SMITHSONIA N CONTRIBUTION S TO ANTHROPOLOG Y • NUMBE R 4 2 

The Ossuary of San Francisco Church. 

Quito, Ecuador: 

Human Skeletal Biology 

Douglas H. Ubelaker 

and Catherine E. Ripley 

Smithsonian Institution Press 

Washington, D.C. 

1999 
ABSTRAC T 

Ubelaker, Douglas H., and Catherine E. Ripley. The Ossuary of San Francisco Church, 

Quito, Ecuador: Human Skeletal Biology. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 

42, 32 pages, 10 figures, 19 tables, 1999.—As part of the Columbus quincentenary activities, 

the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador (INPCE) and the Agencia Espanola 

de Cooperacion Intemacional (AECI) attempted to study and restore the Convento de San 

Francisco de Quito, a facility founded in 1535. In 1990, these efforts included excavation of the 

central ossuary in the church. This research generated information about the structure of the 

ossuary as well as human remains. Detailed analysis of the human remains by the authors 

revealed the presence of at least 226 individuals from five spatial components of the ossuary. 

The remains likely date from the early history of the church in the sixteenth century to the 

twentieth century. 

Analysis of the five ossuary samples revealed information on mortuary customs, ancestry, 

cranial and postcranial morphology, living stature, and bone and dental pathology. Most of the 

data reported herein fall within ranges previously reported from prehistoric and historic samples. Exceptions consist of high values of skeletal trauma, carious lesions, and antemortem loss 

of teeth reported for some of the ossuary samples. 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is 

recorded in the Institution's annual report, Annals of the Smithsonian Institution. 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Ubelaker, Douglas H. 

The ossuary of San Francisco Church, Quito, Ecuador : human sketeton biology / Douglas H. Ubelaker 

and Catherine E. Ripley. 

p. cm. — (Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 42) 

Includes bibliographical references. 

1. Convento de San Francisco (Quito, Ecuador) 2. Anthropometry—Ecuador—Quito. 3. Craniology— 

Ecuador—Quito. 4. Human remains (Archaeology)—Ecuador—Quito. 5. Human skeleton—Ecuador— 

Quito—Analysis. 6. Ossuaries—Ecuador—Quito. 7. Quito (Ecuador)—Antiquities. I. Ripley, Catherine 

E. II. Title. III. Series. 

GN58.E2U22 1999 

599 9'4'0986613—dc21 99-25820 

CIP 

© The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American 

National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48—1984. 
Contents 

Page 

Preface v 

Introduction 1 

Ossuary Excavation 2 

Radiocarbon Dates 3 

Ossuary Samples 3 

Upper-Chamber Superficial Collection 3 

Upper-Chamber Strata Cut 4 

Lower-Chamber Superficial Collection 11 

Lower-Chamber Strata Cut 19 

Side-Chamber Boxes 21 

Summary 28 

Mortuary Practices 29 

Ancestry 29 

Stature 29 

Pathology 29 

Demographic Profiles 31 

Literature Cited 32 

FIGURES 

1. Cribra orbitalia of right infant orbit, upper-chamber strata cut 11 

2. Well-remodelled fracture of right tibia, lower-chamber superficial collection ... . 14 

3. Well-remodelled fracture of right tibia, lower-chamber superficial collection ... . 14 

4. Depressed fracture associated with metopic suture from lower-chamber superficial 

collection 15 

5. Remodelled lesions on frontal and parietals of male from lower-chamber superficial 

collection 16 

6. Lesion on endocranial surface of a frontal, lower-chamber superficial 

collection 17 

7. Alveolar abscess in a right maxilla, lower-chamber superficial collection 19 

8. Cut marks on female left femur, Box 3 22 

9. Deep pits of parturition, Box 10 24 

10. Abnormal porous bone formation on patella, Box 11 25 

TABLES 

1. Radiocarbon dates from San Francisco ossuary samples 3 

2. Cranial measurements from upper-chamber superficial collection 4 

3. Nonmetric observations from upper-chamber superficial collection 4 

4. Life table for upper-chamber strata-cut sample 9 

5. Measurements of crania and mandibles, upper-chamber strata cut 9 

6. Nonmetric observations, upper-chamber strata cut 10 

7. Distribution of carious lesions on permanent tooth surfaces, upper-chamber 

strata cut 11 

8. Measurements of crania, lower-chamber superficial collection 12 

9. Nonmetric observations of male crania, lower-chamber superficial collection ... . 13 

10. Nonmetric observations of female crania, lower-chamber superficial collection.. . 13 

in 
IV SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

11. Dental disease in lower-chamber superficial collection 18 

12. Skeletal contents of each box 26 

13. Life table for box sample 26 

14. Measurements of male crania and mandibles, box sample 27 

15. Measurements of female crania and mandibles, box sample 27 

16. Nonmetric observations of male crania and mandibles, box sample 28 

17. Nonmetric observations of female crania and mandibles, box sample 28 

18. Lines of increased density in immature tibiae 30 

19. Lines of increased density in mature tibiae 30 
Preface 

The research reported herein represents part of a long-term effort on the part of the first 

author to collaborate with archeologists working in Ecuador in the recovery and study of 

human remains from archeological contexts. This new information supplements that previously available from many Ecuadorean sites dating from both prehistoric and historic 

times. The investigation of the San Francisco ossuary was possible because of the generous invitation to participate made to us by the staffs of the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador (INPCE) and the Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion Internacional (AECI). The authors are especially grateful for the hospitality extended to us by Jose 

Ramon Duralde, then director of the projects representing Spain, and Paulina Teran, archeologist in charge of excavations. Jose Ramon Duralde facilitated the authors' work 

through his administrative assistance and enthusiastic support. Paulina Teran supervised 

the excavations and provided space, interpretation, and other considerable assistance that 

made the research possible. The staff of the Convento de San Francisco de Quito and all 

project personnel were very gracious in allowing the intrusion of our research into their 

midst. Throughout the project, they made us feel welcome and expressed genuine interest 

and appreciation for the information we gradually extracted from the samples. Personnel 

directed by Paulina Teran assisted in the excavation, processing, and storage of the remains. Without their immense assistance this research would not have been possible. 

We recognize that the information reported herein offers an incomplete vision of the 

physical characteristics and health of the past populations of Quito. This study also represents a relatively small contribution to the overall study of the Convento, including its archeological, architectural, and artistic history. We hope, however, that in this small way, 

we have allowed the past peoples of the Convento to tell their story. The remains offer us 

some information about the people represented, their physical characteristics, and their 

problems. Together with other such studies of human remains from well-controlled excavated sites, the information helps us to understand the biocultural history of the people of 

this area and how aspects of their lives changed through time. 
The Ossuary of San Francisco Church. 

Quito, Ecuador: 

Human Skeletal Biology 

Douglas H. Ubelaker 

and Catherine E. Ripley 

Introduction 

Recent years have witnessed a surge of scholarly interest in 

the human skeletal biology of archeologically recovered remains from historic contexts. Such remains usually become 

available for study through construction projects or other accidental discovery. As techniques in skeletal-biology analysis 

have improved, scholars have shifted their attention to such remains with the understanding of their rich potential to supplement the historical record. 

In Ecuador, as traditionally in all of the Americas, such research has concentrated on remains from pre-European contact 

samples (e.g., Munizaga, 1965, 1976; Klepinger et al., 1977; 

Klepinger, 1979; Ubelaker, 1980a, 1980b, 1981, 1983, 1988a, 

1988b, 1988c, 1988d, 1988e, 1990). This effort has produced a 

great deal of information about biological and biocultural aspects of the lives of these people. This information also provides a long-term context in which to view similar attributes of 

peoples living in Ecuador during the historic periods. Collectively, these data allow the viewing of long-term trends in 

health, disease, growth and development, and other biologically related aspects of human history in this area. 

In Ecuador, analysis of human remains of historic-period origin has concentrated on samples from Quito recovered during 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, Department of Anthropology, National Museum 

of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 

20560-0112. Catherine E. Ripley, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287. 

Review Chairperson: Dennis Stanford, Department of Anthropology, 

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560-0112. 

Reviewers: William Bass, Professor Emeritus, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-0720; John W. Verano, Tulane 

University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118-5670. 

archeological/architectural study of the early historic structures 

in the old central part of the city. Data are available from the 

Hospital San Juan de Dios, Convento de Santo Domingo, and 

Convento de San Francisco. 

The Hospital San Juan de Dios was founded March 9, 1565, 

and was used until about 1974. It was the first hospital formed 

in Ecuador, and the facility included a church, infirmaries, storage rooms, and patios. With financial support from the Instituto 

Ecuatoriano de Obras Sanitarias (Section of Health Ministry), 

excavations in 1988 and 1989 were conducted in association 

with the restoration and architectural examination of the facility. These excavations revealed an ossuary as well as a group of 

individual skeletons. The ossuary remains likely date between 

1705 and 1755, whereas the individual deposits date from 1710 

to 1810. Analysis was confined to crania from the ossuary and 

to secondary samples from the individual deposits within the 

church (Ubelaker and Rousseau, 1993). 

A sample of historic-period human remains also has been examined from the Convento de Santo Domingo in Quito. This 

sample was generated through archeological activity conducted 

as part of a joint Ecuadorian-Belgian effort to examine the early history of the facility. Human remains were recovered as 

secondary bone deposits within the Capilla (Chapel) de Santa 

Rosa and have been broadly dated between AD 1500 and 1650 

(Ubelaker, 1995). 

The largest sample of human remains from the historic period in Ecuador originates from excavations conducted at the 

Convento de San Francisco de Quito. The Convento was 

founded in 1535 and was initially constructed of adobe. Construction of the ornate Church of San Francisco and the associated main cloister were completed in the early seventeenth century. Throughout its history, the facility has functioned also as 

a cemetery. Although a law was passed in 1829 requiring city 

burial in a formal cemetery located elsewhere in the city, some 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

decedents continued to be deposited within niches of the 

church. 

As part of the Columbus quincentenary activities, the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador (INPCE) and 

the Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion Internacional (AECI) 

began a project to restore the Convento de San Francisco and 

its artistic content. This effort included archeological excavations in and around the facility, conducted between 1987 and 

1993, designed to supplement the historical record (Teran de 

Rodriguez, 1988), but which also discovered abundant samples 

of human remains. As a result of these efforts, considerable information has been amassed on the history of the Convento and 

its people (Teran de Rodriguez, 1988). 

Before July 1990, archeological excavations in and around 

the Convento recovered over 200 well-documented human 

skeletons that revealed previously unknown information about 

the populations buried in the church, including their physical 

characteristics and their disease experience (Ubelaker, 1994a). 

These samples originated from the zaguan (entrance to the 

Convento) before AD 1570, from the atrium and pretil, the 

area in front of the church above the plaza (before 1647 until 

the early eighteenth century), from within the church itself (AD 

1535-1858), and from under the altar of Santa Rosa in the 

main cloister area (AD 1730-1858) of the Convento. 

OSSUARY EXCAVATION 

In July of 1990, the archeological team headed by archeologist Paulina Teran decided to shift its investigative effort to the 

main ossuary of the church. The existence of the ossuary and 

its superficial contents had long been recognized by church officials and the archeological team; however, details of the ossuary contents, the people represented in its chambers, and the 

dates of its construction and use remained unknown. The common opinion held by church officials was that although some 

skeletal remains had been deposited in the lower chamber as 

recently as 30 years ago, most of the ossuary contents were 

very old, with some remains likely dating back to the construction of the church itself in the sixteenth century. 

The entire ossuary is located beneath the Chapel of the Virgin of Pilar de Saragoza and is accessible through a trap-door 

in the wooden floor of the church, immediately in front of the 

chapel. The ossuary is divided architecturally into three chambers. The upper, dome-roofed, square-based chamber contains 

a large amount of mostly disarticulated human skeletal remains 

mixed with wood, cloth, and a great deal of loose soil. The dimensions of the floor of the upper chamber of the ossuary appear to approximate the dimensions of the chapel. 

In the center of the upper chamber is a cylindrical structure 

covered with a lid. Removal of the lid revealed a shaft entrance 

to a lower level of the chamber, the ceiling of which forms the 

floor of the upper chamber. This square chamber is several 

meters below the floor of the upper chamber, and, like the upper chamber, it is partially filled with disarticulated human remains. 

On the opposite side of the steps to the upper chamber of the 

ossuary is a narrow opening leading to a smaller chamber containing 12 boxes of human bones. Some of these boxes had 

broken open, and their skeletal contents either were visible in 

the boxes or had fallen out onto the floor of the room. The exterior of one box displayed a cross and another displayed initials. 

To learn more about the architecture and construction of the 

ossuary chambers and the people represented therein, archeological excavations were initiated in July 1990 and were completed in late August 1990. 

Initially, most of the remains collected were those resting on 

top of the more concentrated deposits from both the upper and 

lower chambers. These "superficial" collections were made for 

three principal reasons: (1) they offered a rapid means to acquire sizeable samples of the upper levels of the two chambers; 

(2) the remains on the surface would have been damaged unavoidably by the process of excavating and recording in the 

two chambers; and (3) removal of remains from the extreme 

upper levels might separate recent deposits of remains in the 

chambers from the older remains at lower levels. 

The contents of all boxes in the side chamber also were removed for analysis. Each box was individually numbered, and 

the content of each box was analyzed separately. The boxes 

themselves were too large to be removed easily from the chamber. 

Excavations were conducted in both the upper and lower 

chambers. In the upper chamber, an area measuring 1.0 m x 2.5 

m was excavated along the north side of the central shaft, midway between the ossuary entrance and the entrance to the side 

room. The excavation proceeded downward in 20 cm levels. 

All articulated bones encountered were identified, numbered, 

and packaged separately for analysis. These articulations include three primary skeletons that were encountered at lower 

levels. All skeletal remains and cultural materials recovered 

from the excavation were labeled with content and provenience 

information. 

The same procedure was followed in the lower chamber. In 

that area, an excavation was conducted along the southeast 

side. No articulations were noted, however, and the bones were 

poorly preserved because of the high humidity. 

Thanks to a monumental effort by the archeological staff of 

the project, all remains were carefully removed, washed, dried, 

and prepared for analysis immediately after excavation. This 

magnificent organization enabled analysis to proceed simultaneously with excavation. Ultimately, it enabled analysis to be 

completed by the time of the authors' departure in late August 

1990. 

In the laboratory, all human remains were carefully inventoried, reconstructed when necessary, measured, photographed, 

and repacked for storage. Analysis largely followed procedures 

established in previous analysis of Ecuadorean human remains 

(Ubelaker, 1980a, 1980b, 1981, 1983, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 
NUMBER 42 

1988d, 1988e, 1988f, 1990, 1994a). Methods of estimating age 

at death, sex, ancestry, and stature mostly follow those outlined 

by Ubelaker (1989). Radiographs of pathological specimens 

and other special remains were taken at the medical clinic associated with the Convento de San Francisco. 

The frequency of teeth lost antemortem was calculated by dividing the number of observations on teeth lost antemortem by 

the total number of observations on teeth present and teeth absent (as indicated by the presence of teeth and/or the condition 

of the bone alveolar processes). 

RADIOCARBON DATES 

Radiocarbon dates are now available for five samples recovered from the 1990 San Francisco excavations. All samples 

were analyzed by Beta Analytic Inc. of Coral Gables, Florida. 

According to Beta Analytic, bone samples were physically 

cleaned for removal of extraneous materials. Bones were then 

crushed and placed in a solution of cold acid. The acid solution 

was periodically renewed over a period of several days as the 

mineral portion of the bone dissolved. The remaining collagen 

fractions were then washed in deionized water and combusted 

in an enclosed system. Good collagen was obtained for all reported dates, although two samples of human bone yielded insufficient collagen and are not reported herein. 

All rootlets were removed from the submitted wood samples. 

They were then soaked in a routine series of acid, alkali, and 

acid solutions. Benzene syntheses and counting were then reported to have proceeded normally. 

The resulting dates (Table 1) are reported as radiocarbon 

years before AD 1950. The dates tentatively suggest that the 

upper-chamber superficial collection dates to about AD 1730 

(AD 1670-1790). Two dates from a stratigraphic cut (strata 

cut) excavated in the upper chamber suggest a date between 

AD 1540 and 1650. 

The one date for the lower-chamber superficial collection of 

AD 1830 suggests a date between AD 1770 and 1890; however, the intrusion of more recent bones makes this date difficult 

to interpret. The custodian of the church indicated he had deposited remains of some individuals in the lower chamber 

within the previous 20 years. He indicated that these individuals were church officials or those who worked for the church. 

Excavation of this sample recovered a femur wrapped in a 

newspaper dated 1963. The one good wood date of AD 1640 

(AD 1580-1700) from the lower-chamber strata cut indicates 

that both upper and lower chambers most likely received their 

TABLE 1.— 

Sample number 

Beta 44482 

Beta 40435 

Beta 39527 

Beta 44481 

Beta 39528 

•Radiocarbon dates from San Francisco ossuary samples. 

Collection 

upper superficial 

upper strata cut 

upper strata cut 

lower superficial 

lower strata cut 

Field no. 

