This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary for 

success (Photo: A Polish girl

tries on a helmet from the 

during a static display with 

Battle Group Poland at 

Giżycko, Poland).

The guide consists of 2 

parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” provides the foundational knowledge 

you need to operate effectively in any global environment with 

a focus on Eastern Europe. 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Polish society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your assigned deployment 

location. This section is

designed to complement 

other pre-deployment 

training (Photo: Polish Army 

Soldier salutes at a 

ceremony in Warsaw).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) 

website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Poland
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington admitting to having chopped down 

a cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the 

premium Americans 

place on personal 

honesty and leadership 

integrity (Photo: A 

Ukrainian fighter jet 

conducts a low-altitude 

fly over in Mykolaiv, 

Ukraine). 

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a 

century, today the US military is operating in what we classify 

as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of 

cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our 

engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future. 

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to as 

“cultural domains” – in

order to better understand 

the primary values and 

characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains–which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools 

for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Winter in 

Slovenia).

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good 

and bad, defines right and 

wrong behavior, and 

assigns a value of 

meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true

– regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. Beliefs are a central aspect of human 

culture. They are shared views about world order and how the 

universe was physically and socially constructed (Photo: A river 

boat in Prague, the capital of Czech Republic). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends 

on our deeply-held beliefs 

we started developing 

early in life that have 

helped shape our 

characters. Likewise, 

these values are 

ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and our self-identities. Because cultural 

beliefs are intensely held, they are difficult, though not 

impossible, to change (Photo: Ukrainian soldiers). 

CULTURE

GENERAL
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above 

the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your 

ability to suspend judgment in order to understand another 

perspective is essential to establishing relationships with your 

host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold 

your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from 

a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an 

alternate perspective 

when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: Romanian military personnel converse in front 

of a plane in the Bucharest airport).

As you travel through Eastern Europe, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that 

are not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language (Photo: 1909 

Russian painting of Slavic 

peoples). 

Eastern Europe comprises 

10 countries on the eastern

side of the European 

continent: Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, 

Moldova, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. 

Archaeological finds suggest people inhabited the region as 

early as 40,000 BC. From approximately 10,000-3,000 BC,

hunter-gatherers formed semi-permanent settlements, 

sustained by agriculture and cattle herding. Slavic tribes settled 

in the plains of present-day Ukraine as early as 2000 BC, 

eventually moving west and south along the fertile basin of the 

Danube River. Notably, although short-lived, the Roman 

Empire’s incorporation of much of the region’s South in the 

early centuries AD significantly influenced culture in presentday Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovenia. 

Over the following centuries, various migratory peoples from 

elsewhere in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia 

continued to settle in the region, expelling, conquering, or 

mixing with the Slavs and other inhabitants. By the 10th 

century, loosely aligned settlements coalesced into large, 

powerful kingdoms, including the Bohemian Empire centered in 

present-day Czech Republic and the Kingdoms of Hungary, 

Poland, and Bulgaria. In the 14th century, much of the region 

fell to the Ottoman Empire, based in present-day Turkey, with 

many of the region’s residents experiencing several centuries 

of Turkish raids. 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
While present-day Bulgaria and Romania remained under 

Ottoman rule for over 500 years, in the 16th century, many

regions became subject to the rule of the Austrian House of 

Habsburg – one of Europe’s most influential royal dynasties 

that later joined Hungary to form the powerful AustroHungarian Empire. Meanwhile, Poland formed an independent 

state, eventually uniting with neighboring Lithuania to control 

large parts of the region, including Ukraine and Belarus. 

Unable to repel persistent attacks from neighbors, the PolishLithuanian Empire disintegrated in the late 18th century, with 

Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus falling under Russian control for 

the next nearly 120 years. During this time, Russia violently 

quelled nationalist movements, suppressed regional 

languages, and deported 

thousands of native

inhabitants while 

encouraging Russian 

immigration into the region. 

All 10 Eastern European 

states experienced 

substantial conflict during 

World War I (WWI). 

Immediately following the war, most states enjoyed brief 

periods of independence. By contrast, the newly formed Union 

of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) absorbed Belarus, 

Moldova, and Ukraine, all of which suffered severely under 

communist repression. Notably, after its defeat in WWI, the 

Austro-Hungarian Empire splintered. Hungary consequently 

lost nearly 2/3 of its territory and 3/5 of its people to 

neighboring nations (Photo: Russian army in 1920s Kiev). 

