Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 146 Series { *>

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIKECTOK

PROCEEDINGS

SECOND CONFERENCE OF ENGINEERS OF THE 

RECLAMATION SERVICE

WITH ACCOMPANYING PAPERS

COMPILED BY

F. H.

CHIEF ENGINEER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1905

CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal..._. ........._......-----_-----.-...-..-----.--_--- 5 4

Organization ._........._...__..._..._......._-._...-.-.....---.--------- 7

Hydrographic branch ................................................ 7

Division of hydrography ...... _.....--..._-.--..-.---._-.-_----- 7

Division of hydrology -.......-...--_--.-_-..-_--_---------------. 7

Division of hydro-economics..........--.....---..----------_.---. 8

Reclamation Service _____.._.____.__.--._.--_-_-----.----_-----.---.. 8

Executive and consulting staff.......---....--_------.-----.-.---. 8

District engineering force.__--.._.-.-._._.----------.---._-----_. 9

Accounts and property..__-.-_.--.. ----------_.-----.----_-.---.-_--- 11

Report of the conference............-....----.-.-.-.----.------_--------. 12

Attendance at El Paso conference ......---..----.------.-----_.----.. 12

Minutes of El Paso conference^ _.--....-----.---_---.-.-----.-_---_--. 12

Minutes of Washington conference-...-------.-..--.-_--.-.---.---_-- 13

Address by chief engineer, ........................................... 20

Purpose of meeting .........-....._---.------_---.-_-_----.-----. 20

Personnel of Service --..._-----..--..------_---_..---------------. 22

Subsistence ^..................................................... 24

Papers read at the conference ...._....____...............------.----__--. 29

Proposed State code of water laws, by Morris Bien__......--.-.----... 29*~ A-*

Hydrographic investigations in Nevada, by A. E. Chandler............ 34 ^ 0

Power engineering applied to irrigation problems, by O. H. Ensign..... 37 "£*

Estimates on tunneling in irrigation projects, by A. L. Fellows-.--.--. 42 &*

Reports and accounts, by A. L. Fellows .--..------_--..----------_-.- 49

Pumping underground water in southern California, by F. C. Finkle..... 56 f/

Collection of stream-gaging data, by N. C. Grover......_---.-----.-.. 72 ^

Rio Grande project, by B. M. Hall ....................... ........... 75 <%

Diamond-drill methods, by G. A. Hammond......._....-.--.---.-.... 78 <^

Mean-velocity and area curves, by F. W. Hanna --_-..---.-.----...--. 80 **->

Importance of general hydrographic data concerning basins of streams

gaged, by R. E. Horton.... ............................_.......,... 87 ^

Effect of aquatic vegetation on stream flow, by R. E. Horton .---.--._ 89 ^

Sanitary regulations governing construction camps, by M. O. Leighton. 90

Klamath project, by J. B. Lippincott. _..---_-----.------.----------.-. 95 .

Training assistants in office and field, by G. H. Matthes.-.-_.._-_.-.-. 102

Necessity of draining irrigated land, by Thos. H. Means .--.....--.... 106

Alkali soils, by Thos. H. Means ..............^....................... 108

Underground waters of southern California, by W. C. MendenhalL.... 113

Cost of stream-gaging work, by E. C. Murphy ........................ 121

Equipment of a cable gaging station, by E. C. Murphy ---..._.-.....- 124 i

Silting of reservoirs, by W. M. Reed ..----.._.-.-....-------------.-- 126 <

Farm-unit classification, by D. W. Ross ..-.......-.-.------..-.--.--- 128

3
4 CONTENTS.

Papers read at the conference Continued. Page.

f Cost of power for pumping irrigating water, by H. A. Storrs._........ ^ 131

Irrigation development in North Dakota, by H. A. Storrs ............. 139

Records of flow at current-meter gaging stations during the frozen

season, by F. H. Tillinghast._ _____.__-.---_._. -...-...-......-.... 141

Bookkeeping for Reclamation Service, by N. E. Webster, jr........... 148

A Government account, by N. E. Webster, jr ........................ 154

Committee reports..-----.--_-........-.--_..-.--...-----_--._.......-... 160

Cement and concrete-................_...........-.---......._....... 160

Costs and results -.... --............-.---.-..-...----.-.-..._....-.. 162

Duty of water, alkali, and drainage -._.--.---.-.-..-...--.---.-..-... 173

Organization ...... _-_--____.._.___--_-_-._.---__. .................... 177

Power and pumping -............._..-...... ......--.........._....... 179

Reconnaissance and surveys.'........---..--..----...--..---..--..---. 187

Standard plans and specifications.-.--..---.---.-__----.-.--.._....... 189

Stream measurements -______________-_-____-_______...-________,___. 206

Water laws and forms of water users' associations -.------.-.......... 211

Circulars.---.-.--.---.-_-... --.-_---___-.-.----.--.-.--..--........-... 216

Railroad transportation rates......---....--..-.-----.--.-......_.-... 216

Transportation agent ---_--...._..._-.--.--_-.-...---................ 217

Land and legal matters __..___________...._._.__..-___......_._..... 218

Rights of way for canals and ditches.-.....--...--_-.--..-...--....-.. 221

Appropriations of water..._____....................................... 222

Information concerning lands under reclamation projects ._.______.___ 225

Contractors' bonds._------.---....'..---.._-. ... ..--..--..-........... 226

Liability to subcontractors .........-...--..-...-...--.--............. 226

Extension of time on contracts _.._-_____._--...-.;.--._--_-..-_..---- 227

Payment for extra work....................._......................._ 227

Rent of offices...............................\........................ 227

Purchase of army stores.........................._........_.......... 228

Reports on opening bids ..........^................................... 229

Standard progress report colors.....-----.--....-..---.----..-.-.-.--. 230

Instructions for leveling. ____.__._..__-_-._-__.__._---____.......-.._ 230

Correspondence...._..... .... .................._............,....._.. 232

Dismissal of employees before end of "probation period ._.-_._-__..---. 233

Holding other offices forbidden..-.._.----.-....--.---._-.--_---..---. 233

Private employment forbidden -.--...-----.---..-.------..--...-..--.- 235

Fees for oaths..... .................-....._......._-..--..-.........-- 235

Fossil beds and specimens..........---...-.-.-..----.-...--.-.....--. 237

Status of Reclamation Service..........-.---..--_---:..-..---.------. 237

Personnel of the Reclamation Service ...-.---.-..-...---------.-..-_.-_-- 238

Technical papers.---..-,.-...-.........-.-.....--..----.--.-...--..-.--.. 256

Index ................................................................... 263
LETTER OF TKANSMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT or THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, D. C., April 86, 1905.

SIR: I transmit herewith a manuscript relating to the conference, 

of the engineers of the Reclamation Service held at El Paso, Tex., 

November 14 to 18, 1904, and adjourned to Washington, D. C., where 

the conference was continued from January 9 to 14, 1905.

This second conference was in continuation of the general policy 

of holding annually a meeting of the principal engineers of the 

Reclamation Service, largely for the purpose of discussing matters 

of administration and economies of work. The first conference was 

held at Ogden, Utah, September 15 to 18, 1903, in connection with the 

Eleventh Irrigation Congress, held at that time and place. The first 

session of the second conference was held at the time of the meeting 

of the Twelfth Irrigation Congress, at El Paso, Tex., at which place 

were gathered citizens representing all of the Western States and 

Territories interested in the development of irrigation. The bringing together at El Paso of the principal engineers of the Reclamation 

Service and of prominent citizens from the West made possible an 

interchange of views and a discussion of data leading to results of 

very great value in the furtherance of the purposes of the reclamation 

act.

At El Paso the engineers took part in the proceedings of the engineering section of the Irrigation Congress, and also held meetings of 

a more or less executive character to consider and make recommendations concerning important details of the work. Various conditions 

were pointed out and discussed; methods of expediting and economizing the various operations were presented; and engineers from 

various sections of the country compared experiences and exchanged 

views regarding matters of common interest.

The conference adjourned to meet in Washington in January, in 

order to allow opportunity for other engineers to take part in the 

discussions and to give additional time for consideration of important 

details. At the adjourned meeting in Washington a number of

5
6 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

prominent public men met the engineers and exchanged views concerning matters in various States. A partial stenographic report was 

made of the various meetings, and short papers were submitted, some 

being read by title and others presented in full and discussed. This 

material is of great value to the men who are working on similar 

lines. The printed report of the proceedings of the first conference, 

that at Ogden, has been distributed as Water-Supply and Irrigation 

Paper No. 93, and has been found to be of great assistance to the 

various men engaged in reclamation work. I recommend, therefore, 

that the second report be printed as a water-supply and irrigation 

paper, in order that it may be convenient for reference.

Very respectfully,

F. H. NEWELL,

Chief Engineer. 

Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,

Director United States Geological Purvey.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECOND CONFERENCE OF ENGINEERS 

OF RECLAMATION SERVICE,

AT EL PASO, TEX., NOVEMBER 14-18, 1904, AND WASHINGTON, D. C.,

JANUARY 9-14, 1905.

ORGANIZATION.

The following schedule exhibits the organization of the hydrographic branch of the United States Geological Survey and of the 

Reclamation Service:

HYDROGRAPHIC BRANCH. 

DIVISION OF HYDROGRAPHY.

Washington office. N. C. Grover, engineer, hydrographer in charge, assisted 

by A. H. Horton, engineer; J. C. Hoyt, engineer in charge of computations, 

assisted by Robert Follansbee and Roy H. Bolster, assistant engineers, George 

F. Harley, engineering aid, and others; E. C. Murphy, engineer, inspector of 

hydrographic methods; E. G. Paul, engineer in charge of instruments.

~New England. II. K. Barrows, engineer, G Beacon street, Boston, Mass., 

hydrographer in charge, assisted by F. E. Pressey, assistant engineer.

New York. Robert E. Horton, hydrographer, 75 Arcade, Utica, N. Y., hydrog-' 

rapher in charge, assisted by Clermont C. Covert, assistant engineer.

Southeastern States. Maxcy R. Hall, resident hydrographer, Temple court, 

Atlanta, Ga., assisted by J. M. Giles, assistant engineer, Warren E. Hall, engineering aid, and others. *

Central States. Frank W. Hanna, assistant engineer, 268 Dearborn street, 

Chicago, 111., hydrographer in charge, assisted by Sidney K. Clapp and Robert 

W. Pratt, assistant engineers.

Texas. Thomas U. Taylor, resident hydrographer, Austin, Tex.

DIVISION OF HYDROLOGY.

Eastern section. M. L. Fuller, Washington, D. C., geologist in charge, assisted 

by Isaiah Bowman, E. F. Lines, and E. E. Ellis, geologic aids, and others.

Western section. N. H. Darton, Washington, D. C., geologist in charge, 

assisted by W. C. Mendenhall, geologist; George B. Richardson, Willis T. Lee, 

Cassius A. Fisher, and Claude E. Siebeuthal, assistant geologists, and others.

7
8 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146. 

DIVISION OF HYDRO-ECONOMICS.

Marshall O. Leighton, Washington, D. C., hydrographer In charge, assisted by 

Horatio N. Parker, assistant hydrographer; Richard B. Dole and Samuel J. 

Lewis, assistant engineers; Herman Stabler, engineering aid; and Sheldon K. 

Baker, hydrographic aid, and others.

RECLAMATION SERVICE.

Created by law on June 17, 1902, authorizing the survey and construction of 

irrigation works for reclaiming arid lands in Arizona, California, Colorado, 

Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming from the proceeds 

arising from the sale and disposal of public lands.o Under the hydrographic 

branch, but distinct and separate from that body.

Hon. E. A. Hitchcock, Secretary of the Interior; approves all matters and 

signs all contracts.

Charles D. Walcott, Director of the Geological Survey and of the Reclamation 

Service; initiates action and reports to the Secretary.

Carl Ewald Grunsky, consulting engineer in the Reclamation Service.

EXECUTIVE AND CONSULTING STAFF.

F. H. Newell, chief engineer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Arthur P. Davis, assistant chief engineer, Washington, D. C.

George Y. Wisner, consulting engineer, 34 West Congress street, Detroit, Mich.

J. B. Lippincott, supervising engineer, Braly Building, Los Angeles, Cal.

J. H. Quinton, supervising engineer, Montrose, Colo.

W. H. Sanders, consulting engineer, 915 Grand View avenue, Los Angeles, Cal.

H. N. Savage, supervising engineer, Billings, Mont.

D. C. Henny, supervising engineer, Portland, Oreg.

Charles H. Fitch, supervising engineer, Denver, Colo.

O. H. Ensign, consulting engineer and electrical expert for Pacific coast, 437 

South Cummings street, Los Angeles, Cal.

H. A. Storrs, electrical and mechanical expert for Atlantic slope, Chamber of 

Commerce Building, Denver, Colo.

Morris Bien, supervising engineer (on land and legal matters), Washington, 

D. C., assisted by J. M. McKinney, examiner, E. H. Peery, law clerk, H. L. Hoigate, C. A. Mansuy, and O. G. Cowhick, assistant examiners, and others.

L. H. Taylor, supervising engineer, Hazen, Nev.

Charles E. Wells, supervising engineer, Casper, Wyo.

Charles S. Slichter, consulting engineer, Madison, Wis.

A. J. Wiley, consulting engineer, Boise, Idaho.

T. H. Means, engineer of soils, Salt Lake City, Utah.

B. M. Hall, consulting engineer. El Paso, Tex.

N. H. Darton, geologist, Washington, D. C.

E. T. Perkins, engineer and traveling auditor, Braly Building, Los Angeles, 

Cal.

George A. Harnrnond, superintendent of borings, Salt Lake City, Utah.

E. G. Paul, engineer in charge of instruments, Washington, D. C.

C. J. Blanchard, statistician, Washington, D. C.

N. E. Webster, jr., accountant, Washington, D. C.

0 Extended to Texas by act of February 25, 1905.
NEWELL.] ORGANIZATION OP RECLAMATION SERVICE. 9

DISTRICT ENGINEERING FORCE.

Arizona. Louis O. Hill, supervising engineer in charge, Phoenix, Ariz. 

Chester W. Smith, constructing engineer, Salt River project, Roosevelt, Ariz. 

Assistants: E. Duryee, cement expert; B. R. Harrison, tunnel expert; F. Teichman, designing engineer; Robert De Large, construction foreman; J. D. Stannard, A. L. Harris, O. T. Reedy, A. M. Sprigg, H. G. Stokes, Hugh Redmond, 

and W. A. Farish, assistant engineers; A. H. Demrick, electrician; O. L. McIntyre, engineering aid, and others.

California. J. B. Lippincott, supervising engineer in charge of operations 

in California and adjacent areas, 1108 Braly Building, Los Angeles. Assistants: 

D. W. Murphy and Richard Doerfling, engineers; J. R. Prince, draftsman; J. W. 

Spencer, disbursing agent; C. H. H. Stone, assistant analyst, and others. Homer 

Hamlin, engineer in charge of Colorado River project, Yuma, Ariz. Assistants: 

J. C. Clausen, engineer; Paul McGeehan, R. S. Hawley, L. M. Lawson, and M. D. 

Williams, assistant engineers; J. C. Avakian, draftsman; L. B. Brainard, A. C. 

Hansen, W. D. Smith, Edward Riesbol, and T. J. Strickler, engineering aids, 

and others. S. G. Bennett, engineer in charge of Sacramento Valley investigations, 431 Rialto Building, San Francisco. Assistant: Edward Johnson, jr., 

engineer. W. B. Clapp, assistant engineer in charge of California hydrography, 

431 Rialto Building, San Francisco. Assistants: Eugene C. La Rue, O. W. 

Peterson, and R. J. Taylor, engineering aids, and others. T. H. Humpherys, 

assistant engineer in charge of Klamath investigations. Assistants: F. W. 

Huber, assistant engineer, and others.

Colorado. J. H. Quinton, supervising engineer, Montrose, Colo. C. H. Fitch, 

Chamber of Commerce Building, Denver; G. H. Matthes, engineer; C. R. Steiner, 

assistant engineer; J. C. Gawler, disbursing agent; L. F. Kinslow, topographic 

draftsman; T. E. Brick and Mrs. J. K. Gawler, clerks. I. W. McConnell, engineer in charge of Unconipahgre Valley project, Montrose; J. A. Sargent and C. T. 

Pease, engineers; E. E. Sands, H. A. Howe, J. L. Lytel, J. T. Keenan, J. M. 

Roberts, and J. H. Miner, assistant engineers; J. O. Ambler, engineering aid; 

H. E. Essley, and R. E. Furstenfeld, bookkeepers. M. C. Hinderlider, engineer, 

Denver, in charge of hydrography in Colorado and adjacent States, and in charge 

of La Plata Valley project; R. I Meeker, and Oro McDermith, engineering aids.

Idaho. D. W. Ross, engineer in charge, Boise. Frank C. Horn, constructing 

engineer, Minidoka project, Minidoka. Assistants: D. G. Martin, engineer; 

J. L. Savage, Charles B. Smith, Gilbert H. Hogue, Fred Stockton, and J. T. 

Burke, assistant engineers; R. M. Conner, Leon L. Gay, Ernest A. Bailey, Robert J. Newell, engineering aids, and others.

Kansas. Charles H. Fitch, supervising engineer, Washington, D. C. Charles 

S. Slichter, consulting engineer; W. G. Russell, hydrographer, Russell, Kans.

Montana. H. N. Savage, supervising engineer, Billings, Mont. C. C. Babb, 

engineer in charge of operations connected with the Milk River project. 

Assistants: L. E. Granke, engineer; C. T. Prall, A. E. Place, and L. R. Stockman, assistant engineers; W. B. Freeman, engineering aid, and others. R. S. 

Stockton, engineer in charge of Crow Reservation surveys. Assistants: George 

E. Stratton and Ernest D. Hendricks, assistant engineers; L. M. Hatch and J. S. 

Swan, engineering aids, and others. William E. Swift, engineer in charge of 

Huntley project. Assistants: H. R. Evans, assistant engineer, and others. 

S. B. Robbins, engineer in charge of Sun River project, Great Falls, Mont. 

Assistants: F. F. Prendergast, assistant engineer; W. R. Ewing, Gordon Edson, 

and A. P. Porter, engineering aids, and others.

Nebraska. C. E. Wells, supervising engineer, Casper, Wyo. John E. Field,
10 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

engineer in charge of operations in western Nebraska, Chamber of Commerce 

Building, Denver, Colo. Assistants: Andrew Weiss, B.. E. Hayden, and J. D. 

Stannard, assistant engineers; P. D. Sinipson, W. L. Gorton, B. C. Woodward, 

and Sam G. Porter, engineering aids; James Dopson, drillman, and others.

Nevada. L. H. Taylor, supervising engineer in charge of operations in Nevada, Hazeu, Nev. Assistants: William Sargeant, A. V. Saph, and Ferd. Bonstedt, engineers; L. M. Holt, assistant engineer; B. B. Smith, engineering aid; 

C. F. Carpenter, messenger, and others in Hazen office. R. R. McGregor, engineer, and B. B. Forbes, assistant engineer, in charge of construction of divisions 

1 and 2 of Truckee canal. Assistants: I. W. Huff aker, assistant engineer; 

A. H. Schadler, engineering aid, and others. W. S. Russell, engineer in charge 

of location and construction of lateral canals in Carson Sink Valley. Assistants : D. W. Hays, C. V. Taylor, W. A. Keddie, H. T. Paterson, A. C. Redman, 

C. H. Southworth, and Walter N. Frickstad, assistant engineers, and others. 

F. A. Temple, engineer in charge of location of Alkali Flat reservoir supply canal 

and outlet. Henry Thurtell, State engineer, in charge of hydrography. Assistant : B. B. Corlett, engineering aid. J. C. Coniff, field assistant in charge of topographic survey of irrigable lands. Assistants: A. T. Philips, M. Hayes, and 

others.

New Mexico. B. M. Hall, supervising engineer, Carlsbad, N. Mex. Assistant : 

J. L. Rhead, assistant engineer. W. M. Reed, engineer, Roswell, N. Mex., in 

charge of operations connected with the Hondo project. Assistants: E. W. 

Myers, assistant engineer; H. L. Eames and F. S. Dobson, engineering aids, 

and others. M. C. Hinderlider, engineer in charge of La Plata Valley project, 

Chamber of Commerce Building, Denver, Colo.

North Dakota. H. N. Savage, supervising engineer, Billings, Mont. F. B. 

Weymouth, engineer in charge of Fort Buford project. Assistants: Charles H. 

Paul and B. C. Bebb, engineers; J. N. Kerr, C. K. Hosford, and H. S. Morse, 

assistant engineers, aiid others. H. A. Storrs, electrical engineer, Chamber of 

Commerce Building, Denver, Colo., in charge of pumping from Missouri River. 

Assistant: P. M. Churchill, assistant engineer. J. A. French, assistant engineer, 

in charge of surveys near Bismarck, N. Dak. E. F. Chandler, assistant engineer, University of North Dakota, in charge of hydrography.

Oklahoma. James G. Camp and W. W. Schlecht, assistant engineers on 

reconnaissance surveys, under B. M. Hall, supervising engineer, Carlsbad, N. 

Mex.; Charles B. Gordon, Lawton, Okla., assistant engineer in charge of operations under town-lot fund; G. L. Warner, assistant engineer; L. B. Johnson, 

engineering aid.

Oregon. D. C. Henny, supervising engineer. John T. Whistler, district engineer, Pendleton, Oreg., in charge of operations. Assistants: J. H. Lewis, Herbert D. Newell, I. S. Voorhees, Edmund I. Davis, and W. C. Sawyer, assistant 

engineers; G. Stubblefield, R. S. Hall, W. R. Saxton, and H. S. Williams, engineering aids; N. S. Hamilton, draftsman, and others.

South Dakota. Charles H. Fitch, supervising engineer, Denver, Colo. Raymond F. Walter, engineer in charge of Belle Fourche project, Belle Fourche, 

S. Dak. Assistants: H. B. Green, engineer; Frank C. Magruder and Francis 

M. Madden, assistant engineers; H. D. Comstock, engineering aid, and others.

Utah. J. H. Quinton, supervising engineer, Montrose, Colo. George L. Swendsen, district engineer, P. O. Box " S," Salt Lake City. Assistants: W. D. Beers, 

W. P. Hardesty, and Caleb Tanner, assistant engineers; H. W. Sheley, L. L. 

Hunter, H. S. Kleinschmidt, W. T. Carpenter, T. C. Callister, W. J. Spalding, and 

W. G. Sweudsen, engineering aids, and others.
NEWELL.j ORGANIZATION OF RECLAMATION SERVICE. 11

Washington. D. C. Henny, supervising engineer. " T. A. Noble, engineer in 

charge, Yakima project, North Yakima, Wash. Assistants: Christian Anderson, 

engineer; L. J. Charles, F. H. Tillinghast, Charles E. Hewitt, George H. Bliss, 

assistant engineers; C. C. Fisher, Charles B. Cox, O. Laurgaard, and Calvin 

Casteel, engineering aids, and others.

Wyoming. H. N. Savage, supervising engineer for northern portion, Billings, 

Mont. Jeremiah Ahern, district engineer, Cody, Wyo., in charge of Shoshone 

project. Assistants : C. P. Williams, designing engineer; D. W. Cole, engineer; 

W. E. Young, H. J. Saunders, E. S. Ela, and E. F. Tabor, assistant engineers; 

A. C. Downey, R. S. Sargent, and Carroll Paul, engineering aids, and others. 

Charles E. Wells, supervising engineer for southern portion. E. H. Baldwin, 

constructing engineer in charge of Pathfinder reservoir. Assistants: L. V. 

Branch, assistant engineer, and others.

ACCOUNTS AND PROPERTY.

The hydrographers and engineers named in the following list are authorized 

to certify accounts for approval by the chief engineer, and are responsible to the 

chief engineer for the property purchased in the field:

, DIVISION OF HYDROGRAPHY.

Eastern section. N. C. Grover, R. E. Horton, H. K. Barrows, E. G. Paul, M. R. 

Hall, and F. W. Hanna.

DIVISION OF HYDROLOGY.

Eastern section. M. L. Fuller. 

Western section. N. H. Darton.

DIVISION OF HYDRO-ECONOMICS. 

M. O. Leighton.

RECLAMATION SERVICE AND WESTERN SECTION OF HYDROGRAPHY.

Arizona. Louis C. Hill.

California. J. B. Lippincott.

Colorado. J. H. Quinton.

Idaho. D. W. Ross.

Kansas. Charles H. Fitch.

Montana. H. N. Savage.

Nebraska. John E. Field.

Nevada. L. H. Taylor.

New Mexico. B. M. Hall.

North Dakota. H. N. Savage.

Oklahoma. Gerard H. Matthes.

Oregon. John T. Whistler.

South Dakota. Charles H. Fitch.

Utah. George L. Swendsen.

Washington. Theron A. Noble.

Wyoming. H. N. Savage, northern portion; J. H. Quinton, southern portion.
REPORT OF THE CONFERENCE.

ATTENDANCE AT EL PASO CONFERENCE.

The following members of the Reclamation Service were present 

at the conference at El Paso, November 14 to 18, 1904:

Bien, Morris, engineer and legal ad- Matthes, G. H., engineer.

viser. Means, Thomas H., engineer of soils.

Chandler, A. E., State engineer for Mendenhall, W. C., geologist.

Nevada. Newell, F. H., chief engineer.

Chandler, Elwyn F., State engineer for Perkins, E. T., engineer.

North Dakota. Reed, W. M., engineer.

Darton, N. H., geologist. Ithead, J. L., assistant geologist.

Fellows, A. L., district engineer. Savage, H. N., supervising engineer.

Hall, B. M., supervising engineer. Slichter, C. S., consulting engineer.

Hewitt, C. E., assistant engineer. Storrs, H. A., electrical engineer.

Lee, W. T., assistant geologist. Taylor, Thomas U,, hydrographer. 

Lippincott, J. 'B., supervising engineer.

Ill addition to these there were in attendance at several of the 

meetings the following: Gifford Pinchot, chief, and E. A. Sterling, 

assistant chief, Bureau of Forestry; C. W. Dorsey and J. G. Holmes, 

of Bureau of Soils, Department of Agriculture; Senator W. A. Clark, 

of Montana; Senator F. G. Newlands, of Nevada; Governor George 

C. Pardee, of California; Governor J. T. Morrisoii, of Idaho; Governor Ahuniada, of Jalisoo, Mexico; A. J. McCune, ex-State engineer of Colorado; M. K. H. Bakhati, engineer of the Nile, Egypt; 

F. C. Finkle, consulting engineer, and many other prominent persons.

MINUTES OF EL PASO CONFERENCE.

November 14- The engineers of the Reclamation Service convened 

at the Angelus Hotel, El Paso, Tex., at 8.30 a. m. A brief address 

was made by the chief engineer on the operations of the past year 

and plans for the future. Administrative details were discussed informally and a number of short papers presented.

In the afternoon the session was resumed and a delegation of citizens from Oklahoma was received and the prospects of early construction of reclamation projects in that Territory were discussed. 

A brief statement was made by Mr. M. K. H. Bakhati concerning 

12
NEWELL.] MINUTES OF EL PASO CONFERENCE. 13

irrigation in Egypt. In the evening a conference was held with 

Hon. Francis G. Newlands and with various delegates from the 

arid States.

November 15. A conference was held with Representatives Smith 

and Stephens of Texas, and the situation on the Rio Grande was 

discussed by B. M. Hall and Thomas U. Taylor. Adjournment was 

had to the general meeting o'f the Twelfth Irrigation Congress. At 

noon the engineers met Governor George C. Pardee, of California.

In the afternoon the engineers attended the general meeting of the 

Irrigation Congress, addresses being made by the chairmen of the 

various sections.

No vember 16. The engineers met in the county court room, various 

papers being presented and discussed. Among these were the following: Reclamation in the State of Washington, by H. N. Savage, 

supervising engineer; Construction Work in Oklahoma, by Gerard 

H. Matthes, district engineer; Underground Waters of Southern 

California, by W. C. Mendenhall, and discussion by F. C. Finkle; 

River Floods and Water Resources of North Dakota, by E. F. 

Chandler.

In the afternoon the session was resumed at 2 p. m., and a general 

discussion on a State irrigation code was opened by Morris Bien. 

This was followed by a paper on the Klamath project in Oregon and 

California, by J. B. Lippincott. A short address was given by 

Governor Ahumada, of Jalisco. In the evening delegations from 

New Mexico, Utah, and Arizona were received and the reclamation 

projects in each important locality were discussed.

November 17. A general public meeting was held in the large convention hall, papers being read by H. A. Storrs on Irrigation Development in North Dakota; by Thomas U. Taylor on Texas; and by 

Robert Gayol, of the City of Mexico. The principal discussion was 

on the paper by B. M. Hall on Water Storage on the Rio Grande. 

This was followed by a brief paper by Charles S. Slichter on the 

Underflow of the Rio Grande.

At the afternoon session papers were read by Thomas H. Means 

on the Necessity of Draining Irrigated Lands; by A. L. Fellows on 

Estimates of Tunnel Work; and by H. A. Storrs on Sources of Power 

for Pumping Plants.

The conference then adjourned to meet at Washington, D. C., at 

the call of the chief engineer.

MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.

The following are minutes of the various meetings held during the 

conference of the engineers of the Reclamation Service at Washington 

from January 2 to 14, 1905. The results will be found in the reports 

of the various committees (pp. 160-215).
14 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

January 2. Reception by the President at the White House.

January 3. General meeting of engineers and hydrographers at 

the Geological Survey Building. This meeting was for the purpose 

of organization and announcement of plans for the succeeding two 

weeks. The following members of the hydrographic branch were 

either present at that time or reported later in the conference:

Babb, Cyrus G., engineer. 

Baker, S. K., hydrographic aid. 

Barrows, H. K., engineer. 

Bien, Morris, engineer and legal adviser.

Blanchard, C. J., statistician. 

Bliss, George H., assistant engineer. 

Bolster, R. H., assistant engineer. 

Branch, L. V., assistant engineer. 

Burnham, W. W., hydrographic aid. 

Cass, F. H., traffic agent. 

Clapp, S. K., assistant engineer. 

Comstock, H. D., engineering aid. 

Covert, C. C., assistant engineer. 

Darton, N. H., geologist. 

Davis, A. P., assistant chief engineer. 

Eames, H. L., engineering aid. 

Fellows, A. L., engineer. 

Field, J. E., engineer. 

Fitch, O. H., engineer. 

Follansbee, R., assistant engineer. 

Fuller, M. L., geologist. 

Giles, J. M., assistant engineer. 

Grover, N. O., engineer. 

Hall, M. R., hydrographer. 

Hall, W. E., engineering aid. 

Hanna, F. W., assistant engineer. 

Harley, G. F., engineering aid. 

Hawley, R. W., assistant engineer. 

Hill, Louis C., supervising engineer. 

Horton, A. H., engineer. 

Horton, R. E., hydrographer. 

Hoyt, J. C., computer. 

Johnson, Edward, jr., engineer.

Kastl, A. E., engineer.

Leighton, M. O., hydrographer.

Lemenager, H. V., draftsman.

Lewis, S. J., assistant engineer.

Lippincott, J. B., supervising engineer.

McConnell, I. W., engineer.

Means, Thomas H., engineer of soils.

Morse, H. M., engineering aid.

Murphy, E. C., engineer.

Newell, F. H., chief engineer.

Noble, T. A., engineer.

Olberg, C. R., assistant engineer.

Parker, H. N., assistant hydrographer.

Paul, E. G., engineer.

Perkins, E. T., engineer.

Prall, C. T., engineer. <

Pressey, F. E., engineer.

Quinton, J. H., consulting engineer.

Richardson, G. B., assistant geologist.

Robbins, S. B., engineer.

Ross, D. W., engineer.

Sanders, W. H., consulting engineer.

Savage, H. N., supervising engineer.

Schlecht, W. W., assistant engineer.

Slichter, Chas S., consulting engineer.

Stabler, Herman, engineering aid.

Steward, W. G., assistant engineer.

Storrs, H. A., electrical engineer.

Taylor, L. H., engineer.

Taylor, Thos. U., hydrographer.

Tillinghast, F. H., assistant engineer.

Walter, R. F., engineer.

Webster, N. E., jr., accountant.

White, T. B., assistant engineer.

The chief engineer appointed the following committees:

Personnel and assignments. Davis, Fitch, Savage.

Water laws and forms of water users' associations. Bien, Ross, Chandler, 

Field, Noble. w

Duty of water, alkali, and drainage. Means, Sanders, Leighton, Slichter.

Methods of reconnaissance and survey. Savage, Wisner, Fitch, Noble, Lippincott

Standard plans and specifications. Quinton, Wisner, Davis, L. H. Taylor.

Costs and results. L. H. Taylor, Fellows, Webster, Olberg, McConnell, Paul.

Cement and concrete. Wisner, Duryee, Kastl, Eckel, Wells, McConnell.
NEWELL.] MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. 15

Electric power development and pumping. Ensign, Storrs, Sanders, L. H. 

Taylor, Horton.

Stream measurement*. Grover, Murphy, Hinderlider, T. U. Taylor, Horton.

Auditing. Fitch, Perkins, Paul.

Organization. Kastl, Wells, Lippincott, Ross, Walter, Sanders, Ensign, Quinton, McConnell.

Transportation. Davis, Bien, Storrs, Cass, Perkins.

Fiscal. Newell, Davis, Webster.

The chief engineer directed that the committees confer immediately 

and prepare reports to be presented to the conference, and finally 

come to conclusions and make definite recommendations with reference to the various features of the work which they were appointed 

to" consider.

During the remainder of the day the engineers attended the 

American Forest Congress.

January 4- The day was set apart for conferences of standing 

committees for consideration of the matters assigned and the methods 

of presenting the same to the general conference.

In the afternoon the section of costs and results took up the 

discussion of methods of preparing engineering estimates of the 

actual cost of work accomplished and the consideration of the details 

of the original records for the purpose of obtaining the facts. The 

report of this committee will be found on pages 162-173.

January 5. Mr. Asa Phillips, engineer of the District of Columbia sewage department, described the work which had been carried 

on in connection with the construction and maintenance of the trunk 

sewer for the city of Washington. Mr. Phillips exhibited detailed 

plans of the pumping station and discussed some of the interesting 

problems concerning the great w.ork. The subjects of cement and 

concrete construction and of pumping were also discussed, great 

interest being manifested in them.

A conference of the committee on water laws and forms of water 

users' associations was held, but was not concluded at the expiration 

of the period allotted.

A conference was held with Messrs. Person, Ray, and Swift, auditor and assistant auditors of the Department of the Interior. Mr. 

Person and associates explained the distinction made between suspensions and disallowances, and advised concerning the best methods 

of procedure in each case. Further information was given with reference to contracts, railroad freights, and passenger rates.

A brief address was also made by Representative J. M. Dixon, of 

Montana, who spoke of the great importance to his State of the work 

of the Reclamation Service.

Representative Robert W. Bonynge, of Colorado, also met the
16 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146. 

'

engineers, and Mr. Howard Elliott, chief engineer of the Northern 

Pacific Railroad, called with Mr. Thomas Cooper, land commissioner.

In the section meetings the principal topics discussed were the limits of accuracy in reporting discharge measurements, in constructing 

rating tables, and in applying gage heights. This subject was introduced by Mr. II. E. Horton, of New York.

Another matter carefully considered was that of methods of counting seconds and revolutions in making low-water measurements. 

The discussion was opened by Mr. John C. Hoyt, chief computer.

At 3 p. m. the conference adjourned to attend the session of the 

American Forest Congress.

January 6. The morning session was given over largely to the 

discussion of the subject of transportation of materials and laborers 

in connection with the great irrigation works now under way or 

proposed.

An important subject of discussion was " Contracts," with a view 

to simplifying present methods of advertising to secure the largest 

publicity and the greatest number of bids for Government contracts. 

There was a meeting of hydrographers at 11 a. in. to listen to a 

discussion of " Bench marks " by Mr. E. Johnson, jr., hydrographer 

in charge of the Mississippi River district. This meeting was continued over into the afternoon, when it was addressed by Mr. E. C. 

Murphy, inspector of stream gaging, on the subject of " Equipment 

for cable stations."

At the afternoon session Mr. C. C. Babb discussed the Milk River 

project in Montana and its engineering complications.

January 7. The morning session was given over principally to the 

discussion of the work of the service in Snake River Valley, in 

Idaho. The entire Idaho delegation, composed of Senators Dubois 

and Heyburn and Representative French, were present and addressed 

the engineers.

District Engineer Ross, who is in charge of the Government's work 

in that State, briefly outlined the plans for reclamation, explaining 

in detail the location and extent of the irrigable lands and the character of hydraulic works required.

Following Mr. Ross's discussion, Senator Dubois spoke briefly on 

the subject of irrigation development in Idaho.

Senator Heyburn explained that, although a resident of the Panhandle of the northern part of Idaho, which has an abundant rainfall, 

he was none the less deeply interested in the material development of 

the southern, or arid, portion of his State. He said he believed that 

the plans of the Reclamation Service as outlined are safe, and had no 

patience with the complaints of those not informed as to the character of these works who criticised the engineers for proceeding slowly.
NEWELL.] MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. 17

Representative French, of Idaho, called attention to the extreme 

need of modification of our present homestead laws where they pertain to areas embraced in the Government's projects.

The morning session was concluded by an interesting address by 

Mr. H. E. Williams, of the United States Weather Bureau, representing Mr. Willis L. Moore, who could not be present.

In the afternoon conference the hydrographers were addressed by 

E. C. Murphy, inspector of gaging stations, on the subject of " Cost 

of stream gaging," a and Mr. J. C. Hoyt, computer, on the " Study 

of data by local men."

District Engineer L. H. Taylor, in charge of Nevada work, addressed the conference on the subject of the Truckee-Carson project 

and its recent developments.

S. B. Robbins, engineer, described the plans for the Sun River 

project, Montana. This contemplates the irrigation of bench lands 

lying between Sun and Tetou rivers.

January 9. The morning was devoted to a discussion of the Belle 

Fourche project, South Dakota, led by Raymond F. Walter. Senators Kittredge and Gamble and Congressmen Burke and Martin took 

part. The Government will probably begin actual construction by 

the 1st of next April. The Secretary of the Interior has set aside 

the sum of $2,100,000 for the construction of this work. The plans 

and detailed estimates have been prepared and finally approved by 

the consulting board of engineers.

The committee on duty of water, alkali, and drainage called attention to the importance of these points as viewed from the past history 

of irrigated lands in the West.

The chief engineer, in executive session with the supervising, consulting, and district engineers and experts, discussed the broad principles of construction and cost, and the relations which the coordinate 

branches of the service bear to each other.

At the afternoon meeting of the hydrographers the chief engineer 

spoke of the Bureau of Forestry and called attention to the intimate 

relations its work bears to that of the Survey. Computer Hoyt discussed the work of the computing section.

The committee on cement and concrete took up the subject of the 

materials which enter so largely into the construction of the Government's great dams arid headworks. An interesting feature of the discussion was a description of the cement mill erected by the Government to manufacture 200,000 barrels of cement for the Roosevelt dam, 

in Arizona, which is to be one of the highest dams in the world.

January 10. T. A. Noble, in charge of work in Washington State, 

spoke of the Big Bend irrigation project, saying that owing to the

» See pp. 121-123. 

IBS, 146 05 M 2
18 SECOND KECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

enormous area involved, and the great cost, it has not been found 

practicable to proceed with its construction.

Supervising Engineer J. B. Lippincott discussed the Klamath 

irrigation project.

Mr. Lippincott also told of-the project known as the Yuma on the 

Colorado River.

By invitation of Chairman Mondell, the chief engineer and a 

number of supervising and constructing engineers of the Reclamation 

Service met the members of the House Committee on Irrigation on 

this date, the principal topic of discussion being the Klamath project 

in California and Oregon. Mr. J. B. Lippincott described the important features of the project, which involves the irrigation of 

300,000 acres, about half of which is Government land. The Klamath 

project possesses many unusual features of engineering, among 

which .are the lowering of several lakes and the drying up of others. 

Two of these lakes are interstate bodies of water and both are navigable. It is necessary to have a special act of Congress to divert these 

waters, as such diversion will affect their navigability.

In the afternoon the supervising engineers met the committee and 

discussed the reclamation work for the past season.

The committee was desirous of securing all the information obtainable concerning the present status of the work, and took advantage of 

the opportunity of receiving the facts from the engineers in direct 

charge.

The adjourned conference with the committee on water laws and 

forms of water users' associations was continued.

January 11. Thomas H. Means, engineer of soils, presided at 

the conference. The topic of discussion was the duty of water, 

or the amount of water required to properly irrigate the lands under 

project. Under the terms of the irrigation act it is necessary for the 

Reclamation Service to determine as closely as possible the amount 

of water which may be allowed per acre, and as this varies with the 

character of the soil and the actual demands of the various crops, it 

is usually a matter of dispute even among engineers who have had 

the best opportunity to precisely determine the question. A set of 

rules bearing on the subject were finally adopted at the conference.0

A conference was held with the committee on standard plans and 

specifications.6

Shortly after noon the engineers called on President Roosevelt, 

to whom they were introduced by Director Walcott and Chief Engineer Newell. The President said:

" No measure of public importance except the Panama Canal is of

a See committee report, pp. 173-177. * See coifijnittee report, pp. 189-206.
NEWELL.] MINUTES OF WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. 19

deeper interest to me than the work of the Reclamation Service. I 

am greatly pleased to enjoy this opportunity of meeting with the 

engineers who are engaged upon this very important work of developing our country's resources."

Those who called on the President were:

Cyrus C. Babb, engineer: S. K. Baker, hydrographic aid; H. K. Barrows, 

engineer; Morris Bien, engineer and legal adviser; C. J. Blanchard; F. H. 

Cass, traffic agent; C. C. Covert, assistant engineer; A. P. Davis, assistant 

chief; A. L. Fellows, engineer; J, E. Field, engineer; J. M. Giles, assistant 

engineer; N. C. Grover, engineer: M. R. Hall, hydrographer; R. W. Hawley, 

assistant engineer; R. E. Horton, hydrographer; Edward Johnson, jr., engineer ; A. E. Kastl, engineer; M. O. Leighton, hydrographer; H. V. Lemenager, 

draftsman; J. B. Lippincott, supervising engineer; I. W. McConnell, engineer; 

Thomas H. Means, engineer of soils; F. H. Newell, chief engineer; T. A. Noble, 

engineer; C. R. Olberg, assistant engineer; E. T. Perkins, engineer; C. T. 

Prall, engineer; J. H. Quinton, consulting engineer; S. B. Robbins, engineer; 

D. W. Ross, engineer; H. N. Savage, supervising engineer; W. W. Schlecht, 

assistant engineer; H. A. Storrs, electrical engineer; L. H. Taylor, engineer; 

R. F. Walter, engineer, and N. E. Webster, jr.

January 12. Mr. John E. Field, engineer in charge of the North 

Platte investigation in Wyoming and Nebraska, discussed at length 

the Pathfinder project. Members of the Nebraska delegation in Congress Senator Dietrich, Representatives Hitchcock, McCarthy, Norris, and Hinshaw, former Senator Manderson, and Mr. B. A. Fowler, 

of Arizona were present.

Following Mr. Field's address Supervising Engineer H. N. Savage 

gave a description of the Shoshone project in Big Horn County, Wyo.

Later a conference was held with the committee on reconnaissance 

and survey,01 and another with the committee on transportation.

January 13-14- Mr. J. J. Hill, president of the Great Northern 

Railroad, addressed the engineers, speaking of the great work of 

irrigation, its progress under individual efforts, and its splendid 

future under the irrigation law. He promised his hearty cooperation 

in the Government work in the territory tributary to his lines.

By invitation of Senator Bard, chairman of the Senate Committee 

on Irrigation, the chief engineer and principal supervising and constructing engineers of the Reclamation Service appeared before the 

committee and discussed several bills of importance to the reclamation work. Chief Engineer Newell explained the exigency which has 

arisen necessitating the proposed legislation, the discussion being 

taken up by Supervising Engineer Lippincott and Mr. Bien, legal 

adviser.

a See committee report, pp. 187-189,
20 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [wo. 146. 

ADDRESS BY THE CHIEF ENGINEER AT EL PASO.

At 8.30 a. m. 011 Monday, November 14, the chief engineer called 

the conference to order at El Paso, Tex., and made an informal address upon the organization of the Reclamation Service and the principal changes that had taken place since the meeting at Ogden. An 

informal discussion followed, questions being answered and the details referred to committees. The principal topics of discussion are 

given in the following pages, various details being amplified as the 

result of subsequent proceedings.

PURPOSE OF THE MEETING.

The principal engineers of the Reclamation Service have been 

brought together for the second time in a general meeting for the 

purpose of discussing matters of interest to all and of strengthening 

the work through a larger comprehension of its scope and an interchange of ideas. In the two and one-half years which have elapsed 

since the reclamation act went into effect the Reclamation Service has 

grown rapidly and has approached nearer the maturity of a permanent organization.

The report of the first conference, held at Ogden, has been printed 

as Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 93, and has been distributed to all members of the Reclamation Service. This has served 

to bring to the attention of all of the men the relation of one part of 

the work to another and has served in many ways as a text-book or 

manual of instruction on many points that have needed explanation. 

It is proposed to embody in a similar pamphlet the results of the 

second conference and to insert discussions of details supplementing 

those given in paper No. 93.

In the general discussions which are to follow it is hoped that the 

various engineers present will bring forward the results of their 

experience during the past year, show what improvements in 

methods have been successfully tried, and point out difficulties which 

may be avoided by others. In particular, attention should be given 

to all matters of economy, both large and small. It must be continually borne in mind that although the Reclamation Service is a part 

of the administrative branch of the Government, yet it must at the 

same time be a strictly business organization and display sound 

financial judgment in seeing that there is received for every expenditure the equivalent value.

It is not sufficient in the operations carried on under the reclamation 

act to merely expend the reclamation fund for good works, but these 

must be financially successful and must return to the Treasury their 

original cost. In this respect our work differs from that of almost 

every other operation under governmental auspices, in that, while we
NEWELL.] PURPOSE OP THE MEETING. 21

do not consider interest and profit, yet we must get back the investment within relatively few years. The fund must be preserved for 

future use again and again in the many large projects which are now 

known to be feasible.

The definition of an American engineer is a man who, for $1, can 

produce results that another man can for $2. This idea must be kept 

prominently in the minds of all of our men. Advancement in the 

Reclamation Service, as well as standing in the judgment of the 

world at large, is dependent upon each man showing that he can and 

is producing substantial and permanent results at a relatively small 

outlay of time and money. As employees of the Government we have 

no excuse for not doing good work and completing permanent structures; but the credit which is properly attached to these is largely 

modified by considerations of their cost. Extravagance can not be 

tolerated. At the same time it if- understood that the Government 

is not parsimonious nor niggardly, but that the higher officials and 

the public require that the returns shall be commensurate with the 

outlay.

There is one direction in which in the future larger expenditures 

should be made, and this is in the matter of complete records of 

expenditures and of costs. This general matter of bookkeeping and 

cost keeping should be discussed very thoroughly at this conference, 

and ideas developed along the most effective lines of recording essential facts.0

It is necessary to know not merely how much has been paid out 

for various purposes, but also to record from time to time the facts 

which will enable careful estimates to be prepared of the exact unit 

cost of each class of work or kind of operation. These facts are 

needed, not merely to show what has been accomplished, but for 

guidance in preparing future estimates.

The reclamation act was signed by the President on June 17, 1902, 

or twenty-nine months ago. During that time work has been energetically pushed in all parts of the arid region in the survey, examination, and beginning of large works. The engineering corps, which has 

been gradually created to meet the needs of the service, consists of 

well-trained and experienced men, selected through the Civil Service 

Commission. The gathering here is for the purpose of bringing representative men together and of affording opportunity for the principal engineers of the Reclamation Service to meet with each other and 

with citizens and statesmen interested in the future development of 

the arid region.

The foundation of success is in securing good men and in giving 

them every opportunity and encouragement to do good work. The

0 See report of committee on costs and results, pp. 162-173.
22 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

occasional bringing together of the principal men should serve as a 

means of stimulating all to effective effort, and this stimulus should 

be transmitted to the men in the field who can not be conveniently 

brought together at a conference of this kind. It is incumbent upon 

each of the engineers not only to assist in the conference, but to take 

back to his assistants or subordinates the good results of contact with 

men in similar lines of work.

PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE.

During the past year a considerable number of new men have been 

added to the Reclamation Service, most of these being young assistants, men fresh from college with good education, ambitious, and 

eager to enter upon active work. These young men should be given 

every reasonable opportunity to obtain breadth of experience, as 

from among them are to come the strong engineers of the future. 

Much of the success in constructing and operating great irrigation 

works rests upon giving these men a thoroughly practical training in 

details.

There has also been added a number of more experienced men and 

a few constructing engineers of large reputation. From time to time 

other constructing engineers will be added, these men being selected, 

as is the case of all others, through competitive civil-service examination, in which, however, experience is given greater weight than in 

the case of the younger men.

ORGANIZATION.

Next in importance to the actual character of the men engaged in 

the Reclamation Service is that of the organization or relation of the 

various men to each other. This subject is one which has been frequently discussed, and, while in a broad way the details have been 

outlined, yet there are many important matters for further discussion. A committee on organization, to be designated in the future, 

will probably make a report as to the present views on the subject.

ENGINEERS AND ASSISTANTS.

The engineers, assistants, and aids of our various classes or grades 

are, as a rule, systematically grouped in field parties, and, the organization should be such that no confusion can arise as to the responsibility of each man. Great care must be taken in selecting chiefs of 

field parties to see that each has an adequate force of assistants, and 

that tact and discretion is displayed by the chiefs of independent 

parties in placing the assistants where they will be most effective. 

To a certain extent the reputation of the entire Service rests upon the
XKWKLL.I PERSONNEL. 23

parties operating more or less independently away from central 

offices.

DISTRICT ENGINEERS.

The district engineers, located at central or convenient points in 

the district, are responsible for all of the engineers and assistants 

under them, and as the work develops should have their headquarters at or near the point where most men are employed and where a 

general oversight of the work can be most expeditiously had. District offices can be rented when in or near towns or cities, but during 

the past year there has been a tendency to move the district offices to 

the point of construction if ordinary facilities for mail and supplies 

can be had there.

FIELD ASSISTANTS.

The conditions of employment in* the Reclamation Service are discussed in Water-Supply Paper No. 93, pages 24-35, and details 

relating to subsistence are shown on page 85. The underlying law 

and theory has, however, not been fully presented, and it is essential 

for a full comprehension of the subject to go back to the fundamental principles.

The reclamation act does not bear directly upon the matter of 

employment and subsistence of men, but by inference this is implied 

in the second section, authorizing and directing the Secretary of 

the Interior to make investigations and surveys and to give estimates of cost of all contemplated works. This, of course, necessitates the employment of a large number of men, and, as in the case 

of all surveys in distant regions, requires that certain equipment, 

including subsistence, shall be furnished. Since, therefore, the reclamation act does not define these matters, it is necessary for further 

details to consider the general laws, practices, and rulings governing 

similar operations of the Government, and reference should be made 

to the Revised Statutes and more recent acts of Congress and to 

decisions of the Comptroller as well as those of other law officers of 

the Government.

As illustrated by current practices, there are numerous ways in 

which employment is had. These may be conveniently classified as 

follows:

(a) Appointment by the Secretary after competitive civil-service 

examination to permanent or statutory places.

(6) Appointment by the Secretary after competitive civil-service 

examination to temporary positions.

(c) Employment by subordinate officials as required by exigencies.

At the present time there are no appointments under the first
24 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

category, as the reclamation act and subsequent acts of Congress 

have not created any statutory places or salaries; hence all appointments are officially designated as kt temporary " to distinguish them 

from appointments which are made to fill definite positions. This 

matter is explained in Water-Supply Paper No. 93, page 27.

The regular employees of the Keclamation Service fall under the 

second category, viz,' those appointed by the Secretary after competitive civil-service examination. The various grades and classes 

are briefly described in Water-Supply Paper No. 93, page 36.

The occasional or field employees are hired for the time being by 

engineers in the field as exigency arises, under the general authority 

given by the Secretary to employ field assistants. Their places 

should be filled as soon as possible through certification from the 

Civil Service Commission.

In the employment of field assistants care must be taken to distinctly state and record the essential facts as to terms of employment, transportation, and subsistence, and to ascertain that the'se 

terms are in accordance with the law and authority given.

Each person employed should be furnished with a written statement covering all of these terms, and a copy should be forwarded 

immediately to the office of the chief engineer for record there. This 

statement should give the dates of the letters of authority for such 

employment and state the rate per day or month, the fact whether 

transportation is to be furnished, and particularly the terms of subsistence, the date of service, and the times when subsistence is to be 

begun or discontinued.

SUBSISTENCE.

The general conditions relating to subsistence of all employees are 

given on page 85 of Water-Supply Paper No. 93. Under the head 

of subsistence are included the necessary expenditures made for 

furnishing food and suitable shelter or space for sleeping accommodations. Where men are employed, as the majority in the Reclamation Service are, on work remote from human habitations, provision 

must be made, not merely for transporting the men to these remote 

localities, but for furnishing them food and shelter while there. Two 

divergent and apparently contradictory opinions have been presented concerning the legal basis for furnishing subsistence. On the 

one hand, it has been held that field subsistence is furnished, not as a 

perquisite or emolument, but solely as a necessity in facilitating work 

in the same way that horses, wagons, and tools are provided. On 

the other hand, arguments have been presented to show that the legal 

basis is to be found in the fact that subsistence in the field is a part of 

the compensation paid for services. This latter is probably the 

correct view.
NEWELL. 1 SUBSISTENCE. 25 

KINDS OF SUBSISTENCE.

Subsistence may be considered as being furnished under one of 

several heads:

(a) Subsistence in kind; that is to say, the issuance of rations to 

the members of a party in camp, and their preparation by persons 

employed for this purpose.

(Z>) Repayment for actual and necessary expenses incurred when 

traveling, when supported by vouchers executed in the required form.

(c) Payment of a per diem allowance in lieu of traveling expenses 

or of subsistence, this allowance being sufficient to cover the usual cost 

of such subsistence.

LAWS GOVERNING SUBSISTENCE.

The fundamental act governing subsistence is that of March 3, 

1875 (18 Stat. L., 452), as follows:

That hereafter only actual traveling expenses shall be allowed to any person 

holding employment or appointment under the United States * * * and all 

allowances for mileage and transportation in excess of the amount actually paid 

* * * are hereby declared illegal; and no credit shall be allowed to any of 

the disbursing officers of the United States for payment or allowances in violalion of this provision.

In a letter from the Comptroller of the Treasury, dated April 11, 

1905, the following statement has been made:

Relative to the field men of the Reclamation Service and the payment of actual 

traveling expenses incurred, or a per diein in lieu of their subsistence and 

lodging, it is usual in all branches of the Government service to pay field men 

either their actual and necessary traveling expenses (act of March 3, 1875, 38 

Stat. L., 452) up to the maximum departmental limit, if actually incurred when 

traveling in the field, or a per diem as commuted when such expenses are cornmutable and commuted under the law.

Government employees are not in a traveling status when either at their 

homes, domiciles, or at their stations. A station is a place the opposite of the 

field. Stationed men, when paid from a lump sum, have the fact taken into 

consideration in fixing their compensation, that while at their official stations 

they are not in a traveling status, and are not allowed traveling expenses or a 

commutation in lieu thereof.

Where the duties of a person in the Reclamation Service require him to be in 

a particular place for a long period of time performing what is usually known 

as station work, such person can not be considered as in the field in the absence 

of being officially stationed at some other place.

LOCATION AS AFFECTING SUBSISTENCE.

The question of subsistence is evidently dependent upon the location of the employee. Four distinct conditions appear to be contemplated by the law and regulations:

(a) Home.

(Z>) Station.
26 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

(c) Field.

(d) Traveling.

Subsistence at home. When an employee is at home no subsistence 

is furnished. The question, therefore, as to what constitutes a home 

is one which has to be considered. In the case of a married man the 

test is as to the location of his family. If a man is so located that his 

wife is with him, he is assumed to be at home, even though this home 

is located in a camp. As a rule no quarters or subsistence are allowed 

under these conditions.

Subsistence at station. A station is a definite place or location 

where a man or body of men is habitually employed, such, for example, as at a local office of the Reclamation Service or at the point of 

construction of a large work.

The local offices, as a rule, are in or near towns, and subsistence is 

not furnished. On construction work, however, quarters are, as a 

rule, provided, as is customary in such cases, as there are no lodging 

places near by and the work is facilitated by having the men live 

close at hand. In other words, lodging is provided for the reason 

that without it the work would suffer, because the men could not 

otherwise live in the vicinity. Food is not furnished at stations, 

excepting during the preliminary stages of establishing a construction camp, when the party is virtually on a field basis and has not definitely assumed a permanent position. It is necessary to draw an 

arbitrary line between the field condition, where the location of 

individuals and of parties is unsettled, and the comparatively permanent station, when facilities for procuring food have been established.

Subsistence in the -field. Field location, as such, is distinguished 

by the fact that operations are not at any one particular place. The 

equipment is designed for mobility and the operations are carried 

forward, moving habitually from place to place, generally in unsettled regions. The fact that the party must be continually on the 

move and that there is no way of effectively carrying forward the 

work without furnishing lodging and food necessitates furnishing 

these. This condition is well recognized in all surveys and explorations, and individuals or corporations carrying on such work habitually furnish the means of transportation, tents, if needed, and all of 

the usual food materials in the raw state, together with a cook to 

prepare and serve the food. Subsistence is thus furnished as a matter 

of course, and it practically goes without saying that when an 

assistant is employed on a surveying party he is furnished with the 

necessary transportation, equipment, and food. This is not generally 

recognized as an emolument or perquisite, but as a necessary prerequisite to carrying on the work.

Any gain to the individual in the reduced cost of living is con-
NEWELL.] SUBSISTENCE. 27

sidered as being offset by the arduous labor and exposure of outdoor 

life.

Subsistence when traveling. In the ordinary course of travel subsistence is obtained in an entirely distinct manner from the usual 

methods in the field work. A person traveling can rarely be furnished with crude or raw food materials and with implements for 

cooking it. As a rule, lodging is obtained at hotels or public houses 

and food at restaurants or lunch rooms. In this case payment must 

be made from day to day for meals and lodging, and the method 

recognized by law and custom is to refund these costs upon the 

presentation of the customary vouchers. Each person, as a rule, pays 

his own way and submits separate vouchers, while in the case of a 

field party being subsisted on rations, these- are purchased by the 

chief of party and the individual does not keep separate account of 

the cost chargeable to him.

The laws and decisions applying to subsistence seem to be drawn 

with particular reference to traveling expenses, and it is believed that 

the act of March 3, 1875, relates wholly to this condition and not to 

field subsistence furnished to parties engaged in surveys. Under this 

view it is possible to reconcile the two distinct opinions above noted, 

and to regard allowance for subsistence as an emolument or perquisite 

to be covered by the appointment of each person. On the other hand, 

the subsistence furnished in the field may be considered, not as a perquisite, but as a necessary incident to the work in hand.

PER DIEM ALLOWANCES FOR TRAVELING EXPENSES.

Construing the act of March 3, 1875 (18 Stat. L., 452), the Comptroller has held that " the allowance to an officer whose compensation 

is fixed by law of a fixed sum in -lieu of all expenses, exclusive of 

transportation and sleeping-car fare, is not authorized by law" 

(7 Comp. Dec., MS. 17). But in another instance it was held that: 

" this act refers to actual traveling expenses, and does not prohibit 

the head of a department, having discretion to contract for the 

services of an employee, from agreeing with such an employee upon 

an amount to include compensation and all expenses." So, also, may 

the contract be for a fixed sum as compensation and an amount per 

day as additional compensation when absent from headquarters. 

If actual cost of transportation is given also, it should be clearly 

stated, as, for instance, "Actual cost of transportation, exclusive of 

sleeping- and parlor-car fares" (5 Comp. Dec., 107).

Under date of January 30, 1905, the Interstate Commerce Commission adopted an order " that on and after the 1st day of February, 

1905, inspectors of safety appliances will be paid at the rate of $1,500 

per annum, and in addition thereto will be allowed the sum of $4
28 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

per day, including Sundays and legal holidays, while away from 

home and actually on duty, etc." This order was adopted after the 

matter had been approved by the Comptroller.

It may, therefore, be possible to allow a per diem to the engineers 

and other traveling employees of this Service as additional compensation for each day, including Sundays and legal holidays, while on 

official duty away from their homes and headquarters. When such 

a per diem is authorized and allowed the engineer should not 

approve any claim for reimbursement for the expenses of official 

travel other than those for the actual cost of transportation, including regular fares for railroad, steamboat, and stage travel, inclusive 

of sleeping- and parlor-car fares and necessary livery hire. When 

the expense of steamboat travel is claimed it must be shown whether 

meals were included in the passage rate, and if so, the per diem will 

not be allowed.

In computing the per diem allowance fractions of a day should 

be disregarded. When travel or duty away from home begins before 

noon or ends after noon, the full per diem for that day should be 

allowed; when such travel or duty begins after noon or ends before 

noon, no per diem for that day should be allowed. The day and 

hour of beginning and ending travel or duty and any absence from 

or suspension of duty while away from home and headquarters 

should be plainly and fully stated in the employee's report.

No per diem should be allowed to an employee for days when at 

home or at his headquarters nor when at any camp or station of this 

Service where he is lodged and subsisted at a table or mess conducted 

for the employees of this Service. No per diem should be allowed 

while on annual leave, or other absence from duty, whether at his 

home, headquarters, or elsewhere.

Should an employee be absent from his home and headquarters on 

official duty under circumstances not entitling him to a claim for 

per diem,as upon departure from his home or headquarters afternoon 

of one day and return before noon of the day following, he will be 

entitled to reimbursement for his actual expenses upon submission 

of a voucher properly prepared showing the actual expense incurred, 

with subvouchers for the various items, according to regulations 

now in force.
PAPERS READ AT THE CONFERENCE.

PROPOSED STATE CODE OF WATER LAWS.

By MORRIS BIEN.

INTRODUCTION.

The simplest form of regulation of the use of water is best exemplified by the present laws of the State of California. These declare 

the principles of priority and beneficial use and provide that claims 

to the use of water shall be recorded in the form of a notice of appropriation and shall be perfected by application to a beneficial use.

The form and theory of these laws has been developed by several 

of the kStates, which have followed in general the California laws 

and elaborated upon the methods established in that State.

The operation of these laws places no restraint upon appropriations 

of water. Formerly the courts, in passing upon the claims of the 

appropriators, having scanty information concerning the amount of 

water available for use, with no guide to the quantities which should 

be applied in the cultivation of crops, and confronted with the 

excessive claims of the parties, often adjudicated rights to the use of 

water many times in excess of the amount carried by the stream. 

During recent years, however, the knowledge obtained concerning 

the discharge of streams and the use of water has caused such 

decrees to become exceptional. Nevertheless, the need for a more 

careful regulation of the appropriation and use of water has been 

apparent for many years.

In 1890 the State of Wyoming enacted a code of water laws providing for a thorough supervision of the utilization of the water supply of the State through a State engineer and State board of control, 

who adjudicate rights to the use of water in the first instance, and 

division superintendents and water masters, who have immediate 

charge of the distribution of the water in the various water divisions.

Nebraska subsequently adopted a code of water laws substantially 

the same in principle as those of Wyoming. Idaho, Utah, and 

Nevada in 1903 adopted codes of water laws based upon those of

29
30 SECOND EECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFEEENCE. [NO. 146.

Wyoming, with, however, a number of important modifications dictated by the experience of Wyoming and the development of irrigation practice.

At the sessions of the legislatures of Oregon and Washington in 

1903 the governors were directed to appoint commissions to prepare 

and submit drafts of a code of irrigation law.

At a joint session of the two commissions with the chief engineer 

and other members of the Reclamation Service, held last August, the 

fundamental principles of a modern irrigation code were discussed. 

There was also some consideration of the provisions which should 

be incorporated in such a code tb facilitate the operations of the 

Federal Government in carrying on the work of constructing the 

irrigation systems contemplated by the act of Congress approved 

June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. L., 388), known as the " reclamation act."

As the conditions in the two States were similar, it was deemed 

advisable for the two commissions to work in harmony and to prepare 

codes which should be as nearly identical as the conditions would 

permit in the hope that by cooperation the commissions would be 

able to submit to the respective legislatures a code which should be 

an expression of the most advanced development of irrigation law.

At the conclusion of the joint session of the two commissions I 

was requested to prepare a draft of a code of water laws to form a 

basis of discussion by the commissions. The draft was prepared 

in a few weeks and widely distributed among those interested for 

comment and criticism.

A number of valuable comments and suggestions have been received, enabling me to formulate amendments which a subsequent 

careful study of the draft had shown to be advisable, besides suggesting important changes and improvements.

I desire particularly to express my obligations in this matter to 

Messrs. F. I. Dunbar, secretary of state of Oregon; A. E. Chandler, 

State engineer of Nevada; Clarence T. Johnston, State engineer of 

Wyoming: L. G. Carpenter, State engineer of Colorado; D. W. 

Ross, engineer in charge of the work of the Reclamation Service in 

Idaho, and T. A. Noble, engineer in charge of the work of the Reclamation Service in Washington.

PROVISIONS OF A WATER CODE.

A State code of water laws should provide for the appropriation, 

adjudication, and apportionment of the waters of the State, and 

divides itself naturally into four branches:

First. A declaration of the fundamental principles on which the 

right to use water shall be based.

Second. The adjudication of rights to the use of water claimed
NEWELL.] STATE CODE OF WATER LAWS. 31

under the laws previously in force, thus determining the unappropriated public waters.

Third. The regulation, control, and determination of the rights to 

water to be subsequently acquired.

Fourth. The regulation and control of the distribution of the 

water, rights to the use of which have been established.

In discussing these branches of the subject the important features 

of procedure in the code proposed for Oregon and Washington will 

be described.

Basic principles. Under the first heading the fundamental principles are few and well established namely, that all the waters within 

the limits of the State belong to the public and are subject to appropriation for beneficial use, except from sources of supply which are 

navigable; that the beneficial use of water shall be the basis, the 

measure, and the limit of the right; that the use of water is a public 

use, and private parties may exercise the right of eminent domain 

for the utilization thereof, and that water used for irrigation shall 

be appurtenant to the land on which it is used.

Adjudication of prior rights. Under the second heading, providing for the adjudication of rights claimed under prior laws, it is now 

generally conceded that the final adjudication must be by the courts. 

The codes of the different States contemplate various forms of procedure. In the code proposed for Oregon and Washington a State 

engineer, appointed for six years by the governor, subject to confirmation by the Senate, is to make a complete hydrographic survey 

of a stream system, obtaining all the data necessary to determine the 

amount of water available and the rights of the parties entitled to the 

use of it. This material is turned over to the attorney-general of the 

State, who is required to enter suit promptly for the determination of 

the rights of all parties and to prosecute the same diligently to a conclusion. In all suits for the determination of the right to the use of 

the waters of any stream system all who claim the right to use sueh 

waters shall be made parties. In all suits involving the determination of water rights the attorney-general is required to intervene on 

behalf of the State if in the opinion of the State engineer the public 

interest requires it.

Establishment of new rights. The third subject namely, that of 

the regulation, control, and determination of rights to the use of 

water to be acquired is placed in the hands of the State engineer. 

The procedure proposed is substantially the same as that adopted in 

the other States having a modern irrigation code, with some differences of detail.

The principal feature to be noticed is that before any work looking to the construction of an irrigation system is commenced, and 

after the State engineer has passed upon the form and substance
32 - SECOND KECLAMATIOlSr SEKVICE CONFEEENCE. [NO. 146.

of the application, the intention to appropriate the water shall be 

published in a newspaper circulated in the community. After such 

publication the State engineer will approve the application if no 

valid objection is presented.

When the construction is completed, the works are to be inspected 

and approved by the State engineer, who will then determine their 

capacity, which will limit the amount of the appropriation. Afterwards, when the water is applied to a beneficial use, the State engineer will make a further inspection, whereupon he issues a license 

for the appropriation of the amount of water which has been applied 

to a beneficial use. A time limit is fixed for completion of construction and for beneficial use.

Distribution of water. For the distribution of the water, which 

comes under the fourth branch, the States are divided by the law into 

four water divisions by drainage areas, each under the supervision of 

a water commissioner appointed by the supreme court of the State. 

The functions of these commissioners are the distribution of water 

under judicial decree or appropriation, and they may therefore be 

regarded as, in a sense, officials of the court. The four water commissioners, with the State engineer, constitute a board of water 

commissioners, of which the latter is president. The water commissioners each serve six years, their terms being so arranged that a new 

one is appointed every two years. This board has general supervision over the waters of the State.

The actual work of distributing the waters to those entitled to use 

them is done by water masters appointed by the water commissioners, 

with the approval of the State engineer. Each water master has 

charge of a water district set apart by the State engineer as found 

necessary from time to time. The operations of the water master 

are under the supervision of the water commissioner, and his acts 

are subject to appeal to the State engineer.

The cost of the water distribution is borne by the water users. 

The general expenses of the State engineer and the wT ater commissioners are paid by the State. The greater part, if not all, of this 

expense will be returned to the State treasury by the fees collected 

by the State engineer and by the repayment of the cost of hydrographic surveys by the parties to the suits for adjudication.

The States and the Reclamation Service. Special reference should 

also be made to the features of the draft relating to the work under 

the Federal reclamation act.

In order that the State may obtain the full benefit of this work 

and prevent serious interference with and perhaps the entire abandonment of the projects to be investigated, it is provided that the 

water supply for such projects shall be reserved from general appro-
NEWELL.] STATE CODE OF WATER LAWS. 33

priation until the investigations of the Reclamation Service shall 

determine the precise amount required for the project, the remainder 

being then released from such reservation.

It is also provided that State lands coming under such project 

shall be disposed of in harmony with the plans for the disposition 

of the lands of the United States, and that lands required by the 

Reclamation Service for irrigation works shall be transferred to the 

United States without charge.

In all future sales of State lands the conveyance is to reserve a 

right of way for ditches or canals constructed by authority of the 

United States.

The theory of these provisions is that the State regulates the appropriation of the water, exercising this power and holding the land 

in trust for the public, and that when the interests of the public are 

so directly involved as in these large irrigation projects, and when, 

further, there is no element of individual speculation or profit in the 

construction of the works, which are for the purpose of establishing 

the maximum number of homes on the land, it is the duty of every 

State to which the reclamation act is applicable to assist with every 

resource under its control.

Other provisions. It will be of interest to review several of the 

other provisions of the draft.

Units of measurement are established: the cubic foot per second 

for the flow of water and the acre-foot for volume. The miner's inch 

is fixed as one-fiftieth of a cubic foot per second, unless a different 

ratio has been agreed upon by contract or established by actual measurement or use.

The amount of water which may be appropriated for irrigation 

is limited to 1 cubic foot per second for 70 acres or its equivalent.

While it is conceded that water used for irrigation must be appurtenant to the land, the fact must be recognized that conditions may 

arise to make it impracticable or uneconomical to continue to irrigate 

a particular tract. Provision is made so that the use of water may 

be severed from the land after application to the State engineer, 

due publication of notice of such intention, and approval by the 

State engineer. Similar provision is made for a change in the 

nature of the use to which the water is applied, or a change in the 

place of diversion, storage, or use.

The subject of seepage water is one that has given much trouble, 

and provision is made for the appropriation thereof in the same 

manner as other waters, with the requirement that the appropriator 

must pay reasonable charges for storage or carriage to the owners 

of the irrigation works from which it comes, provided that the 

seepage can be traced to such works beyond reasonable doubt. 

IKB 146 05 M 3
34 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

All decisions of the State engineer or water commissioners affecting a substantial right are subject to appeal to the courts.

The commissions of the two States prepared drafts of codes upon 

substantially the principles herein outlined. The legislatures did-not, 

however, adopt them, but passed certain laws governing the general 

procedure in regard to the adjudication of rights to the use of water.

In Oregon .the office of State engineer was established and provision 

was made for a system of filing and adjudicating water rights.

An irrigation code without material change from that herein discussed was adopted early in 1905 by the legislatures of North Dakota, 

South Dakota, and Oklahoma.

During the legislative sessions of 1905 acts were passed in Colorado, 

Idaho, Montana T Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, 

Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, 

providing for cooperation with the work of the United States in the 

construction of reclamation projects in regard to one or more of the 

following: .

(a) Necessary water supply.

(b) Rights of way over State lands.

(c) Condemnation of private property.

HYDROGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS IN NEVADA.

By A. E. CHANDLER.

There are four important river systems in Nevada, three of which 

Truckee, Carson, and Walker rivers rise in the high Sierra of 

California and flow through fertile valleys to inland lakes in Nevada. 

In the high mountain country tributary to the three rivers there are 

numbers of beautiful, tree-fringed lakes. The largest of these are 

in the Truckee basin, Lake Tahoe, with its area of 195 square miles, 

being by far the greatest in size. The Truckee empties into Pyramid 

and Winnemucca lakes, the Carson into Carson Lake and Carson 

Sink, and the Walker into Walker Lake.

The fourth river of importance is the Humboldt, which has the 

distinction of being entirely a Nevada river. It rises in the high 

mountains in the extreme northeast corner of Nevada and flows in 

a general southwesterly direction for 350 miles to Humboldt Lake. 

Twice within the last fifty years the flood waters of the Humboldt 

have reached Carson Sink.

The lowest reaches of all four rivers vary but little in elevation 

the lowest, Lake Winnemucca, possessing an altitude of 3,825 feet, 

and the highest, Humboldt and Carson lakes, 4,100 feet. It is worthy 

of note that the Truckee-Carson project now being constructed by 

the Reclamation Service will utilize the waters of the Truckee in
NEWELL.] RIVER SYSTEMS IN NEVADA. 35

the Carson basin, and may carry the commingled waters of the two 

rivers to Lovelock Valley, the lowermost valley of the Humboldt 

basin. When it is added that it is practicable to connect the Walker 

with the Carson, the close proximity of the four streams in their 

lower basins must be apparent.

Besides the four rivers mentioned above there are several smaller 

rivers and a multiplicity of mountain streams. Salmon, Bruneau, 

and Owyhee rivers rise in the extreme northern part of Nevada 

and flow northerly into Snake River in Idaho. Virgin River rises 

in southwestern Utah and flows across the southeast corner of 

Nevada to join the Colorado. Muddy River has its source in springs 

on the Moapa Indian Reservation, in Lincoln County, Nev., and flows 

for 30 miles through the same country to its confluence with Virgin 

River. Quinn River and its tributary, Kings River, rise north of the 

Oregon line and flow southerly and westerly a distance of 80 miles, 

to sink in the Black Rock Desert of northwest Nevada.

Throughout the central portion of Nevada there are numerous high 

mountain valleys, the waters of which belong to none of the systems 

enumerated above. The small streams have their source in the snowcapped peaks of the neighborhood or in springs at the base of the 

range. The scattered mining camps make the produce of their valleys very valuable, and, as irrigation is absolutely necessary, all the 

water is utilized.

The first systematic stream measurements in Nevada were made by 

the United States Geological Survey on Truckee and Carson rivers 

from 1889 to 1892. Gaging stations were established by the same 

agency on Humboldt River in 1894 and have been continued to the 

present time. Measurements were also made at stations on Walker, 

Carson, and Truckee rivers during part of the year 1905.

The Congressional appropriations for hydrographic work made 

possible the establishment of a number of new stations in the basins 

of the four rivers in 1899-1900, and the scope of the work has been 

extending ever since. In 1903 the Nevada legislature created the 

office of State engineer and provided that among his duties should 

be the measurement of streams and ditches. In order to avoid duplication in work the United States Geological Survey has made the 

Nevada State engineer its district hydrographer, and all gaging 

stations are maintained according to Survey regulations.

At present there are maintained three gaging stations on the 

main Humboldt and one on each of three tributaries North Fork, 

South Fork, and Pine Creek. There are four stations on the main 

Truckee, one on the inlet to Lake Winnemucca, and four on tributaries in California. On each of the two branches of Carson 

River, East and West forks, stations are maintained, and a
36 SECOND KECLAMATION SEKVICE CONPEKENCE. [NO. 146.

third is situated 011 the main Carson River below upper Carson 

Valley, in which the two forks converge. Permanent stations have 

also been established on East and West forks of Walker River, 

and on the main river at the lower end of Mason Valley, in which 

the two branches join.

In 1003 the State engineer was asked by the people of Muddy 

River Valley to report on a reservoir site existing immediately above 

the valley. The site is undoubtedly good, but the water supply is 

questionable. In order to intelligently report upon the matter a 

gaging station was established upon the river immediately above the 

reservoir site and has been maintained since January 1, 1904.

The small and scattered population of Nevada make the maintenance of good stations a very serious problem. It does not suffice to 

find the point which is the best physically for a station, but rather 

a habitation must first be found and then some point in the vicinity 

selected at which to establish a gage rod. At the majority of the 

stations the gage rod and cable from which measurements are made 

have to be separated by long distances, often one-half mile. For 

gage readers there is little choice; every type is engaged, from the 

small schoolboy to the uneducated but faithful Italian farmer. 

There are a number of important tributaries to Humboldt River on 

which it is desired to conduct a series of measurements, but on which' 

no practicable station can be found within miles of a residence.

The following remarks will show the fluctuations and average discharge at a number of Nevada stations. The flow of the Truckee at 

Vista, at the lower end of the largest irrigation valley in the basin, 

has varied between 7,510 second-feet in May, 1890, and 61 secondfeet in August, 1900. The mean annual discharge for the year 1891 

and for the years 1900 to 1903, inclusive, was 571,446 acre-feet.

The station on the Humboldt at Oreana is immediately above the 

lowermost valley of the basin. In May, 1897, the flow was 3,047 

second-feet and in, October, 1903, but 8 second-feet. The mean annual flow for the period 1896 to 1903, inclusive, was 169,390 acrefeet. The station at Golconda, on the Humboldt, is about 100 miles 

above the one at Oreana. The records show that the fluctuations at 

Golconda were from 3,100 second-feet in May, 1897, to nothing in 

the fall months of a few years. The mean annual discharge for the 

and for the years 1900 to 1903, inclusive, was 571,446 acre-feet.