801 

712 

712 

800 

726 

Material 

human bone 

wood 

human bone 

human bone 

wood 

Date 

220 ± 60 BP 

410±80BP 

300 ± 70 BP 

120±60BP 

310±60BP 

first deposits in the early history of the church. Archeological 

evidence suggests that the sample from the boxes in the side 

chamber date from relatively modern times, likely between AD 

1850 and 1940. 

The five radiocarbon dates reported in Table 1 offer some 

chronological information; however, their relatively recent nature and the range of overlap precludes any exact dating assessment. Additional dating of other material from these contexts 

may help clarify these chronological issues. 

The following is a result of the analysis outlined above, with 

separate discussion of the principal samples from the ossuary: 

the superficial collection of the upper chamber, superficial collection of the lower chamber, strata cut of the upper chamber, 

strata cut of the lower chamber, and boxes of the side chamber. 

Ossuary Samples 

UPPER-CHAMBER SUPERFICIAL COLLECTION 

For this sample, all remains that were not imbedded in the 

soil were collected. All remains were disarticulated except for 

one adult left scapula and humerus. In the laboratory, the remains of immature and mature individuals were separated and 

analyzed. 

TOTAL INVENTORY.—Immature bones present are four left 

and two right humeri, three left ulnae, five left and four right 

femora, four left and five right tibiae, two right clavicles, one 

right scapula, two right temporals, two right mandibles, one 

right ilium, eight ribs, one vertebra, six left and two right frontals, and seven left and three right parietals. 

Adult bones present in the collection consist of eight left and 

three right humeri, two left radii, three left and two other ulnae, 

four left and four right femora, five left and five right tibiae, 

two unsided tibiae, one left and six other fibulae, three left and 

one right clavicle, five left scapulae, three left and three right 

temporals, five mandibles, three left and four right innominates, one left patella, one first cervical vertebra, three other 

cervical vertebrae, eight thoracic vertebrae, three sacra, two 

right calcanea, one right talus, one navicular, one right second 

metatarsal, one left third and one left fourth metatarsal, and 23 

ribs. Two relatively complete crania are present and can be associated with two of the mandibles. 

AGE AT DEATH.—Ages at death were estimated for each of 

the long bones by comparing their maximum lengths with 

long-bone growth data derived from other studies (Ubelaker, 

1989). These long bones were then sorted by age at death to assess the minimum number of individuals represented. This process suggests that at least 13 immature individuals are present. 

The major bones present of each age category are as follows: 

newborn, one left femur; 6-month-old, one right femur, one left 

tibia, two right tibiae, and one left humerus; 6-month-old to 1-

year-old, two left femora, one right femur; 1.5- to 2-year-old, 

one left tibia, one right tibia, one left humerus, and one right 

humerus; 2.5- to 3-year-old, two left femora, two left tibiae, 

two right tibiae, one right ulna, and one left humerus; 3.5- to 4-
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

year-old, one right femur; 5-year-old, one right femur; 6- to 7-

year-old, one right ulna, one right ilium, and one right humerus; 10-year-old, one right ulna; and 11.5-year-old, one left humerus. 

Eight adults are represented in this sample. The innominates 

represent three females ages 30-40, 40-50, and 50-60, and 

three males, two aged 40-50 and one aged 50-60. One cranium 

is from the 30- to 40-year-old female. The other cranium originates from a man of greater than 70 years. The 70-year-old cranium is edentulous and shows marked thinning over much of 

the parietals. Areas of thinning on the left parietal measure 26 

mm x 51 mm, 20 mm x 22 mm, and 18 mm x 18 mm. The right 

parietal displays one area of thinning, measuring 25 mm x 27 

mm. 

LIVING STATURE.—Six statures can be calculated from the 

adult individuals. Four femora suggest living statures of 166 

cm (male), 161 cm (male), and two of 153 cm (females). Two 

right tibiae suggest living statures of 156 and 159 cm (sex undetermined). These data suggest a male mean of about 164 cm 

(two femora) and a female mean of about 153 cm (two femora). 

MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.—Measurements and 

observations were recorded on two crania, a male and a female 

(Tables 2, 3). Cranium 1 is the very old male with marked parietal thinning. Cranium 2 is a 35- to 40-year-old female with no 

pathological alterations. 

PATHOLOGY.—Bone pathology of the immature remains is 

confined to slight porosity in the left and right orbits of a 2-

year-old infant. Such porosity is usually considered a minimal 

expression of porotic hyperostosis, a condition thought to be 

associated with chronic anemia. 

Minimal pathological changes were noted in the adult sample. The glenoid cavity of one left scapula shows marked arthritic change. Well-remodelled periosteal lesions are present 

on the distal diaphysis of a left femur and also on the lateral 

surface of the proximal midshaft (94 mm from proximal end) 

of a right tibia. One right rib also shows a well-remodelled periosteal lesion about 8.5 cm from the vertebral end. The ratio of 

bones with periosteal lesions (3) to adults in the sample (8) is 

0.38. 

Among the immature individuals, only three deciduous teeth 

are present. These lack carious lesions, calculus, and any evidence of associated alveolar abscess. 

Among the adult remains, only eight permanent teeth are 

present. Two of these show carious lesions (25%). One of these 

lesions measures 4 mm in length and is located on the lingual 

surface of a right second maxillary premolar. The other lesion 

measures 3 mm in length and was found on the crown of a left 

first maxillary molar. None of these eight teeth display hypoplasia. 

Of 99 observations possible on the presence or absence of 

adult teeth, 68 presented evidence of antemortem absence 

(69%). Of 77 observations on alveolar abscess associated 

with specific teeth, only five (6%) were noted. These were all 

mandibular teeth: three incisors, one canine, and one first premolar. 

TABLE 2.—Cranial measurements from upper-chamber superficial collection. 

Measurement 

Auricular height 

Porion-bregma 

Cranial length 

Cranial breadth 

Basion-bregma 

Minimum frontal breadth 

Upper facial height 

Facial breadth 

Nasal height 

Nasal breadth 

Orbital height 

Orbital breadth 

Maxillo-alveolar length 

Maxillo-alveolar breadth 

Palatal length 

Palatal breadth 

Cranium 1 (male) 

113 

109 

186 

142 

168 

95 

61 

129 

48 

24 

32 

41 

50 

57 

45 

38 

Cranium 2 (female) 

117 

116 

169 

140 

136 

91 

61 

126 

42 

24 

33 

40 

49 

49 

44 

37 

TABLE 3.—Nonmetric observations from upper-chamber superficial collection. 

Observations on skeletal features that are not sided straddle columns. (L=left, 

R=right, A=absent, P=present.) 

Skeletal feature 

Frontal grooves 

Supraorbital foramen 

Trochlear spur 

Accessory optic canal 

Infraorbital suture 

Os japonicum trace 

Wormian bones 

Parietal process of temporal squama 

Squamoparietal synostosis 

Auditory exostoses 

Pharyngeal fossa 

Paracondylar process 

Intercondylar canal 

Odonto-occipital articulation 

Divided hypoglossal canal 

Postcondylar canal 

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 

Tympanic dehiscence 

Craniu 

L 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

m 1 

A 

A 

(male) 

R 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

Cranium 2 I 

L 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

P 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

female) 

R 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

P 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

As in most Ecuadorean samples, calculus was minimally expressed on the eight permanent teeth present. On the buccal 

surfaces, calculus was absent on one tooth, slight on four teeth, 

and medium on three teeth. On the lingual surfaces, calculus 

was absent on one tooth, and slight on seven teeth. 

UPPER-CHAMBER STRATA CUT 

Remains in this sample were recovered from a 1.0 m x 2.5 m 

stratigraphic cut that was excavated in the upper chamber. During excavation, notation was made of any evidence of skeletal 

articulation. These articulations represent bones that appeared 

in situ to be in correct anatomical order and/or bones of approximately the same area of the skeleton that seemed to be 

held together by fabric. Each of these articulations was record-
NUMBER 42 

ed and bagged separately for analysis. The content of each of 

the articulations was cleaned and studied separately. After 

careful inventory of the contents of each, the remains were 

mixed with all of the other remains in the strata cut for the total 

inventory. 

ARTICULATIONS.—The following is a complete listing of the 

skeletal content of each of these articulations. Presumably, 

these articulations represent individuals who were deposited in 

the ossuary relatively soon after death, before soft tissue decomposition. For each articulation identified during excavation, the following listing first provides an indication of the 

bones that were identified as being articulated during the excavation. The actual bones identified in the laboratory from that 

articulation are then presented. In some cases, several recovered bones do not normally articulate with others that were 

found in the same "articulation." Presumably, these represent 

disarticulated bones that were located in the immediate area 

and were mistakenly picked up by the workers. 

Articulation 1: tibia, fibula, and patella: Bones recovered 

are the left tibia and left patella of a male, 25-40 years of age. 

Articulation 2: calcaneus, talus, and cuneiform: Bones recovered are the left calcaneus and talus of a male, 20-40 years 

of age. 

Articulation 3: vertebrae and ribs: Bones recovered are all 

seven cervical vertebrae and four thoracic vertebrae of an adult, 

sex undetermined, aged 23-28 years. 

Articulation 4: vertebrae, ribs, scapula, humerus, radius, 

and ulna: Bones recovered are a left humerus, left radius, left 

ulna, left scapula, manubrium, nine thoracic vertebrae, four 

lumbar vertebrae, seven left ribs, and nine right ribs. The bones 

appear to represent an adult of undetermined sex, aged 40-55 

years. 

Articulation 5: radius and ulna: Bones recovered consist 

of the left radius and left ulna of an adult male, 45-60 years of 

age. 

Articulation 6: vertebrae and ribs: Bones recovered are the 

gladiolus, six thoracic vertebrae, one lumbar vertebra, three left 

ribs, and seven right ribs. The bones originate from a small 

adult of undetermined sex between the ages of 50 and 65 years. 

Articulation 7: radius and ulna: Bones recovered consist 

of the right radius and right ulna of an adult, sex undetermined, 

between the ages of 20 and 40 years. 

Articulation 8: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered consist of both clavicles, seven thoracic vertebrae, seven left ribs, 

and six right ribs of a young adult, sex undetermined, 30-35 

years of age. 

Articulation 9: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered consist of 

one right tibia and one right fibula of an infant about 6 months 

of age. 

Articulation 10: radius and ulna: Bones recovered consist 

of one left radius and one right ulna of an infant 1.5 years of 

age. 

Articulation 11: radius and ulna: Bones recovered consist 

of a right radius and right ulna of a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 12: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered consist of seven left and seven right ribs and six vertebrae of a 

child between 2 and 3 years of age. 

Articulation 13: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered consist 

of a left tibia and one fibula of a 1.5-year-old child. 

Articulation 14: three ribs: Bones recovered consist of 

three ribs of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 60-80 years. 

Articulation 15: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered consist of a left clavicle, five left ribs, and four vertebrae. The 

bones appear to relate to a child of between 1.5 and 3 years of 

age. 

Articulation 16: ribs, humerus, radius, and ulna: Bones recovered consist of a right humerus, right radius, right ulna, left 

clavicle, right scapula, one left rib, three right ribs, one carpal 

or tarsal, and one vertebra. Most of these bones are from a newborn. 

Articulation 17: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are a 

right radius and right ulna from a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 18: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are a 

left radius and left ulna of a newborn. 

Articulation 19: ilium and femur: Bones recovered are a 

left femur and a left ilium of a newborn. 

Articulation 20: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are a 

left radius, left ulna, and 14 vertebrae of a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 21: ribs. Bones recovered are two left and two 

right ribs of a young infant, aged newborn to 6 months. 

Articulation 22: carpals: Bones recovered are a left lunate, 

right lesser multangular, and left capitate of an adult of undetermined sex. 

Articulation 23: vertebrae and rib: Bones recovered are 

two cervical vertebrae and one right rib of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 23-27 years. 

Articulation 24: sternum: Bones recovered are a left ulna 

and gladiolus of an adult, sex undetermined, 25-40 years of 

age. 

Articulation 25: clavicles: Bones recovered are two left 

clavicles and one manubrium of adults of undetermined sex. 

Articulation 26: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are 

one left tibia, one left clavicle, seven ribs, and 11 vertebrae of a 

newborn. 

Articulation 27: femur, fibula, and tibia: Bones recovered 

are a left femur, right tibia, and fibula of a newborn. 

Articulation 28: radius and ulna. Bones recovered are a left 

radius and left ulna of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 25-^40 

years. 

Articulation 29: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are a 

right ulna, right clavicle, three left ribs, six right ribs, and five 

vertebrae of a 6-month-old child. 

Articulation 30: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are a 

left tibia and left fibula of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 

25-40 years. 

Articulation 31: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are a 

left tibia and left fibula of a 6-month to 1.5-year-old infant. 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Articulation 32: femur and tibia: Bones recovered are a 

right femur and a right tibia of an adult male, 25-40 years of 

age. 

Articulation 33: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are 

three ribs and seven vertebrae of a 1 - to 2-year-old infant. 

Articulation 34: vertebrae: Bones recovered are five thoracic vertebrae of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 23-30 

years. 

Articulation 35: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are a 

left tibia and right fibula of an adult, sex undetermined, 25^ 0 

years of age. 

Articulation 36: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are a 

left pubis, three left and three right ribs, and nine thoracic vertebrae of a 2- to 4-year-old child. 

Articulation 37: femur, tibia, fibula, and patella: Bones recovered are one left and one right femur, one left and one right 

tibia, one left fibula, one left and one right innominate, one left 

and one right patella, three cervical vertebrae, 11 thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, and sacrum of a male, 40^48 

years of age. 

Articulation 38: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are a 

right radius and right ulna of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 

30-50 years. 

Articulation 39: vertebrae, ribs, humerus, and scapula: 

Bones recovered are a left humerus, left scapula, 11 thoracic 

vertebrae, three lumbar vertebrae, one sacrum, and nine left 

and three right ribs of a young adult, sex undetermined, aged 

23-28 years. 

Articulation 40: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are a 

right radius and right ulna of a newborn. 

Articulation 41: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are a 

left ulna and left fibula of an infant aged 6 months to 1.5 years. 

Articulation 42: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are a 

left radius and left ulna of a small newborn. 

Articulation 43: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are a 

left tibia and left fibula of a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 44: talus, calcaneus, cuboid, and cuneiforms: 

Bones recovered are a left calcaneus, left talus, left cuboid, and 

left first and second cuneiforms of a young adult, sex undetermined, aged 25-35 years. 

Articulation 45: cranium, mandible, and vertebrae: Bones 

recovered are a cranium and both sides of the mandible of a 

child. 

Articulation 46: vertebrae, ribs, scapula, humerus, and 

clavicle: Bones recovered are a left and right humerus, left 

and right scapula, right temporal, and seven vertebrae of a newborn. 

Articulation 47: tarsals and metatarsals: Bones recovered 

are the right calcaneus, right talus, right cuboid, and left first, 

second, and fourth metatarsals of a young adult of undetermined sex. 

Articulation 48: talus and calcaneus: Bones recovered are 

the left calcaneus and left talus of a small female adult, aged 

20-40 years. 

Articulation 49: fibula, tibia, and femur: Bones recovered 

are both femora, both tibiae, two fibulae, and two ilia of an infant, aged 6 months to 1.5 years. 

Articulation 50: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are the 

left radius and left ulna of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 

35-50 years. 

Articulation 51: talus and calcaneus: Bones recovered are 

the right calcaneus and right talus of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 30-40 years. 

Articulation 52: scapula and humerus: Bones recovered 

are the left humerus and left scapula of an adult male, 35-45 

years of age. 

Articulation 53: vertebra, cranium, and mandible: Bones 

recovered are a cranium, both sides of the mandible, and the 

first cervical vertebra of an adult female, 30—40 years of age. 

Articulation 54: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are the 

right tibia and a fibula of a 6.5-year-old child. 

Articulation 55: ilium, ischium, vertebrae, ribs, and 

clavicle: Bones recovered are a left clavicle, left ilium, left 

ischium, three ribs, and five vertebrae of a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 56: talus, calcaneus, and metatarsals: Bones 

recovered are the left calcaneus, left talus, one rib, and four carpals and tarsals of a 2-year-old infant. 

Articulation 57: cranial fragments, mandible, and 

vertebrae: Bones recovered are both temporals, both maxillae, two mandibles, and three vertebrae of a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 58: child skeleton: Bones recovered are one 

left and two right humeri, one right radius, one right ulna, one 

left femur, one left and one right clavicle, one left and two right 

scapulae, one right mandible, one left and one right ilium, one 

left ischium, two right pubic bones, 28 ribs, and 11 vertebrae of 

two infants, each about 6 months of age. 

Articulation 59: two femora and fibula: Bones recovered 

are one left and one right femur and one fibula of a small newborn. 

Articulation 60: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are 

four left ribs, two right ribs, and one vertebra of an infant, newborn to 6 months of age. 

Articulation 61: metacarpals: Bones recovered are a left 

first metacarpal and left fourth metacarpal of a small female, 

aged 19-25 years. 

Articulation 62: calcaneus and talus: Bones recovered are 

a left calcaneus and a left talus of an adult, sex undetermined, 

aged 30^40 years. 

Articulation 63: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are 

five left ribs and four vertebrae of a child, aged 2-3 years. 

