U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development | Office of Policy Development and Research
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Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research

Prepared by:

Planmatics, Inc.

Lalith de Silva

Imesh Wijewardena

Abt Associates Inc.

Michelle Wood

Bulbul Kaul

February 2011
i

The Evaluation of the Family Self-Sufficiency Program: Prospective Study has benefited from the input and support of a 

large number of people. The authors gratefully acknowledge all those people who contributed to the results and assisted 

in completing this work: the staff of the public housing authorities (PHAs) who graciously participated in the study 

data collection during the 5-year period of the study; the two Contracting Officer Technical Representatives, Jennifer 

Stoloff and Ashaki Robinson Johns, who directed the study and provided guidance; Lydia Taghavi, for providing Public 

Housing Information Center system data; and other U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s Office of 

Policy Development and Research staff members for providing technical oversight for the study.

This report was a collaborative effort by the staff of Planmatics, Inc., and a subcontracting partner, Abt Associates Inc. 

Several staff members at Planmatics and Abt Associates played important roles in this project. At Planmatics, Pahl 

Gunn and Richard Bosin conducted indepth interviews with Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) coordinators. Katia DaherAnenburg conducted telephone interviews with the sample of FSS families and caseworkers in the tracking sites. At Abt 

Associates, Jill Khadduri provided technical guidance and oversight throughout all phases of the project. K.P. Srinath 

developed the sampling approach to select the nationally representative sample of FSS programs. Daniel Gubits, Ken 

Lam, and Cristofer Price provided technical guidance for the regression analysis to examine participant and program 

characteristics associated with successful completion of FSS.

The study benefited from the participation of FSS coordinators in the 100 PHAs. Their collaboration made the results 

rich. The authors also acknowledge the efforts of FSS coordinators at the following four sites who provided invaluable 

information and assistance, both during visits to their locations and throughout the duration of the study: Nancy Scull 

and staff of the Housing Opportunities Commission in Montgomery County, Maryland; Nelly Diaz and staff of the 

Orange County (California) Housing Authority; Alexis Villa and staff of the Riverside County (California) Housing 

Authority; and Rebecca Stancil and staff of the Missoula (Montana) Housing Authority.

The authors also thank FSS coordinators and case managers assigned to the sample FSS families at the14 tracking sites 

for their continuous support over a span of 4 years; they helped achieve high response rates in the data collection tasks. 

They have been extremely cooperative and patient in providing annual updates of pertinent information on the families 

and sharing their insights on the progress made by the families toward achieving self-sufficiency during the successive 

rounds of telephone interviews during the course of the evaluation: City of Fresno (California) Housing Authority; 

County of Contra Costa (California) Housing Authority; Riverside (California) Housing Authority; Orange County 

(California) Housing Authority; Denver (Colorado) Housing Authority; Jacksonville (Florida) Housing Authority; 

Rockford (Illinois) Housing Authority; Wichita (Kansas) Housing Authority; Housing Opportunities Commission of 

Montgomery County, Maryland; Grand Rapids (Michigan) Housing Commission; Missoula (Montana) Housing Authority; New York City (New York) Housing Authority; Cincinnati (Ohio) Metropolitan Housing Authority; and the Akron 

(Ohio) Metropolitan Housing Authority.
ii

The Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) program was established by Section 554 of the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1990 to help residents of public housing and participants in the Housing Choice Voucher program 

become self-sufficient through education, training, case management, and other supportive services.

The Evaluation of the Family Self-Sufficiency Program: Prospective Study is the second of three studies on the FSS 

program by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). The first FSS study, Evaluation of the

Family Self-Sufficiency Program: Retrospective Analysis, 1996 to 2000 was completed in 2004. The 2004 study found 

that most FSS participants did better financially than non-FSS participants.

The current study, Evaluation of the Family Self-Sufficiency Program: Prospective Study was conducted from 2005 

through 2009. This study examined programmatic features and family characteristics that appear to influence the success 

of families participating in the FSS program. It also includes a description of FSS operations, policies, and approaches 

in a representative sample of 100 public housing authorities (PHAs).

This study finds that the financial benefits are substantial for participants who remain in and graduate from the FSS program. The study also highlights certain personal and program characteristics that tend to make families more successful 

in FSS. (For example, those with higher levels of education at enrollment did better.) These findings suggest approaches 

that program administrators can take to target FSS services more effectively.

The Office of Policy Development and Research (PD&R) will launch two additional FSS-related efforts in fiscal year 

2011. The first effort will examine whether study participants who were still enrolled when the prospective study ended 

went on to graduate from the FSS program and whether they met their goals for financial self-sufficiency. The second 

effort will launch the third installment of the evaluations of FSS evaluation, The Family Self-Sufficiency Program 

Demonstration. This random assignment demonstration is designed to evaluate whether the benefits that FSS program 

participants enjoy (examples include income gain, savings, educational attainment, and economic improvement) can, 

with certainty, be attributed to the effectiveness of the FSS program.

These findings will be of great interest to both policymakers and program advocates and it is a privilege to present them 

to the public.

Raphael W. Bostic

Assistant Secretary for Policy Development and Research
iii

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................................................... vii

Study Overview.................................................................................................................................................... vii

FSS Program.............................................................................................................................................................. viii

FSS Services and Case Management................................................................................................................... viii

Characteristics of the Tracking Study Participants................................................................................................ ix

FSS Outcomes.............................................................................................................................................................. ix

Graduates and Other Exiters.................................................................................................................................. ix

Participants Still Enrolled in FSS at the End of the Study Period.......................................................................... x

Summary of Findings............................................................................................................................................. x

Chapter 1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background and Context of the FSS Program........................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Purpose of the Study and the Final Report............................................................................................................. 2

Sampling Plan......................................................................................................................................................... 3

Data Sources and Timeframe................................................................................................................................. 4

1.3 Organization and Contents of This Report............................................................................................................. 5

Chapter 2. FSS Programs.................................................................................................................................................. 6

2.1 Profile of FSS Programs......................................................................................................................................... 6

Program Age and Size............................................................................................................................................ 6

Program Goals........................................................................................................................................................ 6

Services Provided by FSS....................................................................................................................................... 7

FSS Coordinator..................................................................................................................................................... 7

Case Management in the Tracking Sites................................................................................................................ 8

Local Economic Conditions and Changes Over Time........................................................................................... 9

Challenges to FSS................................................................................................................................................. 10

2.2 FSS Participants................................................................................................................................................... 11

Chapter 3. Tracking Study Programs and Participants............................................................................................... 13

FSS Programs in the Tracking Study.................................................................................................................... 13

Characteristics of the Tracking Group at Enrollment........................................................................................... 14

Comparing the Tracking Group With the Sample of FSS Enrollees.................................................................... 14

Characteristics of the Tracking Group.................................................................................................................. 15

Chapter 4. FSS Tracking Group Program Experience................................................................................................ 19

4.1 Final Outcomes Observed for the Tracking Group Participants.......................................................................... 19

Cumulative Probability Plot................................................................................................................................. 20

Reasons for Leaving the FSS Program................................................................................................................. 21
iv

4.2 Comparing FSS Graduates, Other Exiters, and Still-Enrolled Participants......................................................... 22

Employment.......................................................................................................................................................... 23

Household Income................................................................................................................................................ 25

FSS Program Goals, Interim Milestones, and Case Manager Assessments.......................................................... 27

Services Needed and Received............................................................................................................................. 30

Escrow Account................................................................................................................................................... 31

Interim Withdrawals............................................................................................................................................. 34

Escrow Account Compared With Other Savings Programs................................................................................. 35

Prospects for Completing FSS Among the Still-Enrolled Participants................................................................ 35

Chapter 5. FSS Program Models and Program Success.............................................................................................. 38

5.1 Hypothesized Effects............................................................................................................................................ 38

5.2 Methodology of Competing Risk Hazard Analysis and Model Results.............................................................. 42

5.3 Discussion of Findings......................................................................................................................................... 43

Summary of Findings........................................................................................................................................... 44

Chapter 6. Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................... 45

Escrow.................................................................................................................................................................. 45

FSS Outcomes...................................................................................................................................................... 45

Reasons for Leaving FSS..................................................................................................................................... 46

Case Management................................................................................................................................................ 46

Appendix A. Timeline of Evaluation Activities Completed ......................................................................................... 47

Appendix B. Data Sources............................................................................................................................................... 48

Appendix C. Sampled PHAs and Replacement Sites, Year 1...................................................................................... 49

Appendix D. FSS Program Tenure and Services Offered, Tracking Sites................................................................. 52

Appendix E. FSS Participant Count by Site and Data Source, 2005–09 (181 Participants)..................................... 54

Appendix F. FSS Tracking Group Data......................................................................................................................... 55

Appendix G. Tabulations of PIC Data for FSS Participants in the Sample PHAs and the Original 

Tracking Sites............................................................................................................................................ 60
v

Table 1. PHAs Selected as Tracking Sites in 2006 ........................................................................................................... 4

Table 2. Sources of Data for the Final Report................................................................................................................... 5

Table 3. Case Manager Tenure, Previous Work Experience, and FSS Caseload Size...................................................... 8

Table 4. FSS Participants by Report Type—Representative Sample.............................................................................. 11

Table 5. Demographic Characteristics of FSS Participants Compared With Non-FSS, Nonelderly, Nondisabled 

Voucher Participants.......................................................................................................................................... 12

Table 6. FSS Participant Income..................................................................................................................................... 12

Table 7. PHAs and FSS Participants in the Study........................................................................................................... 13

Table 8. Size of the FSS Program: Tracking Sites Compared With Representative Sample of FSS Programs.............. 13

Table 9. FSS Program Staffing and Case Management: Tracking Sites Compared With Other FSS Programs............. 14

Table 10. Comparing FSS Participants in 14 Tracking Sites and the 99 FSS Programs With the Tracking Group 

Participants......................................................................................................................................................... 15

Table 11. Reported Income Sources for Tracking Group Participants in the Year of Enrollment..................................... 16

Table 12. Tracking Group Participants: Employment Status in the Year of Enrollment in FSS...................................... 16

Table 13. ITSP Goals at the Time of FSS Enrollment for the Tracking Group................................................................ 16

Table 14. Service Needs Reported by Tracking Group Participants in the Year of Enrollment in FSS........................... 17

Table 15. Case Manager Perceptions of Prospects for Participant Success in the Year of Enrollment in FSS................ 17

Table 16. Case Manager Perceptions of Barriers to Contract Completion in the Year of Enrollment in the FSS 

Tracking Group.................................................................................................................................................. 18

Table 17. FSS Program Status of Study Participants by Year of Enrollment................................................................... 20

Table 18. Reasons for Leaving the FSS Program and Escrow Balances for Program Exiters.......................................... 22

Table 19. Comparing Still-Enrolled FSS Participants With Exiters and Graduates......................................................... 22

Table 20. Employment Status of FSS Graduates, Other Exiters, and Still-Enrolled Participants...................................... 23

Table 21. Employment Status of Still-Enrolled FSS Participants..................................................................................... 24

Table 22. Average Weekly Hours Worked and Average Hourly Wage for Mostly Employed Group............................. 24

Table 23. Average Weekly Hours Worked and Average Hourly Wage for Mostly Employed Group 

(43 of the 66 Still-Enrolled Participants).......................................................................................................... 24

Table 24. Proportion of Mostly Employed (43 of the 66 Still-Enrolled Participants) Group Reporting Fringe Benefits... 25

Table 25. Proportion of Mostly Employed Group Reporting Fringe Benefits.................................................................. 25

Table 26. Average Annual Household Income for Graduates, Exiters, and the Still-Enrolled Participants at Program 

Enrollment and End of the Tracking Period ...................................................................................................... 25

Table 27. Selected Sources of Income for Still-Enrolled FSS Participants ...................................................................... 26
vi

Table 28. Selected Sources of Income for FSS Graduates and Exiters............................................................................. 26

Table 29. Individual Goals Established in the First Year of the FSS Program................................................................... 27

Table 30. Milestones Attained in 2009 or the Last Year of FSS Program Participation.................................................... 29

Table 31. Case Manager Assessment of Potential for FSS Program Completion............................................................. 29

Table 32. Service Needs Identified at Time of FSS Program Entry.................................................................................. 30

Table 33. Service Needs and Service Receipt at Time of FSS Program Entry and in 2009 for Active Participants ........ 30

Table 34. Service Needs and Service Receipt at Time of FSS Program Entry and in 2009 for Graduates ...................... 31

Table 35. Service Needs and Service Receipt at Time of FSS Program Entry and in 2009 for Exiters........................... 31

Table 36. Escrow Balance for FSS Tracking Study Participants....................................................................................... 32

Table 37. Escrow Account Balance at the End of the Tracking Period for the 66 Still-Enrolled FSS Participants.......... 32

Table 38. Changes in Escrow Account Balances for FSS Participants With Positive Escrows as of September 2009

(in 2009 Dollars) ............................................................................................................................................... 33

Table 39. Ending Escrow Balance, by Employment Status and Income at Program Start for Active FSS Participants 

With Ending Escrow Balances Greater Than $5,000 ........................................................................................ 33

Table 40. Ending Escrow Balance, by Employment Status and Income at FSS Program Start for Graduates With 

Ending Escrow Balances Greater Than $5,000 ................................................................................................. 34

Table 41. Ending Escrow Balance, by Employment Status and Income at FSS Program Start for Other Exiters With 

Ending Escrow Balances Greater Than $2,500 ................................................................................................. 34

Table 42. Annual Household Income for Employment and Escrow Groups for Active FSS Participants 

(in 2009 Dollars) ............................................................................................................................................... 36

Table 43. Employment Experiences and Ending Escrow Status....................................................................................... 36

Table 44. Average Annual Household Income by Employment and Escrow Groups (in 2009 Dollars)........................... 36

Table 45. Hypothesized Effects of FSS Participant and Program Characteristics on Graduation vs. Unsuccessful Exit..... 40

Table 46. Descriptive Statistics for the Independent Variables for the FSS Program Graduates, Exiters, and the 

Still-Enrolled Participants................................................................................................................................. 41

Table 47. Subhazard Ratios of the Coefficient Estimates in the Competing Risk Models............................................... 42
vii

Abstract of Findings

The Evaluation of FSS Program: Prospective Study examined Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) program 

characteristics in a representative sample of 100 housing agencies. The study also followed a group of 

181 FSS participants in 14 programs, observing their FSS experiences and outcomes. After 4 years in 

the FSS program, 24 percent of the study participants completed program requirements and graduated 

from FSS. When the study ended, 37 percent had left the program without graduating and 39 percent 

were still enrolled in FSS. Program graduates were more likely to be employed than other exiters or the 

still-enrolled participants. Program graduates also had higher incomes, both when they enrolled in FSS 

and when they completed the program, than participants with other outcomes. Staying employed and 

increasing their earned incomes helped graduates to accumulate substantial savings in the FSS escrow 

account. The average escrow account balance was $5,294 for program graduates, representing about 27 

percent of their average household income at the time of program enrollment.

The Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) program was established by Section 554 of the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1990 to help residents of public housing and participants in the Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) 

program become self-sufficient through education, training, case management, and other supportive services. FSS 

programs are administered by public housing authorities (PHAs) in conformance with U.S. Department of Housing and 

Urban Development (HUD) regulations (24CFR984). Families that volunteer to participate in FSS sign a 5-year contract 

of participation (COP) with the PHA that specifies the steps both the family and the PHA will take to move the family 

toward economic independence.

The FSS program has three primary components—the escrow account, case management, and referrals to supportive 

services––that work together to help families build assets and make progress toward self-sufficiency. Through the 

use of FSS escrow accounts, the program offers families the opportunity to save money and an incentive to increase 

work effort and earnings. The escrow balance is established when a participant’s earned income increases, resulting in 

increases in the tenant’s monthly contribution to rent. An escrow credit, calculated by the PHA based on increases in 

earned income, is deposited each month into interest-bearing accounts managed by the PHA. Families that successfully 

complete the FSS program receive their accrued FSS escrow funds plus interest. No formal restrictions exist on the use 

of the escrowed funds, but many families use the funds to help with the purchase of a home, debt reduction, or postsecondary education or to start a new business.

This report presents the final analysis of a prospective study of the FSS program for families that use HCVs. The 

study examined programmatic features and family characteristics that appear to influence the success of families in 

completing FSS program requirements. The analysis is based on a sample of 181 FSS participants in 14 programs who 

were tracked for 4 years after they enrolled in the program. The analysis also includes a description of FSS operations, 

policies, and approaches in a representative sample of 100 PHAs.

Study Overview

The evaluation focuses on the following research questions: (1) What is the nature of FSS programs that PHAs operate? 

(2) What are the outcomes experienced by a group of participants from program enrollment until 4 years later? (3) What 

program features are associated with successful outcomes for program participants?

In 2004, HUD contracted with Planmatics, Inc., and Abt Associates Inc. to design and implement the study. The team 

selected a representative sample of 100 PHAs in the first year and collected information from FSS coordinators in 2005. 

A tracking study was conducted in a subsample of 14 sites, each selected on the basis of having between 15 and 20 
viii

families newly enrolled in FSS during the third and fourth quarters of 2005. Altogether, 181 FSS participants from the 

14 sites were included in the tracking study. These families are referred to throughout the report as the “tracking group,” 

or as “tracking study participants.” Every year, case managers assigned to each family in the tracking group provided 

information about the family’s employment status, household income, progress in achieving FSS goals, escrow account, 

and services received through FSS. The case managers provided this information from written participant checklists and 

from telephone interviews with the research team. Administrative data from HUD’s Public and Indian Housing Information Center system (PIC) were also collected annually for the tracking group to provide additional information about 

participant characteristics and changes over time. The evaluation also included site visits to four FSS programs and 

telephone interviews with a small number of FSS participants to learn more about their experiences with the program.

FSS Program

More than 60 percent of the sampled programs had operated at least 10 years as of 2005, and only four had operated for 

fewer than 6 years. As of 2008, 28,469 HCV participants were enrolled in FSS programs. The average FSS participant 

was 39 years old, with an annual income of $16,842.

At the time of the 2005 interviews with FSS coordinators, nearly one-half of the coordinators expected their programs 

to grow during the coming year. One-half of the coordinators said their programs were already operating at full capacity 

and unable to take on more participants. The programs in the 14 tracking sites remained stable during the study period, 

although one program closed.

FSS Services and Case Management

FSS programs provide access to a range of supportive services, primarily through referrals to local service providers. 

Case management is an integral component of the FSS program. At most programs, FSS case managers are PHA staff. 

They conduct needs assessments, develop the Individual Training and Services Plan, and refer participants to other 

providers to receive education, employment assistance, counseling, childcare, and other supportive services. In many 

FSS programs, PHA staffs also provide homeownership counseling and financial literacy training. In most programs, 

PHA staffs provide training and information about the escrow account.

By design, the 14 programs in the tracking study were larger than the average FSS program. The tracking study programs 

had a median of 306 FSS participants compared with a median of 153 participants in the larger sample of FSS programs. 

The selection was intentionally focused on FSS programs that were willing to participate in the study and that had up to 

20 recent FSS enrollees in the first 6 months of the tracking study. Because the programs are larger, the tracking sites 

also had more staff in 2005, three full-time employees (FTEs) compared with two FTEs, and had larger average FSS 

caseloads per case manager––130 cases per manager compared with 53. A slightly higher proportion of the tracking sites 

compared with the full sample of 100 PHAs received FSS coordinator funding through the annual competitive award 

process1 in 2005. Although the tracking sites have larger FSS programs, a key feature of case management—frequency of 

meetings with participants—was similar to other FSS programs at the time of the 2005 interviews. More than 75 percent 

of programs overall and in the tracking group said that case managers meet with FSS participants at least quarterly. 

In fact, in more than 40 percent of the tracking sites and in more than one-half of the representative sample of FSS 

programs, case managers met with FSS participants monthly or more frequently (43 percent in the tracking sites and 

53 percent in the sample programs). Thus, despite the larger size of FSS programs in the tracking sites, it appears the 

intensity of the case management provided is similar to the representative sample of FSS programs.

In 2006, at the beginning of the tracking period, 39 case managers were associated with the 181 families in the tracking 

study. During the next 3 years, 124 families remained with the same case manager, and 57 changed case managers. 

1

 HUD does not provide funding for the FSS program; however, for the HCV program, limited funding is available to support FSS coordinators 

through an annual competitive Notice of Funds Availability (NOFA) process.
ix

Altogether, 46 case managers who worked with the families were interviewed in the study. The case managers in the 

study had worked in the FSS program an average of 6 years and had even longer tenure with the housing agency. Some 

case managers had worked for the housing agency for more than 20 years. Most case managers had prior experience in 

case management or social work, but some had other types of experience, such as property management.

Characteristics of the Tracking Study Participants

Near the time of enrollment in FSS, the average tracking group participant was 34 years old, female, with an annual 

income of $16,030. Most tracking group participants (71 percent) were working when they joined the FSS program, and 

soon after FSS enrollment, the case managers projected that most tracking group participants would eventually complete 

the FSS program.

In the year the tracking group joined FSS, the median annual household income was $14,196 compared with $11,747 for FSS 

participants in the full sample of 100 PHAs. In addition, a larger share of the tracking group was employed (71 percent) 

compared with enrollees in the full sample of FSS programs (51 percent). Compared with FSS enrollees in the full 

sample group, a smaller proportion of tracking study participants completed less than a high school education, and a 

larger proportion completed some college or had graduated from college. Comparing the characteristics of the tracking 

study participants with the entire sample of FSS participants shows that, at the time of enrollment in FSS, the average 

tracking group participant was slightly more advantaged than the typical FSS participant.

FSS Outcomes

Graduates and Other Exiters

At the end of the study period, approximately 4 years after enrolling in FSS—

 41 (24 percent of the tracking group) FSS participants had graduated from the program and received their escrow.

 63 (37 percent) participants left the program before graduating, forfeiting their escrow.

 66 participants (39 percent) were still enrolled in the FSS program.

Of the participants, 11 were dropped from the tracking group in 2009 because the FSS program at the New York City 

Housing Authority was discontinued. Staying employed and increasing incomes helped graduates accumulate escrow 

balances in excess of $5,000 by the time they graduated. The average escrow balance at the time of graduation was 

about $5,300. This amount is more than twice the average escrow account balance for exiters at the time they left the 

program ($2,140).

Of participants in the study, 37 percent left FSS before completing the COP. They are referred to as “exiters” or “other 

exiters” throughout the report. About one-half (31 participants) of the participants who left were dropped from the 

program because they did not comply with FSS rules or lost their voucher assistance, mostly for reasons such as violating HCV rules or failing to communicate with their FSS case manager. Among those who voluntarily left the program, 

about one-third (18 participants) chose to leave because family and work obligations made it difficult to sustain contact 

with the case manager. Other participants left FSS when they moved, one participant left the voucher program because 

her income increased when she married, and three other participants left the voucher program voluntarily for unspecified 

reasons.

The average annual income for FSS graduates increased from $19,902 in the first tracking year to $33,390 in the graduation year. The average annual income for FSS exiters also increased but by a much smaller margin, from about $15,551 

in the first tracking year to $15,918 in the year they left the program. Most program graduates were employed at FSS 

program entry and remained employed for most of the time they spent in the program. Of the graduates, 93 percent were 

mostly employed during the tracking period compared with 60 percent of the other exiters.
x

How do graduates compare with other exiters? A higher proportion of FSS graduates were employed at the beginning 

of the tracking period than were exiters, and graduates started out in FSS with higher incomes on average than did other 

exiters. Although their household sizes and number of dependents were similar, exiters had completed fewer years of 

education than had graduates. Graduates also spent slightly more time in FSS, about four months longer, than had other 

exiters.

An exploratory competing risk multivariate regression analysis of characteristics associated with FSS graduation showed 

that, holding other participant characteristics constant, participants with a high school diploma around the time of 

program enrollment are about twice as likely to graduate as those who do not have a high school diploma or equivalent. 

This statistically significant result does not hold, however, when program characteristics are also taken into account.

Participants Still Enrolled in FSS at the End of the Study Period

Nearly 40 percent of the tracking study participants were still enrolled in FSS when the study ended. FSS participants 

are allowed up to 5 years to complete the COP, and this study did not cover the entire 5-year period. Analysis of 

participants’ characteristics at the time of program entry and consequent experiences in the FSS program show that the 

still-enrolled participants—

 Had larger households than either FSS graduates or exiters.

 Resembled program graduates for educational attainment.

 Had annual household incomes that were higher than exiters but lower than FSS graduates, both at program entry and 

at the end of the study period.

 Saw their annual household incomes increase during the tracking period by 11 percent.

 Were either mostly employed (43 of the 66) throughout the tracking period or mostly unemployed (23 of the 66).

In addition, most (85 percent) of the still-enrolled participants had positive escrow account balances at the end of the 

study, averaging $3,516. Based on case managers assessments and the participants’ employment experience during the 

tracking period, escrow account balances, and predictors of graduation, the study concludes that more than one-half (43 

of the 66) of the participants still enrolled in FSS are on a path toward successful completion of the FSS program.

In sum, this study suggests that the potential benefits to remaining in and graduating from the FSS program, for escrow 

savings, are substantial. Understanding the personal and program characteristics that allow families to be successful 

in FSS—that is, to remain in the program and accrue savings—may suggest approaches that program administrators 

can take to target FSS services more effectively in the future and work through case managers and service providers to 

address the barriers that can jeopardize a participant’s success.

Summary of Findings

 At the end of almost 4 years of participation in the FSS program—

• Nearly one-fourth of the participants had graduated from the program.

• More than one-third left the program without completing their FSS contract.

 Household size and number of dependents for graduates and other exiters were not very different. Still-enrolled 

participants had larger households and more dependents (measured around the time of enrollment in FSS) than either 

FSS graduates or other exiters.

 Graduates had more years of schooling than exiters (measured around the time of enrollment). Still-enrolled participants 

resemble graduates for educational attainment.
xi

 Graduates also had higher incomes than other exiters and still-enrolled participants (at the time of enrollment), and a 

greater proportion were employed (both at the time of enrollment and throughout the tracking period). Still-enrolled 

participants saw their annual household incomes increase during the tracking period by 11 percent. Still-enrolled 

participants were either mostly employed (43 of the 66) throughout the tracking period or mostly unemployed (23 of 

the 66).

 Graduates spent, on average, four months longer in the program than other exiters who were likely to drop out of the 

program after 2 years or less.

 The average escrow balance at the time of graduation was about $5,300, which is more than twice the balance for 

exiters ($2,140). Of the still-enrolled participants, 85 percent had positive escrow account balances, averaging $3,516.

 By the fourth year of program participation in 2009, more than 80 percent of the still-enrolled participants expressed 

a service need in most service categories were receiving the requested services. Compared with service receipt at 

program start, higher shares of graduates and exiters were receiving needed services in their final year of program 

participation.