The station on South Fork of Humboldt River is about 6 miles 

above its confluence with the main river. In June, 1899, the flow 

was 1,370 second-feet and the stream is often dry in September. The 

mean annual discharge for the period 1897-1903, inclusive, was 

130,057 acre-feet.

Carson River, at Empire, has varied from 6,278 second-feet in
NEWELL.] POWER ENGINEERING IN IRRIGATION. 37

May, 1890, to 15 second-feet in September, 1902-3. The mean annual 

discharge for the period 1901-1903, inclusive, was 323,547 acre-feet.

The present stations on Walker River and its branches were not 

established until late in 1902. The discharge for 1903 of the main 

river at Wabuska, Nev., was 122,888 acre-feet; of East Walker, near 

Yerington, Nev., 79,562 acre-feet; and of West Walker, near Coleville, CaL, 225,091 second-feet.

Besides the work at regular stations, miscellaneous measurements 

of mountain streams and ditches have been made during every summer since 1900. It is proposed to continue these measurements in the 

future with special reference to the determination of the return 

waters after irrigation and to the duty of water.

During the season 1903-4 a number of rainfall stations were maintained at points in the Sierra Nevada. These stations are now being 

cared for by the United States Weather Bureau. A series of such 

records will be of the utmost importance to those interested in irrigation, as it is to the mountains we must look for our water supply. 

Until these stations were established but few rainfall records were 

obtainable for the higher altitudes.

POWER ENGINEERING APPLIED TO IRRIGATION

PROBLEMS.

By O. H. ENSIGN.

In a paper treating of the growth of the use of power applied to 

irrigation work some statement concerning the history of the development and transmission of power by electrical means will not be out 

of place.

BEGINNINGS OF POWER TRANSMISSION.

In 1893 there was started in Mill Creek Canyon, above Redlands, 

CaL, the first three-phase alternating-current power-transmission 

plant in the United States. This plant utilizes the waters of Mill 

Creek under a head of 530 feet, using impulse water wheels directly 

connected to three-phase generators. This was one of 'the first plants 

in which the water wheel was directly connected to the generator, 

and, while it was essentially crude as compared with later development, it has been in continuous service down to the present time; 

from it was built up a system of power transmission which now 

covers a territory 150 miles long by 50 miles wide, supplying power 

for all manner of uses; and from the possibilities demonstrated by it, 

confidence was created and similar transmission systems have sprung 

into existence all over the country. As a direct object lesson in irrigation it is probably one of the most interesting developments in the 

West,
38 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Since the first plant was constructed the same company undertook 

and brought to a successful conclusion the installation of the first 

long-distance line in the world, transmitting power from Santa Ana 

Canyon, another stream of the San Bernardino Mountains, to the 

city of Los Angeles, -83 miles away; when constructed this line was 

nearly three times the length and carried three times the voltage of 

any existing system, being constructed for 33,000 volts.

From an operating standpoint, as well as any other, this system 

has been a perfect success from the very beginning, and within the 

last two years there has been constructed, also in Mill Creek Canyon, 

another power plant feeding into this transmission system, operating 

under a hydraulic head of 1,900 feet. This plant has been in operation 

for eighteen months without a shut down from any cause due to the 

plant, and when it is considered that this is the highest pressure under 

which a large water wheel is operating anywhere in the world, the 

results may be regarded as truly phenomenal. Since this high-head 

plant has been in operation a similar one in the northern part of the 

State has been started which has single units, developing 7,500 horsepower in a single jet under a 1,700-foot head.

Owing to the fact that the demands had grown beyond the immediate practicable development of further water power in this section 

there has been recently installed as an addition to this system a steam 

turbine plant which feeds into the same transmission lines and distributing systems formerly supplied by the water-power plants alone; 

this plant has been in entirely successful operation without interruption for nine months. There is also being constructed a plant of 

20,000-horsepower transmission to tie into this system from an 

entirely different watershed 116 miles away.

We have here, then, in a single system, an example of the development of power transmission through all its phases. Still operating 

on the system, too, is the first three-phase induction motor, the first 

three-phase synchronous motor, the first large unit on extremely high 

heads, the first four-stage vertical steam turbine in the United States, 

and the first 33,000-volt line of the world to be successfully operated.

This little historical sketch is given because in this system are 

exemplified the possibilities of development of irrigation systems 

along similar lines, and because in it there is afforded an opportunity 

to study the development step by step and to profit by mistakes as 

well as by improvements.

IRRIGATION AND POWER TRANSMISSION.

The promoters of this system little dreamed when they started the 

small plant in 1893 that one of its greatest sources of revenue would 

come from pumping water for irrigation, but to-day the waters
NEWELL.] POWER ENGINEERING IN IRRIGATION. 89

which flow down the canyons of Mill Creek and Santa Ana River 

are made through this means to furnish power for pumping water 

from wells in sufficient quantity to irrigate a section of country nearly 

four times as great as that which the water from the streams themselves irrigates. There are 107 of these pumping plants, with 3,050 

total motor horsepower.

EFFICIENCY OP TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS.

A common error into which, laymen are often led is in regard to 

the all-around efficiency of a hydro-electric transmission pumping 

system as usually installed. Most of the pumps operated on this system are of the vertical-shaft, centrifugal type, placed at the bottom of 

a shaft whose depth corresponds to the original level of the water 

plane. The pump is equipped with a suction pipe lowered into a 

driven well and supplying water through a discharge pipe to the 

surface of the ground or reservoir or perhaps to an elevation some 

distance beyond the location of the well. Taking the average of 

these conditions, the water horsepower to be created in the pumped 

water delivered to the irrigation ditch will not, as a rule, exceed 22-| 

per cent of the all-around efficiency from the water on the water 

wheels, and will often fall below that figure. On the other hand, a 

system could be built up for a special purpose, with short transmission in large units, whose efficiency would be as high as 32 per cent; 

and, according to the claims of certain manufacturers, in a system 

where the pumping plants required high-lift pumps, as high as 42 

per cent.

The above efficiencies are all based on the use of the centrifugal 

pump, and it does not appear that with the average condition of the 

water which would be used for irrigation it would be at all practicable in considering any large irrigation project in which pumping 

was the main feature to use anything but a centrifugal pump. The 

maintenance account on plunger pumps, cylinders, valves, etc., where 

water carried mud and silt, would be so great as to make operating 

costs excessive, and, where motors are to be used, gears and the wear 

and annoyance, as well as the extra care for the whole device, would 

largely operate to make their serious consideration a matter of doubt.

The efficiency of the centrifugal pump has been increased to such an 

extent in the last few years that serious consideration of the plunger 

type of pump is unnecessary.

On the California system discussed, besides the style of pumps mentioned above, there are deep wells of the plunger type, systems of 

pumping from a large number of wells by means of compressed air, 

low-lift centrifugals operating out of streams or canals, and almost 

every other conceivable device for lifting water to which electric
40 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

motors could be attached. But the methods first referred to seem to 

be the most practical.

HEIGHT OF LIFTS.

Over a great section of this country the water is being lifted to a 

height of nearly 100 feet, and in some places more than that, but the 

large number of plants lift the water to such a height as would come 

within the limit of a single centrifugal pump. Since the beginning 

of the construction of this system great advance has been made in the 

construction of the impulse water wheel, and it is the belief of the 

writer that there will be seen here water wheels of the highest efficiency operated anywhere in the world, and not far from them 

wheels of a type which have now become obsolete and are being 

changed to the new types. All of the wheels are of the impulse type, 

as the lowest head of any of the plants is 480 feet.

USE OF STEAM TURBINES.

In the recent development which has occurred along the line of 

power generated by steam, the steam turbine has demonstrated its 

reliability, and its rapid introduction has convinced both investor and 

engineer of its practical adaptability to the problems of generating 

electric power. Along with the development of the steam turbine has 

come the development of the superheater in connection with boiler 

practice, and as the steam turbine reaches its highest economical 

working conditions with the use of superheated steam, the successful 

development of the superheater is a most fortunate circumstance.

Steam turbines operating under a vacuum of 28 inches and superheated steam, as above mentioned, have shown an economy equal to 

that obtainable by the best triple-expansion condensing engines; while 

in the matter of continuous operation through long periods without 

shut downs they are eminently suited to the work of generation of 

power for directly driving pumps for irrigation work.

In this connection the centrifugal type of pump in its recent developments and improvements has kept pace with the demands for 

improved machinery for purposes described in this paper, and the 

turbine type, with its more flexible properties in connection with special designs, both as to high head and speed of rotation, is available 

for use at an opportune time.

There has recently been under serious consideration a plant where 

it is intended to use the turbine pump directly connected to steam 

turbines in units which will be the largest pumping units in the 

world, considering the lift, the capacity being 80,000,000 gallons in 

twenty-four hours in a single unit, the lifts approximating 100 feet, 

while the economy expected is very close to that of the most economical waterworks pumping engines of which any authentic tests have
NEWELL.] POWEK ENGINEEKING IN IKKIGATION. 41

been made. Thus fields may be opened up, in some localities where 

fuel is sufficiently cheap for handling water from rivers where the 

water may not be perfe< Aj clean, and hence entirely debarred from 

being handled by any form of plunger pump.

PUMPS IN DRIVEN WELLS.

Another irrigation development consists in sinking wells in many 

localities where the gravel strata contain no large bowlders by driving 

well casings, 20 inches or more in diameter, and lowering into them 

high-lift centrifugal pumps and bearings for the vertical shaft. 

There are many places which have come to the writer's knowledge 

where this method appears to be practicable, and if a demand for this 

style of construction were once created, no doubt methods for driving 

well casings of such large diameters would be developed, and would 

be the means in many localities of obtaining water from underground 

sources at moderate expense.

GAS ENGINES.

There are many localities where gas engines of various types, in 

sizes from 5 to 30 horsepower, form one of the readiest means of obtaining power for small irrigation plants. But the great difficulty 

which the average man not skilled in mechanics has in handling the 

gas engine is liable to produce dissatisfaction with it as a reliable 

machine and to create a general impression of its lack of economy, 

although in the hands of those who are thoroughly familiar with these 

small units it is very efficient for the purpose desired.

Large engines, developing thousands of horsepower, have been eminently successful on the European Continent, especially where they 

could use the waste gases from blast furnaces. In this country they 

have not been generally used in the past, but at the present time 

greatly increased interest is being displayed in their use, recent contracts calling for units as high as 5,000 horsepower. In one case, with 

units of this size, it is necessary to manufacture the gases purposely 

for the engine.

Close observation of the success of these plants may warrant the 

adoption of such large units for large irrigation works, where fuel 

cheap in price and high in gas-making qualities can be obtained.

The gas engine is necessarily an expensive unit to install, and the 

greatest advantage that can be claimed for it is its fuel economy, but 

it yet remains to be thoroughly demonstrated that in all-around economy of investment, fuel consumption, etc., it will obtain a higher net 

economy than other forms of heat engines already perfected and demonstrated. In the case of all these new developments there are special
42 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

localities for which they are especially fitted and where they could be 

used to decided advantage.

WATER POWER.

In many places throughout the West the rivers carrying large 

quantities of water have rapids or falls wrhich can be utilized for 

power purposes, both electrically and by direct means. Some preliminary plans have been made for plants of this kind where the banks 

of the river and the lands adjacent thereto are too high for water «to 

be taken to them by gravity, but where there is plenty of power. A 

high-lift centrifugal pump may be mounted directly on the shaft of 

a vertical turbine water wheel, both the wheel and the pump receiving 

their water from the same source, the water flowing down through 

the turbine wheel and up into the base of the pump, there being no 

external shafts or stuffing boxes. With a wT ater-balanced step bearing and suitable screens provided, this device will work practically 

continuously, with very little attention and at small expense for wear 

and tear.

SUMMARY.

With the rapid demand for means of obtaining water upon lands 

out of reach of gravity systems, the developments such as have been 

treated in this short article will undoubtedly continue, and improvements both as to cost and economical operation will advance with the 

demand and with the demonstration of the feasibility of bringing 

under cultivation lands now utterly useless. It is the belief of the 

writer that the future holds the most encouraging prospects for such 

development, and that those interested in irrigation have only to 

create the demand and it will be supplied in such measure as will 

bring about a satisfactory income from the development of our great 

West.

ESTIMATES ON TUNNELING IN IRRIGATION PROJECTS.

By A. L. FELLOWS.

INTRODUCTION.

I first became intimately concerned with tunnel construction about 

eighteen years ago in connection with an irrigation project in southwestern Colorado. In this project the lands to be reclaimed were 

separated from the .river which was expected to furnish water for 

their irrigation by a divide several hundred feet high. The tunnel 

forming a part of the irrigation system as constructed was" 5,400 feet 

in length, with a cross section of 7 by 9 feet. My connection with this
NEWELL.] TUNNELING IN ffifelGATION PBOJECTS. 43.

project was that of assistant engineer, and there I learned principally 

what not to do.

As is common with corporate enterprises, the amount of money 

available was very limited, and it was generally considered that money 

that could be saved in surveying was economy for the project. As a 

matter of fact, in this particular case, I have estimated that threefourths of the actual cost of the project would have been saved by 

careful and thorough engineering.

The tunnel as constructed was of considerably greater length than 

necessary and was left unlined, in spite of my protest, on the theory 

that it was more economical to give it a heavy grade and to leave the 

tunnel unprotected than to construct lining that might serve as 

protection.

This tunnel may to-day serve as a typical horrible example. The 

roof has caved in until there are in places rooms of from 16 to 30 feet 

in height. The finer material has been washed out to some extent, 

but the bulk of the material broken down from the roof is left as a 

menace to the maintenance of the tunnel and an impediment to the 

flow of the water. It would cost more to-day to put this tunnel in 

good repair than to construct a new one. I cite these conditions simply as instances of things to be avoided in tunneling,.or, in fact, any 

other kind of engineering work.

My attention was first drawn to the Uncompahgre Valley project, 

of which the Gunnison tunnel is an integral part, by its similarity to 

the project which I have just instanced, and in the surveys every 

effort was made to avoid the mistakes that had been made in the first 

project.

PRELIMINARY WORK.

The importance of thorough surveying, with reference to any class 

of engineering, can not be overestimated, and this importance is particularly well illustrated in the survey of the Gunnison tunnel project, 

which I am now discussing. As a matter of fact, mistakes did creep 

into the early part of the work, and had the project been constructed 

as at first contemplated, and as the earlier surveys seemed to indicate 

was the proper method, it would have been done at an increased cost 

of several hundred thousand dollars. In my opinion it is safe to say 

that surveys amounting, at the outside, to not over $8,000 in cost 

effected a saving of not less than $200,000 in construction. This 

refers to the construction of the tunnel alone and not in any way to 

the increased efficiency of the project as a whole, with reference to 

which it is estimated that the cost has also been lessened by at least 

another $100,000, and perhaps by twice that sum, through the change.

Location. The best location for a tunnel having been decided upon 

in a general way. the details must be worked out with the greatest of
44 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

care. The amount of water to be carried, the amount of fall available, the best alignment for the tunnel from both topographic and 

geologic standpoints, the cross section, coefficients of friction and 

velocity of flow, are all to be determined as exactly as possible.

The alignment may depend upon a variety of both topographic 

and geologic conditions. The shortest line may be the best, but it 

may also be affected by the character of the formation to such an 

extent that a longer line through better formation may be preferable. 

It is true that one can not tell what conditions he may meet with in a 

long tunnel, but with a fair amount of care the probabilities may be 

ascertained and many uncertainties done away with, at least within 

reasonable limits.

At first thought it would seem that the natural location for a tunnel was always where the line is the shortest, but the very causes 

which have made such a location the shortest line may also be of such 

a character as to prevent easy construction, and possibly provide contingencies which will very materially increase the cost of construction. A saddle between hills often owes its existence to the fact'that 

the erosion which has taken place has been caused by the softness of 

the rocks at that particular point, or possibly to the fact that there is 

a fissure at this location which has rendered erosion easy, but tunneling difficult.

Grade. The grade to be given the tunnel, as is the case in the 

grading of canals, siphons, etc., will depend upon the conditions. 

If there is sufficient flow available the tunnel should be given enough 

grade to carry the amount of water desired at the maximum velocity 

that will not erode the tunnel lining, this being, of course, for the purpose of decreasing the cross section to as great an extent as possible.

The coefficients of friction depend upon the surface of the tunnel, 

and will range from 0.010 to 0.012 for smooth concrete up to 0.030 

to 0.035 for the ordinary rough-rock walls in machine-bored tunnels.

The velocity is dependent upon the grade which can be given. In 

my plans I have assumed that the lining can withstand a velocity 

of approximately 12^ feet per second without injury. This high 

velocity would not be possible if it were expected that the water to 

be conveyed through the tunnel would carry a great amount of silt, 

bat in the project which I am now considering the amount of silt 

carried is usually inconsiderable.

ESTIMATES OF COST.

General principles. Assuming that the location of the tunnel has 

been made with the necessary care, an estimate of the cost of construction may be made. In the course of my investigations with
NEWELL.] TUNNELING IN IRRIGATION PROJECTS. 45

regard to this subject I have compiled considerable data concerning 

the cost of construction of tunnels in different localities, much of 

which, however, I regret to state I am unable to incorporate in this 

paper, as it was given to me confidentially and is therefore not to be 

disclosed. It is sufficient to say, in this connection, that the cost per 

cubic yard of material to be removed may vary from a very small 

sum, amounting to perhaps not more than $2, up to almost any figure. My suggestions with regard to estimates can be, therefore, only 

general, the details necessarily being worked out separately for each 

individual project.

The kind of estimate to be made will depend very largely upon the 

stage of investigations. For example, in the earlier stages when 

general knowledge only as to cost of construction is desired, it is 

quite common to accept figures concerning cost shown by actual 

construction under as nearly similar conditions as possible in the 

region in which the project is located. This estimate may be based 

either upon the cubic yard or linear foot. I have found no "very 

clearly defined idea as to the proper cost per cubic yard in making 

estimates. Some authorities state that $5 per cubic yard in long 

tunnels is the time-honored basis for estimate; others state that $6 

is more nearly correct, and still other figures are given by other 

authorities.

Probably the more usual practice is to determine as nearly as possible the cost of similar structures in the vicinity; for example, in 

the preliminary investigation with reference to the Gunnison tunnel, 

I found that tunnels of about the same size and in conditions apparently more unfavorable than those surrounding the construction of the 

Gunnison tunnel had cost, for excavation alone, from $20 to $30 per 

linear foot. In the two tunnels most nearly like the proposed Gunnison tunnel of which I have knowledge the proprietors, who had 

done the construction work themselves without the intervention of 

contractors, informed me that while the excavation had cost them 

somewhat more than $20 per linear foot, they were certain that under 

as favorable conditions as they knew to exist with reference to the 

proposed Gunnison tunnel $20 per linear foot would be ample. Later 

investigations have demonstrated to my satisfaction that these estimates were not too high, but, in general, those made in this way can 

be considered as approximate only.

As investigations proceed more nearly to completion and final 

estimates, before letting contracts, are desired, it becomes necessary 

to consider the probable cost much more in detail, and then the only 

proper way of making an estimate, in my opinion, is on the basis 

of a contractor's bid. Plans must be drawn showing the different 

varieties of cross section to be used, and the amount of lining neces-
46 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

sary for different degrees of hardness of the geologic formation; 

and the probabilities with reference to the finding of water in great 

or small amounts must be determined. In the specifications for the 

Gunnison tunnel an effort was made to do away with all uncertainties, so far as the water to be encountered was concerned, by incorporating proposals with reference to the amount of water to be 

pumped, thus putting the burden directly upon the Government, and 

not upon the contractor and thence indirectly to the Government.

Power. The first details to be worked out with care are those 

relating to the furnishing of power for construction. A water power, 

if available, may often be preferred to power derived from the use 

of coal or oil unless these are extremely low in cost. This subject 

has been most ably treated by Mr. H. A. Storrs in his valuable paper, 

and need not be gone into at this time. I desire to say, however, 

that in general I am sure that the Government would save money 

by constructing the power plant itself instead of leaving this for the 

contractor to do. It would lose nothing thereby, as the cost of establishing a power plant is well known among contractors, and they 

would almost invariably allow for the cost of such a plant, with 

probably some additional allowance, if they were satisfied that 

sufficient power would be furnished.

In the matter of the establishment of a water-power plant, a number of instances which have come under my observation have led me 

to believe that the saving to the contracting party may be several 

times the cost of the power plant; in other words, the contracting 

party is practically losing nothing and may have considerable to gain 

by itself establishing the power plant. In making the estimate the 

cost of depreciation upon the plant must, as has been shown by Mr. 

Storrs, depend upon whether the plant will be entirely used in the 

construction of this individual project or whether there will be considerable salvage. In most cases there should be a salvage of from 

one-half to one-third of the original cost of a new plant. This has 

an important bearing upon the estimates, as the cost of the plant is 

a very considerable proportion of the entire cost of .construction. Estimates with reference to the cost of a power plant may generally be 

determined with reasonable accuracy through the aid of the engineering supply companies, which are always glad to furnish preliminary estimates.

Labor. The next item to be considered in detail is that of labor, 

and here, too, conditions will vary widely in different localities. It 

is usual for contractors, in making their estimates, to determine the 

cost of operation per day as the first step, the amounts paid for labor 

being different in different localities. In estimates for a 12 by 12 

tunnel which I have in my possession I find the following items in
NEWELL.] TUNNELING IN IRRIGATION PROJECTS. 47

computing the cost of excavations at one heading for one day, the 

number of employees varying with the number of shifts:

Number of employees required in tunnel work.

Rating.

Timekeepers _______________

Machinists . . . . . . . . . ...

Blacksmiths . . _ . _______ ...

Drillers _

Muckers _ _ _ _______________

Number 

employed.

2 to 3

2 to 3

1

2 to 3

lor 2

lor 2

2 to 3

8 to 12

8 to 12

14 to 21

Rating.

4-horse team _ _.__._-_.-__-

Brakernen __________________

Number 

employed.

2 to 3

2 to .8

2 to 3

2 to 3

2 to 3

2 to 3

lor 2

lor 2

4 to 6

4 to 6

To these are to be added the cost, varying in the different localities, 

as before stated, for fuel, water, powder, oil, repairs, carbons, depreciation of plant, insurance on men, pumping water, bond, and incidentals not otherwise accounted for, the last item amounting usually 

to about 10 per cent of the total cost.

The estimates made by the contractors will probably not vary 

widely, generally, as to cost per day. The crucial question is a^ to 

the amount of wrork that can be done in one day. For example, in 

two bids in my possession, the contractor who made the higher estimate of cost per day has assumed that he could do not to exceed 12 

feet of work at each heading per day, while the other makes his estimate on the assumption that he can complete, on an average, 18 feet 

per day in each heading, this decreasing the cost per linear foot in 

the second case very considerably.

Lining. The lining will naturally depend upon many different 

conditions. In some localities, where material for making brick is at 

hand, it may be thought best to line the tunnel with brick. In others, 

where construction is intended to be temporary only, the lining may 

be of timber, with a board surface to facilitate the flow of the water. 

In the project under consideration it was decided that concrete should 

be used, and in making the estimates with this end in view the following items wrere taken into account, the cost of a cubic yard of 

material in place being computed: Labor, crushing stone or transportation of gravel, or both, as the case may be, sand, forms, placing 

forms, cleaning bottom of tunnel, drayage, cement sheds, and depreciation on equipment, To the sum of these items should be added
48 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

also the cost of cement, although where, as in this case, the cement 

is fiurmshed by the United States Government, its cost will not be 

included in the contractor's estimate.

Timber. The amount of lumber used per linear foot may be easily 

computed and is to be added where timbering is necessary.

SUMMARY.

The summing up of the various items enumerated above, reduced 

according to the best judgment of the engineer, into cost per linear 

foot for different classes of work, will give his estimate of the actual 

cost of construction. Where it is expected that bids will be asked, 

however, a profit to the contractor must be added. Few contractors 

will estimate on less than 20 per cent profit, and ordinarily 25 per 

cent will be accepted as a reasonable basis..

It is not expected that in a general discussion upon such a subject 

as this it would be possible to cover all conditions that may arise. 

Only general rules can be laid down and all details must be worked 

out separately for each individual project. Where the plan outlined 

above is followed, however, it will in general give a close approximate idea of what should reasonably be expected as bids by contractors. The engineer must use his best judgment in making these 

estimates and endeavor to cover all details. Difficulties of an accidental nature that may arise should not be included, excepting in the 

insurance and contingencies as above provided for. The contractor 

may perhaps make an additional allowance for unforeseen emergencies, but the fact is generally recognized that although a contractor 

may possibly make his estimates on the worst possible conditions, the 

contracting party may do the work himself and thus avoid the extreme 

conditions on which the contractor's basis is estimated,

In conclusion I desire to deprecate a too common tendency to overestimate. It appears to me to be as much of an error to overestimate 

as it is to underestimate cost, and while reasonable allowance for contingencies should be made, it is not, in my opinion, good engineering 

to make an additional allowance after the allowance for contingencies has once been made. I have known of instances where estimates had to pass through several different hands and each individual 

felt it incumbent upon him, even after expressing himself as satisfied with the details, to add some lump sum for unexpected emergencies " so as to be on the safe side." I appreciate the fact that 

engineers are often criticised for underestimating, and I deprecate 

this fault as fully as anyone can, but the point which I desire to make 

is that after the engineer has stated what, in his opinion, is the proper 

estimate, that amount should be adhered to and neither added to nor 

subtracted from, unless some good reason for the change is shown.
NEWELL.] PAPERS READ AT THE CONFERENCE. 49

REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS.

By A. L. FELLOWS.

INTRODUCTION.

Of the many difficulties confronting the engineer in the Reclamation Service, none causes more annoyance, probably, than the necessity for frequent reports to his superior officers and for keeping the 

necessary accounts connected with his work. This condition applies 

to everyone connected with the Service, from the field assistant of 

the lowest grade to the chief engineer and the Secretary of the 

Interior.

It is not my purpose, in this short paper, to go extensively into 

details, but I desire to submit for consideration a few suggestions 

along broad lines.

That reports are absolutely necessary evils 110 one will deny; but 

to those who, like many of us now in the Reclamation Service, have 

been engaged for any length of time in private practice, where they 

were responsible only to themselves and to the individuals or firms 

employing them, the necessity for reports concerning all kinds of 

details is particularly trying. Nevertheless, the ever possible investigation, when every item is to be sifted out of the sum total of expenditures and when every act is to be scanned, must be always present 

before us.

But, more than this, every engineer must wish to have his records 

and accounts in such shape that he can, for his own satisfaction, lay 

his hands immediately upon any data or transaction in which he is 

interested; and, in order to do this, his records must be arranged 

systematically and be kept strictly up to date.

CHARACTER OF REPORTS.

It is clear, first of all, that there must be a definite system to be 

followed, and that this system must be so simple as to be readily 

understood, not only by the engineer himself, but by any other engineer who may be obliged to follow him and to carry on his work. 

While it must be thorough, so .as to cover all essential details, it 

should not be involved nor should it permit of reduplication. It 

must not be encumbered with dead branches, making it so overloaded that it may fall of its own weight, but it must, on the other 

hand, be based upon records showing what the details of cost and 

methods employed in operation have been, and be sufficiently comprehensive to give a clear conception of the facts. 

IRK 146 05 M 4
50 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

This system, while it must be complete enough to satisfy the conditions for which it is evolved, must yet not take the time of the 

engineers unnecessarily, but must present in concise form, for the 

consideration of the higher authority, those facts which are essential, 

leaving out nonesseutials.

The Secretary of the Interior wishes to have before him reports 

from the Director, and reports from the chief engineer, showing, 

briefly and concisely, work accomplished and progress made in all 

of the different projects and classes of work contemplated and carried on by the Reclamation Service. He desires to have these reports 

made in as few words as possible consistent with giving a clear idea, 

in the broadest possible way, of the situation.

The chief engineer requires from his subordinates reports somewhat 

more frequent and more detailed in character. He wishes to know 

at stated intervals the progress made along all lines of work carried 

on under his jurisdiction. At the same time, he desires that these 

reports should be free from unnecessary details, such as the cost of 

individual items, and such events as moving camp and similar trifling 

matters; but it is highly essential that he have a clear idea of the 

situation at all times, so that he may talk intelligently concerning 

projects under his general direction with those who may be interested.

The fact must be remembered that the chief engineer is to a very 

great extent the one who stands between the public and those who are 

doing the field and office work. He is, in fact, almost the court of 

last resort in important matters and sometimes with regard to matters 

that are relatively unimportant. He, moreover, must take upon himself the sins of omission and commission of his subordinates when 

discussing matters pertaining to the Reclamation Service with members of Congress and public men generally, as well as with private 

individuals who may be concerned. He must, therefore, be kept 

well informed not only by means of monthly reports, but by personal 

letters relating to important matters whenever conditions requiring 

them arise. At the same time, the tendency to annoy him with 

descriptions of petty details can but brand the correspondent as 

incompetent to satisfactorily fill his office.

The assistant chief engineer and supervising engineers, who are to 

render decisions in regard to the less important matters not relating 

to public policy and administration, should be kept informed in much 

the same way as the chief engineer concerning work being carried on 

under their supervision.

The consulting engineers should similarly be kept informed concerning those matters over which they have jurisdiction.

The district engineers in order to make the necessary reports to 

their superior officers must be kept informed concerning the work of
NEWELL.] EEPOETS AND ACCOUNTS. 51

each party within their respective territories, and must have within 

their grasp details of work done and cost of same, with reasons for 

the prosecution of such work if called upon to give them. The district engineer is concerned both in the results and in the methods 

adopted to secure them. He must be both initiative and referendum.

The project engineer, in turn, must have all details within reach, 

including costs, methods adopted, and, in general, everything needed 

in case of detailed investigations. His office is the depository, temporarily, of accounts which will be looked into, notebooks used upon 

the project, detailed reports of assistants, plans and estimates connected with his project, whether the same originated in his own 

office or in other offices. He must receive reports from his chiefs 

of parties as often as he may need them, to keep him thoroughly 

informed as to operations in the field and to see that his orders are 

being carried out and to plan for future contingencies.

Finally, chiefs of parties must have reports from their instrument 

men and heads of subparties, in order that they may be able to compile intelligible reports concerning all work, whether carried on by 

individuals or by heads of subparties.

To review the conditions from the other side, the chiefs of parties 

must be able to report to the project engineer, in such form as he may 

prescribe, concerning the most minute details of the work carried on 

under them. He, in turn, after boiling down the details before him 

until he has those most essential for a clear comprehension of the 

situation, reports to the district engineer, who, again, reports the 

sum and substance of all that has been accomplished within his territory to the consulting, supervising, and chief engineers, who report 

the broader facts for the use of the director and secretary, who may 

make these facts public through the medium of his report to Congress.

BASIS OF REPORTS.

In devising any system of reports, some well-established principle, 

upon which all can agree, must be adopted as a starting point. There 

is in the Reclamation Service one definite and necessary foundation 

upon which any system must be based, namely, the voucher. This 

is the final referendum in investigation, and upon this is based the 

charge sheet which has been adopted in the Service for convenience 

in bookkeeping. In order to simplify the processes of keeping 

accounts and of making reports, so far as is possible, it is clear that 

the same terms should be generally employed as those used in the 

charge sheet and in the accounting department of the Washington 

office.

The various divisions made, if it is desired, may be somewhat further subdivided by the district and project engineers, but these sub-
52 SECOND KECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFEKENCE. [NO. 146.

divisions should readily group themselves under the main divisions 

used on the charge sheet. It would be difficult, and probably impossible, to find two engineers who, offhand and without concerted action, 

would use the same terms for facilitating their bookkeeping and in 

describing their work. The charge sheet has, however, been adopted 

as the result of careful study on the part of several of the engineers 

who have had the most experience in the Service, and will probably, 

with possible modifications as developments may from time to time 

require, serve permanently as a basis upon which accounts are to be 

kept and rendered. Reports should, therefore, so far as possible, 

make use of the same terms as those used in the charge sheet.

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS.

With reference to reports to be submitted covering both details of 

Avork done and accounts there is a wide divergence of opinion among 

engineers. One class believes that the keeping of accounts and the 

rendering of reports should be eliminated from field work, and that 

all of this work should be done, so far as practicable, in the office; 

the other class believes, to a greater or less degree, varying with the 

individual, in making each engineer directly responsible for the purchases made under his direction and for his use, and, in order to 

bring this as closely home to him as possible, he requires his assistants to make out detailed reports both of the work done and the 

expenditures incurred.

The former method will undoubtedly result in the best sets of 

accounts, both in appearance and accuracy. They will be made up 

most nearly according to the requirements of the Washington office, 

and will not, in all probability, contain the irregularities that may 

be shown in reports made up in the field. This method has the 

advantage, too, of giving the field man more time to devote to the 

field work, and does not distract his attention by the petty details 

connected with the field accounts. For the reason that the work may 

be done more expeditiously, as well as better, in the central office, 

this method is probably cheaper, and, in some respects, more satisfactory to the project and district engineers, and perhaps more particularly so to the chief engineer and the army of accountants ranging 

through the various departments of the Washington offices.

On the other hand, the second method suggested has the advantage 

of schooling the assistant to the various methods of keeping accounts 

of expenditures and reeords of his work in detail, and it is to be 

borne in mind that the field assistant may, at some future time, and 

in many cases certainly will, be called upon to take charge of the 

keeping of accounts and to assume the responsibilities connected 

therewith. The argument in this connection is that, in the end,
NEWELL.] REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 53

more is gained by having the field assistants thoroughly trained in 

the methods of keeping accounts and making reports than in the 

temporary advantage of having the accounts in better form and 

appearance. This case is nearly parallel to that of the engineer who 

has gone through all of the different branches of field work in making 

surveys. He is a better engineer who has actually, by experience, 

learned all of the details of chaining, using the ax, rodding, marking stakes, leveling, running transit, plane table, etc., than he who 

has started with the transit at the beginning and has never gone 

through any or all of the preliminary steps.

It is true, on the other hand, that this routine work and devotion 

to details may be carried too far, and, as previously suggested, the 

system may fall of its own weight. For this reason the processes 

gone through should be as simple and as little onerous upon the field 

man as is possible.

The system used by myself was devised for my own needs and 

without particular reference to the work of other engineers. Later, 

however, at the request of the chief engineer, I sent samples of the 

different forms used by me in my survey work (but not as yet with 

regard to construction work) to all of the different district and supervising engineers. I may say, in passing, that the comments which 

have come to me have, in general, been commendatory, although a 

number of valuable suggestions have been made with reference to 

possible desirable changes.

The system adopted is, briefly, as follows:

The chief of a party or head of any particular class of work, 

whether he have a dozen men under him, or be doing all of the work 

with only one assistant, or even by himself alone, is furnished with a 

time book, consisting of 

First. Instructions to chief of party.

Second. The usual return penalty blank.

Third. Title-page, with blank space for month, State, project, etc.

Fourth. Personnel of party, comprising name, classification, occupation, rate per day, name of person to be notified in case of injury to 

employee, and permanent address.

Fifth. Monthly time record in the usual time-book form.

Sixth. Several pages for daily record, which are nothing more nor 

less than a form of journal intended simply to help the assistant to 

keep track of important incidents and to furnish him with a regular 

place for keeping memoranda of purchases, etc., space being provided also for an estimate of the salary expenses for the day upon the 

several cla'sses of work under his direction. Some would make this 

even more extensive.

Seventh. The last two pages of the book are devoted to a monthly 

summary, using the subjects for secondary and tertiary division used in
54 - SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

the charge sheet, subdivided to some extent, but grouped under the 

classifications shown therein, this monthly summary being for the 

purpose of familiarizing the assistant with the terms used and with 

the nature of the work which has to be done'in the accounting d\vision. Some of my correspondents would prefer to leave this out 

entirely.

Experience has shown that it takes but a few minutes' time on the 

part of the chief of the party each evening, and two or three hours at 

the end of the month, after he has become familiar with what is 

expected of him, to keep his book in satisfactory condition. He may, 

if he desires, keep a duplicate for his own use and records, but the 

original is to be turned in as his report promptly at the end of the 

month to his superior officer. It is to be accompanied by such written statements as he may wish to give in describing the work done 

under his direction, which statements should refer to the orders of 

his superior officer, and give such details as the assistant may conceive 

to be of importance in connection with his work. It should, in some 

cases, be accompanied by sketches, which in the work under my 

supervision are expected to be made upon progress maps, compiled 

in the office for use in the field.

The chief of each party is expected, moreover, at the end of each 

week, to keep both the project engineer and the district engineer 

informed as to the progress of his work, by means of Form 9-512, 

which consists simply of a journal of the week's work, with space for 

comments concerning work and for a forecast of the work to be done 

during the ensuing wr eek. I find these forms of considerable value 

in keeping me in touch with the work going on. It is expected, of 

course, that the chief of party will also write detailed letters in case 

there is anything requiring particular attention or in case there is not 

enough space on the form. His reports, however, are all to be on 

sheets of the same size as the form, which is of the ordinary letter size.

At the end of each month each chief of party or individual having 

direct charge of important work is expected to send in a summary 

for the month on Form 9-518. It is intended that but little time 

should be required in filling out this form, which, in the main, is 

arranged on the plan of the charge sheet. Instructions are given on 

the back of the same for its use, and thus far those who have made 

use of it have expressed satisfaction with the results obtained.

Form 9-514 is intended as a means of grouping together the reports 

from the chiefs of parties, so that they may be submitted as a whole 

to the project engineer. It is not essential that copies of Form 9-518 

be sent to the district engineer with the summary, although it is desirable at points where there are auditing departments capable of going 

over the various reports and checking the results.

In general, it may be said that Forms 9-515 and 9-512 would be
NEWELL.] EEPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. ' 55

almost universally accepted among the engineers, while 9-514 and 

9-518 are forms which some engineers would not have made up in the 

field, but the information upon which would be gleaned from the 

office records. Much could be said upon both sides of this question, 

but the main point is that records of this character should be available 

from some source, whether made up in the office or in the field, and 

these forms have thus far seemed easily comprehended and to require 

but little labor. To make their use possible, that must be done which 

I assume is done in every well-organized office, namely, purchases 

must be made upon requisition and the purchaser must be furnished 

with an itemized statement showing each purchase made, with cost of 

same. In all of my work I have these requisitions made in duplicate that is, with an original and carbon copy, the original being left 

with the merchant from whom the goods were purchased and the 

carbon copy being retained in the office.

REPORTS ON CONSTRUCTION WORK.

The system devised for reports upon construction work is somewhat 

more extended, although simpler in its nature. It proceeds along two 

lines first, on the supposition that the office must be kept informed 

concerning the work actually done by the contractor, and, second, 

that the office must have as definite information as possible concerning the actual cost of construction to the contractor.

In the first group the field quantity book is naturally the basis. 

From the quantity book quantity sheets are made, showing the 

amount of material removed and the amount of work done. These 

are to be made up by the division engineers and forwarded to the 

project engineer, in whose office they will be kept on file. Next is a 

form for the purpose of showing the total amounts of work done by 

the contractors, this being compiled from the quantity sheets. Last 

is a form for the purpose of making a statement of the amount to 

bv? paid the contractor, a copy of which is forwarded to the district 

engineer, and, after being checked and approved by him, to the chief 

engineer. With this statement is a graphic representation of work 

actually accomplished and payments to the contractor.

The second group is based upon the time book and is for the purpose of determining, as far as possible, the cost to the contractor and 

his consequent profit or loss. The timekeeper keeps a time book of 

the kind ordinarily used in similar work, and at the end of each week 

or month makes his report upon a suitable form, showing the amount 

of labor and materials paid for by the contractor. These reports 

are forwarded to the project engineer, in whose office a more detailed 

report is compiled, showing the cost to the contractor. These reports 

are filed away as matters of record and are not necessarily sent to
56 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

higher authorities until summarized at the conclusion of the work. 

They show, however, more or less roughly, whether the contractor is 

making money or losing, and as such are frequently to be referred 

to. The results obtained from these sheets may usually be summarized in one or two sentences upon the report to the chief engineer.

SUMMARY.

Regarding these forms in general, I should state that they have 

not yet been definitely decided on in all details, but that, if the tentative forms now on trial in construction work prove satisfactory and 

receive the indorsement of the chief engineer, it is expected that they 

will be printed the time books and quantity books in the usual way 

and upon ordinary paper, but the more extended forms on a tough 

quality of tracing paper, which may be reproduced by the blueprint 

process, as copies must be furnished to the contractors, as well as to 

the district, supervising, and chief engineers when called for.

It only remains to state that whenever any class of work has been 

completed or construction finished a detailed report, showing all 

essential facts, must be made by the district engineer to the higher 

authorities. These reports should cover the ground fully, so that it 

will not be necessary to go back to the original records at any later 

time, except in case of detailed investigations. If they are found by 

the chief engineer to be in satisfactory form they will greatly lessen 

the labor of compiling annual reports, as they may be referred to by 

date of letter of transmittal, and may, if in suitable form, be printed 

in the annual report of the Reclamation Service or disposed of as may 

seem most desirable.

PUMPING UNDERGROUND WATER IN SOUTHERN 

CALIFORNIA.

By F. C. FINKLE.

INTRODUCTION.

The climate of southern California is quite variable as regards 

rainfall. The maximum annual rainfall in years of abundance is 

about 5 times the minimum which occurs in years of deficient precipitation. In some localities the difference is even greater than 

this, but the above is a fair statement of the average in the great 

valley of southern California, by which is meant the valley extending from the San Bernardino Mountains to the sea near Los Angeles. 

From an inspection of the records of rainfall it also appears that 

the greater number of years have a rainfall which either approaches 

the average or is below it; that the rule is to expect a rainfall below
NEWELL.] PUMPING WATER IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 57

the average, which is made rather large owing to the occurrence of a 

very great precipitation in certain scattered seasons. Under such climatic conditions as these it is but natural to expect that the discharge 

of streams during the irrigation season is variable. The difference 

in this respect is so great that the principal flowing streams in southern California, which have their origin from the mountain watersheds, will discharge during years known as " wet seasons " from 

ten to fifteen times as much water as they do during other years 

known as " dry seasons."

The opportunities for storage of water are also limited, owing to 

the precipitous character of the country and the few available reservoir sites. Agriculture, which depends on irrigation, would therefore be limited to the supply of water which could be obtained in 

minimum years were it not that nature has provided in the different 

valleys many large subterranean gravel reservoirs, from which can 

be obtained, by pumping, a considerable amount of water for limited periods of time. This has been the principal reliance in the 

extension of agricultural areas in southern California.

UNDERGROUND RESERVOIRS. 

NATURE OF THE BASINS.

The gravel reservoirs referred to consist of the fill of drift which 

covers the bed-rock floor in the different valleys lying between the 

ranges and spurs of mountains throughout the section. Each of 

these valleys is filled with material, consisting of large bowlders, 

gravel, sand, and earth, sometimes to a depth of several thousand 

feet, and the basins are bounded either by the terranes of rock of an 

older geologic formation than the drift in the valleys or by dikes 

that have been silted up from the action of streams while the deposit 

in these valleys was being formed.

The character of the drift fill in different localities varies greatly 

in density, owing to the fineness or coarseness of the material. This 

variation is very important, as on it depends the amount of water 

which can be yielded when pumping is applied to any basin. Where 

the deposits are extremely fine, or of graduated sizes, so that the 

finer particles nearly fill the voids in the coarser, although the absolute amount of water contained in the mass may be great the quantity which can be withdrawn by pumping will be very small. The 

water contained in these masses of earth may be divided into two 

classes that which may be withdrawn by the force of gravity and 

that which can be extracted only through capillary action. The 

writer has made experiments in many localities which have shown 

that although the total fill of a basin contained as much as 33 per
58 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

cent of its mass in water, not more than an average of 5 to 8 per cent 

could be withdrawn by the application of pumps or other gravity 

force. Again, in other localities, where the fill is of coarser particles and more uniform in size, although the amount of water contained wT ould not be more than 25 per cent it would be possible to 

extract four-fifths of this, either through pumping or by tapping 

the deposit at a lower level.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY FOR UNDERGROUND RESERVOIRS.

The sources of supply which have filled these reservoirs of drift 

material are three in number (1) the precipitation on the mountain 

watershed bounding the basin where the water is to be found; (2) 

the precipitation upon the valley land itself, part of which enters 

the ground, and (3) the return waters from irrigation on areas lying 

above the basin.

By an inspection of the United States Geological Survey maps of 

the Redlands and San Bernardino quadrangles it will be seen that 

San Bernardino Valley, for example, has a number of large gravel 

washes running from the various rivers, creeks, and mountain canyons into and across the valley. These gravel washes comprise a considerable area of the land adjacent to the foothills, and where theyenter upon the valley lands are designated by engineers as " debris 

cones." This title is derived from the fact that they are fan-shaped 

deposits of coarse drift, which bear something of a resemblance to 

the side of a cone. When the flood waters from the mountains are 

deposited at the mouth of a canyon, they pass, over these debris cones, 

permitting a certain amount of the flowing water to sink below the 

surface. The water thus sinking is not again drawn to the surface 

and evaporated, but percolates gradually until it enters the valley or 

basin below, where it furnishes by far the most important source of 

supply of the underground valleys of southern California.

Next in importance, viewed from the state of nature, but not in 

volume, under the present artificial conditions produced by irrigation, 

is the rainfall upon these valley lands. The water falling upon 

the surface penetrates to various depths, depending upon the nature 

of the ground and the amount of annual precipitation. Where the 

ground is porous, and in years of good rainfall, a considerable 

quantity of water is added to these underground reservoirs in this 

manner; on the other hand, where the ground consists of fine clay, 

very little, if any, is added to the supply. Since the extension of irrigation and the diversion of all the normal flow of streams in the 

valleys of southern California, another source of supply has been 

added to these underground reservoirs. It is well known that when 

water is applied to the surface for irrigation purposes a certain per-
NEWELL.] PUMPING WATER IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 59

centage of the w;ater is evaporated, another part is consumed by plant 

life, and the remainder absorbed by the ground. As in the case of 

rainfall, if the water absorbed by the ground reaches a depth below 

the surface from which capillary attraction can no longer draw it up 

and cause it to be evaporated, it descends and becomes a part of the 

supply in the underground valley reservoir.

EXTENT OF UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY.

Much investigation has been carried on to determine the extent of 

the underground water supplies in southern California. All investigators have reached about the same conclusion, that the supply produced by nature annually for the replenishment of these reservoirs 

is limited. While it is considerable in years of abundant rainfall, 

it becomes almost nothing in years of minimum precipitation, and a 

mean must be drawn so that the reserve supply is not withdrawn to 

such an extent as to imperil this resource. Up to the present time 

this has been much neglected, and the haphazard and reckless way 

in which promoters have attacked the underground water supply 

of southern California has demonstrated the necessity of future 

retrenchment. A great number of cases may be cited where one company has obtained a supply of water by underground development, 

soon to find that some one else would follow them and either take 

away a portion or all of their supply. Cases of this kind became 

so numerous that the matter had to be brought to the attention of 

the courts, and much expensive litigation has been the result.

LEGAL PROTECTION OF UNDERGROUND WATER.

At first the courts were inclined to treat the subject in the same 

manner as the law regarded it in regions of abundant rainfall, permitting to each man the right to take as much of the water percolating 

in his own land as he could use, regardless of the purpose to which 

it might be put or the locality where it would be applied to the 

desired use. The defects of this rule, however, became so apparent 

that the supreme court of California saw the necessity of so interpreting the common law as to adapt it to the conditions prevailing 

in that State.

The first important case in the State of California on this subject 

was the now famous case of Katz v. Walkinshaw, reported in California Reports, vol. 111. The decision in this case established the 

rule that underground percolating waters, even when existing in the 

soil of a proprietor, could only be devoted to reasonable use on the 

freehold itself. Under this rule it will be possible to protect all 

legitimate uses of the percolating waters in the land and to prevent
60 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

speculators from indulging in the practice heretofore too often 

carried out. Some of these practices have consisted in buying small 

tracts of land in a valley and sinking thereon a number of wells, 

from which could be drawn practically the entire underground water 

supply in the whole valley. The water thus withdrawn would, in 

the majority of cases, be carried outside of the valley itself and sold 

for use in other watersheds than the one from which the water was 

derived. Cases of this kind have led to the impairment of property 

values in many localities in southern California, and have reduced 

lands which were originally productive to a desert condition by 

taking the water to distant localities.

Another and greater evil was the overdevelopment of the underground water, by which the water plane would gradually decline in 

elevation until the expense of pumping would become greater than the 

profits from agriculture could support.

Although much has already been accomplished looking to the 

rational use of the subterranean water supplies, much still remains 

to be done. There is still a great amount of litigation which must be 

determined before the question as to who has the best right to the use 

of the underground waters can be settled. The effect of the ruling of 

the supreme court in the case of Katz ?>. Walkinshaw, however, has 

become very apparent and is working for the good of all southern 

California. New promoters are not coining into the field in the numbers they did formerly and other sources of water supply are being 

sought for and developed. Those already using the underground 

Avater are becoming more careful of its use, and the effect in restraining former operations is beginning to be felt in some localities. No 

hardship will ensue from the new rule applied to the undergroundwater question, as ample time will be giATen to all localities wrongfully using water in which to make other arrangements. There are 

undoubtedly many projects which will have their rights curtailed 

when the questions are presented to the courts, and in some cases the 

proprietors, realizing this, are making preparations for the future.

DECLINE OF THE UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLIES.

A table of water elevations existing in Perris and Menifee valleys 

prior to the beginning of pumping operations and subsequent thereto 

shows a very rapid decline in the water plane in these valleys under 

the action of pumping, the effect being greatest near the points where 

the pumping plants are located and, radiating outward, becoming less 

perceptible at greater distances from the pumps. The pumping from 

this valley has been carried on for about three years for the purpose 

of taking the water away to a distant locality. The average amount 

withdrawn during that time is equivalent to a constant flow of from
-NEWELL.] PUMPING WATER IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 61

8 to 9 second-feet. As the water-bearing gravels of this valley are 

limited in depth and much of the deposits are of a compact nature, 

the decline has been more rapid than in any other case of record. 

The opportunity for flood water to penetrate the surface and replenish the subterranean supply is also more limited in this locality 

than in many other places, owing to the fact that the surface more 

nearly approaches a state of imperviousness. The only conclusion 

which can be drawn from the tabulation showing the decline of the 

water levels in Perris and Menifee valleys is that this supply has been 

greatly overdeveloped, and at the present rate of use will soon become 

unprofitable owing to the great depth from which it must be lifted.

Another example of overdevelopment of water is that exhibited in 

San Bernardino Valley. Lines have been drawn on the map of the 

Redlands and San Bernardino quadrangles showing the limits of the 

artesian area in San Bernardino Valley at different periods. Four 

different limits of the extent of artesian water are shown, all of which 

are from observations made by the author during these different 

years. While it is not likely that all of the decline is attributable to 

the excessive use of water from San Bernardino Valley, it is certain 

that the greater part of the effect is due to this cause. An inspection 

of rainfall diagrams representing graphically the rainfall at San 

Bernardino and at Riverside these being the two principal towns in 

the San Bernardino basin shows that this conclusion is inevitable. 

Although the precipitation in later years has been somewhat below 

the average, except in two seasons, these rainfall charts show that this 

condition has occurred previously, and even to a more marked degree, 

without producing the very radical effect on the underground water 

supply which is now apparent.

REPLENISHMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY.

A consideration of the condition in the two valleys referred to 

shows the necessity for careful consideration of this question by the 

people interested in these respective localities and the adoption of 

measures which will remedy the condition now existing.

Diminution of the draft. The first thing to be done will be to 

diminish the amount of water being withdrawn from these two valleys. As the water taken out is not being applied to the ground in 

the valleys themselves, no opportunity is afforded for the return of 

any part of the water extracted to the underground strata. This 

creates an absolute loss to the underground reservoirs of the entire 

supplies being withdrawn. As above outlined, the only method by 

which this reform can be brought about, unless the users consent to a 

reasonable diminution of their supply, is by recourse to action in the 

courts on the part of the property owners suffering injury. Such 

actions are now pending, and until they are decided no relief is likely
62 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

to come from this source. It is possible, however, for the users of the 

water being pumped from these valleys to increase the supply in 

another way.

Replenishment by floods. As has already been pointed out, the 

principal source of supply for this underground water is the flood 

water which is discharged from the mountain watersheds adjacent. 

When these flood waters enter the valley they issue forth in a narrow 

and contracted channel at some point across the debris cone immediately below the mouth of the mountain canyon. The opportunity for 

percolation from the stream when flowing is limited to the area of 

surface over which it passes. The material being porous, a considerable amount of water percolates down into the strata, even in the 

narrow channel occupied by the water. But, on the other hand, it 

is undisputed that when heavy floods occur the greater part of the 

flood run-off passes over the surface, down the various stream channels, and eventually into the Pacific Ocean. If some means can be 

adopted whereby a greater percentage of the flood water may enter 

the debris cones along the upper margin of the valleys, it follows that 

the supply to the underground reservoirs can be increased correspondingly, and this is an ideal which is not impossible of realization. 

The areas of these gravel washes are very extensive, and if the flood 

waters, instead of running in a narrow channel, were spread out 

over the debris cones the result would be to feed the underground 

reservoirs much more rapidly than is possible in a state of nature. 

In order to accomplish this it will be necessary for those interested 

in the water supply of these underground reservoirs to construct 

regulating works at the mouth of every mountain canyon of sufficient 

importance, by means of which the flood waters can be controlled 

and uniformly distributed over the large areas of gravel wash immediately below each canyon. Such works would have to consist of a 

dam or dams, with outlets at a sufficient number of points to discharge the water on the gravel wherever desired.

In addition to the dams, shafts or wells might also be excavated 

at points lower down, into which streams of water might be run, thus 

affording the infiltration -of water into the gravel debris cone under 

pressure. These dams should be so constructed that the water might 

be shifted from place to place as required.

This feature is extremely important, because when flood water 

heavily charged with silt flows over the debris cone in one place for a 

considerable period the fine silt carried by the water fills up the pores 

and prevents rapid percolation into the detritus.

In connection with such works for controlling and distributing the 

flood waters over the debris cones it is, of course, important that they 

be so constructed as not to direct the floods upon the agricultural 

areas adjacent, thereby causing damage to improved property.
NEWELL.] PUMPING WATEE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 63

While the accomplishment of this method of recharging the underground areas of southern California seems a very simple one, it 

involves problems in hydraulics which are possibly more important 

than have heretofore been encountered by^the engineering profession. 

Not only is the question of designing these works so as to make them 

commercially economical a very important one, but the question of 

so designing them as not to damage adjacent improved property is 

one of still greater importance. These floods are sometimes so enormous that to divert them from their accustomed channel might be a 

serious menace to many localities, for which reason the works must 

not only be substantially built, but must be so designed as to allow 

complete control of the water discharged during the heaviest floods.

PUMPING FROM UNDERGROUND RESERVOIRS.

When some of the ideas above outlined are put into practice, as can 

without doubt be accomplished successfully, the fears now existing 

as to the giving out of the underground water supply in southern 

California and the abandonment of localities now under cultivation 

will be wholly dissipated. The subject of pumping water in southern 

California is, therefore, not one of mere passing importance, but one 

which will engage the attention of the people in this section for all 

time. It is an industry which will forever flourish and be extremely 

important, becoming more so as the question is solved whereby the 

right to the use of this water is definitely decided and the quantity 

which can be obtained from this source is definitely determined. 

When this period is reached the troubles incident to the interference 

of one locality with another, or one company with another, will be 

eliminated, and the whole industry will be founded upon a fixed and 

conservative basis.

The question of methods and extent of pumping operations is 

therefore a very important one and merits thorough description.

EXTENT OF PUMPING OPERATIONS.

In the part of southern California lying south of Tehachapi Pass, 

and embracing the great valley of southern California having its 

outlet to the ocean below Los Angeles, as well as a large number of 

smaller valleys, the number of horsepower devoted to pumping 

water for irrigation and other purposes approximates 10,000. At 

times the number of horsepower employed is even greater, but the 

average is not far from the figure stated.

As to the amount of water being pumped by this power it is difficult to state exact figures, owing to the fact that so many of the 

pumping plants are in operation only for short periods when the 

owners require the water. Plants operated by large companies and
64 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

municipalities are in operation most of the time, but individual 

plants are used as the exigencies of the owner may demand. The 

average quantity of water pumped has been variously estimated by 

different authorities to be the equivalent of anywhere from 350 to 

550 second-feet, continuous flow. The making of such an estimate, 

however, is attended with considerable difficulty, owing to the fact 

that pumping operations are governed to such a large extent by climatic conditions. In some seasons, which we denominate " dry years," 

the pumping of water is carried on during almost every month of 

the year, while in other years, of more abundant rainfall, it is confined principally to about six or seven months. The estimate of the 

author is that an average quantity of about 450 second-feet of water 

has been pumped during the last few years from the various underground-water sources of southern California. This, as will be shown 

by the reports of stream gagings in southern California, is a much 

greater volume than the combined flow of all the running streams 

during the summer season of an average year.

METHODS EMPLOYED IN PUMPING WATER.

The means by which this large volume of water is pumped vary 

greatly. The type of pump employed is probably more uniform 

than any other feature, as the centrifugal pump is principally used. 

Some other types of pumps are in operation in places where the 

water is to be lifted a considerable height, but these are the exception rather than the rule.

The kind of power employed in driving these pumps varies considerably, being, in the order of their importance, as follows: Electric 

motors, gasoline engines, and steam plants. The application is either 

by direct connection or by belting, the latter being at present the 

most popular and most widely used. In the case of electric motors 

the author is convinced that the efficiency can be increased by a direct 

connection of the motor to the pump, particularly in the case of 

centrifugal pumps.

Efficiency of pumps. A method of pumping which has been employed to some extent is to drive an air compressor by means of either 

of the three kinds of power above stated, forcing down into the well 

the compressed air, which, upon escaping, throws the water out of 

the casing. This method is known as the direct air-lift or Pohle 

system. The economy of power with the direct lift is very low, as 

the efficiency of an air compressor is usually as low as somewhere 

from 50 to 60 per cent, and the air discharged in the water only 

exerts about one-half of its useful energy in lifting water, the balance escaping in the form of bubbles to the surface. The result is 

that the direct air-lift method of pumping shows an. efficiency of
NEWELL.] PUMPING WATER IF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 65

only from 20 to 3) per cent of the actual power applied. This

makes the method i 

ated to advantage;

ndesirable where a first-class pump can be operblit it has its use in the case of a large number of

wells scattered over/a radius of half a mile or thereabouts, which may 

be operated from one central station without individual plants at 

each well. In a case of this kind the compressor can be installed in 

the central station and the air. piped to each of the wells from this 

pomt. The loss due to inefficiency in the use of power is, therefore, 

in such cases overcome to a great extent by avoiding a multiplicity 

of small plants and attendants to look after them.

As to the efficiency obtained from the power applied to other 

pumps, it has been found to vary from 10 to 75 per cent. The worst 

cases of installation which have come under the observation of the 

writer were where centrifugal pumps have been used and show an 

efficiency of about 40 per cent, the best being about 75 per cent. 

This range also applies to other pumps, such as the Downey doubleacting deep-well pump, as well as to triplex and quadruplex pumps 

of various makes. With proper installation there is no reason why 

the efficiency should ever be below 65 per cent in case of any of 

these types of pumps, and with the very best design it should in 

three-fourths of the cases be up to 75 per cent. The faults which 

account for the inefficiencies in most cases are in selecting the size 

of pump required and the method of arranging the installation 

of the apparatus. These plants are frequently installed either by 

agents, who are not themselves familiar with points relating to the 

operation of such machinery, or by the owners of wells themselves, 

who go ahead without any technical assistance. However, the people are gradually learning that economy in operation is a very 

important essential, and that the investment of a few less dollars in 

the initial cost is not so important as the securing of a continuously 

high efficiency.

Electric power for pumping. While streams in southern California are not large in volume during the season of normal flow, 

they possess another feature, viz, that of having steeply inclined 

beds. The grades of the streams flowing from the mountain watersheds vary from 100 feet to 400 feet per mile. This fact makes it 

possible to obtain high falls in the mountains, from which electric 

power can be developed. The result is that there is not at present a 

stream of any importance on which there has not been constructed 

one or more hydro-electric power plants. In the development of 

these powers the Edison Electric Company, of Los Angeles, has been 

the leader up to the present time, having developed and put in operation 6 plants of this kind and being engaged at present in the construction of several more. The output of these plants is largely 

IBB 146 05 M 5
66 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

used for pumping water for irrigation and other purposes, and a 

description of the methods of constructing them is therefore of great 

value in this connection.

Of the plants which the Edison Electric Company has in.operation 

at the present time, the first was installed on Mill Creek, near 

Redlands, in the year 1893. This plant has a net fall of 510 feet, and 

the water is carried through a 30-inch steel force main 10,250 feet in 

length. This is the only plant that may be termed a " valley " plant, 

the diversion of -the water being at the mouth of Mill Creek Canyon 

and the pipe line and power house being entirely in the valley. The 

fall of the valley at this point, however, being more than 250 feet per 

mile, made the construction of the plant easily possible. The apparatus installed in the station of Mill Creek No. 1 is three 250-kilowatt 

generators, driven by Pelton water wheels. These generators at 

their estimated full load develop 1,000 horsepower, but have frequently been loaded 30 or 40 per cent over their rated capacity. At 

the time of its installation this plant was considered large and important, being the first commercial three-phase plant in the world. Later 

developments of the company, however, have made this plant appear 

small and insignificant.

Two other plants have been installed higher up on the same 

stream and are known as " Mill Creek No. 2 and No. 3." The former 

of these was constructed in the year 1898, the fall available at the 

water wheels being 627 feet. This plant derives its water from a 

tributary of Mill Creek known as " Mountain Home Stream " and 

from certain other water rising in the bed of Mill Creek itself below 

the next diversion, known as " Mill Creek No. 3."

The water is carried in a cement-concrete pipe line along the side of 

the mountain and through numerous tunnels to a fore bay, from which 

point the force main of steel pipe, 18 inches inside diameter and 1,400 

feet in length, delivers the water to the power station. The machinery 

installed in this plant consists of two 250-kilowatt generators, also 

driven by means of Pelton water wheels.

The plant on Mill Creeh known as Mill Creek No. 3 is remarkable on account of its high pressure at the wheels. The net fall from 

the fore bay to the power-house floor is 1,960 feet, bsing through a steel 

force main about 8,000 feet in length and varjdng from '28 inches to 24 

inches internal diameter. The water is diverted from Mill Creek at a 

point near Akers Narrows, which is situated nearly 5,000 feet above 

sea level, and carried through a cement-concrete pipe 31£ inches in 

diameter, laid on a grade of two-tenths of a foot per 100 feet. This 

pipe is buried in trenches or laid through tunnels. These tunnels, 

of which there are 19 on the line, vary in length from 300 feet to 1,100 

feet.

The method of making the cement-concrete pipe referred to is by
NEWELL.] PTJMPiNG WATEE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 67

using a form consisting of two parts, the inside being known as the 

core and the outside as the jacket. The core when expanded has an 

outside diameter equal to that required for the inside of the pipe 

section, and the jacket when closed has an inside diameter equal to 

that required for the outside diameter of the pipe section. The 

space between the two wrhen placed in position constitutes the thickness of shell for the concrete pipe, which in case of 31-inch pipe is 2-;} 

inches. The forms when set up and in position for making pipe are 

placed upon a cast-iron ring, which gives the lower end of the pipe 

section an ogee form. The core is expanded by means of a locking 

device, by loosening which it can be contracted to a lesser diameter. 

The reverse is true of the jacket, which is contracted by means of 

a similar device, the loosening of which allows the jacket to b3 

expanded.

The making of the pipe is accomplished by mixing san'd and finely 

crushed rock in equal proportions, and again mixing this, in the 

proportion of 1 to 3, by measurement, with hydraulic Portland 

cement. This is shoveled into place between the core and jacket 

through a hopper and tamped thoroughly until the entire,space is 

filled. The hopper is then removed and a heavy shaping ring is 

placed QII top of the jacket, which shapes the upper end of the pipe 

section to correspond in reverse to the lower one. The core is then 

pulled while the shaping ring is still in place, after which this is 

removed, but the outside jacket is not taken off for about thirty or 

forty minutes, or until the concrete has taken on its initial set. The 

pipe section is then left 011 the cast-iron ring for two or three days 

until it can be lifted off with safety.

To render them impervious these sections are later coated with n. 

wash of neat cement dissolved in water to cover the entire interior 

surface.

The method of laying these pipes is to place them together, so that 

the recess in the end of one section fits the projection of the other. 

A collar of cement mortar, mixed with 1 part cement to 2 parts sand, 

is then applied, by means of rubber gloves, around the entire outside 

and underneath the pipe. This collar varies in size, depending upon 

the diameter of the pipe; the general rule being that it should be 

twice as wide as the thickness of the pipe shell and not less than 

one-sixth as deep at the point of juncture of the two pipes as the 

thickness of the pipe shell. The crack formed on the inside of the 

pipe where the two sections are joined is carefully plastered with a 

trowel to make a smooth and continuous surface. Great importance 

attaches to having the ends of the pipe section well cleaned and 

thoroughly wet before the mortar for making the outside collar or 

plastering the interior is applied, and also to covering carefully the 

collar or band after it is completed.
68 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE, [NO. 146.

After the pipe joint is well set, the trench is then back filled with 

earth, covering the pipe to a depth of about 18 inches. It is not 

desirable to cover the pipe any deeper than this with fresh earth, 

owing to the danger of the external pressure cracking or disturbing 

the concrete, but later on, after the earth has thoroughly set around 

the entire outside circumference of a pipe section from natural 

rainfall on the surface, it may be covered to any depth. This method 

of constructing a hydraulic conduit for power plants has been found 

very economical and efficient, as the conduit is buried under the 

ground where no slides, washouts, or rolling bowlders can injure it.

The Edison Electric Company has also constructed its hydraulic 

conduit for the power plant owned by it on Lytle Creek, in San 

Bernardino County, in the same manner, using in this case a 36-inch 

diameter pipe having a shell 3 inches thick.

These three plants, the two on Mill Creek above referred to and 

the one on Lytle Creek, have been in operation a long time and no 

accidents of any kind have occurred to the pipe. They are in a 

condition which warrants the belief that they will last indefinitely.

The company has, in addition to the three plants on Mill Creek and 

the one on Lytle Creek, two other plants, located on the Santa Ana 

River, also near Redlands. These plants are known as Santa Ana 

River No. 1, which was constructed in 1898, and Santa Ana River 

No. 2, constructed during 1904. The volume of water for these 

plants is so much larger than for the others already discussed that 

it was impossible to adopt the type of construction already described. 

It was therefore decided to drive tunnels through the sides of the 

mountain. These tunnels are lined with concrete and when finished 

are 5 feet wide on the bottom and 6 feet high, the sides being run 

up straight for 4^ feet, after which an arch is sprung over the middle. 

The capacity of these tunnels is 100 second-feet of water; the fall at 

the upper power plant being 728 feet, and at the lower one, or No. 2, 

810 feet.

The most remarkable installation yet completed by the company is 

the No. 3 plant on Mill Creek, owing to its extremely high head, the 

pressure at the nozzle of the Pelton wheel being 840 pounds to the 

square inch. The pipe used at the lower end of this force main is of 

the lap-welded pattern, with solid steel flanges welded to each pipe 

section. As the thickest pipe of 24-inch diameter which could be 

made by the National Tube Company was three-fourths of an inch, it 

became necessary to wrap the lower end of this pipe for the force 

main to give it the requisite strength. This was done with cruciblesteel wire three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, applied under tension while the pipe was being turned in a lathe, and securely clamped 

at both ends of the pipe section. The pipe was then dipped in a bath 

of asphaltum to cover the surface of the wrapping thoroughly.
NEWELL.] PUMPING WATER IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 69

The total capacity of the six power plants of the Edison Electric 

Company above referred to is 15,000 horsepower, nearly one-third of 

which is being used for the pumping of water for irrigation and 

domestic purposes. The remainder of the power is distributed for 

lighting and street-railway operation in the various cities of southern 

California.

Another large electric-power plant, to be located on Kern River, is 

now in course of construction by the company, which will have a total 

output of 28,000 horsepower. This plant will consist of a line of 

tunnels (8 miles in length), divided into 19 sections and worked from 

38 headings. The size of these "tunnels in the rough is 9 feet by 9 feet, 

the sides being 7 feet vertical with an arch overhead. The entire bottom and sides up to 7 feet will be lined with concrete, reducing the 

section to 8 feet by 7 feet in depth. Overhead lining, in the form of a 

concrete arch, will be used only where the rock is not sufficiently solid 

to be self-supporting. Over half of these tunnels, or about 4J miles, 

were completed January 1, 1905.

The force main for this power plant will be an inclined underground tunnel, which will be lined with a steel tube 7-| feet internal 

diameter, the space between this steel lining and the sides of the 

tunnel being filled with concrete~well rammed into place. The grade 

of the tunnels leading to the head of the force main is at the rate of 

7.92 feet per mile, giving the lined section a capacity of about 460 

cubic feet per second. The water thus carried will have a net fall of 

872 feet from the head of the force main to the water wheels in the 

station.

The development of this large plant was made necessary by the 

enormous expansion of business in the part of southern California 

over which the lines of the company extend, a great deal of this business being occasioned by the amount of power used for pumping 

water.

The lining of the tunnels with concrete, as above stated, has been 

found to be the most economical method of constructing them, 

because the section of a tunnel of given carrying capacity is reduced 

by smoothness of interior. Taking Kutter's formula as the method of 

calculating the capacity, the tunnels driven in the rough by means of 

machine drills will give a coefficient of roughness from 0.028 to 

0.035, while the lined and plastered section has a coefficient not 

exceeding 0.012. It is therefore cheaper to provide the concrete lining and plaster than to excavate the much larger section required for 

carrying the same quantity of water through a tunnel in the rough.

Other powers used for pumping. Largely because the electric 

development has not been able to supply the demands for power 

a great many individuals and companies have had to resort to the
70 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

use of gasoline and steam plants to lift their water. The gasoline 

engines used are operated with distillate, which is a crude oil having 

the heavier ingredients removed. The cost of this fuel is not excessive, but the amount of attendance required for small plants makes 

the operation quite expensive. In the case of an electric motor the 

machinery will run without an attendant after being started, but 

with a distillate or gasoline engine some one has to be in attendance 

to guard the operation of the plant. This is also true where steam 

plants are used, as in that case a fireman and engineer must be in 

constant attendance, both night and day.

It is likely that as the development of electric power progresses 

the supply will be sufficient to displace most of these less economical 

plants with electric motors. Although the electric companies supplying power for motors do not usually make a rate which is lower 

than the cost of fuel for other plants, the saving in other directions 

is so great that the change will be adopted by users of power.

Not only is the saving of attendance above cited an important item, 

but the greater durability of electric machinery is really still more 

important. An electric motor is a piece of machinery which, if not 

abused, will endure for an indefinite time, while all types of engines 

are limited in their life to only a few years. Particularly is this 

true when they are operated (as is usually the case) in pumping plants 

by men who are not skilled in handling power machinery.

PUMPING IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.

The counties of central California from Fresno County to the 

Tehachapi Pass, including the counties of Fresno, Tulare, Kings, 

and Kern, are usually classed with southern California when the 

State is considered in only two geological divisions. These counties 

include what is the best part of the San Joaquin Valley, which needs 

greater irrigation facilities alone to make it a real empire. All the 

waters of the rivers flowing into this portion of the San Joaquin Valley are now being used for irrigation, but the supply is sufficient to 

irrigate only a small part of the available land. The whole valley, 

however, is underlaid with an abundant supply of water, which in 

most localities is suitable for irrigation purposes if pumped to the 

surface. A beginning has already been made in this direction, and 

the Mount Whitney Power Company, in Tulare County, is now supplying large quantities of power for pumping water to irrigate land 

in that locality. This power plant is constructed on East Fork of 

Kaweali River, and more than half its output is applied to pumping 

water at the present time.

In Kern County a plant owned by the Bakersfield Power, Transit 

and Light Company is constructed, from which a great part of the
NEWELL.] PUMPING WATER IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 71

output is used for pumping wells in the vicinity of Bakersfield. The 

water from these wells is used largely for growing alfalfa and for 

irrigating deciduous fruits, which grow luxuriantly in that neighborhood.

With a greater available supply of power for pumping purposes 

the extension of irrigation in Kern County, by means of pumping, 

will be greatly increased. In Fresno County there are large areas 

of land on what is known as the King River delta, which can be 

reclaimed by means of wells and electric power developed from the 

Sierras.

The King River Power Company, a corporation under the Edison 

Electric Company, of Los Angeles, is the owner oft the power rights 

on King River near Fresno, and the development of these powers 

will create endless possibilities for the irrigation of land from subterranean water in this part of San Joaquin Valley. The amount 

of water power which can be developed at normal flow of the streams 

from the King River Canyon, at Fresno, south to Tehachapi Pass, 

will approximately equal 200,000 horsepower, and unquestionably 

there will be a market for all of this power, as a great part of it is 

needed in southern California, south of Tehachapi, and another 

large part will be required for pumping water in San Joaquin Valley in the counties above referred to. It is hard to realize what will 

be the condition of the population in this part of the San Joaquin 

Valley when these developments are completed to their fullest 

extent.

No danger need be apprehended from the decline of the subterranean water supply even if used in large quantities in this manner, 

as the water taken out will be applied to the surface of the va-lley 

itself, and a very large percentage will again enter the ground, the 

only loss being from evaporation and the consumption of the crops 

grown on the land.

The cases in which the underground water supply is seriously impaired by its being pumped for use are those where the water is 

carried out of-one basin or valley for use in other localities, so that the 

return waters from irrigation do not reenter the same strata from 

which the supply was derived.

SUGGESTIONS AND CAUTIONS.

In concluding these observations it is important to state a few facts 

relating to the proper method used in deciding on projects where 

lands are to be reclaimed by the use of underground water.

First, it must be definitely ascertained that the supply is ample for 

the purpose intended and will not give out as soon as the locality 

built up from its use has become large and prosperous. This is
72 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

particularly important where the water taken from one valley is to 

be carried to another distant from it. In this case it must be carefully ascertained that the supply entering the basin from which the 

water is taken is sufficient to replenish the voids created by the water 

being pumped out. It is also important to determine that the proposed pumping operations will not interfere with other vested water 

rights in the streams or springs in the vicinity, and that they will 

not draw away the water belonging to other landed proprietors in the 

vicinity. Where the water is taken out and used on the land under 

which it is discovered, these considerations are not so important, as 

but a small part of the supply can be consumed at the most. In such 

cases the percentage consumed will of course depend upon the nature 

of the soil, the kind of crops grown, and other natural conditions in 

the vicinity.

Another important consideration is the character of the water, because injurious salts, if contained therein, may result in the infertility 

of the land to which such water is applied. This subject must, of 

course, be investigated by careful analyses of the water and of the soil 

to be irrigated.

The proper construction of the plants for lifting the water and 

distributing it to the points needed is equally important and requires 

careful attention from men skilled in this class of engineering.

COLLECTION OF STJREAM-GAGI^G DATA.'

By N. C. GROVER.

A general study of the records of stream gaging brings to the 

attention the fact that the degree of accuracy varies much for different river stations and sections of the country. Measurements made 

for several years at carefully maintained stations have been consistent, and the measured discharges when plotted have denned closely 

for each station the discharge curve. Such records indicate that 

the laws of river hydraulics are definite and that inconsistencies in 

measured discharges are due to causes which can be determined and 

eliminated.

In contrast with these stations are many at which the physical conditions are just as good, but for which the discharge measurements, 

even in a single year, are glaringly inconsistent. For many such stations, with practically stable conditions of bed and banks, as many 

as 30 to 60 meter measurements of discharge for each station have 

been made without defining.the curves of discharge.

It therefore becomes a matter of importance to determine the reasons why the records for some stations are good and for other stations
NEWELL.] STREAM-GAGING DATA. 73

poor. Causes for such differences have generally been found to be 

either (1) inaccuracy in the determination of areas, (2) changes in 

the datum of the gage, (3) inaccuracy in the determination of velocity, or (4) poor conditions at the gaging station.

Probably the most frequent source of error is in the determination 

of the area of cross section of the streams. At high stages of the 

river, particularly, accurate soundings are difficult and expensive to 

obtain, and even if sufficient lead is used to insure its position on the 

bed vertically under the point of observation, the bowing of the 

sounding line, due to the force of the moving water,.will frequently 

cause errors of several tenths of a foot in the soundings. Errors as 

great as 30 per cent have not uncommonly been introduced in highwater measurements through errors in the determination of area.

If the bed and banks are permanent, the profile of the cross section 

should be accurately determined during a low stage of the river, 

and in computing the results of all meter measurements area should 

either be determined from this standard cross section or be checked 

by comparison with it.

 Whenever possible the station should be so located that the conditions of flow will be permanent that is, the conditions of bank and 

bed should be practically permanent, not only at the station, but 

within such limits above and below that there will be no appreciable 

change in the relation between gage height and discharge. In some 

sections of the country this may be practically impossible, but in 

others such conditions are not uncommon. Results of gagings at such 

stations should always be consistent.

If the beds change only during freshets a succession of cross sections, determined at the low-water stages and each applicable for a 

limited time, can probably be used to advantage. If the bed is constantly changing, soundings must of course be made at each gaging, 

but exceptional care must be used in order to insure even passably 

good results. Particular attention is here called to the fact that in 

order that the areas may be readily checked by comparison with 

others the total area of both still and moving water must be included.

Next to errors in determination of area are those due to changes in 

the datum of the gage. A score of cases can be easily cited where 

several years' records have been rendered almost worthless by carelessness in maintaining a constant datum. Frequent checking of the 

gage with a permanent bench and an exact and detailed record of just 

what and when changes have been made is absolutely essential to good 

results.