Articulation 64: talus, calcaneus, metatarsals, femora, innominates, sacrum, tibiae, and patella: Bones recovered are 

both femora, both tibiae, both fibulae, the left patella, sacrum, 

left calcaneus, both tali, left cuboid, five cuneiforms, all metatarsals but the right fifth, and three phalanges of a large female 

adult, aged 36-43 years. 
NUMBER 42 

Articulation 65: mostly complete adult: Bones recovered 

are both femora; right scapula; cranium; both sides of the mandible; gladiolus; manubrium; both innominates; both patellae; 

one first cervical vertebra; two second cervical vertebrae; five 

other cervicals; 12 thoracic vertebrae; six lumbar vertebrae; 

sacrum; two right second metacarpals; two right third metacarpals; one proximal hand phalanx; one right talus; the left first, 

third, and fourth metatarsals; and seven left and six right ribs of 

an adult male, 50-55 years of age. 

Articulation 66: tibia and fibula: Bones recovered are the 

left tibia and left fibula of a 6.5-year-old child. 

Articulation 67: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are the 

left radius and left ulna of a probable female adult, aged 35—45 

years. 

Articulation 68: two metatarsals: Bones recovered are two 

left metatarsals of a 3- to 4-year-old child. 

Articulation 69: ribs and vertebrae: Bones recovered are a 

gladiolus, manubrium, thoracic vertebra, eight left ribs, and 

four right ribs of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 40-45 years. 

Articulation 70: tarsals: Bones recovered are both calcanea, one right talus, and three tarsals of a 4- to 6-year-old child. 

Articulation 71: sacrum: Bones recovered are segments of 

a sacrum of a 13- to 16-year-old. 

Articulation 72: immature cranial fragments: Bones recovered are cranial fragments of a child. 

Articulation 73: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are the 

right radius and right ulna of a 6-month-old infant. 

Articulation 74: ribs, vertebrae, and manubrium: Bones 

recovered are a manubrium, four thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, and two left ribs of an adult, sex undetermined, 

aged 30-40 years. 

Articulation 75: talus, calcaneus, naviculars, and cuneiforms: Bones recovered are the left calcaneus, left talus, left 

navicular, and the right first and second cuneiforms of an adult, 

sex undetermined, aged 30-45 years. 

Articulation 76: femur, tibia, ilium, and ischium: Bones recovered are both femora, both tibiae, both ilia, and both ischia 

of a 1.5- to 2.5-year-old child. 

Articulation 77: femur and innominate: Bones recovered 

are the left femur and left tibia of a 15- to 20-year-old female. 

Articulation 78: scapula, humerus, and clavicle: Bones recovered are the left humerus, left clavicle, and left scapula of 

an adult female, aged 35—45 years. 

Articulation 79: radius and ulna: Bones present are the left 

radius and left ulna of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 30-50 

years. 

Articulation 80: radius and ulna: Bones recovered are the 

right radius and right ulna of an adult, sex undetermined, aged 

30-50 years. 

Articulation 81: ilium, tibia, calcaneus, and metatarsals: 

Bones recovered are the left tibia, left fibula, left ilium, left calcaneus, and six carpals and/or tarsals of a 1.5-year-old infant. 

Articulation 82: primary skeleton in bottom of cut: Bones 

recovered are both humeri; both radii; both ulnae; the right 

scapula; both maxillae; both sides of the mandible; 12 thoracic 

vertebrae; two lumbar vertebrae; the left first and fifth metacarpals; the right first, second, third, and fifth metacarpals; six 

proximal hand phalanges; one middle hand phalanx; one left 

rib; and five right ribs. The skeleton is that of a 30- to 35-yearold female. 

Field Number 708A, primary skeleton: Bones recovered 

are both humeri, left radius, both clavicles, both scapulae, both 

temporals, both sides of the mandible, gladiolus, four cervical 

vertebrae, eight thoracic vertebrae, one left hand navicular, 

nine left ribs, and nine right ribs of an adult male, aged 40-50 

years. 

Field Number 708B, primary skeleton: Bones recovered 

are the left humerus, right radius, left ulna, cranium, both sides 

of the mandible, gladiolus, one second and one other cervical 

vertebra, eight thoracic vertebrae, seven lumbar vertebrae, one 

left rib, and two right ribs of an adult male, aged 50-60 years. 

Of the 84 articulations initially identified in the excavation, 

74 were confirmed as likely articulations in the laboratory. The 

remaining 10 either did not consist of the bones tentatively 

identified during excavation or contained side differences or 

other problems that precluded their being actual articulations. 

The excluded ones are those labeled in the excavation as "articulation" 15, 20, 24, 25, 35, 41, 57, 61, 72, and 81. Bones from 

the 74 true articulations were then sorted by age to reveal the 

number of individuals represented by each bone. This process 

suggested that at least nine adults were represented by the articulations. The number of mature individuals represented by 

each type of bone is as follows: seven by left humerus, two by 

right humerus, eight by left radius, five by right radius, eight by 

left ulna, four by right ulna, four by left femur, five by right femur, five by left tibia, four by right tibia, three by left fibula, 

one by right fibula, three by left clavicle, two by right clavicle, 

five by left scapula, nine by right scapula, four by left and right 

temporal, four by left and right maxilla, five by left and four by 

right sides of the mandible, five by gladiolus, four by manubrium, two by innominate, four by left and two by right patella, 

three by first cervical vertebrae, four by second cervical vertebrae, four by other cervical vertebrae, eight by thoracic vertebrae, seven by lumbar vertebrae, four by sacrum, three by 

metacarpals, one by hand phalanges, six by left calcaneus, two 

by right calcaneus, six by left talus, four by right talus, two by 

left cuboid, one by right cuboid, two by left navicular, two by 

cuneiforms, three by metatarsals, two by foot phalanges, and 

five individuals by ribs. Males and females of adults of all ages 

are represented in the articulated remains. 

The same sorting procedure outlined above was followed for 

the immature remains. Tabulation by each type of bone of all 

actual articulations revealed the minimum number of individuals represented by each bone. This procedure indicated that at 

least seven immature individuals were represented. The following listing provides the minimum number of individuals represented by each type of bone: two by left humerus, three by 

right humerus, three by left radius, six by right radius, three by 
8 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

left ulna, six by right ulna, six by left femur, three by right femur, five by fibulae, three by left clavicle, one by right clavicle, two by left scapula, three by right scapula, two by left temporal, three by right temporal, two by left maxilla, two by right 

maxilla, three by left mandible, three by right mandible, five by 

left ilium, three by right ilium, one by left sternum, two by left 

ischium, one by right ischium, one by right pubis, two by left 

calcaneus, one by right calcaneus, four by left talus, seven by 

right talus, four by ribs, one by carpals and tarsals, three by 

vertebrae, and one by sacrum. 

A more realistic estimate of the minimum number of immature individuals may be obtained by sorting the numbers of 

each type of bone by age. This process is obviously complicated by the fact that exact age estimates are not possible for any 

of the bones, and, in some cases, the estimated age range for a 

particular bone is somewhat large. The following listing resulted when the most probable age was assigned to each immature 

bone. The "aged" bones were then sorted into specific age categories. This process suggested that at least 13 immature individuals were present. Of these, three are newborns, one is older 

than a newborn but less than 6 months, three are 6 months to 1 

year, one is 1-2 years, one is 2-3 years, one is 3—4 years, one is 

5-6 years, one is 6-7 years, and one is 13-16 years. 

TOTAL INVENTORY.—Once the articulated remains were 

carefully studied, they were integrated with the other disarticulated remains from the strata cut. All human remains from the 

strata cut were then inventoried and studied further. This inventory indicated that at least 52 immature individuals were 

present, as suggested by 52 left tibiae. The number of immature 

individuals represented by other types of bones is as follows: 

27 by left humerus, 25 by right humerus, 25 by left radius, 23 

by right radius, 27 by left ulna, 22 by right ulna, 41 by left femur, 49 by right femur, 52 by left tibia, 50 by right tibia, 29 by 

fibulae, 19 by left clavicle, 18 by right clavicle, 22 by left scapula, 20 by right scapula, 26 by left temporal, 27 by right temporal, 13 by left maxilla, 15 by right maxilla, 41 by left mandible, 

35 by right mandible, 35 by left ilium, 31 by right ilium, one by 

sternum, 16 by left ischium, eight by right ischium, eight by 

left pubis, six by right pubis, one by patella, nine by left calcaneus, five by right calcaneus, three by left talus, three by right 

talus, 17 by ribs, two by carpals and tarsals, and seven by vertebrae. 

All of the immature bones listed above were sorted by size. 

Individual ages were estimated using comparative long-bone 

growth data (Ubelaker, 1989). The numbers of individuals of 

each age group and each bone were then compared to determine the minimum number of individuals present. The distribution of ages of all bone types matched those estimated for the 

left tibia with one exception. The longest left tibia, with a 

length of 201 mm, suggested an age at death likely between 6 

and 7 years. One immature fibula length of 270 mm indicated 

an age at death likely between 10 and 12 years. Thus, the total 

count of immature remains recovered in this excavation represents the number indicated by the 52 left tibiae plus a 10- to 12-

year-old indicated by the fibula. This suggests the following 

number of immature individuals represented in this sample: 16 

newborns, 14 between the ages of newborn and 6 months, 7 

aged 6 months to 1 year, 10 aged 1-2 years, three aged 2-3 

years, one aged 3—4 years, one aged 6-7 years, and one aged 

10-12 years, for a total of 53 individuals. 

Inventory of the mature remains indicates that at least 21 

adults are present. The number of individuals represented by 

each type of bone is as follows: 21 by left humerus, 18 by right 

humerus, 13 by radii, 13 by left ulna, 17 by right ulna, 14 by 

femora, 10 by left tibia, nine by right tibia, 13 by left clavicle, 

17 by right clavicle, 17 by scapulae, 10 by left side of the mandible, 12 by right side of the mandible, nine by gladiolus, 12 by 

manubrium, nine by left innominate, 16 by right innominate, 

six by patellae, 13 by first cervical, nine by second cervical, 

eight by other cervicals, 10 by thoracic vertebrae, 11 by lumbar 

vertebrae, 17 by the sacrum, two by carpal bones, 7 to 15 by 

various metacarpals, 12 by proximal hand phalanges, one by 

other hand phalanges, 12 by left calcaneus, 10 by right calcaneus, 11 by left talus, 13 by right talus, four by cuboids, seven 

by naviculars, one to four by cuneiforms, 6 to 12 from metatarsals, two by proximal foot phalanges, one by distal foot phalanges, and 15 by ribs. Five crania are present that are sufficiently 

intact to allow some measurement. 

ADULT AGE AT DEATH.—Data on adult sex distribution and 

age at death are available mostly from the innominates, with 

some information provided by crania. Ages at death were estimated for eight males and nine females. The male ages are 

32-38 (2), 35-40 (2), 38^15 (2), and 40-50(2) years. The female estimates, all provided from the right innominates, suggest ages of 33-38, 34-39, 40-45, 45-50 (3), 55-60, and 

65-70 (2) years. 

The combination of the mature and immature ages at death 

suggests that 74 individuals are present in the sample. 

Table 4 presents a life table reconstructed from this sample. 

The table suggests that life expectancy at birth for the population represented by this sample was only about 14 years, reflecting a very high infant mortality rate. If the individual was 

fortunate enough to survive the first year of life, life expectancy at age 1 increased to about 26 years. Thus, all 1-year-old individuals in this population could expect to live, on the average, to the age of 27 years. The sample registered no deaths 

between 15 and 29 years, with only a few individuals living to 

the age of 70. 

LIVING STATURE.—The best estimates for living stature in 

this sample are derived from the femora. The femora not only 

offer measurements of length, which can be converted to estimates of stature, but also measurements of maximum femoral 

head diameter and other dimensions that provide indications of 

sex (Stewart, 1979; Bass, 1987; Ubelaker, 1989). For females, 

stature calculations are available for the following nine femora, 

with femoral head diameters ranging in size from 35 mm to 43 

mm (bone length (mm) precedes estimated stature (cm)): 370, 

146; 368, 145; 380, 148; 405, 155; 347, 140; 417, 158; 378, 
NUMBER 42 

TABLE 4.—Life table for upper-chamber strata-cut sample. (Dx=total number of individuals per age interval, 

dx=percentage of individuals dying in each age interval, lx=number of survivors of a theoretical cohort of 100 

individuals entering each age interval, qx=probability of death in each age interval, Lx=total number of years 

lived during each age interval, Tx=total number of years lived after a lifetime of all individuals entering each age 

interval, e°x=life expectancy of all individuals entering each age interval.) 

A ge interval 

0-0.9 

l^t.9 

5-9.9 

10-14.9 

15-19.9 

20-24.9 

25-29.9 

30-34.9 

35-39.9 

40-44.9 

45-49.9 

50-54.9 

55-59.9 

60-64.9 

65-69.9 

Dx 

37 

14 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

8 

3 

5 

1 

1 

0 

2 

dx 

50.00 

18.92 

1.35 

1.35 

0 

0 

0 

1.35 

10.81 

4.05 

6.76 

1.35 

1.35 

0 

2.70 

lx 

100.00 

50.00 

31.08 

29.73 

28.38 

28.38 

28.38 

28.38 

27.03 

16.22 

12.17 

5.41 

4.06 

2.71 

2.71 

qx 

0.5000 

0.3784 

0.0434 

0.0454 

0 

0 

0 

0.0476 

0.3999 

0.2497 

0.5555 

0.2495 

0.3325 

0 

0.9963 

Lx 

75.000 

162.160 

152.025 

145.275 

141.900 

141.900 

141.900 

138.525 

108.125 

70.975 

43.950 

23.675 

16.925 

13.550 

6.775 

Tx 

1382.660 

1307.660 

1145.500 

993.475 

848.200 

706.300 

564.400 

422.500 

283.975 

175.850 

104.875 

60.925 

37.250 

20.325 

6.775 

e°x 

13.83 

26.15 

36.86 

33.42 

29.89 

24.89 

19.89 

14.89 

10.51 

10.84 

8.62 

11.26 

9.17 

7.50 

2.50 

148; 379, 148; 411, 156. These estimates suggest a female 

mean stature of 149 cm, with a range from 140 cm to 158 cm. 

Estimates of male living stature are available from three right 

femora. These femora have femoral head diameters of 45 mm 

and 49 mm. The three bone lengths (in mm) and the estimated 

statures (in cm) are as follows: 402, 157; 511, 182; 393, 155. 

These estimates suggest a male mean stature of about 165 cm, 

with a range from 155 cm to 182 cm. All estimates of living 

stature were generated using Trotter's 1970 formulae for white 

males and white females (Ubelaker, 1989:61). 

MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.—All measurements 

and observations are presented in Tables 5 and 6. The remains 

appear to be largely of European origin with at least one individual of likely African descent. The African cranium is of a 

male, likely 30 to 40 years of age, with rectangular-shaped orbits, a wide nasal aperture, lack of a nasal sill, moderate prognathism, wide interorbital distance, prominent cheekbones, and 

narrow nasal bones but no postbregmatic depression. 

PATHOLOGY.—All observations on pathological conditions 

were recorded following the inventory of all remains from the 

stratigraphic cut. In most cases, the bones could not be individually identified; thus, few individual designations were made 

within the strata-cut sample. The categories of pathological 

conditions presented herein are not mutually exclusive. Trauma 

TABLE 5.—Measurements of crania and mandibles, upper-chamber strata cut. (F=female, M=male.) 

Measurement 

Feature number 

704(M) 708A(M) 704(F) 700(F) 700(M) 700(?) 700(?) 700(?) 

Auricular height 

Porion-bregma 

Cranial length 

Cranial breadth 

Basion-bregma 

Minimum frontal breadth 

Upper facial height 

Facial breadth 

Nasal height 

Nasal breadth 

Orbital height 

Orbital breadth 

Maxillo-alveolar length 

Maxillo-alveolar breadth 

Palatal length 

Palatal breadth 

Bicondylar breadth 

Bigonial breadth 

Height of ascending ramus 

Minimum breadth of ascending ramus 

Height at mandibular symphysis 

120 

110 

180 

141 

123 

91 

63 

131 

56 

24 

38 

41 

59 

36 

41 

54 

27 

118 

115 

162 

144 

127 

91 

67 

121 

48 

24 

36 

39 

44 

54 

35 

36 

110 

105 

169 

134 

122 

83 

65 

120 

45 

23 

35 

41 

52 

59 

49 

40 

117 

116 

185 

146 

129 

82 

55 

135 

42 

25 

31 

38 

52 

61 

51 

44 

109 

91 

58 

25 

27 

54 

31 

106 

37 

30 
10 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 6.—Nonmetric observations, upper-chamber strata cut. Observations on skeletal features that are not 

sided straddle columns. (F=female, M=male, L=left, R=right.) 