 Based on case managers assessments, employment experience during the tracking period, escrow account balances, 

and factors associated with graduation, the study concludes that more than one-half (43 of the 66) of participants still 

enrolled in FSS are on a path toward successful completion of the FSS program.
1

In September 2004, HUD PD&R commissioned a 5-year prospective study of the FSS program, focusing on FSS 

programs serving HCV recipients. This report provides a final assessment of the experiences of a representative sample 

of FSS participants that enrolled in 2005 and 2006. The tracking period covered between 3.5 to 4 years and about 40 

percent of the original participants were still enrolled at the end of the period. The study explores FSS program operations, provided services, and participant outcomes. The study also examines the relationship between participants’ 

characteristics, FSS programmatic features, and FSS program outcomes.

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the FSS program, the purpose of the evaluation study, the research methods used, 

and a description of the evaluation activities that FSS programs completed in the past 5 years.

1.1 Background and Context of the FSS Program

The FSS program is a federal asset-building program designed to encourage employment. FSS was established by 

Section 554 of the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1990 to help lower income families in public 

housing and the HCV program to become self-sufficient through referrals to education, training, case management, and 

other supportive services. In addition, the law was enacted to reduce dependency of low-income families on welfare assistance and housing subsidies.2

 FSS programs are administered locally by PHAs that typically work in partnership with 

local community service providers to develop comprehensive programs that provide families with supportive services, 

counseling, education, and job training. The purpose of the partnership is to give families the skills and experience they 

need to obtain employment that pays a living wage.

Each PHA that received new funding for HCVs from 1991 through 1998 was required to operate an FSS program. The 

number of new vouchers received, unless HUD approved the PHA to operate a smaller FSS program, determined the 

minimum size for these mandatory programs. After the enactment of the Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act 

(QHWRA) of 1998, PHAs no longer had a FSS obligation with new voucher funding. QHWRA stipulated of a PHA 

FSS program’s minimum size could decrease as program families graduated. Those PHAs that were not required to 

operate a FSS program could operate a voluntary FSS program or a FSS program that exceeded the required size, with 

HUD approval. Although HUD does not fund FSS services it does appropriate funds to help PHAs cover the costs of 

FSS coordinators. HUD awards these funds annually on a competitive basis.

Each FSS program is required to implement a HUD-approved action plan. This plan outlines the PHA’s policies and 

procedures for operating the FSS program, anticipates the supportive service needs of families expected to participate, 

and estimates the number of eligible families expected to participate in FSS.

In addition, each PHA is required to establish a Program Coordinating Committee (PCC), whose function is to assist 

the PHA in securing the resources needed to provide supportive services to FSS participants. These coordinating 

committees typically are composed of local government representatives, school district officials, social service agencies, 

welfare agency representatives, and representatives of private social service organizations. The success of the FSS 

program depends on the development and retention of viable and extensive partnerships with public and private sectors 

because federal funds are exclusively used to fund FSS coordinators.

Family Selection Procedures—To be eligible for FSS, program applicants must be enrolled in the Housing Choice 

Voucher Program and in compliance with program requirements. Participation in FSS is voluntary and the program is 

intended for family heads who are willing to seek and maintain employment and are at least 18 years of age.

2

 Public Law 101–625, November 28, 1990. See introduction to the law.
2

Outreach Efforts—PHAs use several methods to inform potential participants and to recruit them for the program: 

promotional materials are distributed to existing residents and applicants nearly completing the lease-up process; 

dissemination of FSS brochures is made to public and nonprofit partner agencies; notices are placed in newsletters sent 

to HCV residents; presentations are made at PHA’s group recertification meetings; and some PHA websites include 

a link to the FSS program. Word of mouth referrals from friends and relatives are another important source of FSS 

participants.

FSS Activities and Supportive Services—The FSS program has three primary components—escrow accounts, 

case management, and referral to supportive services, which work together to help families build assets and make 

progress toward self-sufficiency. Through the use of FSS escrow accounts, the program gives families the opportunity 

to save money, build assets, and the incentive to increase work effort and earnings. Most families receiving housing 

assistance pay 30 percent of their adjusted income for rent and utilities. As the incomes of FSS participants rise, their 

rents increase. Although participants have to pay a higher rent, the PHA calculates an escrow credit based on earned 

income increases, which is deposited monthly into a PHA managed interest-bearing account. Families that successfully 

complete the FSS program receive their accrued FSS escrow funds, plus interest. No restrictions exist on the use of the 

escrowed funds, but many families use the funds to help with the purchase of a home, for debt reduction, for postsecondary education, or to start a new business.3

Case Management—Case management is provided to each family enrolled in FSS. Case managers work with each 

family as a unit to ensure access to needed supportive services. The types of supportive services vary among programs 

and communities. FSS is a source of long-term case management for families that may have connections to other social 

service providers but lack ongoing support. Case managers facilitate referrals to supportive services for job searches, job 

training, high school or post-secondary education completion, financial literacy education, and for childcare and transportation assistance. The case managers help families achieve their goals, facilitate and monitor partner agency involvement, and track participant progress through phone calls, and in person interviews that sometimes include home visits. 

The case manager works with the participant to develop an Individual Training and Service Plan (ITSP) that is included 

in the 5-year FSS COP. The plan establishes interim and final goals that meet the objectives of the FSS program.

Program Termination—Because the FSS program is voluntary, participants may request to terminate at any time. 

A request for voluntary termination is accepted without penalty and does not cause the family to lose its housing assistance. Participants who leave the FSS program, however, without completing the contract or who fail to comply with 

Housing Choice Vouchers (HCV) or FSS program requirements will forfeit their escrow savings. PHAs have the option 

of prohibiting or allowing participants who voluntarily leave the program, to reenroll. If the PHA has a waiting list, 

former participants are placed at the bottom of the list. For PHAs that do allow reenrollment, participants must remain 

out of the program a minimum of 6 months and must also demonstrate that they are able to work toward FSS goals by 

executing a new FSS Contract. They are not eligible to receive funds accrued in escrow up to the point of their initial 

withdrawal from FSS. At reenrollment, the family starts a new contract and a new escrow account.

Involuntary termination from FSS may occur if (1) a family that moves to a new location and is unable to fulfill its FSS 

obligations after the move, (2) a family fails to report income, has chronic lease violations, or otherwise violates HCV 

program rules and loses the voucher, (3) the family fails to comply with any of the terms of the COP, including the 

ITSP, or (4) a family does not meet graduation requirements within 5 years or obtain an approved extension.

1.2 Purpose of the Study and the Final Report

The purpose of this study was to (1) describe the outcomes of the FSS program for a sample of program participants 

and (2) examine the factors that appear to influence a family’s success or failure completing the FSS program requirements––from both a programmatic and a family perspective.

3

 In some cases, interim withdrawals of escrow funds are allowed for approved uses (for example, purchase or repair of a car, educational or 

work-related expenses) that are consistent with achieving interim goals to attain self-sufficiency.
3

This report describes the nature of the FSS programs operated by PHAs and characteristics of FSS participants in 

a representative sample of 100 PHAs. In addition, it provides the characteristics of families and programs selected 

for more intensive tracking. The tracking group included 181 FSS participants from 14 programs. The families were 

identified soon after they joined the FSS program. Finally, FSS program outcomes for the 181 participants are presented 

and an analysis of the patterns in outcomes, and an exploratory analysis of participant and program characteristics that 

appear to influence the outcomes.

The evaluation focuses on the following research questions: (1) What is the nature of FSS programs being operated 

by PHAs? (2) What are the outcomes experienced by a group of recent enrollees during the 4-year period of study? 

(3) What program features appear to be associated with successful outcomes for program participants? (4) What program features can be associated with successful outcomes for program participants?

Sampling Plan

Sampling Frame

The research team selected a representative sample of 100 PHAs.4 At these sites FSS coordinators were interviewed and 

information about their FSS programs was collected. The sampling frame was established from the universe of PHAs 

operating FSS programs, identified by using household-level data files from HUD’s PIC system.5 A PHA operating a 

FSS program was defined as the presence of heads of household with a positive answer to the question on FSS participation and with program type equal to voucher, certificate, or moderate rehabilitation (mod rehab). Those PHAs that are 

from the U.S. territories (31), PHA’s participating in the Moving to Work (MTW) demonstration (17), and PHAs that 

had fewer than 10 FSS participants were excluded.

Sample Selection

The goal was to select a nationally representative sample of 100 PHAs operating FSS programs. The sampling was 

based on the probability of a selection proportional to size of the HCV program. The sampling selection also took into 

consideration the geographic dispersion of the sampling frame and included at least 22 programs in each of the four 

Census regions. To accommodate any programs later found to be ineligible at the time of FSS coordinator interviews 

(that either did not operate a FSS program or were unable to provide data), a pool of 27 replacement PHAs were 

identified.6 The full sample of PHAs and the 99 FSS programs in which FSS coordinator interviews were completed, are 

displayed in Appendix C.

Tracking Sites Selection

After selecting the national sample of FSS programs and completing telephone interviews with their FSS coordinators, the next step was to select a subsample of 20 FSS programs for more intensive data collection. Sites were 

included as part of the “tracking group” if they (1) had up to 20 families that were newly enrolled in the FSS program 

between July 2005 and March 2006; (2) had the willingness of the PHA staff to fully participate in the study, and 

4

 In one case (the City and County of Fresno, California), the PHAs appear in HUD data as two separate entities and they receive separate 

allocations of vouchers. They function as one PHA, however, and operate a combined FSS program and are treated as one program. Thus, the FSS 

coordinator interviews provided information about 99 FSS programs in 100 PHAs. 

5

 Data from PIC 2002 were used for this purpose. Data from PHA profiles (available at https://pic.hud.gov/pic/haprofiles/haprofilelist.asp) were 

used to obtain voucher program size for the 11 PHAs not included in the 2002 PIC data. 

6

 We worked through the list of 127 sampled sites in a systematic method to ensure that the final set of PHAs interviewed maintained the properties 

of the probability proportional to size (pps) sample initially selected. To achieve this, the sample of 127 PHAs was divided into two replicates 

using random equal probability sampling (after first taking out the 16 large PHAs selected with certainty). The first replicate contained 100 PHAs, 

both the 16 large PHAs selected with certainty and 84 PHAs selected using random equal probability sampling. A second replicate of 27 was used 

to replace any PHAs in the first replicate that were found not to operate an FSS program or that were unable to provide data for the study. When 

replacement was necessary, we chose a PHA from the second replicate that was closest in size to the PHA being replaced.
4

(3) fit predetermined local housing and labor market characteristics. These families are referred to as “tracking study 

participants” or the “tracking group” in the remainder of the report.

In 2006, three PHAs that initially agreed to participate in the study declined requests to return the participant consent 

forms (Daytona, Hialeah, and Augusta) and were removed from the tracking group. In 2007, three other PHAs declined 

further participation in the study, citing budget cuts and staffing shortages (Wilmington, Brazos Valley, and Birmingham). By the end of 2008, 1 of the remaining 14 PHAs in the subsample closed its FSS program, thereby ending further 

participation (NYCHA). By September 2009 only 13 sites remained active. The data collected from NYCHA up to 

the time the program closed is included, however, in the analyses in this report. The list of tracking sites is shown in 

Table 1. Table 7 in Chapter 3 shows the tracking sites and the number of families from each site. Appendix C provides 

additional information about FSS tracking site programs. 

PHA Code PHA Name Status

Table 1. PHAs Selected as Tracking Sites in 2006

CA006 City of Fresno Housing Authority Remained in the study

CA011 County of Contra Costa Housing Authority Remained in the study

CA027 Riverside County Housing Authority Remained in the study

CA094 Orange County Housing Authority Remained in the study

CO001 Denver Housing Authority Remained in the study

FL001 Jacksonville Housing Authority Remained in the study

IL022 Rockford Housing Authority Remained in the study

KS004 Wichita Housing Authority Remained in the study

MD004 Housing Opportunities Commission of Montgomery County, Maryland Remained in the study

MI073 Grand Rapids Housing Commission Remained in the study

MT033 Missoula Housing Authority Remained in the study 

OH004 Cincinnati Metropolitan Housing Authority Remained in the study 

OH007 Akron Metropolitan Housing Authority Remained in the study 

NY005 New York City Housing Authority Program closed in 2008

AL001 Housing Authority of Birmingham District Withdrew from the study in 2007a

NC001 Wilmington Housing Authority Withdrew from the study in 2007a

TX526 Brazos Valley Council of Governments Withdrew from the study in 2007a

FL007 Housing Authority of Daytona Beach Did not provide data for the tracking study

FL066 Hialeah Housing Authority Did not provide data for the tracking study

GA001 Housing Authority of the City of Augusta, Georgia Did not provide data for the tracking study

PHA = public housing authority.

a

 The three sites that withdrew from the study in 2007—Birmingham, Wilmington, and Brazos Valley—all provided participant consent forms. Birmingham and Brazos 

Valley also provided the Social Security numbers of the consenting participants. Birmingham provided checklist information for participants for 2006.

Data Sources and Timeframe

The analysis in this report uses three sources of data collected between May 2006 and September 2009 for the 181 

tracking study participants. Table 2 shows the timing of data collection by source and the naming convention used for 

each source of data throughout the report.7

Appendix E shows the distribution of the 181 tracking group participants by site and data source. Over time, some 

participants in the tracking group either graduated from the program or left without completing their FSS contracts. 

Each year, data from the most recent case manager interview was collected on the experiences and outcomes of participants remaining in the FSS program. By 2008, 98 of the 181 tracking group families were still enrolled in FSS and 

the remaining 83 families had either graduated or exited the program. The 11 participants from NYCHA were dropped 

from the tracking group when the program closed at the end of October 2008. The final round of data collection in 2009 

included only the 87 participants who were still enrolled in 2008.

7

 Appendix B provides a description of the data sources used in the study.
5

In addition, telephone interviews with FSS coordinators were conducted in 2005 and interviews were completed with 17 

FSS participants in March 2007. Unfortunately, in 2008, only six of the participants interviewed in 2007 were located 

and reinterviewed. Often, cell phone numbers provided at the initial interview were no longer in service. 

Also included, were four site visits as part of the study: Montgomery County, Maryland; Orange and Riverside Counties, California; and Missoula County, Montana. Site selection was based on tracking group size. Both large and small 

FSS programs were visited. Montgomery County and Orange County were selected because they each had 20 tracking 

group families, have large FSS programs, and represent geographically diverse areas on the two coasts. Although Riverside had only three tracking group families, they were selected for a site visit because their FSS program had more than 

500 families in 2007. Riverside was near the Orange County, California program, so it was possible to conduct visits 

to the two programs efficiently. Missoula had nine families in the tracking group and was selected because they have a 

small program with 115 families. The purpose of the visits was to develop a first-hand understanding of the challenges 

and opportunities facing these programs. A timeline of the evaluation activities completed during the evaluation is listed 

in Appendix A.

1.3 Organization and Contents of This Report

The remaining chapters of this report are as follows: Chapter 2, FSS Programs, provides an overview of the FSS program 

and study participants for the overall national sample and for the tracking group. Chapter 3, Tracking Study Programs 

and Participants, describes the characteristics of the tracking group soon after enrolling in FSS. Chapter 4, FSS Tracking 

Group Program Experience, is an assessment of outcomes for tracking group families that exited the program between 

the latter half of 2005 and 2009 and those remaining in FSS when the tracking period ended. Chapter 5, FSS Program 

Models and Program Success, explores participant and program characteristics that appear to influence FSS program 

outcomes. The report ends with Chapter 6, Conclusions.

Data Source Name Used in Report Timing of Data Collection

Table 2. Sources of Data for the Final Report

FSS coordinator interviews Same June 2005

Participant tracking checklists

Wave 1 

Wave 2 

Wave 3 

Wave 4

WAVE06 

WAVE07 

WAVE08 

WAVE09

May 2006 

March 2007 

March 2008 

June 2009

PIC extracts 

2005 

2006 

2007 

2008 

2009

PIC05 

PIC06 

PIC07 

PIC08 

PIC09

June 2006 

June 2007 

June 2008 

June 2008 

June 2009

Case manager interviews 

Wave 1 

Wave 2 

Wave 3 

Wave 4

CM06 

CM07 

CM08 

CM09

October and November 2006 

September and October 2007 

September and October 2008 

September 2009

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PIC = Public and Indian Housing Information Center.

Note: The PIC09 extract had relatively high rates of missing data, so tabulations using the PIC08 extract, with more complete data, were used in place of PIC09.
6

This chapter, which describes FSS program operations and approaches, focuses on four questions:

1. What are the typical characteristics of FSS programs?

2. How do FSS case managers operate?

3. What challenges do FSS programs face during the economic downturn?

4. Who are FSS participants and how do they compare with non-FSS voucher holders?

2.1 Profile of FSS Programs

To learn more about how voucher-based FSS programs are structured and operate, the research team spoke to FSS 

coordinators in a representative national sample of 100 PHAs during the first year of the study, 2005. The interviews 

were used to gather information about program goals, policies, service referrals, operations, and partnerships with other 

organizations.8 Because the representative sample of PHAs selected for these interviews was drawn systematically (as 

described in chapter 1), and responses weighted, the interview findings can be generalized to the universe of PHAs operating voucher-based FSS programs. In addition, the annual discussions were used with case managers in the 14 tracking 

sites and site visits to four FSS programs to gather additional information about program approach and operations.

Program Age and Size

FSS programs are largely well established. More than 60 percent of FSS programs have operated for at least 10 years 

as of 2005 and only 4 of the 99 FSS programs in the study sample were fewer than 6 years old. FSS programs had an 

average of 253 participants in 2005. The number of FSS participants varied from as few as 5 in the smallest program to 

as many as 2,806, in the largest. On average, within each PHA, FSS programs served about 5 percent of HCV families. 

Nearly one-half of FSS coordinators expected their programs to grow during the coming year, and one-half said their 

programs were already operating at full capacity and were unable to take on more participants.

Program Goals

All tracking group programs had goals to improve the availability and quality of the education and training needed to 

improve the skills of family members that needed to find and maintain employment on the path to self-sufficiency. The 

area of greatest emphasis varied by PHA and by a participant’s tenure in the FSS program. For example, in New York 

City and Denver, FSS staff stated their programs primarily provided referrals for job placement needs. In contrast, the 

Orange County FSS program focused on education, training, and developing marketable job skills in the first 3 years of 

FSS participation, while an emphasis on job placement occurred during the past 2 years of participation.

The average enrollees in the FSS program were female, in their late 30s, with two children. Tracking group program 

staff observed more diversity in the types of families that recently enrolled in FSS and observed some changes in 

participant’s goals. According to case managers, newer enrollees tend to include more people with disabilities who 

want to work; those who left the workforce and want to return to work; older participants who want to change careers; 

family heads with more years of education and higher incomes who wish to purchase homes; and single male heads 

of households with young children. Case managers noted that a reason some people with disabilities and older adults 

returning to the workforce enroll in FSS is because it is one of the few local programs offering case management. For 

8

 Appendix C contains a list of the 100 PHAs selected for the study.
7

other candidates, FSS is viewed as one of the best opportunities to achieve homeownership.9 FSS program staff noted 

that more intensive case management is required to serve the needs of a diverse group of participants. Some of the case 

management challenges are (1) to define interim program goals, (2) finding more creative approaches to employment 

services (to satisfy the core FSS requirement of seeking and maintaining employment), and (3) increased interagency 

coordination of services.

Services Provided by FSS

All FSS tracking group programs use PHA staff to provide case management to FSS participants with the exception 

of Montgomery County, Maryland, which also uses staff from partner agencies to provide case management. FSS 

programs also provide access to a range of supportive services, primarily through referrals to local service providers. 

The services provided to FSS families (either directly by PHA staff or indirectly through referrals to partner agencies) 

were fairly consistent at all tracking sites. All the sites provide budget counseling and financial literacy services to FSS 

participants, using PHA- or HUD-certified agency staff. Also providing first-time homebuyer counseling and assistance 

using PHA staff were five of the programs: Fresno, California; Rockford, Illinois; Wichita, Kansas; Riverside County, 

California; and Grand Rapids, Michigan. A table showing each of the tracking sites, the amount of FSS program tenure, 

the number of FSS coordinators and case managers, and the services offered at each site, is shown in Appendix D.

All FSS tracking site coordinators and case managers referred FSS participants to outside organizations for assistance 

with childcare, education services, and employment-related services. For employment related services the PHAs have 

agreements with the local Workforce Investment Board––under which FSS participants can be referred to the One-Stop 

Career Centers for job preparation and job search services. Private or nonprofit partner agencies offer workshops or 

support groups that address motivation, job punctuality, reliability, coping in the workplace, self-esteem, resume development, interview techniques, and dressing for success. Of the tracking sites, 11 (all except NYCHA; Grand Rapids, 

Michigan; and Denver, Colorado) also offer referrals for transportation assistance. The City and County of Fresno, 

Montgomery County, and Orange County FSS programs provide bus tokens and passes and offer discount car loan 

programs. FSS program staff in six of the tracking sites (Fresno, California; Rockford, Illinois; Montgomery County, 

Maryland; Cincinnati, Ohio; Denver, Colorado; and Missoula, Montana) also offer job search assistance workshops and 

resume development assistance to help FSS participant families find volunteer or paid employment, depending on their 

current skill set. The Montgomery County program has job developers, while the programs in Jacksonville and New 

York City can no longer afford these positions because of funding cuts. The programs in Fresno, Wichita, Missoula, 

Cincinnati, and Denver offer job search assistance and workshops about developing resumes.

Tracking group PHAs were asked how they identify and provide for the broad range of services that FSS participants 

require. The Program Coordinating Committee is the vehicle for bringing together a range of community agencies to 

help foster economic self-sufficiency among the participant families. The Rockford program has acquired additional 

partners and helped develop services for FSS families that are provided at the PHA in a “One-Stop” setting. At the time 

of the 2008 site visit, the Montana program had a limited number of partners providing education and health related 

services. Their goal was to establish more partnerships with education and health providers to serve FSS families.

FSS Coordinator

Each FSS program has an FSS coordinator assigned to manage the program. In most of the 14 tracking sites, FSS 

coordinators usually function as the coordinating committee’s staff, focused on getting community agencies’ support 

to address participants’ service needs. The job entails partnership building and managerial duties, including obtaining 

additional outside funding to provide case management and supportive services that FSS participants need to succeed. 

9

 Individual Development Accounts (IDAs), a program available in many communities, promote asset building and personal savings. IDAs are 

often used to help individuals save to purchase a home. IDAs are personal savings accounts that encourage participants to save for specific types of 

asset building, such as the purchase of a home, business ownership, or postsecondary education. IDA programs provide training and match savings 

accumulated by program participants when an authorized withdrawal is made from the account. 
8

N

Table 3. Case Manager Tenure, Previous Work Experience, and FSS Caseload Size

Number of FSS case managers in the study 46

Length of time with FSS program

Average number of years 6.0

Range of years 0.5–16 

Length of time with the housing agency

Average number of years 6.7

Range of years 0.5–21 

Number of FSS participants in case manager caseload

Average caseload size 89

Range of caseload size 21–175

Previous case manager work experience %

Case management/social work 41

Voucher program staff (occupancy, eligibility) 7

Counselor 11

Other (DMV clerk, property manager, graduate student) 37

Former FSS participant 2

Missing 2

DMV = Department of Motor Vehicles. FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Note: Case managers who were associated with the tracking study participant at any point during the tracking period are included in this tabulation.

Source: Case manager interviews

In Missoula, Cincinnati, Riverside, and Grand Rapids, FSS coordinators provided some level of case management in 

addition to their other duties. Of the 14 programs, 5 had turnover in the FSS coordinator position due to rotation of 

staff within the PHA. During the study period Riverside had four FSS coordinators, Fresno and Wichita had three, and 

Contra Costa and Jacksonville had two FSS coordinators.

Case Management in the Tracking Sites

Case management is an integral part of the FSS program. FSS case managers are PHA staff at all tracking site programs. 

In the Montgomery County, Maryland program some partner organizations provide FSS case management in addition 

to PHA staff. Case managers conduct needs assessments, develop the ITSP, and refer participants to other providers to 

receive education, employment assistance, counseling, childcare, and other supportive services. PHA staffs also provide 

training and information related to FSS escrow accounts. FSS staff reported providing information about how the 

escrow account works, how the PHA will keep the participant informed about the status of the account, and assistance 

with personal budgeting, savings strategies, and credit repair.

During annual interviews, tracking site case managers were asked about their background and training, tenure in the 

FSS program, position responsibilities, and about whether changes occurred to either the services being offered or FSS 

service methods, since the study began.

In 2006, 39 case managers were associated with the 181 participants. During the next 3 years, 124 families remained with 

the same case manager and 57 changed case managers. Altogether, 46 case managers were interviewed and Table 3 

shows the information from those individuals. On average, case managers in the study tenure with the FSS program 

is more than 6 years, several for as long as the FSS program has been in operation at the housing agency––some case 

managers have been with the housing agency for more than 20 years. Most case managers have prior experience in case 

management or social work or come from other professions such as property management.

The average caseload for a case manager was 89 FSS participants,10 ranging from as few as 21 participants in Montgomery County to 175 participants in Grand Rapids. Of all of the case managers, 20 reported having more than 100 

families in their FSS caseload. For the frequency of meetings with FSS participants, 45 percent of respondents met with 

10 In the next chapter, we compare caseloads for the tracking sites to the original sample of 100 PHAs at the time of the 2005 FSS coordinator 

interview. The caseload information provided here reflects average caseloads for the tracking sites during the study period.
9

participants once a month, compared with 24 percent who reported quarterly meetings and 21 percent who reported 

meeting once a year. The 10 percent who gave other responses said that they met as needed; met every other month; or 

twice per year.

Case managers in the study said that a larger number of caseloads affected the frequency of their contact with FSS 

participants. The Orange County, Contra Costa, Cincinnati, and Akron FSS programs all have large caseloads of 

approximately 140 to 150 per case manager and case management is limited to an annual review. Because the programs 

assign one case manager to a family during its entire tenure in the FSS program, the program staff seems to be aware of 

their clients’ needs and changing circumstances. The Orange County and Contra Costa program staff, however, acknowledged that their large caseloads prevent them from providing more intensive case management they had provided 

in the past when they had smaller caseloads.

The Fresno and Riverside FSS programs also have large caseloads, but their philosophy appears to be different. Participants are rotated to different case managers and the frequency of contact with participants varied by case manager. 

Some met the participants monthly, others every other month or on a quarterly basis. Case managers did not express the 

same sentiments about the size of their caseload or about not having time to attend to their clients’ needs.

In Montgomery County, where case managers remain with the same family and the caseload is around 50 families per 

case manager for the Housing Opportunity Commission (HOC) staff and 25 per case manager for partner agency staff, 

the HOC case managers commented that their caseloads are too high. The HOC asks more from their case managers 

than the average FSS program in assisting participants meet their goals; maintaining contact with clients a minimum of 

once a month to monitor their progress, and more frequently when clients have crises.