Inaccuracies in the determination of velocity may be divided into 

two classes, (1) those that are due simply to erroneous observations 

and which are as likely to be positive as negative and are consequently
74 SECOND EECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

compensating, and (2) those due to defects in the meter or its rating, 

which may persist through many measurements. These latter are by 

far the more important and should receive consideration. They are 

due to either original inaccurate rating of the meter or to injury of 

the meter after rating, usually the latter. In order that these errors 

may be reduced to a minimum, care should be exercised that the meter 

receives no blows, is properly adjusted, and that the pivot point is 

protected and oiled. Results should occasionally be compared with 

those obtained by another meter. If at any time the mean velocities 

when platted throw suspicion on the meter, it should either be rerated, 

or compared directly with another me'ter. If the instrument must be 

used after injury or when in poor condition, it should be rated before 

repair id the rating table so obtained applied to previous measurements.

A large Price meter should :"-ot be used when the velocity of the 

current is less than 1 foot per second, nor a small Price when the 

velocity of the current is less than 0.05 foot per second.

It is worth noting also that at many stations wuere conditions are 

permanent, as outlined above, the growth of grass in the stream at 

the gaging station may decrease the flow as much as 25 per cent from 

the normal, and this one fact would doubtless explain why many 

current-meter measurements do not plat well on the curve. Such 

conditions should be noted in all cases.

At gaging stations where conditions are permanent, therefore, the 

rating curve may be constructed from measurements made in several 

years, and should be good for all time. As a result of this investigation the writer has come to believe that if more time had been 

expended in maintaining the station, in making, computing, and 

checking each measurement, better estimates could have been made at 

a smaller ultimate cost. In other words, the careless and hastily 

made meter measurement is believed to be more expensive in the end. 

It is therefore suggested that after a meter measurement of flow has 

been made and computed it should be tested by the man who made 

the measurement before the results are transmitted, by platting the 

computed discharge, area, and mean velocity, and by comparing these 

platted results with others obtained at the same station. If discrepancies are found, the causes should if possible be at once located. An 

early study of each measurement will insure that mistakes in area and 

datum of gage shall not be carried forward indefinitely and that reasons for erratic data shall be determined if possible. If a few months 

or years elapse before any study of these errors is made the results 

must generally remain uncorrected and frequently will be much in 

error. It is good business to spend a few dollars in carefully checking and reporting records which cost many more dollars to collect.
NEWELL.] PAPERS READ AT THE CONFERENCE. 75

BIO PROJECT.

B B. M. HALL.

The writer prepared and read at the El Paso Irrigation Congress 

a paper on " Plans for irrigation of the NRio Grande Valley,"' which 

has been published in full in the Third Annual Report of the Reclamation Service. As a supplement to that paper it has been thought 

desirable to epitomize the unique conditions and engineering facts 

brought out by it and some of the results that would naturally follow 

from the completion of the Engle dam and the irrigation of 180,000 

acres in New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico.

WATER SUPPLY.

Engle, N. Mex., is about 100 miles up the river above El Paso, 

Tex., and the annual discharge of the river is much larger at the 

upper station than at the lower station, as shown by the following 

table, which gives the discharge at each point in acre-feet :

Discharge of Bio Grande.

Year.

1897............ ----- _--._-_*-.-_-.---. ---------

1898.----.-.--.------------------------.-------

1899. --.. ...............-._..-...-..........-.-..-.-.

1900-----..------ ----.---.-----.- ----

1901 _-_________.._._--_-.--.--.-.--_---.---..---.-- ..-

1903-----.-.--.-- - --.---.. -----.------

1903-... ...-......-..............-.....-.--.-.--.---..

1904... --.-. .'---------..-----.. ---------- ----------

Discharge at 

San Marcial, 

above Engle.

Acre-feet. 

2, 225, 257

964, 677

239, 835

484, 324

656, 274

200, 729

1,272,069

689, 069

6, 732, 234

841,529

Discharge at " The Pass, 1 ' 

above El Paso.

Acre-feet.

1,374,745

669, 298

73, 503

169, 751

363, 968

57, 768

1,032,844

473, 141

4,215,018

526, 877

These figures show that in flowing from San Marcial to El Paso 

the river suffers an average annual loss of 314,652 acre-feet, or more 

than 37 per cent of its water, by irrigation, evaporation, and percolation.

The records also show for San Marcial a minimum annual discharge of 200,729 acre-feet and a maximum annual discharge of 

2,225,257 acre-feet, while those for El Paso show a still greater discrepancy between the minimum and the maximum flow. In order, 

then, to get a uniform annual supply of 600,000 acre-feet for irriga-
76 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

tion, the reservoir at Engle must be. very large and must present a 

surface for evaporation that is as small as possible, the evaporation 

being 84.8 inches per annum in that dry atmosphere. It has also 

been demonstrated by a long series of tests that the amount of --silt 

carried in suspension by the water of this river is phenomenal, -being 

sufficient to produce a deposit of solid mud that is 1.8 per 

V{4$me of the total discharge of the river. The reservoir 

Elephant Butte, near Engle, has been chosen with reference to these 

conditions. The proposed reservoir will be long, narrow, and deep, 

having a maximum depth of 175 feet, a length of over 40 miles, and 

a storage capacity of 2,000,000 acre-feet. Sixty per cent of its capacity will hold all the .mud that can come down the river in eighty 

years, but its deep, narrow form will present ideal conditions for 

sluicing out this mud as opportunity presents itself, advantage being 

taken at times of an empty reservoir and a flood in the river, or a 

supply of water from a storage dam above constructed for the purpose.

CONSTRUCTION FEATURES.

At the dam site the bed rock is 65 feet below the present river bed, 

and the proposed dam will be 255 feet high from bed rock to crest. 

The crest will be 15 feet above the level of the spillway. A gap H 

miles ^vTest of the dam site forms a natural spillway at the proper 

level, but this gap is in soft material and will require masonry and 

riprap. The bed rock is firm saiidstonfc, dipping upstream, and it 

outcrops on both sides of the river to a height far above the crest 

level. The dam is to be of cyclopean concrete. There is an unlimited quantity of hard, tough, heavy trap rock near at hand that will 

be excellent for the broken stone and large bowlders necessary in the 

structure.

In drawing out the water for irrigation it can pass through water 

Avheels and produce an immense amount of power. The main irrigation canals will also have drops in them that can be utilized for 

power. The soil in which the canals will be excavated is tight and 

the silt from the river will make them practically impervious.

It is estimated that the dam, the spillway, the various diversion 

dams, and the necessary system of canals will cost $7,200,000, or $40 

per acre for the land irrigated.

The surveys and tests made by Prof. Charles S. Slichter at " The 

Pass," a narrow gorge just above El Paso, where the bed rock is 90 

feet below the river bed, show that there is practically no underflow at 

that point, and demonstrate that there is no necessity of going to bed 

rock with low diversion dams to prevent underflow. Professor 

Slichter's work also shows that submerged dams from bed rock to 

river bed, which have been often proposed on this river in order to
NEWELL.] RIO GRANDE PROJECT. 77

bring up the supposed underflow, would be of no use, as there is practically no underflow" to bring up. At ordinary stages of river there 

is very little percolation, except at points where the understratum ©i 

silt ites been recently eroded by floods or the river has taken a

 ' *"" IRRIGABLE LANDS.

The 180,000 acres of land to be irrigated are in a long, narrow valley, and the return water from the irrigation of the upper valley 

can be rediverted on lands lower down the valley. This feature, and 

other favorable conditions, coupled with the fact that the whole area 

to be irrigated has an average annual rainfall of 9.3 inches, make it 

entirely safe to estimate on a duty of 3^ acre-feet per acre at the 

outlet of the reservoir. In other words, it is considered safe co estimate that 600,000 acre-feet per annum drawn from the reservoir wil1 

irrigate 180,000 acres of land. This estimate is on average crops, 

including alfalfa, orchards, corn, grain, vegetables, etc.

Under present conditions the river bed is often dry from four to 

six months in a year, while disastrous floods come at other times. It 

is expected that the Engle Dam and the proposed irrigation will 

change these conditions for the better. The storage dam will hold 

back all the floods and distribute them over the irrigation period of 

ten months. The water will be let out as needed and there will be 

no more disastrous floods below the dam. The river bed will never 

be dry at any time of year, as the return water from such a large 

irrigated area will form constant springs along the whole course of 

the river. Lastly, the supply of ground water for pumping will be 

greater and more constant than it now is, as the water entering the 

ground from the irrigated lands will form a constant source of 

supply.

The valley of the Rio Grande is remarkably fertile. The section 

under consideration is from 3,500 to 4,000 feet above sea level, and 

'the climate is healthy and delightful. The crop season is long, and 

the whole region is tributary to El Paso, with its numerous railroads, 

thus insuring a good market for al] products.

INTERSTATE AND INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS.

This project is peculiarly interesting, not only because it will irrigate so large an area of valuable land, but because it will supply 

water to settle an interstate question between New Mexico and Texas, 

and an international question between the United States and the 

Republic of Mexico.

In making the plans for this Rio Grande project the engineers of 

the Reclamation Service have recognized the existence of these inter-
78 SECOND BECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFEEENOE. [NO. 146.

state and international questions, and have provided as much water 

for the El Paso Valley in Texas and Mexico as would have been 

supplied by the proposed international dam at El Paso, but they 

have not stated how this El Paso Valley water should be divided 

between Texas and Mexico; neither have they expressed any opinions as to the sovereign rights of the Territory of New Mexico, the 

State of Texas, or the Republic of Mexico.

DIAMOND-DRIM, METHODS.

By G. A. HAMMOND.

After a reconnaissance has been made and the feasibility of the 

projsct determined, it is necessary to look into the matter of suitable 

foundations for the proposed dam; or, in the case of a natural reservoir, to ascertain whether its bottom will hold water. For this purpose the diamond drill is employed.

The drill man usually finds that he has arrived before the road 

makers. In this case provision must be made for hauling the drill 

to the site of operation. In some cases a hand drill may be transported on {jack animals to the reservoir site and lowered over the cliff 

to the rivei below.

It is also necessary to ascertain whether the water is fit for boilers. 

If it is found to be of good quality, the question of fuel is next to be 

considered. It has been the experience of the writer that good water 

and fuel are seldom found together. When salty water is found 

and the contemplated borings are not too extensive, hand drills are 

employed, water being used only for washing the material out of the 

bore holes. The motive power is obtained by hand cranks. In hand 

drilling progress is slower than where steam is employed, but when 

the cost of fuel and the hauling of water long distances are considered it may be found cheaper.

On most projects hand drills have been used, since, owing to their 

light weight, freight charges are saved in railroad shipments. In 

some localities it has been found impracticable to use steam drills on 

account of the bad water for boilers, and the scarcity of fuel.

In one instance the work was started with hand-power drills, but 

encountering granite bowlders 26 feet thick, which were too hard and 

large for hand work, a steam drill was employed to drill and ream 

the bowlders so that the casing could be put through and driven to 

bed rock. In another instance the project was 12 miles from water, 

and much farther from fuel, so that the use of steam drills was 

impossible.

Diamond drills are now used extensively in all parts of the world. 

The idea wT as brought out in the year 1863 by a French engineer, who 

built and operated the first drill and introduced the carbon to the
NEWELL.] DIAMOND-DRILL METHODS. 79

professional world. Carbons are found in Brazil. Borts also are 

found in Brazil and in South Africa. Borts are used in soft rock, 

but they are not of proper structure for hard rock, as they have a 

cleavage plane which is not found in the carbon. The cost of bort is 

about one-fourth that of carbon.

In commencing drilling operations, efforts are made to equip all 

the parties with casing and rods of standard size, so that if work 

should not progress satisfactorily on any project, owing to some 

unforeseen contingency, such as encountering of harder material or 

finding the depth to rock being greater than anticipated, part of 

another outfit could be sent in and used with the one already on the 

project, and in that way a saving in freight charges effected by not 

having to ship a complete outfit.

The Service equipment has not yet been entirely standardized, 

owing to the fact that many of the appliances are comparatively new 

and valuable; but as the objectionable material wears out it will be 

replaced by standard equipment. For the work now in hand, the 

standard drill will consist of 2^-inch extra heavy flush-joint casing, 

1^-inch drill rod, and 2T^-inch diamond bit. The large bit is found 

to be more satisfactory in the rock encountered in the lava country.

A wooden derrick is employed, which can be trailed behind a 

wagon; this can be taken down, moved, and set up ready for work in 

a few minutes. Six or eight hours would be required to make the 

same move with a steam drill. After the derrick is set up on tlie 

plank foundation and guide for casing, the casing is lowered through 

the hole in the plank, and the rod is put in the casing with a steel 

X or cross bit on the bottom. Two men take hold of the rope, which 

passes through a pulley at the top of the derrick and is hooked in a 

water swivel screwed in the top of the rod, and pull until the rod" 

is raised the distance required by hardness of material; the rod is* 

then let fall and the bit cuts the earth. The rods are hollow, and 

water is forced through them by means of a hand pump and a hose 

attached to the water swivel. The earth which has been loosened by 

the bit is thus forced up and out over the top of the casing. The 

foreman then clamps a pair of tongs to the casing and by slowly 

moving it back and forth the casing cuts the side of the bank and 

follows the bit down.

If a bowlder is encountered, loose material is forced out by the pump, 

the rods are withdrawn, and a piece of dynamite with exploder 

attached is lowered by wire to the bowlder, the casing is pulled 2 or 3 

feet, and the dynamite is exploded by battery.

When rock is found, the drill is set over the casing, a diamond bit 

is lowered to the bottom, rods are connected to the drill, and boring 

is commenced.
80 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Prior to March 1, 1904, some machines were equipped with sleeve 

pipe and heavy iron hammers, the method employed being to force 

the pipe by driving. The result in hard material was very disastrous 

to the pipe, and several hours were required to pull for blasting or 

to pull out when the borings were finished. By using flush-joint 

casing and powder, progress is much more rapid, and the casing can 

be pulled in a very short time.

In the drilling department are four steam drills and six hand drills, 

which will be employed when to advantage in the work. The foremen are provided with blank forms of daily and monthly reports 

which they are required to make out and send to the superintendent 

of borings at Salt Lake City. In that wT ay a very close watch is 

kept on the work, and by referring to the daily reports the superintendent can at any time tell where his presence is most needed.

Parties are made up, when convenient, of a foreman who understands the driving of casing and the handling of a diamond drill. 

Foremen receive from $90 to $100 per month. The diamond bits 

are set by the superintendent on his regular visits. On projects wrhere 

the rock is very hard or wT here more than one drill is in use, a diamond 

setter is employed as chief of party, at $150 .per month.

MEAN-VELOCITY AND AREA CURVES. 

By F. W. HANNA.

FACTORS OF STREAM DISCHARGE.

Inasmuch as the discharge of any river is the product of the crosssectional area and mean velocity for that stage, the most convenient 

and logical place to seek for guidance in the construction of a discharge curve is in these related functions. It is easier to follow 

changes in these variables individually than as product. Any study, 

therefore, that will throw light upon the nature of either of these 

functions will give valuable knowledge as to the location and nature 

of the discharge curve. By plotting for varying stages of water the 

discharges, mean velocities, and areas for any river cross section as 

abscissae and the corresponding gage heights as ordinates a general 

curvilinear relation between any one of these functions and the gage 

height can be seen to exist. Moreover, where conditions of curvature, 

slope, cross section, and bed are similar for the same or different 

streams, an equal resemblance is noted in all of the above like curves. 

This concomitant similitude of channel and curves indicates clearly 

the source for investigation, but it also indicates the impossibility of 

deriving an exact, and at the same time general, equational law. Of 

the four determining elements (1) channel curvature, (2) channel 

bed, (3) channel slope, and (4.) channel cross section the problem
NEWELL.] MEAN-VELOCITY AND AREA CURVES, 81

of curvature effect may be omitted, as all gaging stations should be 

so located as to eliminate this element. Of the remaining three elements the area is affected only by the latter, while the velocity, and 

consequently the discharge, are affected by all of them.

CROSS-SECTION AREA CURVES.

In order to find some approximate law governing the area curve it 

will be necessary to make some assumption as to the character of the 

cross-section curve of the stream. To meet this necessity, in order to 

be strictly accurate, it should be assumed that the profile of any 

stream cross section consists of a series of arcs of parabolas whose 

axes are vertical. As the arcs may be taken long or short, and as 

each parabola may have a different parameter or may be convex outward or inward, and as a straight line is a limiting condition of a 

parabolic arc, the above statement, while having the quality of being 

very general and comprehensive, has the-merit also of being capable 

of very close approximation to the actual conditions. From this 

principle the degree, variability of degree, and direction of the area 

function may be developed. However, the results are very complicated, and as the intention of the formulae here developed is for the 

purpose of showing the impracticability of using them, rather than 

suggesting them for use, less elaborate and at the same time just as 

useful information may be obtained by assuming the profile of the 

river cross section to be composed of a series of short straight lines. 

Under this assumption the cross-sectional area will be made up of a 

series of rectangles and trapezoids, promiscuously placed one on top 

of the other. Since the lengths of the straight lines may be assumed 

to be very short, no very great error will be involved in formulae based 

on this rectilinear assumption.

If C represents the area below the base of any one of the crosssectional trapezoids, B the width of its base, 6 and cp the complements of the slopes of its sides, x its varying "area, y the height of 

water above its base, and A, | (tan 6 + tan (p), then it may be shown 

by calculus that the area equations for the rectangular, trapezoidal, 

and complex channel are, respectively:

1. .x=By.

2. x=Ai/+By.

3. o;=A(tan 0+tan <p) if+By+ C.

In these equations A, Z?, and G are all positive quantities (excluding cases of overhanging banks) from the imposed conditions in the 

hypothesis. B, C, 0, and (p are, however, periodical variables in the 

third equation, changing for each trapezoid. An examination into 

these equations reveals the following facts: First, that when, a channel 

IBB 146 05 M 6
82 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

is perfectly rectangular the area curve is a straight line; second, 

that when a channel is perfectly trapezoidal the area curve is a parabola with a horizontal axis extending to the right; third, that when a 

channel is a promiscuous series of rectangles and varying trapezoids 

the area curve consists of a series of parabolic arcs with varying 

parameters and with horizontal axes, which extend to the right, except 

that when the expresssion (tan 0 + tan q>) becomes negative from an 

overhanging bank or banks the direction of the axis is reversed. As 

an overhanging bank is a rare occurrence, the condition will be 

excluded from the discussion hereafter and the expression (tan 0 + 

tan <p) will, therefore, be positive.

By differentiating the area equations 1, 2, and 3 with respect to 

x and y as variables, there result the following expressions:

4 ^/_JL. 

dx~ B

dy

dx~2 Ay+B 

dy 1

dx (tan #+tan (p}y+B

In these differential equations -p is the tangent of the angle that

any tangent to the area curve makes with the a?-axis. Now, since 

dx>dy always, this tangent must always make an acute angle with 

this axis. Assuming that the gage increments are all taken equal, if 

the area increment receives any sudden increase in value, as it would 

where there is a sudden decrease in the slope of the banks, the tangent

~ becomes suddenly smaller, and there is a corresponding change in

the direction of the curve to the right. If this increase is due to a 

horizontal line the change in the curve is a sharp angle, if to a 

gradually sloping line the angle will be rounded off. Again, if the 

area has been increasing rapidly, caused by one or both banks becoming more nearly perpendicular, the degree of curvature will suddenly 

be decreased and the curve will become flatter. If at any place in

the curve the banks become perpendicular, -~ becomes constant and

the curve proceeds on a straight line.

By differentiating equations 4 to 6 and multiplying by x there are 

obtained the following relations:

7- -J77)X = 0.

Ty0 tAs~- 41 _

dy*
NEWELL.] MEAN-VELOCITY AND AREA CURVES. 83

($X Now, by the theory of curvature, when the expression ^-3 x

is positive the curve is convex toward the y-axis. Inspection of 

equations T to 9 shows that this expression is in every case positive, 

whence the area curve is always convex toward the y-axis, and, 

therefore, always concave toward the a?-axis.

From the above deduction the following facts concerning the area 

curve must logically be inferred : The construction of any area curve 

must be preceded by a careful study of a complete profile of the river 

cross section. If the cross section is perfectly rectangular or trapezoidal the area curve may be drawn by plotting a few salient points 

and by drawing through them a straight line or a parabola, as the 

case demands. However, if the channel is irregular, varying from 

one form to the other, as is almost invariably the case at all gaging 

stations, the construction of a reliable area curve can be made only by 

computing from the elevations of the cross-section profile the area 

for numerous heights of gage throughout its range of variation, 

plotting these results and drawing through them the resulting curve.

MEAN-VELOCITY CURVES.

The matter of determining the nature of the mean- velocity curve is 

not an easy task. The fact that so many varying and doubtful elements, such as roughness of bed, slope, area of cross section, and 

wetted perimeter, enter into its composition makes it to a large degree 

indeterminate. The Chezy formula, F=c\/rs,with Kutter's value for 

c. is probably the best formula from which to obtain information.

Let this formula be written in the following manner: T7'2=c2s-j where

P

 x is the cross-section area and p its wetted perimeter. Now, by substituting the values of x from equations 1, 2, and 3 in this expression, 

thore result the following equations of the mean-velocity curve for the 

resp9ctive conditions of cross section represented by the value of x 

substituted :

10. V*=&s &H. 

P

11. v*=<*8

P 

-oi (tan 

P

If s be considered constant, which it is for uniform channel cross 

section and permanence of flow; if c be considered constant, which 

is practically the case where changes in gage height do not cause
84 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

increase of roughness of bed and where there is permanence of flow; 

an'd if the increase, in p be considered negligible, which may be 

assumed with little error for small rises in a wide, steep-banked stream 

of uniform depth, then equation 10 is a parabola with its axis 

vertical, equation 11 is a hyperbola with a vertical axis, equation 12 

represents a series of hyperbolas with varying eccentricities and usually with vertical axes, but the axes of which are horizontal when 

B* 2 (tan 0 + tan cp) C is negative. This is equivalent to saying that 

when the area below any trapezoid base, multiplied by twice the sum 

of the tangents of the angles that the banks make with the vertical, 

is greater than the square of the base of that trapezoid the curve is 

reversed and the axis of the hyperbola is horizontal. Owing to the 

properties of these curves and the direction of their axes, if c, s, and 

p be regarded as constants, it may be expected that the mean-velocity 

curve will always be concave toward the F-axis when the channel is 

rectangular or trapezoidal, and will or will not be so when the channel 

consists of a series of trapezoids, accordingly as I?2 2 (tan 6 + tan cp) C 

is positive or negative.

Evidently these parabolas and hyperbolas will be considerably modified by variations in the channel roughness, slope, and wetted perimeter, but the modifications will rarely upset the similitude. The 

effect of p, since it is always an increasing quantity for increasing 

gage heights, will be to throw the curve inside of the theoretical curve; 

that is, to make it closer to the velocity axis. The effect of s is both 

positive and negative in action, as it may either increase or decrease 

for increasing values of y. Its changes depend upon the slope of the 

channel above and below the gaging station and upon the rising and 

falling condition of the river. Increases in gage height usually 

increase the coefficient of channel roughness, and, therefore, usually 

decrease the value of c. Its effect on the theoretical graph, or curve, 

is usually conjoined with that of p. The complicated effects of wetted 

perimeter, slope, and roughness of channel on the theoretical curves 

make a careful study of the gaging-station conditions absolutely necessary to an intelligent construction of the mean-velocity curve. Such 

a curve may be drawn by keeping in mind the theoretical curves 

here deduced, and by studying carefully the cross-section profile for 

increase in area and in wetted perimeter, by considering the condition of the banks of the river as to growth of grass and trees and as to 

other obstructions affecting the coefficient of roughness, and by inspecting the conditions of channel both above and below the station for 

nlope influences, and by investigating each measurement to see whether 

the stream was in a state of permanent flow when it was made.
NEWELL.] MEAN-VELOCITY AND AREA CURVES. 85 

EQUATION OF DISCHARGE.

Since the discharge of a stream for any stage is the product of the 

area and mean velocity for that stage, then the equations for discharge become :

13. Q=^ 

v

14. =Cv p

15. Q=-^l C [i (tan 

vp

All of these discharge equations are of a complicated degree, unsuited to practical application, but they serve to show the following 

important facts: (1) The discharge curve for a rectangular or trapezoidal channel could be determined were it possible to get entirely 

satisfactory values for e, p, and 8. (2) The discharge curve for the 

irregularly cross-sectioned channel, which is about the only kind 

used in stream gaging, is a very complicated equation of the sixth 

degree with respect to Q and ?/, and contains in addition the varying 

quantities c, s, £>, tan 0, tan <p, B, and C, thus making it impossible 

to obtain any tangible method of applying it. (3) The first derivative,-^, of equations 13, 14, and 15 shows that the tangent to the discharge curve makes an acute angle with the y axis and is always an 

increasing function for increasing gage heights unless influenced by

da Q

unusual fluctuations in s, p, and c. (4) The second derivative, -^, ci y

of these equations shows that the curve is always convex toward the 

y-axis, and therefore concave toward the Q axis. Fluctuations in 

s, p, and c are probably never so great as to upset these conditions. 

(5) The chief and controlling factor in shaping the progress of the 

discharge curve is the condition of channel.

APPLICATION OF CURVES.

So far there have been considered only the nature and method of 

construction of the cross-sectional area and mean-velocity curves. It 

yet remains, therefore, to point out their practical utility. Evidently. 

neither of them would be of much use in and of itself, as there is 

little need for the determination of river cross-sectional area or mean 

velocity as ultimate results. Their sole function in the problem of 

hydrography is as auxiliary components of discharge determination, . 

the discharge being the simple product of these two values. Anything that tends to more accurate results in obtaining these functions 

increases, therefore, the precision of discharge estimates.
86 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

The standard profile and area curve of the river cross section are 

very important for every permanent gaging station. This profile 

should be very carefully determined by means of soundings at low 

water and levels up the banks to the high-water limit. The standard 

area cur ye can be determined from this standard cross-section profile. 

If the area is computed for various gage heights which have been 

selected at the critical points in the cross section, a reliable curve can 

be constructed by using the areas as abscissae and the gage heights as 

orclinates. This curve once constructed for a permanent station 

becomes a criterion whereby computed areas obtained at the time of 

measurements may be checked. Also, when on account of high water 

or any other hindrance soundings can not be obtained, the depths may 

be obtained directly from the standard cross section and the area taken 

directly from the standard area curve. In nonpermanent stations 

this standard area curve will serve to show the amount of scour or fill 

of the channel and the standard cross section will show its location. 

The standard area curve should be kept on file and every area computation should be compared with it as soon as it is made. The very 

important additional use of the area curve in determining the discharge curve will be mentioned in connection with the remarks on 

that curvr.

While the area curve may be obtained immediately for any gaging 

station, the mean-velocity curve can be constructed only after a 

series of discharge measurements has been made. As soon as a few 

fairly well distributed gagings have been obtained the velocities 

should be plotted and the most probable curve drawn. This curve 

when kept on file will serve to check subsequent velocity determinations, and will, therefore, disclose back-water conditions, errors in 

computation, and current-meter defects. When all the yearly measurements are made, or at any time that it is desirable to make a discharge curve, this mean-velocity curve can be drawn to correspond 

to the whole data and then used in connection with the area curve in 

constructing the discharge curve.

Owing to the fact that close checks have been kept by the hydrographer on the area and mean-velocity computations, the discharge 

measurements will probably make a very reasonably smooth curve, 

and may, therefore, give no further trouble. However, if the measurements are somewhat at variance with one another, or are not w^ell 

distributed, it is a comparatively easy matter to draw or extend the 

mean-velocity curve, which is much less complicated than the discharge curve. By using the standard area curve and the meanvelocity curve so constructed a satisfactory discharge curve may 

almost invariably be constructed. This discharge curve is obtained 

by taking the products of the abscissae of these curves for the corre-
NEWELL.] IMPORTANCE OF HYDROGEAPHIC DATA. 87

spending abscissae of the discharge curve for various gage heights. 

These products should be obtained for every foot or half foot of gage 

height where the degree of curvature is high, but where the curvature approaches zero these intervals may be increased somewhat.

IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL HYDROGRAPHIC DATA CONCERNING BASINS OF STREAMS GAGED.

By ROBERT E. HORTON.

The publications of the Survey on streams and gagings are largely 

utilized by persons familiar with and especially interested in some 

particular stream. They are also used by persons desiring to compare adjacent catchment basins, and gross errors may be and often 

are committed in attempting to estimate the yield of a drainage basin 

from that of an adjacent stream or from the yield of the same stream 

at some point where it has been gaged.

Consider, for example, a stream flowing out of a rocky, forested 

mountain region and over a broad plain with deep soil under cultivation. Suppose that the stream has been gaged at the foot of the 

mountains, but it is desired to estimate its run-off at the foot of the 

plain. A very common method in such cases is to increase the discharge in proportion to the increased drainage area. This method is 

legitimate in some cases, and unless the person making the estimate 

had a knowledge of the hydrographic features of the two sections 

of the basin and of their effect 011 the run-off and regimen of the 

stream he might easily infer that such a method was applicable in 

this case. As a matter of fact, in the case cited it is probable that 

the use of such a method would result in an estimated discharge 

at the foot of the plain considerably in excess of the truth. An error 

of this kind which cost perhaps $100,000, and which resulted in the 

complete failure of a large project, has come under the writer's 

observation.

In the reports of the Survey as hitherto published but little data 

have been given regarding the character of the drainage basins. To 

persons unfamiliar with the conditions, the fact that gagings at two 

points on a stream show widely different run-off may be taken as 

evidence of inaccuracy of the gagings, whereas the real reason for the 

difference may be in the physical character of the basin.

As the records continue from year to year, conditions in the catchment basins as to forestation, culture, drainage, evaporation, etc., may 

progressively change, causing a change in the run-off and in the 

rainf all-run-off relation.

It is important that the state of each drainage basin as regards the 

above-named features shall be early recorded, so that when changes
88 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

occur in the future their relation to the streams may be rationally 

traced. The physical data which it appears most important to 

include in descriptions of gaging stations may be classified as follows:

(a) Shape of drainage basin and description of tributaries 

whether sparse or numerous, with branches or without, etc. This 

has an important bearing on the flood discharge.

(&) Topography. Especially that of the upper reaches of the 

stream as compared with the intermediate and lower drainage areas.

(c) Soil and underlying rock. The relative location of portions 

of the area having rock and soil surface, respectively, should be 

noted. It is also well to know whether the rock is impervious, as 

slate or granite, or porous and fissured, as sandstone and limestone. 

The character of the soil, whether sand or clay, porous or impervious, 

deep or shallow, moist or dry, should also be noted.

(d) Lakes and marshes. Their location, area, and range of variation in stage are important as modifying both the flood discharge 

and the low-water regimen; the existence and extent of flood plains 

and overflowed areas may also be noted.

(e) Culture. The location of the larger forest areas. The percentage of forest and tilled land. The area of barren rock surface, 

etc. It is also desirable to state the extent of sodded meadows and 

pasture lands, as such areas afford maximum evaporation losses.

(/) Springs and ground water. The depth of the ground-water 

table below the surface. The seasonal fluctuation in level to which 

it is subject, and general facts as to the presence or absence of springs. 

It may also be of great value in interpreting gaging records to know 

whether the topographic drainage basin receives water from or 

yields water to adjacent basins through ground water.

(g) Diversion and storage. Irrigation, drainage, and other artificial influences modifying the stream regimen should be noted in 

the records.

(h) Rain and snow. The regimen of a stream in a northern 

climate may differ widely from that of a similar southern drainage 

basin, owing to the fact that a large part of the northern winter 

precipitation is held for months as surface storage in the form of 

snow.

Peculiarities in the distribution or occurrence of precipitation in 

each locality should be noted, even if details as to the amounts of 

such precipitation can not be entered into.

If such data as those above outlined are carefully collected and 

published, the gaging records may become of greatly increased value 

and may be safely utilized by those not familiar with the character 

of the streams in question.

With such data before him, one could compare the gaging records 

for streams on the plains with those for streams in the Central States,
NEWELL.]

may

and, for 

river 

while 

tation.

Condi 

light in 

find in t 

physical 

ject-mat 

criticisn 

what an 

themselv

EFFE

example, reasons would at once appear why it is that one 

yield but 2 inches run-off per year from 15 inches rainfall, 

another yields 10 inches run-off from an equivalent precipiions such as above described are frequently brought to

the reports of the Survey, yet it is not always possible to

le published reports the underlying reasons for them. Such

data as have been outlined form properly a part of the suber of hydrography, and the above notes are given not as a

of the work done, but in the hope that they may suggest

dliary data are needed to render the stream-gaging records

is most complete and useful.

!T OF AQUATIC VEGETATION O]ST STREAM FLOW.

By ROBERT E. HORTON.

Three 

may be 

trouble, 

shallows 

" eel gra 

Lake out let 

third for 

of New 

to be the

Fish Greek 

steady

principal classes of aquatic plants that influence stream flow 

mentioned. The first, algae, has been found to give little 

isually growing in small brooks or on rocks in rapids and 

The second class, a fine long wiry grass, sometimes called 

ss," has been observed by the writer, notably in Saratoga

Discharge

EFFECT OF AQUATIC VEGETATION. 89

, or Fish Creek, in New York. It is accompanied by the 

m, the common dark-green fronded water plant, or eel grass, 

nglancl rivers, in which, however, the fine wiry grass seems 

chief source of interference.

is a smooth-flowing stream with sandy bed and a very 

gimen, its principal supply coming from Saratoga Lake. 

It is utilized by important water powers near its mouth. The grass 

is so scattered that its effect on the stream would at first appear 

doubtful or unimportant. An examination shows, however, that the 

stream is filled with swirls and eddies, and its current is very hard to 

measure with a meter. As the season advances and the grass growth 

increases the slope and flow become so decreased that cleaning is 

necessary, and a boat is sent through to cut the grass. Aside from the 

grass, the conditions are favorable to accurate measurement.

measurements of Fish Creek, New York, in 1904, showing effect oj 

grass in stream.

October 5

Novembe^

Date.

n. ......................

Gage 

height.

1.46

1.47

1.25

Discharge.

Second-feet. 

283

311

381

Condition.

Grass mostly gone.
90 SECOND RECLAMATION" SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

On many Michigan rivers fronded water grass is so common and 

prolific than a suitable site for current-meter work can hardly be 

found in the course of the stream. Upper St. Joseph River, a flat, 

winding, smooth-flowing stream, affords an interesting example. A 

gaging station was established in 1902 at Mendon, .at a highway 

bridge, where apparently measurements could be made with an excellent degree of accuracy. There is no artificial influence disturbing 

the stream for many miles above or below and no back water from 

dams. A descent of over 20 feet slope of stream surface intervenes 

between the gaging station and the nearest dam below. The gage is 

located in the open stream channel one-half mile above the bridgewhere measurements are made. It was soon found that there was a 

wide variation in the discharge at a given stage, and this could only 

be attributed to the effect of back water from aquatic vegetation 

growing below the place of measurement.

Measurements made in early spring, before the growth of grass 

began, showed a maximum discharge for a given stage. It was 

proposed, therefore, to develop a maximum or normal discharge 

curve showing the conditions in the absence of vegetable growth in 

the stream. The station has been continued three ye^rs, and each 

season, as the summer advances and the growth of aquatic vegetation 

increases, the discharge measurements fall short farther and farther 

from the normal discharge curve.

Ultimately a series of discharge curves will be drawn parallel to 

the normal curve showing " contours"" of discharge with ^ arying 

degrees of grass obstruction, and in this way an approximate estimate of the summer discharge may be arrived at, somewhat after 

the method used in estimating discharge of western rivers having 

continually shifting beds.

SANITARY REGULATIONS GOVERNING CONSTRUCTION

CAMPS.

By M. O. LEIGHTON.

NEED FOR SANITATION.

Sanitation, according to the popular idea, is a science which has 

no pecuniary utility that is, the purposes are entirely humanitarian 

and have little or no relation to money values. This idea is erroneous. 

There are phases of the sanitary question which are quite as important from the financial as they are from the purely social standpoint. 

Almost nowhere is this better exemplified than in connection with 

great construction camps.

The physical condition of the laborer is the measure of his day's 

work. Whether his occupation be active or sedentary, his achieve-
NEWELL.] SANITATION OF CONSTKTJCTION CAMPS. 91

ments are finally controlled and limited by his relation to physical 

ills. The difference between the achievements of a person in good 

and in poor physical condition is a matter of common observation. 

When this difference applies to a whole community, its total is 

increased in direct ratio to the number of persons, and in a camp of 

several hundred workmen it becomes a serious item. It may represent the difference between success and failure in the completion of 

a piece of work within a specified period, in the character of the 

work, or in its permanence after completion.

It is only a step from the poor physical condition that is responsible 

for indifferent labor to the acute illness, during which all productive 

labor ceases. A general epidemic of acute disease in a construction 

camp is disastrous. Disease rather than engineering difficulties has 

been the cause of absolute failure in a few great projects. The 

earlier attempt at the construction of the Panama Canal is a notable 

instance. In short, sanitation is one of the vital necessities in construction camps.

Construction camps maintained in connection with the various irrigation projects afford exceptionally favorable ground for the dissemination of disease. There the men mingle more intimately than 

in almost any other walk of life. Culinary and toilet utensils are 

used in common, and every other feature favorable to the rapid dissemination of disease is provided. This is true, of course, of all construction camps, but there are in these arid lands additional hazards 

which no human foresight can provide against. Camps are invariably remote from bases of supplies, and food must therefore be 

inferior to that which could be provided in more favorable locations, 

but most important of all is the fact that water is often scarce. The 

very conditions which make irrigation construction necessary also add 

to the dangers attendant upon that construction. In arid countries 

the desire for water on the part of workingmen is far more acute 

than in humid regions. It is natural that under such circumstances 

men consider quantity of water rather than quality. Too often there 

is no choice to be exercised the one available supply must be used, 

whether it be good or bad. Thirsty men give little thought to any 

characteristic of water save that of wetness.

The above considerations make it practically incumbent upon those 

in charge of reclamation construction to provide against all conceivable conditions or circumstances which might result in an outbreak 

of disease among the engineers or laborers. To this end*it is proposed 

to incorporate into the specifications of each contract advertised under 

the reclamation law the following clause:

The use and sale of intoxicating liquor will be absolutely prohibited on the 

work except under the direction and supervision of the engineer in charge or 

his agent, and then only for medicinal purposes; and it is furthermore hereby
92 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

understood and agreed that the chief engineer may establish rules for sanitary 

and police regulations in all forces employed under this contract, and should 

the contractor fail to enforce these rules the engineer may police working gangs 

and camps and assess the proper proportion of the cost against the contractor, 

the amount so assessed to be deducted from any sum due said contractor.

SANITARY CODE FOR RECLAMATION WORK.

The following code has been promulgated to govern the location, 

construction, and maintenance of camps. In drafting these regulations it has been necessary to bear in mind the limitations which prevail in the region covered by the work. The natural conditions and 

the remoteness of camps from bases of supplies, as well as the widely 

varying necessities attendant upon the different branches of the work, 

render it impracticable to attempt to establish and enforce finely 

definite regulations. In this code it has been the intention to express 

general principles, with the purpose of having them carry the details 

by implication.

Camp sites. Especial care should be exercised in the location of 

camp sites. They should be placed upon well-drained ground where 

sun and air may have free access, and as far as possible from bodies of 

quiescent water, such as bog holes, seepage ponds, and sinks. Low 

places along river bottoms should be avoided whenever possible, and 

in case it becomes necessary to establish a camp at any point where 

the ground-water table is close to the surface each camp structure 

should be surrounded at its base by a trench of from 1 to 2 feet in 

depth and an outlet provided for emergency use to drain off water 

which may collect there.

Camp structures. Camp sites should always be selected convenient 

to some source of water supply, but the. camp structures should not 

be placed in close proximity thereto. The slope and nature of the 

soil should be considered, and no structure should be erected at a 

point from which effete matter may filter through the ground and 

infect the water supply.

Lavatory arrangements. Arrangements should be made for the 

rapid and complete disposal of water from wash basins, tubs, etc. 

In the case of permanent camps, a sink should be provided with pipe 

connection to a covered cesspool, located at a point from which there 

will be no drainage to a well or other stored water supply. Whenever the conditions are such as to make this arrangement impracticable, the lavatory should be placed at a point similar to that described 

in the case of the cesspool. Where the nature of the ground is riot 

such as to readily absorb all wash water, an excavation of proper 

dimensions should be made and filled with loose material to a level 

with the ground surface.
NEWELL.] SANITATION OF CONSTRUCTION CAMPS. 93

Water supply. The water supply for all camps, especially that 

used for drinking and cooking, should be absolutely free from all 

suspicion of dangerous organic contamination. Old wells in questionable positions with reference to surface or outbuilding drainage 

should be avoided, and wherever there are no wells free from such 

suspicion upon the site of a permanent camp new ones should be sunk 

at unquestionable points. Whenever it is necessary to erect a camp 

at which the only water available is open to suspicion or is known 

to be contaminated with animal wastes, such water should be purified 

by boiling or by filtration. If the former course is taken, great rare 

should be exercised to maintain at all times a sufficient quantity of 

stored water which has been cooled after boiling. In many cases 

where boiling has been resorted to for w^ater purification this rule 

has not been observed, and the members of the camp, finding no water 

or only that recently boiled, have been induced to drink raw water. 

Such an act destroys the value of all previous precautions. Filtered 

water is far more palatable and generally as safe as that which has 

been boiled. The Berkefeld or some similar filter is best adapted 

for such uses. It can be provided in various sizes and should be 

installed with a suitable container to store filtered water. The pressure should be developed either by pumping direct through the filter 

or by placing a small reservoir at some point higher than the filter 

and allowing the filtration process to go on continuously into the 

clear-water reservoir.

Flies and mosquitoes. The most important sanitary provision in 

connection with camps is that of exclusion of flies from cook tents, 

mess tents, and privy vaults; yet this is the very provision which is 

most frequently overlooked. According to the report of the commission appointed by President McKinley to investigate into the occurrence of typhoid fever among the soldiers during the Spanish war, 

almost every outbreak which occurred was due to the lack of sufficient 

protection against flies. Therefore special care should be taken to 

exclude flies from all places in which food stuffs are exposed, and, if 

necessary, in the large camps a man should be detailed to accomplish 

this purpose.

Mess and cook tents or houses should be provided with screens at 

all windows, and each door which leads into the outer air should be 

provided with a vestibule about 4 feet square, constructed in the following manner: The dividing partition and the door between the cook 

or mess tent and the vestibule should be of wood, as well as the side 

walls of the vestibule, for a distance of about 1 foot from the dividing 

wall. The door and walls should be painted black or some dark 

color. The remainder of the vestibule should be of durable wire 

netting and the door leading out from the vestibule of the same mate-
94 SECOND EECLAMATTON SEEVICE CONFEEENCE. [NO. 146.

rial. With such a provision the flies which enter the outer screen 

door during the time when people are passing through will be caught 

in the vestibule and will congregate upon the wire part of the vestibule in preference to the dark-colored wood next to the cook or mess 

tent, and only a very small proportion of the flies entering the vestibule will under such conditions escape into the larger apartment. l:f 

the cook and mess tents or houses are not built under a common roof 

the passage between the two should be thoroughly screened, and if an 

entrance is made from the passage to the outer air vestibules should be 

provided as above described.

Of equal importance is the thorough screening of privy vaults and 

vault apartments, for it is from such places that flies carrying upon 

their bodies effete material diffuse throughout the camp an epidemic 

by coming in contact with foods. Without proper screening a disastrous epidemic of typhoid may be easily spread through a camp if 

one of the members of the camp, or, indeed, a transient guest, should 

be in the prodromal stage of the disease. It is at these times that the 

discharges are, most virulent. Vaults should therefore be built of 

tight material and be provided with a vestibule at the entrance similar 

to that above described in the case of cook and mess apartments. A 

box of dry earth should be kept in each closet and the contents liberally sprinkled in the vault after using.

Wherever it is possible to do so sleeping apartments should be 

thoroughly screened, not only for the comfort of the members of'the 

camp, but to protect them from mosquitoes, which transmit the malarial infection. The genus Anopheles, which transmits the malarial 

infection through its proboscis, does not commonly fly about during 

the day, but is active at night and should be excluded from sleeping 

apartments.

Camps should be well supplied with sticky fly paper in cook and 

mess apartments, and all flies, mosquitoes, etc., should be excluded, so 

far as it is possible to do so, before food stuffs are exposed.

Garbage-. Garbage should not be allowed to remain upon camp 

premises for any length of time, but should be removed as frequently 

as conditions will allow. While it is necessarily stored upon premises 

it should be kept in metal containers and protected from flies and 

other vermin.

Privy vaults should always be placed at a considerable distance 

from other camp structures, should be kept as dry as possible and 

should not be so placed that the drainage* therefrom will infect the 

local water supply.
NEWELL.] PAPERS READ AT THE CONFERENCE. 95

KLAMATH PROJECT.

By J. B. LIPPINCOTT.

INTRODUCTION.

The basin of Klamath River was visited in October, 1903, by John 

T. Whistler, engineer, who reported on it under date of November 

2, 1903. H. E. Green, engineer, also visited this basin in October, 

1903, and reported thereon in a communication entitled " Report of 

reconnaissance of the country lying on either side of the boundary 

line between California and Oregon in the Klamath and Ashland 

Atlas Sheets of Oregon', and the Shasta and Modoc Lava Beds Atlas 

Sheets of California." Both reports were transmitted to the Secretary of the Interior in November, 1903, and were printed in the 

Second Annual Report of the Reclamation Service. They were preliminary and were considered sufficient justification for a further 

investigation of this section.

In the latter part of June, 1904, the writer made an extended trip 

through a portion of the basin of Klamath River and Lost River with 

T. H. Humpherys, assistant engineer. No extensive surveys had 

been made at that time, Mr. Humpherys having spent his time in 

acquainting himself with the general situation. The basin of Williamson River, which lies largely in the Klamath Indian Reservation, 

has not yet been explored, but it is stated currently that there are 

large areas of excellent land in this reservation that may be reclaimed. 

This report is therefore based very largely on general information 

received from Mr. Humpherys and on a personal reconnaissance by 

the writer, aided by the topographic maps of the Geological Survey. 

The data based on the surveys now being made are not yet available.

Permanent gaging stations are being established by Mr. Humpherys at Keno, on Klamath River, at the Horse Fly reservoir site on 

Miller Creek, at the Clear Lake reservoir site on Lost River, a gage 

rod and evaporating pan in Tule Lake, near Merrill, and a gage rod 

in Klamath Lake, near Klamath Falls. Measurements of the flow 

of Link or Klamath River at Klamath Falls will be continued. Mr. 

Whistler's gaging station on Lost River, in Langells Valley, .will be 

abandoned, as will the gaging station on Lost River at Olene.

GENERAL LOCATION.

The general location is in Klamath County, Oreg., and in Modoc 

and Siskiyou counties, Cal. The State line to a singular extent 

divides this basin between the two Commonwealths. For instance, 

the Clear Lake reservoir site lies in California, but the water 

impounded therein can best be used in Oregon. The Horse Fly reser-
96 SECOND KECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFEKENCE. [NO. 146.

voir site is situated in Oregon, and this water can best be used in 

Oregon. A diversion conduit from Upper Klamath Lake will serve 

lands both in Oregon and California. The falls of Klttmath River 

are in both California and Oregon, and this power can best be used 

for the pumping of water onto lands in California. Klamath River 

is navigable in a portion of its course and is so used commercially.0 

Upper and Lower Klamath Lakes are commercially navigable and 

are cut in half by the State line. Tule Lake is navigable, but is so 

used only to a slight extent; it is cut by the State line. We therefore have an interstate situation, both as to water supply, power, and 

irrigable lands.

This immediate region has no railroad, the nearest station being 

Pokegama, from which a stage drive of some 24 miles is made to 

Keno, from which point Klamath River may be navigated by means 

of a gasoline boat to Klamath Falls, which is the county seat of 

Klamath County. Two railroads are now being projected into this 

region, one from Pokegama and the other, known as the Weed road, 

from California. Both these railroads are built primarily for lumbering purposes.

DRAINAGE.

The principal streams of the Klamath basin are Wood, Williamson, Sprague, and Lost rivers. The drainage is quite singular. 'Lost 

River at present does not flow into Klamath River, but into Tule 

Lake, which has no outlet.

Klamath River. Wood and Williamson rivers are the two principal tributaries of the Klamath. Wood River is fed by some very 

large springs, the water supply apparently coming in large part 

from the country around Crater Lake; Williamson River drains 

the region northeasterly from Klamath Lake.

These streams flow into Klamath Lake, which covers 67,220 acres, 

and, if the marginal swamp lands are. included, 94,000 acres. The 

river is therefore regulated by this large area of lake and swamp. 

From Upper Klamath Lake the stream falls abruptly about 56 feet, 

and is called Link River. At Keno the lower rapids of Klamath 

River begin. Link River also supplies Lower Klamath Lake, which 

covers 29,400 acres with water and 88,300 acres of water and marginal 

swamp. The lower lake acts as an additional regulator, and the 

fluctuation in river height at Keno probably does not vary over 2 

'or 3 feet.

On October 25;, 1903, Klamath River was measured at Klamathon 

by Mr. H. E. Green at its low-water stage, and its volume found

" An act of Congress approved February 9, 1905, authorizes the Secretary of the 

Interior lo interfere with these navigable waters by constructing irrigation works. 

Similar permits have been granted by tiie States of California and Oregon.
NEWELL.] KLAMATH PROJECT. 97

to be 2,000 second-feet. It was stated at the time that the river was 

lower than at any previous time for twelve years. The low-water 

flow of Link River in 1904 was 1,773 second-feet. Upper Klamath 

Lake may be used as a storage reservoir, if desirable.

The elevation of Klamath River near the Southern Pacific crossing 

at Klamathon, according to the topographic sheets of the Geological 

Survey, is less than 2,200 feet. The elevation of the river at Keno 

is 4,086 feet, as determined by levels run from Klamathon, which 

indicated a fall of about 1,900 feet in a distance of 40 miles. Near 

the mouth of Falls Creek there is a drop in the river of 400 feet in 

2 miles, as indicated by the topographic map on the Shasta quadrangle. With a low-water flow of 2,000 second-feet, this 400-foot 

drop would develop 91,000 theoretical horsepower. Beginning at 

a point about 6 miles below Keno the map indicates a drop in the 

river of 800 feet in a distance of 10 miles sufficient to produce 

181,000 theoretical horsepower, with a flow of 2,000 second-feet. 

From this it will be seen that the opportunities for power development on the river are very great, and it will be shown later that there 

is the possibility of using this power for irrigating arid lands.

It appears to be feasible to make an excavation near Keno in the 

channel of the river at the head of the rapids, where the river drops 

60 feet in a short distance, by means of which the water can be drawn 

off of the marshes surrounding Lower Klamath Lake, as well as from 

Lowrer Klamath Lake itself. This difference in elevation probably 

could be made sufficient so that the flood waters of Lost River which 

are not impounded in the reservoir sites on Lost River could be turned 

into Klamath River and away from Tule, or Rhett. Lake. The 

advantage of such a proceeding will be treated later.

Lost River. Lost River is an interstate stream, which flows to a 

material extent through Clear Lake. Horse Fly reservoir site, on 

Miller Creek, tributary to Lost River, has a drainage area above it 

roughly estimated at 200 square miles. Its elevation is 4,792 feet. 

The basin is fairly well timbered and apparently has a fall rainfall 

and winter stream flow. The reservoir basin is very flat and swampy 

and it is estimated that the area of the valley is about 3,500 acres, 

and that a dam 50 feet high would give a capacity of 100,000 

acre-feet. The river flows through a narrow canyon of basaltic rock 

at the dam site. The land in this reservoir site is largely public and 

has been withdrawn for a reservoir. The site is of very substantial 

importance.

Clear Lake reservoir site is situated on the southern branch of Lost 

River, and above Clear Lake the stream is known as Willow Creek. 

The drainage area of Willow Creek, above Clear Lake dam site, as 

IEB 146 05 M 7
98 SECOND BECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

obtained from the topographic sheets, is 577 square miles. The ,area 

of this lake-as shown on the topographic sheet.is 12f square miles, 

or 8,000 acres. A dam 40 feet high at dam site below the lake 

would probably hold half a million acre-feet. The dam site is 

in a canyon of volcanic rock. Apparently there are excellent spillway opportunities and probably the dam could be best constructed 

of earth and loose rock. There is a very pronounced public opinion 

to the effect that the principal supply for Lost River comes down 

Willow Creek. The grades into Clear Lake are very singular. 

Willow Creek in flood discharge overflows into Clear Lake, but at 

the same time a large portion of this water passes down Lost River. 

When the creek falls Clear Lake begins draining into Lost River and 

discharges through its intake channel. The area of Clear Lake, 

according to land-office surveys, is 9,200 acres. The area of adjacent 

swamps, according to survey, is 15,000 acres. The drainage basin 

above the lake is covered by a sparse growth of pine trees. The 

elevation of the lake is 4,533 feet, according to the contour maps. 

The rise of the lake during the past winter would indicate an inflow 

of about 150,000 acre-feet additional to the discharge of Lost River, 

which was continuous during the inflow period.

Lost River discharges into Tule Lake, the area of which is 90,000 

acres. During the past winter the lake had a net rise of 7 feet, indicating an inflow of 830,000 acre-feet. The past winter, however, 

was one of unusual rainfall. The evaporation in this region is 

believed to be about 3^ feet. As this lake maintains an area of about 

90,000 acres, this would indicate a mean annual net flow of Lost 

River of 315,000 acre-feet. This agrees with a statement as to the 

usual annual rise of Tule Lake. There is the opportunity, both at 

Clear Lake and Horse Fly Valley, to hold over water from wet to 

dry years. It would seem reasonable to expect that 200,000 acre-feet 

annually might be obtained from these two reservoir sites. The water 

from these reservoir sites would naturally be used on Langells Valley, 

which contains about 12,000 acres of irrigable land; Poe Valley, containing 10,000 acres; Swan Lake Valley, 30,000 acres; Alkali Valley, 

20,000 acres; 72,000 acres in all. These areas are gross and only 

roughly approximate, and probably will be increased by a detailed 

investigation. It would seem reasonable, however, to consider that 

these two reservoir sites can irrigate all the underlying agricultural 

lands in the valleys named. There is practically no public land in 

Poe Valley, some public land in Langells Valley, and quite a large 

amount of public land in Alkali and Swan Lake valleys.

As previously stated, the flood waters not impounded in Horse Fly 

and Clear Lake reservoirs could be diverted into Klamath River 

and away from Tule Lake.
NEWELL.] KLAMATH PEOJECT. 99

IRRIGABLE LANDS.

Butte Valley. Butte Valley is in Siskiyou County, Cal., adjacent to the northern line of the State. It is roughly estimated 

that it contains over 100,000 acres of agricultural lands, including 

some 10,000 or 15,000 acres of Government land in the southern 

portion. The elevation is about 4,200 feet, between 150 and 200 feet 

above the level of Lower Klamath Lake. Butte Creek and Antelope 

Creek flow into this valley. The midsummer water supply, however, is quite small and is used for irrigation. There would be an 

abundant water supply for pumping from Lower Klamath Lake, 

and a great abundance of power obtainable from Klamath River for 

lifting this water into Butte Valley. The question as to whether it 

is commercially feasible to do this is not yet ascertained, but the 

withdrawals of public land along Klamath River for the purpose 

of generating power pending this investigation are believed to be 

justified.

Tide Lake. Tule, or Rhett, Lake has an area of 90,000 acres, supplied from the inflow of Lost River. Tradition states that at times 

in the past the lake has been almost dry, that teams have crossed over 

very considerable portions of its area, and that sagebrush stumps 

are found in the lake. If Lost River water can be mostly impounded 

in reservoirs and the surplus diverted into Klamath River by lowering the outlet of the river at Keno and by throwing a levee across 

Lost River, there practically will be no other supply into Rhett 

Lake, and with an annual evaporation of 3| feet, it is believed that 

the lake would rapidly shrink in area and uncover a large area of 

land. It is a fresh-water lake. This lake is interstate and navigable, but is only slightly so used. The margin of the lake is 

meandered by the land office. If the lands that are uncovered are 

public lands that could be disposed of under the reclamation act, 

they could be very easily irrigated by means of a diversion canal, 

either from Klamath River or from Lower Klamath Lake. This 

is a subject that will require legal opinion. Tule Lake is an. interstate navigable lake, and could only be drained by Congressional 

permission. In January, 1905, the States of California and Oregon, 

by legislative act, relinquished to the United States any right or 

title that they might have had to lands in these lake beds, with a proviso that these lands are to be disposed of under the terms of the 

reclamation act.

Lower Klamath Lake. Lower Klamath Lake has a water surface 

of 29,400 acres and a swamp and water surface of 88,300 acres. If 

the outlet from the lake at Keno can be lowered, as previously suggested, the greater portion of this swamp land can be drained, and
100 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

probably a large portion of the lake bed itself. This lake is interstate and navigable, and used commercially for navigation. The 

situation is a duplicate of that at Tule Lake, and if these lands can 

be drained they can be readily irrigated from Klamath River. The 

swamp lands are all in private ownership, title having been conveyed by the State.

The areas of the beds of these two lakes that might be uncovered, 

as suggested, are not definitely known as yet, and are being determined by survey, but it would seem within reasonable limits to say 

that there might be from 50,000 to 75,000 acres of public lands so 

reclaimed.

Klamath Indian Reservation. Klamath Indian Reservation has 

not yet been investigated, but it is reported that there are large 

areas of irrigable lands therein, and this will be made a subject of 

future study. Particular attention is called to the fact that. the 

State of Oregon has a claim pending in court for the swamp lands 

shown as the Klamath Marsh on the Klamath quadrangle, which 

lands are in the Indian reservation.

Land withdrawals. It was deemed advisable to withdraw, at 

least temporarily, all public lands in the Clear Lake and Horse Fly 

reservoir sites, the public lands a]ong Klamath River, and such 

townships as contained public irrigable lands. If the beds of these 

navigable lakes are public lands, as is believed to be the case, it will 

probably be possible to reclaim 100,000 acres of public land in addition to over 150,000 acres of private land under this project.

Summary. The following is a very rough estimate of the gross 

irrigable areas:

Irrigable from Clear Lake and Horse Fly reservoirs.

Acres. Acres.

Langells Valley ______________________________ 12, 000 

Poe Valley____________ ______-.________ ___ _ 10, 000 

Swan Lake Valley ____________________________ 30,000 

Alkali Valley___- ___________..________________ 20. 000

Total ______________. ______________________ 72, 000

Irrigable from Klamath River.

Between Klarnath and Merrill___________..__.._____ 60,000 

Frotu Merrill to Cams_________________________ 10,000 

Bed of Tule Lake_________ .___________________ 50,000 

Bed of Lower Klamath Lake_____________________ 20,000

Total _____________________________ _______ 140, 000 

Butte Valley, irrigable by pumping______________________ 100,000

Total ______________________________________ 312, 000 

The water supply is believed to be adequate for this irrigation.
NEWELL.] KLAMATH PROJECT. 101

EXISTING CANALS.

A canal has been constructed from Lower Klamath Lake, near the 

State line, for the irrigation of the north shore of Tule Lake. This 

is the largest canal in the district. Its manager is Mr. Frank Adams, 

post-office address, Merrill. The writer has talked with Mr. Adams 

and with other owners of the canal, and they state that all they wish 

is water for their lands, and that they will be pleased to have the 

Government enter this field and to turn over their canal systems 

to it.

Another canal, diverting between 600 and 1,000 inches of water, 

near Klamath Falls, irrigates some 5,000 or 6,000 acres of land between Klamath Falls and Lost River. The ditch was constructed 

some years ago, and has passed through bankruptcy; the United 

States has an option for its purchase for $50,000. There are also 

one or two small irrigation ditches in Poe and Langells valleys.

About January, 1904, the Klamath Canal Company was organized 

for the purpose of constructing a canal from Upper Klamath Lake 

toward Tule Lake, paralleling the largest existing canals in this 

region at some 10 or 15 feet higher elevation. W. K. Brown is manager. The company entered into contracts to furnish water to land 

owners southeasterly from Klamath Falls and along the existing 

canals at $10 an acre, with $1 per acre annual rental. Their water 

contracts are severe. At present this corporation is constructing a 

tunnel 4 by 7 feet in section out of Upper Klamath Lake, the intention being to widen this tunnel to such dimensions as may be required 

by the contracts that are ultimately entered into. They have purchased some land and succeeded in signing up for water for about 

29,000 acres of land, their field of operation covering some 60,000 

acres. This canal company at present is very active along promotion lines, and is working a large force of men on the tunnel in question. They began work about August 1. They express very great 

dissatisfaction and regret over the fact that the Reclamation Service 

is making investigations in this section, as it will interfere with their 

programme, and have endeavored to have orders issued by the Secretary of the Interior to suspend the surveys. The principal men of 

this region, however, outside of this corporation, seem to be of the 

opinion that public irrigation works are desirable, and have presented 

numerous petitions to this effect to the Service. The Reclamation 

Service will not proceed unless the people of the region desire it. The 

withdrawals made were only for the purpose of giving the Reclamation Service an opportunity of investigating the country sufficiently 

to determine whether there wras any occasion for the construction of 

public works. These withdrawals were considered necessary, as the
102 SECOND KECLAMATION SEEVICE CONTEKENCE. [NO. 146.

Klamath Canal Company were filing on streams and endeavoring 

to file on the Horse Fly and Clear Lake reservoirs, which filings, if 

perfected, might prevent the Federal Government, or, for that matter, any other irrigation enterprise, from doing business in this 

region.

It would hardly seem reasonable that the Reclamation Service 

should have stood aside for a corporation that was not irrigating an 

acre of land, and that did not have a mile of ditch or canal constructed, and leave to this corporation the reclamation of over 300,000 

acres of land lying in 3 counties and 2 States, the source of water 

supply being both interstate and navigable, and a large part of the 

land being in the beds of navigable lakes.

TRAINING ASSISTANTS IN OFFICE AND FIELD. 

By G. H. MATTHES.

That much of the future success of the Reclamation Service 

depends upon the ability of its engineers and the manner in which 

the younger men are trained hardly needs to be pointed out. The 

question which arises in this connection may be propounded as follows: When and to what extent are we to train our men? While 

the question is not one which admits of a direct answer, and I would 

not presume at this time to outline a definite procedure, I desire to 

review a number of points of particular interest in this connection, 

drawn from my personal experience and observation.

In the organization of the Reclamation Service a vast corps of 

men have been taken into the Service, most of whom have received 

a more or less technical training, some being graduates of universities and' technological schools, while others are self-made engineers. It may be assumed from their statements of past experience 

and from the civil-service examinations which these men have 

passed that they are qualified to do certain kinds of work. The 

examination papers furnish little or no clue, however, as to ability 

and personal merits, and when the men enter the Service they can 

only tentatively be assigned to such work as they seem to be best 

fitted for. The next step is to bring out their best qualities, advance 

them, and make better employees of them. From my personal observation I find that the younger men are most easily molded into 

something better. They are generally quick to grasp new things 

and adapt themselves to their new environment with its many rules 

and regulations. Their schooling, if it has been of the modern 

university standard, enables them to study out problems and new 

features in a scientific manner, independent and unconscious of the 

routine and stereotyped methods of older engineers.
NEWELL.] TRAINING ASSISTANTS. 103

With the older men it is a different matter. Previous experience 

gained elsewhere and the practice and methods with which they 

have been in contact for years have caused them to form definite 

conclusions as to engineering and business practice, as well as a multitude of preconceived ideas regarding the new work before them, 

which in many, though not all, cases may be regarded as obstacles 

preventing them from readily falling in line and adjusting themselves to the routine of the new order of things. That their past 

experience has been in many wT ays of great value to the Reclamation 

Service is not here denied. The fact remains, nevertheless, that, 

other things being equal, the younger the man the better the chances 

for developing him into an engineer specially adapted for our particular class of work. To repeat an old saying, " It is easier to learn 

than to ' unlearn.' "

It sometimes happens that an engineer who has entered the Service and previously had a good experience in a certain class of work 

is placed on similar duties in the Reclamation Service as a natural 

outcome of his peculiar fitness for that particular work, and that 

he is given practically no opportunity for branching out in other 

directions and generally broadening himself. Conspicuous cases of 

this kind have come under my notice, and they are usually to be 

ascribed to inevitable conditions which can not be readily remedied 

except as opportunity offers. The men in such cases have not been 

able to improve and advance themselves, and promotion has, of 

necessity, been slow, or has not been made. Oases of this kind are 

unquestionably a detriment to the Reclamation Service as well as to 

the individuals themselves.

In order that an employee may be promoted and become a valuable 

man to the Service it is necessary that he should be trained to do 

more and more advanced work, and be given opportunity for study 

and self-improvement. The Reclamation Service is not a technological institution, nor are the principal engineers teachers dispensing free information. Yet to train men right requires personal 

attention. Those who are in charge of work and in more or less 

immediate contact with the younger men have a duty to fulfill in 

this respect which requires thought and judgment. Probably among 

the first things that the new man turns his attention to is the book 

of regulations, and it may be said here that it is beyond the average 

human intellect to remember regulations from the mere reading of 

them and that practical application is after all the only means for 

impressing them permanently on the mind. The sooner new men 

are made acquainted with matters pertaining to vouchers, reports, 

etc., through actual practice the sooner will they become proficient in 

the use and knowledge thereof. I find that after a man has spent
104 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

some time on the book of regulations and the large number of circulars issued by the Washington office they cease to make an impression on him unless, as stated above, he has occasion to keep up his 

interest through practical application.

In a measure it is, therefore, useless to try to make the younger 

men familiar with all regulations, and only the more important ones 

should be brought to their attention as occasion requires. Wellequipped bulletin boards posted in conspicuous places in the western 

offices and kept up to date will be found great aids in this direction. 

Regulations of local importance, issued by the district engineer, can 

also in this manner be brought to the attention of the men, who 

should be held responsible for reading and noting all matter so 

posted. A place on the bulletin board should be reserved for press 

bulletins and weekly programmes.

Text-books, reports of the Reclamation Service, Water-Supply 

Papers, special reports, and plans prepared for other projects are 

very useful and constitute the best information tha-t can be brought 

before our men. But here will be found a serious stumbling block; 

the men as a rule have not time to study or read to any great extent, 

this being especially true of the field men. At the close of a long 

day's work out of doors they are tired, and after supper no desire 

is manifested to settle down to hard studying. Men who are out on 

surveys during six months of the year do not improve much intellectually, excepting in so far as the details of their field work is 

concerned. It is further true that the more men are brought together 

in camps, socially, the less the opportunity for study. This is a 

serious drawback to field work and camp life.

The men who are located at points where offices are being maintained have a great advantage in this respect over the field men, and 

get much opportunity for studying. This is particularly true of the 

Washington office, where the library, map collections, magazines, 

and office files present an almost inexhaustible source of information, 

and where the young engineer possessed with ambition and love for 

his profession will find study a pleasure. This pleasure, or more 

strictly speaking opportunity, is denied the men working in the 

field, and there exists, therefore, a necessity for shifting the latter 

from the field to the office and back again whenever the nature of 

their work and circumstances warrant this. Many of our field men 

who have never served an apprenticeship in the Washington office 

have a most hazy conception of what constitutes a Government office, 

its relation toward the public on the one hand and toward Congress 

on the other. Their lack of knowledge of office routine, insight into 

administrative work, and the necessity for system and so-called " red
NEWELL.] ' TRAINING ASSISTANTS. 105

tape " sometimes borders on blissful ignorance. Yet these are matters 

that should be instilled into men from the start, as they constitute 

the kind of knowledge which can be assimilated by small degrees only.

Doubtless it devolves upon the district engineers, who are constantly in touch with the younger men, to train them and in a measure 

to teach them. They are in a position to tell the men what books to 

read, what authorities to consult, and, last but not least, they can lay 

out the work of their assistants in such a manner that they may gradually be made familiar with a variety of duties, broadening their 

minds and rendering them more and more valuable to the Service. It 

appears to me that district engineers should have in mind the education of their assistants if for no other reason than that upon their 

recommendation depends in a large measure the promotion of the 

assistants. Briefly stated, the district engineer should be best fitted 

to judge of his assistant's capacity and ability by knowing what 

studies that assistant has been pursuing in connection with his 

regular work.

At Lawton, Okla., I made it a point to install electric lights sufficient to enable my assistants to study evenings. The various textbooks owned by the different men formed an excellent nucleus of a 

library of engineering knowledge. Several of the irregular employees have taken up courses of study in engineering subjects with 

leading schools of correspondence, and I have always encouraged 

work of this kind as being to the best interests of all concerned. Even 

with these advantages the amount of studying done after hours has 

been comparatively little, and during the hot summer evenings it 

was practically nil. In summary it may be said that the average man 

can not study unless he is in the right mood, and to obtain the latter 

the conditions should be favorable, in providing which the district 

engineer can be instrumental to a large extent. Much will depend 

on local conditions, of course, and I realize that my remarks as drawn 

from my own observations may not be applicable in all cases and may 

require modification.

In conclusion, I desire to submit for consideration and criticism a 

list of text-books which, it is believed, should be owned by every 

engineer or assistant in the service who aspires to a higher position.

Useful text-books for engineers.

Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket Book. 

Searle's Field Engineering. 

Carnegie's Hand Book. 

Wilson's Topographic Surveying. 

Merriman's Hydraulics. 

Baker's Masonry Construction.
106 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Baker's Roads and Pavements.

Folwell's Sewerage.

FolwelFs Water Supply Engineering.

Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers.

Vega's Logarithms.

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering.

Weston's Tables of Friction of Water in Pipes.

Johnson's Engineering Contracts and Specifications.

Merriman and Jacoby's Text-Book of Roofs and Bridges.

Alien's Railroad Curves and Earthwork.

Frizell's Water Power.

Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book.

Patton's Foundations.

Johnson's Materials of Construction.

Byrne's Inspection of Material and Workmanship.

NECESSITY OF DRAINING IRRIGATED LAND.

By THOS. H. MEANS.

The necessity of draining agricultural lands has long been felt, and 

in many places drainage is extensively carried on. Drainage is the 

rule rather than the exception on the better farms in the States of 

Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In irrigated districts practically no 

drainage works have been built, and the necessity of drainage is not 

generally recognized, despite the loss of large areas of land by seepage waters and rise of alkali in many places.

Aside from the necessities of drainage, which every engineer appreciates, there are a number of reasons from the standpoint of the 

plant which are not so well known. As we are building works for 

irrigation of land on which to grow plants, it is well to consider 

how these are affected by drainage and what reasons they advance 

for drainage.

The majority of plants in common use by American farmers have 

been developed from wild species through long years of selecting 

the most desirable individuals. Agriculture has developed on dry 

lands, using the term in contradistinction to swamp lands. Very 

few plants can grow with roots in standing water; the greater»number 

attain their most satisfactory development in soils containing a moderate amount of moisture. This quantity of water varies from 5 per 

cent to 30 per cent by weight, depending upon the character of the soil. 

This amount never exceeds that which will be retained by a welldrained soil; all moisture remaining above that which will drain 

away is in excess of the requirements, and is detrimental to proper 

plant growth.

Plant roots need water and air. If either is excluded, or if either is
NEWELL.] DRAINING IRRIGATED LAND. 107

difficult for the plant to obtain, growth is checked and there is likely 

to be a shortage in the harvest. Boots not only need air, but they need 

fresh air, and consequently ventilation is desirable. All of us know 

how difficult it is to ventilate a room from one opening. Drainage provides a second opening and permits the more ready " breathing " of 

soils and the consequent ventilation of the spaces around roots.

Bacteria play an important part in the growth of plants by living 

in the soil around and on roots and assisting in the chemical changes 

which are needed to prepare the plant food for the roots. In many 

cases the bacteria do not seem necessary to plant growth; in other 

cases their presence and activity is essential. The best-known example of this is in the case of the leguminosse, a family of plants 

including alfalfa, clovers, beans, peas, peanuts, locusts, vetches, and 

others. Bacteria which develop on the roots of the leguminosse 

have the faculty of obtaining nitrogen from the atmosphere and combining it in such form as to be available for the higher plants. The 

importance of these minute organisms can not be overestimated, for 

nitrogen is the most costly and the least abundant of the essential 

plant foods in soils. To foster these helpful organisms, therefore, 

becomes the duty of every farmer. The nitrifying organisms can 

only live in an aerated soil. Stagnant air or excess of moisture prevents their forming the nutritive nitrogen compounds and frequently 

encourages the development of other species of bacteria, which act in 

the opposite way and decompose nitrogen compounds, liberating the 

nitrogen.

Wet soils are colder than those well drained, for the evaporation 

from the surface uses up heat and the presence of an excess of water 

filling the soil pores prevents the circulation of warm air. Cold 

soils retard germination of seed and prevent the most rapid growth 

of plants. Drainage removes the excess of water, allows the pores 

to drain, and permits a more rapid warming of the soil in the spring. 

Experiments have shown drained soils to be as much as two weeks 

in advance of adjacent undrained fields.

Aside from these general reasons for drainage, there are in the 

arid regions other important reasons why soils should be drained. 

It is almost impossible to apply exactly the right amount of water. 

If too much is applied, the subsoil becomes saturated unless the 

natural drainage is perfect. If the natural drainage under one field 

is good, the water drained away from it may run underground to 

rise at the surface of some field lower down.

In its movements water dissolves and carries with it alkali, which 

accumulates where the water evaporates. Drainage lowers the water 

surface so that it can not evaporate at the surface of the land and
108 SECOND KECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFEKENCE. [NO. 146.

deposit alkali; drainage removes from each field the excess of water 

applied-and prevents drainage to lowlands by those higher up. ,.

Besides the actual moving and concentrating of alkali salts, which 

so often occurs in undraiiied fields, there is brought about a very 

harmful chemical change. Stagnant soils poorly aerated frequently 

become charged with black alkali or sodium carbonate. Drainage 

and aeration produce the opposite reaction and change the sodium 

carbonate to less harmful salts. It is frequently possible to reclaim 

black-alkali lands by simple aeration and removal of the excess of 

water. Where the formation of black alkali has gone on for a great 

length of time, drainage alone can not speedily accomplish the reclamation, but must be assisted by washing out the excess of soluble 

matter.

Many other reasons why irrigated laijds should be drained can be 

given, but these are considered the most important. One familiar 

with western soils and agriculture needs no further reasons to show 

the value of drainage.

ALKALI SOILS.

By THOS. H. MEANS.

The term " alkali " or " alkali soils," as commonly used in the 

Western States, has reference to soluble matter within the soil and 

does not refer to the chemical properties of the soluble matter. The 

choice of the term is unfortunate, as many think it refers to soils 

which are alkaline in a chemical sense. Thus frequently one is told 

that the soil contains not " alkali," but common salt, while as a matter of fact the majority of western farmers include all soluble salts 

in the general term " alkali."

OCCURRENCE OF ALKALI.

There are two kinds of alkali popularly recognized black alkali, 

consisting solely of sodium carbonate (washing soda, or sal soda), and 

white alkali, including all other soluble salts found. The most common white-alkali salts are sodium chloride (common salt), sodium 

sulphate (Glauber's salt), sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt), magnesium chloride (bittern). Small 

quantities of potassium and calcium salts are found, but the more 

abundant calcium salts are relatively insoluble and the amount which 

is in solution at any one time comparatively small.

This soluble matter occurs in western soils as the direct result of 

rock weathering. In many places the soluble matter has been carried 

by water and accumulated in poorly drained spots. In other locali-
NEWELL. 1 ALKALI SOILS. 109

ties the alkali is distributed throughout the soil where it originated. 

Practically all rocks contain small amounts of sodium, potassium, and 

magnesium, held in insoluble form in the mineral constituents. The 

weather influences acting upon the rock bring about disintegration 

and decomposition or a change in the chemical arrangement of the 

atoms. Certain portions of the minerals during decomposition yield 

soluble salts. These are taken up by percolating waters and in the 

humid States almost entirely removed. In arid regions the amount 

of percolating water is so small that the soluble salts are left in the 

soil, while in many cases that which is removed from its place of formation is deposited by the evaporation of the waters in some stream 

channel or alkali-lake bed.

EFFECT UPON PLANTS.

To have any effect upon plant growth matter must be in solution. 

One frequently hears the statement that there are deleterious substances in a soil which are not soluble and which can not be removed. 

Fears on this score are groundless, for a plant can only absorb through 

the roots materials dissolved in water. Our study of the action of 

alkali salts within a soil is therefore limited to that portion soluble in 

water.

Certain soluble salts are poisonous to plants in very small quantity. 

In this respect they act very much as poisons do toward animals in 

bringing about some physiological change which results in disease or 

death. Copper salts have this action. Fortunately they are almost 

unknown in waters or soils in agricultural communities, though cases 

have been known where water coming from mines, mills, or chemical 

works was harmful to both plant and animal life.

Other salts, those commonly occurring in western waters and 

soils, are deleterious to plant growth only when present in appreciable 

quantities. The effect upon plants of matters in solution is well 

known to all who have studied western agriculture. The mode of 

action of these salts is unfortunately not so well known, and the 

principles can therefore be stated only in the most general terms. 

As is known, the roots of plants are made up of cells whose walls are 

absorptive of water and to a limited degree of mineral salts in solution. These walls are what is termed " semipermeable " that is, they 

are enabled to absorb water and small quantities of certain salts, but 

can not absorb other salts. The solution inside a cell must be of 

greater concentration than that outside in order that absorption of the 

water can occur; so it follows that when the soil moisture or water 

around the root cells is of greater concentration than that inside, the 

cells can not absorb the moisture and the plant actually dies. This 

fact can be easily illustrated by immersing the roots of a growing
110 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

plant in a strong 5 per cent solution of common salt. The plant will 

in a few minutes wilt; the roots, instead of taking up water, actually 

give off water. Some such action as this occurs in soils. If an 

alkali spot in a field is observed, there will be seen certain plants 

stunted, hardly alive, others yellowed and looking as though water 

was scarce and they were suffering from a drought, while a little 

farther away from the edge of the spot plants are flourishing.