Skeletal feature 

Mylohyoid bridge 

Accessory mental foramen 

Frontal grooves 

Supraorbital foramen 

Trochlear spur 

Accessory optic canal 

Infraorbital suture 

Os japonicum trace 

Wormian bones 

Parietal process of temporal 

squama 

Squamoparietal synostosis 

Auditory exostoses 

Pharyngeal fossa 

Paracondylar process 

Intercondylar canal 

Odonto-occipital articulation 

Divided hypoglossal canal 

Postcondylar canal 

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 

Tympanic dehiscence 

Feature number 

704(M) 708AT(M) 704T(F) 700T(F) 

R R R R 

A A 

A A 

P 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

A P 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

P 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

P P 

A A 

700(M) 700(?) 700(?) 700(?) 

LRLRLR L R 

--AA-A A A 

--AA-A A A 

P P 

N N - - - - -

A A - - - - -

A A - - - - -

P P 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A - - - - -

A A 

A -

A A 

A A - - - - -

A - - -

A A - - - - -

A P 

A A 

A A 

can lead to subsequent infection and arthritic change. Bony 

ankylosis can be congenital or can be induced by trauma and 

arthritic change 

Fusion: Two examples of vertebral fusion were found 

within the sample, two thoracics and two lumbars. One other 

thoracic, likely a middle thoracic between numbers six and 

eight, shows a collapsed centrum. In spite of the alteration of 

the centrum, only slight osteophytosis is present. 

In addition, a lower thoracic vertebra shows marked 

Schmorl's nodes and macroporosity of the centrum. 

Exostoses: Small exostoses were found on four bones. A 

10 mm exostosis was found on the sternal end of a right clavicle. A small 8 mm exostosis is located on the medial surface of 

the olecranon fossa of a right humerus. A small 2 mm exostosis 

is located on the lateral side of a right calcaneus. A 7 mm exostosis was found on the lateral surface of a left calcaneus. 

Trauma: Eight bones show evidence of trauma in this sample. A slightly remodelled fracture is located on the sternal end 

of a left clavicle with evidence of subsequent remodelling. 

A distal left humerus shows extensive destruction and malformation. The fracture was likely sustained during childhood. 

No evidence of recent infection is present, but the articular surface displays extensive eburnation, suggestive of cartilage destruction. 

A left patella is fractured through its lateral third. Slight reactive bone is present on the anterior surface. 

Two right ribs show fractures. One healed fracture is located 

in the middle of a lower rib. An upper rib shows a healed compression fracture 84 mm from the sternal end. 

One second metacarpal shows a healed fracture of its base. 

The left ulna of the 35- to 50-year-old male of Articulation 

50 displays an apparent pseudoarthrosis of the proximal end. 

The fracture extends through the olecranon process. The proximal end is not present. 

Finally, a first cervical vertebra of an 8- to 10-year-old 

shows a partially healed fracture of the anterior left segment 

between the articular facet and the midline. 

The ratio of bones with fractures (8) to total individuals in 

the sample (74) is 0.11. 

Infection: Sixteen bones in this sample show evidence of 

infection, 10 from adults and six from subadults. The adult lesions are as follows: left femur of a female, well-remodelled 

periosteal bone on the popliteal surface; left femur of a female, 

some remodelled bone on the popliteal surface; right clavicle, 

slight deposit on the sternal end; right clavicle, slight deposit 

on the acromial end; right clavicle, bone deposit on the acromial and sternal ends; right humerus, well-remodelled periosteal 

deposit 48 mm in length about 77 mm from the proximal end; 

right rib, slight periosteal deposit on the lateral surface 71 mm 

from the vertebral articulation; left lower rib, slight periosteal 

deposit on medial and lateral surface; left and right tibia, most 

of shaft with well-remodelled periosteal bone. 

The bones from immature individuals with periosteal lesions 

are three left ribs and a right rib with abnormal new bone deposits over much of the lateral surface; an infant right parietal, 

aged 6-9 months, with fine periosteal new bone deposited over 

the preexisting bone surface; and a newborn humerus with fine, 

porous new bone at each metaphysis. This last bone is very 

thick, with a distal width of 18 mm, proximal width of 11 mm, 

and midshaft width of only 6 mm. 
NUMBER 42 11 

The ratio of bones (16) with evidence of infection to total 

adults in the sample (21) is 0.76. The ratio of bones with infection to all individuals in the sample (74) is 0.22. 

Porotic Hyperostosis: The external surface of one infant 

right parietal, aged 6-9 months, shows porous bone continuous 

with the internal bone within an area 45 mm x 45 mm near the 

coronal suture. 

Frontal orbital areas present are 29 left and 30 right. Five left 

orbits and three right orbits show the porosity in the upper orbital area known as cribra orbitalia (Figure 1). Two of the left 

orbits with this porosity also show evidence of porosity elsewhere on the frontal bone. As listed above, one of these frontal 

abnormalities appears to result from infection, and one reflects 

porotic hyperostosis likely due to anemia (porosity continuous 

with internal bone). The ratio of bones with evidence of porotic 

hyperostosis (9) to total number of individuals in the sample 

(74) is 0.12. 

TABLE 7.—Distribution of carious lesions on permanent tooth surfaces, upperchamber strata cut. 

FIGURE I.—Cribra orbitalia of right infant orbit, upper-chamber strata cut. 

Dental Disease, Deciduous Teeth: Only 38 deciduous teeth 

were present from two individuals. None of the deciduous teeth 

had been abnormally lost antemortem. Only one carious lesion 

was noted, for a frequency of 2.6%. The lesion was found in 

the occlusal surface of a mandibular right first molar. Neither 

alveolar abscesses nor dental calculus were observed. Two hypoplastic tooth crowns were present on maxillary first and second molars. 

Dental Disease, Permanent Teeth: One hundred thirty-nine 

permanent teeth were present. Of these, nine displayed carious 

lesions, for a frequency of 6.47%. The locations of these lesions are presented in Table 7. Of 365 observations on presence 

or absence of teeth, 40 were absent (10.96%). Of 241 observations on alveolar abscess, only three abscesses were observed 

(1.24%). 

Dental calculus was usually present in slight deposits as follows: 28% deposits absent, 61% slight deposits, 10% medium 

Tooth 

Maxillary PM1 

Maxillary M1 

Mandibular I2 

Mandibular PM[ 

Mandibular Mi 

Mandibular M i 

Mandibular M i 

Mandibular M2 

Mandibular M3 

Surface 

proximal root 

distal root 

distal crown 

occlusal crown 

distal crown 

occlusal crown 

distal crown 

buccal root 

distal crown 

occlusal crown 

occlusal crown 

Size of lesion (mm) 

5 

5 

3 

5 

4 

10 

4 

6 

2 

1 

2 

deposits, and 1% large deposits on the buccal surfaces; 31% 

deposits absent, 51% slight deposits, 16% medium deposits, 

and 2% large deposits on the lingual surfaces. 

Of the 139 teeth present, only five (3.6%) show hypoplasia. 

LOWER-CHAMBER SUPERFICIAL COLLECTION 

This sample represents human remains collected from the 

upper surface of the deposit in the lower chamber. An effort 

was made to collect all loose material from the surface that 

would have been damaged during later excavation. This material was immediately washed and inventoried to obtain data on 

the content and physical characteristics of the individuals represented in the lower chamber. 

The bones were well preserved. One complete left femur 

shows evidence of an incision likely made by the sharp edge of 

a shovel or similar instrument. The incision is located at the 

base of the head on the inferior surface and measures 33 mm in 

length. Coloration and soil deposits on the cut surface indicate 

the incision was made postmortem, but many years ago. 

TOTAL INVENTORY.—Remains of immature individuals 

were confined to a left scapula of a child aged 6-7 years, a 

right humerus of an 11- to 13-year-old adolescent (adult size 

but distal epiphysis not united), and one left proximal humerus 

epiphysis. 

Remains of at least 50 adults are present. The numbers of 

specific bones present are as follows: 14 left and 19 right humeri; eight left and six right radii; nine left and six right ulnae; 

50 left and 37 right femora; 27 left and 35 right tibiae; four left, 

four right, and nine side-undetermined fibulae; two left clavicles; two left and five right scapulae; 20 left and 18 right temporals; five left and five right maxillae; five left and three right 

mandible halves; one gladiolus; five left and five right innominates; three thoracic vertebrae; six lumbar vertebrae; four sacra; one proximal hand phalanx; five left and nine right calcanei; 

one right second cuneiform; one left and two right first metatarsals; two right second and two right third metatarsals; one 

proximal foot phalanx; three left and 10 right ribs; 43 frontals; 

45 occipitals; and various other cranial bones and other fragments. 
12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Sex Distribution: Various indicators suggest that this sample is primarily composed of male individuals. Of 22 crania for 

which sex could be reliably estimated, 19 are male and only 

three are female. Of five left humeri, all are likely male (maximum head diameters of 44 mm, 46 mm, and three of 47 mm). 

Of nine right humeri, two with maximum head diameters of 42 

mm are likely female, two of 43 mm are undetermined, and 

those with head diameters of 44 mm (one), 46 mm (three), and 

48 mm (one) are likely male. Of the left innominates, one is female and three are male. All three right innominates are male. 

Of the femora, two are apparently female, with maximum head 

diameters of 41 mm and 42 mm, and three are male, with head 

diameters of 46 mm to 48 mm. 

Age Distribution: Crania provide the most complete information on age at death in this sample. Individual ages were estimated for each cranium, when possible, using observations on 

the extent of cranial suture closure, dental attrition, and dental 

loss. In all cases, ages were estimated within a range (e.g., 

30^0 years, 45-60 years). The average age within that range 

was then calculated for each cranium (e.g., 35 years, 52.5 

years), and these estimates were used to generate summary statistics. Ages are available for only three female crania (35, 45, 

and 53 years). Total ranges of the estimates were from 30-60 

years, with a mean of 44 years. 

Twenty-five age estimates of male crania are available, ranging from 28 to 55 years. The youngest estimate is 25-30 years 

and the oldest is 50-60 years. These 25 estimates suggest a 

mean age of 38.68 years, with a standard deviation of 7.40. 

Only three estimates are available from crania of undetermined 

sex. These estimates are 30-40, 35-40, and 40-50 years. They 

suggest a mean age of 40 years, with a standard deviation of 5 

years. 

Only one estimate is available from the innominates. A left 

innominate of a male suggested an age at death of between 27 

and 32 years. 

LIVING STATURE.—Living stature was estimated for the tibiae and femora. All calculations utilized the formulae of Trotter 

for white males (Ubelaker, 1989:61). Presumably, all of the 

bones originated from males, but it is possible that one might 

have been female. These formulae suggest a standard error of 

3.27 cm for estimates from the femora and 3.37 cm for estimates from the tibia. Measurements of the right femur (maximum length in mm) precede the suggested statures (in cm) and 

are as follows: 404, 158; 412, 160; 429, 164; 432, 164; and 

435, 165. One left femur length of 460 mm suggests a living 

stature of 171 cm and apparently originates from a sixth individual. 

Estimates from right tibiae (bone length in mm followed by 

estimated stature in cm) are as follows: 325, 161; 340, 164; 

344, 165; 363, 170; 365, 171; 367, 171; 368, 171. Two left tibiae appear to originate from two individuals other than those 

listed from the right tibia. These bone lengths (in mm) and stature estimates (in cm) are 307, 156, and 322, 160. 

Comparison of stature estimates from the tibiae and fibulae 

suggests that 10 individuals in the sample had the following 

living statures (in cm): 156, 160, 161, 164, 165, 165, 170, 171, 

171, and 171. This suggests a mean stature of 165.4 cm with a 

standard deviation of 5.3 and range from 156 cm to 171 cm. 

Note that the formulae indicate a standard error of between 3 

and 4 centimeters associated with each estimate. 

MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.—Summary statistics 

on measurements and observations of the crania are presented 

in Tables 8, 9, and 10. Of the 43 mature frontals in the sample, 

five show metopic sutures. Four of these are from males and 

one originates from a frontal of undetermined sex. All of these 

data are consistent with a European origin of the individuals in 

this sample. 

PATHOLOGY.—A wide range of pathological conditions are 

present in this sample. Note, however, that the superficial nature of this sample precludes meaningful interpretation of the 

frequency of the various conditions. Frequencies are reported 

TABLE 8.—Measurements of crania, lower-chamber superficial collection. 

Measurement 

Maximum height 

Auricular height 

Porion-bregma 

Cranial length 

Cranial breadth 

Basion-bregma 

Minimum frontal breadth 

Upper facial height 

Facial breadth 

Nasal height 

Nasal breadth 

Orbital height 

Orbital breadth 

Maxillo-alveolar length 

Maxillo-alveolar breadth 

Palatal length 

Palatal breadth 

No. 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Female 

Mean 

117 

116 

116 

179 

141 

134 

92 

-

-

-

-

34 

40 

-

-

-

-

Range 

117 

116 

116 

174-185 

138-145 

134 

91-93 

-

-

-

-

34 

40 

-

-

-

-

No. 

7 

7 

7 

12 

12 

5 

15 

2 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

3 

2 

2 

Male 

Mean 

118 

116 

115 

182 

145 

133 

99 

75 

133 

55 

26 

36 

42 

54 

59 

44 

41 

Range 

114-122 

113-121 

111-119 

174-193 

138-173 

131-136 

89-113 

74-75 

133 

54-55 

25-26 

34-39 

41^3 

53-54 

53-66 

42^16 

40-41 
NUMBER 42 13 

TABLE 9.—Nonmetric observations of male crania, lower-chamber superficial collection. 

Skeletal feature 

Frontal grooves 

Supraorbital foramina 

Supraorbital notches 

Trochlear spur 

Accessory optic canal 

Infraorbital suture 

Os japonicum trace 

Wormian bones 

Parietal process of temporal squama 

Squamoparietal synostosis 

Auditory exostoses 

Pharyngeal fossa 

Paracondylar process 

Intercondylar canal 

Odonto-occipital articulation 

Divided hypoglossal canal 

Postcondylar canal 

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 

Tympanic dehiscence 

Foramen spinosum incomplete 

Observations 

17 

11 

11 

5 

3 

4 

1 

19 

15 

16 

11 

9 

7 

6 

7 

7 

6 

10 

10 

1 

Left 

Number 

present 

1 

1 

3 

1 

0 

1 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

1 

% 

present 

6 

9 

27 

20 

0 

25 

0 

11 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

50 

0 

0 

100 

Observations 

17 

12 

12 

5 

3 

3 

2 

19 

14 

16 

11 

-

7 

6 

-

7 

6 

9 

9 

-

Right 

Number 

present 

0 

2 

4 

2 

0 

2 

0 

2 

2 

0 

0 

-

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

-

% 

present 

0 

17 

33 

40 

0 

67 

0 

11 

14 

0 

0 

-

0 

0 

-

0 

33 

0 

0 

-

TABLE 10.—Nonmetric observations of female crania 

Skeletal feature 

Frontal grooves 

Supraorbital foramina 

Supraorbital notches 

Trochlear spur 

Accessory optic canal 

Wormian bones 

Parietal process of temporal squama 

Squamoparietal synostosis 

Auditory exostoses 

Pharyngeal fossa 

Paracondylar process 

Intercondylar canal 

Odonto-occipital articulation 

Divided hypoglossal canal 

Postcondylar canal 

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 

Tympanic dehiscence 

Foramen in lateral pterygoid process 

Foramen spinosum incomplete 

Pterygobasal bridge 

Pterygospinous bridge 

Clinoid bridge 

Observations 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

3 

2 

2 

-

-

2 

Left 

Number 

present 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-

0 

0 

-

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

lower-chamber superficial collection 

% 

present 

0 

0 

33 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-

0 

0 

-

0 

100 

0 

50 

0 

100 

0 

0 

0 

Observations 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

-

-

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Right 

Number 

present 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

-

-

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

% 

present 

0 

0 

33 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

100 

0 

100 

0 

100 

-

-

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

herein for comparative purposes but with the caution that the 

bones selected for this sample are not entirely representative of 

the complete skeleton. 

Trauma: Thirteen examples of trauma are present in 13 

bones. 

One left tibia shows a well-remodelled, healed fracture 155 

mm from the proximal end. 

Ossified ligaments about 25 mm in length are present on the 

distal lateral end of a left tibia, apparently initiated by local 

trauma. 

A right tibia shows a healed, well-remodelled fracture of the 

midshaft (Figure 2). 

Another right tibia shows a healed, well-remodelled fracture 

of the midshaft with abnormal angulation of the diaphysis (Figure 3). 

A left femur displays exostoses on the linea aspera. These 

exostoses are approximately 24 mm in length and 6 mm in 

height and are located 180 mm from the distal end. Smaller exostoses are located approximately 100 mm from the distal end. 

A well-remodelled, healed fracture is located on the diaphys-
14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 2.—Well-remodelled fracture of right tibia, lower-chamber superficial collection. 

FIGURE 3.—Well-remodelled fracture of right tibia, lower-chamber superficial collection. 

is of a left humerus. The fracture is located approximately 120 

mm from the distal end. The humerus is missing its proximal 

end and measures only 180 mm in total length. Because of the 

fracture, the distal end is abnormally dislocated anteriorly. 

One frontal displays a probable old healed depressed fracture. The fracture measures approximately 20 mm in diameter 

and is located in the midline above nasion. A metopic suture 

is diverted around the fracture and displays a complicated sutural pattern at the fracture site (Figure 4). This suggests the 

trauma occurred during childhood, probably at an age of 2 or 

3 years. 