Local Economic Conditions and Changes Over Time

When the evaluation began in 2005, the U.S. economy was relatively stable, with positive economic growth, rapid 

expansion in the construction and services industries, and low levels of unemployment. Beginning in the last quarter of 

2007, real economic growth declined, the unemployment rate steadily increased, the housing market collapsed, and the 

economy went into a recession that remained at the end of the data collection period. These changes in the economy affect the employment prospects for FSS participants and the potential for them to accrue savings in FSS escrow accounts.

The recent economic downturn has changed expectations and goal setting for participants at some of the tracking 

sites. The weak economy and high unemployment rates in 2009 have led some FSS programs to follow less stringent 

requirements for participants to maintain employment. Orange County’s FSS program, for example, now includes more 

detailed descriptions of the goal “seek and maintain employment” that makes the achievement of this goal more realistic 

for participants. The Akron program also is adjusting the goal of “maintaining suitable employment” to establish a 

more formal expectation of what is “suitable” and define the details in the COP. Denver’s program changed focus from 

providing services that focused on job placement to services that deliver more training and education as the first step 

toward employment. The program in Jacksonville has increased the emphasis on homeownership because local house 

prices have fallen dramatically, making this alternative more realistic for many participants.

FSS program staff shared their perceptions of the trends in local economic conditions and employment opportunities 

available for FSS participants, as part of this study. With the exception of the Cincinnati program (where jobs in 

healthcare and call centers remained stable), tracking study programs reported adverse affects of the worsening local 

labor market for FSS participants. Increased competition existed among the skilled and unskilled, educated and less 

educated, and even for the low-paying, temporary jobs. Some programs were concerned that FSS participants who 

maintained steady employment at sustainable wage levels and were growing their assets through escrow during the past 

3 to 4 years who have now lost their jobs will suffer major set backs in their paths to self-sufficiency. With less than 

1 year left to complete their FSS program, these participants would require more program services for job placement, 

training, and counseling. Although an additional extension of up to 2 years can be granted to those nearing the end of 

the 5-year contract period, some participants who lost their jobs may not be able to satisfy the criteria for successful 
10

completion stated in their COPs. The effect of unemployment may be visible in program statistics––on the types of 

services provided, the number of graduates, the average size of escrow balance, and the number of homes purchased.

Although economic conditions deteriorated in the final 2 years of the study, in some cases the downturn in the housing 

industry and the increased foreclosure rates, homeownership may be a more attainable goal for some families. This 

anomaly was especially true for participants that were mortgage ready and had escrow balances to apply to down 

payment or closing costs in California, Ohio, and Florida. These regions experienced substantial declines in housing 

prices in recent years,11 and homeownership could be a viable option for those who are employed with a steady income 

and are able to obtain credit. At the same time, staff in other programs said that an excess supply of foreclosed homes, 

reductions in down payment assistance programs, and more stringent underwriting criteria among area lenders, have 

made homeownership more of a challenge.

Challenges to FSS

One of the most commonly cited challenges described by the FSS program was job unavailability for FSS families. 

Early in the study, the challenge was to place families in jobs that paid a living wage, had benefits, and provided longterm security. From mid-2008 to 2009, the challenge transformed to placing participants in any available job. Participants who have completed training and met their interim goals find increased competition in the fields they trained for 

and a lack of available jobs. The goal of helping families find employment was becoming increasingly difficult. At the 

participant level, poor credit history, lack of job skills or training, and lack of a high school diploma were often cited as 

participant level barriers to self-sufficiency. At the program and community level, the absence of community partners, a 

lack of funding, and large caseloads, were cited as challenges.

Deteriorating economic conditions that began in 2008 have reduced the amount of contributions received from state 

and local partner organizations for the tracking site programs. Montgomery County, for example, reported cutbacks in 

resources from private employers and the Salvation Army. The Orange County and Contra Costa programs have been 

affected because some of the nonprofit organizations and local government partner agencies (such as school systems and 

community colleges) are also experiencing reductions in their funding levels. Partner agencies cut back on the services 

provided to FSS families shut down some of the locations where services were being offered, and became more selective in choosing individuals to whom they provide services.

The Montgomery County FSS program receives funds from state and local sources to support additional case managers. 

According to their FSS coordinator at HOC, “although the FSS program still recruits new participants, unfortunately, 

because of lack of sufficient case management, we continue to have about 235 families who are awaiting an FSS 

orientation. There are an additional 21 families who have attended an orientation and now are awaiting assignment to a 

case manager.”

FSS coordinators are aware of the need to provide services required by the different types of enrollees joining FSS. The 

decline in partner contributions to provide services, the lack of willing partners with complementary skill sets to fill the 

gaps in FSS programs at the community level, and the uncertainty of funding from HUD, constantly pose challenges to 

the programs. Without secure sources of funding and more local partnerships, some housing agencies have cut costs. 

11 In 2005, fewer than 600,000 foreclosures were recorded in the United States. In the first two quarters of 2008, more than 1,350,000 foreclosures 

were recorded, with the pace accelerating. Home prices have been spiraling downward for 2 years to the point where 29 percent of all households 

that purchased in the past 5 years owe more than their house is worth (http://seekingalpha.com/article/90892-the-great-consumer-crash-of-2009). 

Data compiled by the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF REALTORS® indicate that median sales prices of existing single-family homes in the 

Jacksonville, Florida metropolitan area declined by 23 percent from 2006 through the second quarter of 2009. During the same period, median 

home sales prices declined by 23 percent in the Akron, Ohio area and by 59 percent in the Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, California area. See 

http://www.realtor.org/wps/wcm/connect/3d2f3280403fb582a6e6f7205f470b6e/REL09Q3T.pdf?MOD = AJPERES&CACHEID = 3d2f3280403fb582a6e6f7205f470b6e (accessed on December 31, 2009).
11

Program staff commented on the cutbacks in vocational training programs, adult education classes, reduced availability 

of class offerings and financial aid at community colleges, the scarcity of resources for emergency funds, and reduced 

funds for transportation and childcare needs. The staff also discussed the increased demand for services. FSS programs 

in Akron and Montgomery County, for instance, report unmet needs for families with mental health issues, substance 

abuse problems, and stress disorders. The Riverside and Montgomery County programs report increased issues with 

teenagers (gangs, drinking, and high levels of absenteeism from school).

2.2 FSS Participants

This section describes characteristics of FSS participants in the nationally representative sample of 100 PHAs compared 

with voucher holders who do not participate in FSS. Chapter 3 compares the characteristics of the tracking study 

participants at the time of enrollment with all FSS participants enrolled in the 100 PHAs.

The 2008 PIC extracted data indicates that a total of 28,469 FSS participants existed in the representative sample of FSS 

programs.12 Most FSS participant records are identified as either an FSS enrollment report, corresponding to entry in 

the program; a progress report for ongoing participants; or an exit report for participants leaving the program. The type 

of exit is also recorded. Table 4 shows that in the 2008 extract, 4,786 new enrollees and 15,009 ongoing participants 

existed in FSS in the 100 PHAs. Of the total participants, 6,532 left the program, with nearly one-third of those who left 

(28 percent) having completed the COP.

Demographic information for all FSS 

participants is shown in Table 5. Table 5 

also compares demographic characteristics 

of FSS participants in the 100 PHAs with 

nonelderly nondisabled voucher program 

participants who are not enrolled in FSS. 

The average FSS participant is 39, lives in a 

household with 3 people, with 1.9 children. 

Age, household size, and number of children 

are quite similar for FSS participants and 

nonparticipants in the 100 PHAs. The 

average annual income for FSS participants is higher than that of nonparticipants. Average annual income for FSS 

participants was $16,842, in 2008, compared with $14,541 for non-FSS voucher participants. The annual income for 

34 percent of FSS participants and 42 percent of nonparticipants was $10,000 or less. In 2008, 13 percent of FSS participants and 9 percent of nonparticipants had annual incomes of more than $30,000. Sources of income were fairly similar 

for FSS participants and nonparticipants.

The study also compared annual incomes for FSS participants in different stages of FSS (Table 6) based on the type of 

record associated with each participant. Average annual incomes are low at program entry and highest for those who 

exit and complete the FSS contract. Program exiters who did not complete the contract had average annual incomes 

$1,152 lower than recent entrants. Average annual income for contract completers was nearly $10,000 higher than for 

recent enrollees and for exiters who did not complete the FSS contract.

All tracking site programs offer case management internally and many also provide financial literacy and budget 

counseling through PHA staff, referring participants to local service providers to receive other types of employment, 

education, and supportive services. At the time of the 2005 interviews with FSS coordinators, most expected FSS programs to grow or remain stable in the next year, but most did not grow—the number of participants remained constant 

or declined during the study period. FSS tracking site case managers report that as their caseload increases, the meeting 

2008

 Report Type Number of FSS Participants

Table 4. FSS Participants by Report Type—Representative Sample

FSS program enrollment report 4,786

FSS progress report 15,009

FSS program exit report 6,532

 Program exit, contract completed 1,804

 Program exit, contract not completed 4,728

No FSS addendum 2,142

Total 28,469

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Source: PIC08 data for the 100 public housing authorities

12 We used PIC08 data for these tabulations because the more recent PIC09 extract has a higher missing data rate for the FSS addendum.
12

FSS Participants Non-FSS, Nonelderly, 

Nondisabled Voucher Participants

Mean Mean

Table 5. Demographic Characteristics of FSS Participants Compared With Non-FSS, Nonelderly, Nondisabled 

Voucher Participants

Age (in years) 38.7 37.7

Household size 3.2 3.2

Number of children 1.92 1.9

Gender N % N %

Female 26,128 92 315,096 90

Male 2,341 8 35,298 10

Annual Income N % N %

<$5,000 4,013 14 69,641 20

$5,000–$10,000 5,824 20 77,707 22

$10,001–$20,000 8,797 31 109,735 31

$20,001–$30,000 6,063 21 60,514 17

>$30,000 3772 13 32,797 9

Total 28,469 100 350,394 100

Mean/median annual income $16,842 $14,560 $14,541 $12,217 

Sources of income

Percent receiving this source of income N % N %

Earned income (employment) 17,475 61 206,187 59

SSI 4,899 17 40,967 12

SSDI 5 0 17 0

Social Security retirement 3,525 12 22,621 6

Private pension 224 1 1,892 1

Other 10,539 37 124,862 36

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. SSDI = Social Security Disability Insurance. SSI = Supplemental Security Income.

Sources: PIC08 data for the 100 public housing authorities

2008

Annual Income N Mean ($) Median ($)

Table 6. FSS Participant Income

At FSS program enrollment 4,786 15,806 13,152 

FSS progress report 15,009 17,356 15,400 

FSS program exit, contract not completed 4,728 14,654 12,003 

FSS program exit, contract completed 1,804 24,256 23,302

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Source: PIC08 data for the 100 public housing authorities

frequency with FSS participants declines. The recent economic downturn has resulted in challenges for FSS programs, 

including greater demand for program services and fewer local resources that provide them. The next chapter examines 

the characteristics of the tracking study participants and programs.
13

This section describes the tracking study programs and participants. This section focuses on three questions:

1. How do FSS tracking study programs compare to those in the representative sample of FSS programs?

2. Are tracking study participants similar to other FSS participants?

3. What are the characteristics of the 181 FSS tracking study participants around the time of program enrollment?

FSS Programs in the Tracking Study

The tracking group includes 181 FSS participants in 14 FSS programs (Table 7).

PHA Code PHA Name Number of Tracking Study Participants

Table 7. PHAs and FSS Participants in the Study

CA006 City of Fresno Housing Authority 20

CA011 County of Contra Costa Housing Authority 6

CA027 Riverside County Housing Authority 3

CA094 Orange County Housing Authority 20

CO001 Denver Housing Authority 12

FL001 Jacksonville Housing Authority 17

IL022 Rockford Housing Authority 11

KS004 Wichita Housing Authority 20

MD004 Housing Opportunities Commission of Montgomery County, Maryland 20

MI073 Grand Rapids Housing Commission 3

MT033 Missoula Housing Authority 9

NY005 New York City Housing Authority 20

OH004 Cincinnati Metropolitan Housing Authority 10

OH007 Akron Metropolitan Housing Authority 10

Total 181

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

By design, these programs were larger than the average FSS program. The total numbers of FSS tracking study participants were compared with the number of all FSS program participants using both the PIC05 and the PIC06 data. As of 

2005, the tracking study sites had a median of 306 participants (compared with 153 in the typical FSS program). This 

disparity is because the selection was intentionally focused on FSS programs that were willing to participate in the study 

and that had up to 20 recent FSS enrollees in the first months of the tracking study. Because the programs are larger, the 

tracking sites have more staff and a larger number of FSS cases (Tables 8 and 9).

A slightly higher proportion of the tracking sites received FSS coordinator funding in 2005 than was true for the full 

sample of 99 PHAs (71 percent compared with 68 percent). To examine whether FSS tracking site programs differ 

from other programs in other respects, Table 9 shows additional information about FSS staffing and case management 

compiled from FSS coordinator interviews.

Characteristic

Tracking Sites (N = 14) Representative Sample of 

FSS Programs (N = 99)

2005 2006 2005 2006

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

Table 8. Size of the FSS Program: Tracking Sites Compared With Representative Sample of FSS Programs

Number of FSS participants 390 306 410 283 290 153 268 105

FSS size as a proportion of 

voucher program size

3.8% — 3.8% — 5.0% — 4.6% —

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: PIC05 and PIC06 data
14

Approaches taken to staff FSS case management are similar in the tracking sites and other FSS programs. Out of the 

10 sites reporting, none use other organizations to provide FSS case management. Meeting frequency between case 

managers and FSS participants is somewhat similar for the tracking sites and the larger group of programs. In fact, more 

than 40 percent of the tracking sites and more than one-half of the representative sample of FSS programs indicated that 

case managers meet with FSS participants monthly or more frequently (43 percent in the tracking sites and 53 percent 

in the sample programs). Thus, despite the larger size of the tracking site programs, it appears that the intensity of case 

management provided is similar to that in other FSS programs.

Characteristics of the Tracking Group at Enrollment

This section describes the characteristics of the 181 tracking group families at FSS program enrollment. The measured 

characteristics were obtained close to the time of enrollment using the 2006 checklist completed by the case managers. 

The study compared the characteristics of the 14 tracking sites to all 99 FSS programs with enrollment records using the 

PIC05 data.13

Comparing the Tracking Group With the Sample of FSS Enrollees

The tracking study participants are not representative of the overall FSS population, nor can their FSS outcomes be 

generalized to the FSS program as a whole. It is nevertheless of some interest to know how these families compare to 

Characteristic Tracking Sites (N = 14)

Representative 

Sample of FSS 

Programs (N = 99)

N N

Table 9. FSS Program Staffing and Case Management: Tracking Sites Compared With Other FSS Programs

Average number of PHA staff who work on FSS program 3.7 2

Average FTE dedicated to FSS 3 1.6

Average FSS caseload 130 53

Does the PHA have FSS coordinator funds? N % N %

Yes 10 71 73 68

No 4 29 26 32

Is case management done by PHA staff or by staff from an outside organization? N % N %

PHA staff 9 90 64 78

Staff from outside organization –– –– 14 17

Combination 1 10 3 4

Not applicable –– –– 1 1

Missing 4 –– 17 ––

How frequently do FSS case managers meet with FSS participants? N % N %

Annually 1 7 11 11

Biannually 1 7 5 5

Quarterly 4 29 25 25

Every other month 1 7 9 9

Monthly 4 29 37 37

Two or three times a month 2 14 8 8

Varies, depending on need and time in program 1 7 4 4

How do FSS case managers usually contact participants? N % N %

Mostly by phone 1 8 11 12

Mostly in person 3 25 13 14

Mix of phone and in person 8 67 71 75

Missing 2 –– 4 ––

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. FTE = full-time employee. PHA = public housing authority.

Source: FSS coordinator interviews

13 To ensure that participants being compared were at approximately the same point in their FSS program participation, we selected only PIC 

records designated as enrollment reports in the FSS addendum. These individuals were compared with the tracking group in their first year in the 

FSS program.
15

enrollees in the representative sample of 99 FSS programs, to provide context for the tracking group data. The tracking group differs in some ways from all FSS enrollees, but is sufficiently similar that the findings about the tracking 

group can be considered illustrative of the overall program (see Table 10). In the year they joined FSS, tracking study 

participants had higher annual incomes, higher employment rates, and generally higher educational attainment than FSS 

enrollees in the larger sample. The tracking group is also slightly younger than the participants in the total sample of 

FSS programs. The average annual income in the year of FSS enrollment was $16,030 for the tracking group compared 

with $14,107 for all FSS enrollees. In addition, a larger percentage of tracking study participants were employed (71 

percent) than in the larger FSS sample (51 percent). At the time of enrollment, a larger proportion of the tracking group 

had attended some college or graduated from college compared with the sample group. Thus, at the time of program 

enrollment, the tracking site participants for whom the study had analyzed FSS outcomes appeared slightly more 

advantaged than participants in all FSS programs.

Enrolled FSS Participants

 in Sample of 

FSS Programsa (N = 4,828)

Tracking Study 

Participantsb (N = 181)

Mean Median Mean Median

Table 10. Comparing FSS Participants in 14 Tracking Sites and the 99 FSS Programs With the Tracking Group 

Participants

Age 38 years 37 years 34 years 35 years

Average annual income $14,107 $11,747 $16,030 $14,196 

Employment status N % N %

Full time 1,933 40 77 44

Part time 529 11 47 27

Not employed 2,350 49 53 30

Missing 16 –– 4 ––

Total 4,828 100 181 100

Education (years of schooling) N % N %

Less than high school (<12 years) 2,099 43 42 25

High school graduate (12 years) 1,760 36 72 42

Some college (13–15 years) 828 17 46 27

College graduate (16+ years) 141 3 10 6

Missing –– –– 11 ––

Total 4,828 100 181 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

a

 PIC05 data for the 14 tracking sites and for the 99 programs. b The WAVE06 checklist is used for age, employment, and annual income for the tracking group, and the 

earliest available Public and Indian Housing Information Center system record is used for education.

Characteristics of the Tracking Group

This section provides more details about the tracking group soon after they enrolled in FSS. During the year of enrollment, the average tracking study participant was 34 years old, female, with annual household income of more than 

$16,000 (Table 10). This average income includes income from public benefits, although more than 60 percent reported 

some earnings from employment in the year they enrolled in FSS (Table 11).

Most (69 percent) tracking study participants were working at the time they entered the FSS program, earning an average of $11 per hour, as shown in Table 12.

FSS case managers work with the participant to develop the COP that describes individual goals and service needs at 

the beginning of the FSS term. These goals help the participant and case manager plan service referral strategies and 

monitor participants’ progress. Completion of education (52 percent) and obtaining employment (46 percent) were the 

two goals most frequently mentioned in the ITSP for the tracking group in the first year of their participation in FSS. 

Achieving homeownership (41 percent), reducing debt (35 percent), obtaining a job with better wages (30 percent), 

obtaining a job with benefits (25 percent), and completing training (22 percent), were also listed as goals for the tracking 

study sample when they enrolled in FSS (Table 13).
16

Sources of Income and Income Supports Tracking Group Participants (N = 181)

N %

Employment Status at Time Form Was 

Completed (from checklist data)

Tracking Group Participants (N = 181)

N %

Table 11. Reported Income Sources for FSS Tracking Group Participants in the Year of Enrollment

Earned income 110 61

Food Stamp program benefits 86 48

Medicaid/children’s health insurance program 72 40

Child support 56 31

Earned income tax credit 52 29

TANF 43 24

SSI 22 12

General assistance 21 12

Unemployment insurance 6 3

SSDI 3 2

Social Security retirement 1 1

Private pension 1 1

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. SSDI = Social Security Disability Insurance. SSI = Supplemental Security Income. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Source: Participant tracking checklists

Table 12. Tracking Group Participants: Employment Status in the Year of Enrollment in FSS

Full time 77 43

Part time 47 26

Not employed 53 29

Missing 4 2

Total 181 100

Current Job (from checklist data) N Mean Median Min Max

Number of months in current job (Q24) 121 35.2 25 1 220

Hours worked per week at current job (Q25) 99 31.62 33 4 44

Hourly wage at current job (Q26) 110 $11.02 $10.15 $2.30a $25

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

a

 It is likely that this wage is below the minimum wage because it included tips.

Source: Participant tracking checklists and case manager interviews 

Goal Individual Goals in ITSP (N = 181)

N %

Table 13. ITSP Goals at the Time of FSS Enrollment for the Tracking Group

Complete education 95 52

Obtain employment 83 46

Achieve homeownership 74 41

Reduce debt 64 35

Obtain a job with better wages 55 30

Obtain a job with benefits 46 25

Establish credit 42 23

Complete training 40 22

Exit TANF 37 20

Learn money management 19 10

Improve personal health 12 7

Improve transportation 9 5

Establish own business 8 4

Obtain mentoring 7 4

Initiate career exploration 4 2

Improve/acquire childcare 1 1

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. ITSP = Individual Training and Service Plan. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Source: 2006 participant tracking checklist
17

Case managers were asked to assess the probability for program completion based on the information compiled during 

the family’s first year in the program. Case managers were optimistic about expected program completion rates for 

the new entrants (Table 15). They rated the prospects for completion excellent or very good for 51 percent of families, 

and fair or good for 37 percent of the families. Only 2 percent of the families were judged to have poor prospects for 

completing the FSS program.

Service Need

With Need

N

Referred

%

Received Service

%

Ongoing Service

%

Table 14. Service Needs Reported by Tracking Group Participants in the Year of Enrollment in FSS

Counseling 123 69 41 59

Employment 94 79 40 72

Education 89 79 48 73

Household skills and management 66 79 50 73

Personal welfare 37 84 54 68

Transportation 19 63 37 74

Childcare 18 56 50 61

Other (assistance with utility payments, 

help to start a business) 

42 79 38 79

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Note: Percentages are based on those people who are identified with a need.

Source: Participant tracking checklists

Prospects for Program Completion

(from checklist data) N %

Table 15. Case Manager Perceptions of Prospects for Participant Success in the Year of Enrollment in FSS

Poor 3 2

Fair 14 8

Good 52 29

Very good 48 27

Excellent 43 24

Missing 21 12

Total 181 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: Participant tracking checklist; FSS coordinator interview database

Case managers identified tracking group service needs for the first year in the program—counseling for homeownership 

and money management, were the most frequently mentioned services. Case managers for about one-half the families 

said that employment and education-related services were an important need for families in the study (Table 14).

Case managers also provided their perceptions on potential barriers to progress in FSS (Table 16). The cost of childcare, 

lack of job skills, and lack of transportation were considered the three most likely barriers to program completion. 

Chronic health problems such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and depression, coupled with a lack of 

health insurance, were also mentioned by case managers as significant barriers to achieving self-sufficiency for many 

FSS participants. Other barriers that case managers mentioned were problems associated with risky behavior of older 

children in the family and difficulty obtaining drivers licenses for household heads.

To summarize, FSS tracking group programs are larger than the typical FSS program––with more participants, more 

staff, and larger FSS caseloads than other FSS programs. The tracking group programs were more likely to have 

received FSS coordinator funding in 2005 than other programs. The average tracking participant was 34 years old, 

female, with an annual income of $16,000 in the year of enrollment in FSS. Most tracking participants (71 percent) were 

working when they joined the FSS program, and case managers anticipated that most tracking group participants would 

eventually complete the FSS program. The following chapters examine FSS outcomes for these families.
18

Table 16. Case Manager Perceptions of Barriers to Contract Completion in the Year of Enrollment in the FSS 

Tracking Group

Childcare 18 10

Lack of job skills and/or experience 24 13

Lack of transportation 13 7

Physical disability 5 3

Lack of motivation 8 4

Failure to meet interim milestones 8 4

Caregiver to family member(s) 2 1

Failure to keep appointments with case manager 3 2

Mental health disability 2 1

Domestic violence 2 1

Substance abuse 0 0

Other (not having a GED, childcare responsibilities, 

health of child, criminal history, debt/credit issues, 

language problems, lack of a support system)

42 23

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. GED = General Equivalency Diploma.

Note: Percentages are based on the 181 participants. Case managers could report more than one barrier per participant.

Source: Participant tracking checklists

Barrier Reported To Be Affected by Barrier (N = 181)

N %
19

This chapter, which provides an assessment of the outcomes for the tracking group families, answers the following four 

questions:

1. Who graduated from the FSS program? Who left the program or was terminated from the program before 

contract completion? What were the reasons for program exit or termination?

2. How do graduates compare to other exiters and those still enrolled in the program?

3. How do the FSS program experiences of graduates, other exiters, and still-enrolled participants vary across 

individual goals for the program, attainment of interim milestones, service needs and receipt thereof, and escrow 

accumulation?

4. Based on interim outcomes observed, what are the graduation prospects for still-enrolled program participants? 

The chapter details a description of the tracking group outcomes as of 2009—how many graduated, how many exited 

without graduating, and how many remained. For those who left without completing the program, this study explores 

reasons for program exit. The next section compares the demographic characteristics of FSS graduates, other exiters, 

and participants still enrolled in the FSS program. The following section examines the employment and FSS program 

experiences for each of the three groups. Finally, based on interim outcomes observed for this group and findings about 

factors associated with graduation from FSS, the potential for FSS program completion was assessed among the stillenrolled participants.

4.1 Final Outcomes Observed for the Tracking Group Participants

By the time data collection for the tracking study ended in September 2009—

 41 FSS participants had graduated from the program (24 percent of the tracking group).

 63 left the program before graduation (37 percent).

 The remaining 66 participants (39 percent) were still enrolled in the FSS program.

 11 participants in the New York City Housing Authority were dropped from the tracking group in 2009 because the 

FSS program was discontinued in that agency in October 2008.

Table 17 and Exhibit 1 examine the patterns of attrition and graduation over time for the tracking study participants. 

Table 17 shows the year-to-year attrition and graduation rates for tracking study participants at discrete points in time—

the end of each subsequent year after enrollment. Exhibit 1 displays the attrition and graduation rates graphically, in a 

continuous time plot showing the program’s cumulative participant graduation and drop out rates. Of the participants in 

the New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA), 11 were dropped from the tracking study in 2009 because NYCHA 

discontinued its FSS program at the end of October 2008.14 These participants were not included in these calculations. 