There is a great range among individual plants of one species and 

between different species. Certain plants, such as sorghum, sugar 

beets, date palms, and pears, have the faculty of withstanding larger 

amounts of alkali salts in solution than others and are for that reason 

termed " alkali resistant."

Sodium carbonate, or u black alkali," has a different action to that 

of white alkali. This salt is alkaline in a chemical sense, or caustic, 

and corrodes the vegetable tissues. Its action is most severe at the 

surface of the ground, Avhere it corrodes the bark, killing the plants in 

much the same way a forest is destroyed by " ringing " the trees.

AMOUNT OF ALKALI ALLOWABLE IN SOILS.

The amount of alkali which is allowable in any soil varies with the 

soil, the plant to be groAvn, and the kind of alkali. To state accurately, therefore, the amount allowable all of these factors should be 

known. In practice the most general figures are given, with alfalfa 

as the basis that is, the soils are graded according to their ability to 

grow alfalfa. The following figures may be given:

Allowable percentage of alkali in soils.

Effect.

Good for all crops _ _ _ _ ______ ... _ ...

Good for alkali-resistant crops. .___._____.

Too alkaline for crop growth .___..__.

White alkali 

salts, principally sulphates.

Per cent. 

0. 0 -0. 50

.50-1.00

1.00- +

White alkali 

salts, principally chlorides.

Per cent. 

0. 0 -0. 25

.25- .60

.60- +

Black alkali 

(sodium carbonate).

Per cent. 

0.0 -0.10

.10- .20

.20- +

Upon this basis maps showing the various grades or degrees of 

alkali are constructed. These maps can of course have only the most 

general interpretation, as soils in the field are so spotted in character 

that complete detail is impossible.

In the classification of lands, as pursued by the Reclamation Service, soils are examined in the field to determine the amount of alkali 

present. The total amount of alkali is determined by taking the 

electrolytic resistance of a portion of the soil saturated with water.
NKWELL.] ALKALI SOILS. Ill

Pure water is almost a nonconductor of electricity, its conductivity 

depending upon the amount of soluble matter present. Thus by 

knowing the conductivity of the soil and the effect of the solid soil 

grains it is possible to determine approximately the per cent of alkali. 

This method is admittedly not exact, but by using certain easily 

applied corrections the results are sufficiently accurate for all practical 

purposes. One especial advantage of this method is that the results 

are arrived at on the field.

The amount of sodium carbonate or black alkali and the amount of 

chlorides present can also be determined by simple methods in the 

field. A measured sample of the saturated soil is mixed with a measured quantity of water and an aliquot part filtered of the suspended 

matter. The amount of sodium carbonate is determined by dropping in tablets containing sodium acid sulphate. The presence of 

sodium carbonate is indicated by the purple color which appears on 

adding a drop of phenol phthalein; the tablets are added until this 

color disappears. In a similar manner the amount of bicarbonate 

and chlorides is determined.

MOVEMENTS OF ALKALI IN SOILS.

In virgin soils the bulk of the alkali salts occur at about the maximum depth penetrated by moisture. This depth varies somewhat 

with the kind of soil and the amount of rainfall. Where the land 

is, however, very wet during a portion of the year, as in undrained 

swales and lake beds, the salt is brought to the surface and left as a 

white crust.

The alkali hidden below the surface is the most dangerous kind, 

for it is frequently hidden so as to be unsuspected. In many places 

it is down 10 or 12 feet below the surface and comes to the top only 

after a long series of years. In the early days around Fresno, Cal., 

there were few or no evidences of alkali on the surface of the land; 

water was from 60 to 100 feet below the surface. After a number 

of years of irrigation the water rose until now under many thousands of acres water is within 3 to 6 feet of the surface and during 

parts of the irrigating season closer. In its rise the small amounts 

of alkali scattered through the subsoil were accumulated and brought 

to the surface and left there by the water brought to the surface by 

capillary action. In many other districts the same story may be 

told.

The alkali in a soil can move only when in solution, and so its 

movements are governed and measured by the movements of the 

soil moisture. Two kinds of movement occur in a soil, movements 

caused by gravity and movements caused by surface tension (capil-
112 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

lary movements). Gravity movements occur only when a soil contains an excess of water above that required by plant growth. The 

movement occurs in the larger pores, root holes, insect, and animal 

burrows and to a much smaller extent through the small pore spaces 

which make up the bulk of the soil. It is a well-known fact that 

almost any soil can be made more impervious by puddling. This 

can be explained by saying that in the puddling the large gravity 

pores are broken up and only the smaller capillary pores are left.

To illustrate the movements of water and alkali in-a soil, let us 

assume a typical case of a soil filled with both gravity and capillary 

spaces. Irrigation water is applied at the surface. The water sinks 

in the soil, going most rapidly down the gravity spaces and being carried laterally into the smaller pores by capillary action. With these 

once filled all motion in the capillary spaces ceases, while water 

continues to pass down through the gravity spaces. In the aggregate 

these gravity spaces occupy but a small per cent of the space in a 

soil, and in washing them the surface cleansed of alkali is but a 

small per cent of the total surface of the soil grains. If the supply 

of water at the surface continues, the movements downward go on 

and only a small percentage of the alkali is washed out; continued 

washing only serves to carry off the alkali which diffuses out from 

the fine pores into the spaces where movement is taking place.

When the supply is cut off from the surface and the gravity spaces 

drain free of excess water, the surface tension acts upon the water 

held in the capillary spaces and movement in them commences. As 

the surface dries the upward movement continues almost entirely 

through the capillary spaces, and as the water moves so does the alkali 

upward to the surface.

Consideration of the above makes it plain why alkali seems to move 

upward easier than downward, and why after repeated washing 

alkali yet remains within a soil. The example illustrates the importance of drainage to rapidly remove any excess of water, which 

might otherwise be brought back to the surface by capillary movements and as it comes return the alkali to the zone of root action. 

The depth to which drainage should be carried depends upon the 

kind of soil; the object should be to lower the water to such a depth 

that surface tension is unable to draw the water back to the surface.

RELATION OF DRAINAGE TO ALKALI.

Drainage solves the alkali problem. The removal of alkali is

accomplished in two ways: (1) By withdrawing from a soil the

water which has washed through the surface soil and thus removing

part of the alkali. Each irrigation removes a small amount of alkali

'and the soil continues to improve as long as irrigated. The second
NEWELL.] UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 113

method of improvement is the prevention of the rise of alkali salts 

which lie below the drainage plane. In other words, the drains cut 

off the active upward movement and prevent the rise of the alkali.

The Bureau of Soils has been experimenting for several years upon 

drainage as a method of reclaiming alkali salts. The work of the 

Bureau has clearly demonstrated that drainage will accomplish the 

reclamation and permit the farming of our most sterile alkali flats.

UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.

By W. C. MENDENHALL.

The greatest population and the highest cultural interests in southern California are concentrated within a wide diversified valley that 

extends inland 80 miles from the Pacific coast at Santa Monica, and is 

effectually screened from the Mohave and Colorado deserts by the 

San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountain ranges. These high 

groups protect the land on their Pacific slope from the climatic 

extremes of the deserts, and at the same time wring from the ocean 

wT inds the moisture with which they are laden, and which, in the form 

of perennial streams, makes possible the high state of cultivation that 

has given some of the adjacent agricultural lands values of from $500 

to $2,000 per acre. Yet the rainfall is low from 10 to 20 inches in 

the valleys and this and its concentration within a few months of 

the year are conditions which demand irrigation to insure crops even 

of grain and hay, and make it imperative for the much more valuable 

citrus lands, walnut groves, and gardens.

EARLY IRRIGATION.

The practice of irrigation was begun early in the century by the 

missions, before a general settlement of the country by the Mexicans 

or the Americans. Short and simple ditches, which usually took 

their water from the perpetual springs and served a small acreage 

about the ranch houses, sufficed for the simple agricultural needs of 

this pastoral period. The construction of permanent works of a 

better character began before the civil war, and was most actively carried out during the seventies and eighties. The famous Riverside 

colony was founded in 1870, its existence depending entirely upon 

the successful construction of a large canal, which carried the flowing 

waters of the San Bernardino basin to a strip of desert mesa north of 

Santa Ana River. By the construction of other canals built about 

this period the mountain waters as they came down the canyons to 

the margin of the low-lying tillable lands were gradually diverted 

and the acreage under cultivation extended. Such flourishing coloIRR 146 05 M 8
114 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

nies as Anaheim, Pasadena, Pomona, Ontario, Cucamonga, Highlands, and Santa Ana owe their foundation to the diversion of these 

surface waters.

By 1880 the available flowing waters had been generally diverted 

and utilized, and the limit of the amount of land reclaimable seemed 

to have been reached; but the stimulus of the very high values 

reached by the California citrus lands, and the comparatively small 

acreage under cultivation as compared with that reclaimable if water 

were available, combined to induce a most thorough examination of 

all possible sources. After the appropriation of the normal stream 

flow, there remained two additional possibilities sufficiently inviting 

to enlist the attention of capital and skilled service. Because of the 

high gradients of the California river beds, and the steep slopes of 

the mountains where the greater part of the rainfall occurs, as well 

as because of the fact that a large part of the annual precipitation 

falls during heavy storms of moderate duration, there has always 

been a heavy loss of water through run-off during floods. If this 

could be saved by impounding reservoirs, a great gain would be 

effected. But the generally constricted character of San Bernardino 

and San Gabriel mountain canyons has been unfavorable to the construction of reservoirs, and actually but two important projects have 

been completed the Bear Valley dam, whose stored waters have 

added the flourishing Eedlands colony to the reclaimed areas, and the 

Hemet dam, less favorably situated as regards rainfall and less successful, therefore, in the matter of acreage redeemed. Another 

project, the Arrowhead, is under way after years of patient observation of rainfall and run-off; hence eventually there will be a further 

addition to the waters conserved in this way.

ARTESIAN-WELL DEVELOPMENT.

Underground water supply. The second attractive possibility for 

securing additional water lay in the development of the great underground reservoirs. It had been found in the sixties and early seventies that the boring of wells in certain moist-land areas was followed 

by flowing water, and when the surface supplies had all been appropriated engineers turned their attention to these lands and to the 

storage sites as the two remaining sources which promised most in 

the way of increasing the available supply.

The Gage canal system, completed in 188G, has depended from the 

first almost entirely upon underground waters, and its 7,500 acres of 

splendid citrus lands are an example of what may be done with them. 

Since this experiment the development of underground waters in 

southern California has continued, until now there are nearly 3,000 

artesian wells and about 1,600 pumping plants, representing a capital
NEWELL.] UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 115

of about $4,500,000 and a combined production of at least 400 to 500 

second-feet continuous flow.

This development, although under Avay for thirty years, was given 

a great forward impulse by the series of dry years which began a 

decade ago. The previous ten years had been years of abundant rainfall, the precipitation being well above the average, although this 

vital fact was not generally recognized by water users. As a consequence, the acreage brought under cultivation during those years 

exceeded the amount which the ditches depending upon surface 

streams could serve when the dryer period came on. The most important and valuable of California crops are perennial plants citrus 

and deciduous fruits and walnuts which can not be rapidly adjusted 

to fluctuations in the water supply. A grove which does not come 

into profitable bearing until five years after planting represents by 

that time considerable capital. If the water fails it for a season, 

that capital is lost. Hence great energy has been displayed in the 

development of water as the surface supplies have dwindled under the 

influence of the drought. There are few important irrigating systems whose supply has not been augmented during the ten years past 

by the boring of wells, whose flowing or pumped water is used to 

make up the deficiency in stream flow. In addition much independent irrigation has been undertaken whose supply is well water 

entirely. A large part of this is new land, not under cultivation previous to the beginning of irrigation from Avells. A smaller proportion was moist land cultivable without irrigation before the dry 

period and retained in the cultivated class since only by the installation of wells. The reclamation of lands in this way has been 

most extensive, naturally, in the artesian areas, and in those other 

low-lying lands bordering the artesian basins, where water could be 

obtained near the surface and at but slight cost by pumping, but it 

has been practiced in a more limited way where higher, warmer, and 

more valuable lands have enabled the horticulturist to lift water to 

greater heights and to pay the resulting higher charges.

It has been fortunate, indeed, for southern California that she has 

had large bodies of subterranean waters on which to draw. This 

fact has enabled her to come safely through so trying and generally 

fatal a combination of circumstances as a decade of heavy rainfall, 

and consequent exaggeration of her most fundamental asset, accompanying such a rapid industrial development as to constitute a boom 

of the first order. The reaction from such a combination is usually 

utter stagnation. The worst fault of our western American business 

character is its cheerful, careless optimism. It will believe any tale, 

however false, that flatters its community pride and promises fortune; it will have nothing of any fact, however absolute, that sets a 

limit to its resources. In the Southwest it might well parody the
116 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

well-worn motto of the court of Louis XV and say, "After us the 

drought." But southern California has not as yet lost any extensive 

areas of her reclaimed lands, although the deficiency of rainfall at 

Los Angeles for the past eleven years has aggregated 26 per cent of 

the average, and during that time and at present she has been 

steadily increasing her acreage.

Origin of underground icater. The geologic relations which have 

made this condition possible may be briefly outlined. The valley of 

southern California is not a normal stream valley, carved by stream 

action and adjusted in width, depth, and alignment to the volume 

and course of the stream. It owes its character entirely to other 

agencies, those agencies being crustal movements. This diversified 

lowland may be best described as a series of deep, irregular, crustal 

troughs, parallel to each other and to the Pacific shore line, plunging 

to the northwest and abutting in this direction against the granitic 

San Gabriel Eange. At the foot of this range the ridges separating 

the troughs are lowest, and a practically continuous valley extends 

from Santa Monica to San Bernardino. Farther south the separating 

ridges rise higher and the valley is broken by mountain chains and 

groups. As these troughs and their separating ridges have formed 

by geologic processes, the previously existing rivers have maintained 

their way across them from the higher mountains where they rise to 

the sea, and in maintaining these courses have cut canyons in the 

ridges and have filled the troughs with the sands, gravels, and clays 

that are due to their erosive action. The result is a series of deep 

bed-rock valleys filled with alluvium, across which the rivers flow. 

These conditions give rise to certain peculiarities in the habits of the 

rivers, peculiarities which it happens adapt them in a wonderful way 

to man's needs as an irrigator.

Santa Ana Eiver is the most important of these southern California streams, has the largest drainage basin, the longest course, and 

exhibits these beneficent peculiarities in great perfection. It will 

therefore be briefly traced as an example of the type. It rises in the 

higher San Bernardino Mountains, where rainfall is abundant, and 

lias attained a volume of from 25 to 50 second-feet when it reaches 

the first of the filled geologic troughs at the mouth of its upper canyon. Here it promptly sinks in the coarse debris and percolates 

slowly below the surface, protected perfectly from evaporation and 

contamination until it reaches the lowest point in the rim of this 

depression. This rim forces it to the surface, and it flows across it 

as a living stream, the waters which escape diversion sinking again 

in the gravel filling of the second trough. After a short subterranean 

course it is forced out again by the impervious rock at Riverside Narrows and continues to flow over the surface through the Santa Ana 

Mountains until beyond these it reaches the inner edge of the greatest
NEWELL.] UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 117

of the troughs, the Coastal Plain, in which it sinks. Below Santa 

Ana it rises once more in a series of strong scattered springs and 

escapes to the sea.

This hide-and-seek habit is characteristic of the rivers of this valley and is as ideal an adaptation to the needs of the arid-land horticulturist as though definitely planned by man for his own benefit. 

The lower rims of the rock folds force the water to the surface at 

very convenient intervals for diversion, and meanwhile not only is 

the water in its underground passage saved from loss by evaporation, 

but the irregular spasmodic supply at the canyon mouths is converted 

into a uniform flow which is unaffected by individual storms and 

responds but slowly to prolonged wet or dry periods. These basins 

are, therefore, not only storage reservoirs, but are most effective 

regulators as well, and go far to bring about that most important 

desideratum in irrigation practice uniformity of supply. An additional important economic factor is introduced by the presence of 

artesian conditions along the lower margin of each of these storage 

basins.

The material with which the rock basins are filled is alluvial, riverdeposited sediment. Each stream issuing from its mountain canyon 

carries with it the products of its erosional activity there. Debouching upon the plain, its velocity is checked and the heavier fragments 

are dropped. At the lower margin of any particular basin, where 

the velocity of flow is least, the finest materials are laid down as 

clay sheets. These have the original slope of the stream bed and are 

limited in their extent upstream. In this direction they gradually 

become coarser until they are no longer impervious. The waters 

entering the valley at the canyon mouths and percolating seaward 

below the surface through the more porous strata are entrapped 

beneath these sloping clay blankets, where under the weight of the 

waters behind them they accumulate pressure. Then when the impervious clay cap above them is pierced they flow.

Distribution and character of supply. These cheap artesian waters 

are well distributed in southern California, and have been important 

elements in its development. The original area of the lands under 

which they were found was about 375 square miles, but it has suffered 

a shrinkage of 33 per cent during the last fifteen years and now 

measures only about 250 square miles.

Since these artesian basins are unlike the normal synclinal folds in 

porous rock, which have come to be regarded as the type, so they 

have special characteristics which bear directly upon their usefulness.

In the first place, being in wholly unconsolidated and generally 

coarse material, they have a high transmission capacity. So freely 

does the water flow through them that individual 10-inch wells have
118 SECOND EECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

in a few cases yielded 6 or 8 second-feet of water. Such wells do not 

fail because the water supplied at the head of the alluvial fan can not 

reach the boring, as has been the case in the Denver basin, for 

example. On the other hand, flowing so freely they draw down the 

supply at a very rapid rate, but can be restored if closed for a time, 

while a new supply is allowed to accumulate.

The fact that the water-bearing strata lie approximately parallel 

to the surface, and that the highest are very near it, facilitates development to such an extent that ranchers in many instances have found 

it more economical to sink a well for each 10-acre lot than to distribute from a single central well. This condition encourages the 

multiplication of wells and the drafts upon the artesian supply.

It is these great rock basins, with their filling of saturated alluvial 

wash, which constitute the important underground reservoirs that have 

not only tided the region over a long period of low rainfall, but have 

actually made possible constant additions during the dry period to 

the reclaimed lands. These great natural reservoirs more than compensate for the lack of sites for effective artificial storage. Their 

actual capacity is to be expressed in cubic miles rather than in smaller 

units. The San Bernardino basin has been explored by the auger 

for over 1,000 feet, and is roughly estimated to attain a maximum 

depth of 3,000 or 4,000 feet. The alluvial filling about Pomona and 

Chino, and that east of Pasadena, above the Paso de Bartolo, is 

known to extend below sea level. The great Coastal Plain basin has 

been explored for 1,300 feet, and its depth, were it known, would 

probably be found to run well up into the thousands. With a surface 

area of 775 square miles and on the basis of 30 per cent of voids, a 

very impressive but utterly valueless estimate might be made of the 

amount of water stored in it.

Reduction of supply. But while the underground reservoirs have 

proved of incalculable value to southern California during the decade 

just passed, and have not only carried the country through this 

period, in spite of the fact that the greater part of its earlier development was carried out during and upon the basis of a decade of 

excessive rainfall, but have actually permitted a continual increase of 

acreage under irrigation, it is not to be expected that this result has 

been attained without affecting the water level in the reservoirs.

Water levels have, in fact, declined notably, artesian areas have 

shrunk, and pressures in wells still flowing have decreased markedly. 

The thing which causes most surprise is that these shrinkages 

have not been more violent. The underground supplies have been 

attacked in front and rear.. The summer and a part of the winter 

flow of the mountain streams is diverted at the canyon mouths and 

used for irrigation, where formerly all of it sank into the gravels and
NEWELL.] UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 119

joined the underground supply. A few storage reservoirs have been 

built which hold a part of the winter flood waters that are now and 

always have been the chief source from which the ground waters are 

replenished. Thus not only has the supply been less during the past 

decade because of drought, but it has been further curtailed because of 

diversion and storage. In addition to this indirect attack, the great 

number of artesian wells and pumping plants which have been put in 

have directly attacked the quantity of stored waters. It is estimated 

that of the 225,000 acres under irrigation in the valley of southern 

California at present, two-thirds are dependent upon developed underground waters, of which about 400 to 500 second-feet are used, while 

the surface streams supply but 200 or 250 second-feet. These relations are not fixed, there being a large acreage which is irrigated with 

surface water when this is abundant, but with well water when the 

streams are low. But the irrigation from developed water alone is 

increasing, while that from streams is at a standstill or is shrinking, 

the flow of certain important streams which are due to rising ground 

waters having diminished during recent years. One great water 

company, all of whose supply of 40 second-feet except about 6 secondfeet was originally artesian, now pumps at least 75 per cent of the 

total. The water levels in wells in important water-bearing lands 

tell the same story. Maximum declines of GO or 70 feet within the 

past four years are of record. Declines of 25 or 30 feet are not at all 

rare.

Cause of fluctuations of supply. These of course are phenomena to 

be expected during a period of drought. The critical point with the 

California irrigator who is dependent upon underground waters is 

to determine how much of it is due to the dry period and how much 

to development. Obviously this is a difficult point. The amount of 

water returned to the gravels each year is scarcely capable of direct 

estimate, at least with the data now available. The greater part is 

contributed of course during the winter floods, but the measurements 

of these are difficult, and but few attempts have been made to estimate 

them.

Observations upon the fluctuations of the ground-water level are 

perhaps of more value. A system of such observations has been begun 

by the Survey, but it will have to be continued for a considerable period before its results furnish a safe basis for conclusions. At present 

we have only two or three sets of observations within the valley 

which extend far enough back to be valuable. Fortunately for our 

thesis, their evidence is harmonious. I have selected for discussion 

the water-level fluctuations in a well near Anaheim, on the inner edge 

of the Coastal Plain. Pumping plants are numerous in this vicinity 

and are being rapidly increased in number, so that the phenomena
120 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

exhibited by this profile may be accepted as typical of those neighborhoods where most pumping is being done. For direct comparison 

with it a rainfall table has been prepared in which the departures 

from the average are shown for each year, since it is with the relation 

of each yearns rainfall to the normal that we are especially concerned.

From these records it appears that from the time when the observations began in 1898 the declines .were continuous and regular 

throughout the dry period, which was interrupted during the winter 

of 1900-1901 by an excess of rainfall. During this winter the water 

level rose 2 feet, but the gain was more than lost before the beginning 

of the next rainy season. The decline then continued, although irregularly, until the winter of 1902-3, another year of excess in precipitation. Here again the profile shows a rise, but again it was more 

than lost before the end of the year. Since that time the decline has 

been rapid.

The significant thing about these fluctuations is that years in which 

the rainfall has exceeded the average have failed to stop the decline, 

although they have checked its rate. With present developments 

then-, the decline will continue, rapidly through years of deficiency, 

less rapidly through years of average rainfall, slowly through years 

of slight excess, and will cease only with an amount of excess greater 

than any that we have had in a decade. This is a sufficiently serious 

showing to call for a halt in the development of underground waters. 

It does not necessarily mean loss of land now reclaimed, because it is 

recognized that the proportion of water available for the restoration 

of the underground supplies increases at a rapidly accelerating rate 

as the rainfall itself increases that is, where a precipitation of 15 

inches may add little to the underground supplies, a fall of 20 inches 

may add nearly all of the last five, and a precipitation of 25 inches, 

well distributed throughout a long wet winter, may restore the continuous declines of half a dozen years of deficiency.

Need of moderation. But the evidence is quite sufficient to show 

that it is time to stop increasing indiscriminately the number of wells 

for the reclamation of virgin lands. There is grave danger that the 

splendid subterranean reservoirs which have carried communities 

through the past decade without distress, and have responded so fully 

to every demand made upon them, may be overestimated. Such supplies are everywhere peculiarly liable to overvaluation for several 

reasons. Among them is the fact that if the total quantity of stored 

water be estimated the figures are so great that thoughtless users 

immediately conclude that such supplies are inexhaustible. They 

forget that actually it is only a very small part, often no doubt only 

1 or 2 per cent of this great amount, which is, or with present methods 

can become, available. Again, the fact that these great bodies of
NEWELL.] COST OF STREAM-GAGING WORK. 121

gravel are efficient regulators of the supply through rainfall, responding but slowly to periods of drought or periods of excessive precipitation, and showing but slowly the effects of overuse, leads many to 

suppose them wholly independent of these controlling factors, and so 

encourages them in their campaign of overdevelopment. As a 

matter of fact, close, careful, and continual observations should be 

made of fluctuations in ground-water levels as development proceeds, 

and these, when compared with rainfall measurements, will give a 

safe, scientific basis for the regulation of the acreage irrigated from 

ground waters.

Meanwhile, development must proceed with extreme caution, for 

obviously nothing worse can happen to a community than to be forced 

to abandon lands which have been reclaimed at a great expenditure 

of time and capital.

COST OF STREAM-GAGING WORK. 

By E. C. MURPHY.

The cost of obtaining the data on which the monthly and annual 

estimate of flow of a stream are based is made up of four items, 

namely, cost of equipment of station, cost of gage records, cost of each 

gaging, and number of gagings a year.

The cost of equipping a bridge station will generally be from $10 

to $25; the cost of equipping a cable station will generally be from 

$25 to $500, depending on the length of span of the cable and the 

accessibility of the location.

The gage readers are generally paid from $3 to $5 per month for 

from eight to twelve months per year. In some States, as, for example, Maryland, the gage readers are paid by the State. The records of 

a number of stations, especially in the South, are obtained from the 

Weather Bureau free of charge. In some States, notably New York, 

gage records are furnished by private parties free of charge. Some 

of the railways cooperate in stream-gaging work by furnishing the 

resident hydrographer with free transportation to his station.

The cost of a gaging depends mainly on the time required to reach 

the station and the cost of transportation. In some sections of the 

country, notably New Jersey, two or three stations per day can be 

visited; in other sections, as Wyoming and Oregon, two or three days' 

travel are necessary to reach a single one.

The number of gagings that are necessary per year after a station is once rated depends on the character of the bed of the stream, 

not only at the station, but also for a considerable distance above and 

below it. Two or three measurements a year are sufficient at some 

of the New England stations, whereas from four to twelve measure-
122 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

merits a month are necessary on some of the streams of changeable 

bed in the West. The following table shows the estimated cost of 

stream-gaging work at some of the gaging stations in 1903:

Estimated cost of stream-gaging ivorJc in 1903. 

[Prepared from reports on Form, 9-287.]

District or State.

New England ...........

New York" .............

Do.a ----.........'..._

Michigan?. ..............

Do." .................

Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and

West Virginia.

North Carolina, South

Carolina, Virginia,

and West Virginia.

North Carolina, South

Carolina, Tennessee,

Georgia, Alabama,

and Mississippi.

Washington....... ......

South Dakota ...........

Chicago .- ----........

Hydrographer.

N. C. Grover.

R. E.Horton.

.....do........

--.-do........

.....do........

E. G. Panl...

E.M. Myers..

M. R. Hall...

Geo. H. Bliss.

R. F. Walter.

E.JohnsonJr.

stations oer

uded inesti- 

;e.

|ll

23

627

26

65

11

16

23

e34

10

9

26

Number of 

visits.

1

g 

fc

2

1

3

1

4

4

4

4

9

o

6

4

16

2

6

6

10

10

6

5

12

Cost per visit.

, ao

£

$7.00

4.00

4.00

10.00

10.00

11.00

7.50

7.50

15.00

5.50

5.35

0

$31.00

25.00

15.00

30.00

20.00

16.00

18.00

17.75

45.00

30.00

22.50

3

$13.88

12.40

8.20

24.00

11.90

12.88

10.95

10.79

28.38

11.33

17.69

Total yearly cost.

1

ao

M 

fc

$34.00

15.00

50.00

30.00

25.00

66.00

79.00

68.00

125.00

45.00

107.00

o

$169.80

150.00

150.00

75.00

175.00

132.00

174.00

136.50

275.00

185.25

330.00

3

$116.57

63.37

144.00

51.00

94.10

rflOO.OO

116. 74

97.90

79.13

243.51

« The gage records for 21 of these stations are furnished free. 

t> Stations at weirs and dams.

o The gage records for 11 of these stations are furnished free. 

d No allowance for office work.

« The records of 29 of these stations are furnished free of charge, and the cost of gage records 

of the other stations at from $1.50 to $3 per month.

This table shows in a general way the cost per gaging and the total 

cost of a gaging station per year in different parts of the country. 

The total cost depends on so many items that differ so widely in different sections of the country that it is very difficult to make a just 

comparison.

The mean cost per visit to a current-meter gaging station in the 

districts east of the Mississippi varies from $12 to $17.75, the latter 

being for the Chicago district, where the stations are widely scattered, 

and the former in New York State, where the stations are not far 

distant from headquarters.

The yearly cost per'visit is less for stations at dams and weirs than 

for current-meter gaging stations. This difference is partly due to 

the fact that the gage records at most of the former are furnished 

free of charge.

The following table, prepared from the annual reports of M. C.
NEWELL.] COST OP STEEAM-GAGING WOEK. 123

Hinderlider, gives the actual cost of stream-gaging work in the 

Denver, Colo., district for 1904 and a part of 1903:

Cost of stream-gaging work a in the Denver, Colo., district, 1903. 

[Prepared from reports of M. C. Hinderlider, engineer.]

State.

South Dakota. .._._--_

New Mexico ..........

Oklahoma and Indian

1903.

Gaging regular stations.

o

ft o

o r^

fl o3

|3 to

fc

45

16

16

g,

to O

fits

bclo

o

to ft a1

rj SB

3 to 32

1 20

1 11

1 4

456

64

13

21

o SB y r^

«.S

h SB

«j°

$6.84

6.86

6.30

9.39

Miscellaneous.

to'

8 I3

rj SB

tz;

401

3

13

4

tc .

8SF £.9

MSB

h SB

«j°

$1.20

1.13

3.34

12.65

"o

0 ^

8.S

D SB be as

OS SB

h

«j

$2.89

6.61

5.80

9.94

1904.

Regular gaging stations.

o

to

4=4-1 ^

S OQ

tz;

58

12

10

11

13

16

8

o to'

'$ fi*

_ o 'rl

rl ^

§ SB

tz;

419

109

69

75

90

78

17

%$

oj.S

SBM>

03 S

^ SB

<5

$7.63

13.68

7.33

10.75

11.09

7.93

12.69

Miscellaneous.

o 

tc s a1

Q'r|

rl 9^

S SB

tz;

73

9

30

5

49

f.

8ff

SB'SB

as as

^ SB

$*

$7.82

5.92

2.17

10.82

1.20

7.03

§| u.S

ID SB 

SB OS

03 SB n

>

<j

$7.68

13.07

5.76

10.76

7.60

7.90

a Not including gage readings. bFor the period July 1 to December 31,1903.

The cost per gaging at regular gaging stations in 1903 varied 

from $6.30 to $9.39 and in 1904 from $7.33 to $12.69.

The average cost per gaging in Wyoming in 1903 is about one-half 

that in 1904, on account of the work being done in 1903 by local 

men. The results obtained by these local men were not found satisfactory, and the work was done in 1904 by the resident hydrographer.

The cost of miscellaneous gagings is generally much less than of 

those made at regular gaging stations.

The actual cost of carrying on the stream-gaging work at 15 

gaging stations in Idaho for the year 1904 was $2,422.97; the cost 

per station varied from $83 to about $255, the mean being $161.53. 

The amount spent on the equipment of 11 of these stations during 

this year varied from $14 to $92, (lie mean being $39.86. The number of visits made during the year varied from 2 to 9, and the cost 

per visit varied from $2 to $25, the mean being $6.80.

The actual cost of stre.iru-gaging work at 34 gaging stations in 

New York State from July 1 to December 31, 1904, was $2,114.69, 

the cost ranging from $13 to $110, the mean being $66.08. The 

number of visits made during these six months varied from 1 to 6. 

The cost per visit varied from $3.50 to $29, the mean being $13.16, 

the larger of these values being for visits when repairs were made to 

the station. The cost of some of these New York stations includes 

the cost of computing two years' records.
124 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

EQUIPMENT OF A CABLE GAGING STATION.

By E. C. MURPHY.

The equipment of a cable gaging station consists essentially of the 

cable with its turn-buckle for increasing or decreasing the sag, the 

supports for keeping the cable at the proper height, the anchorages 

for holding the ends of the cable in place, the car or box from which 

the measurements are made, the tag line and its tags marking distances across the stream from an initial point, and the stay line 

for keeping the meter in place in the water when the flow is rapid.

The cost of erection of a cable is generally so large, compared with 

the cost of any part of the equipment, that it is wise to make the 

parts abundantly strong and durable. Failure of the cable frequently results from drift (parts of floating trees) catching on it 

during flood, and hence the supports must be long enough to keep 

the cable above any drift that may come down the river, and also to 

permit the highest floods to be measured from the car.

Galvanized steel wire cable is preferable to ungalvanized cable on 

account of its greater durability. The sizes of the galvanized cable 

given below will be found safe for different spans or lengths between 

cable supports:

Proper diameter and sag of galvanized steel cable, with live load of 450 pounds, 

for spans of 100 to 800 feet.

Span.

100 feet. -------.-----._.-.-----.------..------..-.--- --

300 feet.. ............................ ................

800 feet. --...-...---.----...-... ..---..--.....-......

400 feet. --------._..- -.-_..-___.___._..-._..-..--- 

500 feet ----.....--.--.....-......-.............---...-

600 feet. -------...---..-...--.--..--..-.-..--,------- .

700 feet. ........ ........-.....-..--.-........-.------.

800 feet. ---_..--------_.--__-------_-_-_----__._.------

Diameter 

in inches.

*

9

f

f

f

£

1

1*

Sag in 

feet.

4

6

8

10

12

12

14

15

Stress.

2,938

4,167

5.061

6,300

7,813

10, 125

12, 626

16,660

The diameter is computed for a live load of 150 pounds (car and 

two men) on the cable, at center of the span, and an initial tension due to the sag (given in the table), using a factor of safety of 

about 5. The sag given in the table is the least allowable. If it is 

increased, the factor of safety is increased. The cable should not be 

bent in making connections to a shorter radius than 2 inches; and the 

turn-buckle and connections should have a safe working strength of 

an amount given in the last column of the table.

It occasionally happens that a tree can be found on one or both
MEWELL.] EQUIPMENT OP CABLE GAGING STATION. 125

sides of the stream at the place selected for the station that can be 

used to support the cable. If such trees can not be found, then for 

spans less than 300 feet a single post, such as a telephone or telegraph pole, or sawed timber 10 or 12 inches on a side, can be used, 

with the lower end firmly set in the ground and notches cut in the 

upstream side for sustaining the cable. Two pieces of 6 by 8 inch 

timber crossed and bolted together near the upper end, called " shear 

legs," can be used instead of a single post, if desired. High supports 

for 'long spans are made of two inclined heavy timbers connected 

by horizontal timbers with diagonal bracing.

The form and size of anchorage depends on the length of span and 

the material of the bank. For spans of less than 200 feet and earth 

bank a log or sawed timber 12 inches in diameter and 5 or 6 feet long 

buried at least 4 feet in the ground will answer. For longer spans 

it is necessary to place cross timbers on top of the timber to which the 

cable is attached and to bury them more deeply in the earth than 

for the shorter spans. Old iron rails can be used to advantage 

instead of timber in the anchorage, and rock in place of earth on top 

of the timbers is desirable.

The end of the cable is wrapped a couple of times around the deadman and fastened to the cable with clips. A block and tackle and 

a team of horses are necessary in the erection of long cables.

If there is solid rock on one or both banks that can be used for an 

anchorage, a hole 12 to 18 inches in depth and of one-eighth inch 

larger diameter than the cable can be drilled into it. A bolt slightly 

less in diameter than the hole, having a loop in the upper end and 

a slit and wedge in the lower end, can be leaded into it. The end of 

the cable is fastened with Crosby clips to this loop on the end of the 

bolt. A right-and-left turn-buckle of sufficient length to take up the 

sag of the cable should be placed between the anchorage and the support on. one side of the stream.

The car from which the measurements are made should be about 

4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 1 foot deep. Each end is fastened to a 

pulley on the cable, either by galvanized steel wire cable or by a 2 by 

4 inch timber at a height such that the car can easily be pulled along 

by a man in it. The pulley should be at least 8 inches in diameter 

and made so that it can be easily taken off the cable.

Barbed wire can be used as a tag line. It is not likely to be stolen, 

and the tags can easily be fastened to it and replaced if they drop off. 

The ends of the line are fastened to the cable supports.

A single heavy galvanized wire or a three-eighths inch or onefourth inch galvanized steel wire cable can be used as a stay line. A 

pulley with a swivel on it is placed on this line, to which a sash cord 

is attached during the measurement of the flow of the river. This
126 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

stay line must be placed at a sufficient distance upstream so that it 

will exert only a small upward pull on the meter. If the stay line 

is too near the cable, it will not permit the lowering of the meter to 

the bottom of the stream directly underneath the cable.

SILTING OF RESERVOIRS. 

By W. M. EEED.

The matter of silt deposit in storage reservoirs is one that will be 

encountered in many of the projects to be undertaken by the Reclamation Service.

Those who have had to deal with the silt-laden streams of the 

West have long known that the silt question is an important one. 

But little of a definite nature has been written upon this subject, 

the question having been dodged in the hope, perhaps, that by some 

mysterious process the silt would not become the trouble that is 

often predicted and toward which all indications point.

The writer has had opportunity to study this question somewhat 

during the present year, and the results have been quite satisfactory 

from an educational standpoint, even if they do not offer a solution 

of the problem.

Pecos River is a typical southwestern stream, always carrying 

some silt in suspension, and at flood time carrying large quantities; 

it does not, however, carry any such amount as does the Eio Grande. 

A comparison of the sediment in the two streams was made by Prof. 

Arthur Goss, of the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 

and the results published in Bulletin No. 34 of that station, which 

gives the sediment in the Pecos as 180 parts of suspended matter 

to 100,000 parts of water, and in the Eio Grande as 831 to 100,000.

During the winter of 1903-4 a board of consulting engineers of 

the Reclamation Service visited Lake McMillan, the principal storage 

reservoir of the Pecos Irrigation Company, and instructions were 

issued that should this reservoir become empty a survey should be 

made to determine the amount of sediment that had been deposited 

during the ten years that the reservoir had been in operation.

The drought of 1903 continued into the summer of 1904, and on 

June 1, 1904, the reservoir was empty of all stored waters. A survey was at once begun and the work was pushed almost to completion, 

when on June 17 a rise in tke river brought to an end all operations 

along this line; not, however, before nearly all the data sought had 

been obtained.

This reservoir had been in operation for ten years, and therefore 

the sediment found represents the amount deposited in that period. 

The reservoir had never been accurately surveyed and it was neces-
NEWELL.] SILTING OF KESERVOIRS. 127

sary to determine its capacity before the silting commenced as well 

as its capacity at the time of this examination.

The original capacity was found to have been 28,732 acre-feet and 

its capacity June 1, 1904, was 16,500 acre-feet. This shows a loss 

of storage capacity in ten years of about 42 per cent, or-a little more 

than an average of 4 per cent per annum.

It had been contemplated originally to construct a reservoir of 

much greater capacity, but, owing to some trouble from floods in the 

early existence of the reservoir, the western spillway was cut down 

several feet below the spilling point and was not reconstructed until 

during the past winter, when, at a very small expense, the capacity 

was increased to about 46,000 acre-feet.

One cause of the rapid silting up of this reservoir can readily be 

understood. The flow of the river probably averages ten times the 

capacity of the reservoir, and as nearly all the silt is taken out of the 

water at this reservoir the process of silting up is very rapid. Had 

the storage capacity been equal to the entire flow of the river the per 

cent of silt would have been small. This indicates that small reservoirs on streams of great flow have a very low ultimate efficiency.

One of the points not satisfactorily determined by the investigations was the amount of silt deposited outside of the storage area of 

the reservoir. The amount is known to be large, the depth of silt 

increasing rapidly as the intake end of the lake is approached, and a few hurried borings outside the real storage area showed a greater 

depth of sediment than at any point within that area. It is a positive fact that a large proportion of the entire silt deposit is outside 

the storage area, but exact information could not be obtained on 

account of the high water.

It seems that when the reservoir is full, or nearly so, and a flood 

comes down the river, meeting with the level surface, the silt begins 

to drop and for several miles above the reservoir the banks overflow 

and the topography is entirely changed. This would indicate that 

where small reservoirs are constructed on streams of great flow and 

little fall a large part of the silt will be deposited outside the reservoir.

A more detailed report of this investigation has been submitted 

to the chief engineer and published in the Third Annual Report of 

the Reclamation Service. One of the most important of the conclusions reached as a result of the investigation is that in silt-laden 

streams, when the valley of the river must be used for the storage of 

the floods, thereby accumulating all the suspended matter, reservoirs 

of capacity as nearly as possible equal to the entire flow of the river 

will be the most economical.

The writer has not put much faith in the theory that any consid-
128 SECOND EECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFEEENCE. [NO. 146.

erable part of a large silt deposit in a reservoir can be removed by 

ordinary flushing. The current through a reservoir is not sufficiently 

strong to pick up much of the silt, and in cases that have come under 

personal observation the sluice gates have operated only to cut 

out a small narrow channel, not materially increasing the storage 

capacity.

It is possible that when the value of water becomes much greater, 

as perhaps it may at no very distant time, mechanical appliances may 

be used to aid the current to take a large proportion of the silt again 

into suspension and remove it through the sluiceways that are almost 

invariably placed in reservoirs; but considering the present value 

of water, mechanical methods of removing silt seem to be without 

the bounds of economy, except in rare cases.

FARM-UNIT CLASSIFICATION.

By D. W. Koss.

PROPOSED PLANS FOR CLASSIFICATION.

A circular letter on farm-unit classification issued by the chief 

engineer under date of October 29, 1904, invites discussion by the 

engineers of the service of the subject of farm-unit classification, particularly in relation to apportioning the cost of reclamation over the 

hinds to be reclaimed, keeping in mind the character of each farm 

unit.

The letter referred to submits three plans for settling this difficulty which are thought to be worthy of consideration, and invites 

comment on the same. The following are the alternative plans suggested :

(1) That the classification sheets should contain in each area the 

equivalent acreage of first-class irrigable land, distinguished from 

the total acreage by being placed wT ithin a circle. The charge will 

be uniform per acre of first-class land or its equivalent.

(2) Assuming that the standard area is 80 acres, the charge should 

be made for that acreage, regardless of the actual area of the farm 

unit. In case a smaller subdivision has been made under the project 

near the towns the charge to be for the actual area in each farm 

unit, on the theory that in such cases both the land and the crops 

would have a value as great as the land and the crops of the larger 

area farther from the towns.

(3) That the charge per acre should be made proportional to the 

quality and value of land. For example, if a 40-acre tract, specified 

as first-class land on account of quality or location, is charged at $25 

per acre, another tract of second quality containing 80 acres would be 

charged at $12 or $15 per acre, etc.
NEWELL.] FARM-UNIT CLASSIFICATION. 129

Commenting on these plans, the letter states that No. 1 would probably call out the least objection from the settler; No. 2 would be 

simpler to manage and involve the least danger of error, and No. 3 

would give opportunity for criticism on the part of the larger portion 

of the settlers.

Plan No. 1. Where the tract to be reclaimed is public land and is 

open to entry while the construction of the works is in progress, full 

consideration will likely be given all matters relating to the quality 

and location of lands open to entry by the intending entrymen; that 

is, in entering a given tract each entryman will first consider its location and quality, and knowing the price per acre which he will be 

called upon to pay for his water right, he will naturally decide 

whether or not the land is worth entering at that price. Those who 

are fortunate enough to make the first filings will, of course, select the 

best land, and each succeeding entrj^man will select the best land 

remaining, until the poorest land of the tract remains to be entered, 

when the same question arises as before is the land worth what it 

costs to reclaim it? If it is, it will be entered; if not, it will remain 

vacant, but probably for only a short time. So it is my opinion that 

but very little attention need be paid by the Reclamation Service to 

the relative value of farm units where entrymen are at liberty to exercise their own judgment in selecting their claims. I do not believe 

that the first plan proposed is necessary.

Plan No. %. Regarding plan No. 2, considerable importance seems 

to be attached to the location of the tract. If it is close to a town, it 

is proposed to charge a greater amount for the water right, so as to 

place it on an equality with perhaps a larger tract situated farther 

from a center of population. The principal objection which I see to 

this plan is that where a large area of public land is to be reclaimed 

there is nothing settled regarding centers of population; such matters 

are to a very large extent in the future, so that if an attempt should be 

made to place the entryman who is remote from a townsite on an 

equality with one whose land may join a townsite the result may be 

entirely upset in a few years' time through the development of towns 

in unexpected localities. For this reason I do not believe the plan 

proposed is a sound one.

Plan No. 3. Plan 3 proposes to make the charge per acre proportional to the quality and value of the land. This involves the same 

principles that it is sought to apply to plans 1 and 2.~

ALTERNATE PLAN FOR ASSESSING COST.

It would appear that the principle adopted in fixing the price of a 

water right should be one which will have general application not

JEB 146 05 M- 9
1 30 SECOND KECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

only to public lands, but to private lands as well. If the question 

could be approached on the theory that what is paid for by the 

irrigator is a proportional interest in the works the problem would 

be comparatively easy of solution. What the settler pays for is 

called a " water right," acquired by him by virtue of stock held in 

an association. It means primarily a proportional interest in the 

works constructed, and under the provisions of the reclamation act it 

seems to be contemplated that the settlers shall, at some future time, 

be given control of the works constructed; so that whatever payments 

may have been made for so-called " water rights " would, as a matter 

of fact, represent certain equities in the works themselves. Where 

these water rights or equities are purchased through a water users' 

association it is proposed that each water right purchased shall be 

represented by a share of stock issued by the association. This 

places water users1 associations in practically the same class as community irrigation companies, which are so common all over the West. 

On this basis, then, one share of stock would be worth as much as 

another. The land, of course, will not be all of the same quality, but 

the shares will likely cost the same.

While it is a fact that desert land owes its first real value to the 

construction of irrigation works, and every acre of land is, or should 

be, worth what it costs to reclaim it, the productive value of the land, 

or its value after it is improved, very soon exceeds this first outlay, 

which is finally lost sight of entirely, and the poorest land upon which 

water is applied is usually worth a great deal more than the average 

cost of reclamation.

The quality and lay of the land, however, is an important factor 

in determining the amount of water necessary for irrigation, which 

in turn frequently determines the amount of the annual charge or 

tax, which runs perpetually. But the amount of water needed is not 

necessarily proportional to the first cost. Land which appears to be 

of the very best quality and which, according to the principle set 

out in the circular letter, would pay the highest price for a water 

right, might require a comparatively small amount of water, and if 

the cost of service is based on the quantity of water delivered, the 

charges running against this land perpetually might be very low. 

But lands which are inferior in quality, and which as a result would 

pay a smaller charge to begin with, might in the end pay an exceedingly high annual maintenance tax, owing to the great amount of 

water required for irrigation. Or these two cases might be entirely 

reversed; that is, the superior land require an exceedingly large 

amount of water, while the inferior might require but very little. 

In this case it might with reason be held that the owner of the inferior 

land should pay a larger proportion of the first cost of reclamation.

It is my opinion, therefore, that if we hold that the irrigator is
NEWELL.] COST OF POWER FOR PUMPING. 131

purchasing a proportional interest in the works for which the money 

is expended no one will be done an injustice when the charge is 

made uniform over all the land, unless extraordinary expense has 

been incurred in carrying water to a certain tract, in which case the 

entire tract involved might with justice be made to pay a greater 

price per acre.

I am of the opinion that the distribution of the cost of an irrigation system should be allotted to certain natural subdivisions of the 

territory involved rather than to separate farm units, since greater 

expense may be incurred in reaching one natural subdivision than 

another, but all the lands in each subdivision should be assessed the 

same that is, the shares of stock or water rights should cost the 

same.

The benefits to be derived from the use of water can not, in my 

opinion, be very accurately estimated. The cost, however, of conducting water onto certain lands can be definitely determined, and 

it seems to me that this should be the basis for equitably proportioning the amount expended in the construction of works.

COST OF POWER FOR PUMPING IRRIGATING WATER. 

By H. A. STORKS.

Many factors must be considered in determining the feasibility of 

pumping water in large quantities for irrigation uses, and no factor 

is more important and more variable than the cost of power and of 

operating the pumping plant.

ELECTRICALLY TRANSMITTED WATER POWER.

In many sections of the arid West water power may be developed 

and the power transmitted electrically from the mountains, where 

the power plants are usually located, to the valley lands, where the 

water is to be pumped and used. The commercial cost of electric 

power so obtained may be as low as 1 cent per horsepower hour delivered to the pump motor. On this basis the cost of power for pumping 

water to any required height would be about 2^ cents per acre-foot 

for each foot of height to which the water had to be lifted. And if, 

for instance, each acre of land to be irrigated required a total depth 

of 3 feet of water during the irrigation season and the water had to 

be pumped a total height of 50 feet, the total annual cost per acre for 

the power required for operating the pumps would be about $3.40.

Commercial electric-power companies usually find it necessary to 

charge more than 1 cent per horsepower hour frequently 5 cents or 

more. These higher rates are not, however, prohibitive where the 

lift is not great or a small auxiliary supply is required whenever
132 SECOND BECLAMATION SEBVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

the main supply proves inadequate- or the value of the crops is relatively high.

On the other hand, the actual cost of supplying power to the 

motors will often be less than 1 cent per horsepower hour, depending on the first cost of the hydraulic works such as the dam, flume, 

canal or pressure pipes, etc. the size of the power plant, the length of 

the electric transmission line, etc.

In the case of national irrigation works, minimum costs may be 

expected for electric power developed and used for pumping purposes, since no interest is charged by the Government on the money 

advanced for installing the plant, and the item of profits involved in 

commercial enterprises is here eliminated, the users of the power 

being themselves the owners of the power plant.

Still another reason for expecting a low cost for electric power 

for pumping irrigation water should be noted in the case of combined gravity and pumping systems. Here it often happens that 

one dam serves the double purpose of securing storage or diversion 

for the gravity supply and water power for generating the electric 

power required for pumping.

Again, a power plant may sometimes be placed in the main canal 

of a gravity system where the nature of the country requires the 

water to descend suddenly to a lower level, making the additional 

cost for the power development little more than the bare cost of 

buildings, water wheels, and generators. In such casqs it may 

be possible to deliver electric power to motor-driven pumps at less 

than one-half cent per horsepower hour.

STEAM POWER.

But many sections of the West where water for irrigation must be 

pumped are not so fortunate as to possess water-power possibilities. 

It then becomes necessary to hunt for a cheap fuel supply.

Goal. Coal and oil are found in many parts of the arid regions and 

may often be delivered at the pumping plants at very low cost. 

Western coals are, however, as-a rule, poorer steam producers than 

coals from the Eastern or Middle States. Tests to determine relative 

evaporative power have been made at the coal-testing plant of the 

United States Geological Survey at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis, which when worked out will afford reliable data for 

comparing the steam-producing qualities of varieties of coals from 

all parts of the United States. These tests will be of special value as 

regards western coals, wilich differ greatly in their characteristics 

and about which much less has been learned by practical use than is 

known regarding the coals of the East, which have been longer in use.

The results of various commercial tests indicate that under similar
NEWELL.] COST OF POWEE FOR PUMPING. 133

conditions 1 pound of the bituminous coals of Pennsylvania or 

West Virginia will evaporate about 10 pounds of water into steam; 

1 pound of Illinois or Missouri coal will evaporate about 7 pounds of 

water into steam, and 1 pound of western lignite will evaporate about 

5 pounds of water into steam.

Many grades of coal besides the lignites are, however, found in 

different sections of the West, Colorado alone producing coals ranging all the way from lignite to anthracite. On account of these 

extreme variations in the character of western coals, the cost per 

horsepower for the fuel required in steam-pumping plants will vary 

widely in the different sections of the arid regions.

Hence, in order to estimate closely the probable annual cost of coal 

for a given pumping plant, it is as important to know the steamproducing powT er of the coal to be used as to know its cost per ton.

In designing steam-pumping plants care should be exercised in 

selecting the boiler and in designing the boiler setting to adapt these 

to the peculiarities of the kind of coal to be used. A plant that would 

give excellent results with anthracite or bituminous might be very 

inefficient in burning lignite.

Engines. Having determined how many pounds of steam may be 

expected with the kind of coal to be used it becomes necessary to 

determine how many pounds of steam will be required by the engine 

to produce a horsepower hour. This will depend upon the size and 

type of engine used, as shown by the fact that while a 500-horsepower 

simple, high-speed, noncondensing engine may require 32 pounds of 

steam per horsepower hour, and a compound, slow-speed, noncondensing engine about 25 pounds, a compound, high-speed, condensing 

engine of the same size will require only about 20 pounds of steam 

per horsepower hour, and triple-expansion engines, steam turbines, 

and large, slow-speed, direct-connected steam pumping engines may 

require less than 12 pounds of steam per horsepower hour.

In view of all these variable factors it is evident that pumping 

plants of various designs and sizes, using varieties of coals which 

differ widely in their steam-producing values, will show great differences in the annual cost for fuel.

Sometimes it may happen that a large and efficient plant will burn 

bituminous coal and be able to produce one-half of a horsepower 

per hour per pound of coal consumed, whereas a smaller plant using 

boilers and engines of cheaper and less efficient design and burning 

lignite may be able to produce not over one-eighth of a horsepower 

per hour per pound of coal consumed.

The above are not extreme cases, but merely serve to show that some 

plants may use four times as many tons of coal as others in doing the 

same amount of work.
134 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146. 

EFFICIENCY OF PUMPS.

Pumps. Moreover, the efficiency of the pumps would naturally be 

lower in the smaller than in the larger plant, and losses by friction 

and leakage in the suction and pressure pipes may further vary the 

ratio of coal used in the several plants. For comparison, take a plant 

using coal which costs $3 per ton and requiring 5 pounds of coal 

burned under the boilers for each horsepower delivered to the pumps 

per hour. Assuming an efficiency for pumps, suction and discharge 

pipes of 60 per cent, the fuel cost per acre-foot per foot of lift would 

be about 2 cents. To this must be added the cost of labor for operating the plant-and depreciation and repairs to machinery, which would 

bring the cost to 3 cents per acre-foot per foot of lift, or a total cost of 

$4.50 per acre per year, based on a duty of 3 acre-feet per acre per 

year and a lift of 50 feet. In general, the larger the pump units and 

the higher the lift the smaller will be the cost per acre-foot per foot 

of lift.

As a practical illustration of what is now being done, consider the 

pumping plants in use for supplying water for irrigating sugar-cane 

plantations in Hawaii. Ninety-five per cent of the pumps are steamdriven, direct-connected, reciprocating pumps of Worthington or 

Riedler type. The lifts are usually from 100 to 500 feet. These 

steam plants contain the most efficient equipment obtainable. The 

price of coal averages about $12 per ton.

The cost of pumping irrigating water under these conditions is 

reported by Mr. Jared G. Smith, special agent of the agricultural 

department in Hawaii, as follows: The cost for coal for two steamdriven, direct-acting, plunger pumps, with a combined capacity of 

about 22 acre-feet per day, pumping against heads of 95 and 100 feet, 

respectively, averaged about 4.2 cents per acre-foot per foot of lift; 

the cost for coal for three Eiedler pumps, having a combined 

capacity of about 06 acre-feet per day, pumping against heads of 200 

and 300 feet, averaged a trifle over H cents per acre-foot per foot of 

lift.

This is an excellent showing for the Eiedler pumps, considering 

the high price of coal. The cost per acre per year, assuming a duty 

of 3 acre-feet per acre and a pumping lift of 200 feet, would be 

about $9. This, and much greater annual costs, can easily be paid 

from the yearly receipts from an acre of sugar cane, since the average 

yield is about 11 tons of sugar per acre and its selling price $60 

per ton.

In general, the higher the lift the less the cost per acre-foot per foot 

of lift. For comparison, consider the costs for two large pumping 

plants in Egypt, where the pumping lift was only 6| feet. The cost 

of coal being $9 per ton, the cost per acre-foot per foot of lift was in
NEWELL. 1 COST OF POWER FOR PUMPING. - 135

one case 7.2 cents and in the other 8.5 cents, including fuel and labor. 

Compound condensing engines were used, and presumably the whole 

plant was designed for high efficiency.

Oil. Crude oil burned under steam boilers is an ideal fuel when 

its cost is not too high. Oils from the wells of the principal oil fields 

of the country vary little in their steam-producing qualities as compared with the variations in different coals.

Oil usually gives better efficiency than coal under steam boilers, as 

shown by tests made by the Engineers' Club, of Philadelphia, giving 

the following results: 1 pound anthracite coal evaporated 9.7 pounds 

of water; 1 pound bituminous, 10.14 pounds; 1 pound fuel oil (36° 

gravity), 16.48 pounds water, indicating that a pound of oil will 

evaporate 60 per cent more water than will a pound of coal. Tests 

made in 1893 by the Twin City Rapid Transit Company, of Minneapolis and St. Paul, showed that in their plant it was equally 

economical to burn Lima oil, costing 95 cents per barrel, as to burn 

coal costing $3.85 per ton, the evaporation of the coal being 7^ pounds 

water per pound of coal; these results include the difference in the 

cost of handling the coal, ashes, and oil. A test made by the .Illinois 

Steel Works showed that one week's work required 2,731 barrels of 

oil against 848 tons of coal to do the same work, a ratio of 3.22 barrels 

of oil to 1 ton of coal, or about 2^ pounds of coal to 1 pound of 

oil; Indiana block coal was used. In this case the cost for oil, at 93 

cents per barrel, would equal the cost of coal at $3 per ton to do the 

same work. On the basis of 2 pounds of oil burned under the boiler 

for each horsepower hour delivered to the pump shaft, the cost for 

oil would be about 2 cents per acre-foot per foot of lift with oil at 

95 cents per barrel, or a total cost of about $4.50 per acre per year, 

assuming a duty of 3 acre-feet per acre and lift of 50 feet.

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES.

Oil may be used with greater efficiency, however, in internal-combustion engines, and these cost less than a steam boiler and engine of 

the same capacity, besides requiring less labor to operate.

These engines, if designed to burn crude oil, are provided with an 

attachment called a generator, in which the heat of the exhaust from 

the engine is applied to the oil, thus raising its temperature sufficiently to separate the volatile matter from the residue. The gas 

thus formed is burned in the engine cylinder with a high thermal 

efficiency. The residue, which may amount to 50 per cent of the 

crude oil used, is suitable for many purposes, such as lubrication, 

road surfacing, etc.

The thermal efficiency of steam plants ranges from about 5 per cent 

to 10 per cent; that is, only 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the heat
136 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

energy in the coal or oil burned is transformed into useful work, the 

remaining 90 per cent or 95 per cent being lost in the boiler and 

engine. The thermal efficiency of internal-combustion engines is 

not often less than 20 per cent, and is frequently more than 30 per 

cent. A recent test of a 240-horsepower Diesel oil engine showed a 

thermal efficiency of 42.8 per cent.

To illustrate, assume that an oil engine, using crude oil of which 

the calorific value is 18,000 heat units per pound, producing a residue amounting to one-half of the quantity of oil used, shows a 

thermal efficiency of 25 per cent. Then about 1.2 pounds of crude 

oil would be required per horsepower hour, costing about 0.4 cent, 

if oil costs 90 cents per barrel. The cost of oil would then be nearly 

1 cent per acre-foot per foot of lift, if, as before, pump efficiency be 

taken at 60 per cent. Adding one-half cent per acre-foot to cover 

labor, repairs, and depreciation, the total cost per year, assuming a 

duty of 3 acre-feet per acre and a pumping lift of 50 feet, would be 

about $2.25 per acre.

The small gas or oil engines used for pumping usually burn distillate, gasoline, or kerosene, and require about half the quantity that 

would be required if crude oil were used to do the same work. The 

cost per gallon varies from about 10 to 20 cents in different sections, 

but at 15 cents per gallon the cost per acre-foot per foot of lift would 

be about 3^ cents. If, as before, we add one-half cent for labor, etc., 

making 4 cents per acre-foot per foot of lift, the total cost, based on a 

duty of 3 acre-feet per acre and a 50-foot pumping lift, is approximately $6 per acre per year.

Some of the results actually obtained in portions of California are 

reported as follows: Five engines, rated at 5, 6, 12, 1C, and 20 horsepower, all burning distillate which cost 10 cents per gallon, cost, 

respectively, 4.3 cents, 7.6 cents, 2 cents, 1.1 cents, and 1.9 cents per 

acre-foot per foot of lift for fuel and operation. Two engines rated 

at 20 and 22 horsepower, burning crude oil which cost 3^ cents per 

gallon, cost, respectively, 0.9 cent and 0.8 cent per acre-foot per foot 

of lift for fuel and operation.

In general, large engines are more economical than small, and the 

statement of costs given above seems to bear this out, with some 

exceptions. Two items enter into statements of this kind which are 

not always clearly defined and so affect comparative results unaccountably. One indefinite item is, how much is charged to the plant 

to cover operating expenses, in some cases practically nothing being 

charged, it being claimed that the man who ran the pumping outfit 

had to be employed anyway and the amount of time given to this 

work did not appreciably lessen the amount of other work he was 

able to perform. The other uncertain element is the efficiency of the
KKWELL.J COST OF POWER FOR PUMPING. 137

pump as affected "by the relation between the speed of the pump and 

the pumping lift. It is often inconvenient to change pulleys so as 

to keep the speed of the pump right for the varying lifts sometimes 

encountered; consequently the plants are operated sometimes for long 

periods at comparatively low efficiency.

GAS ENGINES.

All internal-combustion engines really operate as gas engines, 

since even when crude oil, distillate, gasoline, or kerosene are burned 

in the engine this liquid fuel is transformed into a gas prior to combustion either before or after entering the engine cylinder. It is 

therefore but a step from oil engines, so called, to gas engines proper. 

This distinction simply implies that the latter type of engine receives 

the gas consumed by it from an independent source, namely, some 

kind of gas producer.

Natural gas. On irrigation works it will not often happen that 

natural gas or illuminating gas can be supplied to gas engines for 

operating pumps, but the possibilities of producing in an economical 

way some kind of fuel gas for pump engines are worth considering.

Producer gas. The fuel gas known as " producer gas " is probably best suited to the conditions met in irrigation problems. The 

design of the producer-gas plant will depend upon the character of 

the fuel available. The best results may "be expected when anthracite or coke are used, yet excellent gas can be produced with good 

economy from lignites or very poor grades of bituminous coals. 

Anthracite coal yields in producer-gas plants of 100 to 400 horsepower capacity about 75 to 80 cubic feet of gas per pound of coal 

consumed, and the calorific value of the gas is about 125 to 140 heat 

units per cubic foot. A gas engine having a thermal efficiency of 25 

per cent and a mechanical efficiency of 85 per cent, if supplied with 

this gas, would consume 90 to 100 cubic feet of gas per horsepower 

hour. This corresponds to 1.1 to 1.3 pounds of coal per horsepower 

hour. Either with lignite or other grades of coal having only twothirds the heating value of anthracite, a combined plant of this kind 

would require less than 2 pounds of coal per horsepower hour, which 

is less than half the amount required for steam plants of similar size.

Makurs of gas engines and producer plants will guarantee that the 

coal consumption will not exceed 1^ pounds per brake horsepower 

hour for sizes above 100 horsepower, and undoubtedly better results 

than this have been frequently obtained commercially. On this basis, 

with coal at $5 per ton, assuming as heretofore a net efficiency of 60 

per cent for pumps, suction and discharge pipes, the cost per acrefoot per foot of lift is about 0.7 cent. The same results would be
138 SECOND BECLAMATION SEEVTCE OONFER-EKCE. [NO. 146.

secured by using- a poorer coal, like lignite, costing $3.20 per ton, if 

about 2 pounds were required per horsepower hour. In either case 

the cost for the coal required for pumping would be about $1.05 per 

acre, on the basis of 3 acre-feet per acre and a lift of 50 feet.

Where pumps take their water from wells, smaller engines than 

100 horsepower are usually required, and a single gas-producer plant 

will have to supply several small pumping plants, which may be considerably scattered. It thus becomes necessary to extend gas pipes 

from the gas producer to the pumps, thus increasing the first cost of 

the pumping system somewhat. This additional first cost might, 

however, be more than offset by the saving in fuel and operating 

expenses. By this plan a considerable number of pumps, located at 

wells scattered over several square miles, might be more economically 

operated by gas engines supplied from a central gas plant than in 

any other way.

The first cost of gas engines and producer plants would be somewhat more than that of the usual steam engines and boilers of the 

same rated horsepower, and the depreciation and repairs would perhaps be slightly greater. On the other hand, the cost of fuel and 

labor for operation might be reduced 50 per cent or more.

Wherever large pumping plants are required, as for lifting water 

from a canal, reservoir, or stream to land too high to be reached by 

gravity systems, a combination of gas engines and a fuel gas plant 

would probably effect a very great saving over steam equipment or 

oil engines as regards fuel, besides being quite as reliable, safer, and 

requiring less skilled labor in their operation.

SUMMARY.

As a resume of the above outline of the principal sources of power 

available for pumping purposes and the relative costs involved, the 

following statement seems warranted:

That the cheapest power in those localities where the conditions 

for developing and transmitting the power are favorable, will be 

derived from water-power plants; that steam boilers and engines 

should be selected only for large plants and in localities where fuel, 

whether coal or crude oil, is exceptionally cheap; that for small 

plants internal-combustion engines should generally be used, wherever crude oil, distillate, gasoline, or kerosene can be obtained at 

reasonable prices, and that the greatest economy may be expected 

where crude oil is used; that in the majority of cases, where fuel of 

some kind must be the source of power, the combination of gas 

engines with fuel gas-producing plants should give the most satisfactory results.
XEWELL.J PAPERS BEAD AT THE CONFERENCE. 139 

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH DAKOTA.

By H. A. STORKS.

Surveys and examinations of the entire arid portion of North 

Dakota have been pushed systematically and energetically by the 

Reclamation Service in the effort to discover a locality where the 

natural conditions offer a fighting chance of working out a feasible 

irrigation project. The topographic features of the State are, however, distinctly unfavorable to the storage and diversion of water 

from its streams, and North Dakota seems to possess few, if any, 

possibilities of large irrigation projects.

The Missouri affords an abundance of water, but the irrigable lands 

along its banks exist either in small tracts at low elevations, or in 

extensive plains at high elevations above the river. The lower lands 

are not sufficient in extent at any location to warrant the enormous 

expense involved in damming and diverting the waters of the Missouri. The higher lands could be reached only by dams of great 

length and height or by large canals several hundred miles long. 

Neither of these methods is considered feasible, in view of the unfavorable topographic features presented and the enormous expense 

involved.

The smaller streams are flat in slope, variable in flow, devoid of 

favorable reservoir sites, and hemmed in by high banks of earth, all 

of, which conditions are unfavorable to storage or diversion of irrigating water on a large scale. The conditions, however, on most of 

the streams west of the Missouri are distinctly favorable to small 

dams and pumping plants which private enterprises will no doubt 

utilize in the near future.

During the past season it was determined to ascertain whether it 

would be feasible to pump water from the Missouri for irrigating 

the inviting bench lands which extend for many miles along its banks. 

The Reclamation Service has been unwilling to resort to this method 

of securing irrigating water, on account of its presumed high cost, if 

any cheaper or simpler method could be discovered. The feasibility 

of any pumping project is not assured until it is demonstrated that 

the value of the lands and crops will warrant the necessary expenditure for pumping machinery, canal system, and annual operating 

expenses.

The engineer can determine the natural conditions, the cost of irrigation works and their maintenance and operation, and can present 

figures showing the cost per acre for irrigating a proposed tract of 

land. It then rests with the land owners to decide whether they will 

agree to pay what is required to install and operate the proposed 

irrigation works.
140 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

The people of Xorth Dakota have much to learn regarding the 

value of irrigation. Almost no irrigation has been attempted thus 

far, and the majority of farmers have had no opportunity to see what 

has been accomplished in other States. Undoubtedly when .the facts 

as to the increase in the amount and value of crops to be secured by 

means of irrigation are presented to and understood by the people 

they will be as ready to accept the conditions and secure the benefits 

resulting from reclamation projects as have been the farmers in Montana and other Western States.

As a result of preliminary investigations not yet completed, the 

Reclamation Service will soon present to landowners in the vicinity 

of Bismarck, Buford, Trenton, and possibly some other localities, the 

proposition to erect pumping plants at these places, provided the 

people will agree to cooperate in the enterprises.

The costs promise to be but little if any higher than for many of 

the projects in other States, where an annual charge of $3 to $4 per 

acre is required during the first ten years. This amount pays for the 

irrigation works in ten annual installments, in accordance with the 

terms of the reclamation act, and also pays the cost of operating 

expenses during the first ten years. During subsequent years the 

annual charge covers only maintenance and operating expenses.

In projects involving steam or gas-engine pumping plants the 

operating expenses will probably be greater than on gravity systems. 

These operating expenses, however, will be approximately proportional to the amount of water actually pumped. Consequently, in 

years of heavy rainfall the operating expenses will be small. The 

pumping plants are really a reserve, to be called upon to supply the 

deficiencies of rainfall and run-off. By storing all the flood waters 

of small streams within .the area covered by the project the run-off 

may materially lessen the quantity of water which has to be pumped.

In general it may be stated that the pumping works and canal 

systems for the twT o projects examined would be paid for in ten 

annual payments not exceeding $2 per acre each. The maintenance 

charges would involve an additional annual payment of about $1 per 

acre and would be practically constant, whether much or little irrigating water was used. The operating expenses would, however, 

vary according to the amount of water actually used, and would 

amount to little or nothing during years of abundant rainfall. 

During dry years, wrhen as much as 2 acre-feet per acre might be used, 

the total for maintenance and operation would approximate $2 per 

acre. The pumping plants will have a capacity of 2 acre-feet per acre 

for the entire tract during an irrigation season one hundred days in 

length. On this basis the probable annual operating expenses have 

been estimated. This amount is probably the maximum that will be 

required if economy is exercised in the use of water.
NEWELL.] RECORDS OF FLOW UNDER ICE. 141

The Buford-Trentoii project includes about 18,000 acres and the 

Bismarck project about 15,000 acres. Both projects are on the left 

bank of the Missouri, the former near the Montana State line and 

the latter south and east pf Bismarck. The latter may be considerably extended after the surveys are completed and the results studied. 

Possibly it will be thought advisable to erect a central power station 

convenient to the coal supply and transmit the power electrically to 

the pumping plants, thus saving transportation of coal to pumping 

plants located at a distance from the railroads or coal mines. In 

any event the landowners along the Missouri, and possibly other 

rivers in the State, will soon have an opportunity to signify their 

desires regarding the construction of national irrigation works within 

the confines of the State.

RECORDS OF FLOW AT CURRENT-METER GAGING 

STATIONS DURING THE FROZEN SEASON.

By F. H. TILLINGHAST.

GENERAL WINTER CONDITIONS.

In the determination of the volume of flow of rivers for conditions 

of open channel at the ordinary current-meter gaging stations, the 

methods of the United States Geological Survey are well defined 

and the limits of accuracy are known to be reasonable. For ice 

conditions, on the other hand, records of gage heights are not uniform, knowledge of the relation of gage height to discharge is 

meager, and estimates of flow are often much in error.

Throughout the Northern States the most severe droughts occur 

in the winter months. Whenever the streams are closed by ice with 

a low condition of ground water, if the period of cold is long continued, there is sure to result a period of extremely IOWT stages of the 

rivers; for during the frozen season no surface water finds its way 

to the streams, the precipitation being all stored in the form of snow. 

One or two such periods of low water have been known in which 

there has been a draft upon the ground water covering a period 

of nearly six months, and the streams have discharged a smaller 

amount than has been recorded with open-channel conditions.

It is, therefore, very desirable that a full investigation should 

be made of the whole subject of flow of water under ice, in order to 

determine the best methods for making discharge measurements, the 

gage height to be used, and the probable accuracy of the results. 

None of these matters have received adequate attention and there 

are comparatively few data bearing upon the subject.

The winter conditions in many rivers vary through a large range, 

from those which may be called normal, in which the ice remains.
142 SECOND BECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

practically in the position in which it has formed and the stream is 

quickly closed by a uniform cover of ice, to those where the ice has 

been broken and is either flowing in large blocks, often practically 

filling the whole section of the river, or has been gorged to form 

temporary dams. To these latter cases no general rules can apply; 

each must be considered as a problem by itself.

With unbroken ice, fair estimates of flow are possible. There is, 

however, a wide range in so-called normal conditions of ice through 

all stages in ice development, from the first fringe along the shore 

to the solid cover of smooth ice varying in thickness to a maximum 

of 30 or even 40 inches. With a falling stage of the river the ice 

cover may not rest entirely on the water, but may act in part as a 

bridge supported on the banks; on the other hand, with a rising 

stream the pressure of the water under the ice may be greater than 

that due to the weight of the ice.

FLOW UNDER ICE.

There have been made several series of current-meter measurements 

of flow under ice by the hj^drographers of the United States Geological Survey. The measurements have been tabulated according 

to increasing gage heights and compared with discharges as obtained 

from the open-section rating table, as shown below:

Discharge measurements, with ice conditions.

Gage 

height to 

water surface.

Thickness 

of ice, in 

feet.

Average 

depth of 

water 

below ice.

Actual discharge 

(closed section) .

Discharge 

from rating 

table (open 

section).

Coefficient 

for reducing open 

section to 

ice conditions.

WALLKILL RIVER AT NEWPALTZ, N. Y.

7.14

7.23

7.68

8.75

8.97

10.80

11.10 

« 11. 40 

& 13. 60 

«15.75 

17.23

1.1

2.0

1.1

1.0

1.0

1.0

.8

.9

5.4

4.6

6.0

7.2

7.4

9.2

9.2

15.5

332

288

597

945

1,167

2,028

2,293

3,040 

3,277 

5,985 

6,063

805

855

1,105

1,765

1,910

3,250

3,494 

3,746 

5,660 

7,650

9,170

0.41

.34

.54

.54

.61

.62

.66

.66

Partly open channel, & Ice piled along banks.
NEWELL.] RECORDS OF FLOW UNDER ICE. 143

Discharge measurements, ivith ice conditions Continued.

Gage 

height to 

water surface.

Thickness 

of ice, in 

feet.

Average 

depth of 

water 

below ice.

Actual discharge 

('closed section).

Discharge 

from rating 

table (open 

section) .

Coefficient 

for reducing open 

section to 

ice conditions.

EONDOUT CEEEK AT EOSENDALE, N. Y.

«6.63 

&6.S3

« 7. 43 

&7.50

7.93

7.96

8.61

0.3

.7

1.5

.5

.2

5.6

6.0

5.7

6.8

7. 7

222

423

772 

342

543

676

1,185

302 

434 

910 

971

1,402

1,432

2,120

0.73

.35

.39

.47

.56

ESOPUS CREEK AT KINGSTON, N. Y.

05.35

«5.47 

6.30 

« 6. 43 

6.60

6.70 

« 6. 80 

« 9'. 01 

12.70

0.3 

.3 

.1 

.1

.8

.3 

.4 

.3

A

2.9 

3.1

4.4 

4 2 

4.0

4.3 

4.6 

' 6.8 

10.8

245 

337 

476 

522 

425

530

654 

1,687 

3,461

322 

376 

631 

675

741

783 

823 

1,947 

5,008

---- -- - -

0.75

.57

.68

.68

FISHKILL CEEEK AT GLENHAM, N. Y.

d 4. 25

4.87

5.00

0.4

.5

.5

3.5

4.0

4.0

100

202

261

300

554

615

0.33

.37

.43

CATSKILL CEEEK AT SOUTH CAIEO, N. Y.

«3.30

«3.50

4.72

0.4

.8

1.0

2.5

3.0

3.0

110

148

363

120

152

- 660

0.91

.97

.55

n Partly open channel. 

6 Anchor ice.

o Ice piled up along banks. 

d Water backed up.
144 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146. 

Discharge measurements, with ice conditions Continued.

Gage 

height to 

water surface.

Thickness 

of ice, in 

feet.

Average 

depth of 

water 

below ice.

Actual discharge 

(closed section).

Discharge 

from rating 

table (open 

section).

Coefficient 

for reducing open 

section to 

ice conditions.

CONNECTICUT RIVER AT ORPORD, N. H.

4.03

4.03

4.08

4.12

4.15

4.20

6.60

6.90

7.20

7.40

7.45

7.45

2.0

2.0

2.0

1.9

1.9

2.0

1.2-

1.4

1.2

1.4

1.4

1.4

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

^.0

7.0

799

790

785

876

884

792

2,620

2.690

2,970

2. 980

2,990

3,030

1,765

1,765

1,800

1,820

1,845

1.880

4, 120

4.450

4,780

5,000

5,055

5, 055

0.45

.44

.44

.48

.48

.42

.63

.61

.62

.60

.59

.60

VELOCITY OP PLOW.

The results of these measurements have been studied to ascertain 

the effect of the ice cover upon (1) the vertical distribution of 

velocity, especially upon the position of the point of mean velocity, 

and (2) the ratio of gage height to discharge as compared with 

that ratio for open-channel conditions. *

Observations were taken through holes cut in the ice at regular 

distances across the stream. Velocities were obtained at ten or more 

points in the vertical and were plotted 011 cross-section paper, the 

depths as ordmates and velocities as abscissae. A curve was drawn 

through the points so determined and divided into ten parts. The 

center velocities of each part, taken from the curve, added and 

divided by 10 gave the mean velocity in that section.

When the holes were cut the water rose nearly flush with the 

surface of the ice, showing that it was flowing under pressure. A 

study of the tables and curves showed that the flow of water under 

such conditions was somewhat similar to its flow in pipes and in 

closed flumes. The mean velocity occurred at two points in the 

vertical, the average of 101 curves (see table below) being at 0.1 1 

depth and O.Tl depth; the maximum velocity occurred at 0.36 depth. 