The left parietal of a 30- to 40-year-old male shows a 96-mm 

fracture extending from the junction of the left coronal and 

squamosal sutures posteriorly across the parietal. No evidence 

of remodelling was noted, but the fracture shows considerable 

postmortem erosion. The fracture most likely represents perimortem trauma to the left temporal (bone not present). The 

possibility of postmortem fracture sustained many years ago, 

however, cannot be ruled out. 

The parietals of a 40- to 50-year-old male display a slight depression on the sagittal suture in the midline. The depression is 

13 mm in diameter and is located 44 mm from lambda. The lesion is well remodelled and probably represents trauma, although a developmental or infectious source cannot be ruled 

out. 

Two small, well-remodelled depressed fractures are located 

on the frontal of a 30- to 40-year-old male. One depression 

measures about 1.16 mm x 9 mm and is located on the left superior aspect of the frontal 16 mm from the coronal suture and 

15 mm from the midline. The second depression measures approximately 12 mm x 8 mm and is located 32 mm from the 

coronal suture and 39 mm from the midline. 

One distal right humerus fragment measuring about 90 mm 

in length shows a fracture about 50 mm from the distal end. 

The fracture is well remodelled with extensive periosteal alteration, likely representing associated infection. The joint surface 

of the distal end also shows extensive arthritic change. 

Another right humerus has a likely healed fracture of the 

midshaft about 140 mm from the proximal end. The length of 

the humerus fragment is about 250 mm. 

The ratio of adult bones with fractures (13) to total adults in 

the sample (50) is 0.26. 

Infection: Twenty-two bones from this sample show evidence of infection. This evidence consists of varying expressions of abnormal periosteal new bone formation, remodelling 

of new bone, and/or associated areas of bony destruction. 

Some examples of periosteal new bone formation may result 

from trauma, although at the time of examination all examples 

listed herein appeared to represent infection. 

A slight periosteal deposit is present on the proximal and 

distal (medial surface) ends of a right fibula. 
NUMBER 42 15 

FIGURE 4.—Depressed fracture associated with metopic suture from lower-chamber superficial collection. 

A left ulna shows well-remodelled reactive bone over most A right ulna displays fine pinpoint new periosteal bone on 

of the diaphyses, especially the proximal end. the proximal end of the lateral surface 78 mm from the proxi-
16 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

mal end. This lesion shows no remodelling, indicating it was 

active at the time of death. 

Another right ulna shows well-remodelled periosteal new 

bone formation over much of the lateral diaphysis. The external 

surface is rough and irregular. 

A left tibia shows a minimal but detectable well-remodelled 

lesion about 28 mm in length on the proximal lateral surface. 

A small area of active periosteal new bone formation is 

present on the distal and proximal ends of a left tibia. No evidence of remodelling was present. 

The anterior surface of a proximal tibia shows evidence of 

mild periostitis in an area measuring about 14 mm x 23 mm. 

No evidence of remodelling is present. 

A right tibia shows a well-remodelled periosteal lesion 36 

mm in length on the proximal lateral surface. 

A left femur displays a mild periosteal reactive lesion on the 

anterior midshaft. 

Another left femur shows a well-remodeled lesion on the 

medial distal diaphysis, 94 mm in length. Approximately twothirds of the anterior surface is abnormally thickened. 

A tibia shows a lesion, active at the time of death, approximately 11 mm x 11 mm in size on the medial-distal surface. 

A left femur is noticeably thickened with well-remodelled 

periosteal apposition. The entire diaphysis displays an irregular 

surface. 

Another left femur displays evidence of extensive infection. 

Deposits of fine bone and recognizable cloacae are present at 

the midshaft. The fragment length is 302 mm. All proximal 

surfaces are involved. The bony reaction is most extensive at 

the proximal end. 

A well-remodelled periosteal lesion is located on a right femoral midshaft just above the nutrient foramen medial to the linea aspera. The affected area shows a slight thickening and measures about 28 mm in length. 

A right femur shows a well-remodelled periosteal lesion approximately 81 mm in length. 

A left distal humerus fragment 95 mm in length is abnormally thick, with well-remodelled periosteal lesions over much of 

the surface. 

A fragment from the frontal of a 40- to 50-year-old male 

shows abnormal thickening and extensive well-remodelled lesions in the bregma area. The bone is approximately 8 mm 

thick in this area, in contrast to only about 4 mm on the parietals. The bone is very weathered, thus postmortem effects may 

be present as well. 

The frontal and parietals of a 40- to 50-year-old male are 

very rough and abnormally thickened (Figure 5). The affected 

areas are well remodelled. A small, smooth-walled, crater-like 

depression 8 mm in diameter is present on the left parietal. An 

FIGURE 5.—Remodelled lesions on frontal and parietals of male from lower-chamber superficial collection. 
NUMBER 42 17 

abnormal foramen about 4 mm in diameter connects the affected area of the frontal to the frontal sinus. Fine new bone 

has been deposited on the inferior border of the foramen. 

The frontal of a 40- to 50-year-old male shows a very large, 

well-remodelled, crater-like lesion. The lesion is very well remodelled but is extremely rough and irregular. The affected 

area covers much of the superior frontal area and extends to 

the right supraorbital margin. Interconnecting deep, craterlike lesions are present. 

A right humerus distal diaphysis fragment 200 mm long 

shows extensive, well-remodelled periostitis over most of its 

surface. 

The ratio of bones (22) with evidence of periosteal infection 

to adults (50) in the sample is 0.44. 

Tumors: Evidence of tumors is confined to several examples of primary benign tumors. 

The internal surface of a frontal of a 40- to 50-year-old 

male shows a round, sclerotic, raised lesion (Figure 6) measuring about 13 mm x 17 mm. The center of this lesion is not 

raised. The lesion is located about 30 mm superior to the orbits. A small button osteoma is located on the left frontal. It 

measures about 5 mm x 6 mm. 

A small button osteoma is located on the left parietal of a 

male. The osteoma measures about 4 mm in diameter. 

The left frontal area of a 30- to 40-year-old male shows a 

small button osteoma approximately 45 mm from the coronal 

suture and 22 mm from the midline. 

Developmental Anomalies: The occipital of a male shows 

a slight depression in the superior occipital area just right of 

the midline. The depression measures about 8 mm x 15 mm 

and likely represents a developmental anomaly. 

Abnormal Curvature of Long Bones: Two bones in this 

sample show abnormal bowing of the limbs that appear to 

represent problems during the growth period. One fibula 

shows marked lateral bowing. When the bone is resting on its 

medial surface against a flat table, the distance from the table 

surface to the lowest point of the midpoint of the shaft is 22 

mm. 

A left ulna shows abnormal posterior bowing. Evidence of 

periostitis also is present on the bone. 

FIGURE 6.—Lesion on endocranial surface of a frontal, lower-chamber superficial collection. 
18 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

Dental Disease: Summary statistics on dental disease are 

available in Table 11. This table reveals that only 28 permanent teeth were recovered (no deciduous teeth). The small 

number of teeth present reflects the fact that many of the maxillae and mandibles recovered had lost teeth postmortem. 

Such teeth lost within the ossuary would tend to fall within 

the bone matrix and not be recovered in a superficial collection such as this. 

Of 114 observations on the presence or absence of teeth in 

the maxillae and mandibles, 52 had been lost antemortem 

(46%). 

Only 19 permanent teeth were sufficiently intact to allow 

observations for carious lesions. Six lesions were noted, for a 

frequency of 32%. These six lesions were the following: Cranium 1, a 2 mm lesion in the occlusal surface of a maxillary 

right first molar; and Cranium 45 (all maxillary), a 2 mm lesion in the mesial surface of a right lateral incisor, a 4 mm lesion in the occlusal surface of a right second molar, a 3 mm 

lesion in the mesial surface of a left lateral incisor, a 3 mm lesion in the occlusal surface of the left second molar, and a 3 

mm lesion in the occlusal surface of the left third molar. Lesions on the left maxillary teeth have restorations. The restoration on the lateral incisor appears to be of porcelain, whereas that on the second molar appears to be a silver amalgam. 

Of 107 observations on alveolar abscesses, only four abscesses (Figure 7) were found (3.7%). 

Dental calculus was minimally present and was evenly distributed between the buccal and lingual surfaces. 

No examples of hypoplasia were located. 

TABLE 11.—Dental disease in lower-chamber superficial collection. (Calculus deposits: 0=none, S=slight, 

M=medium, L=large.) 

Tooth 

Right maxillary 

Left maxillary 

Right mandibular 

Left mandibular 

Total 

I

1 

I

2 

C 

PM1 

PM2 

M

1 

M

2 

M

3 

I

1 

I

2 

C 

PM1 

PM2 

M

1 

M

2 

M

3 

I. 

h 

C 

PM, 

PM2 

M, 

M2 

M3 

II 

h 

C 

PM, 

PM2 

M, 

M2 

M3 

Present 

0 

2 

2 

3 

2 

1 

4 

1 

0 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

28 

Absent antemortem 

Observations Absent 

5 

6 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

3 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

114 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

5 

4 

4 

52 

Carious 

Observations 

0 

3 

0 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

19 

Carious 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6 

Alveolar abscess 

Observations 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

5 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

107 

Abscessed 

2 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

2 

1 

2 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

13 

Buccal 

S 

0 

0 

1 

1 

I 

0 

3 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

13 

M 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

Calculus 

L 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

1 

2 

0 

1 

2 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

15 

Lingual 

S 

0 

0 

2 

1 

2 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

14 

M 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

L 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 
NUMBER 42 19 

FIGURE 7.—Alveolar abscess in a right maxilla, lower-chamber superficial collection. 

LOWER-CHAMBER STRATA CUT 

Human remains from the strata cut within the lower chamber 

were poorly preserved. No articulations were noted during excavation. Two distal left femoral articular surfaces displayed 

postmortem (not recent) cut marks. One incision is 8 mm long 

and is located on the lateral superior border. The other incision 

is approximately 10 mm long and is located on the medial superior surface. Both incisions appear to have been made by a 

knife-like instrument. The extent of coloration of the cut surfaces and the presence of fungus and debris on the cut surfaces 

suggest that the incisions were made many years ago, perhaps 

at the time the remains were transferred to the ossuary. The 

lack of remodelling on the incised surfaces and the locations of 

the incisions suggest that they likely reflect postmortem defleshing of the remains at the time of transfer to the ossuary. 

TOTAL INVENTORY.—At least 25 immature individuals are 

represented by left femora. The total numbers of other immature bones are as follows: 10 left and nine right humeri, four 

left and two right radii, six left and three right ulnae, 24 right 

femora, 13 left and 19 right tibiae, 15 fibulae, six left and five 

right frontals, two left and one right clavicle, one left and six 

right scapulae, one left and one right temporal, five mandibles, 

six left and five right ilia, one left ischium, one left pubis, two 

individuals represented by ribs, and one by vertebrae. 

Comparison of the sizes of the individual bones indicates 

that at least 29 immature individuals are likely present. Sorting 

of the femora by size suggests that the following individuals 

are present: five newborns (71-90 mm); nine aged 6 months to 

1.5 years (110-140 mm); six 1.5- to 2.5-year-old individuals 

(145-165 mm); four 2.5- to 3.5-year-old individuals (180-192 

mm); one 4.5- to 5.5-year-old (225-230 mm); two 5.5- to 6.5-

year-old individuals (250-260 mm); one 6.5- to 7.5-year-old 

(350 mm); and one 7.5- to 8.5-year-old (360 mm). All ages estimated from the lengths of other immature long bones and 

from the calcification of teeth present fall within those listed 

above. 

At least 17 adults are represented by mature bones within the 

sample. The number of individuals represented by each type of 

bone is as follows: 12 left humeri, 13 right humeri, four left radii, seven right radii, five left ulnae, eight right ulnae, 16 left 

femora, 17 right femora, 12 left tibiae, 14 right tibiae, three left 

fibulae, three right fibulae, four left and three right clavicles, 

one left and three right scapulae, two left and one right temporals, four mandibles, two left and one right innominates, and 

one first and one second cervical vertebrae. Other bones include two other cervical vertebrae, 17 thoracic vertebrae, six 

lumbar vertebrae, one sacrum, eight metacarpals (representing 

at least two individuals), and two hand phalanges and 19 foot 

bones (representing at least four individuals). 
20 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

The above data suggest that at least 46 individuals are represented in the sample, 29 subadults and 17 adults. 

Sex Distribution: The sex distribution of the adults in the 

sample is difficult to determine because of the incomplete representation of the individuals. The sizes of the left femora indicate that eight females and six males are present. The right 

femora indicate that five females and seven males are present. 

Collectively, the femora suggest that males and females are 

evenly represented in the ossuary. Of the 15 adults for whom 

sex can be estimated reliably, eight are female and seven are 

male. 

ADULT AGE AT DEATH.—Reliable estimates of age at death 

for adults in the sample are difficult because relatively few crania and innominates are present. Morphology of two innominates (male and female) present both suggest ages at death of 

50-60 years. Three male crania indicate ages at death of 20-30 

years, 35—45 years, and 50-60 years. Microscopic aging of 

femoral cortical bone was not attempted because of the poor 

preservation of the remains and the presence of extensive fungal growth that likely would preclude recognition of the relevant microscopic structures. 

Because age at death can be estimated for so few adults, life 

table construction was not attempted. The relatively high percentage of immature remains to those of adults (29 compared 

with 17) indicates a relatively high subadult mortality and low 

life expectancy at birth, assuming adequate representation of 

the sample. 

LIVING STATURE.—Estimates of living stature are available 

for only six adults: five females and one male. The statures 

were all calculated from femoral lengths using the formulae of 

Trotter (Ubelaker, 1989:61). The following femoral lengths 

(first number, in mm) and calculated statures (second number, 

in cm) are available for females: 383, 149; 388, 150; 410, 156; 

415, 157; 425, 160. The single male estimate is femoral length 

440 mm, stature 165 cm. These data suggest a female stature 

range from 149 cm to 160 cm with a mean of 154 cm (standard 

deviation 4.72). The only male stature estimate is 165 cm. 

MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.—Only one cranium 

was complete enough to allow measurements and observations. 

For this male individual, minimum frontal breadth was 94 mm, 

and orbital breadth was 44 mm. 

Observations on nonmetric cranial traits are as follows (observations from the left side precede those from the right side 

of the cranium; A=absent, P=present): frontal grooves, PP; supraorbital foramina, PP; trochlear spur, AA; accessory optic 

canal, AA; parietal process of temporal squama, AA; squamoparietal synostosis, AA; auditory exostoses, AA; marginal foramen of tympanic plate, AA; and tympanic dehiscence, AA. 

PATHOLOGY.—Evidence of pathology in this sample is confined to fractures (trauma), periosteal lesions (likely infection), 

unusual bowing of the limbs (likely developmental due to vitamin deficiency), porotic hyperostosis, and dental disease. 

Trauma: Examples of trauma in this sample are limited to 

two bone fractures. One right ulna shows a fracture of the inferior aspect of the olecranon process. The fracture is well remodelled, indicating the trauma occurred many years before 

death. 

A left humerus displays a well-remodelled fracture of the 

distal end. The fractured area is very distorted with the medial 

half displaced superiorly. 

The two fractures suggest a ratio of fractured bones (2) to 

adults (17) in the sample of 0.12. 

Infection: Likely examples of infection are found on five 

bones: a right humerus, femoral midshaft of undetermined side, 

right tibia, left tibia, and left fibula. The right humerus diaphysis is abnormally thick and displays the irregular surface indicative of well-remodelled periostitis. 

The femur is extremely thick and "club-like." The surface is 

very irregular and is suggestive of well-remodeled, massive infection of the upper leg. 

The right tibia consists of a distal fragment approximately 

260 mm in length showing extensive, well-remodelled thickening of the entire fragment. The surface shows the irregular 

thickening indicative of extensive periostitis. 

The same pattern of extensive, well-remodelled periostitis is 

apparent on a left tibia and left fibula. Both bones show evidence of extensive remodelling and are fused. 

The five examples suggest a ratio of bones showing evidence 

of infection (5) to adults (17) in the sample of 0.29. 

Porotic Hyperostosis: No evidence of porotic hyperostosis 

was noted among the adult sample. Two examples of cribra orbitalia were found in the immature sample. Of six left and five 

right frontals, one left and one right frontal orbit displayed the 

fine porosity of cribra orbitalia in the superior orbit area. The 

bones appear to have originated from one individual, an infant. 

The two bones suggest a ratio of bones with porotic hyperostosis to total individuals in the sample (46) of 0.04. 

Bowing of the Limbs: Two bones in the sample show evidence of abnormal bowing of the limbs. An adult right fibula of 

undetermined sex shows abnormal medial bowing. When the 

bone is resting on a flat table surface with the bowed medial 

surface of the fibula located at the highest point above the surface, the maximum distance from the table surface to the bone 

at the maximum point of bowing is 22 mm. 

An immature fibula with an estimated maximum length of 

220 mm (age of individual about 7 years) also displays marked 

abnormal curvature. 

Dental Disease, Deciduous Teeth: Only 14 mandibular 

teeth are present. These consist of one left and one right canine, 

three left and three right first molars, and three left and three 

right second molars. Of 14 observations on the presence or absence of teeth, none were lost antemortem. 

