6 to 9 years, in

Montana larch-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-62. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 133 p.

On July 16, 1987, current and retired

personnel of the Intermountain

Research Station (now called the

Rocky Mountain Research Station)

associated with the Miller Creek study

area conducted a field workshop.

They are shown on Council Rock,

from left to right: Norbert V. DeByle,

Paul E. Packer, Robert G. Hammer,

William R. Beaufait, Peter F. Stickney,

Curtis H. Halvorson, Rodney A. Norum,

Raymond C. Shearer, Carter B. Gibbs,

Wyman C. Schmidt, Alan E. Harvey,

L. Jack Lyon, and Charles E. Hardey.
You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your mailing information in label form

through one of the following media. Please specify the publication title and General Technical Report

number.

Ogden Service Center Fort Collins Service Center

Telephone (801) 625-5437 (970) 498-1719

FAX (801) 625-5129, Attn: Publications (970) 498-1660

E-mail pubs/rmrs_ogden@fs.fed.us rschneider/rmrs@fs.fed.us

Web site http://www.xmission.com/~rmrs http://www.xmission.com/~rmrs

Mailing Address Publications Distribution Publications Distribution

Rocky Mountain Research Station Rocky Mountain Research Station

324 25th Street 3825 E. Mulberry Street

Ogden, UT 84401 Fort Collins, CO 80524

Federal Recycling Program Printed on Recycled Paper

Latham, Penelope A.; Shearer, Raymond C.; O’Hara, Kevin L. 1998. Miller Creek Demonstration Forest—a forest born of fire: a field guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research

Station. 68 p. (book + 2 supplements and 2 posters).

Miller Creek, on the Flathead National Forest in northwest Montana, is a demonstration

forest, showing up to 30 years of forest change after clearcutting and a wide range of fire

treatments in 1967 and 1968. Differences in tree regeneration and vegetation development are explained for units that were clearcut and prescribed burned, clearcut and

burned by wildfire, clearcut and unburned, and uncut and burned by wildfire. This guide

discusses these changes, and visitors can see them as they walk the trails within the

Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.

Keywords: clearcut, prescribed fire, wildfire, natural regeneration, vegetation succession,

habitat type, stand structure, western larch, lodgepole pine
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race,

color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or familial status. (Not

all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice

and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and

Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity

provider and employer.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION

RMRS

The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information and technology to improve management, protection, and use of the forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs of

National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals.

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, range, forests, water, recreation, fire,

resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology, multiple

use economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications may be found worldwide.

Research Locations

Flagstaff, Arizona Reno, Nevada

Fort Collins, Colorado* Albuquerque, New Mexico

Boise, Idaho Rapid City, South Dakota

Moscow, Idaho Logan, Utah

Bozeman, Montana Ogden, Utah

Missoula, Montana Provo, Utah

Lincoln, Nebraska Laramie, Wyoming

*Station Headquarters, 240 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526
Advice to a Knight of the Round Table

Whether you will or not

You are a King, Tristram, for you are one

Of the time-tested few that leave the world,

When they are gone, not the same place it was.

Mark what you leave.

 -Robinson 1942, Tristram