The curves dragged more for shallow depths and became more concave, and consequently the- error of observation increase^ jf the 

meter was not held at the proper point in a vertical.
NEWELL.] EECORDS OF FLOW UNDER ICE.

Position of mean and maximum velocities in a vertical plane under ice,

145

Depth from under 

surface of ice, in 

feet.

Number 

of curves. Depth of mean velocity.

Depth of 

maximum 

velocity.

Coefficient 

to reduce 

maximum 

to mean.

WALLKILL RIVER, NEWPALTZ, N. Y.

« 4 to 12 

&4 19

20 

26

0.12 

.13

0.71

.74

0.38 

.38

0.85 

.86

ESOPUS CREEK, KINGSTON, N. Y.

« 2. 3 to 7. 4 

&5 8

16

8

0.08 

.11

0.68 

.73

0.36 

.37

0.80

.85

RONDOUT CREEK, ROSENDALE, N. Y.

«4 to 8

&5 7

5

8

0.08 

.13

0.68 

.71

0.35 

.35

0.82 

.86

CONNECTICUT RIVER, ORFORD, N. H.

<"2.5 to 7. 7 18 0.11 0.69 0.35 0. 85

MEAN.

0.11 0.71 0.36 0.84

a By F. H Tillinghast. 6 By W. W. Schlecht. <- By C. A. Holden. 

ICE-RATING COEFFICIENTS.

Results of the discharge measurements, given in the first table, have 

been platted on the sheet which contains the rating curve for openchannel conditions, using first the gage height to the surface of the 

water and second the gage height to the bottom of the ice. The 

results when platted with gage heights to the surface of the water 

have been more consistent among themselves and have located a curve 

approximately parallel to the curve for open-channel conditions, 

and lying always to the left of it. The results when platted with the 

gage height at the bottom of the ice have not been consistent among 

themselves and the curve, which is not so well defined as in the first 

case, crosses the rating curve for open-channel conditions, falling to 

the right of it in the lower part and to the left of it in the upper part. 

IBB 146 05 M 10
146 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

From the data at hand, therefore, it appears to be best to use gage 

heights to the surface of the water as it rises in the hole cut in the 

ice, and a comparison of the ice-rating curve so platted with the 

open-channel rating curve is given in the following table:

Relation between discharges from open-section and ice-rating curves.

Gage 

height.

Discharge 

from icerating 

curve.

Discharge 

from opensection 

rating 

curve.

Coefficient 

for reducing open section to ice 

conditions.

Mean coefficient.

Greatest 

range from 

mean coefficient.

Weight 

given 

results.

WALLKILL RIVER AT NEWPALTZ, N. Y.

8.0

9.0

10.0

11.0

12.0

13.0

14.0

15.0

16.0

17.0

18.0

650

1,125

1,640

2,180

2,760

3,360

3,980

4,610

5,240

5,920

6,575

1,290

1,930

2,630

3,410

4, 250

5,120

6,020

6,940

7,890

8,930

10, 000

0.50

.58

.62

.64

.65

.66

.66

.66

.66

.66

.66

0.63

«

0.13 3

RONDOUT CREEK AT ROSENDALE, N. Y.

8.0

8.5

9.0

9.5

10.0

688

1,040

1,425

1,840

2,290

1,472

2,000

2,539

3,102

3,700

0.47

.52

.56

.59

.62

0. 55 0.08 2

ESOPUS CREEK AT KINGSTON, N. Y.

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0 

10.0

11.0

12.0

13.0

320

625

1,010

1,470 

1,980

2,520

3,075

3,650

527

905

1,373

1,940 

2,642

3,440

4,340

5,305

0.61

.69

.74

.75 

.75

.73

.71

.69

 0.71 0.10 1
NEWKLL.] RECORDS ,OF FLOW UNDER ICE. 147 

Relation between discharges from open-section and ice-rating curves Continued.

Gage 

height.

Discharge 

from icerating 

curve.

Discharge 

from opensection 

rating 

curve.

Coefficient 

for reducing open section to ice 

conditions..

Mean coefficient.

Greatest 

range from 

mean coefficient.

Weight 

given 

results.

FISHKILL CREEK AT GLENHAM, N. Y.

4.2

4.5

4.8

5.0

5.2

140

210

280

330

400

284

380

521

615

737

0.49

.55

.54

.54

.54

0.53 0.04 1

CATSKILL CREEK AT SOUTH CAIRO, N. Y.

4.72 363 660 0.55 0.55 0.55 1

CONNECTICUT RIVER AT ORFORD, N. H.

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

800

1,100

1,400

1,700

2,050

2,400

2,750

3,100

3,500

1,740

2,110

2,520

2,970

3,470

4,010

4,560

5,110

5,660

0.46

.52

.56

.57

.59

.60

.60

.61

.62

0.57 0.11 1

Total mean coefficient, 0.595, or about 0.6.

In the table above are given the values of the coefficient, which must 

be applied to the rating- curve for open-channel conditions in order 

to give an estimate of discharge under ice when the gage is read to 

the top of the water. It will be noticed that the coefficient to be used 

varies between 0.46 and 0.75, with a mean of 0.60. Isolated measurements have been made with thicker ice and comparatively small 

depths which give coefficients as low as 0.30. If ice conditions are 

not known in detail, therefore, an estimate based on a coefficient of 

0.60 would probably be most nearly correct. It seems probable that 

further investigations will enable us to determine upon a sliding coefficient, varying between 0.30 and 0.75, the value of which for each case 

shall be determined by the thickness of the ice or by the ratio of the 

thickness of the ice to the depth of water, and from which we can 

obtain more reliable estimates.
148 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

CONCLUSIONS.

It is urged that in making measurements of flow under the ice in 

the future the record be made as complete as possible. The vertical 

velocity method should be used and data accumulated in regard to 

the nature of the ice at the section and above and below it, the gage 

height of the water as it stands in a hole cut in the ice, the gage height 

of the bottom of the ice, the thickness of the ice, and any other attendant conditions which may even remotely affect the discharge, in order 

that in further study of this subject all possible information may be 

at hand.

BOOKKEEPING FOR RECLAMATION (SERVICE.

By N. E. WEBSTER, JR.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

In the matter of a system of bookkeeping for the hydrographic 

branch, study has first been given to the problems presented in the 

reclamation fund because of the unusual conditions which attach to 

it and which make necessary such methods as will enable the Service 

to report at any time the amount of expenditures and liabilities along 

certain lines. It has also been thought that any plans which would 

succeed with the accounts of the Reclamation Service could easily be 

adapted to those of the appropriation for gaging streams, eliminating 

such features as would be inappropriate or undesirable.

But while it seems wise to have the accounts of the two appropriations as similar in forms and method as possible, because, they are so 

largely prepared and handled by the same persons, it seems also that 

they should be made readily distinguishable, and for this purpose 

that all blank forms affecting the accounts of the Reclamation Service, as vouchers, charge sheets, debit and credit notices, bills of lading. 

etc., should be issued on paper of a distinctive color.

In the report of the committee on costs and results ° such reference 

has been made to the bookkeeping of the Service as was necessary to 

make clear the operations required of the engineers in the field. The 

local accounts and those in the Washington office should be designed 

upon the same general plans, the former showing in greater detail for 

what features of the various projects the expenditures have been 

made, and the latter giving a comprehensive exhibit of the resources, 

expenditures, and liabilities of the entire Service. In attempting the 

latter especial attention should be given to the language of the reclamation act, that the accounting may follow the lines therein laid 

down. The law states that the fund is derived, first, from the sales of

a See pp. 162-173.
NEWELL.] BOOKKEEPING FOR RECLAMATION SERVICE. ] 49

public lands, etc., and, second, from the return of construction 

charges; that it is to be distributed so as to expend the major portion 

in the State where it arose; and that it is to be applied in " examination, survey, preparation of maps and plans (designing), limiting 

area of entry (subdividing), acquisition of rights and property, construction, maintenance and operation of irrigation works," and in 

other expenditures provided for (executive). There are, besides, the 

departmental and bureau regulations relative to accounts, which must 

be observed.

BOOKKEEPING IN WASHINGTON. 

STATE RECORD.

As section 9 of the reclamation act declares it " to be the duty of the 

Secretary of the Interior, in carrying out the provisions of this act, 

so far as the same may be practicable and subject to the existence of 

feasible irrigation, projects, to expend the major portion of the funds 

arising from the sale of public lands within each State and Territory hereinbefore named within the limits of such State or Territory: 

Provided, etc.," it is necessary to keep a record of the reclamation 

fund by States and Territories.

In this will be entered temporarily the approximate amounts arising from the sale of lands and the collection of construction charges 

in the reclamation States as reported annually, following the close of 

each fiscal year, by the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 

subject to such correction as may be necessary when the public-land 

accounts have been audited by the accounting officers of the Treasury 

Department and reported on by them. Of these amounts 51 per cent 

is restricted to each State as the " major portion " of such fund.

As charges against such credits will be entered the estimated costs 

of the distinct projects which have been determined upon and authorized by the Secretary of the Interior, the amount being subject to revision upon completion of the project, so as to equal the actual costs.

PROJECT RECORD.

As section 4 states that " the charges which shall be made per acre 

upon the said entries, and upon lands in private ownership which 

may be irrigated by waters of the said irrigation project, * * * 

shall be determined with a view of returning to the reclamation fund 

the estimated cost of construction of the project," and as section 5 

states that u the entryman upon lands to be irrigated by such works 

* * * shall pay to the Government the charges apportioned 

against such tract as provided in section 4," a record of the charges 

against each project is required.
150 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

For this there should be a project ledger in which shall be segregated all the credits and charges to and against individual projects 

and all charges against reconnaissance in States where no project has 

yet been developed, the several accounts under one State being 

grouped together and the States arranged alphabetically. The 

accounts for the various projects within a State should be entered, 

not alphabetically, but in the order of their adoption as definite 

projects, and fo*r convenience in cross reference should be given a number indicating the order in which they have been taken up. The 

Washington office should be treated as a State, and its cost finally 

distributed over the entire Service.

On the title-page of each project account should appear the name 

of the State under which the account is being carried, the name of the 

project, its number and the date of its adoption, its location and 

extent, the estimated acreage to be reclaimed, and if the work undertaken or the lands to be reclaimed lie in two or more States the name 

of each of such States, with its estimated proportion of expense and 

benefit, should be given. The contracts let for construction, etc., may 

here be recorded, thus showing in a concise form what are to be the 

larger items of expenditure on the project.

As credits to the several projects will be entered the authorization 

of the Secretary of the Interior for the construction of the works at 

the estimated costs, and subsequently any amounts arising from the 

charging to other projects of equipment, material, or supplies transferred, or of the expense of Washington office administration previously prorated against the then existing projects. All credits which 

do not increase the total amount available, but decrease the expense 

incurred, should be entered in red ink and deducted from debit totals, 

which will then show the actual cost of the project.

As charges against the several projects will appear the expenditures thereon for which vouchers have been approved, the ledger 

showing the number of the charge sheet for the voucher and the 

amount thereof.

Following the sheets on which are entered the charges against the 

project should be others with the titles of the secondary charges of 

the charge sheet examination, survey, design, subdivision, rights and 

property, construction, maintenance, operation, and executive; and 

these auxiliary sheets should have nine vertical subdivisions in which 

to enter the tertiary charges of the distribution of the expense under 

the headings services, traveling, subsistence, equipment, materials, 

supplies, rent and storage, forage, and construction contracts, each 

subdivision having two columns for charge-sheet number and amount.

All the columns of this project ledger should be totaled separately 

in order that any necessary corrections of the vouchers or the distribu-
NEWELL.] BOOKKEEPING FOR RECLAMATION SERVICE. 151

tion thereof, made after entry in this ledger, may be corrected on the 

original entry without changing every subsequent footing.

VOUCHER RECORD.

There should be a voucher record in which the approved vouchers 

should be entered each day under the proper headings, date, charge 

sheet, and voucher numbers, in whose favor drawn, amount, to what 

project chargeable, and how payment was made as by whom, date, 

and check number. Every voucher should be accompanied by an 

appropriate charge sheet. Vouchers paid by local disbursing officers 

will be received in Washington with their accounts therefor, and the 

only entries necessary under payment will be name of disbursing officer and date of payment. Vouchers to be paid by the disbursing 

officer in Washington will be indicated as sent to him. Vouchers to 

be paid by Avarrant from the Treasury Department will be noted 

" Treas."

CHARGE SHEETS.

A separate charge sheet should be prepared for and accompany 

each voucher to the Washington office. If a voucher is received without a charge sheet, the clerk examining the voucher should prepare a 

:'dummy," inserting all the information obtainable from the voucher, 

and write the engineer to forward a proper charge sheet, which may 

be substituted when received. It should show the number and date 

of the voucher, in whose favor drawn, amount, and by whom payable, 

and be signed by the officer approving the account.

When these sheets are received in the Washington office the clerk 

examining the voucher should, before passing it, give both voucher 

and its charge sheet a serial office number, with a numbering stamp 

set to " duplicate," this number to be the one under which the voucher 

is to be entered in the voucher record before described, and to be used 

in the ledger postings referred to under the project ledger. When 

the postings from the charge sheet have been made, the clerk making 

them should initial it, thus indicating what work has been done on it.

The postings to the project ledger, both to the general project 

account and to the distribution sheets therewith, are to be made from 

the charge sheets, which should then be bound in books of probably 

500 sheets, each arranged in the order of the numbers thereof, the 

book to be so labeled as to show the numbers of the charge sheets contained in it and the dates when the first and last vouchers covered by 

them were entered in the voucher record.

DEBIT NOTICE.

Whenever a debit upon a paid voucher arises against a definite 

project from without the office of the resident engineer, or against
152 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

the reconnaissance account of a State from without the office of the 

engineer in charge, debit sheets should be prepared in the Washington 

office, showing the amount of such charge, how it arose, to whom payable, and the distribution as far as possible, and one each be sent the 

engineers whose accounts are affected and one retained in the Washington office and filed with the charge sheet covering the voucher to 

which it pertains.

CREDIT NOTICE.

Whenever a credit arises to a definite project from without the 

office of the resident engineer, or to the reconnaissance account of a 

State from without the office of the engineer in charge, credit sheets 

should be prepared in the Washington office, showing the amount of 

such charge, how it arose, from whom repayable, and the distribution originally made of the charge wrhen vouchered, and one each 

be sent to the engineers whose accounts are affected and one retained 

in the Washington office and filed with the charge sheet covering the 

voucher to which it pertains.

TRANSFER SHEETS.

Whenever charges made against one account are to be reentered 

against other accounts, as upon the shipment from tane project to 

another of equipment, materials, or supplies, or upon the prorating 

against various projects of the general accounts of a State or of the 

Washington office, transfer sheets in triplicate, or in quintuplicate if 

necessary, should be prepared in the office where the new debit originates, showing the amount of such charge, how it arose, a description 

of the subject-matter of the transfer, and the distribution originally 

made of the charge when vouchered, and one each be sent to all the 

offices affected and one to the Washington office.

In the Washington office such a transfer sheet should be given the 

same serial number as that of the charge sheet it follows in the file, 

and the postings should show this number preceded by the letter " T."

JOURNAL-DAYBOOK.

It is believed that the charge sheets, debit notices, credit notices, and 

transfer sheets when assembled and bound together will constitute a 

complete journal-daybook and be the book of original entry.

BOOKKEEPING AT PROJECT OFFICES.

On June 7,1904, a circular letter was sent to all engineers regarding 

methods of bookkeeping. This letter contemplated bookkeeping 

based on the charge sheet then in use (Form 9-272) and provided that
NEWELL.] BOOKKEEPING FOR RECLAMATION SERVICE. 153

each secondary charge should be given a page of the ledger. It 

showed how any ordinary ruled blank book could be adapted to this 

use by ruling additional columns. The tertiary charges for which columns were thus provided were " services, traveling, subsistence, equipment, office, supplies, storage," and there was a column for totals and 

two blank columns. It was intended that a portion of the ledger 

should be set aside for each of the secondary charges.

Under the new charge sheet (Form 9-501) there are two more tertiary charges than under the former one, but two of these, " materials " and " construction contracts," apply to the secondary charge of 

construction only, so that a ledger which would carry the former distribution can be readily adapted to the new one, placing the charges 

to " office " against " services, equipment, or supplies," according to 

the nature of the expense, and using that column for " forage."

If the books as already ruled provide for nine columns, that will 

take all the tertiary charges now used. If only seven were provided, 

another blank page, following the one provided for the secondary 

charges of construction should be used for the tertiary charges of 

" materials and construction."

The secondary charges of " topography, testing, and design " under 

the former analysis are now united in the one charge of " survey," 

and the totals of the three accounts should be taken as the initial 

balance when beginning with the new distribution.

For " maintenance and operation" no accounts need be opened 

until some portion of a project is completed and being operated.

Attention is called to the instructions for keeping accounts of stores 

(Form 9-508) which will require that all vouchers for stores be 

charged first to an appropriate account of the stores ledger, as 

" equipment," " materials cement," " supplies fuel," " supplies 

lumber," " subsistence heat," etc., and then charged to the proper 

secondary charge as issued. The balance of these stores accounts at 

any date will represent the stocks on hand and must be taken, together 

with the totals of the several secondary charges, to equal the total of 

the vouchers approved for payment.

As stores are purchased it wT ill be necessary to prepare a charge 

sheet covering the voucher, in which the whole amount of the voucher 

will be placed against one or more of the secondary charges. At the 

project, however, a more accurate record can be made by placing the 

charge for such vouchers to accounts in the stores ledger and making 

the debit to the proper secondary charge only as issued.

This will admit also of subdividing a project into its principal 

features, and keeping, at the project, an account with each, as in 

Washington an account is kept with each project.
154 SECOND RECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

A GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT.

By N. E. WEBSIER, JR.

The disbursement of public moneys in settlement of accounts 

against the Government is variously made throughout the several 

Executive Departments upon vouchers, certificates, reports, claims, 

etc., but in every case it must be in accordance with an appropriation previously made and after the proper administrative officers 

have certified to its correctness as to payee, subject-matter, and 

amount.

AUTHORIZATION.

The authority for all expenditures must proceed from the official 

in whom the control of an appropriation has been vested by Congress. 

By the second section of the reclamation act the disposition of the 

reclamation fund is committed to the Secretary of the Interior, and 

his authorization of contemplated expenditures is required before 

expense may be incurred. Such authorization may be specific for a 

single purchase, or more often general, covering a class or group of 

proposed conditions. It is manifestly impracticable to submit to any 

one person each contemplated purchase, but certain general authority 

may be given which will be sufficient for all transactions coming 

within the limits of such authorization. An example of such general 

authority is that given for the renting of necessary office rooms for 

the engineers of the Reclamation Service, and the submission of the 

leases to the Secretary for his approval.

The more common method, and a more satisfactory one, is the submission quarterly, on the 10th of December, March, June, and September, of plans for the ensuing quarter, and estimates, setting forth 

the amounts which will probably be required for the execution of 

these plans in the various localities where work is proceeding, and 

showing the purpose and character of the contemplated expenditures. 

These estimates should be sufficiently definite to indicate that vouchers for expenditures made in pursuance thereof were properly authorized. They should be tabulated in a way to show clearly what will 

be the probable payments.

To , contractor for construction of 

To , contractor for delivery of 

To , contractor for transportation of ______

To laborers, for construction by " force account " of _ 

For purchase of equipment, tools, wagons, animals, etc____

For purchase of cement, lumber, steel, and other, materials. 

For purchase of subsistence, forage, and other supplies___ 

For purchase of lands and rights of way_____________

For miscellaneous engineering expenses__________

For miscellaneous administrative and office expenses- _
NEWELL.] A GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT. 155

CLASSES OF ACCOUNTS.

All expenditures can be divided into two general classes, those for 

individual personal services and those for purchases, under the 

latter heading being included accounts for rentals and for miscellaneous services. There is also a class of accounts in which the 

above classes may be mixed, as in what are known as traveling or 

field accounts; but these are, in fact, only for the reimbursement to 

employees of outlay on behalf of the Government, and the original 

expenditures were for one or the other of the two general classes.

There are important differences to be noted between the two classes 

of accounts. Section 3709, Revised Statutes, expressly excepts 

personal services from the general requirement that " all purchases 

and contracts for supplies or services shall be made by advertising," 

etc., and section 3744 does not apply to the engagement of personal 

services. For all other agreements on behalf of the Government 

advertising is a necessary preliminary except when an exigency of 

the service will not admit of delay, when the statute permits purchase in the open market, and in certain other cases where it is 

impracticable to secure competition. Such cases are: The necessity 

for additional work arising as work progresses under a formal contract for construction; the articles wanted being patented or copyrighted, and not obtainable from the trade generally; there being 

only one dealer within a practicable distance from whom the articles 

are obtainable; previous advertising for the identical purchase having been followed by the receipt of no proposals, or only such as 

were unreasonable, and under circumstances demonstrating that 

further advertising would not alter results; and the prices or rates 

being fixed by legislation, Federal, State, or municipal, or by competent regulation, as in many lines of public service.

VOUCHERS.

Whatever the character of the account against the reclamation 

fund, whether for services, traveling or field expense, purchases, 

rent, etc., it is shown upon duplicate voucher forms, which may be 

for the salary of a single person or for a pay roll covering the several 

amounts due to a number of individuals, or upon blanks suitable for 

showing the details of the traveling or field expenditures or the purchases made.

Every voucher, except those submitted for settlement by the Treasury Department, should be receipted in full payment of the account 

which the payee certifies to be correct. If the payee be an individual, 

he must receipt in person; if the payee be a partnership or an unincorporated or incorporated company, the receipt should be in the
156 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

usual firm or company name, followed by the autograph signature, 

with his title, of the partner or officer authorized to receive the 

money.

The vouchers should bear the certificate of the engineer incurring 

the expense that the account is correct and just; that the articles 

specified have been received by him, or the services stated have been 

performed; that they were necessary for and have been or will be 

applied to the purposes contemplated by the reclamation act; amd, in 

the case of other than personal services or reimbursements for expenses, that to the best of his knowledge and belief the prices charged 

are reasonable and just, and that they were supplied in such and such 

a way, with reference to methods of contract and of securing competition. This last must show whether the purchase was under contenet or under an informal agreement, with immediate delivery or 

performance. It must also show whether the purchase was upon 

eompetitive proposals in accordance with and after advertising in 

so->niany newspapers, or by circular letter sent to so many dealers 

aaid posted in so many places; or upon noncompetitive quotations 

without advertising, under an exigency of the service existing prior 

to the order, which would not admit of delay incident to advertising, 

or by reason of impracticability to secure competition because of certain specified causes.

Vouchers for reimbursement for traveling expenses should contain 

a certificate showing that the travel was made upon competent orders. 

They should also be supported by sub vouchers, as provided in Regulations of the United States Geological Survey, 1903, section 45, 

paragraph 3 (1), as amended January 18, 1905.

Vouchers for payment in pursuance of contract for construction 

should show in detail the estimates of all work done or material 

delivered to the date of the voucher. The items should be listed in 

the order and under the designations given in the contract. A summation of these items will show the value of the work done or material 

delivered to date, from which there should be deducted the-percentage 

which the contract provides as a holdback and the amount of previous 

payments. , 

If extra work is to be paid for, that portion of the voucher should 

be prepared in the following form:

EXTRA WORK.

Labor and materials, as per attached itemized statement: 

Actual cost of labor and materials, , $ ; per cent added, as 

per paragraph of contract, , $ .
NEWELL.] A GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT. 157

To the voucher should be attached:

1. Itemized statement of labor and materials, with engineer's certificate as follows:

I hereby certify that the above statement of cost of labor and materials is 

correct, and that the said extra work was performed in accordance with my 

instructions, dated , 190 , and that the same has been satisfactorily 

performed.

2. Copy of letter to contractor authorizing the extra work.

Accounts for amounts due contractors for construction should bear 

the certificate of the engineer immediately in charge of the work done 

that 

I have inspected for the Reclamation Service the work and materials 

described in the foregoing, and find that the same are in conformity with the 

contract and specifications and are of the value stated. I further certify that 

the stipulations thereof have been complied with up to the present time.

Also, the following certificate of the supervising or district engineer in executive charge of the project:

I certify on honor that the foregoing account is correct and just; that the 

work and materials have been carefully inspected by , who signed 

the preceding certificate; that the stipulations of the contract and specifications 

have been complied with, as is stated in the foregoing certificate; and that there 

is now due upon this claim the sum of $ , no part of which has been paid.

When properly prepared, all vouchers should be forwarded through 

superior engineers for payment.

PAYMENT.

This will be effected in one of three ways: First, by a local disbursing officer located at the project or in the office of the supervising engineer; second, by the chief disbursing clerk of the Geological 

Survey at Washington; or, third, as in the case of vouchers for 

amounts found due for freight, etc., by a warrant drawn by the 

Secretary of the Treasury on the certificate of the Auditor for the 

Interior Department.

In the first case the local disbursing officer retains one voucher as 

evidence of payment and forwards the other to the chief engineer, 

either with his abstract at the end of the quarter or with a request 

for a renewal of his credit to the amount of such vouchers should his 

balance become so low as to necessitate such action.

In the second and third cases, where the account is to be paid 

from Washington, both vouchers after being approved by the supervising engineer are forwarded to the chief engineer. In the AVashington office all vouchers are carefully examined for mistakes and 

informalities, and if found correct are certified by the chief engineer 

and approved by the Director, and go to the chief disbursing clerk
158 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

of the Geological Survey. All vouchers which have not already 

been paid by local disbursing officers are paid from the latter's 

office, except those for amounts due for freight and express on Government bills of lading; for passenger fares on Government transportation requests over bond-aided railroad lines; for cartage in 

Washington on contract with depot quartermaster, United States 

Army, and for amounts due for purchases or construction so large as 

to make it inadvisable to so greatly exhaust his credit balance. He 

retains one of the duplicate vouchers as evidence of payment.

All three classes of vouchers are then sent to the chief disbursing 

officer of the Department of the Interior, whence all go to the office 

of the Auditor for the Interior Department. This is a bureau of the 

Treasury Department, and here all the accounts are audited and 

allowed, suspended, or disallowed. The accounts not previously paid, 

as for freight, etc., are examined, and if approved are certified to the 

Secretary of the Treasury, who draws warrants in payment therefor 

upon the Treasurer of the United States. For each disbursement 

from the reclamation fund or other appropriation a voucher must 

be submitted to the Auditor for his permanent record. When necessary, such vouchers may be consulted upon proper application, as 

may also those in the possession of the several disbursing officers.

SUSPENSIONS AND DISALLOWANCES.

Exception to the propriety of any account may be noted by any 

of the various officers who pass upon it, but any such objection will 

fall in one of two general classes those made by administrative officers and those made by auditing officers.

Should any certifying or approving officer object to the subjectmatter or amount of any voucher which is submitted to him, he will 

call upon the payee or certifying officer for explanation, suspending 

the entire account or that portion covering the items questioned. 

If the account is not satisfactorily explained, the objectionable 

items must be withdrawn, and any payments made thereon must be 

refunded to the disbursing officer.

Should the Auditor in his examination of the accounts of any disbursing officer take exception to any of the payments for which credit 

is claimed, such objections will be made in one of two ways. The first 

method is by a suspension of the items questioned, when the disbursing officer is called upon for an explanation of these items. In order 

to reply to such a - notice of suspension the disbursing officer will 

usually have to call upon the engineer approving the account for the 

necessary information. Such explanations should be made promptly, 

and in any event within six months from the date of suspension, for
NEWELL.] A GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT. 159

if no explanation of the suspended items is made writhin that period 

they are subject to disallowance. The second method of noting 

exceptions to an account is by a disallowance of the items questioned, and for this an explanation to the Auditor is not sufficient. 

To secure a revision of such disallowance request should be made 

to the Comptroller of the Treasury, and within one year from the date 

of the Auditor's settlement. The Comptroller's decision is final upon 

executive branches of the Government, but an appeal therefrom on 

behalf of the claimant will lie to the Court of Claims.

TIME REQUIRED FOR AUDITING.

From the foregoing it is evident that a period of several months 

must elapse after the approval of account before final action will have 

been taken thereon. This period will vary greatly in different cases, 

and no certain date can be fixed in advance when an account will be 

closed. When a voucher is complete and apparently correct, there 

will be but little time required in the offices of the project, supervising, 

or chief engineers. It may remain in the disbursing offices after payment from a day to three months, but should be received in that office 

by the 20th of the month following the end of the quarter, and must 

in any case reach the office of the Auditor by the 20th of the last 

month of the succeeding quarter. It will be from three to fifteen 

months in this office before a report may be expected from the Auditor, and in the case of suspensions or disallowances thereafter no 

period of time can be stated.

REQUESTS FOR RULINGS.

In order, therefore, to avoid delay in settlement of accounts and 

their subsequent disallowance upon revision, it is important to see to 

it in advance that all vouchers are for proper and authorized expenditures. Whenever there is doubt, an opinion can always be obtained, 

either in advance by the engineer upon application through his 

superiors and the chief engineer to the Secretary of the Interior or by 

the disbursing officer upon the presentation to him of the account for 

payment, by application through the proper channels directly to the 

Comptroller. So far as possible the former course should be followed in order to avoid the incurring of unauthorized or improper 

expense, but when this is impracticable the disbursing officer, when 

called upon for payment of an account containing charges for unprecedented or questionable items, should always submit the account to 

the Comptroller for an opinion as to its propriety under existing law.
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES OF THE CONFERENCE.

The following are the reports of the various committees, practically 

as rendered by the committees, the modifications, if any, being only 

such as to enable the chief engineer to approve the reports as a whole.

COMMITTEE ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE.

REQUIREMENTS AT THE SALT RIVER PROJECTS.

The cement specifications prepared by the committee at its meeting 

in Los Angeles December 26, 1903, have been followed by the Department in purchasing cement for the several projects in Nevada, Idaho, 

and Arizona, and the particulars may be found in the proposals and 

contracts for cement used in the constructions under way in those 

States.

In the summer and fall of 1904 the Service established laboratories 

for testing cement at Berkeley, Cal., Denver, Colo., Roosevelt, Ariz., 

and Washington, D. C. Mr. F. W. Huber has had charge of the 

Berkeley laboratory and has tested the cement used 011 the TruckeeCarson project. Mr. J. Y. Jewett has conducted the Denver laboratory and has passed on the cement shipped from Portland, Colo., to 

Arizona and from Salt Lake to the Minidoka project. The Roosevelt laboratory has been under the direction of Mr. E. Duryee, assisted 

by Mr. H. A. Tobleman, chemist. This laboratory is equipped for 

general analytical work and in addition to testing cements has made 

many analyses for various survey projects and trial burns of cement 

materials. Some investigations have been conducted in all the laboratories 011 natural and crushed rock sands that have been of much 

interest and are likely to lead to economies in the use of cements. Mr. 

Duryee is prepared to make investigations in several lines as to means 

of reducing the cost of cement for the various projects. This may 

sometimes be accomplished by grinding sand cement at the site of the 

project, or by requiring specially fine grinding of the Portland or by 

making the cement at the site. The chief engineer called upon Mr. 

Duryee for additional details as to methods followed by him*ifi testing 

cement and received the following suggestions supplementing the 

specifications referred to:

In preparing the specifications and conducting tests of cements the 

aim has been to ascertain, before shipment, the quality of the cement 

offered by the contractor. The requirements of the specifications as

160
NEWELL.] CEMENT.AND CONCEETE. 161

to aging for a period of two months, and sampling and testing at 

the cement works before shipment, may appear to be rather exacting, but in the long run these provisions work to the advantage of 

both manufacturer and purchaser. The cement manufacturers generally claim that they plan to hold all cement for sixty days before 

shipment, and the contractor should provide sufficient warehouse 

capacity to permit storage of the sacked cement for one month, during the period of sampling and testing.

Sampling. The samples are kept separate. Every fortieth sack is 

opened and a fair sample, weighing- about 2 pounds, is extracted with 

a sampler. On retying the sack a tag, numbered and dated and 

having the car number noted thereon, is securely attached to the 

sack by means of wire and lead seals, fastened with a car sealer. 

The sample of cement is put into a paper sack numbered to correspond with the sample tag.

In bulk, in a bin, cement cures very slowly and may vary considerably in quality. On this account it is better to have the cement sacked 

before sampling. The tester can then sample more fairly, the cement 

will cure better, and the shipments can be more surely identified 

when the sealer is used. The Service sealer has the initials U. S. R. 

on the die.

Tests. In a general way the rules for testing adopted by the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Society for 

Testing Materials, which can be found in the transactions of those 

societies, are followed. It is advisable for the tester to submit his 

opinions of the cement as tested, with his report, the judgment to be 

based on the results of his tests, and he should not allow any cement 

to be shipped that is not sound, safe, and high-grade Portland.

Screening. A screening test of a mixed average sample from each 

car is made in the laboratory. The cement from some factories 

varies greatly in fineness as well as in strength, and on that account 

it is well when time permits to make screening tests on individual 

samples instead of on a mixed sample, so as to show if there is much 

variation.

Consistency. A preliminary and approximate test is made by 

mixing a small quantity of cement with a measured portion of water; 

the mortar is then worked for three minutes, molded with the hands 

into a ball, and dropped from a height of 20 inches. If the proper 

proportion of water is used, the ball will not crack. The test is 

confirmed by using a Vicat needle in the manner described in manuals 

on cement testing.

Making pats. Three ounces of cement are mixed with sufficient 

water to give a paste of normal consistency. The cement is weighed 

but the water is usually gaged in a glass graduate, the quantity used

IBB 14(ter-05 M-^r-ll
162 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

being approximately 25 per cent. The water is added to the cement 

in one dose and the mortar is then worked with a trowel for two 

minutes. Standard specifications usually mention five minutes, but 

two minutes is about as long as laboratory practice allows. One pat 

is made from each sample. As soon as made the pat is put in a moist 

atmosphere. This can be obtained by suspending wet crash towels 

over a light wooden frame, if 110 better arrangement can be made. 

As often as necessary the pat is removed and tested with a one-fourth 

pound Gil more needle for the initial test. After standing twentyfour hours these same pats are put in a pan and water of the temperature of the room is poured over them and gradually raised to the 

boiling point and kept at that temperature for six hours. The pats 

should not soften or crack.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE.

The committee has to report that Mr. Duryee's recommendations 

have been carefully considered and are recommended for approval.

In the matter of long-time tests of cement and cement mortar, the 

committee recommends that a series of such tests be undertaken in 

connection with the construction of the more important dams. The 

aim should be to undertake only such tests as it is desired to cover a 

period of one' year or more. However, it would be well to keep constantly on hand a limited number of briquettes for short-time tests 

to be utilized for explanatory and educational purposes.

In addition to the regular tests of neat cement and cement mortar 

using standard sand, a similar series of tests of cement mortar using 

samples of sands and broken-stone screenings actually used in the 

construction should be undertaken in order to determine the relative 

strength of mortars made with ordinary sands and with broken-stone 

screenings.

Finally, it is recommended that as far as practicable all tests 

should be conducted in accordance with rules adopted and recommended by the American Society of Civil Engineers and by the 

American Society for Testing Materials.

COMMITTEE ON COSTS AND RE8UI/T8.

At the Washington conference there was appointed a committee 

on costs and results, to which was referred the entire subject of costs, 

both estimated and actual, and which was instructed to consider 

the necessary records and methods of collecting information, and 

to recommend forms for such a system. On January 14, 1905, the 

committee reported as follows, after having received various reports, 

suggestions, and forms from the chief engineer, from other engineers, and from former committees:
NEWELL.] COSTS AND RESULTS. 163

ACCOUNTING.

There are three closely related but distinct operations to be considered :

(1) Preparation of estimates in advance of execution of work.

(2) Bookkeeping, or records of expenditures and liabilities.

(3) Cost keeping, or summation of actual costs of work done.

Section 2 of the act of June 17, 1902, requires that the Secretary 

of the Interior shall report to Congress at the beginning of each 

regular session, giving estimates of cost of all contemplated works, 

also the cost of works in process of construction, as well as those 

which have been completed. In short, it requires that the Reclamation Service shall make public these important details of actual cost 

and go clearly on record on these vital matters.

ADVANCE ESTIMATES.

The law thus requires a report on the estimated cost of all contemplated works. There is opportunity for debate as to what constitutes contemplated work, and experience has shown that judgment 

must be used in not disclosing these estimates in advance of actual 

receipt of bids from contractors. It is to be assumed that the law 

does not compel the divulging of information which good business 

principles require should be kept confidential. The items, therefore, which go to make up the details of the cost of various parts of 

the project should not be given publicity until after the matter has 

been approved by the Secretary and bids received.

In the preparation of advance estimates the items of cost which 

enter into the estimates should be stated in such a way that it will 

be practicable in the future to check those against the actual expenditures. It is to be assumed that, as a rule, all estimates are to be 

prepared upon the basis of a unit price for earth excavation, rock 

work, concrete, etc. This being the case and the units being given 

it will be possible when the work is built to make direct comparison.

While it is desired to have the, assumed cost ultimately borne out 

by the facts obtained in construction, yet, at the same time, it should 

be borne in mind that in case of doubt the estimates should be high 

rather than low. The results upon the public mind are far better 

if the work is executed within the original estimates, and great credit 

is usually given to the man or organization executing the work 

within the limits originally set. If, however, the actual cost exceeds 

the estimates, either in unit prices or quantities, it is usually difficult 

to give a satisfactory explanation. The advance estimates on which 

the Secretary is asked to authorize construction of a project should 

therefore be prepared with a view to covering the project's proportion of the State and Washington general charges.
164 SECOND BECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFEKENCE. [NO. 146.

The principle stated above should also be observed in the preparation of the quarterly estimates.

The three amounts given under the heading of each project or 

account of the quarterly estimates should represent the following:

(1) Total expenditures to end of previous quarter, including all 

expenses for which vouchers were approved during that period.

(2) Expenditures during expiring quarter, including all expenses 

for which vouchers will be approved during the quarter, without 

regard to the time when the expense was incurred.

(3) Estimated expenditures for succeeding quarter, which should 

be an amount sufficient to cover all expense which it is expected will 

be incurred and all unpaid liabilities of previous quarters.

BOOKKEEPING.

Vouchers. In the operations of the Reclamation Service, as in all 

public matters, expenditures are made solely upon vouchers properly 

approved. Each individual voucher, whether large or small, constitutes a unit and is handled and considered as such. The items in the 

vouchers may be distributed or grouped, but the voucher itself and all 

that relates to it is a distinct entity and should be so treated. In 

other words, the step from the voucher to the entry or series of entries 

in the books must be direct, and all further steps consecutive, so that, 

starting with the voucher at the beginning or with the final statement 

at the end, it will be possible for a person of ordinary training to 

follow forward or backward and trace out or check over all intermediate steps. A method of bookkeeping which does not permit this 

rapid and definite verification will not answer the purpose for which 

it is intended.

The voucher is ultimately deposited in some safe place, but, though 

forming the foundation upon which the bookkeeping rests, is not 

always available for quick reference. The first entry or series of 

entries made from the voucher must be sufficiently clear to enable all 

future distributions of accounts to be effected. This distribution can 

only be made in most cases by the person incurring the expense or certifying primarily to its propriety. After the first certification is 

made the voucher usually passes into the hands of other persons, who 

are less and less qualified by personal knowledge to verify the matter. 

It is therefore required that the person originally certifying to the 

account should indicate at that time, while the matter is fresh in mind, 

the item or items to which charges are to be made.

Charge sheet. The first step in the bookkeeping is the preparation 

of a charge sheet (Forms 9-501, 9-502, 9-503) covering the amount of 

each voucher and showing its distribution into several elements of 

expense. A new form is recommended, having nine subdivisions 

of secondary charges and nine of tertiary charges. The definitions of 

the secondary charges are as follows;
NEWELL.] COSTS AND EESULTS. . 165

Examination: Reconnaissance and all preliminary investigation.

Survey: Topography, testing, and location.

Design: Preparation of plans and detail drawings.

Subdivision: Limiting area of land per entry in the determination 

of farm units, including examination of the soil.

Rights and property: Acquisition of lands and rights, abstract of 

title, and recording.

Construction: Building of the project works and of structures, 

etc., incidental to such building.

Maintenance: Depreciation and repairs on the irrigation works of 

such a character as to be separable from operating costs.

Operation: Services and supplies for operating the irrigation 

works and incidental repairs made by operatives.

Executive: Administration and " all other expenditures provided 

for."

Each secondary charge has nine subdivisions, or tertiary charges, 

as follows:

Services. All charges for salaries, annual or monthly, wages by the 

day or hour, and any other expenditures for personal services only, or 

for services of men with teams, or horse hire not classed as livery, 

where the employment is a continuing one at a unit rate.a (See 

Regulations U. S. G. S., 1903, sec. 43, p. 31.)

Traveling. All charges for railroad fare, street-car fare, stage 

fare, livery and keep thereof, ferriage, tolls, sleeping- and parlor-car 

fare, porterage, checking parcels, hotel bills, meals, laundry, telegrams, and other necessary and incidental expenditures directly the 

result of a journey, and the jurat- fee. (See Regulations U. S. G. S., 

sec. 45, p. 33.)

Subsistence. All charges, including freight, for meals, rations, 

food, water, lodging, etc., for men only, when not traveling." (See 

Regulations U. S. G. S., sec. 62, p. 48.)

Equipment. All charges, including freight, for nonexpendable 

property, including public animals. (See Regulations U. S. G. S., 

sec. 54, p. 41.)

Materials. All charges, including freight, for expendable property entering into construction and remaining a part thereof.

Supplies. All charges, including freight, for expendable property 

used in preliminary and construction work, and wholly consumed 

therein, fuel, explosives, lubricants, illumination, repairs (including 

services when combined wT ith "job 1 ' charges for repair supplies), 

stationery, advertising, telephone, telegrams, and miscellaneous expenses not classified elsewhere.0

" The wages of cooks, which are a part of the cost of Subsistence; of men in Government employ engaged in repairs, which are a part of the cost of supplies; of janitors, 

which are a part of the cost of rent; and of hostlers and stablemen, which are a part 

of the cost of the care of animals, are all to be entered under " Services."
166 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Rent and storage. All charges for rent of offices and other buildings, and storage of equipment, material, and supplies, but not pasturage of public animals.0 (See Regulations U. S. G. S., sec. 51, 

P- <±0.)

Forage. All charges, including freight, for feed and care of public 

or hired animals, pasturage, etc." (See Regulations U. S. G. S., sec. 

45, p. 33, and sec. 64, p. 49.)

Construction contracts. All charges for payments to contractors 

on account of completed portions of construction work (Voucher 

Form 9-208). This includes both materials furnished and work 

done, and covers amounts which, if the work were done directly by 

the Government, wT ould be spread over the preceding eight charges.0

A charge sheet should be prepared for and accompany to the Washington office each voucher approved for payment from the reclamation fund. It should not be prepared for transportation requests, 

bills of lading, or other unpaid liabilities, but the coupons of transportation requests and bills of lading should have indicated thereon 

to what projects and to what secondary and tertiary accounts they 

are chargeable.

Transfer sheet. -Whenever charges made against one primary 

account are to be reentered against other accounts, transfer sheets 

(Form 9-504) showing the amount of such charges, the subject-matter thereof, and its distribution should be prepared by the office 

entitled to the credit.

Debit and credit notices, Appropriate debit and credit notices 

(Forms 9-505, 9-50G) should be prepared in the Washington office 

and sent to the resident engineers or to the proper engineers in charge, 

covering all charges and allowances to the project arising from 

without the office of such engineers.

All vouchers made by the several experts and specialists of the 

Service for purchases which are to be applied to the various projects 

should, after approval by the engineers incurring the expense, be 

sent to the resident engineers for record and should be accompanied 

by appropriate charge sheets. Such action will avoid discrepancies 

in the accounts and give the resident engineers fuller information 

regarding the nature of the expenditure than can be given in other 

ways.

Vouchers for services and for traveling and field accounts of men 

under their direction need not be so transmitted, but should be sent on 

direct for payment. When such men are detailed to a project for any 

considerable period and are to be paid there, notice of the salary to

a The wages of cooks, which are a part of the cost of subsistence; of men in Government employ engaged in repairs, which are a part of the cost of supplies ; of janitors, 

which are a part of the cost of rent; and of hostlers and stablemen, which are a part 

of the cost of the care of animals, are all to be entered under " Services."
NEWELL.] COSTS AND EESULTS. 167

be paid them and of the date from which such payment should be 

made should be sent to the resident engineer (Form 9-507).

General charges. Work done in one State for the benefit of the 

entire Service (as tests of certain methods of doing work or of certain 

materials) should be charged to appropriate accounts under the head 

of the Washington office, that the expense thereof may be apportioned 

to the entire Service, as are all the accounts under Washington.

The general charges for a State having one principal project under 

construction or about to be entered on should be charged to that 

project; reconnaissance charges should be placed against definite 

projects, either those under way or those being considered.

It appears that there will not be need of any account outside of 

the Washington office other than those for distinct projects, except 

reconnaissance in those States wrhere no definite project has yet been 

developed.

Unpaid liabilities. In the matter of salaries and of the greater portion of its miscellaneous purchases the Government is not a credit 

purchaser. But in certain lines of business, particularly transportation, where the purchases are large in number and relatively small in 

amount individually, the charges are allowed to remain on account 

until such time as a statement of recount or " bill " therefor is 

rendered, when charges, often covering a large number of items, are 

vouchered and paid. Such charges are mainly for passenger fares, 

freight, express, and telegraph tolls.

There should be kept in each district or project office a " record of 

liabilities incurred for which vouchers have not been approved."

Herein should be recorded all transportation requests and bills of 

lading issued to transportation companies, giving date, number, 

railroads, etc., affected, points from and to, amount, and accounts, 

chargeable.

When transportation requests and bills of lading are delivered in 

blank, a record should be made of the number, etc., and a pencil 

memorandum be made of the date and name of person to whom 

delivered, until such time as the other information can be supplied.

Charge sheets should not be prepared for such unpaid liabilities 

until the accounts therefor have been vouchered and approved, nor 

should entries therefor be made in any of the various ledgers at 

project, district, or Washington offices, as such entries are to be made 

only on charge sheets based on paid or approved vouchers.

When notice is received of the approval of the voucher covering 

an item of this record, the date of approval should be entered in the 

last column.

All items of this record for which the vouchers have not yet been 

approved are outstanding liabilities.
168 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

COST KEEPING.

Definition. Cost keeping, or the summation of actual cost of work 

done, is founded on the expenses incurred, but is largely dependent 

upon engineering data. It is important to carefully observe the 

distinction between bookkeeping in general, which consists in keeping 

the record of expenditures, liabilities, etc., and cost keeping as above 

defined. There is a wide distinction to be observed between the 

amount of money which is spent, for example, on a contract for the 

construction of a canal and the amount which that canal actually 

costs the contractor. The first is of general interest from the financial standpoint mainly; the second is of most value to the engineers, 

not only for comparison with the original estimates of cost, but as 

a guide in the preparation of future estimates.

The keeping of a record of the contract cost is relatively a simple 

matter. This can be ascertained from the contract itself or record of 

expenditures. The actual cost of the work is determined, however, 

with considerable difficulty, since it involves the recording daily of 

facts concerning number of men employed, material used, and miscellaneous expenditures.

The item of cost keeping is largely an engineering function, and all 

estimates of the actual or net cost of construction must be made under 

the supervision of an engineer concerned immediately with the execution of the work. The record books should be simple yet explicit, 

and the dates noted should be collated and arranged according to 

some uniform system susceptible of checking and verification.

For the cost accounts three classes of records are necessary stores 

books, showing purchases and how the articles are applied to the 

project and giving inventories of stocks on hand; time books, showing the entire force account of the Government and of contractors; 

and reports or estimates of quantities of work done. As very different conditions exist during the preliminary period of survey and 

the later period of .construction, two sets of time books and reports 

are provided, intended, respectively, for use in collecting and reporting the costs of survey and the costs of construction.

Stores accounts. For stores records ordinary blank books with 

ledger ruling may be used, with the following instructions inserted 

in each book (Form 9-508) :

All stores should be divided into five general classes corresponding 

to the subdivisions of the charge sheet relating to stores.

Equipment: All nonexpendable property, including public animals. 

(See Eegulations U. S. G. S., sec. 54, p. 4L)

Materials: All expendable property entering into construction and 

remaining a part thereof.

Supplies: All expendable property used in preliminary and con-
NEWELL.] COSTS AND RESULTS. 169

struction work, and wholly consumed therein, fuel, explosives, lubricants, illumination, repairs (including services when combined with 

*' job " charges for repair supplies), and stationery.

Subsistence: All rations, food, water, etc., for men only. (See 

Regulations U. S. G. S., 1903, sec. 62, p. 48.)

Forage: All feed for public or hired animals, etc. (See Regulations U. S. G. S., 1903, sec. 45, p. 33, and sec. 64, p. 49.)

For equipment use the property account blanks of the United 

States Geological Survey, retaining a duplicate and indicating 

thereon not only the name of the person in possession of the property, 

but also the feature of the work on which it is then used.

For each of the other divisions of the stores accounts, there should 

be a separate book or division of the book in which there should be 

opened an account with each general kind of stores handled. There 

may be one miscellaneous account in each general class, to which will 

be entered single purchases for specific purposes, showing how the 

articles were applied.

The accounts under " Subsistence" should conform to the ration 

list, and where different articles are grouped under one heading of 

that list, as fresh meat, which includes fish, poultry, and eggs, the 

substitute articles should be entered to appropriate accounts following 

the principal one.

Indicate all debits in number of units, as pounds, gallons, etc.; enter 

description and whence procured, with voucher number, if possible; 

show unit price thereon and gross cost.

Indicate all credits in like manner and state the purpose to which 

the stores are applied; state feature of the work rather than the 

person to whom delivered.

Balances should always agree with the inventories of stores on 

hand.

All purchases, whether for the general store or for field parties, 

and all requisitions for stores made by field parties on the general 

store should be made on requisition blanks in duplicate (Form 

9-509), and one copy be retained by the person ordering, the other, 

in the case of purchases from outside suppliers, to accompany the 

invoice rendered for the goods. When stores are furnished by the 

general stores keeper on such requisitions, an invoice in duplicate 

(Form 9-510) should be prepared by him for the articles supplied, 

showing, in case of failure to complete the order, when the other 

articles will be furnished.

Analyses of costs. A logical report upon costs requires the following procedure, which should be as nearly uniform as possible in all 

work of this Service:

(1) The collection of data in the field.
170 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

(2) The arrangement and tabulation of these data in the local 

offices.

(3) The transmission to superior officers of the results of such collation as fully as required to be clearly understood, but not in such 

detail as to defeat the purposes of the reports by rendering them 

cumbersome.

Costs of surveys. For the Government executive and the engineering force in the prosecution of surveys, both during the preliminary stages and the construction periods, the following forms are 

provided:

(1) Time book (Form 9-511), containing blanks in which to 

record the names and permanent addresses of members of the parties; 

a, daily time record of men and teams, daily memoranda, and a 

monthly summary.

(2) Weekly report (Form 9-512) from chiefs of party to resident 

engineers. . j

(3) Monthly report (Form 9-513) from chiefs of party and others 

in charge of specific classes of work to the resident engineers for 

approval and transmission to the supervising engineers.

(4) Monthly summary (Form 9-514) of operations from resident 

engineers to superior officers.

All of these forms are based upon the distribution provided for on 

the charge sheet.

Costs of construction,. For the collection and transmission of information concerning work on construction, whether under contract 

or on force account, the following forms are provided:

(1) Time book (Form 9-515), similar to the one prepared for use 

on surveys except that the blanks for daily memoranda and monthly 

summary are omitted. All engineers or inspectors having relations 

with contractors or in direct charge of any portions of construction 

work on force account should keep journals, and should record fully 

the daily operations, instructions, and information furnished to contractors or foremen and lists of the expenditures made.

(2) Field engineering record (Form 9-51C), for use by the assistant engineer in charge of a section of construction work.

(3) Engineering summary (Form 9-517), on which is to be collected 

the data recorded on the previous form, and a copy of which is to be 

prepared for the resident and supervising engineers.

(4) Monthly statement (Form 9-518), to be printed on translucent 

paper. This statement is to be prepared at the same time as the 

voucher (Form 9-268), and should show all the data on the voucher. 

Sufficient copies should be prepared to furnish at least one copy each 

to the offices of the resident, supervising, and chief engineers and one 

to the contractor.

Cost summary. For the working out of contractors' prime costs
NJSWELL.] COSTS AND EESULTS. 171

(i. e., costs of labor, materials, and supplies, and excluding equipment 

in use and general charges at distant, offices " not in sight"), a cost 

summary or statement of force employed, material delivered, and 

work done (Form 9-519) is prepared on translucent paper. This is 

divided into vertical sections, which should be supplied with appropriate headings to indicate the character and class of the excavation, 

masonry, etc. Under excavation, there should also be reported the 

kind of earth, the method of excavating employed whether by 

machinery or hand labor the mode of transportation, and the length 

of haul. Under masonry, if for concrete in place, there should be 

reported the method of mixing, the proportions and materials used, 

the mode of transportation, and the length of haul. It is divided 

horizontally into sections headed " labor," under which should be 

entered all man or team labor, irrespective of whether teams are 

owned or hired by the contractor, at the current rates for such service, 

and " materials and supplies furnished by contractor," under which 

should be entered all stores furnished by the contractor which have 

been applied to or consumed upon the work done.

The cost to contractor obtained by a summation of the charges for 

labor, materials, etc., will be a prime cost, and will not, excepting 

indirectly, include depreciation of equipment or executive charges.

Below are spaces for the contract price, for " materials and supplies " furnished by the Government, and " engineering expenses," the 

last two supplied with sufficient blank lines to permit them-to be 

divided into their principal elements, as are the force and material 

accounts of the contractor above.

A summation of these last three items will furnish a prime cost to 

the Government, which again does not otherwise than indirectly 

include depreciation of equipment or State or Washington charges.

Report of costs. For a concise statement to the chief engineer a 

report of costs (Form 9-520) is prepared which will present on one 

sheet of letter size the kind and quantity of work done on each division of the project work and the cost thereof to the contractors. Also 

the cost to the Government for amounts paid to contractors, for materials and supplies furnished, for engineering expenses, and the total 

cost to date. The unit costs shown are the contractors' prime cost, the 

unit price per contract, and the Government prime cost. A statement 

of the whole number of men employed on contract work and on engineering work is provided for.

PROGRESS DIAGRAMS.

Progress maps or diagrams showing graphically the work accomplished should, whenever practicable, be prepared by engineers in 

charge of specific work to accompany their reports to the supervising 

and chief engineers.
172 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Such maps and diagrams must necessarily be drawn specifically 

for each project, but they should be as nearly uniform in plan and 

details as possible. It is recommended that, whenever practicable, 

these diagrams be prepared in the Washington office, under the direction of the resident subcommittee hereinafter referred to, in accordance 

with data and suggestions furnished by the supervising engineers, 

the plans to be photographed and as many prints as may be required 

to be sent to the supervising engineers having jurisdiction. These 

plans must be simple, so that they may be readily understood at a 

glance by members of Congress and others not engineers, and must 

show the character, amount, and locality of the \vork and the cost 

thereof.

Whenever it is not practicable for such maps and diagrams to be 

made in the Washington office, they may be prepared in the office of 

the project or supervising engineers, but in such cases they should, 

if possible, be sent at once to Washington for reproduction and return. 

In all such progress maps and diagrams standard colors showing the 

work accomplished in each month should be used, sheets of such 

standard colors being furnished from the Washington office. 

All such maps and diagrams should be. of such size that they may 

be folded to letter size, and in no case should they be larger than 4 

times letter size i. e., 16 by 21 inches.

The maps and diagrams of progress and the reports of cost and 

other operations should be properly collated and filed in the Washington office, convenient for ready reference. The information to be 

obtained from such statistics as they are gradually accumulated can 

then be tabulated and put in such shape as to be available for the 

benefit of the entire Service.

PREPARATION OF FORMS.

All blanks of the Reclamation Service having relation to accounts 

and reports, including vouchers, charge sheets, debit and credit 

notices, bills of lading, property returns, weekly and monthly reports, 

and circulars of instructions, should be printed on paper of distinctive color.

It is recommended that the preparation and final approval of the 

forms which are herein proposed and which further experience may 

show to be essential for the keeping of accounts and reports of 

progress shall be intrusted to the members of this committee residing 

in Washington (Messrs. AVebster, Olberg, and Paul), but that suggested forms be submitted for suggestion and criticism to the other

« See p. 230.
NEWELL.] COSTS AND RESULTS. 173

members of this committee before final action is taken. All such 

forms should be procured from Washington.

It is recommended that prior to the establishment of further local 

accounts the Washington office be consulted in order to bring about a 

uniform system of accounts throughout the Service.

OPERATIONS IN WASHINGTON OFFICE.

In the Washington office the complete books of the Reclamation 

Service are to be kept in simple yet explicit form, showing resources, 

liabilities, and expenditures. The charges made and the totals of 

expenditures are to be sent from time to time to the engineers interested, and the books in the local offices should be kept in accord with 

those in the Washington office.

OPERATIONS IN LOCAL OFFICES.

In each local office the books should be kept on the same general 

system as those in the Washington office, but in addition the local 

ftffice should keep all of the original notebooks and other records 

which go to show both the original estimates and the cost-keeping 

records. As nearly as possible a uniform system should be employed 

in the latter operations, so that assistant engineers accustomed to cost 

keeping in one locality can on being transferred continue the work 

at another point. '

The committee recommends that duplicate copies of this report, if 

approved, or of so much of it as may be adopted, be prepared and, 

with a complete set of the forms referred to, be sent each engineer 

having charge of local accounts.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON DUTY OF WATER, ALKALI,

AND DRAINAGE.

The work of the Reclamation Service in the construction of irrigation works of magnitude involves a series of investigations and 

experiments whose object is to determine the practicability of irrigating certain lands. Such experiments and investigations are an essential part of the work which the Secretary of the Interior is authorized 

to undertake in section 2 of the reclamation act, and are necessary in 

order for him to determine " all the facts relative to the practicability 

of each irrigation project." Among such investigations and experiments are those on the duty of water, soil investigations, experiments 

upon the reclamation of alkali land, drainage experiments, etc. 

Each and in some cases all of these should be investigated during 

the progress of the surveys leading up to the building of a project.
174 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 140.

DUTY OF WATER.

The duty of water under a stream should be known before a project 

is approved, in order that canals can be designed so as to carry the 

amount of water proper for the irrigation of the farms lying under 

them. While it is true that the duty will vary with every kind of 

plant grown under every variety of soil in every climate, and even 

with the man-using the water, yet some average duty should be determined and the canal cross sections and grades based thereon.

The importance of the exact determination of the duty of water 

can not be overestimated. Where a figure too low is taken, the 

plants grown will suffer, low yields will result, and the farmers will 

not receive the full benefit of their labors. On the other hand, 

where too high a duty is taken, the area of land which can be irrigated by a given water supply is underestimated, valuable land is 

often left dry, and too much water is used, the farmer thereby not 

only damaging his own lands and crops but those of his neighbors 

lower down.

Many observations have been made upon the duty of water in 

various parts of the United States, and it is proposed that this information be collected and digested for the use of engineers.

There are, however, many districts where little or nothing has 

been done in this connection, and it becomes necessary to observe irrigated fields in the vicinity to determine this quantity. This has 

been done in the past and should be encouraged in the future. It is 

hoped, however, that methods for this work can be made uniform in 

all districts.

Where markedly different types of soil or methods of farming 

occur in sufficiently large areas to be irrigated by independent canals, 

the duty of water should be determined for each type; but where, 

as is usually the case, the types are intermixed and it is not possible 

to find large areas of one type of soil or of farming, the piece of 

ground selected should be nearly an average of the types and 

should have the crops of the locality in about the same proportion as 

in the whole district. If it is possible to do so, an arrangement 

should be made by which the engineer in charge may have some 

control of the amount of water in the experiment. That is, he should 

endeavor to determine the best practice rather than that ordinarily 

followed in the vicinity.

All water used should be measured through a weir, or, in case of 

muddy waters, through a flume, the records being kept by recording 

weir gage. The yield of the crops grown under the experiment should 

be determined.

As a further check upon tli3 duty of water, it is well, where possible, to measure the duty under a large canal if any exist in the com-
NEWELL.] ALKALI AND DRAINAGE. 175

<

munity or near by. A recording gage should be placel at the head of 

the canal and the area irrigated determined, together with all possible facts regarding the yield and quality of the crops grown.

While the primary object of the work is to determine the capacity 

of the irrigating canals and the area to be irrigated, and one year's 

record might be sufficient for this, still, as the actual amount needed 

for each acre need not be .stated until applications for water rights 

are filed, it is thought well to continue the records for at least five 

years, so as to overcome discrepancies caused by unusual seasons and 

to determine as accurately as possible the best practice and to start 

each district right.

The question of the rate and time of delivery of the water is of 

especial importance and one which has unfortunately received but 

little attention. When pumping plants are to be built, it is of prime 

importance to know the maximum rate of delivery needed, and the 

same considerations apply to canals.

ALKALI AND DRAINAGE.

The alkali problem is one of vital interest to the irrigation farmer. 

One-eighth of the land which has been irrigated in the United 

States has been damaged by alkali to such an extent that its cultivation is no longer profitable. Such a loss is serious, amounting to 

nearly $50,000,000, and indicates something very unsound in the 

practice heretofore pursued. Our observations clearly indicate that 

this loss is largely clue to lack of drainage, and the success in adequately drained regions indicates the fact that drainage prevents 

such loss.

To prevent any loss of land in the projects irrigated by the Service 

it becomes necessary for some study to be made of the question, and 

preventives applied.

Experimental work so involved falls under two classes: (1) Methods of preventing damage from alkali, and (2) methods of reclaiming 

lands already alkaline. It is the sense of this committee that the 

Service should carry on certain experimental work on the drainage 

and management of alkali lands. This work might be done by the 

Department of Agriculture by request from this Service, but the 

committee recommends, after careful consideration, that it be taken 

up and entirely carried out by the Reclamation Service.

Investigations in drainage and alkali reclamation work should be 

carried on on tracts of 10 or 20 acres. Where possible the land should 

be in private ownership, and the Service should arrange with the 

owner to do all necessary farm worh, and possibly to pay for the 

material used, as he can not well benefit thereby. Where such an
176 SECOND EECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [No. 146.

arrangement is not possible, a tract should be .reserved from entry for 

use in these investigations (see sec. 7, reclamation act).

Crop introduction. The introduction of suitable crops for each 

project becomes the duty of the Service. The majority of farmers 

in the new projects will be inexperienced, and, in order that they be 

enabled to return the cost of irrigation, they should be advised regarding the best crops to grow and the best ways of growing and marketing them. Work of this sort involves farming operations and seems 

to fall within the scope of the Department of Agriculture and the 

experiment stations.

It is suggested that upon the approval of a project the Secretary of 

Agriculture be informed of the location, extent, and probable time 

of completion of the project, and asked to suggest crops and methods 

of farming adapted to the country.

Farm-unit maps. The report of the El Paso committee, consisting 

of Messrs. Savage, Bien, and Means, on farm units is as follows:

The principle on which the dealings with the settler should be based is that 

he shall pay for what he gets and know for what he pays. Accordingly, he 

should know the number of acres of irrigable land he receives and the amount 

of water to be furnished for each acre per annum. It is recommended 

(a) That the farm-unit classification sheets shall show in each farm unit the 

boundary of the irrigable land and the area of irrigable land, in acres.

(&) That a water-right application shall state the number of acre-feet per 

annum to be furnished per acre.

(c) That the charge for water rights shall be the same per acre of irrigable 

land.

((7) That the land be classified into two grades irrigable and nonirrigable 

and that all farm units contain the same area of irrigable land as nearly as 

practicable, except in the case of areas near towns and those susceptible of 

growing more valuable crops, thus providing for two sizes of irrigable areas in 

the farm units. The maximum number of acres of irrigable land fixed for each 

class in a project shall be adhered to as closely as possible.

(e) That the charge per acre for water rights on private land be the same as 

for public land, and that the irrigable area in each tract be determined in the 

same way as for public land, the irrigable area allowed one man in no case to 

exceed 160 acres.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

After discussion of the above subjects in committee meetings and in 

general conference with the engineers, the following specific recommendations were reported for approval:

(1) That the report of the El Paso committee on farm units be 

adopted and made the rule of the Service.

(2) That determinations of the duty of water be made by engineers 

in all projects where reliable figures are not at hand. In all such 

investigations the object shall be to determine the best practice in use 

of water, the total amount of water per acre per year, and the amount
NEWELL.] ORGANIZATION. 177

used each month during the season, with the maximum delivery 

needed at any one time.

(3) That drainage of all lands to be irrigated be considered in 

detail, and that drainage ditches be considered an essential part of 

the irrigation works.

(4) That investigation upon the best methods of reclaiming and 

managing alkali or other lands is essential to the success of the 

reclamation work in certain projects.

(5) That the introduction of suitable crops and agricultural industries is important, and engineers in charge of projects are urged to 

give all possible aid and assistance in investigations ieading to the 

solution of these problems. The details of these investigations are to 

be worked out as each arises.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ORGANIZATION.

if

Three meetings of the committee on organization were held, at 

which a number of engineers, notably Messrs. Ross, Sanders, Fellows, 

and Storrs, not members of the committee, attended and materially 

assisted in the discussion.

The committee believes that it is undesirable to establish absolute 

rules of procedure, as conditions and circumstances may change so as 

to require other methods.

Chief engineer and assistant chief engineer. It is especially desirable that the Washington office, and particularly the chief engineer, 

should keep in close personal touch with conditions in the field.

The committee believes that the present practice of providing for 

visits to the various projects by the chief engineer and assistant chief 

engineer, alternately, should be continued for the benefit of the Service 

and of the executive engineers in the field.

Consulting engineers. For the protection of the Service the present practice should be continued of having all vital points relative to 

the policy and construction of the work passed upon by a board of 

consulting engineers. The success of the chief engineer in securing 

the services of eminent consulting engineers is cause for congratulation. Consulting engineers should act in an advisory capacity and 

should not issue instructions in an executive capacity to the men who 

are the assistants on a project. After consideration of a question, 

the finding of a majority of the board should constitute a final decision so far as the board is concerned. This report should then be 

presented to the chief engineer.

Project board meetings. The district or supervising engineer 

should, when necessary, request the chief engineer to convene a board 

of consulting engineers. Because of the intimate knowledge of the

IBR 146 05 M 12
178 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

project in question which is had by the executive engineers it is due 

to them, as well as to the chief engineer, that they should be represented in such conference.

The chief engineer or the assistant chief engineer may, in his discretion, convene a board of consulting engineers to act on any question where consultation is deemed necessary, and the chief engineer 

and assistant chief engineer may be members of the board when they 

so desire.

In order that the construction work may be expedited, the decision 

of the project board should be accepted by the supervising engineer 

as final, and -he should issue, instructions in accordance therewith. 

This action should be presented to the chief engineer for his review. 

The action of the project board involving the acceptance or rejection 

of a project should, however, be submitted to the chief engineer for 

his decision before action is taken by the supervising engineer.

Executive engineers. In order that the related duties of the various engineers may be clearly defined and the work thus expedited, 

the supervising or district engineers should be considered as the executive heads and in charge of the management of their respective sections as the representatives of the chief engineer.

The chief engineer should place supervising or district engineers ir 

charge of certain specific territories. Under the district or supervising engineer may be placed project engineers. These executive engineers should prepare and present all data relative to any particular 

project or section thereof. The constructing engineer should, if possible, prepare plans and specifications, or assist in their preparation, 

when they relate to work which he is to build.

The positions of district engineer and supervising engineer apparently are not well defined. It would appear advisable to have but one 

intermediate engineer between the project engineer and the chief 

engineer, and it is immaterial whether such engineer be called a district or supervising engineer.

The field of the supervising engineer should not be so large that hecan not have an intimate, detailed knowledge of all the work being 

performed within the territory over which he has jurisdiction. His 

report to the chief engineer should be based on full and personal 

knowledge.

Construction engineers. The construction engineer should be definitely assigned to some important construction. He should reside 

near the work and be responsible for its construction and completion. 

He should report through the supervising engineer to the chief engineer. The construction engineer should be a member of the boarc1 

when his work is under discussion. He should be available for consultation work in the immediate vicinity.

Power engineers. The power engineers appointed by the chief
NEWELL.] ORGANIZATION. 179

engineer should be available as experts on all matters pertaining to 

the generation and transmission of power and its application to 

pumping, and as such should be freely consulted by the other engineers.

The power engineers should be called on by the supervising engineer to assist in the preliminary investigations of such projects as 

have power possibilities, and in such cases should furnish estimates 

of first cost and operation of proposed power plants to the supervising engineer and forward a copy to the chief engineer. It would be 

advisable for the investigation of apparatus and devices to be left 

entirely to the power engineer wherever possible.

After any project is approved for construction the power engineer 

should have executive charge of all matters concerning design and 

construction of power plant and pumping system and should issue 

specifications, on approval by the project board, for the apparatus 

needed; and when bids have been accepted on the principal units he 

should prepare designs for the plant as a whole. In a water-power 

plant the power engineer should be guided by the supervising engineer in the laying out of the delivery of the water to and its discharge 

from the plant.

All accounts connected with the power and pumping work should 

be kept with the other accounts on the project, but in such a manner 

that the cost can be segregated and be subject to the approval of the 

supervising engineer.

The engineer of any project and the power engineer should confer 

together in all matters where their work meets, and each on request 

should furnish the other any information necessary to the completion 

of the plan of the project as a whole.

Owing to the peculiar nature of the work of the power engineer, 

it is essential that his office should have a fixed location or headquarters. The larger part of the study and design of a power project 

is made in the office, and that office will require frequent communication with manufacturers or their agents, and should be located with 

that in view as centrally as possible in the district the engineer is to 

cover.

The power engineer should have charge of the operation of the 

power plants in his district.

The power engineer should be a member of the project board when 

questions involving his work are under consideration.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON POWER AND PUMPING.

GENEEAL STATEMENT.

The applying of transmitted water power to the uses of irrigation, 

whether to operate large pumps from lakes or streams or to pump 

water from underground sources, offers a very wide field for consid-
'180 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

eratioii and may be divided into several classes, according to whether 

the transmission is short or long (it may be extended up to 75 miles 

and used to distribute power over a large area), and according to 

whether the pumping is from wells or from streams or canals.

COST OF INSTALLATION AND OPERATION.

Specific example.-^-The thing which at this time is of the utmost 

importance to the Service is the probable cost of such installations. 

Estimates are being worked up on several projects, from which perhaps some idea can be gathered. Tn one case, where power is derived 

from water already stored for a canal system, and where only such 

hydraulic construction as water mains for delivering the water to the 

Avater wheels is charged, the cost works out about $25 an acre. The 

transmission in this case, is about 75 miles, covering an extended area; 

the average lift on the pumping plants is about 50 feet, using centrifugal pumps directly connected to motors; and the pumps are to be 

run not more than 200 days a year and to be given a rest during such 

periods as there is rain or an unusual supply of water due to rise of 

the natural streams supplying the gravity system.

The cost of operation of a plant of this character, this one being 

laid out for 40,000 acres, Avill approximate about 40 cents an acrefoot, allowing for depreciation, salaries, wages, and repairs; but if 

a portion of the care of this system can be merged under the management of the operation of the gravity canals this can be somewhat 

reduced.

In another case, where the transmission is short and the pumping 

units are large, and no step-up transformers nor step-down trarsformers are required, the cost amounts to about $10 an acre, and the 

operation to about 25 cents per acre-foot. The distance here is 

within 15 miles and the power derived is an incident of the construction of a diversion darn for a gravity system. These two cases 

illustrate what may be done along these particular lines.

In general, if a power plant is to be constructed solely and purely 

for the operation of such a system, the hydraulic work connected 

with it must not be the greater feature of the cost, for the electrical 

and mechanical appliances have practically a fixed cost for a given 

amount of power. The varying costs are the cost of hydraulic 

development and the cost of the transmission line controlled by its 

length. It can be very readily seen also that the lift on the pumps 

cuts a very large figure in all such cases.

A problem similar to the long-distance transmission above has 

been worked out very well in Water-Supply Paper No. 58, relating to 

the land around Fresno, and is very similar in cost of installation and 

operation to the one above mentioned. As a rule, if a high head can 

be obtained without too great an expenditure for a canal line (by high
NEWELL.] POWEE AND PUMPING. 181

head is meant heads above 500 feet), the cost of the hydraulic work 

does not become, as a rule, excessive.

It can also be shown that in a project where land is lying reasonably level and the water plane is within 2 or 3 feet of the surface 

and is renewed by floods every year, and where coal or its equivalent 

has an average value not to exceed $2 a ton, a steam plant can be 

installed, power transmitted 10 miles either way, and by pumping 

from wells irrigate as much as 40,000 acres from one plant at an 

installation cost of about $25 per acre and an operation cost not to 

exceed $2 per acre per annum, with a water duty of about 3 feet. 

The above is based on a lift on the pumps not to exceed 30 feet.

CHARACTER OF POWER.

Steam turbines. There are some localities in which cheap fuel can 

be obtained where water can be advantageously lifted from streams or 

canals to heads not exceeding 100 feet by direct-connected apparatus, 

using steam power. For this purpose the steam turbine, directly connected to a centrifugal pump, offers many advantages, especially if 

the water to be used in the boilers carries much mineral water, for 

with the turbine it can all be returned and reduce the cost of cleaning 

and repairs of boilers.

In some localities where fuel is extremely cheap and the irrigation 

season short, economy would indicate that the construction of a 

cheaper class of plant would be best, if other conditions, such as 

head, etc., would permit, but as a rule the serious question of the 

price of fuel through long terms of years, beyond the time of those 

who are planning the construction of these plants, would cause us to 

be very careful whether or not we build pumping plants to be operated by steam or by any power requiring fuel.

Gas engines. The gas engine is claiming our consideration in large 

units to no small degree, but in this country it has not been in operation sufficiently long to warrant extensive recommendations for its 

use, unless several of the controlling conditions are extremely favorable.

There are now under contract in this country for driving electric 

generators some large gas-engine units, having a capacity of 5,000 

horsepower in a single unit. From the operation of these no doubt 

sufficient data as to the reliability and economy and the other costs 

which enter into successful operation may be obtained which will 

warrant their use for this class of work.

The small gas engine in its many forms and types is undoubtedly 

one of the best means of obtaining power in units up to as high as 30 

horsepower for irrigation work for the individual farmer. In all 

cases where the power for pumping water for irrigation is to be
182 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

derived from the consumption of fuel, used in any form of heat 

engine, the nature of the crops and the value of the crop per acre 

per annum will have a great deal to do with the solving of the question of whether they will be used at all or not. But there are some 

cases where the lift is very light and the water supply plentiful, 

where undoubtedly they could be applied to crops of a moderate value. 

Water turbines. Another point where we should look for the 

practical use of pumping plants is in connection with canals across 

some sections of the country. In building these it is often necessary 

to overcome a rapid grade by a sudden drop. In numerous cases of 

that kind there lies, immediately above the canal, land In relatively 

small areas which could be reached by water elevated to their level 

by pumping plants. In such cases a simple water wheel of the vertical-shaft turbine type, direct-connected to centrifugal pump mounted 

on the same housing, submerged in the stream, the water dropping 

through the turbine wheel, furnishes the power to raise a portion 

of the water to the high level. In all cases where it is desired to connect the pump and the turbine water wheel together there should be 

a fall in the canal equal to at least one-quarter of the head against 

which the water would be lifted.

SUBMISSION TO SPECIAL ENGINEERS.

Wherever a power project is contemplated it would be well that 

the project engineers, as soon as they are satisfied there is sufficient 

power and sufficient land to be benefited thereby to make a power 

plant seem feasible, should put the problem up to those engineers who 

will eventually become responsible for the design of the power plant.

The nature of the data required will be, first, a diagram of streamflows throughout the year, expressing the flow in second-feet; also a 

diagram of gage heights, giving the elevation to which the water is 

to be lifted, and the amounts of water to be pumped each month 

during the year, showing it by maximums for the month. These data 

apply to cases where the pump is direct-connected to the water 

wheel. The other problems are much more complex, and it is wrell 

for the engineers interested to have a conference and go over the 

work together at as early a date as possible.

There have been within the past two years centrifugal pumps 

designed and placed in operation, working against heads as high as 

TOO feet, and there may be localities where it will be practical to raise 

the water for irrigation in large quantities as high as 300 or 400 feet 

by units direct-connected'to water wheels. This type of pump has 

an efficiency very much higher than the low-lift pumps.

It is desirable in all cases where power is to be used for pumping 

water that the engineers who are responsible for the power develop-
NEWELL.] POWER AND PUMPING. 183

ment should be consulted as early in the investigations as is practical, 

and that the responsibility should be placed on them for furnishing 

the estimates and preliminary plans. Confusion is quite likely to 

arise should several engineers be working on the same problem, and 

the best results are likely to be obtained where some individual engineer is responsible for presenting to the chief engineer the estimates 

which refer to his particular class of work.

WITHDRAWAL OF UNDEVELOPED WATER POWERS.

On some projects which require the diversion and storage of water 

for irrigation purposes difficulties arise in dealing with private interests, owing to the presence of water-power plants claiming prior 

rights to the natural flow of the streams from which the water for 

irrigation purposes must be taken. Water-power plants designed to 

supply commercial uses require, as a rule, a nearly uniform stream 

flow throughout the year, whereas irrigation systems require the 

largest flow during the irrigation season, and, where possible, complete storage of the water during the remainder of the year. For 

this reason the presence of a water-power plant on a stream whose 

waters are desired for storage in order to be used for irrigation 

purposes would necessitate permitting a certain amount of water to 

pass the storage reservoir in orde.r to supply the water-power plant, 

thus depriving the irrigation system of that amount.