Of 14 observations on carious lesions, only one was present. 

One right first molar displayed a lesion 5 mm in diameter on 

the crown. 

Of 14 observations on teeth with associated alveolar abscesses, no abscesses were noted. 
NUMBER 42 21 

All of the teeth present displayed slight dental calculus on 

both the buccal and lingual surfaces. 

Dental Disease, Permanent Teeth: No permanent teeth 

were recovered from this sample. Of five mandibles recovered, 

four were completely edentulous. The fifth mandible showed 

antemortem loss of the molars and second premolars, but the 

anterior teeth had been lost postmortem. Thus, of 72 observations on the presence or absence of teeth, 64 had been lost antemortem, a rate of 88.9%. Of 72 observations on teeth with associated alveolar abscess, no abscesses were noted. 

SIDE-CHAMBER BOXES 

Because many of the boxes in the side chamber were too 

large and/or fragile to be removed to the laboratory for analysis, the skeletal contents were removed and processed in the 

normal manner. Although 12 boxes were identified, human remains were found and removed from only 11. No human remains were identified from Box 6. The following discussion 

first describes the skeletal content of each box and then groups 

the data from all boxes into a single sample. 

Box 1.—This box contains the mostly complete skeleton of 

an adult male between the ages of 33 and 38 years. Most major 

bones of the skeleton are present. Two right ribs and many 

small bones of the hands and feet are missing. The hyoid as 

well as ossified thyroid cartilage are present. Only four maxillary teeth are present: the first premolars, the right third molar, 

and the left second molar. Absent antemortem were the maxillary first molars and the right second molar. A metal restoration 3 mm in diameter is located in the occlusal surface of the 

right maxillary third molar. No alveolar abscesses are present. 

The individual has a very European-appearing face with a 

metopic suture. A small depressed fracture is located in the 

midfrontal area about 12 mm right of the midline. 

The combined lengths of the femur and tibia are 850 mm and 

indicate a living stature of about 174 cm, using the formulae of 

Trotter for white males (Ubelaker, 1989:61). 

Box 2.—This box contains the mostly complete skeleton of 

one adult male, aged 38-43 years. Bones missing are the left 

patella, several hand bones, and many of the small bones of the 

feet. Five extra rib fragments are present. The hyoid and ossified cricoid also are present. All maxillary teeth are present except for the central incisors. Mandibular teeth present are the 

right second premolar, right second molar, left central incisor, 

and left molars. All other teeth were lost postmortem except for 

the mandibular right first molar, absent antemortem. Five teeth 

show carious lesions, all located in the occlusal surface of the 

crown and varying in size from 2 mm to 3 mm. The teeth affected are the maxillary right first molar, maxillary left first 

premolar, mandibular right second molar, and mandibular left 

first and second molars. A metal restoration is present in the 

mandibular left first molar, but most of the crown has been destroyed by caries. No alveolar abscesses are present. 

Femur lengths of 425 mm suggest a living stature of about 

163 cm, using the formula of Trotter for white males (Ubelaker, 1989:61). 

Features of the face strongly indicate a European origin. The 

incisor teeth are not shovel-shaped. Short, brown, straight hair 

is present on the mastoid processes. No pathological conditions 

are present on the skeleton. 

BOX 3.—This box contains the incomplete skeletal remains 

of multiple individuals. At least three immature individuals are 

represented by the right portion of the mandible. Immature 

bones present are the following: one left ulna, one left and two 

right femora, one left tibia, two fibulae, one left and one right 

maxilla, two left and three right mandibles, one right ilium, one 

right rib, one vertebra, one left parietal, one frontal, and the 

right orbit area from a second frontal. 

Adult bones present consist of three left and three right humeri; one right radius; one left and one right ulna; three left, 

two right, and two side-undetermined femora; four left and 

three right tibiae; two left and one side-undetermined fibula; 

one left and two right scapulae; four left and four right temporals; four left and three right maxillae; three left and one right 

mandible; one manubrium; three left and two right innominates; one cervical vertebra; four thoracic vertebrae; six lumbar 

vertebrae; two sacra, one distal hand phalanx; one left and one 

right calcaneus; two left and one right talus; and five ribs. 

One female left femur displays two parallel cut marks on the 

lateral-anterior side of the head (Figure 8). The incisions are 10 

mm and 15 mm long, respectively, and are located about 3 mm 

apart. The incisions were made with a knife-like fine blade and 

are not of recent origin. The incisions show no evidence of remodelling, thus they are of perimortem or postmortem origin. 

The location of the incisions suggests they result from attempts 

to disarticulate or to remove flesh from the bones, rather than a 

homicidal type of stabbing. 

Lengths of the long bones and the extent of dental maturation 

for the three immature individuals suggest ages at death of 

about 3, 5, and 7 years of age. 

For the adult individuals, pubic symphysis morphology, the 

extent of dental attrition and cranial suture closure, and other 

observations suggest that one male, aged 37-45 years, is 

present as well as three females, aged 22-37 years, 40^45 

years, and 45-60 years. 

Maximum lengths of the femora and tibiae suggest a living 

stature of 172 cm for the male and living statures of 155 cm, 

159 cm, and 164 cm for the three females. 

Measurements and observations on the facial bones and teeth 

of these individuals suggest a European origin. 

Gross pathology on these remains is confined to slight cribra 

orbitalia on both orbits of the youngest child. 

Six deciduous teeth are present: the four maxillary molars 

and two right mandibular molars. Of 22 observations on the 

presence or absence of teeth, none were absent antemortem. 

Of the six deciduous teeth present, all are carious. The 

crowns on all of the teeth present are mostly destroyed. One of 
22 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIGURE 8.—Cut marks on female left femur, Box 3. 

the six teeth (maxillary left second molar) also has an associated alveolar abscess. 

All of the deciduous teeth show slight calculus deposits on 

both the buccal and lingual surfaces. 

Fourteen permanent teeth are present. Of 72 observations on 

the presence or absence of teeth, 25 were absent antemortem. 

Three of the 14 permanent teeth present are carious. The distal half of the crown of a maxillary right second molar is destroyed. A 5 mm lesion is located on the mesial surface of a 

maxillary left third molar. The crown is destroyed on a maxillary left first molar. 

Of 57 observations on alveolar abscesses, only four are 

present, all associated with maxillary teeth: right first, second, 

and third molars, and a left first molar. 

Dental calculus was minimally expressed within this sample. 

Observations were five deposits absent, five slight deposits, 

and two medium deposits on the buccal surfaces and 12 slight 

deposits on the lingual surfaces. 

No examples of hypoplasia were noted. 

Box 4.—This box contains the incomplete remains of multiple individuals. Immature remains consist of one left ilium, two 

ribs, and three vertebrae. The size of the ilium suggests it originates from a 6-year-old child. 

Most of the mature remains originate from an adult female, 

aged 35—45 years. At least three adults are present, however, 

two females and one male. Specific bones present are the following: one left and one right humerus, one left and one right 

radius, one left and one right ulna, one left and one right femur, 

one left and one right tibia, one left and one right fibula, one 

left clavicle, one left scapula, one left and one right maxilla, 

one gladiolus and manubrium of the sternum, one left and one 

right innominate, one left and one right patella, two cervical 

vertebrae, two thoracic vertebrae, one sacrum, one left first 

metacarpal, one middle hand phalanx, one right calcaneus, one 

right talus, one right first cuneiform, one right first and one 

right second metatarsal, two foot phalanges, and five left and 

five right ribs. Frontal bones from three individuals, two females and one male, also are present. 

Maximum length of the right fibula of the 35- to 45-year-old 

female of 319 mm suggests a living stature of about 153 cm. 

In addition to the 35- to 45-year-old female (most of the remains), an incomplete cranium of a 60- to 70-year-old female 

also is present. 

A right femur displays a series of horizontal incisions made 

with a blade-type instrument. Five incisions are located between the greater trochanter and the head. The lesions lack evidence of remodelling and thus were inflicted perimortem or 

postmortem. The presence of dark staining and debris within 

the incisions indicates they are not of recent origin. The location of the incisions indicates they likely were made postmortem in the process of disarticulating or defleshing the remains. 
NUMBER 42 23 

A bony exostosis is present on the anterior surface of a tibia 

approximately 52 mm from the distal articular surface. The exostosis is 16 mm long and 5 mm wide. 

Eight permanent teeth are present, all maxillary. Although 

the deciduous left canine is present, the occlusal tip of the 

unerupted permanent left canine is visible near the roots of the 

permanent first premolar. 

Of 16 observations on the presence or absence of teeth, two 

had been lost antemortem, the maxillary first molars. None of 

the eight teeth are carious. 

Observations of dental calculus deposits are one absent and 

seven slight on both the buccal and lingual surfaces. 

BOX 5.—This box contains the incomplete remains of multiple individuals. Immature bones present are as follows: four 

left and four right humeri, two left and one right radii, two left 

and one right ulna, three left and five right femora, three left 

and five right femora, three left and four right tibiae, three fibulae, one left clavicle, two right scapulae, one left and five right 

temporals, one left and two right maxillae, two mandibles, two 

left and three right ilia, one left ischium, one left and one right 

pubis, two ribs, two carpals and tarsals, eight vertebrae, and 

various other cranial fragments. 

Comparison of the sizes of the bones present as well as the 

stage of dental development suggests that at least seven immature individuals are present. Their ages at death were newborn, 

6 months, 1.5 years, 2 years, 3 years, 6 years, and 7.5 years. 

Mature remains present consist of one left and one right femur and one left and one right tibia. The bones are small and 

thus likely originate from a female. The estimated length of the 

right tibia, about 320 mm, suggests a living stature of about 

154 cm. 

No evidence of disease was noted, and no fully erupted teeth 

are present. 

BOX 7.—This box also contains the incomplete remains of 

multiple individuals. Immature remains are limited to a left humerus, left ischium, two ribs, and a femoral distal epiphysis. 

The size of the humerus indicates it likely originates from a 

1.5-year-old infant. The femoral epiphysis likely originates 

from a 12- to 14-year-old. 

The following bones of adults are present: one right humerus, one left ulna, two left and four right femora, one left and 

one right tibia, one right fibula, one right temporal, one left and 

one right maxilla, two mandibles, one first cervical vertebra, 

one right second metacarpal, one right fourth metatarsal, and 

one cranium missing most of the left side. 

The cranium appears to originate from a female between the 

ages of 35 and 40 years. One femur appears to represent a female with a living stature of about 171 cm. 

A well-remodelled healed fracture of the right humerus is located approximately 90 mm from the proximal end. Alignment 

of the proximal and distal segments is abnormal, with the medial aspect of the distal segment rotated anteriorly. 

Of 48 observations on the presence or absence of teeth, seven were lost antemortem. Of the 27 teeth present, one is carious 

and one shows hypoplasia. The carious lesion is 3 mm in diameter and is located on the occlusal surface of the mandibular 

right second molar. The hypoplastic defect is located on the 

mid-crown area of the mandibular left canine. 

Observations on dental calculus were 26 slight deposits on 

the buccal surfaces and 23 slight deposits and 3 medium deposits on the lingual surfaces. 

Box 8.—This box contains the relatively complete skeleton 

of an adult male. Bones missing are confined to the left patella; 

one thoracic vertebra; all of the carpal bones; and several 

metacarpals, phalanges, ribs, and bones of the feet. The extent 

of metamorphosis of the symphyseal face of the right innominate and other skeletal indicators suggest an age at death of between 36 and 40 years. Maximum lengths of the fibulae, about 

370 cm, suggest a living stature of about 171 cm. 

The complete cranium reveals a well-remodelled, healed 

fracture of the nasal bones. The nose would have been slightly 

dislocated to the right, with a deviated nasal septum. 

All maxillary teeth and the mandibular molars, right second 

premolar, and the left first premolar are missing antemortem. 

Teeth present are the right canine and right first premolar, 

which lack carious lesions and hypoplasia and show medium 

calculus deposits. 

Box 9.—This box contains the skeletal remains of one child 

and one adult. All bones of the immature individual are present 

except for the pubis; patella; calcaneus; talus; and several ribs, 

carpal and tarsal bones, and vertebrae. The remains appear to 

represent a 6-year-old child. Five deciduous teeth are present: 

the maxillary canines, maxillary right second molar, mandibular right canine, and mandibular left second molar. Three deciduous teeth (maxillary right second molar, mandibular right 

first molar, mandibular left second molar) had been lost abnormally antemortem with extensive remodelling of the alveolar 

surface. 

Three of the five deciduous teeth present are carious. These 

teeth and the size and locations of the lesions are as follows: 

maxillary right canine, buccal surface, 1 mm; mandibular right 

canine, buccal surface, 1 mm; left second molar, all of the 

crown surface. 

Of 11 observations on alveolar abscess, one abscess is 

present, associated with the mandibular left second molar. 

Slight dental calculus is present on both the buccal and lingual surfaces. 

Two permanent teeth also are present in the child maxilla. 

The two first molars show no caries and have slight calculus 

deposits. 

All adult bones are present except for several small bones of 

the hands and feet. The large size of the bones and the appearance of the pelvis indicate male sex. 

Various morphological details on the skeleton indicate an 

age at death of between 60 and 70 years. Lengths of the left femur (441 mm) and the tibia (357 mm) suggest a living stature 

of about 167 cm. 

The cranium displays very large styloid processes (46 mm in 

length), a button osteoma on the left frontal (4 mm in height), 

and copper staining on the inferior aspect of the occipital. 

Three ribs of this individual show healed fractures. Fractures 

are located in the upper one-third of a left third or fourth rib, 50 
24 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

mm from the sternal end of a right third or fourth rib, and 110 

mm from the sternal end of a ninth or tenth rib. 

All teeth were lost antemortem, and no active abscesses are 

present. 

Box 10.—The incomplete skeletal remains of two adults are 

present. Bones missing are a right radius, left ulna, left and 

right tibia, several vertebrae, several ribs, and several hand and 

foot bones. Two complete crania and one hyoid are present. 

Both skeletons appear to be female, one aged 25-35 years 

and one aged 35-45 years. Pubic bones from both skeletons 

show deep pits of parturition (Figure 9). The pits are larger and 

deeper in the older woman. 

Maximum fibula lengths of 318 mm and 326 mm suggest 

living statures of 157 cm and 159 cm. 

One proximal hand phalanx shows a well-healed fracture on 

the distal end. One right greater multangular also shows a wellhealed fracture with extensive eburnation. 

In the dentition of the younger female, seven teeth are 

present, of which one (the mandibular right first molar) has a 

metal restoration 2 mm in length on the buccal surface. Six of 

the 32 teeth had been lost antemortem, and no alveolar abscesses are associated. Observations on dental calculus deposits 

were two deposits absent, four slight deposits, and one medium 

deposit on the buccal surfaces; two deposits absent, three slight 

deposits, and two medium deposits on the lingual surfaces. 

All teeth of the older individual had been lost antemortem 

with no associated active alveolar abscesses. 

Box 11.—This box contains the mostly complete skeletons 

of two adult males. All bones are present except for several 

ribs, vertebrae, and bones of the hands and feet, and one left femur. Morphology of the innominates indicates ages at death of 

40 to 50 years and 65 to 75 years. Parietal thinning (parietals 

very irregular) is present on the older male. 

Long-bone measurements suggest living statures of about 

164 cm and 169 cm. 

Four bones show evidence of disease. A right tibia has extensive destruction and new bone proliferation over much of the 

proximal end. 

FIGURE 9.—Deep pits of parturition, Box 10. 
NUMBER 42 25 

A right femur has a well-remodelled, healed fracture on the 

distal one-third of the diaphysis, approximately 120 mm from 

the distal end. The distal end is abnormally rotated medially. 

The fracture extends from a point on the lateral surface 65 mm 

superior to the distal articular surface to a point on the medial 

surface 165 mm superior to the distal articular surface. The distal articular surface is very uneven, with extensive new bone 

formation. Apparently, infection followed fracture of the bone. 

A right radius shows an old, healed, well-remodelled fracture 

of the midshaft. The distal half is abnormally displaced posteriorly. 

A right patella displays large porous bone formation on most 

of the posterior surface (Figure 10). The abnormality most likely represents infection. 

The older individual is completely edentulous, with no evidence of active alveolar abscess. 

Twenty-two teeth of the younger individual are present. 

Three of the mandibular teeth (both second molars and the left 

third molar) are carious. All lesions are on the occlusal surface 

and measure about 2 mm in diameter. No hypoplasia is present. 

Slight deposits of dental calculus are present on both the buccal 

and lingual surfaces of all teeth except for medium deposits on 

the buccal surface of the right maxillary first molar, both surfaces of the mandibular canine and first premolar, and the lingual surface of the left first premolar. 

Only the mandibular right first molar had been lost antemortem. No active alveolar abscesses are present. 

Box 12.—This box contains the mostly complete remains of 

two adults. Bones missing include one left and one right fibula, 

one cervical vertebra, and various bones of the hands and feet. 

Morphological details suggest both individuals are females between the ages of 45 and 60 years. One individual has slight 

scars of parturition on the pubic bones. The other individual 

lacks such pits. 