With the onset of World War II (WWII), all 10 states again 

became battlegrounds. While some immediately sided with the 

Axis powers, others were unable to withstand German 

aggression. All 10 states suffered heavy casualties throughout 

the war. During its occupation of the region, Nazi Germany 

murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s sizeable 

Jewish population and other “undesirables.” 

At war’s end, the USSR either absorbed or heavily influenced 

the political, social, and economic systems of each Eastern 

GENERAL

CULTURE
European state. Adopting communist tenets, each state 

nationalized private companies, appropriated private property, 

and rapidly expanded industrial development. Communist 

leaders also encouraged Russification in the region, violently 

repressing national languages, religions, and cultures. 

In the late 1980s, democratic movements swept across the 

Soviet bloc, and within a few years, all 10 states had declared 

independence from the USSR. Further, they removed 

communist leaders, transformed their governments, and 

adopted market capitalism. Since then, all states but Belarus

largely pivoted away from Russian influence to pursue political, 

military, and economic integration with the West. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all the ways 

in which individuals are 

linked to others in their 

community. All 10 

Eastern European states 

are parliamentary 

republics led by an 

elected Prime Minister, 

President, and legislature. In most states, Presidential powers 

are largely ceremonial with executive power vested in the 

Prime Minister, who leads the government together with the 

support of a Cabinet of Ministers. In most states, political 

parties typically form coalitions in order to attain and maintain 

power (Photo: Hungarian Parliament). 

With most having suffered crippling dictatorial rule for much of 

the late 20th century, each Eastern European state emerged in 

the 1990s with new political, social, and economic structures. 

While some states have since created relatively stable, well-run 

democracies, others face challenges to the democratic 

process. Corruption is a prevalent problem in the region. In 

some cases, governments’ inability to adequately curb 

widespread corruption results in frequent public protests, 

causes distrust of public officials, and creates an overall 

skepticism of the democratic process. Moreover, weakened by 

GENERALCULTURE
overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, ruling 

political coalitions and parties tend to dissolve frequently, 

resulting in a political landscape marked by infighting and 

successive changes of government. 

Most states are members of strong regional alliances, such as

the European Union (EU) and NATO. Although somewhat

fraught with political instability, most states remain committed 

to improving democratic processes, serving as advocates of a 

democratic and pro-Western agenda in the region. By contrast, 

Belarus is politically aligned with Russia, while Ukraine and 

Bulgaria have historically attempted to balance relations 

between the West and Russia, at times resulting in internal 

tension between 

ideologically opposing 

political groups (Photo:

Kiev, Ukraine).

With the exception of

Belarus, the states rely 

on NATO, the EU, the 

US, and other 

international support to defend against external, state-level 

threats. Russia’s recent aggression in the region, notably its

2014 annexation of Crimea and ongoing support of separatist 

rebels in eastern Ukraine, has significantly heightened regional 

tensions and consequently dominates the states’ security 

environment. 

The region exhibits differing levels of ethnic diversity. Poland,

for example, is largely homogenous, with ethnic Poles 

comprising 97% of the population. By contrast, the native 

populations of Ukraine and Czech Republic are significantly 

lower, 78% and 64%, respectively. Notably, the Roma and 

other ethnic minorities suffer significant social division, 

discrimination, and stigmatization across Eastern Europe. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

GENERAL

CULTURE
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

Early residents of Eastern Europe practiced a variety of 

indigenous religions, venerating multiple deities and spirits who 

inhabited the natural world. Romans introduced Christianity as 

early as the 1st century. By the 10th century, many Eastern 

European kingdoms had adopted Christianity as a state 

religion. In the early 11th century, theological differences 

between western and eastern branches of the Christian 

movement forced a permanent divide between the Roman 

Catholic Church centered in Rome and the Eastern Orthodox 

tradition of the Byzantine Empire. Over subsequent centuries, 

both branches of Christianity flourished in the region. Later, as 

the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, some states 

saw the Catholic Church reorganize under Lutheran authority. 

Across the region, 

Christianity became closely

linked to national identity. 

In Poland, for example, the 

Catholic Church became 

entrenched in daily life, 

influencing education, social 

services, and remaining 

politically influential even 

today. Throughout the centuries, Judaism also enjoyed growth 

in the region, with among others, Polish and Czech Jewish

communities growing significantly until their annihilation during 

WWII (Photo: Bulgarian Orthodox imagery hangs in a church). 