To avoid complications of the kind above described it is suggested 

that control of all necessary water powers be secured as early as possible by withdrawing, under the first form, such lands along the 

streams as will control the situation so far as power development is 

concerned. It will be much better for the Government to release 

to private parties those water powers which it is not prepared to 

utilize itself than to leave them open to be filed on for speculative 

purposes. When the Government finds it necessary to release to 

private parties a water power which has been withdrawn, it will be 

an advantage to be able to make this release under certain conditions 

as to the use of the water-power privilege, reserving the right to 

control the natural flow of the stream to such extent as may be necessary to serve the needs of irrigation. It may sometimes happen that 

the presence of an irrigation storage reservoir on a stream will greatly 

improve the stream flow for powrer purposes for commercial plants 

situated below the reservoir, in which case the power company should 

pay a part of the expenses of the storage works by which they are 

benefited.

There are other reasons why the Reclamation Service should secure 

control over the necessary water powers in the arid regions. For 

instance, any undeveloped water existing within, say, 100 miles of an
184 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

area of land might at some later period be found useful for supplying 

water by electric transmission for pumping irrigation water for this 

land. No definite limit can be stated for which power can be economically transmitted, since this is entirely a matter of the relative expense of producing and transmitting the power and the value of the 

same when applied to beneficial uses. The land on Avhich it is proposed to use the power need not be definitely specified when the withdrawal is requested, but any area that may sometime be reclaimed will 

serve as the reason for requesting withdrawal.

Another consideration which should not be lost sight of is that 

some of these water-power possibilities may be found valuable in providing power for construction work on some reclamation projects 

that will be undertaken later on in this section of the country.

TEMPORARY POWER PLANTS FOR CONSTRUCTION WORK.

The construction of large structures, such as dams and canals, 

demands the use of large amounts of power, involving the consumption of much fuel, the cost of which is often high cfti account of the 

inaccessibility of the work. This power could often be furnished by 

installing temporary hydraulic or steam plants, where water power or 

fuel could be cheaply secured, and transmitting electric power for use 

in the work. Hydraulic power may sometimes be cheaply developed 

in connection with the diversion of the stream to permit the building 

of a proposed dam, or at some point on a canal above the point where 

the storage dam is to be constructed, or on any stream within a radius 

of a few miles of the proposed construction work. A steam-generating 

plant may sometimes be warranted to save haulage of fuel over rough 

mountain roads, the plant being placed at a convenient delivery point 

on a railroad or at a coal mine. When the construction work is finished the plant can often be sold at nearly full valuation for commercial uses if the Government has 110 further use for it. If the 

transmission line can no longer be of use in place, the wire can be sold 

or shipped to other projects and the pole line will usually be found 

useful for telephone purposes.

To meet the objection that the Government can not well arrange to 

put in these temporary power plants, since the actual construction 

work on the large dams, tunnels, etc., will be done almost entirely by 

contract, it is suggested: (1) That the temporary plant, after being 

erected by the Government, might be turned over to the contractors 

for operation under the supervision of the engineer in charge and 

under the agreement to maintain the plant in satisfactory working 

condition to the completion of the work. (2) That the Government 

retain control and operate the power plant, supplying power to the 

contractors at a reasonable rate.
NEWELL.] POWER AND PUMPING. 185

If this matter were carefully considered and decided on before the 

bids were called for, all the prospective bidders could be informed 

that the Government proposed to install the power plant, thus relieving all bidders of the necessity of determining the cost of producing 

the power necessary for construction work, which is always an important and very uncertain item in these estimates. Then all bidders 

could give due weight to the advantage they would derive from having power supplied to them from a power plant constructed by the 

Government.

In view of the above, the committee recommends that the possibility of furnishing electric power for the construction of large works 

from temporary steam or hydraulic plants erected by the Government 

be fully considered by the engineers of the Service prior to drawing 

specifications and letting contracts for these large structures.

CHARGES FOR PUMPED WATER. N

On pumping projects it seems reasonable that the water user should 

pay for his irrigating water on the basis of the amount of water 

actually delivered to him. This is unquestionably the proper method 

to follow on those projects where oil, coal, or other fuel furnishes the 

power for pumping, since in such cases the operating expenses depend 

so largely upon the quantity of water pumped. Hence it is proposed 

that the articles of incorporation for water users' associations, in 

projects where pumping is to be done by the use of fuel of some sort, 

include a provision that the annual charge for the cost of maintenance 

of the works be the same for each share, but that the charge for cost 

of operation be proportional to the quantity of water actually delivered to each shareholder.

Under this provision a minimum annual payment per share will 

be made, which will cover the fixed charges and upkeep of the plant. 

In addition to this, each water user will pay annually for water in 

proportion to the quantity actually used by him, a price per acrefoot being determined by dividing the total operating expense of 

the entire system by the total acre-feet of water delivered to all consumers.

One of the strongest arguments in favor of this plan is that it 

tends to foster economy in the use of water. Another is that the 

annual payments can be adjusted from year to year to correspond 

with the varying quantity used, depending upon whether the season 

is wet or dry.

On pumping projects depending upon water power, the operating 

expenses will not vary with the quantity pumped to so great an 

extent as on projects involving the use of fuel for pumping. But in 

such cases it is a question whether a minimum annual charge for
186 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

maintenance and operation should not be made on the basis of the 

least quantity of water that would under any circumstances be sufficient to irrigate the farm unit, and permit additional water to be 

purchased by individual users at a certain price per acre-foot. This 

price per acre-foot would be figured on the actual cost of delivery, 

and might be different for different parts of the irrigating season. 

On some projects where wT ater power is utilized for pumping, the 

power is available throughout the year, but the machinery would 

usually be idle except during the irrigating season. The system 

might, however, be operated an additional month or two at merely 

nominal expense, and where the water and power are available and 

would otherwise go to waste it would seem desirable to make a very 

Tow price for water delivered outside the regular irrigation season 

in order that the plant and the wT ater might be utilized to the greatest 

possible extent. Water so applied to land intended for certain crops, 

such as alfalfa and grain, might greatly lessen the amount of water 

required during the irrigating season and thus increase the acreage 

which the pumping plant could serve.

POWER DEVELOPMENT AT DROPS IN MAIN CANALS.

On the main canals of many projects the topography of the country requires an abrupt drop in grade which affords an opportunity 

for the development of power. It seems certain that this amount 

of power will not be allowed to go to waste indefinitely, and in most 

cases will be developed in the course of a comparatively few years. 

For this reason it would seem advisable in most cases to prepare 

for the erection of the future power house, when the canal is being 

constructed, by extending the concrete work, which will usually be 

required to provide a safe drop for the water from the higher to the 

lower level, and by constructing the tailrace and foundations for the 

power house. This additional work can be done at less cost, and with 

less danger of unequal settlement, if done at the start; otherwise, 

if the tailrace and foundations for the power plant are built after 

the canal has been in use for several years, it will be necessary to 

excavate for the new works in saturated ground, possibly endangering the whole structure, and with some difficulty in securing a perfect bond between the new work and the old. Moreover, this work 

would have to be done between two irrigating seasons, which would 

frequently make it necessary to do the work more rapidly than was 

consistent with economy, and in some locations would necessitate 

laying concrete in freezing weather.

DUTY OF WATER.

Estimates of probable costs of power and pumping plants necessitate a knowledge of the several factors peculiar to each project 
NEWELL.] RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEYS. 187

for instance, of the duty of water, of materials for construction which 

can be secured locally, of the character of the water to be pumped, 

and of the ground on which the power and pumping plants are to be 

built.

In regard to the duty of water, for instance, the essential factor in 

determining the necessary capacity of the power and pumping plants 

is the maximum demand for water which will occur during the irrigating season. Since the use of water for irrigation will be prescribed by regulations, it is safe to assume that the maximum demand 

will not be confined to a single day, but will cover at least a week or 

ten days. It is suggested that the greatest quantity of water to be 

used during any ten days of the irrigation season be taken as a maximum by the engineers in determining the capacity of the pumping 

stations.

Whenever it is possible to provide storage for pumped water, the 

size of the plant may be materially affected by that fact, since the 

storage reservoir, even if comparatively small, might serve as an 

equalizer and enable the system to supply during a period of one or 

two weeks a much larger quantity of water than the pumping plants 

alone would be able to deliver in the same length of time.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RECONNAISSANCE AND

SURVEYS.

Reconnaissance. As the development of projects has progressed 

the imperative necessity for thorough reconnaissance and investigation, conducted along parallel lines as to time of initiation and 

progress, for every feature of the work, is increasingly manifest, 

primarily to develop the controlling factors of a project and also 

their relative and time importance for determination.

In addition to the general and detailed engineering and hydrographic investigations and surveys, many other important matters 

some of them possibly controlling should receive careful consideration early in the investigation of a project.

It is imperative that all branches of the investigation be carried 

out in a thorough manner and every feature possible to anticipate be 

given consideration. Investigations of existing records, filings, and 

statistics, and of available data of any and every kind should, be 

given special attention before initiating field surveys.

It is recognized that the preliminary engineering field investigations should be carried on by men who by natural ability, training, 

and experience have demonstrated efficiency in this line of work. 

Detailed instructions should be given them, setting forth the controlling conditions of the reclamation law and other points governing the development of each project to which they are assigned.
188 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Careful consideration should be given to the general project as a 

business investment for the capital to be involved.

Irrigable lands. If the area of unpatented lands is nearly sufficient to require the available supply of water, or if a majority of 

all the available land is unpatented, the situation is much simplified.

In many cases a choice of lands to be irrigated is possible. For 

example, lands suitable for market gardening located near cities and 

towns have a much greater value when irrigated than lands located 

at considerable distance from market, and it is necessary to decide 

whether water supply shall be developed for lands of comparatively 

low productive ability located tributary to and near to the source of 

development, or shall be conducted for long distances to lands which 

can apparently afford to pay a large price for water supply.

Railway lands. In the case of railway-grant land it is reasonable 

to expect that in order to secure the development and settlement of 

the fends tributary to their lines, with the consequent freight and 

passenger traffic, the various railway companies will cooperate to the 

extent of subdividing the lands and offering them for sale under such 

terms and at such prices as may properly be required in accordance 

with the reclamation act.

In consideration of the large and perpetual revenue accruing to 

the transportation companies from the irrigation development, it 

is expected that a very low selling price per acre will be arranged. 

It is necessary, however, to have a definite agreement drawn up and 

properly executed with the railway companies. The attitude of the 

Reclamation Service toward railroads is a matter for careful consideration, especially where it may be necessary to frequently cross a 

main trunk line with a main distributing canal. The benefits accruing to the railroad in most cases will be very large, probably $3 or 

more per acre in annual freight revenue alone, without considering 

the additional large passenger traffic, which may amount to nearly 

as much more; and while it seems that they may be expected to 

cooperate consistently, it is necessary that the Service should have 

a consistent and uniform basis for dealing with them.

Private lands. Where private lands, located tributary to the proposed irrigation-supply development, are held in large tracts for 

investment or otherwise, the owners should be expected and required 

to enter into agreement and contract guaranteeing to dispose of their 

holdings over 160 acres, in compliance with the reclamation act, prior 

to the time when water is to be furnished from the irrigation works.

Borings. Diamond drill or other borings should be made where 

required at a timely period in the investigation of a project.

Water users' association. Where any considerable portion of the 

irrigable lands under consideration is in the hands of settlers, the atti-
NEWELL.] RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEYS. 189

tude of these owners should be definitely determined before undertaking expensive surveys.

Careful attention should be given at the proper time to the organization of a water users' association. Cordial cooperation and every 

assistance should be given by the Reclamation Service, but undue 

effort to promote or hasten such an organization is not advisable.

Rights of way. Investigations of all records should be made at 

an early time to determine the existence of rights of way for railways, 

and also to determine ownership of lands required for reservoir purposes, whenever preliminary surveys have determined the necessity 

for and location of desirable storage sites. The acquisition of rightof-way and flowage rights where reservoir sites have to be obtained 

is one of considerable importance.

Water rights. Investigations should, of course, be made to determine the existing water rights. The laws already enacted and in 

operation in some States provide for the determination and adjudication of water rights. It is expected that other States will soon 

enact laws for the same purpose.

Before a project can safely be put under construction, or even be 

finally declared feasible, it is necessary that a complete study of all 

water rights from the contemplated source of water supply be made, 

and that an adjudication of such rights be assured.

It has been the policy of the Reclamation Service not to acquire 

title to the water rights held and used by the private landowners 

previous to their subscribing their lands and taking irrigation water 

supply under a reclamation project, but to take over only such portions of existing distribution systems as can be utilized to advantage 

in connection with the more comprehensive project works, awarding 

the owners a fair price based on actual cost to reconstruct the ditches 

or portion of ditches so taken. All the existing private water rights 

are left intact, with title remaining permanently vested in the present 

holders to revive automatically and be of full force and effect in the 

basis of the adjudication previously made, in case circumstances 

should ever develop requiring their identification and use the same 

as before reclamation project.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STANDARD PLANS AND 

SPECIFICATIONS.

STANDARD PLANS.

The general opinion of the engineers assembled at the first conference with this committee was that plans of some of the smaller 

structures might be standardized. For the present, however, it i^ 

recommended that no effort be made to standardize the plans for 

the larger and more important structures. The territory covered
190 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

by the reclamation works extends over more than 20 degrees of 

longitude, and from the Canadian to the Mexican boundary. In 

this region a great diversity of soil and climate is found, the elevations varying from 200 feet below to 6,000 or 7,000 feet above the 

level of the sea. Every structure has a purpose to fulfill, and the 

design must be influenced more or less by local conditions. The 

conduit which would answer the conditions in Arizona might be a 

total failure in Montana. The dam which would successfully hold 

back the warm waters of the Colorado might be carried off by ice 

floes in the cold waters of the upper Missouri. A great deal must 

be left to the judgment of the engineer designing the works, and it 

may be noted that there is a vast difference in men's ideas. Two 

engineers might design entirely different structures for the same 

purpose, and they might both answer that purpose, or they might 

both be failures. Engineers must be given great latitude in designing of structures, as long as well-recognized scientific principles are 

observed. No two leaves on any tree or on any number of trees are 

exactly alike; no two dam sites, no two bridge sites, and no two 

headworks sites are exactly alike.

Any tendency to standardize the work of the engineer must result 

in restricting improvements, which are largely a matter of growth, 

based upon trial and performance in actual practice. Nothing is 

made perfect at first. The standardizing of our plans must be a 

matter of growth. Many of the structures which we think are about 

perfect on paper may upon trial develop weakness which must be 

provided against in future. We therefore recommend that a beginning be made on the standardization of the smaller structures by 

selecting from the drawings of the different project engineers now 

in the Washington office such as appear most suitable for types, and 

that one of the assistant engineers now in the Washington office be 

given charge of the work. His duty will be to examine and compare 

all the drawings now in the office bearing on each structure and 

design a type of this structure which can be easily modified to suit 

a particular locality.

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS.

In the matter of specifications it is recommended that the present 

" general conditions " be modified so that they will suit the following 

three contracts:

Contracts for construction work, including canals and all the necessary structures mentioned in the schedule (Form 9-294).

Contracts for machinery and installation (Form 9-294A). This 

form would apply to all kinds of machinery and manufactured appliances needing special mechanics for installing.
NKWELL.] STANDARD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 191

Contracts for furnishing materials only (Form 9-294B). 

The three amended forms follow.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION (FORM 9-294). 

INSTBTJCTIONS TO BIDDEES.

1. Form of proposal and signature. The proposal must be made on the form 

provided for that purpose, inclosed in a sealed envelope, and marked and 

addressed as required in the notice to bidders. It must state in writing and in 

figures the unit prices and the sum of money for which the bidder proposes to 

supply the materials and perform the work called for in the proposal and 

schedules. If the bid is made by an individual it must be signed with the full 

name of the bidder, whose address must be given ; if it is made by a firm it 

should be signed with the copartnership name by a member of the firm, and the 

name and full address of each member should be given; and if it is made by a 

corporation it should be signed by an officer in the corporate name, and the 

corporate seal should be attached to such signature. No telegraphic proposal or 

telegraphic modification of proposal will be considered.

2. Proposals. All blank spaces in the proposal must be filled in, and the 

phraseology of the proposal shall not be changed and additions shall not be 

made to the items mentioned therein. Any conditions, limitations, or provisos 

attached to a proposal will be liable to render it informal and may cause its 

rejection. Alterations by erasure or interlineation must be explained or noted 

in the proposal over the signature of the bidder. If a bidder wishes to withdraw his proposal he may do so before the time fixed for the opening, without 

prejudice to himself, by communicating his purpose in writing to the officer 

who holds it. No bids received after the time set for opening the proposals will 

be considered. The right is reserved to reject any or all bids, to accept one part 

and reject the other, and to waive technical defects, as the interests of the 

Service may require. Bidders are invited to be present at the opening of 

proposals.

3. Certified check. Each bidder must submit with his proposal a certified 

check for the sum stated in the notice to bidders, drawn to the order of the Secretary of the Interior. The proceeds of said check shall become the property of 

the United States if, for any reason whatever, the bidder withdraws from the 

competition after the opening of the bids or refuses to execute the required 

contract and bond if his bid is accepted. Checks will be returned to the unsuccessful bidders after the approval of the contract and bond executed by the 

successful bidder.

4. Award. The bidder to whom award is made will be required to enter into 

a written contract with the United States, and to furnish good and approved 

bond as herein specified, within ten days after receiving such contract for 

execution. The contract shall be, in its general provisions, in the form adopted 

by the Reclamation Service, copies of which can be inspected at its offices and 

will be furnished, if desired, to parties proposing to bid. If the bidder to whom 

the first award is made fails to enter into a contract as herein provided, the 

award may be annulled and the contract let to the next most desirable bidder in 

the opinion of the Secretary of the Interior: and such bidder shall be required 

to fulfill every stipulation embraced herein as if he were the original party to 

whom the award was made. A copy of the advertisement and of the general 

conditions and detail specifications will be attached to and form part of the 

contract. A corporation to which a contract is awarded will be required,
192 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

before the contract is finally executed, to furnish certificate as to its corporate 

existence and evidence that the officer signing the contract is diily authorized 

to do so on behalf of the corporation.

5. Contractor's bond. The contractor will be required to give a bond in the 

sum of 20 per cent of the amount of the contract, unless a different sum is 

specified in the notice to bidders or proposal, conditioned upon the faithful performance by the contractor of all the covenants, stipulations, and agreements 

in the contract. If at any time during the continuance of the contract the 

sureties, or any of them, shall die, or, in the opinion of the Secretary of the 

Interior, become irresponsible, the Secretary shall have the right to require 

additional and sufficient sureties, which the contractor shall furnish to the satisfaction of that officer within ten days after notice, and in default thereof the 

contract may be annulled by the Secretary of the Interior and the work carried 

to completion in the manner provided in the contract.

6. Transfers. Transfer of a contract, or of any interest therein, is-prohibited 

by law.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

7. Eight-hour law, and foreign and convict labor. In all construction work eight 

hours shall constitute a day's work, and no Mongolian labor shall be employed 

thereon. The importation of 'foreigners and laborers under contract to perform 

labor in the United States or the Territories or the District of Columbia is prohibited. (Sec. 3738, Rev. Stat, U. S.; act Aug. 1, 1892, 27 Stat. L., 340; sec. 4, 

act June 17, 1902, 32 Stat. L., 388; acts Feb. 26, 1885, and Feb. 23, 1887, 23 

Stat. L., 332 and 414.) On all construction work the employment of persons 

undergoing sentences, of imprisonment at hard labor which have been imposed 

by courts of the several States, Territories, or municipalities having criminal 

jurisdiction is prohibited. (Executive order May 18, 1905.)

8. Engineer. Where the word " engineer " is used in the general conditions 

or detail specifications, or in the contract, it shall be and is mutually understood to refer to the chief engineer of the Reclamation Service, or any of his 

authorized assistants or inspectors, limited by the particular duties intrusted to 

them. The engineer will give the locations and the grades for the work, and 

110 work depending on such locations and grades will be commenced until these 

have been established. The engineer shall point out to the contractor any 

neglect or disregard of the plans, specifications, and general conditions of the 

contract. Upon all questions concerning the execution of the work, the classification of the material in accordance with the specifications, and the determination of costs, the decision of the chief engineer shall be binding on both 

parties. When two or more contractors are engaged on work in the same 

vicinity the engineer shall be authorized to direct the manner in which each 

shall conduct his work so far as it affects other contractors.

9. Contractor. Whenever the word " contractor " is used it shall be held to 

mean the party, firm, or corporation with whom the contract is made by the 

United States for the construction of the work, the agent of this party who 

may be appointed to represent him in the execution of the work, or the legal 

representatives of the contractor. The foreman in charge of the work will be 

held to represent the contractor during the absence of the latter or his designated agent.

10. Foreman and copy of plans, etc. The contractor shall at all times keep 

upon the work a copy of the plans and specifications, so that reference may be 

made thereto by the engineer, in case of misunderstanding or misconstruction. 

Instructions given by the engineer to the contractor's foreman or agent on the 

work shall be considered as Jjaving been given to the contractor himself.
NEWELL.] STANDARD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 193

11. Transportation. The contractor will afford opportunity to the engineer 

to obtain copies of the expense bills for transportation charges on all machinery, 

materials, and supplies shipped to or from the project for use in connection 

with the work under this contract. On most of the western railroads reduced 

rates are applicable for the transportation of laborers employed by the contractor traveling in parties of five or more to or from the locality of the work, 

and allowance should be made therefor in submitting bids; full information 

concerning these rates can be obtained by application to the engineer in charge 

of the project.

12. Local conditions. Bidders must satisfy themselves as to the nature of 

the material and as to all local conditions affecting the work, and no information derived from the maps, plans, specifications, profiles, or drawings, or from 

the engineer or his assistants, will in any way relieve the contractor from any 

risks or from fulfilling all the terms of his contract.

13. Mortgaging of plant, etc. The contractor shall not, under any circumstances, give or execute any mortgage, deed of trust, or other conveyance or 

instrument of any description, affecting or intended to affect his right, title, 

interest, or property in or to any plant, machinery, tools, appliances, materials, 

or animals which may at any time be used in the prosecution of this contract.

14. Damages. The contractor will be held responsible for and be required to 

make good, at his own expense, any and all damages, of whatsoever nature, 

to persons or property caused by carelessness, neglect, or want of due precaution on the part of the contractor, his agents, employees, or workmen. He 

will not allow any of his agents, employees, or workmen to trespass upon the 

premises or lands of persons in the vicinity of the works, and will discharge, 

at the request of the engineer, anyone in his employ who may be guilty of committing such damage.

15. Drawings and specification requirements. Any drawings or plans which 

may be listed in the detail specifications shall, together with such detail specifications, be regarded as forming part hereof and of the contract. The engineer will furnish from time to time such detail drawings, plans, profiles, and 

special specifications as may be necessary to enable the contractor to complete 

the work in a satisfactory manner. The general conditions and detail specifications shall apply to all work done or material furnished, and shall control 

the special specifications where the latter are silent. In case of conflict in the 

general conditions, the detail specifications, and the special specifications the 

last shall control in the particular work to which they apply.

16. Experience. Bidders must, if required, present satisfactory evidence 

that they have been regularly engaged in the business of constructing such work 

as they propose to execute, and that they are fully prepared with the necessary 

capital, machinery, and material to begin the work promptly and to conduct it 

to the satisfaction of the Department.

17. Character of workmen. The contractor shall discharge from his service, 

when required by the engineer, any disorderly, dangerous, insubordinate, or 

incompetent person employed on or in the vicinity of the works under construction by the United States. None but skilled foremen or workmen shall 

be employed on work requiring special qualifications, as tunnels, concrete 

work, etc.

18. Methods and appliances. The methods and appliances adopted by the 

contractor must be such as will secure a satisfactory quality of work and will 

enable him to complete the work in the time agreed upon. If at any time 

such methods and appliances appear inadequate, the engineer may order the

IRB 146 05 M 13
194 SECOND EECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

contractor to improve their character, or increase their efficiency, and the contractor must conform to such order; but the failure of the engineer to order 

such improvement of methods or increase of efficiency will not relieve the contractor from his obligations to perform good work or finish it in the time agreed 

upon.

19. Material and workmanship. All materials must be of the specified quality 

and fully equal to approved samples, when samples are required. All work 

must be done in a thorough, workmanlike manner by mechanics skilled in their 

various trades, notwithstanding any omission from the drawings or specification's; and anything mentioned in the specifications and not shown in the 

drawings, or shown in the drawings and not mentioned in the specifications, 

must be done as though shown or mentioned in both. All materials furnished 

and all work done shall be subject to rigid inspection, and if not in accordance 

with the specifications, in the opinion of the engineer, shall be made to conform 

thereto. Unsatisfactory material will be rejected and shall be immediately 

removed from the premises, at the cost of the contractor, if so ordered by the 

engineer.

20. Samples. The contractor shall submit samples of any or all materials 

proposed to be used in the work if required to do so by the engineer.

21. Delays. The contractor shall not be entitled to any compensation for 

delays or hindrances to the work, from any cause whatever. Extension of time 

will be allowed for unavoidable delays, such as may result from causes which, 

in the opinion of the engineer, approved by the Secretary of the Interior, are 

undoubtedly beyond the control of the contractor, such as acts of Providence, 

fortuitous events, or the like. If any delay or hindrance is caused by specific 

instructions on the part of the Secretary of the Interior or the engineer, or by 

their failure to provide material sufficient to carry on the work, or to give such 

instructions as may be necessary for the same, or to provide necessary right of 

way, then such delay will entitle the contractor to an extension of time equivalent to the time lost by such delay. The engineer must receive from the contractor a written notice of claim for such delay before any extension of time 

will be allowed. Any extension of time, however, shall not release the sureties 

from their obligation, which shall remain in full force and effect until the 

discharge of contract. Any application for an extension of time must be accompanied by the formal consent of the sureties thereto, or other sufficient, 

sureties must be furnished by the contractor. In case the contractor should fail 

to complete the work in the time agreed upon in the contract, or in such extra 

time as may have been allowed for delays as herein provided, the engineer shall 

compute and appraise the direct damages for the loss sustained by the United 

States on account of further employment of engineers, inspectors, and other employees, including all disbursements on the engineering account, properly chargeable to the work. The amount so appraised and computed is hereby agreed upon 

as liquidated damages, and shall be deducted from any money due the contractor 

under his contract, and the contractor and sureties shall be liable for any 

excess. The decision of the chief engineer as to the appraisal of such damages 

shall be final and binding on both parties. Any provisions in the detail specifications concerning deduction for delay shall be held as modifying or revoking 

the provisions herein.

22. Suspension of contract. Should the contractor fail to begin the work 

within the time required, or fail to begin the delivery of material as provided 

in the contract, or fail to prosecute the work or delivery in such manner as to 

insure a full compliance with the contract within the time limit, or should any 

question arise as to whether or not the contractor is properly carrying out the
NEWELL.] STANDARD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. . 195

provisions of his contract in their true intent and meaning, at any time during 

the progress of the work, notice thereof in writing shall be served upon him, 

and upon his neglect or refusal to provide means for a more energetic and 

satisfactory compliance with the contract within the time specified in such 

notice, then and in either case the Secretary of the Interior shall have the 

power to suspend the operation of the contract, and he may take possession of 

all machinery,. tools, appliances, and animals employed on any of the works to 

be constructed under the contract and of all materials belonging to the contractor delivered on the ground, and may use the same to complete the work, 

or he may employ other parties to carry the contract to completion, substitute 

other machinery or materials, purchase the material contracted for in such 

manner as he may deem proper, or hire such force, and buy such machinery, 

tools, appliances, materials, and animals at the contractor's expense as may be 

«ecessary for the proper conduct of the work and for finishing it in the time 

agreed upon. Any excess of cost arising therefrom over and above the contract 

price will be charged against the contractor and his sureties, who shall be 

liable therefor. The failure to order improvement of methods or increase of 

force, plant, or efficiencies will not relieve the contractor from his obligation 

to perform good work or finish in the time agreed upon.

23. Climatic conditions. The engineer may order the contractor to suspend 

any work that may be damaged by inclemency of the weather or other climatic 

conditions (as, for example, excessive cold or heat), and due allowance shall be 

made to the contractor for the time actually lost by him on account of such 

suspension.

24. Quantities. The quantities given in the proposal are for the purpose of 

comparing bids, and are approximate only, and no claim shall be made against 

the United States on account of any excess or deficiency, absolute or relative, in 

the same.

25. C/iawfl'es. The Secretary of the Interior reserves the right to make such 

changes in the specifications of work or material at any time as may be deemed 

advisable, without notice to the surety or sureties on the bond given to secure 

compliance with the contract, by adding thereto or deducting therefrom, at 

the unit prices of the contract, or at such allowances for changes of materials as 

shall be deemed just and reasonable by the engineer, whose decision shall be 

binding on both parties. The right to make material changes in the quantities 

listed in the proposal is an essential part of the contract, and bidders must make 

their estimates accordingly. Should any change be made in a particular piece 

of work after it has been commenced, so that the contractor is put to extra 

expense, the engineer shall make reasonable allowance therefor, which action 

shall be binding on both parties. Extra work or material will be paid for as 

hereinafter provided.

2(5. Extra, work or material. Extra work or material of a character not provided for in the specifications, if ordered in writing by the engineer, will be paid 

for at actual necessary cost, as determined by the engineer, plus 15 per cent 

for profit, superintendence, and general expenses. The cost of extra work shall 

include all materials, labor, and fuel furnished by the contractor, but shall not 

include use of ^tools or machinery, office expenses, general superintendence, or 

other general expenses. Demand for payment must be made in writing by the 

contractor promptly upon the completion of the extra work or furnishing of the 

extra material. The account including the same must be accompanied by the 

certificate of the engineer that such work has been satisfactorily performed or 

the material furnished, stating the amount to be allowed therefor.

27. Structural difficulties. Should structural difficulties prevent the execu-
196 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

tion of the work as described in the plans and specifications, necessary deviations therefrom may be permitted by the engineer, but must be -without 

additional cost to the United States.

28. Inspection of work. The engineers and inspectors appointed by the Secretary^ of the Interior shall at all times have the right to inspect the work and materials. The contractor shall furnish such persons reasonable facilities for obtaining such information as they desire respecting the progress and manner of the 

work and the character of the material, including all information necessary to 

determine the cost of the work, such as the number of men employed, their pay, 

the time during which they worked on the various classes of construction, etc. 

He shall, when required, furnish the engineer and his assistants meals and 

camp accommodations at reasonable prices at any camp under his controJ 

Whenever the contractor shall be permitted or directed to perform night work, 

or to vary the period during which work is carried on each day, he shall give 

due notice to the engineer so that proper inspection may be provided for. Such 

work shall be done under regulations to be furnished in writing by the engineer, 

and no extra compensation shall be allowed therefor.

29. Removal of defective work. The contractor shall remove and rebuild, at 

his own expense, any part of the work which has been improperly executed, even 

though such work should have been already allowed for in the monthly estimates. The engineer shall give to the contractor written notice of such defective 

work when found. If the contractor refuses or neglects to replace such defective 

work, it may be replaced by the United States at the contractor's expense.

30. Protection of finished work and cleaning up. The contractor will be held 

responsible for any material furnished to him, and for the care of any finished 

work until final completion of the work, and will be required to make good, at 

his own cost, any damage or injury it may sustain from any cause. He shall 

take all risks from floods and casualties of every description and make no charge 

for detention from such causes. He may, however, be allowed a reasonable 

extension of time on account of such detention, as provided herein. The contractor shall remove all rubbish and unused material upon completion of the 

work, and place the premises in a condition satisfactory to the engineer.

31. Errors and omissions. The contractor will not be allowed to take advantage of any error or omission in these specifications, as full instructions will 

always be given should such error or omission be discovered.

32. Roads and fences. All roads crossing the work and subject to interference 

therefrom must be kept open until proper bridges or crossings are provided, if 

necessary, and all fences crossing the work must be kept up by the contractor 

until the work is finished.

33. Bench marks, stakes, etc. All bench marks, witness and side-slope stakes 

must be carefully preserved by the contractor, and in case of their destruction 

or removal by him or any of his employees such stakes shall be replaced by the 

engineer at the contractor's expense.

34. Right of way. The right of way for the works to be constructed and for 

all necessary borrow pits, channels, spoil banks, ditches, roads, etc., will be provided by the United States.

35. Sa/nitation. The chief engineer may establish rules for sanitation and 

police regulations for all forces employed under this contract; and should the 

contractor fail to enforce these rules, the engineer may enforce them arid assess 

against the contractor the cost thereof, which will be deducted from any sum due 

on the contract.

36. Use of liquor. The use and sale of intoxicating liquor will be absolutely 

prohibited on the work except under the direction and supervision of the engineer or his agent, and then only for medicinal purposes.
NEWELL.] STANDAED PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 197

37. Claims for work and material. The contractor shall promptly make payments to all persons supplying labor and materials in the prosecution of the 

work, and a condition to this effect shall be incorporated in the bond to be given 

by the contractor, in pursuance of the act of Congress approved August 13, 1894 

(28 Stat. L., 278), and acts amendatory thereof.

38. Payments. The payments due shall be made to the contractor upon the 

presentation of proper accounts, prepared by the engineer and approved by the 

chief engineer, in accordance with the provisions made therefor and pertaining 

to the contract. When the work has been completed or all the material has been 

delivered, to the satisfaction of the chief engineer, and when a release of all 

claims against the United States on account of the contract shall have been executed by the contractor, final payment of the balance due will be made.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR MACHINERY AND INSTALLATION (FORM 9-294A). 

INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS.

1. Form of proposal and signature. The proposal must be made on the form 

provided for that purpose, inclosed in a sealed envelope, and marked and 

addressed as required in the notice to bidders. It must state in writing and in 

figures the unit prices and the sum of money for which the bidder proposes to 

supply the materials and perform the work called for in the proposal and 

schedule. If the bid is made by an individual, it must be signed with the full 

name of the bidder, whose address must be given; if it is made by a firm, it 

should be signed with the copartnership name by a member of the firm, and 

the name and full address of each member should be given; and if it is made 

by a corporation, it should be signed by an officer, in the corporate name, and 

the corporate seal should be attached to such signature. No telegraphic proposal or telegraphic modification of proposal will be considered.

2. Proposals. All blank spaces in the proposal must be filled in and the 

phraseology of the proposal -shall not be changed and additions shall not be 

made to the items mentioned therein. Any conditions, limitations, or provisos 

attached to a proposal will be liable to render it informal and may cause its 

rejection. Alterations by erasure or interlineations must be explained or noted 

in the proposal over the signature of the bidder. If a bidder wishes to withdraw his proposal, he may do so before the time fixed for the opening, without 

prejudice to himself, by communicating his purpose in writing to the officer who 

holds it. No bids received after the time set for opening the proposals will be 

considered. The right is reserved to reject any or all bids, to accept one part 

and to reject the other, and to waive technical defects, as the interest of the 

Service may require. Bidders are invited to be present at the opening of proposals.

3. Certified check. Each bidder must submit with his proposal a certified 

check for the sum stated in the notice to bidders, drawn to the order of the Secretary of the Interior. The proceeds of said checks shall become the property 

of the United States if, for any reason whatever, the bidder withdraws from 

the competition after the opening of the bids or refuses to execute the required 

contract and bond if his bid is accepted. Checks will be returned to the unsuccessful bidders after the approval of the contract and bond executed by the successful bidder.

4. Award. The bidder to whom award is made will be required to enter into 

a written contract with the United States and to furnish good and approved 

bond, as herein specified, within ten days after receiving such contract for
198 SECOND KECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFEKENCE. [NO. 146.

execution. The contract shall be, in its general provisions, in the form adopted 

by the Reclamation Service, copies of which can be inspected at its offices, and 

will be furnished, if desired, to parties proposing to bid. If the bidder to whom 

the first award is made fails to enter into a contract as herein provided, the 

award may be annulled and the contract let to the next most desirable bidder 

in the opinion of the Secretary of the Interior; and such bidder shall be 

required to fulfill every stipulation embraced herein as if he were the original 

party to whom the award was made. A copy of the advertisement and of the 

general conditions and detail specifications will be attached to and form part 

of the contract. A corporation to which a contract is awarded will be required, 

before the contract is finally executed, to furnish certificate as to its corporate 

existence and evidence that the officer signing the contract is duly authorized to 

do so on behalf of the corporation.

5. Contractor's bond. The contractor will be required to give a bond in the 

sum of 20 per cent of the amount of the contract, unless a different sum is 

specified in the notice to bidders or proposal, conditioned upon the faithful performance by the contractor of all the covenants, stipulations, and agreements 

in the contract. If at any time during the continuance of the contract the sureties, or any of them, shall die, or, in the opinion of the Secretary of the Interior, 

become irresponsible, the Secretary shall have the right to require additional 

and sufficient sureties, which the contractor shall furnish to the satisfaction of 

that officer within ten days after notice, and in default thereof the contract may 

be annulled by the Secretary of the Interior and the work carried to completion 

in the manner provided in the contract.

6. Transfers. Transfer of a contract, or of any interest therein, is prohibited

by law.

GENEBAL CONDITIONS.

7. Eight-hour law, and foreign and convict labor. In all construction work 

eight hours shall constitute a day's work, and no Mongolian labor shall be employed thereon. The importation of foreigners and laborers under contract to 

perform labor in the United States or the Territories or the District of Columbia 

is prohibited. (Sec. 3738, Rev. Stat, U. S.; act Aug. 1, 1892, 27 Stat. L., 340; 

sec. 4, act June 17, 1902, 32 Stat. L., 388; acts Feb. 26, 1885, and Feb. 23, 1887, 

23 Stat. L., 332 and 414.) On all construction work the employment of persons 

undergoing sentences of imprisonment at hard labor which have been imposed 

by courts of the several States, Territories, or municipalities having criminal 

jurisdiction is prohibited. (Executive order May 18, 1905.)

8. Engineer. Where the word " engineer " is used in the general conditions 

or detail specifications, or in the contract, it shall be and is mutually understood 

to refer to the chief engineer of the Reclamation Service or any of his authorized assistants or inspectors, limited by the particular duties intrusted to them. 

The engineer shall point out to the contractor any neglect or disregard^ of the 

plans, specifications, and general conditions of the contract. Upon all questions 

concerning the execution of the work in accordance with the specifications, and 

the determination of costs, the decision of the chief engineer shall be binding on 

both parties. When two or more contractors are engaged on work in the same 

vicinity the engineer shall be authorized to direct the manner in wliich each 

shall conduct his work so far as it affects other contractors.

9. Contractor. Whenever the word " contractor " is used it shall be held to 

mean the party, firm, or corporation with whom the contract is made by the 

United States, the agent of this party who may be appointed to represent him 

in the execution of the work, or the legal representatives of the contractor.
NEWELL.] STANDARD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 199

The foreman in charge of the work will be held to represent the contractor 

during the absence of the latter or his designated agent.

10. Foreman and copy of plans, etc. The contractor shall at all times keep 

upon the work a copy of the plans and specifications, so that reference may be 

made thereto by the engineer in case of misunderstanding or misconstruction. 

Instructions given by the engineer to the contractor's foreman or agent on the 

work shall be considered as having been given to the contractor himself.

11. Transportation. The contractor will afford opportunity to the engineer to 

obtain copies of the expense bills for transportation charges on all machinery, 

materials, and supplies shipped to or from the project for use in connection with 

the work under this contract. On most of the western railroads reduced rates 

are applicable for the transportation of laborers employed by the contactor, 

traveling in parties of five or more to or from the locality of the work, and 

allowance should be made therefor in submitting bids. Full information concerning these rates can be obtained by application to the engineer in charge of the 

project.

12. Local conditions. Bidders must satisfy themselves as to the nature of 

the material and as to all local conditions affecting the work, and no information derived from the maps, plans, specifications, profiles, or drawings, or from 

the engineer or his assistants, will in any way relieve the contractor from any 

risks or from fulfilling all the terms of his contract.

13. Damages. The contractor will be held responsible for and be required to 

make good, at his own expense, any and all damages, of whatsoever nature, to 

persons or property caused by carelessness, neglect, or want of due precaution 

on the part of the contractor, his agents, employees, or workmen. He will 

not allow any of his agents, employees, or workmen to trespass upon the 

premises or lands of persons in the vicinity of the works, and will discharge, 

at the request of the engineer, anyone in his employ who may be guilty of committing such damage.

14. Drawings and specification requirements. Any drawings or plans which 

may be listed in the detail specifications shall, together with such detail specifications, be regarded as forming part hereof and of the contract. The engineer 

will furnish from time to time such detail drawings, plans, profiles, and special 

specifications as may be necessary to enable the contractor to complete the 

work in a satisfactory manner. The general conditions and detail specifications shall apply to all work done or material furnished, and shall control the 

special specifications where the latter are silent. In case of conflict in the 

general conditions, the detail specifications, aud the special specifications, the 

last shall control in the particular work to which they apply.

15. Experience. Bidders must, if required, present satisfactory evidence that 

they have been regularly engaged in the business of constructing such work 

as they propose to execute, and that they are fully prepared with the necessary 

capital, machinery, and material to begin the work promptly and to conduct it 

to the satisfaction of the Department.

16. Character of -workmen. The contractor shall discharge from his service, 

when required by the engineer, any disorderly, dangerous, insubordinate, or 

incompetent person employed on or in the vicinity of the works under construction by the United States. None but skilled foremen or workmen shall be 

employed on work requiring special qualifications.

17. Methods and appliances. The methods and appliances adopted by the 

contractor must be such as will secure a satisfactory quality of work and will 

enable him to complete the work in the time agreed upon. If at any time such 

methods and appliances appear inadequate, the engineer may order the con-
200 SECOND EECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

tractor to improve their character or increase their efficiency, and the contractor 

must conform to such order; but the failure of the engineer to order such 

improvement of methods or increase of efficiency will not relieve the contractor 

from his obligations to perform good work or finish it in the time agreed upon.

18. Material and workmanship. All materials must be of the specified quality and fully equal to approved samples, when samples are required. All work 

must be done in a thorough, workmanlike manner by mechanics skilled in their 

various trades, notwithstanding any omission from the drawings or specifications; and anything mentioned in the specifications and not shown in the drawings, or shown in the drawings and not mentioned in the specifications, must 

be done as though shown or mentioned in both. All materials furnished and 

all work done shall be subject to rigid inspection, and if not in accordance 

with the specifications, in the opinion of the engineer, shall be made to conform 

thereto. Unsatisfactory material will be rejected and shall be immediately 

removed from the premises, at the cost of the contractor, if so ordered by the 

engineer.

19. Samples. -The contractor shall submit samples of any or all materials 

proposed to be used in the work if required to do so by the engineer.

20. Delays. The contractor shall not be entitled to any compensation for 

delays or hindrances to the work from any cause whatever. Extension of time 

will be allowed for unavoidable delays, such as may result from causes which, 

in the opinion of the engineer, approved by the Secretary of the Interior, are 

undoubtedly beyond the control of the contractor, such as acts of Providence, 

fortuitous events, or the like. If any delay or hindrance is caused by specific 

instructions on the part of the Secretary of the Interior or the engineer, or by 

their failure to give such instructions as may be necessary, then such delay will 

entitle the contractor to an extension of time equivalent to th'e time lost by such 

delay. The engineer must receive from the contractor a written notice of claim 

for such delay before any extension of time will be allowed. Any extension of 

time, however, shall not release the sureties from their obligation, which shall 

remain in full force and effect until the discharge of contract. Any application 

for an extension of time must be accompanied by the formal consent of the 

sureties thereto, or other sufficient sureties must be furnished by the contractor. 

In case the contractor should fail to complete the work in the time agreed upon in 

the contract, or in such extra time as may have been allowed for delays as herein 

provided, the engineer shall compute and appraise the direct damages for the loss 

sustained by the United States on account of further employment of engineers, 

inspectors, and other employees, including all disbursements on the engineering 

account properly chargeable to the work. The amount so appraised and computed is hereby agreed upon as liquidated damages, and shall be deducted from 

any money due the contractor under his contract, and the contractor and sureties shall be liable for any excess. The decision of the chief engineer as to the 

appraisal of such damages shall be final and binding on both parties. Any provisions in the detail specifications concerning deduction for delay shall be held 

as modifying or revoking the provisions herein.

21. Suspension of contract. Should the contractor fail to begin the work 

within the time required, or fail to begin the delivery of material as provided 

in the contract, or fail to prosecute the work or delivery in such manner as to 

insure a full compliance with the contract within the time limit, or should any 

question arise as to whether or not the contractor is properly carrying out the 

provisions of his contract in their true intent and meaning, at any time during 

the progress of the work, notice thereof in writing shall be served upon him, 

and upon his neglect or refusal to provide means for a more energetic and satisfactory compliance with the contract within the time specified in such notice,
NEWELL.] STANDAKD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 201

then and in either case the Secretary of the Interior shall have the power to 

suspend the operation of the contract, and he may take possession of all machinery, tools, appliances, and animals employed on any of the works to be constructed under the contract, and of all materials belonging to the contractor 

delivered on the ground, and may use the same to 'complete the work, or he may 

employ other parties to carry the contract to completion, substitute other 

machinery or materials, purchase the material contracted for in such manner as 

he may deem proper, or hire such force and buy such machinery, tools, appliances, materials, and animals at. the contractor's expense as may be necessary 

for the proper conduct of the work and for finishing it in the time agreed upon. 

Any excess of cost arising therefrom over and above the contract price will be 

charged against the contractor and his sureties, who shall be liable therefor. 

The failure to order improvement of methods or increase of force, plant, or 

efficiencies will not relieve the contractor from his obligation to perform good 

work or finish in the time agreed upon.

22. Climatic conditions. The engineer may order the contractor to suspend 

any work that may be damaged by inclemency of the weather or other climatic 

conditions (as, for example, excessive cold or heat), and due allowance shall 

be made to the contractor for the time actually lost by him on account of such 

suspension.

23. Changes. The Secretary of the Interior reserves the right to make 

such changes in the specifications of work or material at any time as may 

be deemed advisable, without notice to the surety or sureties on the bond 

given to secure compliance with the contract, by adding thereto or deducting 

therefrom, at the unit prices of the contract, or at such allowances for changes 

of materials as shall be deemed just and reasonable by the engineer, whose 

decision shall be binding on both parties. The right to make material changes 

in the quantities listed in the proposal is an essential part of the contract, 

and bidders must make their estimates accordingly. Should any change be 

made in a particular piece of work after it has been commenced, so that the 

contractor is put to extra expense, the engineer shall make reasonable allowance therefor, which action shall be binding on both parties. Extra work or 

material will be paid for as hereinafter provided.

24. Extra work or material. Extra work or material of a character not 

provided for in the specifications, if ordered in writing by the engineer, will be 

paid for at actual necessary cost, as determined by the engineer, plus 15 per 

cent for profit, superintendence, and general expenses. The cost of extra work 

shall include all materials, labor, and fuel furnished by the contractor, but 

shall not include use of tools or machinery, office expenses, general superintendence, or other general expenses. Demand for payment must be made in writing 

by the contractor promptly upon the completion of the extra work or furnishing 

of the extra material. The account including the same must be accompanied by 

the certificate of the engineer that such work has been satisfactorily performed 

or the material furnished, stating the amount to be allowed therefor.

25. Structural difficulties. Should structural difficulties prevent the execution of the work as described in the plans and specifications, necessary deviations therefrom may be permitted by the engineer, but must be without additional cost to the United States.

26. Inspection of work. The engineers and inspectors appointed by the Secretary of the Interior shall at all times have the right to inspect the work and 

materials. The contractor shall furnish such persons reasonable facilities for 

obtaining such information as they desire respecting the progress and manner 

of the work and the character of the material, including all information necessary to determine the cost of the work, such as the number of men employed,
202 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

their pay, the time during which they worked on the various classes of construction, etc. He shall, when required, furnish the engineer and his assistants 

meals and camp accommodations at reasonable prices at any camp under his 

control. Whenever the contractor shall be permitted or directed to perform 

night work, or to vary the period during which work is carried on each day, 

he shall give due notice to the engineer, so that proper inspection may be provided for. Such work shall be done under regulations to be furnished in 

writing by the engineer, and no extra compensation shall be allowed therefor.

27. Removal of defective work. The contractor shall remove and rebuild, at 

his own expense, any part of the work which has been improperly executed, even 

though such work should have been already allowed for in the monthly estimates. The engineer shall give to the contractor written notice of such defective work, when found. If the contractor refuses or neglects to replace such 

defective work, it may be replaced by the United States at the contractor's 

expense.

28. Protection of finished work and cleaning up. The contractor will be held 

responsible for any material furnished to him, and for the care of any finished 

work until final completion of the work, and will be required to make good, at 

his own cost, any damage or injury it may sustain from any cause. He shall 

take all risks from floods and casualties of every description and make no 

charge for detention from such causes. He may, however, be allowed a reasonable extension of time on account of such detention, as provided herein. The 

contractor shall remove all rubbish and unused material upon completion of 

the work, and place the premises in a condition satisfactory to the engineer.

29. Errors and omissions. The contractor will not be allowed to take advantage of any error or omission in these specifications, as full instructions will 

always be given should error or omission be discovered.

30. Sanitation. The chief engineer may establish rules for sanitation and. 

police regulations for all forces employed under this contract; and should the 

contractor fail to enforce these rules, the engineer may enforce them and assess 

against the contractor the cost thereof, which will be deducted from any sum 

due on the contract.

31. Fae of liquor. The use and sale of intoxicating liquor will be absolutely 

prohibited on the work except under the direction and supervision of the engineer or his agent, and then only for medicinal purposes.

32. Claims for work and material. The contractor shall promptly make payments to all persons supplying labor and materials in the prosecution of the 

work, and a condition to this effect shall be incorporated in the bond to be 

given by the contractor, in pursuance of the act of Congress approved August 

13, 1894 (28 Stat. L., 278), and acts amendatory thereof.

33. Payments. The payments due shall be made to the contractor upon the 

presentation of proper accounts, prepared by the engineer and approved by the 

chief engineer, in accordance with the provisions made therefor and pertaining 

to the contract. When the work has been completed or all the material has 

been delivered, to the satisfaction of the chief engineer, and when a release of 

all claims against the United States on account of the contract shall have been 

executed by the contractor, final payment of the balance due will be made.

SPECIFICATIONS MATERIAL (FORM 9-294B). 

INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS.

1. Form of proposal and signature. The proposal must be made on the form 

provided for that purpose, inclosed in a sealed envelope, and marked and
NEWELL.] STANDARD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 203

addressed as required in the notice to bidders. It must state in writing and in 

figures the unit prices and the sum of money for which the bidder proposes to 

supply the materials called for in the proposal and schedules. If the bid is 

made by an individual, it must be signed with the full name of the bidder, 

whose address must be given; if it is made by a firm, it shoufd be signed with 

the t-opartnership name by a member of the firm, and the name and full 

address of each member should be given; and if it is made by a corporation, it 

should be signed by an officer in the corporate name, and the corporate seal 

should be attached to such signature. No telegraphic proposal or telegraphic 

modification of proposal will be considered.

2. Proposals. All blank spaces in the proposal must be filled in, and the 

phraseology of the proposal shall not be changed, and additions shall not be 

made to the items mentioned therein. Any conditions, limitations, or provisos attached to a proposal will be liable to render it informal and may cause its 

rejection. Alterations by erasure or interlineation must be. explained or noted 

in the proposal over the signature of the bidder. If a bidder wishes to withdraw 

his proposal he may do so before the time fixed for the opening, without prejudice to himself, by communicating his purpose in writing to the officer who holds 

it. No bids received after the time set for opening the proposals will be considered. The right is reserved to reject any or all bids, to accept one part and 

reject the other, and to waive technical defects, as the interests of the Service 

may require. Bidders are invited to be present at the opening of proposals.

3. Certified check. Each bidder must submit with his proposal a certified 

check for the sum stated in the notice to bidders, drawn to the order of the Secretary of the Interior. The proceeds of said check shall become the property of 

the United States if, for any reason whatever, the bidder withdraws from the 

competition after the opening of the bids or refuses to execute the required contract and bond if his bid is accepted. Checks will be returned to the unsuccessful bidders after the approval of the contract and bond executed by the 

successful bidder.

4. Award. The bidder to whom award is made will be required to enter into 

a written contract with the United States, and to furnish good and approved 

bond, as herein specified, within ten days after receiving such contract for 

exectition. The contract shall be, in its general provisions, in the form 

adopted by the Reclamation Service, copies of which can be inspected at its 

offices, and will be furnished; if desired, to parties proposing to bid. If the 

bidder to whom the first award is made fails to enter into a contract as herein 

provided, the award may be annulled and the contract let to the next most desirable bidder in the.opinion of the Secretary of the Interior; and such bidder 

shall be required to fulfill every stipulation embraced herein as if he were the 

original party to whom the award was made. A copy of the advertisement and 

of the general conditions and detail specifications will be attached to and form 

part of the contract. A corporation to which a contract is awarded will be 

required before the contract is finally executed to furnish certificate as to its 

corporate existence and evidence that the officer signing the contract is duly 

authorized to do so on behalf of the corporation.

5. Contractor's bond. The contractor will be required to give a bond in the 

sum of 20 per cent of the amount of the contract, unless a different sum is 

specified in the notice to bidders or proposal, conditioned upon the faithful performance by the contractor of all the covenants, stipulations, and agreements 

in the contract If at any time during the continuance of the contract the sureties, or any of them, shall die, or in the opinion of the Secretary of the Interior 

become irresponsible, the Secretary shall have the right to require additional
204 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

and sufficient sureties, which the contractor shall furnish to the satisfaction of 

that officer within ten days after notice, and in default thereof the contract 

may be annulled by the Secretary of the Interior and the work carried to completion in the manner provided in the contract.

6. Transfers. Transfer of a contract, or of any interest therein, is prohibited 

by law.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

7. Eight-hour Jaw, and foreign and convict labor. In all construction work 

eight hours shall constitute a day's work, and no Mongolian latwr shall be 

employed thereon. The importation of foreigners and laborers under contract 

to perform labor in the United States or Territories or the District of Columbia 

is prohibited. (Sec. 3738, Rev. Stat, U. S.; act of Aug. 1, 1892, 27 Stat. L., 340; 

sec. 4, act June 17, 1902, 32 Stat. L., 388; acts Feb. 26, 1885, and Feb. 23, 1887, 

23 Stat. L., 332 and 414.) On all construction work the employment of persons 

undergoing sentences of imprisonment at hard labor which have been imposed 

by courts of the several States, Territories, or municipalities having criminal 

jurisdiction is prohibited. (Executive order May 18, 1905.)

8. Engineer. Where the word " engineer " is used in the general conditions 

or detail specifications, or in the contract, it shall be and is mutually understood 

to refer to the chief engineer of the Reclamation Service, or any of his authorized assistants or inspectors, limited by the particular duties intrusted to them. 

The engineer shall point out to the contractor any neglect or disregard of the 

specifications and general conditions of the contract.

9. Contractor. Whenever the word " contractor " is used it shall be held to 

mean the party, firm, or corporation with whom the contract is made by the 

United States, the agent of this party who may be appointed to represent him 

in the execution of the work, or the legal representatives of the contractor. 

The foreman in charge of the work will be held to represent the contractor during the absence of the latter or his designated agent.

10. Expense bills. Contractors shall afford opportunity to the engineer to 

obtain copies of the expense bills for transportation charges on all machinery, 

materials, and supplies shipped to or from the project for use in connection 

with the work under this contract.

11. Damages. The contractor will be held responsible for and be required 

to make good, at his own expense, any and all damages, of whatsoever nature, 

to persons or property caused by carelessness, neglect, or want of due precaution on the part of the contractor, his agents, employees, or workmen. He 

will not allow any of his agents, employees, or workmen to trespass upon the 

premises or lands of persons in the vicinity of the works, and will discharge, 

at the request of the engineer, anyone in his employ who may be guilty of 

committing such damage.

12. Specification requirements. The general conditions and detail specifications shall apply to all material furnished, and shall control the special 

specifications where the latter are silent. In case of conflict in the general conditions, the detail specifications, and the special specifications the last shal! 

control in the particular work to which they apply.

13. Character of workmen^ The contractor shall discharge from his service, 

when required by the engineer, any disorderly, dangerous, insubordinate, or 

incompetent person employed on or in the vicinity of the works under construction by the United States.

14. Material. All materials must be of the specified quality and fully equal 

to approved samples, when samples are required. All materials furnished shall
NEWELL.] STANDARD PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 205

be subject to rigid inspection, and if not in accordance with the specifications, 

in the opinion of the engineer, shall be made to conform thereto. Unsatisfactory 

material will be rejected and shall be immediately removed from the premises, 

at thejeost of the contractor, if so ordered by the engineer.

15. Samples. The contractor shall submit samples of any or all materials 

to be furnished if required to do so by the engineer.

16. Delays. The contractor shall not be entitled to any compensation for 

delays or hindrances from any cause whatever. Extension of time will be 

allowed for unavoidable delays, such as may result from causes which, in the 

opinion of the engineer, approved by the Secretary of the Interior, are undoubtedly beyond the control of the contractor, such as acts of Providence, fortuitous 

events, or the like. . If any delay or hindrance is caused by specific instructions 

oil the part of the Secretary of the Interior or the engineer, or by their failure 

to give such instructions as may be necessary, then such delay will entitle the 

contractor to an extension of time equivalent to the time lost by such delay. 

The engineer must receive from the contractor a written notice of claim for 

such delay before any extension of time will be allowed. Any extension of 

time, however, shall not release the sureties from their obligation, which 

shall remain in full force and effect until the discharge of contract. Any application for an extension of time must be accompanied by the formal consent of 

the sureties thereto, or other sufficient sureties must be furnished by the contractor. In case the contractor should fail to complete the contract in the time 

agreed upon, or in such extra time as may have been allowed for delays as 

herein provided, the engineer shall compute and appraise the direct damages for 

the loss sustained by the United States on account of further employment of 

engineers-, inspectors, and other employees, including all disbursements on the 

engineering account, properly chargeable to the contract. The amount so 

appraised and computed is hereby agreed upon as liquidated damages, and 

shall be deducted from any money due the contractor under his contract, and 

the contractor and sureties shall be liable for any excess. The decision of the 

chief engineer as to the appraisal of such damages shall be final and binding 

on both parties. Any provisions in the detail specifications concerning deduction for delay shall be held as modifying or revoking the provisions herein.

17. Suspension of contract. Should the contractor fail to begin the delivery 

of material as provided in the contract, or fail to prosecute the delivery in 

such manner as to insure a full compliance with the contract within the time 

limit, or should any question arise as to whether or not the contractor is 

properly carrying out the provisions of his contract in their true intent and 

meaning, at any time during the progress of the delivery, notice thereof in 

writing shall be served upon him, and upon his neglect or refusal to provide 

means for a more energetic and satisfactory compliance with the contract 

within the time specified in such notice, then and in either case the Secretary 

of the Interior shall have the power to suspend the operation of the contract, 

or he may employ other parties to carry the contract to completion, substitute 

other machinery or materials, or purchase the material contracted for in such 

manner as he may deem proper. Any excess of cost arising therefrom over 

and above the contract price will be charged against the contractor and his 

sureties, who shall be liable therefor.

18. Inspection. The engineers and inspectors appointed by the Secretary of 

the Interior shall at all times have the right to inspect the materials.

19. Error's and omissions. The contractor will not be allowed to take advantage of any error or omission in these specifications, as full instructions will 

always be given should such error or omission be discovered.
206 SECOND EECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

20. Claims for work and material. The contractor shall promptly make payments to all persons supplying labor and materials in the prosecution of the 

work, and a condition to this effect shall be incorporated in the bond to be 

given by the contractor, in pursuance of the act of Congress approved August 

13, 1894 (28 Stat. L., 278), and acts amendatory thereof.

21. Payments. The payments due shall be made to the contractor upon the 

presentation of proper accounts, prepared by the engineer and approved by th« 

chief engineer, in accordance with the provisions made therefor and pertaining 

to the contract. When all the material has been delivered, to the satisfaction 

of the chief engineer, and when a release of all claims against the United 

States on account of the contract shall have been executed by the contractor, 

final payment of the balance due will be made.

REPORT OF HYDROGRAPHERS ON STREAM MEASUREMENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

The second annual conference of eastern hydrographers was held 

in Washington January 3 to 12, inclusive, 1905, in connection with 

the conference of the reclamation engineers. It was attended by the 

men named below:

Hydrograplters. R. E. Horton, M. R. Hall, T. U. Taylor.

Engineers. H. K. Barrows, A. H. Horton, E: Johnson, jr., John C. Hoyt, E. C. 

Murphy, N. C. Grover.

Assistant engineers. S. K. Clapp, F. W. Hanna, Robert Follansbee, F. E. 

Pressey, J. M. Giles, W. G. Steward, C. C. Covert, R. E. Bolster, G. H. Bliss.

Engineering aids. W. E. Hall, H. L. Eames, F. H. Harley, H. M. Morse, H. D. 

Comstock.

The following subjects were discussed:

Winter records for current-meter gaging stations.

Gages.

The maintenance of permanent river stations.

Effect of grass on stream gagings.

Curves of mean velocity and of area.

Secondary or " bench-mark " stations.

Limits of accuracy in reporting discharge measurements in constructing rating 

tables and in applying gage heights.

Methods of counting seconds and revolutions in making low-water measurements.

Bench marks.

Equipment for cable stations.

Cost of stream gaging.

The study of data by local men.

The work of the computing section.

Evaporation.

Hydrographic gazetteer.

During one session of the conference Dr. H. C. Frankenfield. of the 

Weather Bureau, explained the river work carried on under his 

direction.
NEWELL. 1 STBEAM MEASUREMENTS. 207

KECOMMENDATIONS.

As a result of the discussion the conference made the following 

recommendations:

Watch for use in stream gaging. It is recommended that an effort 

be made to obtain a watch having a second dial of the full size of the 

watch face and subdivided into 50 parts, the second hand making one 

complete revolution in 50 seconds, and the advisability of introducing 

such a timepiece in our work be considered.

Meters and meter ratings. Inasmuch as the results of our work 

depend so largely on the meter used, and considering the large cost of 

the work done with the individual meter compared with the cost of 

constructing and rating the same, it is the opinion of the conference 

that too great care in studying these instruments and in maintaining 

them can not be taken. In this connection the conference has been 

especially interested in Mr. Steward's ball-bearing meter and in the 

designs for the rating-station recording device.

It is believed that the meter is capable of giving consistent results 

at stations where the velocity is less than 0.50 foot per second, which 

is admitted to be as low as the meters are now rated, with a fair 

degree of accuracy.

It is therefore recommended that each meter be accurately rated to 

as low a velocity as the wheel is capable of turning with an even 

motion. In order that this may be properly done, it is further 

recommended that steps be taken to construct in the near future at 

Washington a new meter-rating station, and that it be equipped 

with Mr. Steward's recording device. It is believed that if possible 

this station should be so constructed as to be of use both during the 

summer and winter periods, and that a special channel should be 

built of sufficient size to serve for this purpose, so that the rating can 

be made under constant conditions.

The ball-bearing meter, designed by Mr. Steward, will probably 

be a step toward the improvement of our current-meter work, and 

it is urged that steps be taken to have constructed for experimental 

purposes at an early date a meter of this type.

Furthermore, it is believed that a careful study of'the behavior 

of current meters should be made and that they should be rated as 

they come in from the field, in order to determine the change which 

has taken place during their use. It is therefore recommended that 

steps be taken to facilitate the continuance of this work so that the 

above-mentioned results may be obtained. It is further recommended 

that an electric meter be constructed that will record 5, 10, or 20 

revolutions, for use in making flood measurements.

Annual report. The general attitude as regards the annual report
208 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

on the progress of stream measurements should be one of greater 

conservatism in publishing estimates. All facts collected during 

the year shou]d be published in the annual report for that year.

No estimates of discharge at a station for any unit of time should 

be published until sufficient current-meter measurements have been 

made to cover the ordinary limits of gage heights.

No estimates of discharge, as outlined above, should be published, 

except in the case of stations with changeable beds.

Until estimates of discharge can be made, as outlined above, the 

data published regarding a gaging station should, be substantially 

as follows:

(a) Description of station, bench marks, etc.

(b) List of discharge measurements to date.

(c) List of daily gage heights for the year.

The general outline for data regarding stations at which rating 

curves are suitably developed should be substantially as follows for 

the first year:

(a) Description of station, bench marks, etc.

(b) List of discharge measurements to date.

(c) List of daily gage heights for the year.

(d) Rating table for station.

(e) Daily discharge for the two or more years, where such estimates appear to be desirable.

(/) Table of mean monthly discharge, etc., for the two or more 

years.

After the first year of publishing discharge estimates data for a 

station shall be substantially as follows:

(a) Description of station, bench marks, etc.

(b) List of discharge measurements to date.

(c) List of daily gage heights for the year.

(d) Rating table for station, indicating changes or additions.

(e) Daily discharge for the year, whete such estimates appear to 

be desirable.

(/) Mean monthly discharge, etc., for the year.

It is recognized that there will be exceptional cases where it will 

be inadvisable to adhere closely to the foregoing requirements for 

example, where temporary stations are maintained for special purposes and it is intended that the course of procedure in such cases 

be left to the judgment of the various district hydrographers.

The annual report of progress of stream measurements should hereafter be published in several volumes, each one of which should be 

devoted to one or more adjacent and complete drainage basins, but, 

as far as possible, divided so as to make the work of each district
NEWELL ] STREAM MEASUREMENTS. 209

hydrographer in a separate volume or volumes. Each part of the 

annual report should be published under the name of the hydrographer whose work comprises the greater portion of said part and 

the name of the party who has charge of the editing and computations in the Washington office.

It is furthermore recommended that arrangements be made whereby 

parties asking for stream-measurement data shall be supplied, when 

such requests are made, with the gage heights and discharge measurements to date. Furthermore, that a circular letter be prepared stating 

that owing to the large amount of work carried on in the hydrographic branch it will be impossible for the office to furnish advance 

estimates of rating tables and flow.

Maintenance of stations during winter months. Wherever possible the permanent stations of the Survey should afford continuous 

records, both winter and summer, and no estimates of discharge 

should be made for ice-covered streams without discharge measurements made during the ice season.

Especial care should be taken in selecting meter stations to secure 

sites where as good winter records as possible may be obtained.

The hydrographers may profitably record and report at the end 

of the present winter certain general facts regarding ice conditions 

in their territory, so that we may better understand the nature and 

magnitude of the ice problem. A brief statement should be made 

for each gaging station, stating 

(a) The duration of the ice season.

(b) Whether the stream freezes clear across.

(c) Whether the ice is persistent, or comes and goes.

(d) Whether anchor ice forms; and if so, how it occurs.

(e) Whether the ice surface is smooth underneath.

(/) Whether winter gage readings are made daily or weekly.

(g) What is the maximum ice thickness.

(A) Whether it is feasible to measure the discharge through the ice 

at this station.

(i) Whether the water rises to uniform depth in ice.

It is recommended that observers take winter gage readings to 

water level as it rises in a hole chopped in the ice.

A rubber stamp bearing the words " Report thickness of ice at 

gage " may be used and a special heading stamped on the regular 

weekly gage cards for stations where there is but little ice.

Where weekly readings only are required in winter, or, supplementary to the regular cards, a card form as follows may be used:

IBB 146 05 M 14
210 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

OBSERVATIONS OF RIVER HEIGHT, ETC., DURING THE FROZEN

SEASON.

Made 

near.

Day of

week.

Month. 

190..... Day.

.post off

Time of 

day.

ice, State of ... .

Gage height to 

Water 

surface.

Top of 

ice.

Thickness of 

ice at 

gage.

In space below put remarks as to anchor ice, condition of ice, etcMark on the sketch the extent to which the river is frozen, both 

at the station and above and below the station. Put figures on 

sketch, showing ice thickness at other places than at gage.

.(Sign) .......01Dserver.

BANK OPRIVER

UP STREAM.

DOWN STREAM.

OP RIVER. BANK 

It is recommended that the northern hydrographers make careful 

observations on one or two important rivers the present winter, with 

special reference to determining:

(a) Practical methods of ice measurements.

( b ) The nature of flow under ice.

(c) The vertical velocity curves under ice.

(d) The relation between ice flow and free flow at various stages.

(e) Whether a constant or any general deductions can be made.

(/) The limitations of successful ice measurement.

It is recommended that a committee, consisting of Messrs. Barrows, 

Horton, and Murphy, be appointed and empowered to compile at the 

end of the present winter season the data above outlined and formulate plans for next season's work.

Accuracy of computations. The following rules relative to accuracy of computations were adopted:

The highest degree of precision consistent with the rational use of 

time and money is imperative.

All items of computation should be expressed by at least 2 and by 

not more than 4 significant figures.

Any measurement in a vertical velocity, mean velocity, or discharge
NEWELL.] WATER LAWS AND FORMS. 211

curve whose per cent of error is 5 times the average per cent error of 

all the other measurements should be rejected.

In reducing the number of significant figures, or the number of 

decimal places, by dropping the last figure, the following rules apply:

(a) When the figure in the place to be rejected is less than 5, drop 

it without changing the preceding figure. Example: 1,827.4 becomes 

1,827.

(b) When the figure in the place to be rejected is greater than 5, 

drop it and increase the preceding figure by 1. Example: 1,827.6 

becomes 1,828.

(c) When the figure in the place to be rejected is 5, and it is preceded by an even figure, drop the 5. Example: 1,828.5 becomes 1,828.

(d) When the figure in the place to be rejected is 5, and it is preceded by an odd figure, drop the 5 and increase the preceding odd 

figure by 1. Example: 1,827.5 becomes 1,828.

In constructing and applying rating tables a maximum limit of 

one-half of 1 per cent error should seldom be exceeded. ,

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON WATER I/AWS AND FORMS OF 

WATER USERS' ASSOCIATIONS.

The committee held several sessions with other engineers present, 

and discussed the subjects within their province at several general 

sessions. Various phases of the water laws under consideration by 

the several States were discussed and suggestions made as to the most 

desirable forms, so far as the operations of the Reclamation Service 

are concerned.

Among the questions presented were forms of water users' associations and the forms for application for water right under the provisions of the reclamation act.

Amendments to the printed form of articles of incorporation of 

water users' associations were considered by the committee and discussed in general sessions of the engineers. An amended copy of 

these articles was submitted to the chief engineer, with the recommendation that a new edition be printed.

The main subject of discussion was the form of water-right application under the provisions of the reclamation act. This discussion 

was based largely upon the report of a committee, consisting of 

Messrs. Savage, Bien, and Means, to the conference at El Paso, upon 

the classification of lands into farm units and the water supply to be 

furnished.

A form of application for water right was presented to the committee and to the general sessions of the engineers and freely discussed. Copies of two forms of water-right application, drawn so 

far as possible to meet the views of the engineers present at the con-
212 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

ference, are hereto appended, and have been submitted to the Secretary of the Interior for his approval.

The question of what should be regarded as residence in the neighborhood of the land received special attention at a number of meetings, as well as the method of meeting this condition in the applications. As a guide for such limit the distance of 10 miles seemed, in 

the opinion of most of the engineers present, to be a reasonable 

maximum for a country comparatively flat and in which travel is 

easy. For rougher country the distance should be shorter.

The general opinion seems to be that the distance could not be 

specified for all projects, and, accordingly, the forms of application 

have been prepared upon the supposition that the distance for each 

project will be specified by the Secretary of the Interior on recommendation of the chief engineer, and that the applicant should 

state the distance of his residence from the land, which would be 

acceptable if within the limit fixed by the Secretary, and if not, 

would be the subject of special consideration in each of such cases.

Among the matters which it would be necessary for each engineer 

to report when his work had progressed to such point that applications for water rights should be made are the following: The amount 

of water to be furnished in acre-feet per annum per acre, measured 

at the land; the limit of distance of residence which is to be regarded 

as in the neighborhood in the contemplation of the Reclamation Act.

The amount of water to be furnished per acre per annum can not, 

of course, be fixed for all projects. The general view seemed to be 

that the limit should be fixed for each project. The details concerning the furnishing of this supply are to be made a matter of regulation by the Secretary of the Interior, presumably under a fe\v general regulations applicable to all projects, with special regulations 

for the separate projects as may be found necessary.

The present situation does not permit of drawing up any regulations upon this subject, but the experience of the Reclamation Service 

in this branch of the work will develop the need of regulations covering the various phases of this subject.

FOEM A. 

Homesteads under the reclamation act.

Application No. . 

Water right . Project

Act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat, 388).

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

LAND OFFICE AT 

-, 190 .

I, , do hereby apply for a water right under the project, 

subject to the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 17, 1902 (32
NEWELL.] WATER LAWS AND FORMS. 213

Stat. L., 388), known as the reclamation act, and the rules and regulations 

established thereunder; the water supplied in pursuance hereof to be used for 

the irrigation of and to be appurtenant to acres of irrigable land, as 

shown on plats on file in this office, approved by the Secretary of the Interior, 

within the area described as follows:

section , township , range , meridian, an area of 

acres; the said land having been entered by me under the said reclamation act 

by homestead application Jff>. on the day of , 190 .

The amount of water to be furnished hereunder shall be acre-feet of 

water per annum per acre of irrigable land aforesaid, measured at the land; or 

so much thereof as shall constitute the proportionate share per acre from the 

water supply actually available for the lands under said project: Provided, That 

the supply furnished shall be limited to the amount of water beneficially used 

on said irrigable land.

I agree to pay for said water right the sum of $ per acre for the said 

area of irrigable land, in annual installments, and to pay promptly when 

due the annual installments and the maintenance and operating charges duly 

assessed against said land on account of said water right.

I further agree that upon my failure to comply with the terms of the said 

reclamation act this application shall be subject to cancellation with the forfeiture of all rights acquired thereunder and of all payments made thereon.

This application must bear the certificate, as hereto attached, of the water 

users' association under this project, which has entered into contract with the 

Secretary of the Interior.

If the Secretary of the Interior has made no contract with a water users' 

association under this project, I agree to file, upon his direction, evidence of 

membership in the water users' association organized under the said project; 

in default of which this application shall be subject to cancellation with the 

forfeiture of all rights acquired thereunder and of all payments made thereon.

And being duly sworn, I further depose and say that I have made no other 

application, now uncanceled, for a water right under said act of Congress, 

appurtenant to land now owned or claimed by me except as follows:

Application No. , project, of , for , section , township , range , meridian, an area of acres, 

and containing acres of irrigable land as determined by the Secretary of 

the Interior; and that the present application is made in my own behalf and not 

at the instance or for the benefit of any other person or any association or corporation, either directly or indirectly.

 , Applicant. 

STATE OF , County of , ss:

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 . 

My commission expires , 190 .

[This affidavit may be sworn to before any officer authorized to administer an oath.]

If the Secretary of the Interior has entered into a contract with a 

water users' association under the project, the following certificate 

must be filled out:
214 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

 , 190 .

I hereby certify that the applicant for this water right has duly subscribed 

for the stock of this association, for the lands described herein, and that all 

assessments levied against said stock by this association have been fully paid 

up to date.

[COEPOEATE SEAL.] ,

Secretary of the Water Users' Association.

FORM B. 

Lands in private ownership.

Application No. . 

Water right . Project

Act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. L., 388).

DEPAETMENT OF THE INTEEIOK, 

LAND OFFICE AT 

-, 190 .

I, , do hereby apply for a water right under the project, 

subject to the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. 

L., 388), known as the reclamation act, and the rules and regulations established 

thereunder, the water supplied in pursuance hereof to be used for the irrigation 

of, and to be appurtenant to, acres of irrigable land, as shown on plats 

on file in this office approved by the Secretary of the Interior, within the area 

described as follows:

section , township , range , meridian, an area of 

acres.

The amount of water to be furnished hereumler shall be acre-feet of 

water per annum per acre of irrigable land, as aforesaid, measured at the land; 

or so much thereof as shall constitute the proportionate share per acre from the 

water supply actually available for the lands under said project: Provided, That 

the supply furnished shall be limited to the amount of water beneficially used on 

said irrigable land.

I agree to pay for said water right the sum of $- per acre for the said 

area of irrigable land, in annual installments, and to pay promptly when 

due the annual installments and the maintenance and operating charges duly 

assessed against said land on account of said water right.

I further agree that upon my failure to comply with the terms of said 

reclamation act this application shall be subject to cancellation with the forfeiture of all rights acquired thereunder and all payments made thereon.

This application must bear the certificate, as hereto attached, of the water 

users' association under this project, which has entered into contract with the 

Secretary of the Interior.

If the Secretary of the Interior has made no contract with a water users' 

association under this project, I agree to file, upon his direction, evidence of 

membership in the water users' association organized under the said project; 

in default of which this application shall be subject to cancellation with the 

forfeiture of all rights acquired thereunder and of all payments made thereon.
NEWELL.] WATEE LAWS AND FOEMS. 215

And, being duly sworn, I further depose and say that my post-office address 

is ; that I am a bona fide resident upon said land (or an ocecupant 

thereof, residing in the neighborhood, namely, upon section , township , 

range , meridian, a distance in a direct line of miles therefrom ) ; that I hold the following interest in the said tract:

as duly shown upon the records of County, ; that I have made 

no other application, now uncanceled, for a water right under said act of 

Congress, appurtenant to land now owned or claimed by me except as follows: 

Application No. , project, of- , for section , 

township , range , meridian, an area of - acres and containing acres of irrigable land as determined by the Secretary of the 

Interior; and that the present application is made in my own behalf and not 

at the instance or for the benefit of any other person or any association or 

corporation, either directly or indirectly.

It is further understood and agreed that the evidence of ownership of this 

water right shall not be issued by the United States unless fee-simple title to 

said land is vested in me at the time when the final payment hereon is due, in 

default of which this application shall be subject to cancellation with the forfeiture of all rights thereunder and of all moneys paid thereon.

 , Applicant. 

STATE OF , County of , ss:

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 190 .

(My commission expires .)

[This affidavit may be sworn to before any officer authorized to administer an oath.]

If the Secretary of the Interior has entered into a contract with a 

water users' association under the project, the following certificate 

must be filled out:

 , 190 .

I hereby certify that the applicant for this water right has duly subscribed 

for the stock of this association for the lands described herein, and that all 

assessments levied against said stock by this association have been fully paid 

up to date.