Because FSS outcomes for these participants are unclear, they have also been excluded from comparisons of graduates 

and other exiters. During the first year after enrollment, 93 percent of the remaining 170 FSS participants in the study 

were still enrolled in FSS. Of the participants, 5 percent had exited the program without completing the COP, and 

2 percent had fulfilled their contracts and graduated from FSS. Of the 158 participants remaining at the end of the first 

14 The program was discontinued because of budgetary constraints across the housing authority and because the agency did not receive FSS coordinator funding from HUD. The average escrow balance for the 11 participants at the time of the 2008 case manager interviews was $2,800. Of the 

11 participants, 6 were employed full time or part time when the program ended and 3 were considered by their case managers to have very good 

or excellent prospects for completing the FSS program. According to the case manager, escrow money was disbursed to the NYCHA participants 

if they were in good standing in the program, had completed their FSS goals, and had not received welfare income in the last 12 months.
20

Graduation Dropout Still Enrolled Initial Enrollment at the Start 

of Each FSS Year (N = 171)

N % % %

year after enrollment, 16 percent left without graduating the second year. In the third year after enrollment, an almost 

equal share of participants graduated compared with the number that left without completing the program. In the fourth 

year since enrollment, the same number of FSS participants graduated compared with the number who exited from the 

program. Of the participants still remaining in the program at the end of 4 years, 4 percent graduated in subsequent 

years and 7 percent exited for other reasons. Excluding the 11 New York participants from the denominator, the attrition 

rate during the entire tracking period is 37 percent; the graduation rate is 24 percent, and 66 participants (39 percent of 

170) were still enrolled in FSS at the end of the study period.

Attrition rates overall—and rates of graduation—vary across programs. In three sites, no FSS participants had completed the program successfully as of 2009. In two other sites, one-half or more of the participants graduated. 

Cumulative Probability Plot

We also examined the attrition and graduation probabilities over time by plotting the Cumulative Incidence Function 

(CIF). A CIF provides an estimate of the cumulative probability of the event of interest (graduation) by time t, given 

that other outcomes or competing risks (program exit) are possible.15 A competing risk is an event that, if it occurs, 

will change the probability or prevent the event under examination. So, the plot for graduation shows the proportion 

of participants at a given number of years since 

enrollment who have graduated in the presence of 

the risk of exiting without graduating. Exhibit 1 

plots the cumulative probabilities for graduation 

and nongraduate exit. It shows that, for example, 

3 years into enrollment, the cumulative probability 

of graduation is less than 20 percent, while the 

cumulative probability of other program exits is 

about 30 percent.

The graph indicates that the cumulative probability 

of graduation was low (around 10 percent) during 

the first 2 years after program enrollment. The 

participant’s graduation rate started to pick at the 

end of year 2 and gradually accelerated through 

the third year. Throughout the study period, the 

Table 17. FSS Program Status of Study Participants by Year of Enrollment

First year after enrollment (days 1–365) 2 95 93 100

Second year after enrollment (days 366–730) 8 16 75 93

Third year after enrollment (days 731–1,095) 11 12 77 70

Fourth year after enrollment (days 1,096–1,460) 10 10 80 54

More than 4 years after enrollment 4 7 89 44

Percentage of initial enrollment (of 170 participants, 

excluding the NYCHA participants) 

24 37 39 100

Exit

Graduation

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Cumulative Incidence

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Years since program enrollment

Exhibit 1. Cumulative Probability Plot for Graduation and Exit

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. NYCHA = New York City Housing Authority.

Sources: CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews

15 This is similar to the Kaplan-Meier survival function but takes into account more than two outcomes. Still-enrolled participants are treated as 

censored because they have not yet experienced a final outcome. The STCOMPSET command in Stata was used to generate the CIFs. We referred 

to Coviello, Vincenzo, and May Boggess. 2004. “Cumulative Incidence Estimation in the Presence of Competing Risks,” The Stata Journal 4 (2): 

103–112. 
21

program’s other exit rate was always higher than the graduation rate. Although the participants exit rate was relatively 

low during the first year, it began to accelerate at the beginning of the second year. By the end of the second year, the 

probability rate of a participant exiting the program exceeded 20 percent. The exit rate continued increasing through the 

third and fourth years, reaching close to 35 percent at the end of the fourth year. This section examines the cumulative 

probability, over time, of FSS program graduation in the presence of the competing risk of exiting the program. Chapter 

5 a competing risk regression analyses is performed to examine the association between participant and program 

characteristics and graduation.16

We also calculated the duration in FSS for the tracking group. On average, graduates were in the program slightly 

longer than other exiters. Most of the families in the study (84 percent) enrolled in FSS in late 2005 or early 2006.17 For 

the 41 program graduates, the average time in FSS was about 2.5 years (28 months); the 63 exiters spent, on average, 24 

months in the program.18 The 11 NYCHA participants had been in the program for 33 months when the program closed 

in October 2008. Still-enrolled participants have been in the program for almost 48 months.

Reasons for Leaving the FSS Program

Many participants (31 of 63) who left the FSS program without completing the COP did so either because they had 

violated FSS program rules or they had violated voucher program rules and had lost their voucher assistance. Violation 

of FSS program rules included failure to communicate with the FSS caseworker or to respond to caseworker outreach, 

failure to meet FSS program goals or show up for an annual review and continuing to receive public assistance. Violations of voucher program rules, as reported by FSS case managers, included failed housing quality inspection and 

not completing income recertification. In some cases the voucher was terminated for people who had moved without 

notifying the PHA.

Other participants left the program voluntarily. For example, one participant reported that the FSS program was not 

meeting her needs and another became financially overqualified for the voucher program when she was married and 

her household income exceeded the HCV eligibility threshold. Others left because they were unable to meet FSS goals 

while managing work and family obligations. Other reasons for leaving the program before completing the COP include 

illness, death, or use of the voucher to move to another jurisdiction.

Program participants who exit without completing their contracts forfeit their escrow accounts. While nearly one-half 

(31 of 63) of the participants who left without completing their COPs did not have escrow account balances, 18 had 

escrow balances exceeding $1,000 at the time of exit (Table 18), and 3 exiters had escrow balances greater than $5,000. 

Of the exiters, eight with escrow accounts greater than $1,000 left for voluntary reasons such as moving to another 

state for a better job. Others left because they could not meet FSS goals because of work and family obligations or their 

contract expired or was terminated for not reporting income, continued receipt of public assistance, lack of communication, or failure to show up for annual review.

Of the 11 participants in the NYCHA program, 3 had no escrow account when the program ended (Table 18). Of these 

11 participants, 6 had escrow account balances of $2,000 or more and 1 had escrowed greater than $5,000. NYCHA 

program staff said that participants in good standing with the FSS and voucher program at the end of the FSS program 

received their escrow funds.

16 An alternative approach would be the binary logit model, using only those participants in the tracking study for whom an outcome was 

observed—graduates and exiters. The binary logit approach would thus use a smaller sample size and also would not take into account the fact that 

some participants were still enrolled in the program at the end of the tracking period. In addition, unlike the logit model, the competing risk model 

also takes into consideration the “time to outcome,” which accounts for how quickly people graduate or exit.

17 Appendix F, Table F1, shows enrollment dates for the study participants.

18 Of the participants in the tracking group from the Denver Housing Authority, eight enrolled in FSS before 2005 and one enrolled as long ago as 

1999. They were retained in the analysis of FSS outcomes but are excluded from the calculations of time spent in the FSS program. The number 

of months in FSS is measured from enrollment date in the WAVE06 checklist to the exit date provided in subsequent checklists and verified in the 

case manager interviews. 
22

4.2 Comparing FSS Graduates, Other Exiters, and Still-Enrolled Participants

This section compares the characteristics and FSS program experiences of FSS graduates, other exiters, and stillenrolled participants. The demographic profile of the 66 participants still enrolled in the program is compared with FSS 

graduates and other exiters. Table 19 displays household size, numbers of dependents, and educational status of the 

three groups from PIC data, using the earliest PIC record available for each participant. PIC provides the only source of 

information for the tracking study participants on household size, numbers of dependents, and educational attainment. 

Educational attainment is measured by the number of years of school completed.

As Table 19 shows, 36 percent of exiters had less than a high school education, compared with 18 percent of graduates and 20 percent of the still-enrolled participants. Almost 40 percent of the 66 participants still enrolled in the FSS 

program had completed some schooling beyond high school compared with 20 percent of the exiters and 48 percent of 

the graduates.

Escrow Account Amounts by Reason for Leaving

Exit Reason No/Zero 

Escrow Account

$1,000 or 

Less

$1,000–

$2,000

$2,000–

$4,000

$4,000–

$5,000 $5,000+ Total

Table 18. Reasons for Leaving the FSS Program and Escrow Balances for Program Exiters

Terminated for noncompliance 15 11 1 3 0 1 31

Left FSS voluntarily 8 2 2 0 4 2 18

Left HCV voluntarily 3 0 0 0 0 0 3

Left HCV—income increased 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

Ported out 3 1 1 1 0 0 6

Death or illness 2 0 1 1 0 0 4

Total 31 14 5 6 4 3 63

NYCHA participants enrolled in 

FSS when program ended

3 1 1 4 1 1 11

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher. NYCHA = New York City Housing Authority.

Source: Case manager interviews

Characteristic Graduates (N = 41) Exiters (N = 63) Active Participants (N = 66)

N % N % N %

Table 19. Comparing Still-Enrolled FSS Participants With Exiters and Graduates

Household Size

1 2 5 6 10 1 2

2 14 34 17 28 17 26

3 to 4 18 44 30 49 35 53

5 or more 7 17 8 13 13 20

Missing 0 –– 2 –– 0 ––

Total 41 100 63 100 66 100

Number of Years of Schooling Completed

Less than high school (<12 years) 7 18 21 36 12 20

High school graduate (12 years) 14 35 25 43 26 43

Some college (13–15 years) 14 35 10 17 20 33

College graduate (16+ years) 5 13 2 3 3 5

Missing 1 –– 5 –– 5 ––

Total 41 100 63 100 66 100

Number of Dependents

0 3 7 10 16 1 2

1 14 34 17 28 20 30

2 11 27 17 28 22 33

3 to 4 11 27 13 21 18 27

5 or more 2 5 4 7 5 8

Missing 0 –– 2 –– 0 ––

Total 41 100 63 100 66 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, and PIC07 data
23

The still-enrolled participants resemble the graduates more than they do other exiters for educational attainment, but 

the still-enrolled participants have larger households and more dependents than either graduates or other exiters. Of the 

active participants in 2009, 73 percent had more than three people in their households, compared with 62 percent of 

the graduates and 61 percent of the other exiters. Of the still-enrolled participants in 2009, 68 percent had two or more 

dependents, compared with 59 percent of the graduates and 56 percent of the exiters.

Employment

The participants in the study were grouped according to their most common employment status during the tracking 

period. Participants are defined as being “mostly employed” during the tracking period if they were employed at more 

than four of the eight tracking study data collection points. Conversely, participants are defined as being “mostly 

unemployed” during the tracking period if they were unemployed at more than four of the eight the tracking study data 

collection points. If an individual was employed at exactly one-half of the observation points, he or she was classified 

as “intermittently employed.” The number of data collection points varied from person-to-person dependent on the total 

amount of time in the program.

Employment Status Over the Tracking Period

Most program graduates were employed at FSS program entry and remained employed more or less steadily throughout 

their time in the program. Of the graduates, 93 percent were mostly employed compared with 60 percent of the other 

exiters (Table 20).

19 Of the three participants, two were included in the mostly unemployed group because they resemble the mostly unemployed group more closely 

than the mostly employed group. They tended to be employed at earlier points in the tracking period but were unemployed by the WAVE09 

checklist and the CM09 interviews and were thus faring worse over time with respect to employment in contrast to the steadily employed group. 

The third person was included as part of the mostly employed group.

Employment Status

Graduates Exiters Still-Enrolled Participants

N % N % N %

Table 20. Employment Status of FSS Graduates, Other Exiters, and Still-Enrolled Participants

Mostly employed 38 93 38 60 43 65

Intermittently employed 1 2 3 5 –– ––

Mostly unemployed 1 2 19 30 23 35

Insufficient information 1 2 3 5 –– ––

Total 41 100 63 100 66 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVEO5, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09

Nearly two-thirds (43) of the still-enrolled participants were mostly employed. A little more than one-third (23) of the 

still-enrolled participants were mostly unemployed. Only 3 of the still-enrolled FSS participants moved in and out of 

employment during the tracking period, with periods of unemployment followed by periods of employment.19

Employment patterns for exiters resemble those for the still-enrolled participants—60 percent of exiters were mostly 

employed during the study period, and 30 percent were mostly unemployed, compared with 35 percent of the stillenrolled participants. Of exiters, 5 percent were intermittently employed during the observation period.

The still-enrolled participants were either mostly employed or mostly unemployed during the 4-year tracking period. 

The share in full-time or part-time employment remained stable at about 65 percent at each observation point, although 

a slight shift toward full-time employment occurred over time. The most common types of jobs for those who were 

steadily employed were administrative, clerical, or healthcare related jobs.
24

Hours Worked and Wages

For graduates who were mostly employed during the tracking period, hours worked and wages increased over time: 

average hours worked increased from 37 to 39, and average hourly wage increased from $11.73 in 2006 to $14.41 in the 

graduation year (Table 22). For other exiters who were mostly employed during their time in the program, the average 

weekly hours worked dropped but the wages increased slightly from $11.65 to $12.17 in the year they left the program.

For still-enrolled participants who were mostly employed, hours worked and wages increased modestly over time: 

average hours worked increased from 29 to 35 and the average hourly wage increased from $11.84 in 2006 to $13.61 in 

2009 (Table 23).

Employment 

Status

2006 2007 2008 2009

N % N % N % N %

Table 21. Employment Status of Still-Enrolled FSS Participants

Full time 21 32 26 39 29 45 28 42

Part time 22 33 21 32 12 18 15 23

Not employed 23 35 19 29 24 37 23 35

Missing 0 –– 0 –– 1 –– 0 ––

Total 66 100 66 100 66 100 66 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVEO6, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

 Graduates (N = 41) Other Exiters (N = 63)

2006 At End of Program 

Participation 2006 At End of Program Participation

2006 2007 2008 2009

Table 22. Average Weekly Hours Worked and Average Hourly Wage for Mostly Employed Group

Table 23. Average Weekly Hours Worked and Average Hourly Wage for Mostly Employed Group (43 of the 66 

Still-Enrolled Participants)

Hourly wage (in 2009 dollars) $11.73 $14.41 $11.65 $12.17 

Weekly hours worked 37 39 33 30

Hourly wage (in 2009 dollars) $11.84 $13.01 $12.15 $13.61 

Weekly hours worked 29.4 32.9 33.6 34.9

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Receipt of Fringe Benefits From Employment

Tables 24 and 25 show the receipt of fringe benefits for each of the participant groups.

Table 24 shows an increase in the proportion of still-enrolled participants who received fringe job benefits. Around the 

program enrollment time in 2006, 14 percent of the mostly employed still-enrolled participants were receiving paid sick 

leave. By 2009, 53 percent of the mostly employed still-enrolled participants were receiving paid sick leave. Increases 

in benefits for paid vacation, health insurance, and retirement accounts are also evident. More than one-half of the 

mostly employed, still-enrolled participants were receiving paid sick leave, paid vacation, and health insurance. The 

share receiving retirement benefits did not change much after the first year. The improvement in benefits indicates that 

the mostly employed, still-enrolled participants were making modest advances in their employment benefits and job 

quality during the tracking period.

20 Both the PIC data and the case manager interviews contain employment status information. For ease in reading, PIC data are used for the text. 

For full data, which includes the information gathered from the case manager interviews, see Appendix F.

Table 21 shows the employment status for the still-enrolled participants in the PIC data during the tracking period.20
25

Compared with the still-enrolled participants and exiters, a higher proportion of the graduates who were mostly 

employed during the tracking period were receiving fringe job benefits at program start. For example, 46 percent were 

receiving health insurance at program start compared with 25 percent of the mostly employed exiters and 19 percent of 

the mostly employed still-enrolled participants (Table 24 and Table 25). By the time of graduation, 60 percent of the 

mostly employed graduates were reporting receipt of fringe benefits compared with less than 20 percent of the other 

exiters at their time of program exit. 

Household Income

Table 26 shows the average annual household income close to enrollment (in 2009 dollars) for the still-enrolled 

participants as of 2009, graduates, and other exiters. Average annual income around the time of program enrollment 

was the highest for graduates (including those with no income at all) at $19,902 and increased to $33,390 in their year 

of graduation (the percentile distribution of starting and ending income for graduates is also shown in Table 26). The 

median starting income for graduates was $17,308 and median ending income was $32,633. The average annual income 

for FSS exiters increased by a much smaller margin––from about $15,551 in the first tracking year to $15,918 in the 

year they left the program.

The average income around the time of program enrollment for those still enrolled in the program in 2009 was $18,190, 

lower than that of graduates but higher than that of other exiters. At the last point income was observed, the average 

annual income of the still-enrolled participants was still higher than that of exiters ($20,156 vs. $15,918), but lower than 

Fringe Benefit 

Reported

2006 2007 2008 2009

N % N % N % N %

Table 24. Proportion of Mostly Employed (43 of the 66 Still-Enrolled Participants) Group Reporting Fringe Benefits

Paid sick leave 6 14 15 35 20 47 23 53

Paid vacation 7 16 17 40 20 47 22 51

Health insurance 8 19 15 35 22 51 22 51

Retirement account 3 7 10 23 9 21 9 21

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Fringe Benefit 

Reported

Graduates (N = 41) Other Exiters (N = 63)

2006 At End of Program 

Participation 2006 At End of Program Participation

N % N % N % N %

Table 25. Proportion of Mostly Employed Group Reporting Fringe Benefits

Paid sick leave 14 34 24 59 10 16 10 16

Paid vacation 15 37 24 59 10 16 7 11

Health insurance 19 46 24 59 16 25 11 17

Retirement account 17 41 19 46 7 11 4 6

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

FSS Status at 

End of Tracking Period

Starting Income (2006) Last Observed Income (2009) Percentage 

N Change Average Annual HH Income 

(in 2009 dollars) N Average Annual HH Income

Table 26. Average Annual Household Income for Graduates, Exiters, and the Still-Enrolled Participants at 

Program Enrollment and End of the Tracking Period

Graduates 41 $19,902 41 $33,390 68

Percentile Distribution Percentile Distribution

25th 50th 75th 25th 50th 75th

$10,010 $17,308 $25,286 $21,632 $32,623 $42,333

Exiters 63 –– $15,551 63 –– $15,918 2

Still enrolled in FSS 66 –– $18,190 66 –– $20,156 11

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HH = household.

Sources: WAVE06 checklist; CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews
26

that of FSS graduates ($33,390). Graduates saw annual household incomes grow by 68 percent during their time in FSS, 

compared with an 11-percent increase for those still enrolled in the program as of 2009 and a 2-percent increase for 

those who left FSS without graduating.

Participant checklist data indicate that the income increased for graduates during the study period as a result of 

retaining employment, increasing work hours, and increases in wages over time. Information was not collected on the 

employment status of other household members, so the extent that household income increases are a result of earnings 

from others in the household cannot be assessed. Of the graduates 80 percent were employed full time or part time at 

enrollment, compared with 95 percent at the last observation point. For exiters, 50 percent were employed at enrollment 

compared with 65 percent at the last observation point. Average incomes for the full tracking group (N = 181) measured 

in PIC data are shown in Appendix F.

Sources of Income

Table 27 shows the sources of income for the still-enrolled participants at the four checklist data collection points. The 

proportion of participants receiving TANF declined from 26 percent at the beginning to 9 percent by the end of tracking 

period, which is consistent with making progress toward FSS graduation. This trend can be attributed to the FSS graduation requirement that a family must stop receiving TANF assistance for a period of 12 months to complete the COP. 

For the still-enrolled participants in the program when the tracking period ended, the proportion receiving income from 

earnings stayed around 60 percent during the tracking period although a slight drop occurred in 2009 (see Table 27). 

Appendix F contains additional details about the income sources for the 66 still-enrolled families at various points 

during the tracking period.

A higher proportion of the graduates were receiving income from employment toward the end of program participation 

than at program start (78 percent compared with 59 percent at program start). The proportion receiving TANF income 

dropped from 15 percent at program start to 5 percent close to graduation (Table 28). By contrast, fewer exiters were receiving income from employment at program end than at program start. Receipt of TANF income for exiters decreased 

(from 24 to 16 percent), but not as much as it did for the graduates or for the still-enrolled participants.

Most FSS graduates stopped receiving TANF benefits at least 12 months before they completed their FSS contract. 

Some (13 of 21 graduates) were still participating in the HCV program at the time of FSS program completion. 

Although participants can still be in the voucher program when they graduate from FSS, all members of the household 

Percent Receiving This 

Source of Income

2006 2007 2008 2009

N % N % N % N %

Table 27. Selected Sources of Income for Still-Enrolled FSS Participants

Earned income (employment) 43 65 44 67 44 67 41 62

Food Stamp program benefits 34 52 38 58 26 39 31 47

TANF 17 26 14 21 12 18 6 9

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Percent Receiving This 

Source of Income

Graduates Exiters

2006 At End of Program 

Participation 2006 At End of Program Participation

N % N % N % N %

Table 28. Selected Sources of Income for FSS Graduates and Exiters 

Earned income (employment) 24 59 32 78 37 59 27 43

Food Stamp program benefits 17 41 5 12 26 41 17 27

TANF 6 15 2 5 15 24 10 16

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists
27

have to be off TANF 12 months before graduation from FSS. One scenario exists, however, under which the 12-month 

requirement does not apply. If the income of the family has risen so that their share of the rent is equal to or exceeds the 

Fair Market Rent for the unit size for which they qualify, then they are considered to have successfully completed the 

program.21 In this case, they are eligible to receive their escrow balance as long as no household member is receiving 

TANF at the time of program completion.

FSS Program Goals, Interim Milestones, and Case Manager Assessments

The next three sections examine FSS program tracking study participants’ experiences and provide comparisons across 

the three groups of participants—graduates, other exiters, and the still-enrolled participants. The first section compares 

the program goals set by the participants, the achievement of interim milestones, and the case managers’ assessments of 

program success for each of the three groups of participants. The second section examines the service needs at program 

entry and the extent to which these needs were fulfilled. The third section assesses the escrow accumulation for each 

group is examined.

Goals

At the start of the program, FSS participants worked with their case managers to establish goals that will result in 

employment. These goals are documented in the ITSP. Progress in achieving established goals is one indication that 

a family will eventually meet the obligations of the FSS COP and graduate. Table 29 shows the proportion of the 

participants (still enrolled, graduates, and exiters) for each type of individual goal identified during the first year in FSS. 

Completing education was the most common goal for the still-enrolled participants, established for 64 percent of the 

active participants. Obtaining employment, achieving homeownership, and reducing debt were other commonly identified goals. For graduates, achieving homeownership was the most commonly identified goal (61 percent), followed by 

completion of education (51 percent). For other exiters, obtaining employment (40 percent) was the most common goal 

and achieving homeownership was the second most common goal (33 percent).

Type of 

Interim Goals

Active Participants Graduates Exiters

Number of 

Participants 

With This 

Milestone (2006)

Share of 

Still-Enrolled 

Participants 

With This 

Milestone

Number of 

Graduates With 

This Milestone 

(2006)

Share of 

Graduates 

With This 

Milestone

Number of 

Nongraduates 

With This 

Milestone 

(2006)

Share of 

Exiters With 

This Milestone

Table 29. Individual Goals Established in the First Year of the FSS Program

Complete education 42 64 21 51 20 32

Obtain employment 30 45 20 49 25 40

Other (obtain a driver’s license, 

start a business, improve 

credit, obtain a real estate 

license, etc.)

29 44 18 44 20 32

Achieve homeownership 28 42 25 61 21 33

Reduce debt 28 42 19 46 17 27

Obtain a job with better wages 24 36 8 20 18 29

Establish credit 17 26 6 15 18 29

Obtain a job with benefits 17 26 7 17 17 27

Complete training 14 21 9 22 16 25

Exit TANF 14 21 5 12 11 17

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Source: WAVE06 checklist

21 See 24 CFR Part 984.305.
28

Interim Milestones

The case manager and FSS participant also agree on interim milestones related to employment, homeownership, debt reduction, education, training, and exiting TANF. Milestones are to be completed each year to ensure progress in achieving 

FSS goals. In each subsequent year, case managers reported the number of participants with each interim milestone and 

the proportion who had accomplished the milestone for that year. Table 30 shows the attainment of interim milestones 

in 2009 for the still-enrolled participants and for the last year of program participation for graduates and other exiters. 

Of those still-enrolled participants in 2009, 67 percent reported accomplishing their pay-raise milestone, and 63 percent 

reported attaining their milestone of moving to a higher paying or otherwise better job. A lower share (38 percent), 

however, attained their milestone of advancing in their job by moving to a better position. (For more detailed information 

on achievement of interim milestones for the 66 participants, by year of FSS participation, see Appendix F, Table F12). 

A high proportion of graduates (close to 90 percent on most milestones) had achieved their interim milestones by their 

last year in FSS. Fewer exiters report having interim milestones, and generally lower proportions report achievement of 

their milestones.

Case Manager Assessment

Each year, on the participant tracking checklists, the case managers working with each of the families in the study 

were asked to assess the prospects for completing the FSS program successfully. According to FSS case managers, 

most participants still enrolled in the FSS program when tracking ended had good prospects of graduating (Table 31). 

Earlier in the tracking period, however, the case managers had a more favorable assessment of likely success for these 

participants. This less favorable assessment could reflect changes in their personal situations but could also be a result of 

the recession, which reduced prospects for sustained employment for many FSS participants.

Case manager assessment of the probability of program success for graduates improved over time, with case managers 

reporting very good or excellent graduation prospects for 87 percent of the graduates, compared with 76 percent at 

the start of the program (Table 31). For the still-enrolled participants, however, the prospects worsened over time: 48 

percent had very good or excellent prospects compared with 62 percent at program start. Although the share with poor 

prospects increased over time for exiters, it is somewhat surprising that, even in the last year of program participation, 

case managers thought that graduation prospects for 21 percent of the exiters were excellent.

At the same time, case managers also said that, regardless of their progress in achieving their FSS goals, their employment history, or their escrow account balance, the participants continue to face challenges. Most case managers report 

that lack of education and training is a major barrier to employment, as are family care obligations, including pregnancy. 