Femoral long-bone lengths of 430 mm and 442 mm suggest 

living statures of 160 cm and 163 cm. 

The maxilla and left portion of the mandible (right portion 

not present) of one individual are edentulous, with no alveolar 

abscesses. 

Two teeth are present on the other individual, a maxillary left 

canine, and a mandibular right first premolar. Neither of these 

teeth are carious. The canine lacks calculus, whereas slight deposits are present on the premolar. No hypoplasia is present. 

Nineteen teeth had been lost antemortem, but no active alveolar 

abscesses are present. 

TOTAL INVENTORY.—The 11 boxes contained at least 33 individuals (Table 12): 14 immature individuals and 19 adults 

(eight males and 11 females). Three boxes (1, 2, 8) contained 

only one individual. Each of these individuals were males between the ages of 33 and 43 years. The other boxes contained 

multiple individuals ranging in number from two (Boxes 9, 10, 

FIGURE 10.—Abnormal porous bone formation on patella, Box 11. 
26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 12.—Skeletal contents of each box. 

Box number 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Individuals 

1 

1 

7 

4 

8 

3 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Age (years) 

33-38 

38^13 

3 

5 

7 

37-45 

22-37 

40-45 

45-60 

6 

20-60 

35^t5 

60-70 

newborn 

0.5 

1.5 

2 

3 

6 

7.5 

20-60 

1.5 

12-14 

35^10 

36-40 

6 

60-70 

25-35 

35-45 

40-50 

65-75 

45-60 

45-60 

Sex 

male 

male 

? 

? 

? 

male 

female 

female 

female 

? 

male 

female 

female 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

female 

7 

? 

female 

male 

? 

male 

female 

female 

male 

male 

female 

female 

11, 12) to eight (Box 5). None of the remains in the boxes 

were articulated, thus, they apparently had been transferred to 

the boxes from another location after the soft tissue had decomposed or had been removed. Incisions of the upper femur 

area of adults from Boxes 3 and 4 suggest that at least some of 

the flesh had been removed with the use of a knife or large 

blade. 

AGE AT DEATH.—Table 13 presents the age at death data in 

the form of a life table. The data suggest a life expectancy at 

birth of about 29 years and life expectancy at age 15 of about 

31 years. 

LIVING STATURE.—Estimates of living stature are available 

for six males and 10 females. All estimates were calculated 

using the formulae of Trotter for whites (Ubelaker, 1989:61). 

For individuals in the boxes, living stature for males ranged 

from 163 cm to 174 cm, with a mean of 168.6 cm. Female 

stature ranged from 153 cm to 171 cm, with a mean of 159.5 

cm. 

MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.—Observations on 

cranial and dental morphology of remains within the boxes 

suggest that all individuals are of predominately European ancestry. These observations include the lack of shovel-shaped 

incisor teeth, the presence of metopic sutures in the crania, and 

especially the appearance of the face. Detailed measurements 

and observations on the crania and mandibles are presented in 

Tables 14 through 17. 

PATHOLOGY.—Many of the bones show evidence of disease 

and abnormalities, especially trauma. 

Trauma: Eleven bones from five boxes show trauma of the 

humerus, nasal bones, ribs, hand phalanges, carpal bones, femur, radius, and frontal. The 11 bones with trauma suggest a 

ratio of bones with trauma to the total number of adults (19) in 

the sample of 0.58. 

Infection: Evidence of infection is limited to a right tibia, 

right femur, and right patella, all from Box 11. Infection on 

these three bones suggests a ratio to the total number of adults 

(19) of 0.16. 

TABLE 13.—Life table for box sample. (Dx=total number of individuals per age interval, dx=percentage of individuals dying in each age interval, lx=number of survivors of a theoretical cohort of 100 individuals entering 

each age interval, qx-probability of death in each age interval, Lx=total number of years lived during each age 

interval, Tx=total number of years lived after a lifetime of all individuals entering each age interval, e°x=life expectancy of all individuals entering each age interval.) 

Age interval 

0-0.9 

l^t.9 

5-9.9 

10-14.9 

15-19.9 

20-24.9 

25-29.9 

30-34.9 

35-39.9 

40-44.9 

45^9.9 

50-54.9 

55-59.9 

60-64.9 

65-69.9 

70-74.9 

Dx 

2 

5 

6 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

3 

7 

1 

3 

0 

0 

2 

1 

dx 

6.06 

15.15 

18.18 

3.03 

0 

0 

3.03 

3.03 

9.09 

21.21 

3.03 

9.09 

0 

0 

6.06 

3.03 

lx 

100.00 

93.94 

78.79 

60.61 

57.58 

57.58 

57.58 

54.55 

51.52 

42.43 

21.22 

18.19 

9.10 

9.10 

9.10 

3.04 

qx 

0.0606 

0.1613 

0.2307 

0.0500 

0 

0 

0.0526 

0.0555 

0.1764 

0.4999 

0.1428 

0.4997 

0 

0 

0.6659 

0.9967 

Lx 

96.970 

345.460 

348.500 

295.475 

287.900 

287.900 

280.325 

265.175 

234.875 

159.125 

98.525 

68.225 

45.500 

45.500 

30.350 

7.625 

Tx 

2897.430 

2800.460 

2455.000 

2106.500 

1811.025 

1523.125 

1235.225 

954.900 

689.725 

454.850 

295.725 

197.200 

128.975 

83.475 

37.975 

7.625 

e°x 

28.97 

29.81 

31.16 

34.76 

31.45 

26.45 

21.45 

17.50 

13.39 

10.72 

13.94 

10.84 

14.17 

9.17 

4.17 

2.51 
NUMBER 42 27 

TABLE 14.—Measurements of male crania and mandibles, box 

Measurement 

Maximum height 

Auricular height 

Porion-bregma 

Cranial length 

Cranial breadth 

Basion-bregma 

Minimum frontal breadth 

Upper facial height 

Facial breadth 

Nasal height 

Nasal breadth 

Orbital height 

Orbital breadth 

Maxillo-alveolar length 

Maxillo-alveolar breadth 

Palatal length 

Palatal breadth 

Bicondylar breadth 

Bigonial breadth 

Height of ascending ramus 

Minimum breadth of ascending ramus 

Height at mandibular symphysis 

Total facial height 

1 

116 

116 

111 

177 

141 

132 

102 

68 

46 

21 

35 

41 

54 

56 

46 

36 

-

-

2 

123 

119 

116 

183 

145 

134 

98 

67 

125 

48 

22 

34 

41 

51 

62 

49 

36 

115 

94 

58 

36 

31 

114 

3 

-

-

-

-

-

35 

38 

47 

56 

41 

38 

-

-

Box number 

8 

Ul 

109 

108 

166 

138 

131 

90 

72 

120 

53 

25 

38 

41 

47 

56 

40 

34 

110 

91 

67 

26 

32 

9 

120 

120 

118 

181 

142 

139 

95 

70 

133 

57 

23 

34 

46 

51 

55 

48 

40 

127 

88 

66 

34 

30 

sample 

11 

125 

122 

121 

181 

144 

134 

102 

74 

135 

58 

25 

35 

41 

56 

62 

50 

36 

129 

97 

62 

35 

32 

122 

(S.D.=standard deviation.) 

11 

123 

122 

120 

186 

144 

122 

102 

78 

129 

54 

25 

35 

42 

53 

50 

46 

31 

127 

102 

65 

28 

33 

Total 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

2 

Mean 

120 

118 

116 

179 

142 

132 

98 

72 

128 

53 

24 

35 

41 

51 

57 

46 

36 

122 

94 

64 

32 

32 

118 

S.D. 

5.28 

4.94 

5.16 

7.01 

2.58 

5.62 

4.92 

4.09 

6.07 

4.80 

1.76 

1.35 

2.37 

3.40 

4.19 

3.86 

2.85 

8.53 

5.41 

3.65 

4.49 

1.14 

5.66 

Range 

111-125 

109-122 

108-121 

166-186 

138-145 

122-139 

90-102 

67-78 

120-135 

46-58 

21-25 

34-38 

38^46 

47-56 

50-62 

40-50 

31^40 

110-129 

88-102 

58-67 

26-36 

30-33 

114-122 

TABLE 15.—Measurements of female crania and mandibles, box sample. (S.D.=standard deviation.) 

Measurement 

Box number 

10 10 12 12 Total Mean S.D. Range 

Maximum height 

Auricular height 

Porion-bregma 

Cranial length 

Cranial breadth 

Basion-bregma 

Minimum frontal breadth 

Upper facial height 

Facial breadth 

Nasal height 

Nasal breadth 

Orbital height 

Orbital breadth 

Maxillo-alveolar length 

Maxillo-alveolar breadth 

Palatal length 

Palatal breadth 

Bicondylar breadth 

Bigonial breadth 

Height of ascending ramus 

Minimum breadth of ascending ramus 

Height at mandibular symphysis 

119 

118 

117 

173 

149 

137 

101 

71 

-

52 

25 

38 

44 

51 

59 

46 

40 

-

-

-

-

-

114 

107 

107 

168 

121 

93 

45 

22 

38 

40 

47 

55 

39 

32 

94 

32 

113 

112 

110 

170 

136 

91 

110 

110 

108 

164 

130 

117 

84 

67 

116 

49 

24 

34 

38 

49 

58 

42 

36 

108 

87 

59 

27 

29 

112 

110 

108 

172 

133 

119 

87 

61 

118 

50 

24 

34 

37 

46 

46 

40 

37 

122 

99 

60 

28 

94 

66 

52 

25 

35 

41 

46 

53 

43 

41 

53 

23 

121 

116 

113 

179 

142 

125 

94 

71 

122 

54 

24 

34 

40 

56 

50 

46 

33 

116 

87 

55 

30 

25 

115 

112 

111 

171 

138 

124 

92 

67 

119 

50 

24 

36 

40 

49 

54 

43 

37 

115 

92 

57 

27 

29 

4.26 

4.12 

3.83 

5.06 

7.58 

7.95 

5.48 

4.15 

3.06 

3.14 

1.10 

1.97 

2.45 

3.87 

4.93 

2.94 

3.62 

7.02 

5.85 

3.30 

2.94 

3.51 

110-119 

107-118 

107-117 

164-173 

130-149 

117-137 

84-101 

61-71 

116-122 

45-52 

22-25 

34-38 

37^*4 

46-56 

46-59 

39^6 

32^40 

108-122 

87-99 

53-60 

23-30 

25-32 

Tumors: One small benign "button" osteoma tumor is 

present on a frontal from Box 9. 

Porotic Hyperostosis: Two frontal orbits show evidence of 

cribra orbitalia in remains from Box 3. This suggests the percentage of individuals (2) with porotic hyperostosis among the 

total number of individuals in the sample (33) is 6. 

Dental Disease, Deciduous Teeth: Eleven deciduous teeth 

are present. Nine of these have carious lesions (82%). Of 30 

observations on the presence or absence of teeth, three (10%) 

were abnormally absent antemortem. Of 17 observations for 

the presence or absence of alveolar abscesses, two (12%) abscesses were noted. All calculus deposits (11) were slight on 

both the buccal and lingual surfaces. 

Dental Disease, Permanent Teeth: Of 108 permanent teeth 

in the box sample, 14 (13%) are carious. Of 434 observations on 

the presence or absence of teeth, 214 (49%) were absent ante-
28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

TABLE 16.—Nonmetric observations of male crania and mandibles, box sample. Observations on skeletal features that are not sided straddle columns. (L=left, R=right, A= absent, N=notch, P=present.) 

Skeletal feature 

Mylohyoid bridge 

Accessory mental foramen 

Frontal grooves 

Supraorbital foramina 

Trochlear spur 

Accessory optic canal 

Infraorbital suture 

Os japonicum trace 

Wormian bones 

Parietal process of temporal squama 

Squamoparietal synostosis 

Auditory exostoses 

Pharyngeal fossa 

Paracondylar process 

Intercondylar canal 

Odonto-occipital articulation 

Divided hypoglossal canal 

Postcondylar canal 

Marginal foramen of tympanic 

Tympanic dehiscence 

plate 

1 

L 

-

-

A 

P 

A 

A 

-

-

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

R 

-

-

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

2 

L 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

R 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

3 

L 

-

-

P 

P 

A 

A 

A 

-

-

-

A 

A 

P 

-

-

-

-

-

A 

A 

R 

-

-

-

N 

A 

A 

A 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Box number 

L 

A 

A 

A 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

8 

A 

A 

R 

A 

A 

A 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

9 

L 

A 

A 

A 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

R 

A 

A 

A 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

L 

A 

A 

P 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

11 

R 

A 

A 

P 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

L 

A 

A 

P 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

11 

R 

A 

A 

P 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

TABLE 17.—Nonmetric observations of female crania and mandibles, box sample. Observations on skeletal features that are not sided straddle columns. (L=left, R=right, A= absent, N=notch, P=present.) 

Skeletal feature 

Mylohyoid bridge 

Accessory mental foramen 

Frontal grooves 

Supraorbital foramina 

Trochlear spur 

Accessory optic canal 

Infraorbital suture 

Os japonicum trace 

Wormian bones 

Parietal process of temporal squama 

Squamoparietal synostosis 

Auditory exostoses 

Pharyngeal fossa 

Paracondylar process 

Intercondylar canal 

Odonto-occipital articulation 

Divided hypoglossal canal 

Postcondylar canal 

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 

Tympanic dehiscence 

Box number 

1 

L 

-

-

A 

N 

-

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

R 

-

-

A 

P 

-

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

2 

L 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

R 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

L 

-

-

A 

P 

A 

-

-

A 

A 

A 

A 

-

-

-

-

-

A 

4 

R 

-

-

A 

N 

A 

-

-

A 

A 

A 

A 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

A 

L 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

10 

A 

A 

R 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

L 

A 

A 

P 

N 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

10 

A 

A 

R 

A 

A 

P 

N 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

L 

A 

A 

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

-

-

-

-

-

-

_ 

-

-

-

-

12 

R 

-

-

A 

P 

A 

A 

A 

A 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

_ 

-

-

12 

L R 

A A 

A A 

P P 

P P 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

A A 

A 

A A 

P P 

A A 

P 

mortem. Of 397 observations on alveolar abscess, only four 

(1%) abscesses were noted. Observations for dental calculus 

were made on 104 permanent teeth. The frequencies of these 

observations are 10 deposits absent, 87 slight deposits, seven 

medium deposits, and no large deposits on the buccal surfaces; 

four deposits absent, 88 slight deposits, 12 medium deposits, 

and no large deposits on the lingual surfaces. Only one dental 

hypoplastic defect was present (1%). 

Summary 

The above analysis suggests that 226 individuals are present 

in the entire sample, 111 subadults and 115 adults. Note that although complete inventories were made of all material in the 

superficial samples and in the boxes, the strata cuts represent 

only a minimal sampling of the entire ossuary. These recovered 

remains, coupled with the minimal 201 individuals represented 
NUMBER 42 29 

in the nonossuary samples (Ubelaker, 1994a), produce a sample of at least 427 individuals from the San Francisco facility. 

Comparative data from Ecuador are available from the following sources: Ubelaker, 1980a, 1980b, 1981, 1983, 1988a, 

1988b, 1988c, 1988d, 1988e, 1990, 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 1996, 

and Ubelaker and Rousseau, 1993. 

MORTUARY PRACTICES 

Articulated skeletons were found only in the stratigraphic excavation of the upper chamber. Analysis indicates that 22 individuals (9 adults, 13 subadults) are represented by the 74 articulations. Four individuals appeared to be generally complete, 

three males and one female. This indicates that about 30% of 

the upper-chamber sample was at least partially articulated at 

the time of deposit in the ossuary. All other remains in the ossuary were secondary, indicating that the flesh had decomposed or had been altered before their transfer. Note that several of the bones show evidence of intentional removal of the 

flesh. The bones provide no clues regarding the original repository of the bodies before ossuary burial. Presumably they were 

interred in the ground or in niches. All samples except the superficial sample of the lower chamber appear to represent cross 

sections of the population, i.e., infants, children, men, and 

women are present. The exception is the superficial sample of 

the lower chamber, which is primarily composed of middleaged men. It seems probable that during the period from AD 

1770 to 1890, the disarticulated remains of church officials 

were deposited in this lower chamber, or for some other reason 

only adult males were selected for burial at this site. As noted 

earlier, remains of recent individuals are present in this sample 

as well. 

ANCESTRY 

Morphological analysis and observations indicate that nearly 

all of the individuals in these samples are of mostly European 

origin. The exception is the individual of apparent African ancestry found within the excavation of the upper chamber. Evidence of African ancestry also was found in the church sample 

(Ubelaker, 1994a). Individuals of the zagudn and atrium samples were exclusively of South American Indian origin, whereas those of the main cloister and church samples likely were of 

European as well as of South American Indian origin (Ubelaker, 1994a). 

STATURE 

Average values for living stature of adult males in these samples ranged from 164 cm (upper-chamber superficial sample) 

to 170 cm, and female values ranged from 149 cm to 160 cm. 

All of these values, except those for the modern boxes, fall 

within the range of variation documented for prehistoric populations (157-164 cm for males, 148-161 cm for females), even 

though they likely represent individuals of very different ancestries. Mean stature values for the previously reported historic Quito samples ranged from 145 cm to 161 cm for males and 

from 149 cm to 155 cm for females. 