[CORPORATE SEAL.] 

Secretary of Water Users' Association.
CIRCULARS.

From time to time, as regulations are promulgated or decisions 

rendered affecting the conduct of work under the reclamation act, 

circulars embodying the information are prepared in the office of the 

chief engineer and sent out to the various men in the field.

It is important that these circulars be carefully read and preserved 

for reference. A separate book should be kept for the purpose by 

engineers, and the circulars should, after reading, be pasted therein, 

and a subject index made and kept up to date.

In the following pages the substance of recent circulars of importance is repeated for convenience of reference and in order that the 

information may be thus brought to the attention of new employees.

RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION RATES.

The act-of Congress of March 3, 1905 (Public, No. 192), provides 

that any moneys refunded in connection with the operations under 

the reclamation act shall be covered into the reclamation fund; 

therefore any refund of freight rates that may be obtained will 

reduce the cost of construction and promote the development and 

settlement of the lands under the projects.

It has therefore been possible to enter into contracts with a number of railroad companies providing for the transportation at 

reduced rates of machinery, materials, and supplies used on the 

projects. The form of construction contract now in use by the Reclamation Service provides that contractors shall afford to the engineer opportunity to obtain copies of the expense bills on all machinery, materials, and supplies shipped to or from the project for 

use in connection with the work. These expense bills are transmitted 

to the railroad company by the engineer in charge of the project, 

and the railroad company pays to the engineer, by check drawn to 

the order of the Secretary of the Interior, the difference between 

the amount paid by the contractor and the charges at the rate contracted for between the railroad company and the United States.

The contracts do not cover transportation of provisions, clothing, 

or supplies for laborers or others engaged on the work, nor articles 

produced or carried in stock in the local market.

Question having arisen as to whether the provisions of the

interstate-commerce law, which forbid common carriers to grant

concessions from their published rates, affect certain agreements

between the United States and various railroad companies in which

216
NEWELL.] KATLROAD TRANSPORTATION RATES. 217

the latter promise to transport, at one-half their published rates, 

materials and machinery required by the United States or by parties 

contracting with the United States, for use upon the irrigation 

systems under construction in the arid West, the opinion of the 

Attorney-General was requested, and the following is quoted from 

his letter of April 20,1905, upon the subject:

It is perfectly plain, I think, that the intention of section 22 of the act to 

regulate commerce was to give express sanction to any arrangements between 

the United States, State, or municipal governments, and railroad companies by 

which those governments might relieve themselves of the cost of transportation in whatever form it might assume, and the section should be construed to 

give effect to that intention. It is, therefore, immaterial whether the property 

transported belonged to the United States at the time of shipment or whether 

it have subsequently become the property of the United States in the particular 

shape in which it was shipped. It is sufficient that it entered into the construction of a public work of the United States, and that the cost of its transports 

tion was a part of the final cost of that work to the United States.

The issue, then, narrows down to this: Does the United States, in point of 

fact, receive in the end the whole of the concession in freights granted under 

these contracts?

It can not, of course, be stated in advance, as a presumption of fact covering 

all cases which may arise under this arrangement, that the United States will 

receive the whole of the concession and the contractor none, for that- would be 

to presume not only that the contractor's bid will be less than it would have been 

ii' he had had to pay the published rates, but that it will be less by an amount 

equal to the freight reductions allowed him. On the other hand, however, it 

certainly can not be presumed that under no circumstances will the United 

States receive the whole concession; that is to say, that in no case will the 

contractor make full allowance in his bid for the reduced freight rates, The 

strong probability is that he will not leave any advantage from that source in 

the hands of his competitors. In other words, then, whether or not the United 

States receives the whole of the concession and the contractor none is a question 

of fact which must be decided in each case especially, as the answer may differ 

in different cases. My conclusion upon the questions you propound, therefore, is 

this: That in those cases where the fact is that the United States receives the 

whole of the concession and the contractor none, then neither the spirit nor the 

letter of the act to regulate commerce has been violated, but that in those 

cases, if any, where that is not the fact the operation of the agreements which 

have been drawn in question would result in the violation of section 2 of the 

act. Being a question of fact, and one that, if it shall ever properly arise it 

must arise in the administration of your Department, your determination of the 

question will be binding so far as the executive branch of the Government is 

concerned.

TRANSPORTATION AGENT.

It is desired that all matters relating to transportation and the 

handling of bills of lading be referred to F. H. Cass, transportation 

agent, 876-877 Federal building, Chicago, 111.

When possible, the transportation agent will be required to attend 

personally to all shipments of freight, especially material purchased 

f. o. b. at any point on the Missouri River or east thereof. Engineers
218 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

making purchases in this territory should furnish Mr. Cass with copy 

of orders and such memoranda as will enable him to properly prepare 

the bills of lading and to ship in accordance with the wishes and needs 

of the engineer. When it is not possible for this business to be 

attended to from the Chicago office, the engineer should furnish the 

transportation agent with memoranda of the shipping orders when 

they are placed, so the shipments may be expedited.

LAND AND LEGAL MATTERS.

Engineers in charge of projects should keep the chief engineer 

advised of all work relating to land or legal matters which may be 

necessary. They should give notice as long in advance as possible 

concerning assistance required in work of this character, in order that 

men regularly in the service may be detailed, or that instructions may 

be given for the employment of field assistants. Detailed instructions concerning this phase of the work will be found on pages 96 to 

104 of Water-Supply Paper No. 93. Later instructions modifying 

part of the procedure there outlined are printed in the late edition of 

" Blank for report on negotiations for purchase of lands," Form 

9-281, and are as follows:

PURCHASES OP LANDS.

The proper method of procedure in making purchases of lands under the reclamation act, in pursuance of the various rulings made by the Department of 

the Interior and the Department of Justice, is substantially as stated below. 

In some cases, however, deviations may be necessary in certain details.

1. As soon as possible after it has been ascertained that the property will be 

required, the engineer in charge should forward to the office of the chief engineer the following papers:

(a) Form 9-276, contract of sale, or memorandum of terms of proposed purchase.

(ft) Form 9-281, report on land agreement.

(c) Certificate that the land is necessary for the purposes authorized by the 

reclamation act and that the price agreed upon is reasonable, together with a 

recommendation that the purchase be made. This certificate should also contain 

other available information relative to the purchase not given in Form 9-281.

These papers will be submitted to the Secretary of the Interior for approval, 

as to the price and terms of purchase.

2. When the agreement to sell has been approved by the Secretary, the engineer will notify the vendor thereof that he should, pursuant to said agreement, 

procure and have recorded, where proper for record, any assurances of title and 

affidavits which may be necessary and proper to show clear, unincumbered 

title in him. This will fix the date from which time may be counted in favor 

of the United States for extension of the option as provided in the agreement, 

in case it be found necessary to do so. An abstract of the title should be 

procured, together with proper certificates as to the status of the records concerning lands, judgments, and taxes. The abstract, certificates, and form of 

deed which it is proposed to execute, referred to in next paragraph, should be 

submitted to the United States attorney for the district, after the engineer has
NEWELL.] LAND AKD LEGAL MATTERS. 219

received notice that instructions have been issued to the former by the AttorneyGeneral to examine and report on the subject of titles. These instructions will 

be requested by this office after the receipt of information from the engineer 

that the purchase of lands has become necessary.

3. The ordinary form of warranty deed or its equivalent in general use will 

be acceptable to the Department, only one material change being required, viz, 

the insertion of the italicized words in the clause to the following effect usually 

found in such deeds: " for and in consideration of dollars to him in hand 

paid in pursuance of the provisions of tlie act of June 17, 1902 (32 8tat. L., 388), 

by the said party of the second part," etc. The grantee or second party must be 

the United States, and the words " heirs, executors, administrators, successors," 

etc., when referring to the second party, should be stricken out, and the sentence 

should read " the party of the second part and its assigns." One copy of the proposed form of deed should be transmitted with the abstract to the United States 

attorney, and one copy should be retained by the engineer, to be executed by 

the vendor when the purchase is authorized by the Secretary of the Interior. 

A quitclaim deed will be acceptable in case title in fee is not vested in the 

vendor.

4. The United States attorney will forward the abstract and form of deed to 

the assistant attorney-general for the Interior Department, with his opinion 

thereon, in accordance with instructions from the Attorney-General.

5. The engineer in charge will notify the chief engineer as soon as the abstract 

and form of deed have been forwarded to the assistant attorney-general, and 

will state, if possible, the tenor of the report made by the United States attorney.

6. The assistant attorney-general will render an opinion upon the title, and 

upon approval thereof by the Secretary of the Interior the purchase will be 

authorized, if the title is found satisfactory. In case the title is found to be 

imperfect, the papers will be returned for the necessary corrections, and the 

abstract should then be brought up to date and again submitted for reexamination.

7. Upon notice of authorization, the payment can be made by a local disbursing officer, if one is available, taking vouchers in the usual way. In other cases 

payment will be made through the Treasury Department, for which purpose 

there should be forwarded to the Washington office the executed deed, duly 

recorded, and certificates that nothing has been placed on record adversely 

affecting the title as to conveyance, judgments, or taxes since the date of the 

abstract; in other words, the abstract should be brought up to the date of the 

record of the deed to the United States. No voucher is needed if payment is 

made through the Treasury Department. The described certificates and the 

recorded deed must be transmitted with the local disbursing officer's accounts if 

the payment is made by him.

8. In the case of the desert-land entry, when the Secretary has approved the 

purchase of the possessory rights of an entryrnan, the certificate of the recorder 

of land titles in the county where the land is situated should be obtained, 

showing that he has searched the records of his office, and stating whether any 

instrument of conveyance, assignment, or mortgage of the right obtained by the 

entry referred to there appears.

9. In the case of land covered by a homestead of desert-land entry a relinquishment to the United States is sufficient, and a certificate should be obtained 

from the register and receiver of the local land office, showing that the entry 

was valid and subsisting at the time of the relinquishment, and that it has been 

relinquished and canceled on the records of the land office.

10. In the public-land States improvements by entrymen are generally 

regarded as personal property, subject to taxation, and before paying for land
220 SECOND EECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

to be acquired by relinquishment, the certificate of the officer having change of 

the tax records in the county should be obtained showing the condition of the 

property in respect to levy and payment of taxes for the years since the entry.

11. This form (9-281) may be used as far as it is applicable in making a 

report of negotiations not concluded, all necessary additional information being 

given under heading No. 6, when for any reason it is advisable that the matter 

be further considered by the engineer in charge before final agreement. In this 

case it should be noted conspicuously on the first page and in the brief on back 

that it is a report of pending negotiations.

12. The person engaged in right-of-way negotiations or in negotiations for 

the purchase of lands will make monthly reports to the engineer in charge of 

the particular project, to be forwarded to the chief engineer at Washington, D. C.

13. An agreement of sale may be made with any person owning the land in 

his own right, or with a trustee under a power in a deed, or with a person 

holding a power of attorney from the owner authorizing him to do so, or with 

an executor under power in a will. Certified copy of the evidence of authority 

must accompany the papers.

14. The husband and wife must join in the agreement except where- the local 

land laws or the conditions under which the property is held do not require it. 

It is better, however, to obtain in every case the signatures of both husband 

and wife. The agreement must state whether the vendor is married or single, 

a widow or widower.

15. An administrator or an executor without a power to sell in the will has 

no authority to make a contract for the sale or conveyance of land or of a 

right of way thereon. In case of the death of the owner without a will, the 

real estate descends to the heirs; if he dies leaving a will, the real estate goes 

to the devisees, subject in both cases to the payment of debts of the decedent. 

The heirs or devisees must all join in the agreement.

16. Neither the guardian of a minor nor the guardian of an insane person 

has a right to contract to sell or convey the real estate of his ward without 

special authority from the proper court.

17. Before negotiations for the purchase of any tract are begun it is important 

to learn whether the land has been offered for sale, and at what time and price; 

also what price the present owner paid for the land.

18. Special conditions and limitations may be added, when necessary, to the 

printed forms of contract in reference to possession of premises, growing of 

crops, etc., pending final conveyance, but these conditions should be avoided as 

far as possible, and the time limit of the contract should be fixed with reference to these matters. Ample time should be given in the contract for the 

preparation of an abstract of title and for consideration of the same by the 

officials at Washington, D. C.

19. For a general discussion of this subject, see pages 96 to 100 of WaterSupply Paper No. 93.

PURCHASE OF POSSESSORY CLAIMS ON PUBLIC LANDS.

Attention is called to the following quotation from a letter of the 

Secretary of the Interior, dated January 25, 1905, regarding settlement or possessory rights of parties who have made entries or filings 

under the public-land laws:

As the legal and equitable title is in the United States to all public lands 

to which a mere inchoate right has attached, there is no outstanding legal or 

equitable title in such lands to purchase; but the improvements of the settlers
NEWELL.] EIGHTS OF WAY FOE CANALS AND DITCHES. 221

inade upon such lands under authority of the public-land laws are a property 

right which can not be taken without compensation, which probably may include the enhanced value of the land by reason of the settler's cultivation and 

improvement.

The legal title passes from the United States only upon the issuance of patent; but an entryman, if he has complied with the law, 

acquires by his final certificate an equitable right, which is the equivateat of a patent so far as it affects his rights and interest. Such 

title or right can not be divested and acquired by the United States 

under the act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. L., 388), except by purchase 

or by condemnation in the manner provided by law. The effect of 

this ruling is that to acquire any rights asserted under the publicland laws, prior to the issuance of final certificate, it is necessary to 

pay only for the improvements which probably may include the 

enhanced value of the land due to the claimant's cultivation and 

improvement as there is no outstanding title to the land to be 

acquired.

BIGHTS OF WAY FOR CANALS AND DITCHES.

Engineers and others authorized to acquire rights of way for canals 

and ditches under the reclamation act should proceed as follows:

1. They should examine the lands and prepare a general map 

showing the position of the canals with reference to the land lines.

2. They should ascertain the essential facts as to ownership.

3. Owners of lands entered subsequent to October 2, 1888, should be 

served with notice (Form 9-263) in accordance with instructions on 

page 101, Water-Supply Paper No. 93, which should be carefully 

followed. In such cases no agreement or abstract of title is required. 

Where the lands are needed for other purposes than for canal or ditch 

right of way, they must be purchased or donated.

4. Where lands were entered prior to October 2, 1888, the owner or 

his representative should be seen and a fair and reasonable price 

agreed upon, or, if possible, a free grant should be obtained.

5. In cases under paragraph 4, Form 9-276 should be used. Where 

no payments are to be made, Form 9-277 should be used.

6. In all cases Form 9-281 should be filled out and should accompany Forms 9-276 and 9-277. The report should state all the facts, 

in order that the details of the purchase or agreement may be fully 

understood by the chief engineer.

7. When the purchase is decided upon, an abstract of title must be 

 secured. An abstract must also be obtained when the land is donated, 

because the risk of construction can not be undertaken without the 

assurance that the consent of the actual owner and all parties interested has been secured. Abstracts may be paid for by the Reclamation Service when they are to be used in connection with purchases,
222 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

but not when they are to be used in connection with condemnation. 

Appropriate arrangements may be made with the vendor as to furnishing abstract of title, either by him or by the Government.

8. Form of deed which the vendor proposes to execute should be 

submitted.

9. In proceedings under paragraphs 7 and 8 the printed instructions given in Form 9-281 (see p. 218) should be followed.

10. The agreement and report must be accompanied by a certificate 

from the district engineer as to the necessity of the right of way and 

the reasonableness of the price, and must contain a definite recommendation as to the purchase.

APPROPRIATION OF WATER.

On page 103 of Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 93 directions are given for the proper filing of notices of appropriation of 

water. Engineers are therein advised 

to submit a copy to the United States district attorney, calling his attention to 

the instructions of the Attorney-General, dated September 14, 1903, providing 

for giving advice to the engineers of the Reclamation Service concerning the 

preparation of such notices, and requesting any suggestion which he may have 

to offer in regard to the form submitted.

It has been found necessary to caution engineers to follow this advice.

In several of the reclamation States laws were enacted in 1905 

granting special privileges to the United States when appropriating 

water for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the reclamation act. These, together with the statutory law governing appropriations in the other reclamation States, are summarized below.

It is important to follow strictly the provisions of law and the 

local regulations in filing notices of appropriation.

In the States where special laws have been enacted to govern appropriations by the United States the specific language of the law should 

be utilized and followed in giving the required notices.

The work required under the various statutes after filing notices 

differs under the various laws, and it is essential that the requirements 

in each case shall be followed as closely as possible.

Nothing will be gained by filing these notices unless their form and 

the subsequent proceedings comply with the provisions of the law, 

and, accordingly, these matters must be so ordered as to conform to 

the law and the regulations in all particulars so far as it is possible 

under the operations of the reclamation act.

In Arizona a notice ° of the proposed appropriation must be posted 

at the place of intended diversion. A copy of the notice must be

a Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 93, 1904, p. 103.
NEWELL.] APPROPRIATION OF WATER. 223

filed for record in the office of the recorder of the county or counties 

in which the diversion and other works are situated, and a copy of 

the notice must also be filed in the office of the secretary of the Territory. The works must be constructed within a reasonable time after 

posting and filing the notice.

In California a notice a of the proposed appropriation must be 

posted at the point of intended diversion, and a copy must be recorded 

in the office of the recorder of the county in which it is posted within 

ten days. Work must be begun within sixty days and prosecuted 

diligently and uninterruptedly to completion.

In Colorado, within sixty days after commencing construction, 

statements and maps in duplicate must be filed with the State engineer for his approval. After approval by the State engineer the 

claimant must file duplicate map and statement thus approved in- the 

office of the county clerk and recorder of the county in which the 

headgate of the canal or the reservoir is situated. Blank forms for 

this statement and directions for preparing maps can be obtained 

upon application to the State engineer. Engineers are requested to 

keep copies of such forms and directions on file in their office and to 

follow .them carefully in making an appropriation of water.

In Idaho an application must be made to the State engineer for 

permission to make an appropriation. Engineers are requested to 

keep on file in their office copies of printed forms and directions 

furnished by the State engineer, and are cautioned to abide by all 

the rules and regulations of the State engineer's office in making an 

appropriation.

In Kansas a notice a of the proposed appropriation must be posted 

at the point of intended diversion, and within ten days thereafter 

a copy of the same must be posted in a conspicuous place in the 

office of the county clerk of the county in which the diversion is 

situated and be recorded by the county clerk. Work must commence 

within sixty days and be prosecuted diligently.

In Montana a notice a of the proposed appropriation must be 

posted at the point of intended diversion, and a verified copy must 

be filed within twenty days with the county clerk of the county in 

which the diversion is made.

By an act of the Montana legislature approved February 27, 1905, 

all appropriations made in behalf of the United States by persons 

duly authorized by the Secretary of the Interior shall be held valid 

for the period of three years after the filing of the notice as above 

described, and no part of the waters designated in the notice shall 

be subject to other appropriation for three years unless a notice of 

abandonment of the irrigation project is filed under authority from

0 Op. cit., p. 103.
224 SECOND RECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

the Secretary of the Interior with the county clerk and recorder 

of the county nVwhich the original notice was filed.

In Nevada the same procedure must be followed as in Idaho.

In New Mexico, by an act approved March 16, 1905, it is provided 

that whenever the proper officer of the United States shall notify the 

State engineer that the United States intends to utilize certain specified waters, such waters shall not be subject to further appropriations, 

except in so far as formally released in writing by a duly authorized 

officer of the United States.

In North Dakota, by an act approved March 1, 1905, it is provided 

that whenever the proper officer of the United States shall notify the 

State engineer that the United States intends to utilize certain specified waters, such waters shall not be subject to other appropriation 

for a period of three years from the date of said notice, except in so 

far as formally released in writing by the proper officer of the United 

States. Before the expiration of the three-year period plans of the 

proposed work must be filed in the office of the State engineer.

In Oklahoma the statutory provisions covering this subject are the 

same as those in North Dakota, stated above.

In Oregon, whenever the proper officer of the United States shall 

file in the office of the State engineer a written notice that the United 

States intends to utilize certain specified waters, such waters shall not 

be subject to further appropriation for a period of three years from 

the date of filing such notice, within which time final plans of the 

proposed works must be filed with the State engineer. Construction 

must be authorized by the United States within four years of the date 

of the original notice. No part of the waters so appropriated shall 

be subject to other appropriation wT ithin the period stated above, 

unless formally released in writing by a duly authorized officer of the 

United States, which release shall be filed in the office of the State 

engineer.

In South Dakota the statutory provisions covering this subject are 

the same as those in North Dakota, stated above.

In Utah the same procedure must be followed as in Idaho.

In Washington, by an act approved March 4, 1905, it is provided 

that whenever a duly authorized officer of the United States shall 

notify the commissioner of public lands that the United States intends to make examinations or surveys for the. utilization of certain 

specified waters, the waters so described shall not be subject to other 

appropriation for a period of one year from the date of receipt of 

such notice by the commissioner of public lands, unless formally reteased in writing by a duly authorized officer of the United States. 

If, before the expiration of the one-year period, a duly authorized 

officer of the United States shall certify in writing to the commis-
NEWELL.] LANDS UNDER RECLAMATION PROJECTS. 225

sioner of public lands that the project contemplated in such notice 

appears to be feasible and that the investigation will be made in detail, the waters specified in such notice shall not be subject to other 

appropriation for the further period of three years following the 

date of receipt of such certificate, and such further time as the commissioner of public lands may grant upon application of a duly 

authorized officer of the United States and notice thereof first published once a week for four consecutive weeks in a newspaper published in each county in which the works are to be constructed. 

In Wyoming the same procedure must be followed as in Idaho.

INFORMATION CONCERNING LANDS UNDER RECLAMATION PROJECTS.

The following is a copy of a letter from the Secretary of the 

Interior, dated March 3, 1905, addressed to the Director of the Geo- 

"logical Survey, relative to the establishment of bureaus where information may be had concerning public lands subject to disposal under 

the provisions of the reclamation act:

On the 10th ultimo you reported to the Department on a letter of January 26, 

1905, from George H. Maxwell, who urged the establishment of bureaus of information in connection with irrigation projects, to answer inquiries relative to 

the location of lands subject to disposal to actual settlers under the provisions 

of the reclamation act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. L., 388).

Your report has been duly considered and in a letter of even date to the 

Commissioner of the General Land Office I have directed him to instruct the 

registers and receivers of the several land districts in which the projects are 

located to give full information relative to public lands included in the projects 

and subject to disposal under the act mentioned to all parties making inquiry 

with a view to actual settlement and to keep the engineers of the Reclamation 

Service fully informed by correspondence of the conditions pertaining to such 

lands.

In view of the fact that the work of construction of several of the projects 

under the act is well advanced I direct that you instruct the engineers of the 

Reclamation Service in charge of the various projects to keep the registers and 

receivers of the land districts in which the projects are located fully informed 

by correspondence respecting the condition and progress of the work of construction and to inform inquirers that, without cost, full and reliable information 

respecting the public lands to be disposed of under the act may be obtained from 

the register and receiver of the land district in which the lands are located.

You are also directed to authorize the chief engineer of the Reclamation 

Service to announce with each project that information concerning lands to be 

irrigated thereunder will be given officially by the register and receiver of the 

land district on request therefor addressed to them at the proper time.

By this cooperation of the officers of the Reclamation Service and the registers 

and receivers of the local land offices it is believed that all persons desiring to 

make entries of lands to be irrigated will be enabled to secure all necessary 

information respecting such lands.

IKE 146 05 M 15
226 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 140. 

CONTRACTORS' BONDS.

The Secretary of the Interior, in letter dated April 26, 1905, state? 

that 

Every corporation authorized to transact business as sole surety under thQ 

terms of the act of August 13, 1SIU, is required to tile in the office of the Secretary of the Interior the following papers: .

(1) Evidence that it has obtained authority from the Attorney-General 

under the act above mentioned to act as sole surety on bonds in matters affecting the United States.

(2) Evidence of the election of general officers of the company for each year, 

with their names.

(3) Names of the persons in the several judicial districts of the United 

States authorized to accept service of process on behalf of the company.

(4) Names of the parties, however designated, authorized to execute bond^ 

for and on behalf of the corporation in places other than its home office.

(5) A copy of its quarterly financial statement as filed in the Department of 

Justice.

In cases where surety companies have already filed with the Department th? 

evidence and statements above mentioned, duplicates need not be furnished, 

but in lieu thereof a certificate may be appended to the bond stating that th? 

papers are on file in the office of the Secretary of the Interior.

LIABILITY TO SUBCONTRACTORS.

The question of withholding final payment due under a contract 

in connection with the Truckee-Carson project, in Nevada, by reason 

of a claim preferred by a subcontractor for supplies and labor furnished, was the subject of an opinion rendered by the assistant attorney-general for the Department of the Interior, dated February 6, 

1905, and approved by-the Secretary the same day, wherein it was 

held that a mechanic's lien would not attach in favor of the subcontractor on work completed under the contract; that the Government 

incurred no liability by paying to the contractor the balance due 

under his contract; and that there is no obligation on the part of the 

Government to aid in the collection of such claims other than as provided by the act of August 13, 1894 (28 Stat. L., 278).

The said act provides that the bond required of parties entering 

into contracts with the United States in the prosecution of public 

works shall contain an additional obligation to make prompt payment to all persons furnishing supplies and labor in the conduct of the 

work, and that such persons may bring suit in the name of the 

United States, for their benefit, against the contractor and sureties, 

and prosecute the same to final judgment.

The opinion cited rulings of the United States Supreme Court to 

the effect that the United States can not be subjected to legal proceedings at law or in equity without its consent, and then only within the 

authority granted by some act of Congress; and that such exemption
NEWELL.] CIRCULARS. .227

extended to the property of the United States, there being no distinction between suits against the Government directly and against its 

property.

EXTENSION OF TIME ON CONTRACTS.

The following is a copy of a letter to this office from the Secretary 

of the Interior, dated April 1, 1905, which is self-explanatory:

With respect to existing and future contracts in connection with reclamation 

projects under the act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. L., 388), I direct that you 

instruct the engineers in charge of the various projects that whenever it becomes 

evident that the work covered by a contract can not be completed within the time 

fixed therein, they notify the contractor that any application for extension of 

time must be accompanied by the formal consent of the sureties thereto and 

lodged with the Department in ample time for the allowance of the application, 

if such action may be determined on, prior to the expiration of the contract.

PAYMENTS FOR EXTRA WORK.

Vouchers for extra work should be 'prepared and the items entered 

thereon in the following form:

EXTKA WORK.

Labor and materials as per attached itemized statement: 

Actual cost of labor and materials_____________________ $ 

Fifteen per cent added, as per paragraph of contract________ 

To the voucher should be attached two papers: 

(1) Itemized statement of labor and materials, with engineer's 

certificate as follows:

I hereby certify that the above statement of cost of labor and materials is 

correct, and that the said extra work was performed in accordance with my 

instructions of , and that the same has been satisfactorily performed.

(2) Copy of letter to contractor authorizing the extra work.

In case the contract makes no provision for the added 15 per cent, 

or makes it necessary to insert other items, the voucher should be 

modified accordingly.

RENT OF OFFICES.

The Comptroller of the Treasury having held that no payments 

for rent should be made unless based upon a formal lease, forms of 

lease for office buildings for the Reclamation Service have been prepared, differing only in regard to the lessor, the forms being applicable, severally, to the cases of an individual, a firm, and a corporate 

lessor. Copies of these forms may be obtained on application to the 

chief engineer.
228 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

Each engineer of the Reclamation Service in charge of an office is 

authorized by the Director of the Geological Survey to sign such a 

lease, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior.

PURCHASE OF ARMY STORES.

By authority granted by the Secretary of War, April 27, 1905, 

chiefs of parties are permitted to purchase commissary stores and 

quartermaster supplies, including officers' supplies, for official, camp, 

and for personal use, at any of the garrisoned posts enumerated below, 

provided such stores can, in the opinion of the commanding officers, 

be spared. Cash is to be paid for both classes of supplies in order 

that the proceeds received by the post commanders from such sales 

may be returned and again expended by the War Department for 

additional purchases during the same fiscal year. The price of quartermaster supplies will be contract price plus 10 per cent. The price 

of commissary stores will be contract price plus 10 per cent to cover 

waste in transit and an additional amount to cover cost of transportation. Party chiefs applying for such stores at garrisoned posts will 

show cards of identification, signed by the Secretary of the Interior 

and countersigned by the Director of the Geological Survey.

Quartermaster stores include practically all articles used in camp 

and personal equipment, such as tents, harness, vehicles, shovels, axes, 

cots, blankets, leggings, gloves, cutlery, tableware, forage, etc. Commissary stores include all varieties of subsistence supplies and such 

toilet articles as towels, soap, etc.

The following garrisoned posts are most accessible:

Adams, Fort, Newport, R. I. Egbert, Fort, Eagle, Alaska.

Allegheny Arsenal, Plttsburg, Pa. Ethan Alien, Fort, Vt.

Apache, Fort, Arizona. Gibbon, Fort, Tanana, Alaska.

Assinniboine, Fort, Mont. Grant, Fort, Ariz.

Barrancas, Fort, Fla. Hamilton, Fort, N. Y.

Bayard, Fort, N. Mex. Harrison, Fort, Mont.

Bliss, Fort, El Paso, Tex. Hot Springs, IT. S. Gen. Hosp., Ark.

Boise Barracks, Boise, Idaho. Huachuca, Fort, Ariz.

Brady, Fort, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Jackson Barracks, New Orleans, La.

Brown, Fort, Brownsville, Tex. Jay, Fort, New York City.

Casey, Fort, Port Towusend, Wash. Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis, Mo.

Caswell, Fort, Southport, N. C. Keogh, Fort, Mont.

Clark, Fort, Brackett, Tex. Lawton, Fort, Interbay, Wash.

Columbus Barracks, Columbus, Ohio. Leavenworth, Fort, Kans.

Crook, Fort, Nebr. Lincoln, Fort, Bismarck, N. Dak.

D. A. Russell, Fort, Wyo. Liscum, Fort, Alaska.

Davis, Fort, Nome, Alaska. Logan, Fort, Colo.

Des Moines, Fort, Des Moines, Iowa. Mackenzie, Fort, Sheridan, Wyo.

Douglas, Fort, Utah. Madison Barracks, Sackett Harbor,

Duchesne, Fort, Utah. N. Y.

Du Pont, Fort, Delaware City, Del. Mason, Fort, San Francisco, Cal.
NEWELL.] REPORTS ON OPENING OF BIDS. 229

McHenry, Fort, Baltimore, Md. Sam Houston, Fort, Tex.

Mclutosh, Fort, Laredo, Tex. Sheridan, Fort, 111.

McKinley, Fort, Portland, Me. Sill, Fort, Okla.

McPherson, Fort, Ga. Snelling, Fort, Minn.

Meade, Fort, S. Dak. Stevens, Fort, Oreg.

Missoula, Fort, Mont. St. Michael, Fort, Alaska.

Monroe, Fort, Va. Thomas, Fort, Newport, Ky.

Morgan, Fort, Mobile, Ala. Vancouver Barracks, Wash.

Moultrie, Fort, Moultrieville, S. C. Walla Walla, Fort, Wash.

Myer, Fort, Va. Washakie, Fort, Wyo.

Niobrara, Fort, Nebr. Washington Barracks, D. C.

Oglethorpe, Fort, Dodge, Ga. Wayne, Fort, Detroit, Mich.

Plattsburg Barracks, Plattsburg, N. Y. Whipple Barracks, Prescott, Ariz.

Porter, Fort, Buffalo, N. Y. W. H. Seward, Fort, Haines Mission,

Presidio of Monterey, Cal. Alaska.

Presidio of San Francisco, Cal. Wingate, Fort, N. Mex.

Reno, Fort, Okla. Yellowstone, Fort, Mammoth Hot

Riley, Fort, Kans. Springs, Wyo.

Robinson, Fort, Nebr. Wright, Fort, Spokane, Wash.

Rosecrans, Fort, San Diego, Cal.

REPORTS ON OPENING OF BIDS.

In order to secure uniformity and completeness in the reports of 

boards of engineers designated to open bids for work or materials in 

connection with reclamation projects, the following suggestions 

should be adhered to as closely as possible:

The report should be in duplicate and should include a statement 

that the bids were opened at a certain time and place ^being the 

time and place mentioned in the advertisement), and that all the bids 

then received are transmitted with the report.

All the papers received with the proposals should be transmitted to 

the chief engineer, including the envelopes in which the bids were 

received.

On the outside of each envelope should be indorsed the amount 

of the certified checks submitted by the bidder, and the number, if 

more than one.

The report should also be accompanied by an abstract, in duplicate, 

of all the proposals received. The names of the bidders and the 

information given concerning each bid should be entered on this 

abstract in the order of the amounts of the bids the lowest first, 

then the second lowest, and so on.

The report should also contain a specific recommendation as to the 

award of the contract, and if deemed advisable to let the contract 

to the next lowest bidder in case the lowest fails to qualify, an alternative recommendation should be made.

If recommendation is made that the contract be awarded to any
230 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

other than the lowest bidder, the reason for such recommendation 

should be stated.

The report should, be in such form that it can be submitted to the 

Secretary with the Director's letter of recommendation in regard to 

action to be taken, if deemed advisable.

It is desirable that the board prepare extra copies of the abstracts 

of the bids and forward them to the technical papers which published 

Ihe advertisements and which make a practice of printing abstracts 

of bids, unless there is some reason for temporarily withholding the 

information. The chief- engineer should be informed of the names 

of any publications to which this information is sent.

All bids withdrawn in the manner contemplated by the specifications and all bids not received within the time and at the place advertised should be promptly returned by the board unopened.

Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 93, pages 71-82, contains 

regulations of the Indian Office concerning the opening of bids, 

which should be of assistance to the boards of engineers in preparing 

their reports.

STANDARD PROGRESS REPORT COLORS.

In the preparation of progress maps and diagrams, Winsor-Newton 

water colors, according to the following table, are the standard progress colors for the Reclamation Service, and should be used:

Colors for progress drawings, ~by months.

Months. Colors. 

January________________=___________Sepia.

February___________________________Vermilion.

March_________________________ ______-Prussian blue.

April____________________________________-Deep chrome.

May ____________________________________Emerald green.

June _______________________________-Indigo.

July _______________________________Indian red.

August _______ _ _ _ ___ _ _____ _ ___ ______Sap green.

September_________________________Gamboge.

October ______________________________Scarlet lake.

November _________________________New blue.

December __________________________ _-Burnt sienna.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LEVELING.

STANDARD LEVELING.

Eecord distance, in feet, for both fore and back sights. Equalize 

sums of fore and back sights daily.

No sight more than 300 feet in length should be taken, except under 

unavoidable circumstances.
NEWELL.] INSTRUCTIONS FOR LEVELING. 231

Fill in fly-leaf blank the first clay level book is used, and give date 

on each page of notes.

For a given H. L, rodman's notes must be at least two lines lower 

down page than levelman's, and they should not turn over leaf at 

same time.

Give complete information regarding source from which initial 

elevation is copied.

Insert sums of fore and back sight, rod readings, and difference 

between them for each page of notes.

Commence each circuit on a separate page.

' A bench mark should be established for each mile run. Standard 

bench marks (posts or tablets) should not average more than 3 miles 

apart.

See book of " Instructions " for further details concerning leveling 

work.

SECONDARY LEVELING.

The plumbing level is dispensed with, and the turning point used 

only when running over muddy roads or soft ground. The notes 

are kept in duplicate and in about the same way as for the primary 

work, except that the lengths of sights are not usually entered and the 

readings are recorded to hundredths instead of thousandths of a foot. 

The lengths of sights are not limited and may be as long as can be 

readily taken.

Benches should be frequently left along the line and should be well 

placed and well 'described. Elevations of all points, such as road 

corners, high and low places, bridges, and water levels should be 

determined and neatly painted in large white figures, the elevation 

to the nearest foot only to be used. The outfit for each party consists 

of 15-inch level and double extension Philadelphia rod, notebook, 

No. 4 pencils, hatchet, chisel, 50-foot cloth tape, paint can, field 

glasses, copper nails, and, when necessary, a turning point.

The amount of secondary leveling necessary depends largely on the 

character of the country. In the rougher sections the valleys should 

be leveled and along the ridges the lines should be carried until the 

brow of the hill is reached, when they should be dropped. In gently 

rolling country it is advisable to follow nearly every road, secondary 

roads receiving attention as well as others when they are much over 

a mile apart. In extremely level sections, as in old lake beds, coastal 

plains, etc., only such lines should be run as will determine contour 

crossings. By sighting the level to buildings or other objects it can be 

determined whether there is sufficient rise or fall to warrant carrying 

the line through.

In marking up elevations for the topographer the number required
232 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

depends upon the nature of the country; thus, in the rougher regions 

few are required, while in sections where the ground is gently rolling 

the elevations should be numerous, and in extremely level sections 

each contour crossing should be marked. In all cases every road 

corner passed should be marked and at all good-sized streams both 

the bridge level and the water level must be painted up.

Every effort should be made to save time. The instrument should 

be approximately leveled by manipulating the tripod legs, getting 

ground elevations under the instrument by placing the rod alongside, 

sighting to the rodman's head, or shoulders, rather than undertaking to set the target by signals, in very long sights, or when the light 

is poor, and many others that a good levelman will discover. No 

limit of error is prescribed for this work, the general understanding 

being that a closure within a fifth of a contour interval is sufficient.

CORRESPONDENCE.

LETTERS.

Brief letters of inquiry are frequently sent to engineers in the field, 

the answers to which can be given in a few words. It is important to 

keep down the volume of correspondence and typewriting, and in particular to avoid writing new letters which simply repeat the question 

and give the answer. Wherever possible, engineers should indorse 

upon the bottom of the original letter the appropriate reply in a few 

words and send this back to the Washington office. This can frequently be done with saving of time and energy and reduction of the 

amount of material to be handled and filed.

When the matter is of such importance that the engineer desires to 

keep a copy of his statement, this simple method is not advisable, but 

in the majority of cases the information is not of such a character that 

a copy need be kept.

TELEGRAMS.

The Washington office frequently receives telegrams which are 

almost unintelligible and which require a most careful study to determine the probable meaning. Mistakes in interpretation of such telegrams are not rare. To correct the difficulty, all persons sending 

telegrams should prepare their draft without punctuation or capitalization, and then read this draft carefully to see whether the message as thus written is intelligible or is capable of more than one 

meaning. All messages are, of course, received without punctuation 

or capitalization, and frequently the last word of one sentence, when 

transferred to the beginning of the next, completely alters the sense.
NEWELL.] CIRCULARS. 233

DISMISSALS OF EMPLOYEES BEFORE E^D OF PROBATIONARY PERIOD.

The following is a copy of a letter from the Secretary of the 

Interior, dated March 27, 1905, addressed to the Director of the 

Geological Survey, in regard to the proper course to be pursued in 

dismissing incompete'iit persons prior to the expiration of the probationary period of their employment:

Referring to your communication of the 23d instant, subject " Dismissals 

prior to expiration of probationary period" of employees belonging to field 

parties in the Reclamation Service, and inclosing with your said communication 

a copy of a letter addressed to you by the chief engineer, dated the 21st 

instant, on the same subject, I have to advise you that, after informal conference with the Civil Service Commission, the proper course to pursue in such 

cases would be to suspend incompetents pending the service of notice on them 

of charges and final action thereon by the Department. Responsible officers in 

the field may be given this authority with instructions to report promptly all 

such cases where suspensions are made for inefficiency.

HOLDING OF OTHER OFFICES FORBIDDEN.

Following are copies of Executive orders dated January 17 and 28, 

1873, on the subject of the incumbents of Federal offices holding or 

accepting offices under State or Territorial governments or under 

the charter or ordinances of municipal corporations:

Whereas it has been brought to the notice of the President of the United 

States that many persons holding civil office by appointment from him or 

otherwise, under the Constitution and laws of the United States, while holding 

such Federal positions accept offices under the authority of the States and 

Territories in which they reside, or of municipal corporations, under the charters and ordinances of such corporations, thereby assuming the duties of the 

State, Territorial, or municipal office at the same time that they are charged 

with the duties of the civil office held under Federal authority; and

Whereas it is believed that, with few exceptions, the holding of two such 

offices by the same person is incompatible with a due and faithful discharge 

of the duties of either office; that it frequently gives rise to great inconvenience 

and often results in detriment to the public service, and, moreover, is not in 

harmony with the genius of the Government:

In view of the premises, therefore, the President has deemed it proper thus 

and hereby to give public notice that from and after the 4th day of March, 

A. D. 1873 (except as herein specified), persons holding any Federal civil office 

by appointment under the Constitution and the laws of the United States will 

be expected, while holding such office, not to accept or hold any office under 

any State or Territorial government, or under the charter or ordinances of any 

municipal corporation; and, further, that the acceptance or continued holding 

of any such State, Territorial, or municipal office, whether elective or by 

appointment, by any person holding civil office as aforesaid under the Government of the United States other than judicial offices under the Constitution of 

the United States, will be deemed a vacation of the Federal office held by such
234 SECOND BECLAMATION SEEVICE CONFEEENCE. [NO. 146.

person, and will be taken to be, and will be treated as, a resignation by such 

Federal officer of his commission or appointment in the service of the United 

States.

The offices of justices of the peace, of notaries public, and of commissioners 

to take the acknowledgment of deeds, of bail, or to administer oaths shall not 

be deemed within the purview of this order and are excepted from its operation, and may be held by Federal officers.

The appointment of deputy marshal of the United States may be conferred 

upon sheriffs or deputy sheriffs. And deputy postmasters, the emoluments of 

whose office do not exceed $600 per annum, are also excepted from the operations of this order, and may accept and hold appointments under State, Territorial, or municipal authority, provided the same be found not to interfere 

with the discharge of their duties as postmasters. Heads of Departments and 

other officers of the Government who have the appointment of subordinate 

officers are required to take notice of this order, and to see to the enforcement 

of its provisions and terms within the sphere of their respective Departments 

or offices, and as relates to the several persons holding appointments under 

them, respectively.

Inquiries having been made from various quarters as to the application of the 

Executive order issued on the 17th January, relating to the holding of State 

or municipal offices by persons holding civil offices under the Federal Government, the President directs the following reply to be made:

It has been asked whether the order prohibits a Federal officer from holding 

also the office of an alderman or of a common councilman in a city, or of a town 

councilman of a town or village, or of appointments under city, town, or village 

governments. By some it has been suggested that there may be distinction 

made in case the office be with or without salary or compensation. The city or 

town offices of the description referred to, by whatever names they may be 

locally known, whether held by election or by appointment, and whether with 

or without salary or compensation, are of the class which the Executive order 

intends not to be held by persons holding Federal offices.

It has been asked whether the order prohibits Federal officers from holding 

positions on boards of education, school committees, public libraries, religious 

or eleemosynary institutions incorporated or established or sustained by State 

or municipal authority. Positions and service on such boards or committees, 

 and professorships in colleges, are not regarded as "offices" within the contemplation of the Executive order, but as employments or service in which all 

good citizens may be engaged without incompatibility, and in many cases without necessary interference with any position which they may hold under the 

Federal Government. Officers of the Federal Government may, therefore, engage in such service, provided the attention required by such employment does 

not interfere with the regular and efficient discharge of the duties of their office 

under the Federal Government. The head of the Department under whom the 

Federal office is held will, in all cases, be the sole judge whether or not the 

employment does thus interfere.

The question has also been asked with regard to officers of the State militia. 

Congress having exercised the power conferred by the Constitution to provide 

for organizing the militia, which is liable to be called forth to be employed in 

the service of the United States, and is thus, in some sense, under the control 

of the General Government, and is, moreover, of the greatest value to the public, 

the Executive order of 17th January is not considered as prohibiting Federal 

officers from being officers of the militia in the States and Territories.
NEWELL.] CIRCULARS. 235

It has been asked whether the order prohibits persons holding office under 

the Federal Government being members of local or municipal fire departments; 

also, whether it applies to mechanics employed by the day in the armories, 

arsenals, and navy-yards, etc., of the United States. Unpaid service in local 

or municipal fire departments is not regarded as an office within the intent of 

the Executive order, and may be performed by Federal officers, provided it does 

not interfere with the regular and efficient discharge of the duties of the Federal 

office, of which the head of the Department under which the office is held will, 

in each case, be the judge. Employment by the day as mechanics or laborers 

in the armories, arsenals, navy-yards, etc., does not constitute an office of any 

kind, and those thus employed are not within the contemplation of the Executive order. Master workmen and others who hold appointments from the 

Government, or from any Department, whether for a fixed time or at the 

pleasure of the appointing power, are embraced within the operation of the 

order.

PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT FORBIDDEN.

Several inquiries have come to the chief engineer regarding the 

propriety of engineers or assistants of the Reclamation Service doing 

outside professional work. There are occasionally a few tempting 

opportunities of this kind where a considerable fee can apparently be 

earned with small outlay of time. The experience of the past has 

shown, however, that it is not good administration to permit the 

engineers to be diverted by outside professional work, and on this 

point the Secretary of the Interior is very definite. In his report 

for the year ending June 30, 1904, he says, on page 88:

The reclamation work must therefore be placed in the hands of men who for 

years have given the subject their best thought, and these men must be protected from external pressure and guarded from the possibility of selfish consideration. In the organic law of the Geological Survey it is provided that the 

Director and members shall have no personal or private interests in the lands 

or mineral wealth of the region under survey, and shall execute no surveys for 

private parties or corporations. This law applies to the Reclamation Service, 

which has been made a branch of the Geological Survey, and although the law 

may occasionally work hardship I believe that good administration requires its 

enforcement.

In the case of several men coming into the Service it was agreed 

that they should finish up the consulting work on which they had 

previously been engaged, but it is believed that the interests of the 

Service require that this work should be brought to a close at the 

earliest possible date.

FEES FOR OATHS.

Treasury Department Circular No. 57, April 22, 1905, gives the 

following schedule of fees which notaries public and justices of the
236 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

peace are authorized by the laws of their respective States and Territories to charge for administering oaths:

When an account or voucher in an account is required by law or regulation 

to be verified by the oath of an officer or employee of the Government, for the 

cost of which oath said officer or employee is entitled to be reimbursed, tlie following list of fees may be allowed, and none other, except in cases where the 

persons claiming reimbursement shall show that a different fee is 

making specific reference to the statute authorizing the same:

Rcliednle of fees for

State.

California __..______ .

Connecticut ...... ...

Delaware . _________

Florida ._-----..--.-.-

Indiana. .--_----. .._

Kansas ____.__.__.

Kentucky.----.. __ ._

Louisiana .-_..____

Maine ..._-_ _ _ ... .

Maryland ..... ....

Massachusetts _

Minnesota . ___.......

Michigan _____ ...

Mississippi ........ .

Missouri --......

Notary.

$0. 50

.50

.50

.50

.25

.10

.50

.50

.50

.50

.35

.25

.50

.25

.25

.20

.20

 62i

.25

.25

.25

.50

.50

.50

Justice.

$0.25

.75

.50

.25

.25

.10

.25

.16

.30

.15

.35

.30

.25

.20

.20

25

.25

.30

.25

.15

.25

.25

°0

.50

State.

Nebraska . . . . . ......

Nevada --......-.. .

New Jersey _--__--. _

New Mexico . . ------

New York ..........

North Carolina ------

Ohio.......... .......

Oklahoma ....... . . _

(~}t*f*fyf\Y\

Utah.. ..............

AXTpa-f- Vivcniria

Wyoming ...........

Notary.

$0.25

.75

.25

.32

.50

.12

.50

.35

.40

.25

1.00

.25

.50

.50

.35

.50

.25

.50

.25

.50

.50

.25

.25

.50

Justice.

$0.25

.50

.25

.32

.10

.10

.35

.40

.35

.25

.25

.50

.30

.35

.20

.25

.50

.50

.25

.20

.25

.25

a This schedule supersedes that at pages 32 and 33 of the " Instructions, United States 

Geological Survey, May 1, 1903."

b Except notary fees in Allegheny County, $1 ; city of Philadelphia, $0.371 ; counties 

of Blair, Center, Lycoming, Montour, Snyder, Westmoreland, and Wyoming, $0.37J ; York 

County,
NEWELL.] CIRCULARS. 287

FOSSIL BEDS AND SPECIMENS.

In constructing irrigation works it is probable that fossiliferous 

beds will be uncovered, giving exceptionally good opportunities for 

collecting specimens of value to geologists and paleontologists. Wellpreserved imprints of leaves, ferns, or other plant remains, fossil 

shellsT and the bones and teeth of animals are always interesting, and 

may add much to our knowledge of the geologic history and structure 

of the region.

When any specimens are discovered in connection with the work 

a brief statement of the nature of the discovery should be promptly 

sent to the Director, United States Geological Survey, Washington, 

D. C. If the specimens are small, such as fossil leaves or shells, or 

small teeth, a few samples should accompany the report, so that the 

character and' importance of the find may be determined and instructions for additional collecting may be given, or a special collector 

may be sent to the locality, as the case may require.

STATUS OF RECLAMATION SERVICE.

The following is a copy of a letter from the Secretary of the Interior, dated March 10,1905, addressed to the Director of the Geological 

Survey, regarding the status of the Reclamation Service:

Referring to my letter of July 8, 1902, regarding the organization of the 

Reclamation Service, and in order to remove certain erroneous ideas and misunderstandings that have recently arisen regarding the status of said Service, 

my said letter of July 8, supra, is to be understood as placing the Reclamation 

Service under the direction and control of the Director of the Geological Survey, 

but the Reclamation Service is not to be made part of the Survey. The regulations and instructions of the United States Geological Survey shall govern the 

Reclamation Service, so far as the same may be applicable.
PERSONNEL OF THE RECLAMATION SERVICE.

The report of the first conference of the engineers of the Reclamation Service (Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 93) contains, 

on pages 315-351, a list giving, in alphabetical order, the names of 

the principal men of the regular force of the Reclamation Service and 

the salient facts concerning their education and experience.

The records of a considerable number of employees were not available at that time, however, and many have since entered the Service, 

and these are listed below:

ADAMS, C. ROBERT, engineering aid. Address, Boston, Mass. Born, Boston, 

Mass., November 30, 1884. Education, Boston public schools; Massachusetts 

Institute of Technology, S. B. Member M. I. T. Civil Engineering Society. 

3904, rodman and instrument man, Massachusetts. Appointed in Reclamation 

Service June 8, 1905.

AMBLER. J. OWEN, engineering aid. Address, Montrose, Colo. Born in Kentucky, May 18, 1883. Education, common schools and Missouri School of Mines. 

1903, draftsman for Steam Appliance Company, St. Louis. 1904-5, instrument 

man on canal location with Reclamation Service in Colorado. March 18, 1905, 

appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

AVAKIAN, JOHN CASPER, assistant engineer. Address, Los Angeles, Cal. Born 

in Harpoot, Armenia, March 1, 1875. Came to United States, June, 1888. 

1889-1894, classical course in Cook Academy, Montour Falls, N. Y. 1894-95, 

classical course in Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. 1895-1897, lecturer in 

New England and Middle States and Canada. 1897-98, commercial traveler in 

New England States. 1898-1902, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y., 

C. E. June, 1902, to January, 1903, draftsman for Lehigh Valley Railroad at 

Buffalo, N. Y. February to March, 1903, locating engineer for Buffalo, Dunkirk and Western Railroad. April to June, 1903, private office in Los Angeles, 

Cal. July, 1903, to February, 1905, draftsman, United States Reclamation 

Service, on Yurua project. March 24, 1905, appointed assistant engineer, 

Reclamation Service.

BAKER, SHELDON K., hydrographlc aid. Address, Washington, D. C. Born in 

Washington, D. C., July 6, 1880. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, degree 

B. S., course in sanitary engineering. In 1901, with a firm of civil engineers, 

also draftsman under Isthmian Canal Commission. In 1902, traverseman, 

United States Geological Survey, in Montana. 1903, employed by Springfield 

(Mass.) Special Water Commission as assistant engineer and chemist on experimental filtration of public water supply. Also employed on bacteriological andchemical analyses of water. March 23, 1904, appointed hydrographic aid in 

Reclamation Service.

BALCH, LELAND RELLA, engineering aid. Address, Huntley, Mont. Born, 

Neillsville, Wis., March 10, 1883. Education, University of Wisconsin, B. S. 

in C. E. 1902 4, assistant to county surveyor of Clark County, Wis., during 

vacations. Appointed in Reclamation Service May'22, 1905. 

238
NEWELL.] PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 239

BINGHAM, JOSEPH INKOFF, engineering aid. Address, Browning, Mont. Born, 

Lockwood, N. Y., December 11, 1877. Education, Starkey Seminary, N. Y., 

1898. Graduated in sanitary engineering at University of Wisconsin, 1904. 

1901-2, chainman, rodman, and levelman, Lehigb Valley Railroad. 1903, traversenian, United States Geological Survey. 1904-5, location and construction 

work, Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. Appointed in Reclamation Service 

May 1, 1905.

BRENNAN, MICHAEL SHELLY, engineering aid. Address, Chicago, 111. Born 

in Rhode Island December 25, 1870. Education, Brown University, 1900, C. E. 

Summer of 1899, street and water departments, Providence, R. I. 1900-1903, 

inspector of concrete bridges, inspector of pile driving, and assistant engineer, 

Illinois Central Railroad. 1903-4, transitman and chief of party laying terminal tracks, St. Louis. 1904, inspector of reenforced concrete bridge work, 

Chicago, 111. Appointed in Reclamation Service March 7, 1905. 

. BROTHERS, WALTER A., special disbursing agent. Born September 1, 1879. 

High school education. Entered Reclamation Service January 13, 1903. May 

1, 1905, promoted to special disbursing agent and stationed at Casper, Wyo., 

on North Platte project.

BRTJNDAGE, FRANK HOMER, assistant engineer. Address, Washington, D. C. 

Born at Oil City, Pa., August 21, 1877. Education, civil engineering, three 

years at Case School of Applied Science; one year at Cornell University. 

1899, draftsman, Webster Camp, Lane Machine Company, Akron, Ohio. 1899- 

J902, aid, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1902-3, cojnputer, United 

States Coast and Geodetic Survey. March 5, 1903, transferred to computer, 

United States Geological Survey. July 1, 1904, promoted to assistant engineer.

BURRAGE, JOHN OTIS, assistant engineer. Address, Fort Laraniie, Wyo. Born, 

Lowell, Mass., February 13, 1877. Education, four years student of civil engineering at Tufts College, class of 1900. Member Technical Society of the 

Pacific Coast; Junior American Society of Civil Engineers. 1899, in engineering office on Merrimac River, Massachusetts. 1900, engineer and draftsman 

American Ordnance Company, Bridgeport, Conn. 1901, with Union Iron Works, 

San Francisco, in drafting room. 1902-1905, draftsman, bureau of engineering, 

city engineer's office, San Francisco. Appointed in Reclamation Service May, 

1905.

CALLISTER, THOMAS C., jr., engineering aid. Address, Fillmore, Utah. Graduate Agricultural College of Utah, B. S. in C. E. In 1902, measuring streams 

under Agricultural College Experiment Station. 1903, field assistant with Reclamation Service in Utah and Idaho. 1904, installing private telephone system 

connecting the towns of Millard Couaty, Utah; also field assistant with Reclamation Service in Idaho and Utah. 1904-5, on construction work with San 

Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad as office and field assistant. January, 1905, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

CARBERRY, RAY S., assistant engineer. Address, Mitchell, Nebr. Born, Secoo, 

111., May 3, 1873. Education, University of Illinois, School of Civil Engineering, B. S., 1895. 1895, city engineer on construction of sewer system. 1890, 

land and drainage surveying. 1896-97, city engineer, Monticello, 111. 1897-98, 

drainage and dredge work in central Illinois. 1898-1900, engineer and general 

manager, Marysville Canal and Improvement Company, Idaho. 1901-2, levelman, instrument man, and assistant engineer Oregon Short Line. 1903, on grade 

reduction, Wabash Railroad, central Illinois. 1904, Wabash Railroad constructing World's Fair grounds terminals. 1904-5, instrument man Chicago and 

Northwestern Railroad Company, Chicago. Appointed in Reclamation Service 

April, 1905.
240 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

CARPENTER, WILLIAM T., engineering aid. Address, Pittston, Pa, Graduate of 

Lehigh University, 1902, degree C. E. One year with Coast and Geodetic 

Hurvey, on hydrographic work. July 11, 1903, transferred to Reclamation 

Service as engineering aid.

CASS, FRANK HENRY, transportation agent. Born in Alexandria, N. H. Educated iii rural schools. Engaged in railroad work from 1865 as newsboy, 

brakeman, telegraph operator, and agent ou various railroads. From 1881 to 

1904 employed by the Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad as freight claim 

agent, bill of lading clerk, contracting agent, and lumber agent. October 16, 

1904, appointed transportation agent in the Reclamation Service.

CAVIS, FRED L., special disbursing agent. Address, Boise, Idaho. Born, 

Marysville, Ohio, December 23,1879. Education, public and high schools. January 1, 1904, to May 1, 1905, stenographer and bookkeeper in Boise office, Reclamation Service. May 1, 1905, appointed special disbursing agent.

CLEGHORN, JOHN C., engineering aid. Born December 23, 1880, at Onawa, 

Iowa. Graduated, 1899, from Onawa High School and, 1903, Iowa State College 

with degree of B. Min. E. 1902, transitman, Yellowstone Park Improvement. 

1903, mining in Colorado. 1904, instrument man, Monona-Harrison County 

(Iowa) ditch; level rodman with United States Geological Survey in Wyoming; 

superintendent Keystone Coal Company at Shelburn, Ind. Appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service March 24, 1905.

COLE, D. W., constructing engineer. Born in Georgia, May 10, 1863. Education in home academy. 1884-85, on railroad surveys in New Mexico and Colorado as axnian, chainman, and rodman. 1886-1888, with Burlington System 

as rodman, instrument man, assistant engineer, and resident engineer on surveys, construction, and maintenance. 1889, engineer of mines and works for 

Chicago, Wilmington, and Vermilion Coal Company. 1890-91, resident engineer 

in charge heavy construction and track laying for Louisville and Nashville 

Railroad. 1891, on railroad location, Toledo to Chicago. 1892-93, engineer for 

industrial corporations in northern Illinois. 1894-95, resident engineer, surveys 

and construction water-supply system, Waterbury, Conn. 1896-1900, assistant 

engineer on construction, surveys, and studies for metropolitan water board of 

Massachusetts. 1901-2, resident engineer, construction of dams, reservoir, and 

appurtenances for city of Waterbury, Conn. 1903, principal assistant engineer, 

Catskill department, commission on additional water supply, New York City. 

1903-4, on surveys and studies for northern New Jersey flood commission. 

June, 1904, appointed constructing engineer in Reclamation Service.

COMSTOCK, HAROLD DEARBORN, engineering aid. Address, Chelsea, Vt. Born 

in Vermont, June 13, 1882. Graduate of Dartmouth College, degree B. S., and 

Thayer School of Civil Engineering, degree C. E. In 1903, rodman, transit man, 

and computer on a topographic survey of West Point, N. Y. August 22, 1904, 

appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

CONNER, RALPH M., engineering aid. Address, East Wilton, Me. Born in 

Maine, March 25, 1878. Graduate of Wilton Academy, Wilton, Me., and of 

University of Maine, degree B. S. in C. E. Measured flow of St. Croix River 

at Spragues Falls, Me., 1903. 1902, assistant civil engineer, Rumford Falls 

Power Company. 1903, timekeeper and superintendent for contractor. Tutor 

in mathematics, University of Maine. June 5, 1904, appointed engineering aid 

in the Reclamation Service.

COULTER, WALDO SCARLETTE, assistant engineer. Address, Wyncote, Wyo. 

Born, Westboro, Mass., October 12, 1877. Education, common and high schools. 

Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers. 1896-97, with metropolitan water 

board on surveys and construction of Sudbury reservoir. 1897-98, structural
NEWKLL.J PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 241

draftsman. 1898-99, inspector of construction of filtration beds, Clinton, Mass. 

1899-1905, with metropolitan water and sewerage board as rodman and instrument man on construction of highways and hydraulic works, Clinton, Mass,. 

Appointed in Reclamation Service April 21, 1905.

COUPE, ALFRED L., engineering aid. Address, Huntley, Mont. Born at 

Plymouth, Mass., April 7, 1884. Education, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1900-1902. 1902, rodman, instrument man, and inspector, Boston and 

Albany Railroad. Appointed in Reclamation Service March, 1905.

DOERFLING, RICHARD GEORGE, irrigation engineer. Address, Yuma, Ariz. Born 

in Germany, March 8, 1866. Graduate of Columbian University, B. S. in civil 

engineering, 1898. Completed course in mechanical engineering of the Scranton Correspondence Schools in 1895. Associate member American Society of 

Civil Engineers. 1881-1884, apprenticed to county surveyor in Germany. 1884- 

1886, surveyor and draftsman on railroad location and construction, Harz 

Mountains. 1886-1889, surveyor and draftsman, North Sea-Baltic Canal. 

1889-90, draftsman, street department, St. Louis, Mo. 1890-1894, topographer 

on upper Missouri River surveys. 1894-1898, draftsman, engineer department, 

District of Columbia. 1898-99, structural steel draftsman, yards and docks, 

Navy-Yard, Washington, D. C. 1899-1902, superintendent of construction, United 

States engineer department, Pittsburg, Pa., on locks, fixed and movable dams, 

and operating machinery for same. 1902-3, structural engineer, Pacific Rolling 

Mills, San Francisco, Cal. 1903-4, in private practice. 1904-5, superintendent 

of construction, twelfth light-house district. Since January 1, 1905, irrigation 

engineer, Reclamation Service.

DRANE, BRENT SKINNER, engineering aid. Address, Atlanta, Ga. Born, Edenton, N. C., September 9, 1881. Education, University of North Carolina, 1902, 

A. B. Summer of 1901, with United States Geological Survey on investigation 

of damages by floods in North Carolina and Tennessee. 1901-2, laboratory assistant, University of North Carolina. 1902-1904, field assistant, United States 

Geological Survey, in North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. 

1904-5, field assistant, United States Geological Survey, in southeastern United 

States. Appointed in Reclamation Service May 22, 1905.

DUGANNE, CHARLES GEORGE, special disbursing agent. Address, Fallen, Nev. 

Born, Savannah, Ga., June 18, 1881. Education, common school. Appointed in 

Reclamation Service March 1, 1905.

EDSON, GORDON, engineering aid. Address, Caneadea, N. Y. Born in New 

York, August 1, 1877. Education, Houghton Seminary, Houghton, N. Y., and 

Syracuse University, degree C. E., 1904. 1903, chairman and field assistant 

United States Geological Survey. Five years teacher in public schools of New 

York. April 1, 1904, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

ENSIGN, ORVILLE H., electrical expert. Address, Los Angeles, Cal. Born in 

New York State, July, 1863. Grammar and high school education; two years 

course in mechanic arts, Cornell. 1883, machine shop, Ithaca, N. Y. 1884-1886, 

Schenectady Locomotive Works. 1887-88, on construction of isolated plants for 

Edison Electric Company, New York City. 1889-1893,. in charge of test and 

chief inspector of General Electric Company's factory, Schenectady, N. Y. 189-3, 

moved to California; consulting engineer on test of first three-phase transmission plant in America, at Redlands, Cal. 1894-95, electrical and mechanical 

engineer Los Angeles and Pasadena Electric Railway and Los Angeles and 

Santa Monica Railway. 1896-1904, electrical and mechanical engineer of the 

companies now known as Edison Company of Los Angeles, constructing and 

operating long-distance hydro-electric plants. Member American Institute

IRR 146 05 M 16
242 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 140.

Electrical Engineers. November 1, 1904, appointed electrical expert, Reclamation Service.

FISHER, CASSIUS ASA, assistant geologist. Address, Washington, D. C. Born 

in Nebraska, February 15, 1872. Received a common school education. In 1889 

entered preparatory school at Fremont, Nebr. Entered University of Nebraska, 

1893, from which he graduated in 1898. 1896-1901, field assistant, United 

States Geological Survey, during field seasons. Appointed fellow in geology at 

University of Nebraska, 1898, and during the following year assistant geologist 

in the Nebraska State Geological Survey. M. A., University of Nebraska, 1900. 

1901-2, field assistant, United States Geological Survey. 1902-3, assistant instructor in geology, Yale University. Author of various publications on geologic 

subjects. 1903 to date, with Reclamation Service, investigating geology and 

underground waters in New Mexico, Wyoming, and Colorado.

FISHEE, EBNEST JAMES, engineering aid. Address, Browning, Mont. Born, 

Morris, Minn., August 4, 1879. Education, University of Wisconsin, C. E., 1904. 

1901, chainman with location party, Wisconsin. 1902, levelman, United States 

Geological Survey, in Missouri. 1903, traverseman in Arkansas. 1904-5, under 

engineer maintenance of way, Great Northern Railroad. May 1, 1905, appointed 

in Reclamation Service.

FOLLANSBEE, ROBERT, assistant engineer. Address, Ashby Glen, Delaplane, 

Va. Born in Minnesota, June 7, 1879. Graduated from Cornell University in 

civil engineering in 1902. 1902-3, engineer with a firm of general contractors 

of Cleveland, Ohio. 1903, recorder with United States Lake Survey, Detroit, 

Mich. January-April, 1904, draftsman, United States Geological Survey. 

April 9, 1904, appointed assistant engineer in Reclamation Service.

FBEEMAN, WILLIAM B., engineering aid. Address, Ithaca, N. Y. Born in 

Montana, September 26, 1883. Graduate Bozeman High School and of Montana Agricultural College, degree B. C. E. 1900, on stream measurements, etc., 

Montana Experiment Station. 1901, continued same work and also did transit 

surveying. 1902-3, on stream measurement and seepage work; also worked 

for United States Geological Survey as level rodman and assistant. 1903, 

traverseman, United States Geological Survey, July-November. April 9, 1904, 

appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service, and assigned to streammeasurement work in Montana.

FEICKSTAD, WTAI/TEB NETTLETON, assistant engineer. Address, Leetville, Nev. 

Born in New York August 17, 1879. Full course in civil engineering, University 

of California; graduated in 1901, degree B. S. 1901-3, with Southern Pacific 

Railroad Company, on location, construction, and inspection. 1903-4, assistant 

engineer for C. A. Warren & Co., on construction of divisions 1 and 2 of main 

canal, Truckee-Carson project, Nevada. August 26, 1904, appointed engineering 

aid in Reclamation Service, and January 1, 1905, promoted to assistant engineer,

GOETON, WILLAED L., engineering aid. Address, Chamber of Commerce Building, Denver, Colo. Born in Wisconsin June 13, 1881. Graduate of University 

of Oklahoma, degree A. B. 1902, tapeman and rodman, Missouri, Kansas and 

Oklahoma Railroad, on construction and relocation. 1903-4, with Burns & 

McDonnell, hydraulic engineers, Kansas City, Mo., making preliminary surveys 

for waterworks and in charge of construction of Chickasha, Ind. T., waterworks and sewerage system. May 8, 1904, appointed engineering aid, Reclamation Service. May-October, 1904, on surveys in connection with Milk River 

project, Montana. November 8, 1904, transferred to Wyoming. NovemberDecember, 1904, in charge of topographic party on Interstate canal, North 

Platte project. January, 1905, on topography and triangulation, La Plata
NEWELL.] PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 243

project, Colorado-New Mexico. February-March, in Denver office on work connected with the North Platte project.

HALL, HOLLAND SERVIS, engineering aid. Address, Ann Arbor, Mi^h. Born 

in Illinois May 19, 1880. Public and high school education; also B. S. in civil 

engineering, University of Michigan, 1904. August 26, 1904, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

HAMMOND, GEORGE A., superintendent of borings. Address, Ossining, N. Y. 

Born in New York State June 23, 1860. 1880-1893, with New York City water 

supply, making borings for dams and aqueducts. 1894, with American Diamond 

Drill Company, Virginia. 1894-95, assistant engineer, Ossining Electric Railroad. 1895-96, with New York City water supply. 1896-97, chief engineer, 

Ossining Electric Railroad Company. 1897-1899, superintendent of borings, 

United States Deep Waterways Commission. 1900, on drill work in Mexico and 

California. 1900, superintendent of borings, Erie Canal. 1901, on drill work in 

British Columbia. 1901-1903, superintendent of borings, Pilleys Island Pyrites 

Company, Newfoundland. 1903, on Pennsylvania Railroad tunnel, New York 

City; also Professor Burr commission on additional water supply, New York. 

1903-4, drill expert, United States Geological Survey. March 1, 1904, appointed 

superintendent of borings, Reclamation Service. Inventor of " Hammond" 

jetting process for sinking casing.

HATCH, LEWIS M., assistant engineer. Address, Denver, Colo. Born at 

Tacoma, Wash., November 28, 1880. 1902, Washington State College and School 

of Science, degree B. S. 1902-3, topographer and transitman, Northern Pacific 

Railway. 1903-4. assistant engineer, maintenance of way. Northern Pacific 

Railway, August 15, 1904, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service 

and promoted to assistant engineer February 15, 1905.

HAYT, ROBERT OLCOTT, assistant engineer. Address, Huntley, Mont. Born, 

Corning, N. Y., October 25, 1877. Education, Corning High School; four years 

in School of Applied Science, Columbia University. 1900-1903, city engineer. 

1903-1905, engineer of gas company. April 25, 1905, appointed in Reclamation 

Service.

HEILEMAN, WILLIAM H., scientist (land classification). Address, Berkeley, 

Cal. Born, Des Moines, Iowa, October 16, 1869. Education, Iowa State College, 

B. S. and M. S. Member American Chemical Society, Society of Chemical 

Industry, London. 1891-1896, assistant chemist, Iowa Experiment Station. 

1896-1901, chemist in charge Washington Experiment Station. 1901-2, soil 

expert, Bureau of Soils, Department of Agriculture. 1902-1905, scientist in 

charge of alkali reclamation installations, Bureau of Soils. Appointed in Reclamation Service May 10, 1905.

HENNY, DAVID CHEISTIAAN, consulting engineer. Born in Arnhem, Holland, 

November 15, 1860. Graduate of Government Polytechnic School, Delft, Holland, as civil engineer, 1881. Engaged in reclamation district work and railroad location in Holland, 1881-1884. In railroad construction in Iowa, 1884-85. 

In waterworks construction in Eastern States. 1885-1887. In railroad construction, Colorado; bridge work, Missouri; tunnel construction, New York, 1887-88. 

In waterworks construction, Alabama, South Dakota, and Ohio, 1888-89. lu 

general engineering, Colorado and Utah, 1889-1891. Manager Excelsior Wooden 

Pipe Company, 1892-1902, engaged in construction of wooden stave pipe and 

general contracting. 1902-1904, general manager Redwood Manufacturers' Company, San Francisco, Cal. Designed and constructed new plant at Black 

Diamond, Cal., consisting of wharves, yards, tracks, power house, factories, dry 

kilns, etc. Organized all company's working forces with offices at Black Diamond, San Francisco, and Oakland, 1891-1904, designed and reported on
244 SECOND RECLAMATION SEKVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

various waterworks and water-power projects. Consulting engineer West 

Side and West Los Angeles water companies. Expert for the city of Oakland 

on waterworks valuation. Member civil-service examination board, engineering 

department, San Francisco. Two terms president Technical Society Pacific 

Coast. February 8, 1905, appointed consulting engineer in Reclamation Service. 

HORN, FRANK C., constructing engineer. Address, Minidoka, Idaho. Born in 

Illinois January 8, 1861. Public and high school education. Studied and 

worked under direction of civil engineer engaged in general practice. 1881, 

transitman on surveys, and in 1882 assistant engineer 6~n construction, St. Louis 

and San Francisco Railway Company. 1883, with an engineer in general practice. 1884, transitman and later assistant engineer, Burlington, Cedar Rapids 

and Northern Railway. 1885-8G, principal assistant engineer, Lake, 111. 1887- 

1889, chief engineer and superintendent, department of public works, Lake, 111. 

1889-1894, with contracting firms building waterworks, sewerage systems, railroads, buildings, etc. 1894, on track elevation in Chicago for Lake Shore and 

Michigan Southern Railway and Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway. 

1896, in charge of construction of regulating works, Lockport, 111. 1898-1900, 

with sanitary district of Chicago, bridge department, on masonry construction.

1900. in charge of construction of water-power plant, Joliet, 111. 1900-1901, 

assistant chief engineer on construction of water-power plant, Swan Falls, Idaho.

1901. remodeling and enlarging water-power plant at Kankakee, 111.; and later in 

charge of constructing filter beds for Denver Union Water Company, Denver, 

Colo. 1902-1905, resident engineer in charge of construction of granite masonry 

dam at Lake Cheesrnan, Colo. January 17, 1905, appointed constructing engineer in Reclamation Service. Member American Society Civil Engineers.

HOSIG, IRWIN BENJAMIN, hydrographic aid. Address, Sun River, Mont. Born, 

Hartford, Wis., May 24,1884. Education, Hartford (Wis.) high school, four years 

in civil engineering at University of Wisconsin, 1901-1905. Appointed in Reclamation Service May 1, 1905.

HOWE, HENRY A., assistant engineer. Address, Cedar Creek, Moutrose 

County, Colo. Born in Massachusetts, September 2, 1870. Degree S. B. in 

1895 from Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard. 1895-1905, with metropolitan 

water board of Massachusetts, as rodman, instrument man, and assistant 

engineer. January 12, 1905, appointed assistant engineer in Reclamation 

Service in charge of Gunnison tunnel alignment and levels, Uncompahgre 

Valley project, Colorado.

HUBBABD, RAY D., assistant engineer. Address, Klamath Falls, Oreg. Born 

Brock, Nebr., July 11, 1873. Education, University of Nebraska, 1900, B. S. in 

C. E. 1900-1902, general civil and mining engineering in South Dakota. 1903, 

surveyor-general's office, South Dakota. 1903-1904, assistant State engineer 

of Nebraska. November 12, 1904, appointed assistant engineer in Reclamation 

Service and assigned to Klamath project.

JOHNSON, LUTHER E., engineering aid. Address, Lawton, Okla. Born in 

West Virginia, August 10, 1881. Graduate of Missouri University, 1904. 

1901-2, rodman and chaimnan. 1904, drafting and field work during appraisal 

of town lots, Sulphur, Ind. T. September 10, 1904, appointed engineering aid 

in Reclamation Service and assigned to duty in Oklahoma.

KEMPTON, GEOKGE RUTHERFORD, electrical engineer. Address, Denver, Colo. 

Born Amenia, N. Y., November 22, 1876! Education, common school, one year 

Albany high school; two and one-half years Drexel Institute, mechanic arts 

department; three years Tufts College, graduating in 1900 with degree of B. S. 

in electrical engineering. 1900-1902, with General Electric Company, Bchenec-
NEWELL.] PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 245

tady, N. Y. 1902-1905, electrical engineer, office of Supervising Architect, Treasury Department. June G, 1905, appointed in Reclamation Service.

KING, CLIFFOBD M., engineering aid. Born December 17, 1879. Address, Minidoka, Idaho. Graduated from Western Reserve University, degree A. B., 1901; 

Cornell University, degree C. E., 1904. Assistant engineer for the Deschutes 

Irrigation and Power Company, Bend, Oreg., 1904. Draftsman for the Oregon 

Water Power and Railway Company, Portland, Oreg., 1905. Appointed 

engineering aid March 7, 1905, in Reclamation Service.

LABSON, ANDBEW B., engineering aid. Address, Salt Lake City, Utah. Born, 

Levan, Utah, November 30, 1872. Education, Agricultural College of Utah, 

1894, degree of B. C. E. 1895, chairman on land survey. 1896, rodman for 

Rio Grande Western Railroad Company; later promoted to levelman on same. 

Appointed in Reclamation Service May 1, 1905.

LA RUE, EUGENE C., engineering aid. Address, Riverside, Cal. Born in California, November 11, 1879. Graduate of Riverside Grammar School and High 

School. Graduate of University of California, C. E. June 1, 1904, appointed 

engineering aid, Reclamation Service.

LEE, WILLIS THOMAS, assistant geologist. Address, United States Geological 

Survey, Washington, D. C. Born in Pennsylvania, December 24, 1864. Graduate of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., Ph. B. 1894-95, assistant in 

chemistry and physics, Rhode Island State College. 1895-1898, professor of 

geology and biology, Denver University. 1898, degree M. S., Wesleyan University. 1898-1900, fellow in geology, Chicago University. 1900-1902, principal of high school, Trinidad, Colo. 1902-3, Johns Hopkins University. 

Author of various publications on geological subjects. 1903 to date with 

Reclamation Service, investigating underground waters in Arizona, eastern 

California, and New Mexico.

LEWIS, SAMUEL JAMES, assistant engineer. Born in New York August 7, 

1879. Education, grammar schools and college, New York City, degree B. S. 

1902-3, general engineering and stream measurements. 1903, rodman and station assistant, United States Geological Survey. April 11, 1904, appointed 

hydrographic aid, and on July 1, 1904, promoted to assistant engineer in 

Reclamation Service.

LIGHTFOOT, WILLIAM J., engineer. Address, North Yakima, Wash. Born in 

Ohio March 8, 1857. Attended Southeastern Normal School. Took preparatory 

Latin and Greeek for classical course at Marietta College, Marietta, Ohio. June, 

1881, degree B. S., Kansas State Agricultural College, after which some months 

were spent at Kansas State University. Associate member American Society of 

Civil Engineers. From 1882 to 1892 in railroad location, construction, and maintenance, most of the time with Atchison, Tdpeka and Santa Fe Railroad Company. 1892-1899, in private practice and as United States deputy mineral surveyor and mining engineer, Cripple Creek, Colo. 1899-1904, United States 

examiner of surveys and special disbursing agent, Department of the Interior. 

June 1, 1904, appointed engineer in Reclamation Service and assigned to duty on 

Uncompahgre Valley project, Colorado.

LILLIS, BUBTON C., assistant engineer. Address, Billings, Mont. Born, 

Ottawa, 111., July 27, 1879. Education, Case School of Applied Sciences, 1902, 

B. S. 1901, on railroad maintenance of way. 1902-3, assistant engineer sewer 

department, Cleveland, Ohio. 1903-4, aid Coast and Geodetic Survey. Appointed Reclamation Service, June, 1904.