Other frequently cited barriers include lack of motivation, illness, disability, stress and anxiety issues, lack of reliable 

transportation, and being the sole caregiver for their children or other family members.
Milestone or Achievement

Active Participants Graduates Exiters

2009 In Last Year of Program Participation In Last Year of Program Participation

Number With 

This Interim 

Milestone

Number 

Achieving 

This Interim 

Milestone

Percentage 

Achieving 

This Interim 

Milestone

Number With 

This Interim 

Milestone

Number 

Achieving 

This Interim 

Milestone

Percentage 

Achieving 

This Interim 

Milestone

Number With 

This Interim 

Milestone

Number 

Achieving 

This Interim 

Milestone

Percentage 

Achieving 

This Interim 

Milestone

Table 30. Milestones Attained in 2009 or the Last Year of FSS Program Participation

Enroll in an education and training program? 32 15 47 12 3 25 13 1 8

Complete an education and training program? 29 15 52 8 7 88 5 2 40

Obtain employment? 30 22 73 10 9 90 9 5 56

Move to a higher paying or otherwise better job? 19 12 63 12 10 83 3 1 33

Meet a job retention goal? 27 15 56 15 13 87 4 3 75

Advance in a job (promotion to a new position)? 8 3 38 10 9 90 1 1 100

Receive a pay raise? 15 10 67 19 16 84 2 1 50

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

29

Prospects for Graduation

Active Participants Graduates Exiters

2006 2009 2006 Last Year of Program 

Participation 2006 Last Year of Program Participation

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table 31. Case Manager Assessment of Potential for FSS Program Completion

Excellent 16 26 20 30 12 35 25 64 15 28 12 21

Very good 22 36 12 18 14 41 9 23 10 19 4 7

Good 21 34 18 27 6 18 3 8 18 33 14 25

Fair 2 3 8 12 1 3 2 5 9 17 13 23

Poor 0 0 8 12 1 3 0 0 2 4 14 25

Missing 5 — 0 — 7 — 2 — 9 — 6 —

Total 66 100 66 100 41 100 41 100 63 100 63 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists
30

Services Needed and Received

This section discusses the services that families received during the tracking study. The first checklist, WAVE06, 

completed near the time of enrollment, questioned FSS case managers what service needs had been identified for each 

participant. Supportive service categories and definitions provided in HUD regulations22 for FSS: childcare, transportation, education, employment, personal welfare, household skills and management, and counseling. Personal welfare is 

defined in the HUD regulations as substance and alcohol abuse treatment and counseling. Services in the “education” 

category include referrals to the public school systems, community colleges, and universities for adult education 

programs in literacy, GED, bachelor’s degrees in various disciplines, English as a second language, writing, business 

communication skills (oral and written), and Internet and computer skills. Referrals also are made to client support 

and enhancement funds or scholarship funds to assist with college tuition, books, childcare, and public transportation. 

“Other” services offered by housing agencies through public and private partner agencies include health, mental health, 

nutrition, diet, weight control, smoking cessation, children’s immunizations, and workshops in small business development, parenting, life skills, household skills, credit management, budgeting, and homeownership.

Table 32 shows the proportion of FSS graduates, other exiters, and still-enrolled participants recorded as needing each 

type of service when they entered the program. Counseling, employment related services, and education were the most 

common service needs identified for FSS tracking group families in the study’s first year. 

For the still-enrolled participants, counseling, employment related services, and education were the most commonly 

cited service needs at every wave. Over time, service receipt for the still-enrolled participants improved in all categories 

(Table 33). More than 70 percent of those with any service need had received the service by the second year of program 

Type of 

Service

Active Participants With a 

Service Need (N = 66)

Graduates With a 

Service Need (N = 41)

Exiters With a 

Service Need (N = 63)

N % N % N %

Table 32. Service Needs Identified at Time of FSS Program Entry

Counseling 48 73 34 83 41 65

Education 37 56 15 37 32 51

Employment 33 50 16 39 34 54

Household skills 

and management

32 48 18 44 16 25

Other 19 29 7 17 15 24

Personal welfare 18 27 7 17 12 19

Transportation 10 15 4 10 5 8

Childcare 8 12 5 12 5 8

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Source: WAVE06 checklist

22 24 CFR Part 984.103.

Type of 

Service

Participants in 2006 Participants in 2009

With Service 

Needs

Receiving 

Service

Receiving 

Service

With Service 

Needs

Receiving 

Service

Receiving 

Service

N N % N N %

Table 33. Service Needs and Service Receipt at Time of FSS Program Entry and in 2009 for Active Participants

Counseling 48 22 46 46 36 78

Education 37 20 54 35 30 86

Employment 33 18 55 32 27 84

Household skills 

and management

32 15 47 32 29 91

Other 19 7 37 8 8 100

Personal welfare 18 9 50 10 8 80

Transportation 10 4 40 16 15 94

Childcare 8 5 63 14 13 93

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVE06 and WAVE09 checklists
31

participation. By the fourth year of program participation, in 2009, this share was more than 80 percent for most service 

categories. (For more detailed information on service receipt compared with service needs for the 66 participants, by 

year of FSS participation, see Appendix F, Table F11.)

With the exception of transportation needs, the receipt of services also improved in all categories for graduates. By the 

final year of the program more than 65 percent of graduates received the services they requested (Table 34).

With the exception of transportation-related service needs, a greater share of exiters were receiving requested services in 

the last year of the program than at the program start (Table 35).

Table 34. Service Needs and Service Receipt at Time of FSS Program Entry and in 2009 for Graduates

Counseling 34 18 53 28 21 75

Education 15 10 67 19 13 68

Employment 16 9 56 21 16 76

Household skills 

and management

18 11 61 15 13 87

Other 7 2 29 6 4 67

Personal welfare 7 5 71 2 2 100

Transportation 4 3 75 5 2 40

Childcare 5 3 60 7 6 86

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Type of 

Service

Participants in 2006 Participants in Last Year of Program

With Service 

Needs

Receiving 

Service

Receiving 

Service

With Service 

Needs

Receiving 

Service

Receiving 

Service

N N % N N %

Table 35. Service Needs and Service Receipt at Time of FSS Program Entry and in 2009 for Exiters

Counseling 41 10 24 29 14 48

Education 32 10 31 27 10 37

Employment 34 10 29 30 14 47

Household skills 

and management

16 7 44 12 7 58

Other 15 7 47 9 5 56

Personal welfare 12 5 42 9 5 56

Transportation 5 0 0 2 0 0

Childcare 5 1 20 2 1 50

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Type of 

Service

Participants in 2006 Participants in Last Year of Program

With Service 

Needs

Receiving 

Service

Receiving 

Service

With Service 

Needs

Receiving 

Service

Receiving 

Service

N N % N N %

Escrow Account

One of the most important benefits of the FSS program is the opportunity to accrue money using the FSS escrow 

account. Most families receiving housing assistance pay 30 percent of their adjusted income for rent and utilities. As 

with all HCV recipients, when the incomes of FSS participants rise, their rents increase. The escrow credit is based on 

increases in earned income and is deposited each month into an interest-bearing escrow account managed by the PHA. 

Since the increase is equal to the credit received in the escrow account the net change in rent is zero if the participants 

successfully complete the program. Upon program graduation, the escrow account balance is disbursed for use at the 

graduate’s discretion. According to FSS coordinators and case managers, most of the programs in the study do not keep 

records on how FSS graduates use the escrow funds. Despite this lack of data, when asked to consider FSS participants 

overall (not just those in the tracking study), case managers concluded that homeownership is a common use for the 

FSS escrow account. For the tracking study families, case managers said that some graduates used their escrow account 

funds to defray the costs of education and training and some to pay off debts and improve their credit. Only four track-
32

Escrow Account—Program Graduates and Other Exiters

The average escrow balance at the time of graduation was about $5,300. This balance level is more than twice the average 

escrow account balance for other exiters at the time they left the program, $2,144.23 Appendix F, Table F14, provides 

a list of the positive escrow balances reported by program graduates at the time of graduation. The accumulated funds 

in the accounts represent a substantial boost to the assets of the program graduates and confirm the opportunity for 

significant savings for participating families. The accumulated escrow savings for graduates represent about 27 percent 

of their total annual income at the time they joined FSS. Annual income at program entry was $19,902 for graduates. 

The savings accumulated through the escrow far exceed what most families might have been able to save on their own 

had they not been part of the FSS program.

Escrow Account—Still-Enrolled Participants

Most (85 percent) of the 66 FSS participants who were still enrolled in FSS at the end of the study had positive escrow 

balances (Table 37). Only 10 participants in this group (15 percent of the still-enrolled participants) did not have an 

escrow balance at the time of the final case manager interview. In Appendix F, detailed information is provided about 

the distribution of the escrow account balances for 

the 56 participants with positive escrow balances 

when the study ended. The percentage of active 

participants with an escrow account increased 

during the most recent tracking years—in 2008, 81 

percent of active participants had a positive escrow 

balance, compared with 60 percent of active FSS 

participants in 2007.

The participants with positive escrow accounts saw the balances in the accounts grow during the tracking period. The 

average escrow balance rose from $566 in the first year of the program to almost $3,000 in 2009 (Table 38). In addition, 

the number of participants with positive balances grew from 9 in the first year to 55 in 2009.24

23 FSS participants who exit the program without completing the COP must forfeit the accrued escrow.

24 For information gathered from the case manager interviews, see Appendix F.

Zero Escrow Balance Positive Escrow Account Balance

Table 37. Escrow Account Balance at the End of the Tracking 

Period for the 66 Still-Enrolled FSS Participants

N = 10 (15%) N = 56 (85%)

Average balance: $3,516

Range: $1–$17,749

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: WAVE08 checklist and CM08 interview

N

Participants With a Positive Escrow Balance

N %

Average Escrow Balance for 

Participants With a Positive Balance 

(in 2009 dollars)

Table 36. Escrow Balance for FSS Tracking Study Participants

Graduates 41 35 85 $5,294

Other exiters 63 32 48 $2,144 

Still-enrolled participants 66 56 85 $3,516

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVE09

ing study families purchased a home (but not all case managers provided information about homeownership). Of the 

programs, 10 also allow participants to take interim escrow account disbursements for limited purposes, usually related 

to things like tuition, supplies for school, or car repairs.

Escrow Balance at End of Program Participation

Table 36 shows the average escrow account balance at the end of program participation for graduates and other exiters 

and the last-known escrow account balance for the still-enrolled participants.
33

Patterns in Escrow Accumulation

Because the escrow balance is established when a participant’s earned income increases, those that are most likely to 

benefit are those who enter the FSS program with low earnings or that are unemployed and then experience increases in 

earned income. Previous research has shown that TANF recipients reaching their welfare limits who are also voucher 

holders often are able to accumulate escrow quickly in the FSS program as they go from a period of unemployment to 

employment.25 In addition, TANF participants have access to supportive services from local TANF agencies in the areas 

of education, training, and job development. This access to supportive services, coupled with the escrow account, can 

help TANF participants achieve self-sufficiency.26 Such participants can establish escrow savings more quickly than a 

participant who is employed when he or she begins FSS and whose earnings and monthly rent increase more gradually 

or by smaller amounts.

For still-enrolled FSS participants who had escrow balances greater than $5,000 in 2009, this study examined their 

employment status and income around the time they enrolled in the FSS program (Table 39). The pattern in the table 

suggests that FSS participants achieve substantial escrow balances in three ways: (1) some start with full-time work and 

a relatively high income and their income continues to grow, (2) some were unemployed at program start and become 

employed, and (3) others start with part-time work and low income and then experience substantial gains in income. 

These situations are highlighted in Table 39.

25 According to Sard (2001), this is particularly true in states with earnings disregards in their TANF programs. Sard, Barbara. 2001. The Family 

Self-Sufficiency Program—HUD’s Best Kept Secret for Promoting Employment and Asset Growth. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy 

Priorities. 

26 Ficke, Robert C., and Andrea Piesse. 2004 (April). Evaluation of the Family Self-Sufficiency Program: Retrospective Analysis, 1996 to 2000. 

Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development by Westat. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and 

Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.

Employment Status 

(2006)

Total Income in 2006

(in 2009 dollars)

Change in Status

(2009)

Total Income 

(2009)

Escrow 

Balance

Table 39. Ending Escrow Balance, by Employment Status and Income at Program Start for Active FSS 

Participants With Ending Escrow Balances Greater Than $5,000

Full time $22,838 No $21,615 $5,386 

$30,014 No $44,990 $5,665 

$20,657 No $30,000 $5,864 

$23,136 No $21,344 $6,300 

$30,730 No $32,072 $7,622 

$16,800 No $46,185 $8,133 

$25,416 No $30,345 $9,829 

$14,196 No $33,010 $17,749 

Part time $12,240 Yes $21,000 $7,269 

$14,634 Yes — $8,952 

$25,884 No $42,322 $11,292 

Not employed $1,500 Yes $31,030 $5,609 

$5,652 Yes $11,436 $7,543 

$2,880 Yes $19,427 $14,388

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Source: WAVE06 and WAVE09 checklists; CM09 interview

2006 2007 2008 2009

Table 38. Changes in Escrow Account Balances for FSS Participants With Positive Escrows as of September 2009 

(in 2009 Dollars)

Average escrow account balance $566 $954 $1,834 $2,965

Number of people with positive escrow balances 9 38 50 55

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists
34

Interim Withdrawals

Interim escrow account withdrawals are allowed by regulation, but each FSS program has discretion over whether or 

not to allow interim withdrawals and in determining the conditions to allow for such withdrawals. Examples of the 

allowable uses of interim disbursements established by programs are higher education, job training, business startup 

expenses, and vehicle maintenance. Data for the 10 still-enrolled participants without an escrow account as of 2009 

indicate that these participants had never had an escrow balance at any point during the tracking period. It was not that 

an escrow account had been established and depleted through interim withdrawals. For the exiters, data were checked to 

see if interim withdrawals were made close to the time of program exit, and this trend was also not found to be present.

Table 40. Ending Escrow Balance, by Employment Status and Income at FSS Program Start for Graduates With 

Ending Escrow Balances Greater Than $5,000 

Employment Status 

(2006)

Total Income in 2006

(in 2009 dollars)

Change in Status

(2009)

Total Income 

(2009)

Escrow 

Balance

Full time $36,218 No $41,269 $18,678 

$15,023 No $46,857 $15,187 

$38,520 No $37,187 $11,838 

$49,164 No $72,697 $11,078 

$23,061 No $44,300 $5,838 

$18,918 No $40,743 $5,455 

$35,595 No $33,217 $5,238 

Part time $20,767 Yes $51,724 $14,410 

Not employed $11,864 Yes $36,454 $5,977 

$5,303 Yes $17,160 $5,077 

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Source: WAVE06 and WAVE09 checklists; CM09 interviews

Table 41. Ending Escrow Balance, by Employment Status and Income at FSS Program Start for Other Exiters 

With Ending Escrow Balances Greater Than $2,500

Employment Status 

(2006)

Total Income in 2006

(in 2009 dollars)

Change in Status

(2009)

Total Income 

(2009)

Escrow Balance in Last Case 

Manager Interview Before Exit

Full time $29,532 Yes $42,600** $8,909 

$37,994 No $50,436* $4,922 

$33,450 Missing *** $3,404 

Part time $21,809 Yes $6,924* $8,266 

$18,361 Yes $26,662* $4,018 

$9,553 No $16,469** $3,062 

Not employed $3,916 Yes $7,825** $3,674 

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

*Left program voluntarily. **Asked to leave the program. ***Ported out of the area.

Source: WAVE06 and WAVE09 checklists; case manager interviews

Similarly, for graduates with escrow balances greater than $5,000 in the year of graduation, the study examined employment status and income around the time they enrolled in the FSS program and at graduation (Table 40). Most graduates 

with high escrow balances were employed full time at both program start and end, although a couple of graduates did 

go from being unemployed at the beginning of the program to full-time employment in their final year of program 

participation.

The study looked at employment and income at program start and end for exiters with escrow balances greater than $2,500. 

Of the exiters seven had above-average escrow account balances (Table 41). Of these seven exiters, three left voluntarily, 

three were asked to leave the program, and one used the portability features of the voucher program to leave the area.
35

Escrow Account Compared With Other Savings Programs

To put FSS escrow amounts for program graduates in context, the amounts in the escrow accounts are compared them 

with Individual Development Accounts (IDAs). IDAs are personal savings accounts that encourage participants to save 

for specific purposes like the purchase of a home, business ownership, or post-secondary education. IDAs are intended 

to promote asset accumulation and self-sufficiency by providing account holders incentives to save. Account holders 

receive matching funds when they make permitted account withdrawals. 

IDAs differ in important ways from FSS escrow accounts: they are funded through monthly participant deposits and 

matching funds are provided only when an eligible withdrawal is made. On the other hand, the FSS escrow account is 

funded through an escrow credit that is calculated by the housing agency as a participant’s earned income increases, but 

participants do not make deposits to the FSS escrow account on their own. The FSS escrow account provides a mechanism for low-income families to accumulate savings, but it functions primarily as an incentive to work and increase 

earnings. Another important difference between the two programs is that the use of the FSS escrow account program 

completion is not restricted, as is the case for most matched IDA withdrawals. 

IDA programs typically require participants to complete two types of training before becoming eligible to receive a 

matched account withdrawal: (1) financial education or financial literacy training, and (2) additional training specific to 

the intended use of the funds (for example, homeownership counseling, entrepreneurial training, or career counseling 

for those using the IDA to fund post-secondary education). In the Assets for Independence (AFI) program, the largest 

federally funded IDA program, grantees had considerable latitude to design programs to meet local recipient’s needs.27

All programs were required to establish a savings agreement plan and to provide financial literacy, but the length of the 

course and specific content could vary from program to program. Some AFI programs also provided IDA participants 

with case management and referrals to social services such as childcare assistance, transportation assistance, or crisis 

intervention, but the intensity of case management was found to vary substantially in a process analysis conducted of the 

AFI program.28

Despite the differences in the two policy interventions, it is useful to consider the escrow savings accumulated by 

FSS program graduates in the context of the asset building experiences of IDA account holders. A 3-year longitudinal 

study of 600 IDA participants in the AFI program found that at the end of 3 years cumulative deposits in the accounts 

averaged $935.29 Taking into account average monthly earnings and the amount of matched and unmatched account 

withdrawals, the study calculated a net savings rate of 1.2 percent (this calculation counts matched and unmatched 

withdrawals) and a 1.6-gross-savings rate (taking account of unmatched withdrawals). Average annual income for the 

IDA participants was similar, but slightly lower, than for FSS graduates at program entry (average income for IDA 

participants was $17,556), making these two groups fairly comparable. The amount accumulated in the FSS escrow 

account is substantially greater than the savings achieved through this IDA program. On the other hand, the longer term 

asset-building outcomes for families using the FSS escrow account are less certain than for IDA participants, because 

the FSS funds are unrestricted. The specific uses FSS graduates made of the escrow account are unknown. Unlike the 

IDA program the escrow account does not provide an incentive to save.

Prospects for Completing FSS Among the Still-Enrolled Participants

Previously in this report, the perceptions of FSS case managers were discussed concerning the likelihood that the 

still-enrolled participants would graduate from FSS. This section considers employment experience, escrow account 

balances, and household income of this group to assess the potential for the still-enrolled participants to eventually 

complete the program.

27 Information in this section is taken from the Assets for Independence Evaluation completed in 2008. See Mills, Gregory, et al. 2008. Assets for 

Independence Act: Impact Study: Final Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

28 Mills, et al. (2008).

29 Mills, et al. (2008).
36

As expected, those in the steadily employed group are faring better than those who are mostly unemployed. Table 4230

shows that, not only does the steadily employed group have higher annual household incomes than the unemployed 

group, they also have greater increases in household income over time compared with those who are mostly unemployed.31 Table 42 also shows that those with positive escrow balances have higher annual household incomes than 

those with zero escrow balances. Within group year-to-year income gains, however, are small.

Mostly Employed Through the Tracking Period Mostly Unemployed Through the Tracking Period

Table 43. Employment Experiences and Ending Escrow Status

Zero escrow at 

end of tracking 

period

(2 participants)

This situation is rare. Both of these participants started 

FSS with annual incomes much higher than the average and were employed steadily throughout the tracking 

period. Both experienced declines in annual incomes, 

which explains why no escrow funds were accrued. Case 

managers said both of these participants were excellent 

prospects for graduating from FSS. 

(8 participants)

These participants were mostly unemployed throughout 

the tracking period and had no escrow accumulation. 

This group does not appear to be pursuing education and 

training, which could explain this pattern.

Positive escrow 

at end of tracking 

period

(41 participants)

These participants were employed during most of the 

tracking period and had steadily growing escrow balances. Case managers said that more than one-half of this 

group were excellent or very good prospects for graduating from FSS. 

(15 participants)

These participants were mostly unemployed throughout 

the tracking period and had low, stagnant escrow balances. Case managers said that 5 of the 15 people in this 

group, however, were excellent or very good prospects for 

graduating from FSS.

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists; CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews

Table 44. Average Annual Household Income by Employment and Escrow Groups (in 2009 Dollars)

Mostly employed, positive escrow 41 $20,161 $21,378 $22,909 $24,043 

Mostly employed, zero escrow 2 $34,846 $32,647 $45,660 $37,356 

Mostly unemployed, positive escrow 15 $14,900 $14,472 $11,605 $14,910 

Mostly unemployed, zero escrow 8 $10,081 $9,260 $6,583 $6,719 

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Average Annual Income N 2006 2007 2008 2009

Average Annual Income N 2006 2007 2008 2009

Table 42. Annual Household Income for Employment and Escrow Groups for Active FSS Participants 

(in 2009 Dollars) 

Mostly employed 43 $20,844 $21,915 $24,019 $24,360

Mostly unemployed 23 $13,224 $12,577 $9,858 $12,061

Positive escrow 56 $18,752 $19,588 $19,769 $21,597

Zero escrow 10 $15,034 $13,938 $14,398 $10,123

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

30 Information gathered from case manager interviews are available in Appendix F. 

31 For information on both case manager interviews and PIC data, see Appendix F.

32 For case manager interview data, see Appendix F.

We distributed the 66 still-enrolled participants into the four categories (see Table 43) based on their employment 

experiences in the tracking period and their escrow account balance at the end of the tracking period.

We also looked at the average household incomes across the escrow and employment categories. Those with steady 

employment and positive escrow balances, as expected, have higher annual household incomes (Table 44). The two 

participants who are mostly employed throughout the tracking period without an escrow balance have on average much 

higher incomes than the other groups of participants. The mostly unemployed groups (with both zero and positive 

escrow) had low average incomes during the tracking period.32
37

Taking into account escrow, employment, annual incomes, and case manager assessments, it seems likely that 43 of 

the 66 still-enrolled participants (those in the steadily employed group) are well positioned to complete their COP and 

graduate from the FSS program within their FSS contract timeframe––approximately 1 year. This group had lower 

initial income than FSS graduates. While their annual incomes increased during the tracking period, the percentage 

increase was lower than for the graduates. This seems to indicate that those in the program longer than the graduates are 

making slower progress, but many are making steady gains in employment and escrow balances and in meeting FSS 

goals, which may bode well for their eventual success.

To summarize, a higher proportion of FSS graduates were employed at the beginning of the tracking period than 

exiters or the still-enrolled participants. As a consequence, graduates started out in FSS with higher incomes than either 

group. The still-enrolled participants had larger households and more dependents than graduates or other exiters. For 

educational attainment they were more like graduates. Staying employed and increasing their incomes helped graduates 

accumulate average escrow balances in excess of $5,000. Other exiters, by contrast, did not accumulate as much escrow 

and were likely to leave the program earlier than graduates. More than one-half of the still-enrolled participants appear 

to be on track to graduate. Chapter 5 uses multivariate regression analysis to explore participant and program characteristics that appear to influence the likelihood of graduation rather than leaving without success.
38

This chapter examines the relationship between the graduation of FSS participants and their individual and program 

characteristics. A competing risk hazard analysis was conducted to examine the association between participant and 

program characteristics and the time to graduation, accounting for program exits and for the fact that final outcomes 

were not observed for the still-enrolled participants. The study is not an experimental evaluation of FSS and is not 

designed to assess the effects of FSS for program participants relative to a control group that does not receive FSS. As 

a result, this analysis cannot help us reach conclusions about what caused the outcomes for the families in the study. 

Nevertheless, an exploratory analysis of the characteristics associated with graduation for these FSS participants, in a 

multivariate framework, provides initial answers to two questions:

1. What participant characteristics (socioeconomic and demographic) at the time of program enrollment are associated 

with FSS program graduation? 

2. What program characteristics, such as caseload size or frequency of meetings with the case manager, if changed, 

could increase the likelihood of FSS program graduation? 

Chapter 5 discusses the hypothesized associations between selected participant and program characteristics and FSS 

program graduation, present summary descriptive statistics for the selected explanatory variables in the regression 

models, and discusses the model methodology and findings.

5.1 Hypothesized Effects

Two factors that influence participant outcomes in FSS are the participant’s situation when they first join the program 

and what the FSS program itself can offer that might put them on a positive path to graduation. Prior research has 

examined the link between FSS graduation and characteristics of the participant and program. Anthony (2005) used 

a multivariate logistic regression model to examine FSS graduation for a group of FSS participants in the Rockford, 

Illinois FSS program. He found that adults between 25 and 40 years of age at program enrollment were more likely 

to graduate than those less than 25 or more than 40. He also found that participants who were single at program entry 

were more likely to graduate that those who were not. In addition, acquisition of new skills while in the program, a high 

school diploma at program entry, and higher income at program entry were also found to be significantly associated 

with program graduation.33 Race of the participant, skills at program start, prior work experience, time spent with the 

caseworker, and length of time in the program were not found to be significant.

The analysis considered the following participant characteristics: age, gender, race, income, employment status, 

education, number of dependents, TANF participation status, and the case manager’s perception of barriers to program 

success around the time of program enrollment. Every year, as part of the participant-tracking checklist, the case 

manager was asked about the participant’s prospects for program graduation and for the case manager perception of 

barriers the participant faced to completing the FSS program. These barriers included lack of motivation, failure to 

keep appointments with caseworker, failure to meet interim milestones, lack of childcare, caregiver responsibilities 

for family member with disabilities, physical or mental health disabilities, substance abuse, domestic violence, lack of 

transportation, or lack of job skills or experience. The model only considered the most commonly reported barriers to 

program completion, as perceived by the case manager around the time of program start. These barriers were childcare, 

lack of transportation, and lack of job skills or experience.34 Other factors that affect graduation may exist—factors 

33 Anthony, Jerry. 2005 (September). “Family Self-Sufficient Programs: An Evaluation of Program Benefits and Factors Affecting Participants’ 

Success,” Urban Affairs Review 41 (1): 65–92.

34 Case managers were asked whether each family in the tracking group faced a specific list of barriers to completing FSS and improving selfsufficiency at enrollment and each subsequent year. One barrier on the list was childcare. We did not collect details regarding the specific nature of 

the childcare problems.
39

that these barrier data do not capture. For example, some participants, although they are not employed at program start, 

might expect their incomes to grow in the future. This expectation could be a motivating factor, both for joining the 

program and for graduation, because of the escrow benefit derived from income growth. Highly motivated participants 

are probably more likely to stay with the program and eventually graduate. 

Program characteristics that can be hypothesized to affect how well participants fare are FSS caseload size, frequency 

of contact with of case manager, FSS program size, and whether the FSS program size was expected to increase during 

the year following FSS coordinator interviews. For frequency of meetings with the case manager and whether or not the 

program was expected to expand, case-manager data was used from the 2005 FSS coordinator interviews. The average 

caseload size of PHA case managers from the 2005 FSS coordinator interviews, was also used. The number of participants found in 2006 PIC data determines FSS program size.

Participant-level characteristics that might be expected to have a negative association with program graduation are 

age, gender, and presence of dependents. Older participants might be less likely to graduate because they might face 

discrimination in the job market. Older participants might have more years of job experience but may have also been 

unemployed longer. Female participants might have childcare responsibilities, and participants with more dependents 

might have more family obligations than participants with fewer dependents. This additional responsibility might limit 

the time a participant has available to obtain job training, go back to school, or look for a job. Problems with childcare 

(locating childcare or paying for childcare), lack of transportation, and lack of job skills or experience can also be 

expected to have a negative affect on program graduation––because all these barriers restrict participant potential for 

obtaining and retaining employment.