PATHOLOGY 

PERIOSTEAL LESIONS.—Lesions of the bone periosteal surfaces likely represent skeletal response to infection, although 

other causes, such as trauma, cannot be ruled out in some cases. To make these data comparable with those recorded from 

other samples, they are expressed as the ratio of bones with lesions to the total number of adults in the sample and to the total 

number of individuals in the samples. The ratios of bones with 

lesions to adults in the ossuary samples range from 0.16 to 

0.76. These values fall within the ranges of this ratio previously 

documented for historic Quito samples (0.06-1.00) but exceed 

those of prehistoric samples (0-0.61). Values for the ratio using the total number of individuals in the ossuary samples 

(0.09-0.42) extend the previously documented range for historic Quito samples (0.03-0.26) but fall within the prehistoric 

range (0-0.55). No temporal trend in periosteal lesions is apparent within the ossuary samples. 

Most evidence of infection from all samples suggests nonspecific periostitis. The possible exceptions are the frontal lesions from the lower-chamber superficial sample. The multiple, small, cavitating lesions appear consistent with those 

produced by tertiary syphilis of the cranial vault, although other types of infection cannot be ruled out. 

TRAUMA.—Comparative data on traumatic lesions are expressed as the ratios of bones with evidence of trauma to the total number of adults in the sample and to the total number of individuals in the sample. Within the ossuary samples, the former 

values range from 0 to 0.58, whereas the latter values range 

from 0 to 0.33. The high values exceed the range previously 

documented for other historic Quito samples (0-0.19 for 

adults; 0-0.09 for individuals) as well as the prehistoric range 

(0-0.33 for adults; 0-0.19 for individuals). The modern box 

sample shows the lowest level of infectious disease but shows a 

high frequency of trauma. The data suggest a trend toward increasing trauma within the ossuary samples. Although no examples of trauma were found in the upper-chamber superficial 

sample, values for the comparatively recent box sample and 

lower-chamber superficial sample are substantially greater than 

those from the upper and lower strata-cut samples. This trend 

likely reflects an increase in frequency of urban accidents and 

perhaps, to some extent, urban violence. 

LINES OF INCREASED DENSITY.—Another general measure 

of morbidity in the population involves assessment for evidence of disruptions in the normal long-bone growth due to dietary or disease stress. Temporary slowdown in growth in response to stress may leave behind lines of increased density 

that can be detected through radiography. In the ossuary samples, distal tibiae of mature and immature individuals were ex-
30 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 

amined for these lines. Radiographs of 58 immature tibiae from 

both strata cuts (upper and lower chambers) revealed 22 bones 

with 44 lines. The size of each bone and the distance from the 

line (if present) to the distal end of the bone was measured. 

These measurements were then used to estimate the age of the 

individual represented by each bone as well as the age of formation of each line. As shown in Table 18, of 19 tibiae from 

the lower-chamber strata cut, from individuals aged newborn to 

6 years, four bones (21%) revealed nine lines for an average of 

0.47 lines per individual. The mean age of line formation was 

1.1 years, with a range from 1 to 1.5 years. 

The possibly slightly earlier sample from the upper-chamber 

strata cut showed a higher frequency of lines, with 46% of 

bones showing lines, 0.90 lines per bone, and a mean age of 

line formation of 1.3 years. The data perhaps suggest a temporal decrease in morbidity as indicated by lines of arrested 

growth. 

Lines of increased density from mature tibiae show a similar 

pattern. Mature tibiae were available from three samples: the 

modern box sample and the superficial samples from both the 

upper and lower chambers. Table 19 reveals that the percentage 

of bones with lines and the number of lines per individual are 

greatly reduced in the modern box sample in comparison to the 

earlier samples. 

Differences in age of line formation between the immature 

and mature samples likely reflect the elimination, by the remodelling process, in mature bones of lines formed early in 

life. The immature bones indicate that the first year of life was 

especially stressful in the early populations of Quito. The mature bones indicate that stress also occurred in the later childhood years, especially between 6 and 11 years. 

CARIOUS LESIONS.—The frequency of carious permanent 

teeth ranged from 6% to 32% in the ossuary samples, whereas 

the prehistoric range is 0% to 11%. The range of mean carious 

teeth values previously recorded for Quito samples is 5%-15%. 

Of particular notice is the 82% caries rate for deciduous teeth 

in the box sample. Values for the three most recent samples 

(box and superficial collections) are much higher than those for 

the strata cuts. These values likely represent the availability 

and extensive use of sugar in modern times. 

DENTAL HYPOPLASIA.—Very few permanent hypoplastic 

teeth were noted, with frequencies ranging from 0% to 3.6%. 

These values fall well within the prehistoric range of 0%-6% 

and are similar to those reported for other historic Quito samples (0%-3%). 

ANTEMORTEM LOSS OF TEETH.—Many teeth had been lost 

antemortem in the ossuary samples. Frequencies of antemortem loss ranged from 11% to 89%, largely reflecting the longevity of many of the individuals in the samples. This range is 

greater than that documented for prehistoric samples 

(1%—42%) and for other previously reported historic Quito 

samples (4%-24%). 

ALVEOLAR ABSCESSES.—Frequencies of active alveolar abscesses ranged from 0% to 6%, in contrast to a prehistoric 

range of 0% to 12% and the previously reported historic range 

of 1% to 6%. Again, this comparatively low frequency likely 

reflects the advancing age of many adults in these samples who 

likely had many abscessed teeth earlier in their lives. 

POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS.—Several examples of porotic hyperostosis of the immature frontal orbits (cribra orbitalia) were 

noted in the ossuary samples. The origin of this condition is not 

clear, although considering the European origin of the individuals represented, congenital anemias cannot be ruled out. Analysis of precontact samples shows such conditions are confined 

to coastal populations and likely represent acquired anemia. 

OTHER DISEASES.—The presence of tumors, exostoses, and 

abnormal long-bone curvature depart from the prehistoric pattern but are consistent with findings from other historic samples in the Quito area (Ubelaker, 1994a). 

The San Francisco ossuary samples document that early historic peoples of Quito were plagued with problems of disease. 

For the most part, however, although levels of morbidity were 

high, they were similar to those experienced by the indigenous 

populations during the late precontact period. Although the freTABLE 18.—Lines of increased density in immature tibiae. 

Sample 

Lower-chamber strata cut 

Upper-chamber strata cut 

Number of 

bones 

19 

39 

Bone size 

(mm) 

64-200 

61-208 

Bone age (yrs) 

newborn to 6 

newborn to 5 

Bones with lines 

number % Total lines 

4 21 9 

18 46 35 

Lines per individual 

0.47 

0.90 

Age of line formation 

Mean Range 

1.1 1-1.5 

1.3 0.5-5 

TABLE 19.—Lines of increased density in mature tibiae. 

Sample 

Box 

Lower-chamber superficial 

Upper-chamber superficial 

Bones with lines Age of line formation 

Number of bones Number % Total number of lines Lines per individual Mean Range 

11 1 9 1 0.09 9 

12 5 42 6 0.50 10 

11 4 36 4 0.36 7 

9-9 

8-11 

3-11 
NUMBER 42 31 

quency of the evidence for disease does not increase dramatically in this historic sample in comparison with that documented for precontact samples, the diversity of such evidence 

certainly does increase. 

The evidence of morbidity reported herein not only adds to 

the emerging geographical and temporal pattern gleaned from 

skeletal analysis, but it complements the historic record as 

well. Much of the archival evidence for the disease experience 

in Ecuador has been summarized and interpreted by Alchon 

(1991) and Newson (1995). Newson's reading of the archival 

evidence indicates a likely precontact presence of chronic and 

endemic diseases, especially respiratory and intestinal problems. Her list of specific diseases present include bartonellosis 

(carrion's disease, called Oroya fever in its acute phase and 

verruga peruana in its chronic phase), leishmaniasis (uta), Chagas' disease, treponemal disease, and possibly typhus. Alchon 

suggests that the following specific diseases likely were also 

present: toxoplasmosis, amebiasis, giardiasis, enterobiasis 

(pinworms), trichuriasis (whipworms), ancylostomiasis (hookworms), tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, blastomycosis, and 

possibly leptospirosis and herpes. 

In historic times, new diseases arrived from the Old World 

with severe impact on Ecuadorians. According to Newson 

(1995) and Alchon (1991), these may have included smallpox, 

pneumonic plague, measles, influenza, mumps, diptheria, scarlet fever, and malaria. These newly introduced diseases inflicted severe mortality on early historic populations of Ecuador. 

Newson and Alchon suggest major epidemics for the Quito 

area in the periods 1524-1528, 1531-1533, 1546, 1558-1589, 

1585-1591, and 1691-1695, resulting in significant depopulation. In addition, Alchon suggests that less severe epidemics 

occurred in 1611, 1618, and 1648 and occurred during the 

eighteenth century on an average of one epidemic every six 

years. 

It is difficult to correlate exactly the skeletal record of disease in the ossuary samples with the suggested historical record 

of epidemics. Most of the severe diseases fueling the epidemics 

resulted in rapid mortality that would not likely produce skeletal reaction. In addition, the samples reported herein cannot be 

dated with sufficient precision to allow accurate comparison 

with the historic record of epidemic disease. General discussion of this correlation is provided by Ubelaker (1994b, 1995, 

1996). 

DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILES 

Demographic data from the ossuary samples suggest high 

levels of mortality, especially during the earliest sample, the 

upper-chamber strata cut. Because the lower-chamber superficial sample represents mostly adult males, it clearly does not 

offer information about the general population. The other four 

samples appear to show a normal distribution of sexes and ages 

at death and thus may represent a cross section of the general 

population. Life tables were constructed only for the upperchamber strata cut and box samples, where the sample sizes 

were large and reliable ages at death could be established. Values for life expectancy at birth in these samples were 14 and 

29, respectively. The value for 14 for the oldest sample, the upper-chamber strata cut, approaches the lowest value recorded 

for precontact samples (12, precontact range 12-31). The box 

value of 29 falls at the upper end of the precontact range. Similarly, the values for life expectancy at age 15 of 30 and 31 for 

the ossuary samples are above the entire precontact range 

(18-26). Clearly, adult longevity increased in the populations 

represented by the ossuary samples over those of precontact 

populations. The range of life expectancy at birth for the nonossuary San Francisco samples was only 16 to 18. Values for 

life expectancy at age 15 for these samples was 15 to 22 years. 

The mean age of the ossuary samples ranged from 14 to 38 

years. This range is substantially greater than that previously 

documented for prehistoric Ecuadorean samples (12-31 years) 

and for other historic samples (10-25 years). 

The mean age at death for males in the ossuary samples was 

calculated to range from about 39 to 54 years. These values are 

considerably greater than those values previously reported for 

prehistoric samples (23-43 years) and other historic samples 

(25-41 years). 

Mean age at death of females (44—55 years) also is greater 

than values previously reported for prehistoric samples (22-40 

years) and other historic samples (18-55 years). 

The ratio of individuals less than 15 years of age to those age 

greater than 15 years also provides a comparative context. The 

ossuary samples suggest this ratio decreased through time from 

2.52 in the upper-chamber strata cut, to 1.71 in the lowerchamber strata cut, to 1.63 in the upper-chamber superficial 

sample, and to only 0.74 in the box sample. This temporal 

trend indicates an early very high rate of subadult mortality that 

gradually declined. This trend likely reflects the high demographic impact among the young of epidemic disease during 

the early colonial history of Quito. These values fall within 

those reported for precontact Ecuador, which range from 0.11 

at the highland site of Cumbaya to 2.50 in the small sample 

from the coastal site of Agua Blanca. The range reported herein 

is similar to that previously reported for historic samples from 

Quito (0.35-2.80). 

The data presented herein supplement those available from 

other historic samples from Quito and those dated to prehistoric times throughout Ecuador. The opportunity to study these 

ossuary samples greatly contributes to the growing knowledge 

about biological aspects of past Ecuadorean populations. Although the health problems encountered by the historic populations who were buried within the ossuary at San Francisco 

Church were considerable, they were not dramatically different 

from those endured by their South American Indian predecessors in ancient Ecuador. 
Literature Cited 

Alchon, Suzanne Austin 

1991. Native Society and Disease in Colonial Ecuador, viii+151 pages. 

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Bass, William M. 

1987. Human Osteology, A Laboratory and Field Manual. Third Edition, 

xviii+327 pages. Columbia, Missouri: Missouri Archaeological Society, Special Publication, number 2. 

Klepinger, Linda L. 

1979. Paleodemography of the Valdivia III Phase at Real Alto, Ecuador. 

American Antiquity, 44(2):305-309. 

Klepinger, L.L., J.K. Kuhn, and J. Thomas, Jr. 

1977. Prehistoric Dental Calculus Gives Evidence for Coca in Early 

Coastal Ecuador. Nature, 269:506-507. 

Munizaga, J.R. 

1965. Skeletal Remains from Sites of Valdivia and Machalilla Phases, Appendix 2. In B.J. Meggers, C. Evans, and E. Estrada Early Formative Period of Coastal Ecuador: The Valdivia and Machalilla Phases. 

Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, 1:219-234. 

1976. Intentional Cranial Deformation in the PreColumbian Populations of 

Ecuador. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 45: 687-694. 

Newson, Linda A. 

1995. Life and Death in Early Colonial Ecuador, xii+505 pages. Norman: 

University of Oklahoma Press. 

Stewart, T.D. 

1979. Essentials of Forensic Anthropology, Especially as Developed in the 

United States, xvii+300 pages. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas. 

Teran de Rodriguez, Paulina 

1988. Estudio de Investigacion Arquelogica, Convento de San Francisco 

de Quito, Sitio OPQSF-2. 6 pages. [Unpublished report, Instituto de 

Cooperacion Ibero Americana de Espana and Instituto de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador] 

Ubelaker, Douglas H. 

1980a. Human Skeletal Remains from Site OGSE-80, A Pre-Ceramic Site 

on the Sta. Elena Peninsula, Coastal Ecuador. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 70( 1 ):3-24. 

1980b. Prehistoric Human Remains from the Cotocollao Site, Pichincha 

Province, Ecuador. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 

70(2):59-74. 

1981. The Ayalan Cemetery: A Late Integration Period Burial Site on the 

South Coast of Ecuador. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, 29: 175 pages, 119 figures, 170 tables. 

1983. Human Skeletal Remains from OGSE-172, an Early Guangala Cemetery Site on the Coast of Ecuador. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 73( 1): 16-26. 

1988a. 

1988b. 

1988c. 

1988d. 

1988e. 

1988f. 

1989. 

1990. 

1994a. 

1994b. 

1995. 

1996. 

Ubelaker, 

1993. 

Human Remains from 0GSE46, La Libertad, Guayas Province Ecuador. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 78(1):3-16. 

Prehistoric Human Biology at La Tolita, Ecuador, A Preliminary Report. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 78(1): 23-37. 

A Preliminary Report of Analysis of Human Remains from Agua 

Blanca, A Prehistoric Late Integration Site from Coastal Ecuador. 

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 78(1): 17-22. 

Restos Humanos Prehistoricos del Sitio Cotocollao, Provincia del 

Pichincha, Ecuador, Appendix II. In Marcelo Vlllalba, Cotocollao: 

Una Aldea Formativa del Valle de Quito. Miscelania Antropologica 

Ecuatoriana, serie monografica, 2:557-571. Quito: Museos del 

Banco Central del Ecuador. 

Restos de Esqueletos Humanos del Sitio OGSE-80. In Karen E. Stothert, La Prehistoria Temprana de la Peninsula de Santa Elena, Ecuador: Cultura Las Vegas, pages 105-132. Guayaquil: Museos del 

Banco Central del Ecuador. 

Skeletal Biology of Prehistoric Ecuador: An Ongoing Research Program. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 78(1): 1-2. 

Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation. Second edition, xi+172 pages. Washington, D.C: Taraxacum. 

Human Skeletal Remains from "Jardin del Este," Cumbaya, Pichincha, Ecuador. In Jozef Buys, editor, La Preservacion y Promocion 

del Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador, pages 22-52. Quito: Instituto 

Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural, Cooperacion Tecnica EcuatorianaBelga No. 4. 

Biologia de los Restos Humans Hallados en el Convento de San 

Francisco. 225 pages. Quito: Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador and Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion Intemacional, Smithsonian Institution. [In Spanish, also published in English.] 

The Biological Impact of European Contact in Ecuador. In CS. 

Larsen and G.R. Milner, editors, In the Wake of Contact: Biological 

Responses to Conquest, pages 147-160. New York: Wiley-Liss. 

Osteological and Archival Evidence for Disease in Historic Quito, 

Ecuador. In S.R. Saunders and A. Herring, editors, Grave Reflections: Portraying the Past Through Cemetery Studies, pages 

223-239. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, Inc. 

The Impact of Infectious Disease. In E.P. Fischer and S. Klose, editors, Infectious Diseases: The Diagnostic Challenge, pages 157-198. 

Miinchen: Piper. 

D.H., and A. Rousseau 

Human Remains from Hospital San Juan de Dios, Quito, Ecuador. 

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 83(l):l-8. 

32