LIND, GEORGE EDMUND, Jr., special disbursing agent. Address, Roosevelt, 

Ariz. Born, Baltimore, Md., August 3, I860. Education, common schools, 

Baltimore City College, Hampden Sydney College, Virginia, and Atlanta Medical
246 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

College, M. D. Surgeon in quarantine serrice, Savannah, Ga. Employed in 

vital statistics division of Census Bureau. Since 1895 has been connected with 

the Geological Survey. Appointed in Reclamation Service December 5, 1904.

LYMAN, HENRY LEVIGN, engineering aid. Address, Washington, D. C. Born 

in Russia, April 14, 1881. Education, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 

1904, B. S. 1901, rodman, Boston, Mass. 1902, plane-table survey in New 

Hampshire. 1903, rodman and instrument man on Wachusett Aqueduct, metropolitan water board, Clinton, Mass. 1904 5, structural draftsman, Boston, 

Mass. 1905, draftsman, American Bridge Company, New York, N. Y. Appointed Reclamation Service, March 7, 1905.

LYTEL, JAMES L., assistant engineer. Born in Pennsylvania June 23, 1872. 

University of Nebraska, degree B. S. 1889-1892, assistant on dam construction 

and tramways for logging and milling. 1898-99, sergeant, Third Nebraska 

Volunteer Infantry. 1900-1902, draftsman and topographer in engineering 

department of military government of Cuba. 1902-1904, with Mexican Central 

Railway as topographer, transitman, and locating engineer. 1904 5, with United 

States Reclamation Service, in charge of drafting and designs, Uncompahgre 

Valley project. March 7, 1905, appointed assistant engineer in Reclamation 

Service.

MCGEEHAN, PAUL, assistant engineer. Address, Kansas City, Mo. Born in 

Ohio June 13, 1872. Education, Kansas City High School, Park College, Parkville, Mo., Colorado School of Mines, and Montana School of Mines. 1894, on 

city surveys, Kansas City. 1895, rodman on railroad location and construction. 

1895-1897, topographer. 1897, topographer and assistant locating engineer in 

southern Illinois. 1897-98, in charge of construction of northern terminals of 

the Cotton Belt. Engineer officer, United States Army, 1898. In 1899-1900, 

engineer on railroad location and construction. 1900-1901, with B. & M. Mining 

Company, Butte, Mont. 1901-2, engineer on railroad location and construction. 

1902-3, locating engineer, Orient Railway. April 27, 1904, appointed assistant 

engineer, Reclamation Service.

McGBEGOB, ROBERT R., engineer. Address, Reno, Nev. Born in California 

November 26, 1873. Education, Lomper Union High School and University of 

California. 1899, rodman and instrument man, Southern Pacific Railroad. 

1900, transitman with Eldorado Lumber Company; also engineer in charge of 

railroad location and construction. 1902-3, assistant engineer, Southern Pacific 

Company, on railroad reconstruction in Nevada. 1903-4, field assistant, Reclamation Service. March 23, 1904, appointed assistant engineer, and on January 

1, 1905, promoted to engineer, Truckee-Carson project, Nevada. -

McKiNNEY, JOHN M., examiner. Address, Washington, D. C. Born at New 

York City September 10, 1860. Graduate Washington High School, 1879, and of 

National University Law School, degree LL. B., 1883, LL. M., 1884. 1880-1884, 

United States Census. 1884-1905, General Land Office last ten years on rightof-way work relating to irrigation, railroads, etc. January 26, 1905, transferred 

to Reclamation Service as examiner.

MAGXJIRE, THOMAS FRANCIS JAMES, electrical engineer. Address, Denver, 

Colo. Born in Massachusetts August 3, 1875. Graduate of Massachusetts 

Institute of Technology, 1897, degree B. S. in electrical engineering. 1896, 

rodman with Boston board of survey. 1897-1899, transitman and calculator. 

1899-1901, draftsman and calculator with bridge department, city of Boston. 

1901-02, electrical engineer, Supervising Architect's Office, Treasury Department. 1902-1904, expert electrical aid, Navy Department. May 16, 1904, 

transferred to Reclamation Service as electrical engineer.

MAREAN, HERBERT WHEELER, assistant engineer of soils. Address, Washing
NEWELL.] PEKSONNEL OF THE SEKVICE. 247

ton, D. C. Born in Washington, D. C., December 26, 1878. Education, Colgate 

University, degree A. B. 1901-1905, assistant in the Soil Survey, United States 

Department of Agriculture, engaged in field work. Author of various United 

States Soil Survey reports. April 24, 1905, transferred to Reclamation Service 

as assistant engineer of soils.

MARTIN, DANIEL GRANT, engineer. Address, Idaho Falls, Idaho. Born in 

Ohio June 19, 1865. Education, common school, academy at Chetopa, Kans., 

and Kansas Normal College, Fort Scott, Kans. 1882-1886, teaching school 

and attending college. 1888-1890, teaching school. 1890-91, with Idaho Falls 

Canal and Irrigation Company. 1892, engineer and general superintendent 

Idaho Canal Company. 1893-1897, county surveyor of Bingham County, Idaho. 

1893-1896, general engineering practice, city engineer, Idaho Falls, Idaho. 

1896, assistant engineer, Idaho Canal Company, on canal construction; engineer 

on Independent canal, St. Anthony, Idaho, and Marysville canal, Marysville, 

Idaho. 1897, with Idaho Canal Company, designing and constructing dams, 

flumes, headworks, etc. 1897-98, superintendent of construction of Marysville 

canal, Marysville, Idaho. 1898, employed on Idaho canal and Fort Hall Reservation canal; also employed by Independent Canal Company, St. Anthony, 

Idaho. 1898-99, with Bingham Irrigation and Power Company. 1900-1901, 

dam and canal work on Pine Creek, Bear River, and Little Lost River, and 

made the preliminary surveys and estimates for the Twin Falls Land and 

Water Company in Cassia and Lincoln counties, Idaho; also canal and reservoir reconnaissance surveys on North Fork of Snake River, Idaho. 1902, survey 

and estimates on canal from Bear River to Chesterfield, Idaho, and general 

work ; also city engineer, Idaho Falls, Idaho. 1903-4, with Twin Falls Land 

and Water Company; division engineer in charge of construction of dams 

across Snake River at Milner, Idaho. April 1, 1904, appointed engineer, 

Reclamation Service, in charge of work on Minidoka project, Idaho.

MARTIN, WILLIAM F., hydrographic aid. Address, Los Angeles, Cal. Born, 

Attoyac, Tex., January 7, 1878. Education, graduate of University of Texas. 

One year's graduate study at Cornell, B. S. and C. E. Member Texas Academy 

of Science. Appointed in Reclamation Service June 14, 1905.

MEANS, THOMAS HERBERT, engineer of soils. Address, Berkeley, Cal. Born in 

Virginia November 15, 1875. Graduate of Washington, D. C., High School, 

1893, scientific course. B. S. in geology, Columbian University, 1898; M. S. in 

geology, Columbian University, 1901. 1895-1904, with Department of Agriculture in study of western soils and methods of managing irrigated lands. May 

6, 1904, appointed engineer of soils in Reclamation Service.

MENDENHALL, WALTER CURRAN, geologist. Address, Washington, D. C. Born 

in Ohio, February 20, 1871. Education, high school, Portland, Oreg.; B. S., 

Ohio Normal University, Ada, Ohio; Harvard University; Heidelberg University. 1894-1901, assistant geologist, United States Geological Survey. February 5, 1901, appointed geologist, United States Geological Survey. Author of 

Geologic section along New and Kanawha rivers (with M. R. Campbell) ; 

Reconnaissance from Resurrection Bay to Tanana River, Alaska, 1898; Tertiary granite in Northern Cascades, Washington (with George Otis Smith), 

1900; Reconnaissance in the Nortqn Bay region, Alaska, 1900; Reconnaissance 

from Fort Harnlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, 1901; Mineral resources of the 

Mount Wrangell district, Alaska (with F. C. Schrader), 1903; The Wrangell 

Mountains, Alaska, 1903; Development of underground waters in the Coastal 

Plain region of southern California (3 reports) ; Hydrology of the San Bernardino Valley, California; Geology of the central Copper River region, Alaska, 

in preparation; also various extracts and short articles.
248 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

MINER, JAMES HENRY, assistant engineer. Address, Warrensville, Ohio. Born 

in Massachusetts, November 24, 1877. Education, University School, Cleveland, Ohio, and Cornell University, degree C. E. Junior member of American 

Society of Civil Engineers. 1900-1902, with Chicago and Northwestern Railway, tapeman, rodnian, and transitman on construction of second track and 

maintenance of way of Iowa division. 1902-3, with Mason City and Fort Dodge 

Railroad, transitman on erection of Des Moines River viaduct. 1903, with 

Norfolk and Western Railway, instrument man on preliminary survey for 

Lynchburg cut-off. September, 1903, assistant engineer, Page Coal and Coke 

Company. 1903, with Rock Island system, draftsman in chief engineer's office. 

1904, assistant engineer with National Transit Company and Prairie Oil and 

Gas Company. April, 1904, appointed engineering aid, and November 23, 1904, 

promoted to assistant engineer in Reclamation Service.

MORRILL, WILBUR N., topographer. Address, New Albany, Ind. Education, 

Purdue University, 1891, B. C. E. 1891, instrument man Chicago drainage 

canal. 1892-93, engineer, American Hydraulic Dredging Company. Chicago. 

1894 to 1897, general construction of steel bridges and waterworks. 1898, 

topographer, United States Geological Survey. 1905, transferred to Reclamation Service.

MOESE, HAROLD MAESTON, engineering aid. Address, Washington, D. C. Born 

in Massachusetts, May 29, 1881. Education, Dartmouth College, B. S.; Thayer 

School of Civil Engineering, C. E. May 1 to September 1, 1903, assistant engineer on waterworks at Needham, Falmouth, and Lexington, Mass. Appointed 

engineering aid January 1, 1905.

MORSE, HOWARD SCOTT, assistant engineer. Address, Dedham, Mass. Born in 

Massachusetts, June 21, 1881. Graduate of Dedham High School and of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, S. B., class of 1903. 1901-2, instrument man 

in hydraulic and sanitary engineering. 1903, transitman, Pennsylvania Railroad. 1903-4, assistant in civil engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. May, 1904, appointed engineering aid, and November 13, 1904, promoted 

to assistant engineer in Reclamation Service.

MULFOED, JOHN C., topographic draftsman. Address, Washington, D. C. 

Born at Winetha, 111., April 27, 1876. Education, common and high schools of 

Evanston, 111.; also drawing course with Scranton Correspondence School. 

1904 to 1905, topographic draftsman, Coast and Geodetic Survey. June 16, 

1905, transferred to the Reclamation Service.

MURPHY, DANIEL WILLIAM, irrigation engineer. Address, Los Angeles, Cal. 

Born in Ohio January 18, 1865. Student Indiana University, three years; 

graduated Stanford University, 1892, degree A. B.; 1893, A. M.; 1896, Ph. D. 

1892, student in astronomy at Lick Observatory. 1893-94, instructor in physics, 

Stanford University. 1894-95, engaged in physical investigations in the Physikalische Technisodie Reichsanstalt, Berlin, Germany. 1896-1900, assistant 

professor of physics, Stanford University. Since 1900 continuously engaged in 

general engineering practice. 1901-2, in charge of work for the drainage of 

alkali lands and construction engineer for the American Beet Sugar Company.

1903. made topographic survey of the property of the Organita Gold Mining 

Company. 1903-4, chief engineer in charge of construction of the Santa Cruz, 

Capitola and Watsonville Railway. 1903, made location and estimates on the 

proposed extension of the Monterey and Pacific Grove Railway. September,

1904. employed as field assistant in the Reclamation Service. January 14, 1905, 

appointed irrigation engineer.

PARKER, HORATIO NEWTON, assistant hydrographer. Born in Massachusetts, 

February 3, 1871. Educated in private and public schools of Cambridge, Mass.,
NEWELL.] PEESONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 249

and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1896, appointed assistant 

biologist, Boston waterworks. After the city waterworks were absorbed by the 

State of Massachusetts he was appointed biologist and became head of the laboratory. December, 1901, appointed health inspector of Montclair, N. J., which 

post he left November 9, 1904, when appointed assistant hydrographer, United 

States Geological Survey.

PATCH, WALTER W., engineer. Address, Belle Fourche, S. Dak. Born in Massachusetts, January 19, 1872. Graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, C. E. Prior^to 1894, rodman, Cambridge, Mass.; assistant instructor 

in surveying at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; principal assistant to 

city engineer, Rockland, Me.; resident engineer on sewer construction, Camden, Me. 1894, assistant to resident engineer, Boston waterworks. 1895, 

transitman, Boston waterworks. 1896-1903, assistant engineer, metropolitan 

waterworks of Massachusetts one year computing; one year in charge field 

work and aqueduct gagings for maintenance department; two years principal 

office assistant in Weston aqueduct department; four years in immediate 

charge of work on reservoir, dam, and filter-bed construction. 1904, assistant 

engineer to aqueduct commissioners of New York City. Author of articles 

printed in Engineering News " Observations on the use of polar planimeters," 

April, 1899; " Measurements of the flow of water in the Sudbury and Cochituate 

aqueducts," June, 1902; " The Marlborough Brook filter beds," April, 1903; "An 

example of the flattening of cast-iron pipes under earth pressure," December, 

1904. February 10, 1905, appointed engineer in Reclamation Service.

PAUL, CARROLL, engineering aid. Address, 2015 Kalorama avenue, Washington, D. C. Born in Tokio, Japan, May 5, 1882. Education, public schools of 

Washington, D. C.; Dartmouth College, degree B. S.; Thayer School of Civil 

Engineering, degree C. E. Summer of 1900, rodman, United States Coast and 

Geodetic Survey. Summer of 1903, engaged as inspector on waterworks construction, Littleton, N. H., and with General Electric Company power and mining department. Summer of 1904, field assistant in Reclamation Service. January 24, 1905, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

PAUL, CHARLES HOWARD, engineer. Address, Glendive, Mont. Born in Rockport, Mass. Education, high school and Massachusetts institute of Technology, 

C. E. course. 1895, rodman, Boston sewer department. 1895-96, with 'Massachusetts State board of health as rodman, etc. 1896-1900, with metropolitan 

water board, Boston, as rodman, instrument man. and engineering inspector. 

1900-1905, with bureau of filtration, Philadelphia, as draftsman and assistant 

engineer. March 7, 1905, appointed engineer in the Reclamation Service.

PRATT, R. WINTHROP, assistant engineer. Address, Columbus, Ohio. Born 

in Massachusetts, December 21, 1876. Graduate of Agassiz Grammar School 

and English High School, Boston; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 

degree S. B. In 1896, rodman, city engineer's department, Boston, Mass. 1898, 

assistant in engineering department, Massachusetts State board of health. 

1898-99, with Boston and Albany Railroad, rodman and instrument man. 1899- 

1903, assistant engineer in engineering department, Massachusetts State board 

of health. 1903-4, engineer to the Ohio State board of health and at the same 

time in charge of stream measurements in Ohio for United States Geological 

Survey. March 28, 1904, appointed assistant engineer, Reclamation Service.

PRENDERGAST, FREDERIC F., assistant engineer. Address, Great Falls, Mont. 

Born in Nebraska, July 1, 1878. High school graduate, and attended College of 

Civil Engineering, University of California. In 1897-1899, chainman and rodman on canal and railroad work in southern California. 1901, transitman on 

construction of wooden-stave pipe line. 1902-3, transitman on railroad location.
250 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

1903. engineer in charge of construction of deep-water wharf and trestle, San 

Francisco Bay; also in charge of steam-shovel work on railroad construction.

1904. field assistant with United States Reclamation Service on Milk River 

project, Montana. November 25, 1904, appointed assistant engineer Reclamation Service.

PRINCE, JOHN R., topographic draftsman. Address, Los Angeles, Gal. Education, public schools and Malvern College, England. 1883-1889, draftsman, 

ordnance survey of Great Britain; also, same year, with Julius Bien & Co., 

New York. 1890-1901, general engineering assistant and draftsman, with C. C. 

Verineule, New York, and draftsman to Geological Survey of New Jersey. 1901, 

topographic draftsman, with United States Board of Engineers, War Department, New York City. 1902-3, draftsman and chief draftsman, city engineer 

department, Los Angeles, Cal. 1903-1905, draftsman, United States Geological 

Survey. January 21, 1905, appointed topographic draftsman in Reclamation 

Service.

PYLE, FRED D., engineering aid. Address, Mitchell, Nebr. Born.in Pennsylvania October 8, 1882. Education, Utah Agricultural College, 1903, B. S. in 

C. E. 1903, rodman and levelman, United States Geological Survey in Utah. 

1904, private engineering and assistant to engineer at Utah Experiment Station. 

1904, field assistant. United States Geological Survey, Utah. 1905, private engineering work in western Wyoming. May 1, 1905, appointed engineering aid in 

Reclamation Service.

REABURN, DE WITT LEE, topographer. Address, Klamath Falls, Oreg. Born 

West Virginia, 1871. Education, University of Illinois and University of Wisconsin. Associate member American Society of Civil Engineers. 1891-1893, 

on land, town-subdivision, and railroad surveys in Virginia; also with American 

Bridge Company, Roanoke, Va., on bridge erection. 1893-1897, with Mississippi 

River Commission engaged in topographic, hydraulic, and triangulation work. 

1897-1905, topographer with United States Geological Survey. April 1, 1905, 

transferred to Reclamation Service and assigned to the Klamath project.

RHEAD, JOSIAH LEWIS, assistant engineer. Born in Utah, May 8, 1868. Education, Agricultural College of Utah, B. S. in civil engineering. From June to 

December, 1896, assistant in stream measurements and calculations of canals and 

rivers of Cache Valley, Utah. From 1896 to 1900 acted as assistant engineer 

and engineer on Bear River canal, Utah, for Bear River Irrigation and Ogden 

Water Works Company, Ogden and Corrine, Utah. July-October, 1900, assistant 

engineer on West Gallatin Irrigation Company's canal, in Gallatin Valley, Montana. 1901-2, superintendent and engineer of the Big ditch in Yellowstone 

County, Mont. 1902-3, with United States Geological Survey in triangulation 

and leveling in Montana. May 1, 1903, appointed assistant engineer in the 

Reclamation Service.

RICHARDSON, GEORGE BURR, assistant geologist. Address, Washington, D. C. 

Born in New York, August 21, 1872. Graduate of Harvard University, S. B., 

1895. Johns Hopkins University, Ph. D., 1901. In 1896, geologic field assistant, 

United States Geological Survey, Richmond basin, Virginia; 1897, same, in 

Indian Territory. 1898, surveyor and geologist. Cassiar Central Railway Company, British Columbia. 1899, geologic field assistant, United States Geological 

Survey, Black Hills, South Dakota. Since 1900, assistant geologist, United 

States Geological Survey, working in Alaska, Pennsylvania, California, Utah, 

and Texas.

ROBERTS, JOHN MILTON, assistant engineer. Address, Montrose, Colo. Born, 

Lincoln, Nebr., October 3, 1873. Education, common school and three years in 

University of Nebraska. 1888, assistant to engineering architect. 1899-1900,
NEWELL.] PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 251

constructed Roberts ditch, near Paonia, Colo. 1901, repaired breaks in canal 

for Overland Ditch Company. 1903, in charge of field party, United States 

Geological Survey, at Montrose, Colo. 1904, under W. M. Reed in New Mexico. 

1904-5, surveys of reservoir sites in Colorado under A. L. Fellows. 1905, in 

charge of construction of Montrose, Colo., waterworks.

ROTHI, PAUL, engineering aid. Address, Mitchell, Nebr. Born, Moland, 

Minn., December 14, 1877. Education, high school and University of Minnesota, 

C. E. Summers of 1900, 1901, 1902, and 1903, railroad surveys; 1904-5, structural draftsman. Appointed in Reclamation Service May 4, 1905.

RUSSELL, WALTER S., engineer. Address, Fallen, Nev. Born in Wisconsin, 

October 27, 1863. Education, high school and private study. 1887-1889, rodman, levelman, and transitman, on railroad work. 1890, levelman and transitman, Pamo Water Company, San Diego, Cal. 1891, chief of party for irrigation 

district, San Diego, Cal., also chief of party for Bear Valley Irrigation Company.

1892. locating engineer for Mount Tecarte Water Company, San Diego County.

1893. office practice, San Diego, Cal. 1894-1898, engineer, Southern California 

Mountain Water Company. 1899, surveyed and reported on water power for 

hydraulic mining claims in Utah and Arizona. 1900, office practice, Spokane, 

Wash. 1901-2, with California Construction Company, superintendent of construction of tunnel for Power Development Company at Bakersfield, Cal. 1902-3, 

with Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific Company, superintendent of construction of dry 

dock for the United States at Mare Island, Cal. 1903, engineer for E. B. & A. L. 

Stone Company, general contractors. March 19, 1904, appointed engineer in 

Reclamation Service.

SANFORD, GEORGE OTIS, assistant engineer. Address, Westboro, Mass. Born in 

Brockton, Mass. Education, civil engineering course at Worcester Polytechnic 

Institute, class of 1895. In summer of 1892 in city engineer's office, sewer 

department, Brockton, Mass. From August, 1895, to March, 1905, with metropolitan water and sewerage board at Clinton, Mass.; as rodman and instrument 

man on triangulation, topographic surveying, land surveying, construction of 

roads, railroads, and reservoirs. Assistant engineer on the construction of the 

third division of the Weston aqueduct and the south dike of the Wachusett 

reservoir. March 1, 1905, appointed assistant engineer in the Reclamation 

Service.

SARGENT, RALPH S., engineering aid. Address, Berkeley, Cal. Born in Michigan, November 25, 1880. University of California, civil engineering course. 

1903, rodman and transitman on topography. Summer of 1904, rodman and 

levelman on a stadia survey on the Kaweah River. Winter of 1904, mine surveying in Amador County, Cal. April 27, 1904, appointed engineering aid in the 

Reclamation Service, and assigned to duty on the Boise-Payette project, Idaho.

SEIDEMANN, HENKY P., special disbursing agent. Address, Belle Fourche, 

S. Dak. Born in Texas, April 4, 1883; education, public schools and business 

college. 1899-1902, office assistant in pay department of the army at San 

Juan, P. R, 1902-1905, messenger, clerk, and bookkeeper in United States 

Geological Survey. May 10, 1905, promoted to special disbursing agent in the 

Reclamation Service.

SHELEY, HORACE W., engineering aid. Address, Salt Lake City, Utah. Born 

in Missouri, April 29, 1880. Educated in public schools of Texas and Missouri. 

Attended Westminster College, Missouri, 1894-1897, and University of Utah 

1897-1901. 1901, studied and assisted mining engineers and experts in Tintic 

mining district 1901-2, with Rio Grande Western Railway. January to June, 

1903, student. 1903-4, field draftsman, computer, and topographer in Reclamation Service. December 23, 1904, appointed engineering aid.
252 SECOND KECLAMATION SEEVICE CONTEKENCE. [NO. 146.

SHINBUR, ELVER L., assistant engineer. Address, Wyncote, Wyo. Born, Oakland, Nebr., April 3, 1879. Education, University of Nebraska, B. S. in C. E. 

1900, rodman and chainman on railroad in Colorado and Montana. 1901, instrument man and inspector on viaduct construction, Nebraska. 1901-2, with 

United States military government in Cuba as topographer. 1902-3, assistant engineer in charge of location and construction, Insular Railway Company, Habana. 1903-4, resident engineer on construction of railroad, Mexico. 

1904-5, in charge of field parties on irrigation investigations in Colorado and 

New Mexico. March 7, 1905, appointed in Reclamation Service. Now resident 

engineer in charge of division 2, interstate canal, North Platte project.

SHIPMAN. CHARLEY E., engineering aid. Address, Great Falls, Mont. Born at 

West Liberty, Iowa, November 16, 1882. Graduated from West Liberty High 

School and from Iowa State College, civil engineering department. Paving 

inspector, Cedar Falls, Iowa, summer of 1903. Draftsman with American 

Bridge Company, Ambridge, Pa., for six months. March 7, 1905, appointed engineering aid in the Reclamation Service.

SIEBENTHAL, CLAUDE ELLswoRTH, assistant geologist. Address, Bloomington, 

Ind. Born in Indiana, April 16, 1869. Stanford University, A. B. in 1892 

and A. M. in 1893. Fellow in geology, University of Chicago, 1897-1899, 1900- 

1901. Instructor of physiography, high school, Indianapolis, Ind., 1899-1900. 

1889-1893, assistant and assistant geologist, Geological Survey of Arkansas. 

1896-1898, assistant geologist. Geological Survey of Indiana. In 1901 appointed 

assistant geologist, United States Geological Survey. Now on work in western 

section, division of hydrology.

SIMPSON, PAUL DYER, engineering aid. Address, Chamber of Commerce 

Buiding, Denver, Colo. Born in Nebraska, March 10, 1876. B. S. in civil 

engineering, University of Maine. Eight years in general engineering work, 

including land surveying, highway location and construction, waterworks, 

sewer, and masonry construction, city, tunnel, and railroad work, and hydrographic and topographic surveying and drafting. With United States Army 

during Spanish-American war. Tutor in civil engineering, University of 

Maine. September 29, 1904, appointed engineering aid .in Reclamation Service, 

and assigned to duty in western Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado.

SLOAN, JAMES HARVEY, engineering aid. Address, Browning, Mont. Born, 

Bozeman, Mont., April 10, 1881. Education, Bozeman High School; Montana 

Agricultural College, 1903, B. C. E. Summer of 1904, field assistant to L. E. 

Granke on Milk River project. Appointed in Reclamation Service April 28, 1905.

SMITH, CHESTER AVASON, constructing engineer. Address, Roosevelt, Ariz. 

Born in New Hampshire, February 21, 1866. April, 1888, to June, 1892, with 

Aspinwall & Lincoln, Boston, Mass., in miscellaneous private practice. June, 

1892, to August, 1893, assistant to city engineer, Marlboro, Mass., on sewer and 

waterworks construction. August, 1893, to August, 1895; with Massachusetts 

State board of health on preliminary surveys and estimates for an additional 

water supply for the metropolitan district. August, 1895, to December, 1904, 

assistant engineer and division engineer for metropolitan water board and 

metropolitan water and sewerage board on construction of works for additional 

water supply. 1901 to December, 1904, division engineer in charge of construction of Wachusett dam; during 1904 also chief inspector on same. December 

16, 1904, appointed construction engineer in Reclamation Service.

SOBER, RALPH C., engineering aid. Address, Washington, D. C. Born, South 

Royalton, Vt, February 3, 1881. Education, Dartmouth College, 1902, A. B.; 

Thayer School of Civil Engineering, 1904, C. E. 1903, assistant on railroad
NEWELL.] PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 253

survey. 1904-5, with Illinois Steel Company. Appointed in Reclamation Service May 1, 1905.

SPALDING, WALTER J., engineering aid. Address, Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Graduate of Missouri University, degree of B. S. in C. E. Summer of 1903, 

levelman and transitman on proposed St. Louis and St. Paul Railroad. 1904, 

student assistant in surveying, having charge of parties in the field and examining and grading papers. August 24, 1904, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service. Junior member American Society Civil Engineers.

STEERE, ANTHONY ENOCH, engineering aid. Address, Minidoka, Idaho. 

Born, Scranton, Iowa, January 22, 1882. Rhode Island College, B. S., mechanical engineering, 1900. 1901-2, student civil engineering, Rhode Island College. 1902-1904, with metropolitan water and sewerage board, Boston, Mass. 

Appointed in Reclamation Service, June, 1904.

STILES, ALBERT IRVINE, engineering aid. Address, Washington, D. C. Born 

in Pennsylvania, October 1, 1883. Education, Washington, D. C., high schools; 

civil-engineering course at Stanford University. 1900-1902, chaininan, computer, and draftsman, General Land Office. 1903-4, aid, Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, on surveys in Alaska. April 25, 1904, appointed engineering aid, 

Reclamation Service. Levelman and transitman, Utah Lake project.

STONE, CHARLES HENBY HOWABD, assistant analyst. Born in Massachusetts, 

September 11, 1876. Educated in Newton public schools. Entered Massachusetts Institute of Technology. in 1892; graduated in 1896, chemical course, 

degree B. S. 1897, in charge of chemical laboratories at Rhode Island State 

College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 1897-1900, chemist with Massachusetts State board of health. 1900-1905, assistant State gas inspector of Massachusetts. January 16, 1905, appointed assistant analyst in Reclamation Service.

STROEBE, GEORGE G., engineering aid. Address, Mandan, N. Dak. Born Ferrysburg, Mich., October 11, 1877. Education, Chicago University, University of 

Wisconsin, C. E. Instructor descriptive geometry and drawing, University of 

Wisconsin, 1904-5. May 2, 1905, appointed in Reclamation Service.

STDBBLEFIELD, GARFIELD, engineering aid. Address Exeter, Mo. Born in 

Missouri, July 18, 1878. Graduate of University of Arkansas, and attended 

Cornell University civil-engineering course. Summers of 1900, 1901, and 1902, 

levelman, topographer, and draftsman. 1902-3, instructor in civil engineering 

at University of Arkansas. 1903, levelman, United States Geological Survey. 

September 1, 1904, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

SWENDSEN, WABREN G., engineering aid. Address, Box S, Salt Lake City, 

Utah. Born in Utah, July 26, 1880. B. S. in civil engineering, Agricultural 

College of Utah, 1904. Slimmer of 1901, employed at Utah experiment station. Summer of 1902, transitman and levelman on siirvey of Cub River reservoir site and proposed aqueduct, and later in reconnaissance party, United 

States Geological Survey. Summer of 1903, assistant to resident engineer, 

Glennsferry Land and Irrigation Company. 1904, with Reclamation Service, 

gaging streams and on reconnaissance work as transitman and levelman. 

December 19, 1904, appointed engineering aid.

TABOR, ERNEST F., engineer. Address, U. S. Geol. Survey, Cody, Wyo. Born 

February 26, 1866. Graduate of grammar school; attended high school and 

University of California. 1887-1889, computer and assistant, San Diego Flume 

Company. 1890, preliminary surveys for irrigation works for the Escondido 

irrigation district, and 1894-95, in charge construction of same. 1891, on 

resurvey of subdivision of Rancho Rincon del Diablo. 1892-93, assistant 

engineer, Bear Valley Irrigation Company. 1895-96, location and construe-
254 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

tion city waterworks of San Jacinto, Cal. 1896, plans and estimates for waterworks for Elsinore, Cal. 1897-98, on river gagings and minor land, irrigation, 

and mining surveys. 1898-1900, with San Diego Flume Company. 1900, with 

Southern California Mountain Water Company. 1901-2, on railroad surveys. 

1902-3, superintendent for Escondido irrigation district. 1903-4, engineer 

(superintendent), Sweetwater Water Company. April 25, 1904, appointed 

assistant engineer, Reclamation Service; October 25, 1904, promoted to engineer.

WEBSTER, NORMAN E., jr., accountant. Address, Washington, D. C. Born, 

Decatur, Mich., March 26, 1869. Education, Decatur High School and one year 

at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. Degrees of LL. B., 1897, and LL. M., 1898, 

from National University Law School, Washington, D. C. Admitted to the bar 

of the District of Columbia 1899. Began office work in February, 1885, and continued thereat continuously since, excepting one year at college. Was for six years 

with Michigan Buggy Company, Kalamazoo, Mich., in all grades up to assistant 

cashier in charge of collections; was division superintendent in the department 

of collections, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1903; and was for 

eleven years in the office of the Auditor for the Post-Office Department. Stood 

No. 1 in special examination for bookkeeper, Reclamation Service, August 31, 

1904, and appointed October 19, 1904. April 19, 1905, designation changed to 

accountant.

WELLS, CHARLES EDWIN, constructing engineer. Address, Casper, Wyo. Born 

in North Adams, Mass., April 27, 1858. Graduate Worcester Polytechnic Institute, B. S., 1880. Summer of 1880, assistant engineer in charge of sewer construction, North Adams, Mass. 1880-1885, assistant engineer Troy and Greenfield 

Railroad and Hoosac tunnel. 1886, assistant on track laying and ballasting. Chicago, Burlington and Northern Railroad. 1887-88, division engineer, 

Chicago, Santa Fe and California Railroad. Latter part of 1888, locating engineer, Sault Ste. Marie and Southwestern Railroad. 1889-90, assistant engineer, 

Chicago and Northwestern Railway. 1891-1893, engineer and superintendent of 

construction for McArthur Brothers Construction Company, of Chicago. 1894, in 

charge of improvement of city property, Davenport, Iowa. 1895, superintendent 

of waterworks, Galesburg, 111. 1895-1905, with metropolitan water and sewerage board of Massachusetts. August, 1895, to September, 1903, as division engineer on construction of Wachusett aqueduct and reservoir, and after September, 

3903, as engineer of the reservoir department. January 4, 1905, appointed constructing engineer in the Reclamation Service.

WHITBY, WILLIS R., engineering aid. Address, Billings, Mont. Born in Wisconsin, August 5, 1878. Educated at Oshkosh Normal School and University 

of Wisconsin. Graduate of University of Wisconsin, B. S. Member U. of W. 

S. C. E. In 1903, on railroad construction for Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 

Railroad. 1904-5, in charge of extra gang work in maintenance-of-way department, Great Northern Railway. April 28, 1905, appointed in Reclamation 

Service.

WILLIAMS, CHARLES PAGE, engineer. Born in Missouri, February 3, 1866. 

Graduated from University of Missouri in 1890. 1890-91, instructor in mathematics, Missouri Military Academy. 1891-92, topographer and observer on 

triangulation on survey of upper Missouri River. 1893, agent for H. W. 

Sebastian, St. Louis, Mo., contractor for highway bridges, pile driving, dock 

construction, etc. 1894-95, draftsman, United States engineer office, Sioux 

City, Iowa. 1895-1897, in street-extension department, Washington, D. C. 1897- 

1899, in United States engineer office, Portland, Me., engaged on plans for river 

and harbor improvements and fortifications. 1899-1900, in charge of construe-
NEWELL.] PERSONNEL OF THE SERVICE. 255

tiou of fortifications, Great Diamond Island, Maine. 1901-2, in charge of construction of fortifications and power house at Fort Williams, Me.. 1902-1904, in 

charge (tf construction of fortification, sea wall, installation of steam and electric 

plants, Fort Michie, N. Y. Member American Society of Civil Engineers. Appointed engineer in the Reclamation Service June 20, 1904.

WILSON, WALTER C., engineering aid. Address, New Haven, Conn. Education, Earlham College, Richmond, Ind., 1904, C. E. 1903, rodman with Pennsylvania Railroad in Indiana. 1904, making drawings for Louisiana Purchase 

Exposition. March 24, 1905, appointed engineering aid in Reclamation Service.

YOUNG, HENRY AMERMAN, engineer. Address, Huntley, Mont. Born Elizabeth, N. J., November 6, 1876. Education, College of Civil Engineering, Cornell 

University, degree of C. E. Associate member American Society of Civil Engineers. 1899 to 1900, field work and designing and drafting with New York Central Railroad. 1900 to 1902, assistant engineer, department of street cleaning 

and parks; superintendent of construction and repair shops, Habana, Cuba. 

1902, building roads in New York and designing locks and dams in Alabama. 

1902-1905, in charge of construction work, United States engineer department, 

Fort Washington, Md. May 30, 1905, appointed in Reclamation Service.
LIST OF TECHNICAL PAPERS BY MEMBERS OF 

RECLAMATION SERVICE.

The following is a partial list of papers relating to irrigation and 

irrigation engineering heretofore prepared by engineers and other 

employees of the ^Reclamation Service and published either in book 

form or in technical periodicals. Only the most important of those 

relating to irrigation or irrigation engineering are included, and 

many minor papers have been omitted.

BABB, CYBUS C., engineer.

Hydrograhpy of the Potomac Basin: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 27, 

1892, pp. 21-33.

Discussion on Black Eagle Falls Dam, Montana: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 

vol. 27, 1892, p. 67.

Rainfall and River Flow: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 28, 1893, pp. 323- 

337.

Surveys and Examinations of Dinta Indian Reservation : House Doc. No.

071, 57th Com;., 1st sess., 1902. 

BENNETT, S. G., engineer (with J. B. Lippincott).

Relation of Rainfall to Run-off in California : Eng. News, vol. 47, No. 23,

p. 467. 

BIEN, MORRIS, supervising engineer.

Right of Way on Public Lands for Irrigation Power and Railroad Purposes: Circulars General Laud Office, 1894-1901.

Grants of Rights of Way over Public Lands: Ann. Repts. General Land 

Office, 1893-1902.

Right of Way upon the Public Lands: Proc. Third Irr. Cong., Denver, 1894.

Relation of Federal and State Laws to Irrigation: Proc. Eleventh Irr. 

Cong., Ogden, 1903, and Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 93, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.

Draft of a State Irrigation Code, 1904.

Discussion of a Draft of an Irrigation Code: Proc. Twelfth Irr. Cong., El

Paso, 1904. 

CHANDLER, ALBERT E., engineer.

Water Storage on Cache Creek, California: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No 

45, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1901.

Duty of Water in Tule River Basin, California: Report of Irr. Investigations for 1901, Office of Experiment Stations, Bull. No. 119, Washington, 

1902.

Irrigation Development in Nevada: Proc. Nevada Acad. Sci.. vol. 1, No. 1,

Reno, Nev., 1904. 

CHANDLER, E. F., assistant engineer.

Irrigation in North Dakota: Bull. Univ. North Dakota, October, 1904.

Methods of Stream Measurement: Third Bien. Rept. North Dakota State 

Geol. Survey.

River Systems of North Dakota: First Bien, Rept North Dakota State 

Engineer. 

256
NEWELL.] LIST OF TECHNICAL PAPERS. 257

DOERFLING, RICHARD G., irrigation engineer.

Ueher Wasserbau im allgemeinen und Stauanlagen ini besondereu: Technologist, vol. 0, No. 3, 1900. 

DRANK, BRENT SKINNER, engineering aid.

Collection of Data from Vertical Velocities Observations in Southeastern

Rivers: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 95, U. S. Geol. Survey. 1904., pp.

139-150. 

Report on the Destructive Flood of June 6, 1903, near Spartanlmrg, S. G.:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 90. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 13-19. 

DURYEE, EDWARD, cement expert.

Comparison of Standard Specifications for Testing Portland Cement: Eng.

News, 1900.

Cement: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 33, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, pp. 82-90. 

Refractory Linings for Portland Cement Kilns: Eng. Record, 1900. 

The First Manufacture of Portland Cement by Direct Proqess in Rotary

Kilns: Eng. News. 

FELLOWS, A. L., engineer.

Water Resources of the State of Colorado: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No.

74, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902.

Measurement of Water: Irr. Bull. No. 1, Office State Engineer of Colorado. 

The Gunuison Tunnel: Forestry and Irr., November, 1902. 

FIELD. JOHN E., engineer.

Irrigation from Big Thompson River: Bull. No. 118, U. S. Dept. Agriculture,

1902. 

FITCH, CHARLES H., engineer.

Land Classification in Sonora Quadrangle, California: Twenty-first Ann.

Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 5, 1900, pp. 569-571. 

Land Classification in Yosemite Quadrangle, California : Twenty-first Ann.

Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 5, 1900, pp. 571-574. 

Woodland of Indian Territory: Twenty-first Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey,

pt. 5, 1900, pp. 603-662. 

HALL, BENJAMIN H., consulting engineer.

Hydraulic Excavation: Eng. Soc. Ann., Univ. Georgia, 1894.

Plans for Irrigation of Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico, Texas, and

Mexico: Third Ann. Rept. U. S. Reclamation Service. 

HAMLIN, HOMER, engineer.

Water Resources of Salinas Valley, California: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper

No. 89, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.

Underground Tests in the Drainage Basin of Los Angeles River: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 112, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904. 

HANNA, F. W., assistant engineer.

Parabolic Method of Computing Stream Gagings: Bug. News, February 9,

1905. 

River Discharge, Mean Velocity and Cross-Sectional Area Curves: Eng.

News, March 23, 1905. 

HARDESTY, W. P., assistant engineer.

The Swan Lake Reservoir and Canal System, Utah: Eng. News, August 28,

1895.

The Bear River Irrigation System, Utah : Eng. News, February 6 and 13,1896. 

The Twin Lakes Reservoir, Colorado: Eng. News, June 30, 1898. 

The Montrose Irrigation Canal, Colorado: Eng. News, March 23, 1899. 

The Utilization of Utah Lake as a Storage Reservoir: Eng. News, May 21,

1903.

BJB 146 05 M 17
258 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE .CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

HEN NY, D. C., consulting engineer.

Water Pipe Built of Wooden Staves: Trans. Tech. Soc. Pac. Coast, March, 

1892.

Effect of Curves in Pressure Pipes upon the Required Support: Trans. 

Tech. Soc. Pac. Coast, November, 1893.

Discussions of Flow of Water: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., July, 1898, and 

November, 1900.

Wooden-Stave Pipes v. Riveted-Steel Pipes: Jour. Assoc. Eng. Socs., November, 1898.

Discussion on Stave Pipe, with Records of Original Experiments: Trans.

Am. Soc. Civil Eng., June, 1898. 

HOBTON, ROBERT E., hydrographer.

The Indian River Dam: Eng. News, May 18, 1899 (with George W. Rafter 

and Wallace Greenalch).

Discussion on Flow of Water over Darns: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 1900, 

vol. 44, pp. 340-345.

Backwater and Flowage: Trans. Michigan Eng. Soc., 1902, pp. 49-57.

Weir Experiments, Coefficients, and Formulas (in preparation as a WaterSup, and Irr. Paper, U. S. Geol. Survey). 

HOYT, JOHN C., engineer.

Methods of Measurement of the Flow of Streams: Eng. News*, January 14, 

1904.

Methods of Estimating Stream Flow: Eng. News, August 4, 1904.

Distribution of Velocity in Stream Flow: Eng. News, January 12, 1905.

Hydrographic Manual of U. S. Geol. Survey: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 

94, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904 (with Edward C. Murphy and George B. 

Hollister). 

LEE, WILLIS T., assistant geologist.

Underground Waters of Gila Valley, Arizona: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper 

No. 104, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904.

Underground Waters of Salt River Valley, Arizona (in preparation for 

publication by U. S. Geol. Survey).

Underground Waters of Owens Valley, California (in preparation for publication by U. S. Geol. Survey). 

LIPPINCOTT, JOSEPH B., supervising engineer.

Storage of W'ater on Gila River, Arizona : Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 33, 

U. S. Geol. Survey.

Storage of Water on Kings River, California: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper 

No. 58, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Development and Application of Water in Southern California: Water-Sup, 

and Irr. Papers Nos. 59 and 60, U. S. Geol. Survey.

California Hydrography: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 81, U. S. Geol. 

Survey.

Water Supply in San Bernardino Val-ley, California: Nineteenth Ann. 

Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, pp. 540-629.

Yuma Project: Out West, June, 1904.

Relation of Forest Cover to Stream Flow: Read at El Paso Irr. Cong. 

MATTHES, GERARD H., engineer.

Dikes of Holland: Nat. Geog. Mag., June, 1901. 

MEANS, THOMAS H., engineer of soils.

Alkali Soils of Yellowstone Valley: Div. of Soils Bull. 141, Dept. of Agriculture.

Soil Survey in the Pecos Valley, New Mexico; Field Operations Div. Soils, 

Dept. of Agriculture, 1899,
NEWELL.] LIST OF TECHNICAL PAPEES. 259

MEANS, THOMAS H. Continued.

Soil Survey in Salt River Valley, Arizona: Field Operations Div. Soils,

Dept. of Agriculture, 1900; also published as Ariz. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 41. 

Soil Survey around Fresno, Cal.: Field Operations Bureau Soils, Dept.

of Agriculture, 1900. 

Reclamation of Alkali Lands in Egypt: Bull. 21, Bureau Soils, Dept. of

Agriculture. 

Soil Survey around Imperial, Cal.: Field Operations Bureau Soils, 1901;

also published as Circular 9, Bureau Soils, Dept. of Agriculture. 

Crops Grown on Alkali Lands in Egypt: Yearbook, U. S. Dept Agriculture, 1902 (with Thos. H. Kearney). 

Use of Alkali Waters in Irrigation: Circular 10, Bureau Soils, Dept. of

Agriculture; also Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 93, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Reclamation of Alkali Lands at Fresno, Cal.: Circular 11, Bureau Soils.

Dept. of Agriculture. 

MUKPHY, E. C., engineer.

Hydrographic Manual: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 94, TJ. S. Geol. Survey, 1904 (with John C. Hoyt and George B. Hollister). 

Accuracy of Stream Measurements: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 95, U. S.

Geol. Survey, 1904. 

Method of Computing Daily and Monthly Discharge of Streams of Sandy,

Changeable Bed: Eng. News, April 21, 1904.

Seven-Year Periodicity in Rainfall: Proc. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 13. 

Increase of Rainfall in Kansas: Proc. Ivans. Acad. Sci., vol. 14. 

Irrigation along the Arkansas in Western Kansas: Kans. Univ. Quart.,

vol. 3, p. 117. 

Collection and Storage of Water in Kansas: Kans. Univ. Quart, vol. o, p.

217. 

Notes on Discharge of Kansas River at Lawrence, Kans.: Kans. Univ.

Quart., vol. 4, p. 163. 

Windmills for Irrigation: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 8, U. S. Geol.

Survey. 

Windmill: its Efficiency and Economic Use: Water-Sup, and Irr. Papers

Nos. 41 and 42, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Current Meter and Weir Discharge Comparisons: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil

Eng., vol. 47, p. 370. 

NEWELL, FBEDEBICK HAYNES, chief engineer.

Permeability of Sand Rock: Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 40, 1885, p. 79. 

Methods of Deep Drilling: Proc. Soc. Arts, Mass. Inst. Tech., 1885-86, p. 53. 

Drilling and Care of Oil Wells: Rept. Geol. Survey of Ohio, vol. 6, 1888, pp.

476-515. 

Results of Stream Measurements: Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 20, 1891,

p. 547. 

Hydrography of the Arid Regions: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey,

1891.

Utah Lake Reservoir: Irrigation Age, vol. 1, 1891, pp. 42, 69, 153. 

Montana's Water Supply: Irrigation Age, vol. 2, 1891, p. 231. 

Statistics of Irrigation and Water Supply: The Independent, vol. 45, 1893,

p. 595. 

Irrigation in the United States: Bull. 23, Eleventh Census United States,

1893.

Arid Regions of the United States: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 5, 1893, p. 167. 

Run-oft8 from Various Drainage Basins in United States: Eng. News, vol,

29, 1893, p. 484,
260 SECOND RECLAMATION SERVICE CONFERENCE. [NO. 146.

NEWELL, FREDERICK HAYNES Continued.

Artesian Wells: Johnson's Cyclopedia, vol. 1, 1893, p. 347.

Water Supply for Irrigation: Thirteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey,

1893.

Irrigation Reports: Minutes Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 114, 1893. 

The Rio Grande: Trans. Soc. Irrigation Eng., vol. 1, 1894. 

Methods and Results of Stream Measurements : Proc. Eng. Club, Philadelphia, vol. 12, 1895.

Irrigation on the Great Plains: Yearbook Dept. Agriculture, 1896. 

Investigations of Water Supply: Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 20, 1897,

p. 547.

Potomac Drainage Basin: S. Doc. 90, 55th Cong., 2d sess., 1898. 

First Annual Report of the Reclamation Service: H. Doc. 79, 57th Cong.,

2d sess., 1902. 

Second Annual Report of the Reclamation Service: H. Doc. 44, 58th Cong.,

2d sess., 1903. . 

Third Annual Report of the Reclamation Service: H. Doc. 28, 58th Cong.,

3d sess., 1904. 

Also annual reports on water measurements contained in the Water-Sup.

and Irr. Papers, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

The Public Lands and their Water Supply: Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S.

Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1895. 

Irrigation, 1902. 

NOBLE, THERON A., engineer.

Flow of Water in Utah Pipe Line: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 40, p. 546. 

Gaging of Cedar River: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 41, p. 1. 

Pressures resulting from Changes of Velocity of Water in Pipes: Trans.

Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 39, p. 9. 

Flow of Water in WTood Pipes: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 49, pp. 112,

158.

Cooperation of State and Federal Governments in Topographic and Hydrographic Surveys: Pac. Northwest Soc. of Eng., vol. 3, No. 5. 

RUSSELL, W. S., engineer.

Construction of Lower Otay Darn* Eng. Record, June, 1897, and Eng. News,

March 10, 1898. 

SLIGHTER, CHARLES S., consulting engineer.

Theoretical Investigations of the Motions of Ground Waters: Nineteenth

Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1899, pp. 295-385. 

Mechanics of Slow Motions: Sci., vol. 11, 1900, pp. 535-537. 

Motions of Underground Waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 67, U. S.

Geol. Survey, 1902. 

New Method of Determining the Velocity of Underground Water: Eng.

News, vol. 48, 1902, p. 151. 

California or " Stove Pipe " Method of Well Construction for Water Supply:

Eng. News, vol. 50, 1903, pp. 427-431. 

Measurements of the Underflow at the Narrows of the Hondo and San

Gabriel River, California: Eng. Record, vol. 48, .1903, pp. 462-465. 

Tests of Irrigation Pumping Plants and Wells in the Valley of the Rio

Grande: Eng. News, vol. 52, 1904, pp. 280-282. 

Measurement of Underflow Streams in Southern California-: Jour, Western

Soc. Engineers, vol. 4, 1904, pp. 632-653. 

Description of Underflow Meter: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, U. S.

Geol. Survey, 1905.
NEWELL.] LIST OF TECHNICAL PAPEES. 261

SLICHTEB, CHARLES S. Continued.

Field Measurements of the Motions of Ground Waters: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 140, 1905.

Observations on the Ground Waters of the Rio Grande Valley: Water-Sup.

and Irr. Paper No. 141, 1905. 

SMITH, CHESTER W., constructing engineer.

Wachusett Dam: Harvard Eng. Jour., January, 1903. 

STANNABD, JAY D., assistant engineer.

Practical Irrigation: Yearbook Dept. Agr., 1900 (with C. T. Johnston).

Irrigation in the Valley of Weber River, Utah: Bull. 124, Office Experiment Stations, Dept. Agriculture.

Irrigation Investigations in Humboldt River Valley, Nevada: Bull. 54, Nev. 

Agr. Exp. Sta.

Use of Water from Wood River, Idaho: Bull. 133, Office Experiment Stations, Dept. Agriculture. 

STEINER, OHABLES R., assistant engineer.

The Roxbury Dam Failure: Eng. News, June 18, 1903.

Proposed Steel Dam, Reclamation Service, U. S. Geol. Survey: Eng. News, 

June 11, 1903.

Steel Dams for Storage Reservoirs: Eng. News, August 6, 1903, and September 3, 1903.

Economical Construction of Reinforced Concrete Beams and Floor Slabs:

Eng. News, March 9, 1905. 

TABOR, E. F., engineer.

Experiments on Pumping from Artesian Wells at San Jacinto, Cal.: Eng.

News, October 15, 1806. 

TAYLOR, THOMAS U., resident hydr-ographer.

The silting up of Lake McDonald and the leak at the Austin Dam: Eng. 

News, vol. 43, pp. 135-136.

Failure of Austin Dam: Eng. News, April, May, and December, 1900.

Austin Dam: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 40, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Irrigation Systems of Texas: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 71, U. S. Geol. 

Survey.

Rice Irrigation of Texas: Rice Industry, Houston, Tex., December, 1904. 

WISNEK, GEORGE Y., consulting engineer.

Worthless Government Engineering: Eng. Mag., 1892.

Hydraulics of Rivers having Alluvial Beds: Technic, 1896.

Geodetic Field Work: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1883.

Brazos River Harbor Improvement: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1891.

Breakwaters, Sea Walls, and Jetties: Eng. Mag., 1893.

Sewage Disposal. 1896.

Regulation of Lake Levels: Proc. Deep Waterway Assn., 1895.

Regulation of Lake Levels: Rept. to Congress, 1899.

Report of U. S. Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. 1900.

Economic Dimension for Waterway from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic: 

Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1901.

INDEX.

A. Page.

Accounts, classes of________ 155,163 

payments of ________ 157-159, 227 

suspensions and disallowances

of ___________ 158-159 

systems of____________ 52-55

Accounts and reports, paper on____ 49-57

Alkali, allowable percentage of__ 110-112

character of____________ 108

deposition of________ 107-108, 111

effect of, on plants______ 109-110

movements of_________ 111-112

origin of_____________ 108-109

relation of drainage and___ 112-113

report of committee on___ 174-175

Allowance, extra, rules concerning_ 27-28

Appointment to Reclamation Service,

method of____i___ 23-24 

Appropriation of water, laws of_ 222-225 

Area and mean velocity curves,

paper on _________ 80 87 

Arizona, appropriation of watep in 222-223 

Army posts, list of_______,__ 228-229 

Army stores, purchase of___!__ 228 

Assistants, training of_____j__ 102-106 

Auditing, time required for_,____ 159

B.

Bids, opening of, reports on_l__ 229-230 

Bien, Morris, paper by, on Proposed

code of water laiws__ 29 34 

Bismarck project, data concerning_ 141 

Boards, organization and duties of_ 177-179 

Bonds, information concerning___ 226 

Bookkeeping for Reclamation Service, in the field-,__ 149-152 

in Washington______ 152-154, 173 

methods of__ 148-159,164-168, 173 

Books useful to engineers, list of__ 105 

Buford-Newton project, datfe concerning _____i___ 141 

Butte Valley, Cal., irrigabla 4nds in 99

C.

Cable station, equipment of____ 123-126 

Cables, steel, data concerning__ 124 125 

California, appropriation of water

in_______________ 223

transmission systems in_____ 37-38

water laws of_________ 29, 59-60

California, central, pumping \n ___ 70-71

underground water in_t____ 70-71

Page.

California, southern, canals in 113-114 

pumping underground water in,

paper on _ _ 56-72 

rainfall in___________ 56-57, 113 

underground waters of_ 57-63, 113-121 

Camp sites and structures, regulations concerning-_ 92 

Camps, construction, conditions in__ 91 

sanitation in, paper on_______ 90-94

Canals and ditches, rights of way

for, acquisition of__ 221-222 

Carson River, Nev., data concerning 34-37 

Cass, F. H., reference of transportation matters to__ 217-218 

Catskill Creek, N. Y., flow measurements on____ 143, 145, 147 

Cement and concrete, committee on,

report of_______ 160-162 

Chandler, A. E., paper by, on Hydrographic investigations 

in Nevada________ 34-37 

Charge sheets, form of____ 151, 164-166 

Circulars issued by Service_____ 216-237

Clear Lake reservoir site, California,

data concerning _ 95-98, 100 

Coal as fuel, cost and efficiency of- 132-133 

Code of water laws, proposed system of __________ 29-34 

Coefficients, rating, tables of___ 146-147 

Colorado, appropriation of water in_ 223 

tunneling in, horrible example of 42-43 

water laws of _ ____ _ ' 34

Colors for progress diagrams, list of- 230 

Committees, members of_____ _ 14-15 

reports of___________-.__ 160-215 

Computation, rules for______ 210-211 

Concrete, report of committee on_ 160-162 

Concrete pipe, construction of__ 66-68 

Conference, minutes of__ _ 12-19 

object of______ _ 20-22 

papers read at _ 29-159 

report of _______________ 12-28 

Connecticut River, N. H., flow measurements on__ 144, 145, 147 

Construction camps. Sec Camps,

construction.

Construction work, accounts in_ 55-56, 170 

extension of time on__. 227 

material for, transportation of,

reduced rates for 216-217

power plants for 184-185

reports en_________ 55-56

specifications for, form of 191-197

Contractors, bonds of 226

263
264 INDEX.

Page.

Correspondence, rules concerning__ 232

Cost keeping, forms for__ 55-56, 168-169

methods of_____________ 168-171

necessity for_____________ 21

use of _______________ 56

Cost and results, committee on, report of_________ 162-173 

Crops, introduction of_________ 176 

Current meter, use of________ 141-148 

Curves in stream measurement. 

See Mean-velocity and 

area curves; Rating 

curves.

D.

Denver district, stream gaging in,

cost of__________ 123 

Diamond drill, methods of use of__ 78-80 

Disallowances, causes for_____ 158-159 

Disbursements, methods of ____ 157-159 

Dismissals, rules for_________ 233 

District engineers, duties of____ 23 

Drainage, on irrigated lands, necessity for ________ 106-108 

relation of alkali and__ 111-113, 175 

report of committee on___ 175-177 

Drill, diamond, methods of use of_ 78-80 

Duryee, E., on concrete and cement__________ 160-162 

Duty of water, alkali, and drainage, 

committee on, report 

of____________ 173-177 

See also Water, duty of ; Alkali; 

Drainage.

E.

El Paso conference, address of chief

engineer at _______ 20-28

attendance at __________ 12

minutes of______________ 12-13

Electricity, use of, in pumping_ _ 37-38,

65-69

See also Power transmission. 

Elephant Butte, N. Mex., dam and

reservoir at______ 75-77

Employees, appointment of ______ 23-24

classes of ______________ 22-24

dismissal of _____________ 231

Engineering, power, application of,

to irrigation_______ 37-42 

Engines, efficiency of ______ 134-138 

Engle, N. Mex., dam and reservoir 

at. Sec Elephant 

Butte.

Ensign, O. H., paper by, on Power 

engineering applied to 

irrigation problems __ 37-42 

Esopus Creek, N. Y., flow measurements on____ 143, 145, 146 

Estimates, on tunneling for irrigation projects______ 42-48 

preparation of __________ 163-164 

Expenditures, authorization for _ 154 

See also Disbursements; Vouchers.

F. Page.

Farm-unit classification, paper on_ 128-131 

report of committee on____ 176-177 

Fees for oaths, schedule of ____ 235-236 

Fellows, A. L., paper by, on Estimates on tunneling in 

irrigation projects __ 42 18 

paper by, on Reports and accounts_________ 49-57 

Field, accounts in _________ ._ 149-152 

subsistence in____________ 26-28 

training for work in ______ 104-105 

Finkle, F. C., paper by, on Pumping 

underground water in 

soutl srn California__ 56-72 

Fish Creek, N. Y., flow of__T ___ 89 

Fishkill Creek, N. Y., flow measurements on ____ 143,145,147 

Flies, protection against _______ 93-94 

Floods, replenishment of underground supplies by__ 62 

Forms, preparation of________ 172-173 

Fossils, discovery of__________ 237 

Fuel, cost and efficiency of different

kinds of_____ 132-133, 135

G.

Gaging stations, data concerning_ 35-37, 

72-74, 95, 141-148 

surroundings of, importance

of _____________ 87-89 

Garbage, disposition of, in camps__ 94 

Gas engines, cost and efficiency of_ 137-138,

181-182

use of, in irrigation______ 41-42, 70 

Government accounts, paper on__ 154-159 

Grover, N. C., paper by, on Collection of stream-gaging 

data ____________ 72-74

H.

Hall, B. M., paper by, on Rio Grande

project _________ 75-78

Hammond, G. A., paper by, on Diamond-drill methods __ 78-80

Hanna, F. W., paper by, on Mean velocity and area curves- 80-87

Horse Fly reservoir site, data concerning ______ 95-98, 100

Horton, R. E., paper by, on Effect of 

aquatic vegetation on 

stream flow_______ 89-90 

paper by, on Importance of general hydrographic data 

concerning basins of 

streams gaged _____ 87-89

Humboldt River, Nev., data concerning_____________ 34-37

Hydro-Economics, division of, organization of 8

Hydrographers, conference of__ 206 

report of, on stream measurements__________ 206-211
INDEX. 265

Page.

Hydrographic branch, attendance of 

members of, at Washington conference___ 14 

organization of__________ 7-8, 11

Hydrographic data, general, }mportance of in sjtream 

gaging_______[_ 87-89

Hydrology, division of, organisation

of______________ 7

I.

Ice, stream gaging under__ 141-148, 209

Idaho, appropriation of water in __ 223

stream gaging in, cost of___ 123

water laws of_________ __ 34

Information, bureaus of _______ 225 

Internal-combustion engines, efficiency of_______ 135-136 

Irrigable lands, data concerning___ 188 

under Klamath project--___ 99-100 

Irrigated lands, drainage of, necessity for__________ 106- 

108,111-113, 175-177 

Irrigation and power engineering,

relations of________ 37 42

Irrigation in North Dakota, paper

on ___________ 139-141

K.

Kansas, appropriation of water in__ 223

Katz i\ Walkinshaw, water rights

fixed by__________ 59-60

Klamath Indian Reservation, irrigable lands of_____ 100

Klamath project, canals under__ 101-102 

irrigable lands under_____ 99-100 

paper on_____________ 95-102 

water supply of__________ 95-98

Klamath River, data concerning__ 96-97 

investigation of__________ 95

Labor, cost of____________ 46-47, 80 

Laborers, health of, money value of_ 90-91 

Lands, possessory claims to, purchase of________ 220-221 

purchase of, rules for_____ 218-220 

under reclamation projects, information concerning- 225 

Lands, irrigated. See Irrigated

lands.

Leighton, M. O., paper by, on Sanitary regulation governing construction camps 90-94 

Letters, rules concerning_______ 230 

Leveling, instructions for_____ 230-232 

Liens, limitations on right of__ 226-227 

Lifts, for irrigation, height of____ 40 

Lignite, cost of_____________ 33

use of_____________________

Lipplncott, J. B., paper by, on Klamath project _____ 95-102 

Liquor, intoxicating, prohibition of_ 91-92 

Location, relation of subsistence and 25-20

Lost River, data concerning_____ 97-99 

Lower Klamath Lake, irrigable lands

of _____________ 99-100

M.

McMillan, Lake, N. Mex., silting of,

investigation of__ 126-127

Machinery and installation, specifications for, form of 197-202

Material, specifications for, form

of ____________ 202-205

Matthes, G. H., paper by, on Training assistants in office 

and field_______ 102-106

Mean-velocity and area curves,

paper on_________ 80-87

Means, Thos. H., paper by, on Alkali

soils __________ 108-113 

paper by, on Necessity for draining irrigated lands- 106-108

Mendenhall, W. C., paper by, on 

Underground waters of 

southern California- 113-121

Menifee Valley, Cal., subsidence of

water plane in_____ 60-61

Meters, recommendations concerning 207

Michigan, aquatic vegetation in__ 90

Mill Creek, Cal., power plant on___ 37-38,

65-69

Missouri River, character of____ 139 

pumping water from_____ 139-141

Montana, appropriation of water

in ____________ 223-224 

water laws of_ _ 34

Mosquitoes, protection against _ _ 93-94

Murphy, E. C., paper by, on Cost of

stream-gaging work_ 121-123 

paper by, on Equipment of a

cable-gaging station- 123-126

N.

Nebraska, water laws of______ 29-30, 34 

Nevada, appropriation of water in_ 224 

gaging stations in, data concerning_________ 35-37 

hydrographic investigations in,

paper on _________ 34-37 

water laws of ___ _ 34 

New Mexico, appropriation of water

in _____________ 224

water laws of____________ 34

New York, aquatic vegetation in__ 89

stream gaging in, cost of____ 123

Newell, F. H., address of, at El Paso_ 20-28

North Dakota, appropriation of

water in ________ 224 

irrigation in ___________ 139-141 

water laws of__________ 34

O.

Oaths, fees for, schedule of____ 235-236 

Office work, training for______ 103-106 

Offices, outside, holding of_____ 233-235 

Offices, rent of___________ 227-228 

Oil as fuel, cost and efficiency of__ 135
266 INDEX.

Page.

Oklahoma, appropriation of water in_ 224

water laws of_________ 34

Oregon, appropriation of water in_ 224

water laws of___________ 30-34

Organization, committee on, report

of____________ 177-179

P.

Pecos River, N. Mex., data concerning_____________ 126 

Perris Valley, Cal., subsidence of

water plane in ____ 60-61

Personnel, biographical sketches of_ 238-255

grades of, duties of__ 22-23, 177-179

material of____________ 22,102

organization of __________ 22

papers published by______ 256-261

training of ____________ 102-106

Pipe, concrete, construction of-__ 66-68

Plans, standardizing of, report of

committee on ____ 189-190 

Plants, requirements of _______ 106 

Posts, army, location of______ 228-229 

Power, cost of______________ 46 

report of committee on___ 179-187 

Power and pumping, committee on,

report of _______ 179-187 

Power engineering and irrigation, 

paper on _________ 37-42 

Power plants, temporary, construction of_________ 184-185 

Power projects, early notice of availability of_______ 182-18.3 

Power transmission, beginnings of_ 37-38,

65-69

cost of_________ 131-132, 180-181 

efficiency of_______ 39-40, 131-132 

types of__________ 65-69, 181-182 

Producer-gas engines. See Gas engines.

Progress, diagrams showing____ 171-172 

diagrams showing, colors for__ 230 

Projects, financial considerations of- 20-21 

information concerning lands

under ___________ 225 

tunneling in, estimates of, cost

of ______________ 42-48 

Pumping water for irrigation, cost

of ______ 140-141, 185-186 

in North Dakota ________ 139-141 

power for _____________ 131-138 

report of committee on____ 185-187 

Pumping underground water in 

south ern California. 

See California, southern.

Pumps, efficiency of ____ 64-65, 134-135

styles and systems of______ 41,

64-70, 34-135

R.

Railways, dealings with________ 188

reduced rates on ________ 216-217

Rainfall, records of________ 37, 56, 113

Rating curves, construction of_ 74, 145-147

Page.

Reclamation act, progress under__ 21 

Reclamation fund, disbursements

from__________ 154-159 

project record of ________ 149-151 

State record of __________ 149 

Reclamation projects. See Projects. 

Reclamation Service, appointments

to ______________ 23-24 

organization of ____ 9-11,177-179 

projects of, expenditures for__ 20-21 

relation of States and______ 32-33 

'status of_______________ 237 

Reconnaissance, data concerning _ 187-188 

Reconnaissance and surveys, committee on, report of_ 187-189 

Reed, W. M., paper by, on Silting of

reservoirs_______ 126-128

Rent, payment of __________ 227-228

Reports, basis of_____________ 51-52

character of, and necessity for_ 49-51,

171

Reports and accounts, paper on__ 49-57 

Reservoirs, storage, silting of__ 126-128 

Reservoirs, underground, in southern 

California, amount of 

water in________ 59, 

71-72, 118, 120-121

legal protection of______ 59-60

nature of ________ 57-58, 117-118

pumping from __________ 63-70

extent of_________ 63-64, 119

methods of __________ 64-70

replenishment of _____ 58-59, 61-63

shrinkage of______ 60-61, 117-120

Rights of way, acquisition of ___ 221-222

Rio Grande project, irrigable lands

under __________ 77 

paper on _______________ 75-78 

Rio Grande River, discharge of_____ 75 

River basins, general hydrographic 

data concerning, importance of_______ 87-89. 

Rondout Creek, N. Y., flow measurements on ____ 143, 145, 146 

Ross, D. W., paper by, on Farm-unit

classification_____ 128-131 

Rulings, requests for 159

San Bernardino Valley, Cal., overdevelopment in______ 61 

Sanitary code, provisions of 92-94 

Sanitation in construction camps.

regulations concerning- 90-94 

Santa Ana River, Cal., data concerning____ 116-117 

Silting, investigation of______ 126-128 

Soils, alkali, paper on_ 108-113

See also Alkali; Drainage. 

South Dakota, appropriation of

water in _ 224 

water laws of __ - 34 

Specifications, standard, forms for_ 190-206 

Standard plans and specifications, 

committee on, report 

of____________ 189-206
INDEX. 267

Page. 

States, relation of reclamation law

to _____________ 32-33

Steam, use of, in irrigation_____ 40-41,

70, 132-133, 181

Steam engines, styles of________ 133 

Steward's ball-bearing meter, recommendations concerning- 207 

Stores, army, purchase of______ 228- 

Storrs, H. A., paper by, on Irrigation development in 

North Dakota____ 139-141 

Stream gaging, cable station for,

equipment of _____ 124-126

cost of______________ 121-124

data concerning____ 35-37,208-209

collection of, paper on___ 72 74

errors in ______________ 72-74

general hydrographic data in,

importance of, paper

on______________ 87-89

records of _____________ 35-37

under ice, methods ef_____ 141-148,

209-210

watch for use in________ 206-207 

Streams, cross-section area curves of- 82-83 

discharge of, effect of vegetation on _________ 89-90 

factors in___________ 80-81 

"measurements of______ 35-37, 

72-74, 80-87, 141-148 

publication of____ 207-209 

velocity curves of________ 83-85 

Subcontractors, nonliability of United

States to_______ 226-227

Subsistence, regulations concerning. 24 28

Surveys, cost of, records of-____ 170

value of________________ 43-44

Suspension of accounts, causes for_ 158-159

T.

Telegrams, rules concerning____ 230 

Text-books, useful, list of_____ 105-106 

Tillinghast, F. H., paper by, on 

Records of flow at current-meter gaging stations during the frozen 

season ___ ___ 141-148 

Time, extension of, on contracts__ 227 

Transmission, electric. See Electricity ; Power trans 

mission.

Transportation, agent for_____ 217-218 

reduced rates of ________ 216-217 

Traveling, subsistence during__ 27-28 

Truckee River, Nev., data concerning_____________ 34-37 

Tule Lake, Cal.-Oreg., irrigable lands

of_____________ 99 

Tunnels, cost of_________________

estimates on, paper on_____ 42-48

grade of ______________ 44

lining of_______________ 47-48

surveys for_____ _____ 43-44

Turbines, steam, use of _____ 40-41, 181

Turbines, water, use of _______ 182

U. Page.

Utah, appropriation of water in__ 224 

water laws of__________ 34

V.

Vegetation, requirements of 106 

Vegetation, aquatic, effect^ of, on

stream flow, paper on_ 89-90

Velocity of stream flow under ice_ 144-145

Vouchers, basis of reports in_____ 51-52

record of_____________ 151-152

rules concerning_____ 156-157,164

W.

Walker River, Nev., data concerning 34-37 

Walkinshaw, Katz, v. See Walkinshaw u. Katz.

Wallkill River, N. Y., flow measurements on____ 142, 145, 146 

Washington (State), appropriation

of water in_____ 224-225

water laws of__________ 30-34

Washington conference, minutes of_ 13 19

Watch, special, recommendation for_ 206-

207

Water, appropriation of, laws concerning _________ 222-225 

supply of __ ___ - 93 

Water, duty of, report of committee

on _____ 174-175,186-187 

Water, pumped, charges for___ 185-186 

Water, underground, development

of___________ 114-115 

origin of_____________ 116-117 

pumping of, paper on______ 56-72 

use of, limitation on__ 59-60,120-121 

See also Reservoirs, underground.

Water laws, essential provisions of- 30-34 

proposed code of, paper on_ __ 29-34 

Water laws and forms of water users' 

associations, committee 

on, report of____ 211-215 

Water plane, subsidence of_ 60-61, 118-120 

Water powers, undeveloped, withdrawal of______ 183-184 

use of, in pumping ____ 42,186 

Water rights, application for, form

of ___________ 211-215 

ascertainment of _____ _ 189 

Water supply, protection of, in

camps __________ 93 

Water users' associations, organizations of________ 188-189 

Webster, N. B., jr., paper by, on

A Government account 154- 

159 

paper by, on Bookkeeping for the

Reclamation Service- 150-159

Wells, driven, pumps in____-__ 41

Work, extra, payment for______ 227

Work, outside, prohibition of___ 233-235

Wyoming, appropriation of water in 225

stream gaging in, cost of- - 123

water laws of __ 29, 34

o

,, PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. , "- **£. -

[Water-Supply Paper No. 146.] - 

- «f*--

The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey e«&9fet of (1) 

Annual Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) 

Mineral Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas 

of United States folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of United 

States folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are gold at cost of publication; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had 

on application.

Most of the above publications may be obtained or consulted in the following ways:

1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they 

may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.

2. A certain number are allotted every member of Congress, from whom they may 

be obtained, free of charge, on application.

3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, 

D. C., from whom they may be had at prices slightly above cost.

4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public 

libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be consulted by those interested.

The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of 

subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified 

into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, Systematic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and 

physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage; 

K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investigations; 

N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports. This 

paper is the nineteenth in Series I and the twelfth in Series J, the complete lists of 

which follow:

SERIES I IRRIGATION.

WS 2. Irrigation near Phoenix, Ariz., by A. P. Davis. 1897. 98 pp., 31 pis. and maps. (Out of

stock.) 

WS 5, Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. Cowgill. 1897. 39 pp., 11 pis. (Out of

stock.)

WS 9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colo., by David Boyd, 1897. 90pp., 21 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by F. C. Barker. 1898. 51 pp., 11 pis. (Out of

stock.)

WS ]3. Irrigation systems in Texas, by W. F. Hutson. 1898. 68pp., 10 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 17. Irrigation near Bakersfield, Cal., by C E. Grunsky, 1898 96pp., 16 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 18. Irrigation near Fresno, Cal.. by C. E. Grunsky. 1898. 94 pp., 14 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 19. Irrigation near Merced,'Cal., by C, E. Grunsky 1899. 59pp., 11 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 23 Water-right problems of Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead. 1899. 62 pp., 7 pis. (Out of

stock.) 

WS 32. Water resources of Porto Rico, by H M Wilson. 1899. 48 pp , 17 pis. and maps. (Out of

stock.) 

 WS 43. Conveyance of water in irrigation canals, flumes and pipes, by Samuel Fortier. 1901. 86

pp., 15 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 70. Geology and water resources, of the Patrick and Goshen Hole quadrangles, Wyoming, by

G. I. Adams. 1902. 50 pp., 11 pis,

J,
II ADVEBTISEMENT.

WS 71. Irrigation systems of Texas, by T. U. Taylor. 1902. 137 pp., 9 pis.

VVS 74. Water resources of the State of Colorado, by A. L. Fellows. 1902. 151 pp., 14 pis.

WS 87. Irrigation in India (Record edition), by H. M. Wilson. 1903. 238 pp., 27 pis.

WS 93. Proceedings of first conference of engineers of the Reclamation Service, with accompanying 

papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1904. 361 pp.

WS 117. The lignite of North Dakota and its relation to irrigation, by F. A. Wilder. 1904. 59 pp., 

8 pis.

WS 143. Experiments on steel-concrete pipes on a working scale, by J. H. Quinton. 1905. 61 pp., 

4 pis.

WS 146. Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the Reclamation Service, with accompanying papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1905. 267 pp. 

The following papers also relate especially to irrigation: Irrigation in India, by H. M. Wilson, in

Twelfth Annual, Part II; two papers on irrigation engineering, by H. M. Wilson, in Thirteenth

Annual, Part III.

SERIES J WATER STORAGE.

WS 33. Storage of water on Oila River, Arizona, by J. B. Lippincott. 1900. 98 pp., 33 pis. (Out of 

stock.)

WS 40. The Austin dam, by Thomas U. Taylor. 1900. 51 pp., 16 pis. (Out of stock.)

WS 45. Water storage on Cache Creek, California, by A. E. Chandler. 1901. 48 pp., 10 pis.

WS 46. Physical characteristics of Kern River, California, by F. H. Olmsted, and Reconnaissance of 

Yuba River, California, by Marsden Manson. 1901. 57 pp., 8 pis.

WS 58. Storage of water on Kings River, California, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 100 pp., 32 pis. (Out 

of stock.)

WS 68. Water storage in Truckee Basin, California-Nevada, by L. H. Taylor. 1902. 90 pp., 8 pis.

WS 73. Water storage on Salt River, Arizona, by A. P. Da vis. 1902. 54 pp., 25 pis.

WS 86. Storage reservoirs on Stony Creek, California, by Burt Cole. 1903. 62 pp., 16 pis.

WS 89. Water resources of Salinas Valley, California, by Homer Hamlin. 1904. 91 pp., 12 pis.

WS 93. Proceedings of first conference of engineers of the Reclamation Service, with accompanying 

papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1904. 361 pp.

WS116. Water resources of Santa Barbara, Cal., by J. B. Lippincott. 1904. 99 pp., 8 pis.

WS 146. Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the Reclamation Service, with accompanying papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1905. 267 pp. 

The following paper also should be noted under this heading: Reservoirs for irrigation, by J. D.

Schuyler, in Eighteenth Annual, Part IV.

Correspondence should be addressed to

THE DIRECTOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AUGUST, 1905.
LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS.

[Mount each slip upon a separate card, placing the subject at the top of the 

second slip. The name of the series should not be repeated on the series 

card, but the additional numbers should be added, as received, to the 

first entry.]

Newell, Frederick] H[aynes] 1862-

. . . Proceedings of second conference of engineers of 

the Reclamation service, with accompanying papers; 

compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. Washington, Gov't print, off., 1905.

267, iii p. 23cm. (U. S. Geological survey. Water-supply and irrigation 

paper no. 146)

Subject series: I, Irrigation, 19; J, Water Storage, 12.

1. Reclamation of land. I. U. S. Geological Survey. Reclamation Service.

Conference held at El Paso, Tex., November 14 to 18, 1904, adjourned to 

Washington, D. C., and continued from January 9 to 14, 1905.

Newell, Frederick] H[aynes] 1862-

. . . Proceedings of second conference of engineers of 

the Reclamation service, with accompanying papers; 

compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. Washington, Gov't print, off., 1905.

267, iii p. 23cm. (U. S. Geological survey. Water-supply and irrigation 

paper no. 146)

Subject series: I, Irrigation, 19; J, Water Storage, 12.

1. Reclamation of land. I. U. S. Geological Survey. Reclamation Service.

Conference held at El Paso, Tex., November 14 to 18, 1904, adjourned to 

Washington, D. C., and continued from January 9 to 14, 1905.

U. S. Geological survey.

Water-supply and irrigation papers 

no. 146. Newell, F. H. Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the Reclamation service, 

with accompanying papers. 1905.

U. S. Dept. of the Interior.

see also 

U. S. Geological survey.

in