The hypothesized relationship between income and employment at program enrollment to participant success is somewhat ambiguous. On the one hand, higher income and employment might be an indicator of a participant’s capabilities, 

level of motivation, and job skills. Employed participants might do better than those who are not employed because 

having held a job makes it easier to find a better paying job. Conversely, those without a job at program entry might 

have more time to attend education and training programs and derive a larger escrow benefit from participation if they 

become employed. High school completion and being on TANF at program entry can be expected to have a positive association with program graduation. A high school education might be the prerequisite for certain jobs. Working TANF 

participants have access to service networks and case management through local welfare agencies.35

The relationship of program graduation to the size of the FSS program could go either way. A larger program size could 

mean less consistent case management and limited resources to go around. Larger programs may have more resources 

and staff, however, and may place greater importance on the program. Caseload size might be expected to have a negative association with graduation. Larger caseloads might prevent case managers from giving participants the individual 

time and attention they need. Frequency of meetings with participants can be expected to have a positive effect on 

graduation. Regular meetings with the participant might indicate close follow-up on participant progress and timely 

attention to participant needs through access or referrals to supportive services in the community.

Table 45 summarizes the participant and program level variables considered in the regressions, their specification and 

source of data, and the direction of the hypothesized relationship.

Table 46 provides the descriptive statistics for the explanatory variables.36 Of 181 FSS tracking study participants, 66 

were still enrolled in the FSS program at the end of the tracking period and 115 left the program during the tracking 

35 Sard, Barbara. 2001. The Family Self-Sufficiency Program—HUD’s Best Kept Secret for Promoting Employment and Asset Growth. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.

36 Out of the 169 participants, 8 were missing data on years of schooling, race, or number of dependents. These data were not collected in the 

checklist data and were missing in PIC. We imputed the values for these missing variables with single stochastic imputation using the PROC MI 

command in SAS. This method utilizes maximum likelihood estimation based on all available information to predict the missing value and then 

adds a random perturbation to the predicted value.
40

Variable Variable Specification and Data Source Expected Direction of Relationship

Table 45. Hypothesized Effects of FSS Participant and Program Characteristics on Graduation vs. Unsuccessful 

Exit (1 of 2)

Participant Characteristics

Age at enrollment (in years) Continuous variable 

(from first participant tracking checklist 

in WAVE06)

Negative. Younger participants might have an easier time finding 

a job. Older participants might have more work experience but 

could face more discrimination in the job market. 

Gender Female/Male

1 = Female

0 = Male

(from first participant tracking checklist 

in WAVE06) 

Negative. Female participants tend to be single parents with 

childcare responsibilities, which might limit their time for training 

or job search.

Income at enrollment 

(in $000s)

Continuous variable

(from first participant tracking checklist 

in WAVE06)

Indeterminate. Participants with higher incomes at program 

enrollment might do better in FSS because they have already 

shown some financial stability. But those with higher incomes 

might also leave the program voluntarily because the potential 

for substantial growth in escrow is less for them than it is for 

participants who obtain a job after enrolling in FSS.

Receiving some income 

from TANF at enrollment

Indicator variable

1 = Receiving some TANF income

0 = Not receiving any TANF income

(from first participant tracking checklist 

in WAVE06)

Positive. TANF recipients at program enrollment might be 

expected to have substantial incentive to graduate because 

they have the potential to accumulate escrow quickly as they 

go to work. Also, TANF recipients have access to social service 

networks through the local welfare agencies and can also get 

case management through these agencies.

Employed (part time or full 

time) at enrollment 

Yes/No variable

1 = Employed full time or part time at 

program enrollment

0 = Unemployed

(from first participant tracking checklist 

in WAVE06)

Indeterminate. Having prior work experience may indicate better 

skills and greater potential to sustain employment in the future 

and to increase earnings. On the other hand, participants who 

are unemployed at program entry might derive more benefit from 

the escrow and might have more time available for education and 

training activities.

High school graduate Yes/No variable

1 = Graduated from high school or 

has obtained a bachelor’s or higher 

degree (completed 12 or more years of 

education)* 

0 = Less than 12 years of education

(from earliest available PIC record for 

the participant)*

Positive. Participants with GEDs or high school diplomas have a 

better chance of finding a job than those who have not completed 

high school. Participants who do not have a high school diploma 

or GED might need to get that first, which can take time away 

from looking for a job.

Race Yes/No variable

1 = African American

0 = Other race, including White, Asian, 

etc.

(from earliest available PIC record for the 

participant)

Indeterminate.

Number of dependents Continuous variable

(from earliest available PIC record for the 

participant)

Negative. Childcare responsibilities or having to take care of an 

elderly relative can limit the time available for education, training, 

and job search.

At time of enrollment, case 

manager reported barrier 

to program completion 

(childcare, transportation, 

lack of job skills or 

experience)

Three Yes/No variables (for childcare, 

transportation, and lack of job skills or 

experience)

1 = Participant faces this barrier

0 = Case manager interview did not 

identify barriers

(from CM interview) 

Negative. Participants facing barriers such as cost or availability 

of childcare or transportation, or lack of job skills, are less likely 

to graduate because they would have a harder time leaving 

welfare (than participants not facing these barriers), looking for 

a job, getting a job, maintaining a job, getting promoted in their 

current job, or getting a raise. Lack of access to childcare or 

cost of childcare might also make it harder to stay in school and 

complete an education program.
41

Program Characteristics

Average caseload size 

of case managers in the 

program

Continuous variable

(from FSS coordinator interviews 

conducted in 2005)

Negative. Participants might not get the personal attention they 

need if the case manager is trying to accommodate the needs of 

many other participants.

FSS coordinator expects 

program size to increase 

during the next year

Yes/No variable

1 = Program size is expected to increase

0 = Program size is expected to 

decrease or stay the same

(from FSS coordinator interviews 

conducted in 2005)

Indeterminate. Depending on the availability of resources, the 

effect of this variable could go in either direction. On the one 

hand, program expansion could indicate more staff and greater 

emphasis and focus on the program. It could, however, also 

mean that the program gets too big for current staffing and 

participants do not get the individual attention they need.

Meet monthly with the 

case manager

Yes/No variable

1 = Meet at least monthly

0 = Meet less often (quarterly, annually, 

as needed)

(from FSS coordinator interviews)

Positive. This variable measures the intensity of case 

management provided to the program participant. Frequent 

meetings might indicate close and regular contact with the case 

manager, which could help address participants’ needs in a 

timely manner. It is possible, however, that case managers meet 

more often with participants who have greater need.

FSS program size Continuous variable

(from 2006 PIC data)

Indeterminate. Consistency of case management might be 

greater in smaller programs, which could improve chances of 

graduation. On the other hand, larger programs might have more 

resources in terms or staff and funding.

Variable Variable Specification and Data Source Expected Direction of Relationship

Table 45. Hypothesized Effects of FSS Participant and Program Characteristics on Graduation vs. Unsuccessful 

Exit (2 of 2)

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PIC = Public and Indian Housing Information Center. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. 

* Participants who have completed at least 12 years of schooling are classified as high school graduates.

N Independent Variable

Graduates 

(N = 41)

Exiters 

(N = 62)

Still Enrolled 

(N = 66)

Mean Mean Mean

Table 46. Descriptive Statistics for the Independent Variables for the FSS Program Graduates, Exiters, and the 

Still-Enrolled Participants

1 Age at enrollment 36.3 38.0 36.3

2 Gender (female) 87.8% 91.9% 93.9%

3 Income at enrollment (in $000s) $18.602 $14.349 $16.999

4 Receiving some income from TANF at enrollment 14.6% 24.2% 25.8%

5 Employed (part time or full time) at enrollment 80.5% 69.4% 65.2%

6 High school graduate 82.9% 61.3% 75.8%

7 African American 58.5% 69.4% 54.5%

8 Number of dependents 2.0 1.8 2.2

9 Participant faced childcare barriers 2.4% 14.5% 10.6%

10 Participant faced transportation barriers 4.9% 8.1% 7.6%

11 Participant lacked job skills 12.2% 11.3% 9.1%

12 Average case manager caseload size in the program (FSS coordinator interview) 102.8 112.1 128.5

13 FSS program size is expected to increase (FSS coordinator interview) 41.5% 56.5% 66.7%

14 Meet monthly (FSS coordinator interview) 51.2% 41.9% 57.6%

15 FSS program size 376.2 363.5 476.1

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Sources: WAVE06 checklist; case manager interviews; PIC06 data

period. Of the 115 participants who left the program, 41 graduated, and 62 left without completing their COP. Of the 

participants from NYCHA, 11 were not included in the analysis because NYCHA discontinued FSS. One participant 

who died during the tracking period was also dropped from the analysis. This chapter analyzes only 169 participants.

For participant-level variables, notable differences existed in income at enrollment, employment, education, and barriers 

to childcare. Graduates started the program with higher incomes, a higher share were employed and graduated high 

school, and a lower share faced childcare barriers at the start of the program. On average, graduates were in programs 

with smaller caseload sizes than exiters or still-enrolled participants.
42

5.2 Methodology of Competing Risk Hazard Analysis and Model Results

This section presents a competing risk hazard model that examines the relationship between the likelihood (and speed) 

of program graduation and various participant and program characteristics.37

Table 4738 presents the results for the competing risk models:

 Column (1): Bivariate Associations—This column shows the results of 15 regression models, each modeling graduation as a function of a single participant or program characteristic. In addition to participant demographics, is the case 

manager’s perception of lack of childcare, transportation, and job skills or experience as barriers to program success.

 Column (2): Participant Characteristics Only—This column shows the results of a model with just the selected 

participant characteristics that were either significant or nearly significant (at the 10-percent level of significance) in 

the bivariate models.39

 Column (3): Participant and Program Characteristics—This column presents the results of a model with both the 

selected participant characteristics from the model in Column (2) and the program characteristics.40 The size of the 

FSS program was excluded in 2006 because this statistic was moderately correlated with caseload size.

37 This approach is a modified version of the Cox proportional hazards regression model used for survival data. The competing risk model also 

allows us to track the outcomes for all the participants in the tracking study, including the still-enrolled participants. We use the competing risk 

hazard framework because we have two competing outcomes—graduation and exit. Still-enrolled participants are treated as censored because 

we have not yet observed a final outcome for them. The estimates were generated using the STCRREG command in Stata. This fits a maximum 

likelihood, competing-risks regression model following the method of Fine, J., and R. Gray. 1999. “A Proportional Hazards Model for the 

Subdistribution of a Competing Risk,” Journal of the American Statistical Association 94: 496–509. 

38 Table 47 presents the z-value of the estimated coefficient. The coefficients are not presented in the table. For ease of interpretation, a transformation of the coefficient is presented: Z-value = coefficient/standard error. 

39 None of characteristics were highly correlated with each other. Correlation coefficients were all less than or equal to 0.5.

40 The small sample size restricts the number of variables we can include in the model and still have sufficient degrees of freedom.

(1) 

Bivariate Associations 

(Modeling One Explanatory 

Variable at a Time)

(2) 

Participant 

Characteristics Only

(3) 

Participant and 

Program Characteristics

SHR z-value SHR z-value SHR z-value

Table 47. Subhazard Ratios of the Coefficient Estimates in the Competing Risk Models

Age at enrollment 0.989 – 0.71 — — — —

Gender (female) 0.571 – 1.19 — — — —

Income at enrollment (in $000s) 1.021 1.47 1.008 0.505 1.007 0.43

Receiving some income from TANF at enrollment 0.581 – 1.25 — — — —

Employed (part time or full time) at enrollment 1.854 1.616 1.589 1.054 1.515 0.953

High school graduate 2.059* 1.757 1.994* 1.664 1.909 1.48

African American 0.947 – 0.18 — — — —

Number of dependents 1.014 0.114 — — — —

Participant faced childcare barriers 0.207 – 1.52 0.200 – 1.56 0.204 – 1.53

Participant faced transportation barriers 0.634 – 0.67 — — — —

Participant lacked job skills 1.146 0.303 — — — —

Average case manager caseload size in the program (FSS coordinator interview)0.997 – 1.29 — — 1.000 – 0.07

FSS program size is expected to increase (FSS 

coordinator interview)

0.534** – 2.01 — — 0.594 – 1.15

Meet monthly (FSS coordinator interview) 1.012 0.038 — — 1.084 0.224

FSS program size 1.000 – 0.69 — — — —

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. SHR = subhazard ratio. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. 

*** p < 0.01. ** p < 0.05. * p < 0.1.

Sources: WAVE06 checklist; PIC06 data
43

An additional model was analyzed using just the three program characteristics (excluding FSS program size in 2006) 

but these three characteristics were not individually or jointly significant. One possible explanation for this lack of 

significance is that these program level characteristics are somewhat correlated. Another possible explanation is that 

these characteristics do not vary enough across the 14 programs for us to detect a significant relationship between these 

characteristics and graduation. The small regression sample size could also be a factor.

The estimates of the regression coefficients are expressed as subhazard ratios (exponentiated transformation of the 

regression coefficient) because these ratios are easier to interpret than the coefficients themselves. Explanatory variables 

with subhazard ratio estimates larger than 1.0 imply a positive association with participant graduation, taking into account 

the competing risk of program exit. Variables with subhazard ratio estimates less than 1.0 imply that these variables 

decrease the likelihood of graduation controlling for other covariates in a multivariate regression model and because 

people can also exit the program. For example, the subhazard ratio for the high school graduate variable in the bivariate 

model is 2.06. This ratio indicates that the odds of FSS program graduation for a participant who was a high school 

graduate close to program enrollment are twice as high as those for someone who was not. The subhazard ratio of 0.207, 

for the childcare barrier variable in the bivariate model, indicates that a participant with childcare barriers is (1-0.207) 

about 80 percent less likely to graduate than a participant who does not face childcare barriers at program start.

5.3 Discussion of Findings

The bivariate regressions in which only one explanatory variable is included at a time indicate that high school graduation has a positive and significant association with program graduation. A bivariate regression, not controlling for 

any other program or participant characteristics, also shows that programs that expected to increase the size of their 

FSS programs were less likely to graduate participants. At program start, other characteristics that were close to being 

significant (at the 10-percent level of significance) in the bivariate models were income, employment, and case manager 

reports of childcare barriers.

Having a high school education or equivalent before program entry significantly improves the chances of program 

graduation in a bivariate model. Participants with a high school diploma around the time of program enrollment are 

twice as likely to graduate as those who do not have a high school diploma or equivalent. In the model that controls 

for other participant characteristics, the coefficient on high school graduation is still significant at the 10-percent level 

(model in Column 2). The obvious explanation is that employment prospects are greater for those who have completed 

high school. In addition, completing a GED after entering the program indicates a prolonged amount of time needed 

to graduate from the program, which also delays escrow accumulation. This delay in education is because participants 

were engaged in educational activities and either not working or not working full-time. The coefficient for high school 

education is, however, not significant when program characteristics are also added (model in Column 3).

The coefficient for expected increase in FSS program size is significant in the bivariate model, although it becomes less 

so when other program characteristics are included (possibly because it is somewhat correlated with caseload size), 

and is not significant when participant characteristics are also included. The significant coefficient in the bivariate 

model indicates that programs that, according to the 2005 FSS coordinator interviews, were expected to grow, were 50 

percent less likely to graduate participants. It is possible, that as FSS programs grow, the programs might face resource 

constraints and participants might not get the personal attention and time they need to graduate.

The size and direction of the coefficients on childcare barriers, education, and expected increase in FSS program size is 

more or less steady across the models, but as other explanatory variables are added, the statistical power is insufficient 

to estimate the coefficients precisely.

This chapter provides a simple exploratory analysis to discover links between the participant and program level factors 

measured in the study and the likelihood of program graduation. The results are by no means definitive, but reveal 

associations between FSS participant and program characteristics and FSS program success that could be explored 

through more rigorous methodologies. 
44

Summary of Findings

1. Controlling for other participant characteristics, participants with a high school diploma around the time of program 

enrollment are about twice as likely to graduate as those who do not have a high school diploma.

2. In a bivariate model, those programs that expected to increase the size of their FSS programs were less likely to 

graduate participants. This result, however, does not hold true when other program characteristics are added.
45

This study offers lessons about the program experiences and outcomes of a sample of participants in the Family SelfSufficiency program. The insights from this study may help inform program operations as programs consider their approaches to case management and refine strategies for addressing the needs of FSS participants. The study also provides 

hypotheses about the effects of FSS that could be tested to guide policy decisions about the program. This chapter 

highlights key study conclusions regarding FSS escrow accounts, tracking group outcomes, participant and program 

characteristics associated with graduation from FSS, reasons for leaving FSS, and the effects of case management.

Escrow

The opportunity to build savings through the escrow account is possibly the most powerful part of the FSS program. 

The study affirms that participants whose earnings increase can accrue substantial savings through FSS.

The study compared escrow savings for three groups: participants who completed the program requirements and 

graduated from FSS during the 4-year study period; those who left FSS without graduating, forfeiting any accumulated 

escrowed funds; and participants who were still enrolled in FSS when the study ended. Program graduates accumulated 

an average of $5,300 in the escrow account during the 4-year study. This amount represents about 27 percent of the 

average household income for this group in the year they entered FSS—representing a substantial savings accumulation 

in a relatively short period of time.

Nearly one-half (48 percent) of the other exiters in the study had positive escrow balances when they left the program, 

averaging $2,144. Of the exiters, 7 had above-average escrow balances when they left the program—the largest was 

$8,909. Most participants (85 percent) who were still enrolled in FSS when the study ended had also built savings 

through escrow. These still-enrolled participants had an average of $3,500 in the escrow account at the end of the study. 

Analysis of the employment, earnings, and progress in achieving FSS goals for this group indicates that more than 

one-half of these participants are on a path toward continued growth in escrow funds and eventual graduation from FSS.

FSS Outcomes

This study provides information on FSS attrition and the length of time participants typically spend in the program. 

Among the 170 participants in this study—

 Nearly one-fourth (24 percent) completed the program requirements and graduated from FSS, and four of them 

purchased homes.

 More than one-third (37 percent) left the program without graduating.

 Nearly two-fifths (39 percent) remained enrolled in the FSS program.

The study also offers insight about how program graduates differ from other exiters. Compared with other exiters, 

graduates of the FSS program had higher incomes when they enrolled and were more likely to be employed, both at 

enrollment and during their time in FSS. Graduates also had more years of schooling and spent slightly longer in FSS 

than other exiters.

An exploratory multivariate analysis of graduation did not find any significant associations between participant and 

program characteristics and graduation when controlling for both types of characteristics. The analysis did reveal, 

however, that in a model that included only participant characteristics, participants with a high school diploma around 

the time of program enrollment are about twice as likely to graduate as those who do not have a high school diploma, or 

equivalent. In a bivariate model that does not control for any other program and participant characteristics, FSS programs expected to increase in size were less likely to graduate participants. This result, however, does not hold true when 

other participant and program characteristics are added to the model. An additional model was used that included all 
46

three program characteristics but were not individually or jointly significant. In addition to being somewhat correlated, 

these characteristics do not vary sufficiently across the 14 tracking study programs to detect a significant relationship 

between these characteristics and graduation.

Reasons for Leaving FSS

Of participants in the study, 37 percent left FSS before completing the COP. About one-half (31 participants) of the 

participants who left were dropped from the program because they did not comply with FSS rules or lost their voucher 

assistance, mostly for reasons like violating HCV rules or failing to communicate with the FSS case manager. Among 

those who voluntarily left the program, about one-third (18 participants) chose to leave because family and work 

obligations made it difficult to sustain contact with the case manager. Other participants left FSS when they moved, and 

one participant left the voucher program because her income increased when she got married, before completing the 

FSS contract.

Understanding the reasons participants leave the program may offer opportunities for case managers to intervene to 

keep vulnerable participants in the program. For example, it may be possible to encourage participants who would 

otherwise leave because of work and family obligations to remain in the program and give them every opportunity to 

take advantage of the escrow. Modifying requirements for case manager meetings, scheduling meetings at times that 

accommodate work schedules, or other approaches may be worth considering for these participants who would benefit 

greatly from staying in FSS.

Case Management

The study also helps increase understanding about FSS case management. At most programs, FSS case managers are 

PHA staff. They develop the ITSP and refer participants to providers to receive other supportive services. The case 

managers also often provide homeownership counseling and financial literacy training. Altogether 46 case managers 

worked with the participants in this study. The study highlights the stability of case management in FSS programs. The 

case managers were experienced, with an average of 6 years tenure with FSS. Most participants (69 percent) had the 

same case manager throughout the period of study. The average number of cases in a manager’s caseload was 89 during 

the study, with some as low as 21 and others as high as 175. Case managers typically met with participants at least 

quarterly, but the frequency of meetings declined as the number of cases per manager increased.

The study also helps us understand more about how the FSS program works. An assessment of FSS program case 

management approaches did not reveal wide variation in program models. The assessment did point to the stability of 

FSS over time, however, even absent a mandate from HUD to maintain an FSS program.41 The study also shows that 

FSS programs have some flexibility to respond to changing economic conditions. Some programs have shifted focus 

away from immediate employment for FSS participants to education and training as the first step in FSS, in response to 

worsening labor market conditions.

In summation, this study suggests that FSS offers the potential for substantial savings accrual for those who complete 

the program. Understanding how program graduates differ from those who exit, may suggest approaches that program 

administrators can take to target FSS services more effectively and encourage participants to remain in the program 

longer and accrue savings.

41 Only one agency in the tracking study discontinued operations during the evaluation time period.
47

The project began in September 2004. During the 5 years ending in December 2009, the following activities were 

conducted.

 Completed the research design phase of the study. The Research Design Report was completed in 2005 and contains a list of the research questions to be raised through the evaluation, the sampling strategy, and the representative 

sample of 100 FSS programs. The Data Collection and Analysis Plan was submitted in 2005. This report described all 

of the data to be collected in the study and how the data will be used to address the research questions.

 Developed data collection forms and protocols. In 2005, the following data collection instruments were developed: 

(1) an interview guide to be administered to FSS coordinators in the sample of 100 PHAs (2) an interview guide for 

the annual discussions with case managers regarding FSS tracking group participants (3) the Tracking Checklist to 

be completed by case managers for each participant being tracked (4) an informed consent form for tracking group 

participants and (5) a questionnaire for the telephone interviews with participants. Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) clearance for the evaluation was approved in June 2006.

 Conducted interviews with FSS coordinators and reviewed FSS action plans for the 100 PHAs. These interviews 

provided information about a wide range of design and operational features of FSS programs in the sampled PHAs.

 Selected 20 PHAs in which to conduct the tracking study. In late 2005, the intensive study sites were selected 

from among the 99 PHAs that completed FSS coordinator interviews.

 Provided training to FSS tracking site program liaisons. Case managers were trained on participant enrollment 

procedures and collecting information needed for the tracking study in December 2005. The training focused on 

procedures for obtaining informed consent of study participants, completing the Tracking Checklist, and submitting 

information to the research team.

 Compiled the information collected from FSS coordinators into a database that allows users to analyze program 

design and operational features and submitted the database along with the First Annual Report in January 2006.

 Collected PIC data from HUD for FSS participants in the sample of 100 PHAs selected in Year 1 for FSS 

coordinator interviews. From 2006 to 2009 every June, a PIC extract was obtained from HUD’s administrative 

data (HUD Form 50058) on all FSS participants in the sample of 100 PHAs that was drawn initially for the study. 

The data on all participants in FSS was examined for demographic characteristics (income, household size) and 

participation information, escrow account, and program completion. A descriptive analysis was conducted of the 

characteristics of the consenting FSS tracking group families in the 14 PHAs. 

 Data collection commenced in June 2006. Between 2006 and 2009, during the second quarter of each year, the 

sites were mailed Tracking Checklists to collect information about each participating family and to track changes in 

circumstances of families during the annual intervals between the telephone interviews with case managers. During 

the fourth quarter of each year, interviews were conducted with FSS case managers assigned to the sample families in 

the study to update the information collected via PIC and the Tracking Checklists.

 Conducted site visits to the Montgomery County, Maryland FSS program in December 2006, Orange County and 

Riverside County, California FSS programs in September 2007 and Missoula County, Montana in September 2008.

 Conducted telephone interviews with 17 families chosen from among those being tracked, in 2006 and 6 families in 

2007.

 Submitted four interim reports on each year’s progress in January 2006, December 2006, 2007, and 2008 and the 

overall assessment in The Final Report of December 2009.
48

Public and Indian Housing Information Center (PIC) system data was initially used to establish a database containing demographic information, household characteristics, and enrollment information for Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) 

families in 100 public housing agencies selected with probability proportional to size of the Housing Choice Voucher 

program. In later years, PIC extracts were used to provide information about the 181 FSS tracking study program 

participants (20 programs were selected initially and 13 remained in the study). PIC data were used in the study to 

provide information on household composition, income, income sources, voucher assistance and FSS addendum data 

provided information on education attainment, service needs, exit from FSS, and escrow account balance.

Tracking checklists (WAVE) were completed annually by FSS case managers assigned to document 181 tracking 

group families’ progress and outcomes. The first year checklist collected information on service needs, services offered 

and received, interim goals, referrals to outside service, escrow account balance, occupation and job history, sources of 

income, amount of earnings, use of income supports and assistance, and barriers to participation. The checklists used in 

subsequent years gathered additional information on employment status, goal achievement, case disposition, and length 

of time in FSS.

Case manager interviews (CM) were conducted annually with each case manager assigned to the 181 tracking families. These interviews were done after the checklists were received and reviewed, to confirm and update information 

about the family’s progress in FSS, their outcomes, and barriers, etc. The interviews also provided information on the 

case managers’ background, length of service, caseload size, and updates on FSS program operations (goals, services 

provided, and enrollees), local economic conditions, and program challenges.

FSS coordinator interviews were conducted in 2005 with 99 FSS coordinators via telephone. A complete documented 

data set for these interviews was provided to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in 2006. The 

interviews provide information on FSS program goals, policies, services, operations, partnerships, other key characteristics and the context in which the program operates particularly the community’s service networks, and local labor 

market conditions.

Participant interviews were conducted twice with a small number of tracking group families to gather information on 

participants’ progress, services received, employment experiences and attitudes toward work, plans for using escrow, 

and opinions about the program.

Site visits were conducted at four of the tracking sites. The purpose of the site visits was to learn more about the 

challenges and opportunities facing FSS program staff, review procedures and effective practices, and the methods that 

services were provided to the target population.
49

100 Main Sites

N PHA 

Code PHA Name

FSS 

Program 

Size

HCV 

Program 

Size

Interviewed

Included 

in Tracking 

Study

Appendix C. Sampled PHAs and Replacement Sites, Year 1 (1 of 3)

Northeast

1 CT901 Connecticut Department of Social Services 409 5,123 Yes No

2 MA002 Boston Housing Authority 234 10,683 Yes No

3 ME015 Westbrook Housing Authority 35 791 Yes No

4 NH901 New Hampshire Housing Finance Authority 168 3,006 Yes No

5 NJ055 Englewood Housing Authority 21 467 Yes No

6 NJ204 Gloucester Housing Authority 85 1,791 Yes No

7 NJ912 New Jersey Department of Community Affairs 302 17,460 Yes No

8 NY005 New York City Housing Authority 606 84,248 Yes Yes

9 NY027 Oswego Housing Authority 11 490 Yes No

10 NY077 Town of Islip Housing Authority 66 1,034 No No

11 NY110 New York City Department of Housing Preservation and 

Development

1,939 19,430 Yes No

12 NY149 Brookhaven Department of Housing, Community Development 

and Intergovernmental Affairs

 34 797 Yes No

13 NY902 New York State Housing Finance Agency 566 11,303 No No

14 NY903 New York State Housing Finance Agency 1,418 15,440 No No

15 PA006 Allegheny County Housing Authority 112 4,929 Yes No

16 PA012 Montgomery County Housing Authority 118 2,571 No No

17 PA031 Altoona Housing Authority 38 802 Yes No

18 RI003 Woonsocket Housing Authority 44 581 Yes No

West

1 AZ001 City of Phoenix Housing Department 161 4,498 Yes No

2 AZ009 Maricopa County Housing Authority 68 1,478 Yes No

3 CA001 San Francisco Housing Authority 187 7,020 Yes No

4 CA002 Los Angeles County Housing Authority 713 16,726 Yes No

5 CA004 City of Los Angeles Housing Authority 26,025 43,655 Yes No

6 CA006 City of Fresno Housing Authority 845 6,007 Yes Yes

7 CA011 County of Contra Costa Housing Authority 218 6,643 Yes Yes

8 CA019 San Bernardino County Housing Authority 704 7,807 No No

9 CA024 Housing Authority of the County of San Joaquin 201 4,644 Yes No

10 CA028 County of Fresno Housing Authority 669 5,465 Yes Yes

11 CA056 San Jose Housing Authority 173 5,899 Yes No

12 CA059 Housing Authority of the County of Santa Clara 265 8,344 Yes No

13 CA074 Housing Authority of the City of Livermore 28 719 Yes No

14 CA092 Area Housing Authority of Ventura County 189 2,533 Yes No

15 CA094 Orange County Housing Authority 397 8,169 Yes Yes

16 CA104 Anaheim Housing Authority 220 5,391 Yes No

17 CA108 San Diego County Housing Authority 138 9,158 Yes No

18 CA116 National City Housing Authority 26 1,044 Yes No

19 CO001 Denver Housing Authority 59 4,737 Yes Yes

20 CO049 Lakewood Housing Authority 65 1,008 Yes No

21 CO911 Colorado Division of Housing 28 1,936 No No

22 MT033 Missoula Housing Authority 97 713 Yes Yes

23 NV002 City of Las Vegas Housing Authority 301 3,154 Yes No

24 OR008 West Valley Housing Authority 20 683 Yes No

25 OR019 Linn-Benton Housing Authority 98 2,326 Yes No

26 UT003 Housing Authority of the County of Salt Lake 197 2,105 Yes No

27 WA005 Housing Authority of the City of Tacoma 69 3,266 Yes No

28 WA055 Housing Authority of the City of Spokane 294 3,467 Yes No
50

Midwest

1 IA020 Des Moines Municipal Housing Authority 65 2,425 Yes No

2 IA126 Eastern Iowa Regional Housing Authority 36 703 Yes No

3 IL022 Rockford Housing Authority 128 1,504 Yes Yes

4 IL025 Housing Authority of Cook County 252 11,100 Yes No

5 IN017 Indianapolis Housing Agency 774 7,136 No No

6 IN041 Marion Housing Authority 41 441 Yes No

7 KS004 Wichita Housing Authority 184 2,321 Yes Yes

8 MI901 Michigan State Housing Development Authority 4,345 11,911 Yes No

9 MN038 St. Cloud Housing and Redevelopment Authority 11 770 Yes No

10 MN163 Metropolitan Council Housing and Redevelopment Authority 226 5,699 Yes No

11 MO002 Housing Authority of Kansas City 262 7,618 Yes No

12 MO004 St. Louis County Housing Authority 179 6,035 Yes No

13 MO203 St. Francois County Public Housing Agency 70 1,739 Yes No

14 OH001 Columbus Metropolitan Housing Authority 581 9,184 No No

15 OH003 Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority 226 11,907 No No

16 OH007 Akron Metropolitan Housing Authority 188 3,916 Yes Yes

17 OH021 Springfield Metropolitan Housing Authority 55 1,010 Yes No

18 OH048 Hamilton County Public Housing 343 2,801 Yes No

South

1 AL001 Housing Authority of Birmingham District 29 3,667 Yes Yes*

2 AR003 Fort Smith Housing Authority 28 1,077 Yes No

3 AR197 White River Regional Housing Authority 40 1,545 Yes No

4 FL005 Miami-Dade Housing Authority 318 12,544 Yes No

5 FL007 Housing Authority of Daytona Beach 45 649 Yes Yes*

6 FL020 Housing Authority of Brevard County 29 1,678 Yes No

7 FL066 Hialeah Housing Authority 180 4,111 Yes Yes*

8 FL079 Broward County Housing Authority 336 4,373 Yes No

9 GA001 Housing Authority of the City of Augusta, Georgia 172 2,864 Yes Yes*

10 GA237 Housing Authority of Dekalb County 186 3,015 Yes No

11 GA901 Georgia Department of Community Affairs 742 15,064 Yes No

12 LA001 New Orleans Housing Authority 545 6,994 Yes No

13 MD002 Housing Authority of Baltimore City 549 12,650 Yes No

14 MD004 Housing Opportunities Commission of Montgomery County, 

Maryland

 510 5,177 Yes Yes

15 MD021 St. Mary’s County Housing Authority 81 1,085 Yes No

16 MD901 Maryland Department of Housing and Community 

Development

 28 2,061 Yes No

17 MS058 Mississippi Regional Housing Authority VI 129 4,289 No No

18 NC008 Housing Authority of the City of Concord 25 484 Yes No

19 NC022 Greenville Housing Authority 96 605 Yes No

20 NC149 Sandhills Community Action Program Incorporated 52 564 Yes No

21 OK901 Oklahoma Housing Finance Agency 410 8,524 Yes No

22 SC002 Housing Authority of Columbia 44 2,305 No No

23 SC056 Charleston County Housing Redevelopment 14 1,079 No No

24 TN001 Housing Authority of Memphis 135 4,972 No No

25 TN903 Tennessee Housing Development Agency 282 5,538 Yes No

26 TX004 Fort Worth Housing Authority 361 4,500 No No

27 TX005 Houston Housing Authority 691 14,745 Yes No

28 TX009 Dallas Housing Authority 1,929 15,288 Yes No

29 TX012 Baytown Housing Authority 28 607 Yes No

30 TX128 Plano Housing Authority 42 558 Yes No

31 TX435 Garland Housing Authority 134 1,424 Yes No

32 TX472 Amarillo Housing Authority 55 1,299 Yes No

33 TX526 Brazos Valley Council of Governments 204 1,898 Yes Yes*

34 VA004 Alexandria Redevelopment and Housing Authority 59 1,618 No No

35 VA017 Hampton Redevelopment and Housing Authority 85 2,478 Yes No

36 VA901 Virginia Housing Development Authority 284 8,475 Yes No

100 Main Sites

N PHA 

Code PHA Name

FSS 

Program 

Size

HCV 

Program 

Size

Interviewed

Included 

in Tracking 

Study

Appendix C. Sampled PHAs and Replacement Sites, Year 1 (2 of 3)
51

 27 Replacement Sites

N PHA 

Code PHA Name

FSS 

Program 

Size

HCV 

Program 

Size

Interviewed

Included 

in Tracking 

Study

Appendix C. Sampled PHAs and Replacement Sites, Year 1 (3 of 3) 

Northeast

1 CT001 Bridgeport Housing Authority 67 2,662 Yes No

2 MA015 Medford Housing Authority 12 870 No No

3 MA053 Braintree Housing Authority 20 396 Yes No

4 PA071 Berks County Housing Authority 19 682 Yes No

Midwest

1 IL137 Kendall County Housing Authority 14 160 No No

2 MI073 Grand Rapids Housing Commission 360 2,045 Yes Yes

3 NE001 Omaha Housing Authority 186 3,662 No No

4 OH004 Cincinnati Metropolitan Housing Authority 708 6,684 Yes Yes

5 WI142 Waukesha Housing Authority 105 792 Yes No

South

1 AL048 Housing Authority of Decatur 120 700 Yes No

2 FL001 Jacksonville Housing Authority 236 5,699 Yes Yes

3 FL092 City of Pensacola Section 8 51 2,055 Yes No

4 KY121 Pike County Housing Authority 78 568 No No

5 KY141 Pineville/Bell County Housing Authority 36 377 No No

6 LA013 Jefferson Parish Housing Authority 141 2,680 Yes No

7 NC001 Wilmington Housing Authority 107 1,572 Yes Yes* 

8 OK002 Oklahoma City Housing Authority 79 3,918 No No

9 TN005 Metropolitan Development and Housing Agency (Nashville) 135 4,559 No No

10 WV004 Huntington West Virginia Housing Authority 56 1,187 No No

West

1 CA007 Sacramento Housing and Redevelopment Agency 137 4,995 Yes No

2 CA027 Riverside County Housing Authority 649 7,553 Yes Yes

3 CA043 County of Butte Housing Authority 30 1,846 Yes No

4 CA065 Fairfield Housing Authority 45 813 Yes No

5 CA068 Long Beach Housing Authority 955 5,972 Yes No

6 HI901 Hawaii Housing Authority and Community Development 157 3,616 No No

7 NM050 Santa Fe County Housing Authority 21 241 No No

8 WA039 Housing Authority of Snohomish County 89 2,511 No No

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher. PHA = public housing authority.

* Dropped out.

Sources: 2002 PIC data; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development profiles
52

 

PHA PHA Name

Year FSS 

Program 

Began

Number 

of FSS 

Participants

Number 

of FSS 

Coordinators

Number 

of Case 

Managers

Services Available to 

FSS Participants by 

Either PHA Staff or 

Referral to Outside 

Service Providers

Services Provided 

to FSS 

Participants by 

PHA Staff

Appendix D. FSS Program Tenure and Services Offered, Tracking Sites (1 of 2)

CA006/

CA028

City of Fresno 

Housing Authority

1993 1,279 8 10 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling

Bus passes, loans 

for car repairs, 

reimbursements 

for books and 

tuition, homebuyers assistance, and 

employment-related 

workshops

CA011 County of Contra Costa 

Housing Authority

1993 187 1 3 Childcare, transportation, education, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, home 

ownership assistance, other (tax 

assistance)

Translation services

CA027 Riverside County 

Housing Authority

1993 609 4 2 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Reimbursement for 

books, tuition, and 

job training; revolving loan program

CA094 Orange County 

Housing Authority

1993 308 2 2 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment, personal 

welfare, counseling, 

homeownership 

assistance

Bus passes; loans 

for car repair; 

reimbursement for 

childcare, books, 

tuition, and clothing 

for job interviews

CO001 Denver Housing 

Authority

1993 123 2 1 Childcare, education, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Assistance to find 

financial aid and/

or scholarships 

for education, job 

search and resume 

preparation, workshop for credit repair

FL001 Jacksonville Housing 

Authority

1993 297 — 2 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Assistance with payment toward education, job training, 

and supportive 

services

IL022 Rockford Housing 

Authority

1992 140 1 3 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

homeownership 

assistance

Bus passes and 

transportation to 

GED, life skills, and 

computer classes; 

reimbursement for 

books, tuition, and 

uniforms; job clubs, 

job search, and 

resume preparation 

classes; homebuyers assistance
53

PHA PHA Name

Year FSS 

Program 

Began

Number 

of FSS 

Participants 

Number 

of FSS 

Coordinators

Number 

of Case 

Managers

Services Available to 

FSS Participants by 

Either PHA Staff or 

Referral to Outside 

Service Providers

Services Provided 

to FSS 

Participants by 

PHA Staff

Appendix D. FSS Program Tenure and Services Offered, Tracking Sites (2 of 2)

KS004 Wichita Housing 

Authority

1992 238 2 2 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling

Door prizes and 

food to increase 

participation in 

partner-provided 

workshops; counseling in escrow credit 

and homebuyer 

readiness

MD004 Housing Opportunities 

Commission of 

Montgomery County, 

Maryland

1993 506 8 8 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Bus tokens, discount car loans, job 

search, employment 

workshops, household skills, and 

counseling services

MI073 Grand Rapids 

Housing 

Commission

1992 385 2 2 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Homeownership 

counseling

MT033 Missoula Housing 

Authority

1991 131 1 2 Childcare, education, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Employment-related 

services, workshop 

in assets for independence

NY005 New York City 

Housing Authority

1993 491 — 4 Childcare, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare

Household skills 

services

OH004 Cincinnati 

Metropolitan 

Housing Authority

1992 1,512 3.5 4 Childcare, transportation, education, 

employment services, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Workshops on nutrition, resume preparation, employment, 

and homeownership

OH007 Akron Metropolitan 

Housing Authority

1993 142 3 1 Childcare, transportation, education, 

personal welfare, 

counseling, homeownership assistance

Missing

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. GED = General Equivalency Diploma. PHA = public housing authority.

Sources: FSS coordinator interview; case manager interviews; site visits (Missoula, Montana; Montgomery County, Maryland; Orange County, California; and Riverside County, 

California); PIC08 data
PHA 

Code PHA Name PIC05 WAVE06 PIC06 CM06 WAVE07 PIC07 CM07 WAVE08 PIC08 CM08 PIC09 WAVE09 CM09

Appendix E. FSS Participant Count by Site and Data Source, 2005–09 (181 participants) 

CA006 City of Fresno Housing Authority 1 20 17 20 20 19 20 18 18 18 17 17 17

CA011 County of Contra Costa Housing Authority 3 6 6 6 5 6 6 5 6 5 4 3 3

CA027 Riverside County Housing Authority 0 3 2 0 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 2

CA094 Orange County Housing Authority 13 20 19 20 20 19 20 19 20 19 19 15 15

CO001 Denver Housing Authority 8 12 11 12 12 12 12 6 10 6 3 3 3

FL001 Jacksonville Housing Authority 14 17 17 17 15 17 17 7 15 7 7 5 5

IL022 Rockford Housing Authority 7 11 11 11 10 11 11 10 10 10 10 8 8

KS004 Wichita Housing Authority 9 20 19 20 14 19 20 11 14 11 10 5 5

MD004 Housing Opportunities Commission of Montgomery 

County, Maryland

19 20 14 20 20 18 20 12 15 12 12 11 11

MI073 Grand Rapids Housing Commission 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

MT033 Missoula Housing Authority 4 9 4 9 8 7 9 4 7 4 5 4 4

NY005 New York City Housing Authority 14 20 18 14 20 19 20 18 18 18 16 11 11

OH004 Cincinnati Metropolitan Housing Authority 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 6 7 6 5 5 5

OH007 Akron Metropolitan Housing Authority 6 10 8 10 10 10 10 7 9 7 7 7 7

Total 109 181 158 172 170 173 181 127 154 127 119 98 98

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, PIC08, and PIC09 data; WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists; CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews

54
55

FSS Enrollment Date N %

Table F1. Enrollment Date for FSS Study Participants

Before 2005 8 4

January–March 2005 2 1

April–June 2005 15 8

July–September 2005 39 22

October–December 2005 80 44

January–March 2006 34 19

April–June 2006 3 2

Total 181 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Source: Wave06 checklist

Data Source N Mean Median

Table F2. Income for FSS Tracking Group 

PIC05 109 $15,287 $14,144

PIC06 158 $16,145 $14,318

PIC07 173 $19,042 $16,671

PIC08 154 $20,609 $20,118

PIC09 119 $20,365 $16,267

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Employment Status

2006 2007 2008 2009

N % N % N % N %

Table F3. Employment Status of Still-Enrolled FSS Participants, Case Manager Interviews 

Full time — — 31 47 29 44 31 47

Part time 38 70 13 20 14 21 12 18

Not employed 16 30 22 33 23 35 23 35

Missing 12 — 0 — 0 — 0 —

Total 66 100 66 100 66 100 66 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews

2006 2007 2008 2009

Table F4. Changes in Escrow Account Balances for FSS Participants with Positive Escrows as of September 2009 

(in 2009 Dollars)

Average escrow account balance $993 $1,473 $2,459 $3,516

Number of people with positive escrow balances 26 38 52 56

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews

Average Annual Income N 2007 2008 2009

Table F5. Annual Household Income for Employment and Escrow Groups for Active FSS Participants (in 2009 Dollars)

Mostly employed 43 $23,359 $23,957 $25,210

Mostly unemployed 23 $11,274 $13,356 $10,621

Escrow Balance 

Zero escrow 10 $13,731 $14,510 $15,917

Positive escrow 56 $20,115 $21,290 $20,877

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Sources: CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews
56

Characteristic PIC06 (N = 58) PIC07 (N = 65) PIC08 (N = 65)

N % N % N %

Table F7. Characteristics of Still-Enrolled FSS Participants as of September 2009 

Household Size

1 2 3 2 3 3 5

2 12 21 16 25 16 25

3–4 31 53 33 51 31 48

5 or more 12 21 14 22 15 23

Number of Years of Schooling Completed

Less than 12 9 16 9 14 11 17

12 24 41 26 40 23 35

13–15 18 31 22 34 22 34

16+ 3 5 4 6 5 8

 Missing 4 7 4 6 4 6

Number of Dependents

0 2 3 2 3 3 5

1 15 26 19 29 16 25

2 21 36 20 31 21 32

3–4 16 28 19 29 19 29

5 or more 4 7 5 8 6 9

Total Monthly Tenant Payment for Rent

< = $200 17 29 17 26 20 31

$200–500 30 52 24 37 20 31

$501–700 9 16 12 18 12 18

$701–1,000 1 2 11 17 11 17

>$1,001 1 2 1 2 2 3

HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PIC = Public and Indian Housing Information Center. 

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the PIC extract from HUD. Household 

size—Q3t. Years of schooling—Q17h(4). Data on this variable are missing for 89 percent of the sample in the PIC05 extract so that cell is left blank in the table. Number 

of Dependents—Q8q Total Tenant Payment—Q9j.

Sources: PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

Average Annual Income N 2007 2008 2009

Table F6. Average Annual Household Income, by Employment and Escrow Groups (in 2009 Dollars)

Mostly employed, zero escrow 2 $35,025 $40,461 $45,660 

Mostly unemployed, zero escrow 88 $9,093 $7,325 $8,481 

Mostly employed, positive escrow 41 $23,769 $22,186 $24,212 

Mostly unemployed, positive escrow 15 $13,128 $15,785 $11,763 

Sources: CM06, CM07, CM08, and CM09 interviews
57

Number of

Years of

Schooling 

Completed

PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

Mostly

Employed

Mostly 

Unemployed

Mostly

Employed

Mostly 

Unemployed

Mostly

Employed

Mostly 

Unemployed

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table F9. Education Status of Mostly Employed Group vs. the Mostly Unemployed Group (Active FSS Participants)

<12 years 5 14 4 21 5 12 4 20 5 13 6 29

12 years 17 49 7 37 19 46 7 35 16 40 7 33

13–15 years 11 31 7 37 14 34 8 40 16 40 6 29

16+ years 2 6 1 5 3 7 1 5 3 8 2 10

Total 35 100 19 100 41 100 20 100 40 100 21 100

Missing 2 5 2 10 2 5 2 9 2 5 2 9

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PIC = Public and Indian Housing Information Center. 

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the PIC extract from HUD. Employment status—

Q17h(1). Years of schooling—Q17h(4).

Sources: PIC06, PIC07, PIC08, and PIC09 data

 Percentile Escrow Amount in 2009 ($) Percentile Escrow Amount in 2009($)

Table F10. Distribution of Escrow Amount for FSS Participants With Positive Escrow Balances as of 

October 2009 (N = 56) 

Minimum 1 

10th 160 

20th 539 

30th 877 

40th 1,594 

50th (median) 2,508 

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. 

Source: CM09 interview

Type of income

PIC05 WAVE06 PIC06 WAVE07 PIC07 WAVE08 PIC08 WAVE09

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table F8. Sources of Income for Active FSS Participants

Earned income 

(employment)

24 69 43 65 38 66 44 67 44 68 44 67 42 65 41 62

Child support 13 37 22 33 18 31 24 36 — 0 22 33 — 0 23 35

Unemployment 

insurance

2 6 4 6 4 7 4 6 — 0 5 8 — 0 3 5

SSI 2 6 5 8 3 5 2 3 4 6 5 8 6 9 5 8

SSDI 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 3 0 0 2 3

SS Retirement 2 6 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 5 2 3 3 5 2 3

Private Pension 2 6 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 2

Other 18 51 9 14 33 57 3 5 38 58 7 11 36 55 5 8

Other income Supports

TANF (using Q17h(5)) 1 3 17 26 16 28 14 21 14 22 12 18 11 17 6 9

TANF (using Q7b) 4 11 — 0 14 24 — 0 26 40 — 0 20 31 — 0

General assistance 

(using Q17h(5))

0 0 6 9 3 5 1 2 3 5 4 6 3 5 1 2

General assistance 

(using Q7b)

4 11 — 0 12 21 — 0 — 0 — 0 — 0 — 0

Food stamp benefits 2 6 34 52 34 59 38 58 36 55 26 39 33 51 31 47

Medicaid/children’s 

health insurance 

program

2 6 28 42 36 62 32 48 33 51 30 45 31 48 25 38

EITC 1 3 20 30 17 29 28 42 25 38 27 41 28 43 25 38

EITC = Earned Income Tax Credit. FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PIC = Public and Indian Housing 

Information Center. SS = Social Security. SSDI = Social Security Disability Insurance. SSI = Supplemental Security Income. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy 

Families.

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the PIC extract from HUD. Earned 

income (employment)—Q7b. Child support—Q7b. Unemployment Insurance—Q7b. SSI—Q7b. SSDI—Q8i. SS Retirement—Q7b. Private Pension—Q7b. Other —Q7b. 

TANF Income Assistance—Q17h(5), Q7b. General Assistance—Q17h(5), Q7b. Food Stamps—Q17h(5). Medicaid/Children’s Health Insurance Program—Q17h(5). 

EITC—Q17h(5).

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists; PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

60th 3,252 

70th 4,385 

80th 5,784 

90th 8,379 

Maximum 17,749 
Type of Service

WAVE06 WAVE07 WAVE08 WAVE09

Number

With 

Service 

Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent 

Receiving 

Service

Number

With 

Service 

Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent 

Receiving 

Service

Number

With 

Service 

Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent 

Receiving 

Service

Number

With 

Service 

Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent 

Receiving 

Service

Table F11. Service Receipt Compared With Service Needs of Participants, by Year of FSS Participation (N = 66)

Childcare 8 5 63 12 12 100 16 14 88 14 13 93

Transportation 10 4 40 11 10 91 11 8 73 16 15 94

Education 37 20 54 32 27 84 37 32 86 35 30 86

Employment 33 18 55 27 23 85 31 28 90 32 27 84

Personal welfare 18 9 50 7 5 71 14 13 93 10 8 80

Household skills and management 32 15 47 20 19 95 28 25 89 32 29 91

Counseling 48 22 46 38 29 76 38 27 71 46 36 78

Other 19 7 37 2 2 100 7 4 57 8 8 100

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

Milestone or Achievement

WAVE07 WAVE08 WAVE09

Number

With

Service Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent

Receiving 

Service

Number

With

Service Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent

Receiving 

Service

Number

With

Service Need

Number

Receiving 

Service

Percent

Receiving 

Service

Table F12. Attainment of Interim Milestones

Enroll in an education and training program? 20 12 60 38 16 42 32 15 47

Complete an education and training program? 10 9 90 24 13 54 29 15 52

Obtain employment? 14 12 86 33 17 52 30 22 73

Move to a higher paying or otherwise better job? 7 6 86 23 11 48 19 12 63

Meet a job retention goal? 20 14 70 27 9 33 27 15 56

Advance in a job (promotion to a new position)? 2 2 100 8 3 38 8 3 38

Receive a pay raise? 16 10 63 19 11 58 15 10 67

Sources: From Q15a-g in WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists; CM08 and CM09 interviews

Zero Escrow Positive Escrow

WAVE06 WAVE07 WAVE08 WAVE09 WAVE06 WAVE07 WAVE08 WAVE09

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table F13. Potential for Program Success by Escrow Group: Case Manager Perception

Excellent 2 20 2 20 2 20 2 20 14 25 9 16 14 25 18 32

Very good 3 30 3 30 3 30 2 20 19 34 16 29 13 23 10 18

Good 3 30 2 20 1 10 2 20 18 32 21 38 17 30 16 29

Fair 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 2 8 14 5 9 7 13

Poor 0 0 2 20 3 30 3 30 0 0 2 4 6 11 5 9

Missing 1 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 7 0 0 1 2 0 0

Sources: WAVE06, WAVE07, WAVE08, and WAVE09 checklists

58
59

N Escrow

Balance N EscrowBalance N EscrowBalance N EscrowBalance N EscrowBalance

Table F14. Positive Escrow Balance for FSS Graduates (in 2009 Dollars)

1 $14 

2 $33 

3 $54 

4 $55 

5 $115 

6 $254 

7 $423 

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency.

Source: CM09 interview

8 $562 

9 $1,140 

10 $1,158 

11 $1,340 

12 $1,424 

13 $1,709 

14 $1,912 

15 $2,373 

16 $3,313 

17 $3,516 

18 $3,511 

19 $3,771 

20 $4,384 

21 $4,924 

22 $5,077 

23 $5,238 

24 $5,814 

25 $5,455 

26 $5,838 

27 $5,977 

28 $11,020 

29 $11,078 

30 $11,838 

31 $13,239 

32 $14,410 

33 $15,187 

34 $18,554 

35 $20,584 
60

This appendix tabulates information from the Public and Indian Housing Information Center (PIC) system for the 100 

sites that comprised the representative sample and the 20 tracking study sites. Although only 14 sites were included 

in the final report, these data are presented for the full 20. Tables labeled “a” are for the representative sample. Tables 

labeled “b” are for the tracking study. The data tabulated in each table correspond to question numbers in the HUD-50058 

and variable names in the June 2006 PIC extract from HUD.

PIC05 

Average

PIC06

Average

PIC07

Average

PIC08

Average

Table G1a. Demographic Characteristics of FSS Participants, Representative Sample of PHAs 

Age 37 years 37.7 years 38.1 38.7

Household size 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2

Number of children 2 2 2 2

Annual Income N % N % N % N %

<$5,000 4,761 16 4,149 15 4,460 15 4,013 14

$5,000–$10,000 6,913 24 6,026 22 6,384 21 5,824 20

$10,001–$20,000 9,559 33 8,557 32 9,525 32 8,797 31

$20,001–$30,000 5,356 18 5,440 20 5,565 19 6,063 21

>$30,00 2,387 8 2,674 10 3,815 13 3,772 13

Total 28,976 100 26,846 100 29,746 100 28,469 100

Average annual income $14,675 $15,550 $16,335 $16,842

Employment Status N % N % N % N %

Full time 9,715 39 9,410 41 6,782 33 9,627 40

Part time 4,283 17 3,871 17 4,433 22 4,934 21

Not employed 10,625 43 9,411 41 9,321 45 9,255 39

Total 24,623 100 22,692 100 20,536 100 23,816 100

Missing 4,353 4,154 4,700 4,653

Education (years of schooling) N % N % N % N %

Less than high school (<12 years) 10,548 40 10,955 44 11,819 55 12,948 49

High school graduate (12 years) 10,659 41 9,440 38 6,154 28 8,878 34

Some college (13–15 years) 4,274 16 3,789 15 3,106 14 3,872 15

College graduate (16+ years) 627 2 585 2 524 2 640 2

Total 26,108 100 24,769 100 21,603 100 26,338 100

Missing 2,868 2,077 2,004 2,131

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Notes: Age—Q3f. Household size—Q3t. Number of children—Q8q. Annual income—Q7i. Employment status—Q17h1. Education—Q17h4.
61

PIC05 

Average

PIC06

Average

PIC07

Average

PIC08

Average

Table G1b. Demographic Characteristics of FSS Participants, Tracking Site PHAs

Age (in years) 36.2 36.3 36.3 36.5

Household size 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3

Number of children 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1

Annual Income N % N % N % N %

<$5,000 4,761 16 4,149 15 4,460 15 4,013 14

$5,000–$10,000 6,913 24 6,026 22 6,384 21 5,824 20

$10,001–$20,000 9,559 33 8,557 32 9,525 32 8,797 31

$20,001–$30,000 5,356 18 5,440 20 5,565 19 6,063 21

>$30,000 2,387 8 2,674 10 3,815 13 3,772 13

Total 28,976 100 26,846 100 29,746 100 28,469 100

Average annual income $15,405 $15,105 $15,898 $16,289

Employment Status N % N % N % N %

Full time 3,408 34 2,000 38 2,181 39 2,298 39

Part time 2,237 22 1,002 19 1,089 20 1,126 19

Not employed 4,460 44 2,282 43 2,302 41 2,396 41

Total 10,105 100 5,284 100 5,572 100 5,820 100

Missing 654 1,550 1,417 1,107

Education (years of schooling) N % N % N % N %

Less than high school (<12 years) 3,480 32 2,527 42 2,837 44 3,040 47

High school graduate (12 years) 4,685 44 2,417 40 2,497 38 2,298 36

Some college (13–15 years) 2,198 20 924 15 972 15 936 14

College graduate (16+ years) 396 4 173 3 191 3 193 3

Total 10,759 100 6,041 100 6,497 100 6,467 100

Missing 0 793 492 460

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Notes: Age—Q3f. Household size—Q3t. Number of children—Q8q. Annual income—Q7i. Employment status—Q17h1. Education—Q17h4.

Report Type PIC05 PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

Report Type PIC05 PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

Table G2a. FSS Participants by Report Type, Representative Sample of PHAs 

Table G2b. FSS Participants by Report Type, Tracking Site PHAs

Enrollment 4,828 5,075 5,066 4,786

Progress 18,131 15,151 16,162 15,009

Exit 3,130 4,539 5,588 6,532

Contract completed 799 1,251 1,565 1,804

Contract not completed 2,331 3,288 4,023 4,728

No FSS addendum 2,887 2,081 2,006 2,142

Total 28,976 26,846 28,822 28,469

Enrollment 997 931 1,051 895

Progress 8,630 3,663 3,804 3,749

Exit 1,132 1,447 1,642 1,823

Contract completed 849 346 409 447

Contract not completed 283 1,101 1,233 1,376

No FSS addendum 0 793 492 460

Total 10,759 6,834 6,989 6,927

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Notes: Program exit—Q17b. Contract completed/not completed—Q17m1.

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Notes: Program exit—Q17b. Contract completed/not completed—Q17m1.
62

Reason for Program Exit

PIC05 PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

N % N % N % N %

Reason for Program Exit

PIC05 PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

N % N % N % N %

Table G3a. Reasons for FSS Program Exit, Representative Sample of PHAs 

Table G3b. Reasons for FSS Program Exit, Tracking Site PHAs 

Graduation (completion of COP) 799 26 1,251 28 1,565 28 1,804 28

Moved to homeownership 194 24a 251 20a 265 17a 236 13a

Exit without completing COP 2,331 74b 3,288 72b 4,023 72b 4,728 72b

A—left voluntarily 715 23 875 19 825 15 833 13

B—asked to leave 903 29 1,156 25 1,725 31 1,875 29

C—portability move out 66 2 125 3 142 3 137 2

D—left because service was unavailable 88 3 39 1 36 1 35 1

E—contract expired but did not fulfill 

obligation

559 18 1,093 24 1,295 23 1,848 28

Total number of exit reports 3,130 100 4,539 100 5,588 100 6,532 100

Graduation (completion of COP) 283 25b 346 24b 409 25b 447 25b

Moved to homeownership 63 22a 78 22a 70 17a 72 18a

Exit without completing COP 849 75b 1,101 76b 1,233 75b 1,376 75b

A —left voluntarily 292 26 318 22 267 16 312 17

B —asked to leave 343 30 382 26 588 36 661 36

C —portability move out 8 1 8 1 17 1 25 1

D —left because service was unavailable 17 2 14 1 20 1 18 1

E —contract expired but did not fulfill 

obligation

189 17 379 26 341 21 360 20

Total number of exit reports 1,132 100 1,447 100 1,642 100 1,823 100

COP = contract of participation. FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PHA = public housing authority. PIC = Public 

and Indian Housing Information Center. 

a

 Percent of graduates.

b Percent of exit reports.

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the June 2006 PIC extract from HUD. 

Program exit—Q17b. Moved to homeownership—Q17m2. Reason for leaving—Q17m3.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

COP = contract of participation. FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PHA = public housing authority. PIC = Public 

and Indian Housing Information Center. 

a

 Percent of graduates.

b Percent of exit reports.

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the June 2006 PIC extract from HUD. 

Program exit—Q17b. Moved to homeownership—Q17m2. Reason for leaving—Q17m3.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data
63

PIC05 PIC06

Full Time Part Time Not 

Employed

Status Not 

Reported Full Time Part Time Not Employed

Status Not 

Reported

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

PIC05 PIC06

Full Time Part Time Not 

Employed

Status Not 

Reported Full Time Part Time Not Employed

Status Not 

Reported

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

PIC07 PIC08

Full Time Part Time Not 

Employed

Status Not 

Reported Full Time Part Time Not Employed

Status Not 

Reported

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

PIC07 PIC08

Full Time Part Time Not 

Employed

Status Not 

Reported Full Time Part Time Not Employed

Status Not 

Reported

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table G4a. Reported Employment Status of FSS Participants, Representative Sample of PHAs

Table G4b. Reported Employment Status of FSS Participants, Tracking Site PHAs

New enrollee 1,931 40 531 11 2,365 49 1 <1 1,804 36 683 13 2,587 51 1 <1

Progress 6,890 38 3,625 20 7,795 43 2 <1 6,439 42 2,856 19 5,856 39 0 <1

Exit—contract 

completed

607 76 88 11 88 11 16 2 867 69 187 15 195 16 2 <1

Exit—contract not 

completed

280 12 117 5 466 20 1,445 62 299 9 145 4 770 23 2,074 63

 

New enrollee 1,687 33 869 17 2,510 50 0 0 1,556 33 939 20 2,291 48 0 0

Progress 6,752 42 3,417 21 5,993 37 0 0 6,174 41 5,485 37 3,350 22 0 0

Exit—contract 

completed

1,014 65 273 17 276 18 2 <1 1,138 63 356 20 309 17 1 <1

Exit—contract not 

completed

375 9 118 3 836 21 2,694 67 758 16 286 6 1,163 25 2521 53

New enrollee 351 33 180 17 520 49 — 0 314 35 162 18 419 47 — 0

Progress 1,474 39 842 22 1,488 39 — 0 1,491 40 825 22 1,433 38 — 0

Exit—contract 

completed

323 79 44 11 42 10 — 0 343 77 57 13 47 11 — 0

Exit—contract not 

completed

33 3 23 2 252 20 925 75 150 11 82 6 497 36 647 47

No FSS addendum — 0 — 0 — 0 492 — — 0 — 0 — 0 460 —

New enrollee 299 30 209 21 489 49 0 0 270 29 147 16 514 55 — 0

Progress 2,828 33 1,929 22 3,873 45 0 0 1,406 38 781 21 1,476 40 — 0

Exit—contract 

completed

234 28 36 4 13 2 566 67 281 81 40 12 25 7 — 0

Exit—contract not 

completed

47 17 63 22 85 30 88 31 43 4 34 3 267 24 757 69

No FSS addendum — — — — — — — — — 0 — 0 — 0 793 —

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data
64

Annual Income

PIC05 PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

N Mean Median N Mean Median N Mean Median N Mean Median

Annual Income

PIC05 PIC06 PIC07 PIC08

N Mean Median N Mean Median N Mean Median N Mean Median

Table G5a. FSS Participant Income, Representative Sample

Table G5b. FSS Participant Income, Tracking Site PHAs

At program entry 4,828 $14,107 $11,747 5,075 $14,749 $12,114 5,066 $15,039 $12,137 4,786 $15,807 $13,152 

Progress report 18,131 $14,726 $12,918 15,151 $15,942 $14,296 16,162 $17,012 $15,392 15,009 $17,356 $15,400 

Program exit, contract 

not completed

2,331 $12,085 $9,720 3,288 $13,506 $11,314 4,023 $13,746 $11,304 4,728 $14,655 $12,003 

Program exit, contract 

completed

799 $24,329 $22,918 1,251 $2,223 $22,370 1,565 $23,265 $21,945 1,804 $24,256 $23,302 

At program entry 997 $13,757 $12,246 931 $14,200 $11,208 1051 $13,913 $11,316 895 $13,916 $11,729 

Progress report 8,630 $15,495 $13,852 3,663 $16,047 $14,340 3,804 $17,024 $15,374 3,749 $17,236 $15,054 

Program exit, contract not 

completed

849 $13,109 $10,770 1,101 $12,972 $11,076 1,233 $13,350 $10,932 1,376 $14,340 $11,682 

Program exit, contract 

completed

283 $25,354 $24,079 346 $23,961 $23,878 409 $23,804 $23,262 447 $23,987 $23,890 

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Note: Annual income—Q7i. 

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority.

Note: Annual income—Q7i. 

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data
 Assistance Received by Family

PIC05 PIC06

At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table G6a. FSS Participants: Receipt of Public Assistance, Total Tenant Payment and Housing Assistance Payment, Representative Sample (1 of 2)

TANF income assistance 609 13 3,630 20 164 5 906 18 2,582 17 463 10

Medicaid/Children’s Health Insurance 

Program

1,892 39 8,870 49 527 17 1,963 39 6,866 45 1,183 26

General assistance 275 6 733 4 126 4 349 7 881 6 122 3

Earned income tax credit 561 12 2,815 16 351 11 499 10 2,653 18 421 9

Food stamps 1,938 40 8,257 46 366 12 2,055 40 6,386 42 928 20

Note: These categories are not 

mutually exclusive

<$200 1,493 31 5,468 30 1,040 34 1,687 33 4,779 32 1,517 33

$2001–$500 2,153 45 7,696 43 1,177 38 2,230 44 6,252 41 1,716 38

$501–$700 718 15 2,932 16 478 16 719 14 2,492 16 765 17

$701–$1,000 336 7 1,514 8 283 9 338 7 1,251 8 417 9

>$1,000 73 2 352 2 97 3 101 2 377 2 124 3

Total 4,773 100 17,962 100 3,075 100 5,075 100 15,151 100 4,539 100

Missing 55 169 55 27 212 144

Average Tenant Payment $348 $302 $367 $323 $368 $314 $348 $290 $369 $327 $375 $327 

<$200 393 8 1,948 11 527 17 515 10 1,775 12 879 20

$200–$500 1,225 26 5,772 32 960 31 1,545 31 4,762 32 1,526 35

$501–$700 1,123 24 4,410 24 712 23 1,114 22 3,581 24 1,010 23

$701–$1,000 1,383 29 3,902 22 644 21 1,284 25 3,285 22 719 16

>$1,000 649 14 1,930 11 232 7 590 12 1,536 10 261 6

Total 4,773 100 17962 99 3,075 98 5,048 100 14,939 100 4,395 100

Missing 55 169 55 27 212 144

Average Housing Assistance 

Payment

$652 $635 $590 $556 $527 $520 $612 $580 $581 $551 $485 $472

Total Tenant Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Housing Assistance Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

65
 Assistance Received by Family

PIC07 PIC08

At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table G6a. FSS Participants: Receipt of Public Assistance, Total Tenant Payment and Housing Assistance Payment, Representative Sample (2 of 2)

TANF income assistance 891 18 2,595 16 318 6 700 15 2,262 15 218 3

Medicaid/Children’s Health Insurance 

Program

1,819 36 6,848 42 1,160 21 1,613 34 6,042 40 1,506 23

General assistance 442 9 1,380 9 94 2 347 7 1,393 9 110 2

Earned income tax credit 4,419 87 2,893 18 441 8 588 12 2,490 17 699 11

Food stamps 2,123 42 6,589 41 920 16 1,819 38 6,159 41 1,209 19

Note: These categories are not 

mutually exclusive

<$200 1,713 34 4,732 29 1,759 31 1,495 31 4,430 30 1,908 29

$200–$500 2,161 43 6,375 39 2,186 39 2,029 42 5,674 38 2,512 38

$501–$700 704 14 2,882 18 903 16 741 15 2,762 18 1,097 17

$701–$1,000 361 7 1,634 10 564 10 386 8 1,572 10 752 12

>$1,000 127 3 539 3 176 3 135 3 571 4 263 4

Total 5,066 100 16,162 100 5,588 100 4,786 100 15,009 100 6,532 100

Missing 48 253 247 45 255 244

Average Tenant Payment $353 $284 $396 $353 $386 $330 $370 $305 $403 $352 $408 $350 

<$200 460 9 1,852 12 1,019 19 411 9 1,581 11 1,009 16

$200–$500 1,327 26 4,867 31 1,767 33 1,266 27 4,355 30 1,950 31

$501–$700 1,048 21 3,878 24 1,219 23 988 21 3,624 25 1,445 23

$701–$1,000 1,437 29 3,518 22 974 18 1,206 25 3,311 22 1,249 20

>$1,000 746 15 1,794 11 362 7 870 18 1,883 13 635 10

Total 5,018 100 15,909 100 5,341 100 4,741 100 14,754 100 6,288 100

Missing 48 253 247 45 255 244

Average Housing Assistance 

Payment

$655 $643 $592 $562 $503 $488 $676 $638 $612 $575 $551 $525 

Total Tenant Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Housing Assistance Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

66
Assistance Received by Family

PIC05 PIC06

At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table G6b. FSS Participants: Receipt of Public Assistance, Total Tenant Payment, and Housing Assistance Payment, Tracking Site PHAs (1 of 2)

TANF income assistance 179 18 1,969 23 75 7 367 39 734 20 210 15

Medicaid/Children’s Health Insurance 

Program

552 55 5,272 61 182 16 490 53 2000 55 384 27

General assistance 106 11 336 4 80 7 41 4 292 8 54 4

Earned income tax credit 257 26 2,432 28 188 17 144 15 998 27 170 12

Food stamps 483 48 4,505 52 107 9 471 51 1685 46 280 19

Note: These categories are not 

mutually exclusive 

<$200 397 40 2,806 33 375 33 381 41 1183 32 510 35

$200–$500 420 42 3,634 42 408 36 362 39 1479 40 543 38

$501–$700 108 11 1,367 16 213 19 108 12 613 17 243 17

$701–$1,000 51 5 640 7 101 9 65 7 287 8 117 8

>$1,000 21 2 183 2 35 3 15 2 101 3 34 2

Total 997 100 8,630 100 1,132 100 931 100 3663 100 1447 100

Average Tenant Payment $313 $275 $356 $316 $373 $330 $325 $248 $368 $326 $359 $313 

<$200 78 8 1,017 12 234 21 27 7 197 18 133 18

$200–$500 337 34 2,862 33 381 34 231 62 500 46 294 40

$501–$700 313 31 2,302 27 317 28 64 17 229 21 188 26

$701–$1,000 137 14 1,468 17 163 14 40 11 132 12 108 15

>$1,000 129 13 969 11 33 3 11 3 24 2 10 1

Total 994 100 8,618 100 1128 100 373 100 1082 100 733 100

Missing 3 12 4 558 2581 714

Average Housing Assistance 

Payment

$593 $538 $577 $537 $455 $465 $474 $469 $434 $435 $447 $457 

Total Tenant Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Housing Assistance Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

67
 Assistance Received by Family

PIC07 PIC08

At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit At Program Entry Progress Report At Program Exit

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Table G6b. FSS Participants: Receipt of Public Assistance, Total Tenant Payment, and Housing Assistance Payment, Tracking Site PHAs (2 of 2)

TANF income assistance 362 34 941 25 88 5 194 22 890 24 73 4

Medicaid/Children’s Health Insurance 

Program

430 41 2104 55 270 16 362 40 1905 51 573 31

General assistance 59 6 318 8 30 2 69 8 375 10 55 3

Earned income tax credit 164 16 1089 29 170 10 168 19 972 26 399 22

Food stamps 511 49 1865 49 180 11 423 47 1852 49 406 22

Note: These categories are not 

mutually exclusive 

<$200 393 37 1145 30 585 36 347 39 1091 29 615 34

$200–$500 464 44 1496 39 595 36 375 42 1475 39 649 36

$501–$700 125 12 658 17 266 16 115 13 680 18 287 16

$701–$1,000 55 5 382 10 150 9 48 5 371 10 211 12

>$1,000 14 1 123 3 46 3 10 1 132 4 61 3

Total 1051 100 3804 100 1642 100 895 100 3749 100 1823 100

Average Tenant Payment $319 $251 $393 $351 $370 $305 $318 $263 $399 $343 $388 $324 

<$200 30 8 138 18 155 16 30 9 98 12 146 16

$200–$500 134 37 294 38 371 39 110 33 303 38 320 18

$501–$700 77 21 192 25 230 24 57 17 229 29 214 24

$701–$1,000 90 25 125 16 159 17 95 29 130 16 168 19

>$1,000 35 10 27 3 28 3 39 12 37 5 51 6

Total 366 100 776 100 943 100 331 100 797 100 899 100

Missing 685 3028 699 564 2952 924

Average Housing Assistance 

Payment

$581 $560 $474 $473 $474 $470 $614 $598 $511 $500 $507 $487 

Total Tenant Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Housing Assistance Payment N % N % N % N % N % N %

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. PHA = public housing authority. TANF = Temporary Assistance for Needy Families.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

68
Type of Service

PIC05 PIC06

Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program

Yes No Missing Yes No Missing

Type of Service

PIC07 PIC08

Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program

Yes No Missing Yes No Missing

Table G7a. FSS Participants Reported as Needing Services and Needs Met by FSS, Representative Sample

Childcare services 1,023 481 541 1 1,072 452 600 20

Education/training 53 27 26 0 22 9 13 0

GED 1,010 404 606 0 776 222 554 0

Homeownership counseling 3,659 1,732 1,914 13 2,659 978 1,643 38

High school 224 76 148 0 38 8 29 1

Health services 754 270 483 1 119 54 63 2

Individual development account 708 199 508 1 27 9 18 0

Job retention 1,484 660 820 4 367 127 240 0

Job search/job placement 3,090 1,490 1,596 4 440 179 261 0

Mentoring 1,077 516 560 1 16 4 12 0

Post secondary 1,654 604 1,046 4 106 23 81 2

Transportation 1,142 470 671 1 20 7 13 0

Vocational/job training 2,337 1,089 1,245 3 64 17 45 2

Total service needs reported 18,215 8,018 10,164 33 5,726 2,089 3,572 65

Childcare services 1,363 504 839 20 1,012 363 624 25

Education/training 45 20 23 2 42 10 29 3

GED 951 250 695 6 808 185 611 12

Homeownership counseling 3,613 1,135 2,419 59 3,007 718 2,227 62

High school 19 7 11 1 23 8 15 0

Health services 173 101 64 8 167 96 67 4

Individual development account 35 8 27 0 30 6 24 0

Job retention 480 158 316 6 771 455 308 8

Job search/job placement 380 169 196 15 414 146 260 8

Mentoring 49 31 18 0 125 76 47 2

Post secondary 94 28 65 1 110 35 75 0

Transportation 124 10 114 0 89 10 79 0

Vocational/job training 76 31 45 0 40 10 30 0

Total service needs reported 7,402 2,452 4,832 118 6,638 2,118 4,396 124

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. GED = General Equivalency Diploma.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

69
Type of Service

PIC05 PIC06

Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program

Yes No Missing Yes No Missing

Type of Service

PIC07 PIC08

Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program Number Reporting 

Need for Service

Service Needs Met Through FSS Program

Yes No Missing Yes No Missing

Table G7b. FSS Participants Reported as Needing Services and Needs Met by FSS, Tracking Site PHAs

Childcare services 275 144 131 0 255 114 134 7

Education/training 18 16 2 0 6 4 2 0

GED 201 88 113 0 194 65 128 1

Homeownership counseling 967 420 543 4 829 299 527 3

High school 29 5 24 0 6 1 5 0

Health services 240 122 118 0 32 20 11 1

Individual development account 327 46 281 0 7 4 3 0

Job retention 497 301 195 1 79 37 42 0

Job search/job placement 774 395 377 2 79 46 33 0

Mentoring 583 268 314 1 6 3 3 0

Post secondary 471 243 228 0 35 10 25 0

Transportation 202 94 108 0 4 1 3 0

Vocational/job training 647 323 322 2 16 5 11 0

Total service needs reported 5,231 2,465 2,756 10 1,548 609 927 12

Childcare services 572 183 372 17 417 149 245 23

Education/training 24 14 9 1 18 8 7 3

GED 328 84 238 6 302 92 202 8

Homeownership counseling 1,349 332 1,000 17 1,051 236 787 28

High school 6 2 4 0 10 6 4 0

Health services 83 56 19 8 85 62 19 4

Individual development account 9 1 8 0 5 1 4 0

Job retention 91 32 55 4 94 43 44 7

Job search/job placement 104 45 45 14 104 56 41 7

Mentoring 26 20 6 0 65 50 13 2

Post secondary 44 23 20 1 48 20 28 0

Transportation 10 6 4 0 11 6 5 0

Vocational/job training 25 16 9 0 13 5 8 0

Total service needs reported 2,671 814 1,789 68 2,223 734 1,407 82

FSS = Family Self-Sufficiency. GED = General Equivalency Diploma. PHA = public housing authority.

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

70
PIC05 PIC06* PIC07* PIC08*

Escrow Account Balance Disbursed Amount Positive 

Escrow 

Account 

Balance

Positive 

Disbursed 

Amount

Positive 

Escrow 

Account 

Balance

Positive 

Disbursed 

Amount

Positive 

Escrow 

Account 

Balance

Positive 

Disbursed 

Amount

Including

Zeros Positive IncludingZeros Positive

Progress Report

Number 18,131 9,317 18,131 683 8,569 496 9,040 477 8134 472

Mean $1,469 $2,858 $48 $1,271 $3,132 $1,857 $3,478 $2,071 $3,476 $2,027

Median $34 $1,445 $0 $604 $1,621 $843 $1,859 $1,031 $1,735 $1,105

Program Exit

Contract not completed

Number 2,331 495 2,331 63 698 104 804 126 940 89

Mean $481 $2,264 $87 $3,210 $2,972 $2,402 $2,901 $2,522 $2,828 $2,768

Median $0 $1,166 $0 $1,349 $1,562 $839 $1,553 $1,365 $1,370 $1,710

Contract completed

Number 799 312 799 383 432 599 420 477 590 989

Mean $2,018 $5,167 $2,812 $5,867 $5,008 $6,309 $5,332 $2,071 $5,923 $6,647

Median $0 $3,618 $0 $3,681 $3,354 $4,547 $3,497 $1,031 $4,040 $4,850

* Data do not include zero balances or zero disbursements.

HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PIC = Public and Indian Housing Information Center system.

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the PIC extracts from HUD. Program type (entry, progress, exit)––Q17b. Contract completed/not 

completed––Q17m(1). Escrow balance––Q17k(2). Disbursed amount––Q17k(3).

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

Table G8a. Escrow Account and Interim Disbursements, Representative Sample

71
PIC05 PIC06* PIC07* PIC08*

Escrow Account Balance Disbursed Amount Positive 

Escrow 

Account 

Balance

Positive 

Disbursed 

Amount

Positive 

Escrow 

Account 

Balance

Positive 

Disbursed 

Amount

Positive 

Escrow 

Account 

Balance

Positive 

Disbursed 

Amount

Including

Zeros Positive IncludingZeros Positive

Progress Report

Number 8,360 4,311 8,630 428 1,792 127 1,792 113 1,813 116

Mean $1,332 $2,667 $54 $1,093 $2,935 $1,622 $2,949 $1,566 $2,779 $1,243

Median $0 $1,420 $0 $690 $1,430 $673 $1,488 $698 $1,307 $809

Program Exit

Contract not completed

Number 849 217 849 22 151 26 201 29 296 23

Mean $587 $2,298 $35 $1,362 $2,086 $1,734 $2,344 $2,380 $2,404 $3,370

Median $0 $1,333 $0 $761 $1,201 $766 $1,227 $1,650 $1,184 $2,300

Contract completed

Number 283 115 283 133 82 96 134 117 191 134

Mean $2,102 $5,173 $3,736 $7,949 $5,983 $6,677 $5,200 $7,328 $5,526 $7,368

Median $0 $3,678 $0 $5,863 $3,982 $4,530 $3,317 $5,172 $3,139 $5,471

Table G8b. Escrow Account and Interim Disbursements, Tracking Site PHAs

HUD = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. PHA = public housing authority. PIC = Public and Indian Housing Information Center.

* Data do not include zero balances or zero disbursements.

Notes: The data tabulated in this table correspond to the following question numbers in the HUD-50058 and variable names in the PIC extracts from HUD. Program type (entry, progress, exit)––Q17b. Contract completed/not 

completed––Q17m(1). Escrow balance––Q17k(2). Disbursed amount––Q17k(3).

Sources: PIC05, PIC06, PIC07, and PIC08 data

72