During their years of occupation and influence, the Soviets 

suppressed all religious institutions and activities in the states, 

while simultaneously cultivating atheism and encouraging the 

devout to abandon long-held religious beliefs. To do so, the 

states’ communist governments carefully regulated religious 

affairs and deported clergy, while destroying or converting most 

churches and synagogues for other uses. Consequently,

membership in religious organizations decreased significantly

over the years. Nevertheless, most states saw a resurgence in 

religiosity once religious freedom was restored following the fall 

of communism. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Today, some of the region’s inhabitants are Orthodox Christian, 

while others – including the majority of Poles (90%), Slovaks 

(62%), Slovenes (58%), and Hungarians (52%) – are Roman 

Catholic. Notably, while most Eastern Europeans retain deep 

religious convictions, others remain religiously unaffiliated. For 

example, only about 50% of Belarusians claim a religious 

affiliation – the lowest rate in the region – while large numbers 

of Slovenes, Slovaks, and Czechs are atheist. In parts of the 

region, small Jewish and Muslim communities are experiencing 

some growth. One notable exception is Bulgaria, where a 

relatively large Muslim community (8% of the population) traces 

back to the early 14th century. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members 

(often called “fictive 

kin”). 

Family life and 

relationships are 

highly valued within 

Eastern European 

societies. Residents 

maintain strong 

connections with 

both immediate and 

extended family members, supporting them emotionally and 

financially and providing physical care for elderly or ailing kin if 

needed. Most households comprise 2 parents and their 

children (nuclear family), with many families choosing to have 

just 1 or 2 children. Nevertheless, extended kin on both sides 

of the family often live nearby and are significantly influential in 

family matters (Photo: A Romanian girl).

Rapid urbanization has changed family life in recent years, as 

urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit (live in long-term, 

unmarried partnership) and have fewer children. Consequently, 

while the traditional family structure remains common in rural 

areas, it is more diverse in urban centers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
While historically marriage was an arranged union, today 

Eastern Europeans typically choose their own partners. 

Couples may spend several years dating, live together, and 

have children before choosing to marry. In some states,

divorce is increasingly prevalent among younger generations, 

with rates comparable to the US. Still in others, the practice is 

relatively uncommon and carries social stigma. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Eastern European states’ historically patriarchal culture 

privileged men as leaders and providers. While some of the 

region’s inhabitants continue to adhere to traditional values – 

men as breadwinners and heads of household and women as 

mothers and wives – gender roles and responsibilities began to 

transform during the Soviet era and continue to change today, 

particularly among younger generations (Photo: Polish woman 

holds a copy of 

Poland’s Constitution). 

Although women hold 

equal rights under the 

law, political, social, and 

economic inequalities 

between the genders 

remain. For example, 

women often face 

discrimination in the 

hiring and promotion process, routinely receive lower wages 

than their male counterparts, and suffer from sexual 

harassment in the workplace. 

Despite these barriers, the number of women serving in the 

political sector across the region has increased over the past 

few decades. Eastern European women hold a significant 

proportion of national and sub-national government positions, 

with most states maintaining similar or higher female 

participation rates in their national legislatures as the US. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Notably, the region’s women suffer high rates of gender-based 

violence (GBV), particularly domestic abuse and rape. Often 

considered private matters, many incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases are reported, the prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare. Although homosexuality is legal throughout 

the region, homosexuals still suffer discrimination, 

stigmatization, and violence in some areas. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally. Most of the region’s 

languages derive from the 

Slavic branch of the IndoEuropean language family, 

while Moldovan and 

Romanian belong to the 

same family’s Eastern 

Romance branch. A 

member of the Uralic 

family, Hungarian is the 

region’s only language not 

part of the Indo-European family. Notably, the Bulgarian, 

Belarusian, and Ukrainian languages are written in the Cyrillic 

alphabet. By contrast, all other state languages employ the 

Latin script (Photo: Rural Ukrainian shop). 

Some states managed to largely avoid harsh Russification 

policies during the Soviet era. Others suffered years of 

linguistic repression when Russian became the predominant 

language in education, the media, and government 

proceedings. Today, with the exception of Belarus, Russian is 

no longer the region’s main language. Instead, native 

languages have largely supplanted Russian, though some 

residents continue to use Russian in business and everyday 

life. The states are also home to native speakers of other

languages, notably Romani (the language of the Roma), 

Turkish, German, and other regional languages. English has 

become increasingly popular over the last several decades and 

is spoken widely in business and by young, urban residents. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, the region’s residents demonstrate respect, privacy, 

and candor in their communication practices. In some states, 

communications reflect notable emotion and engagement. By 

contrast, others typically refrain from displaying strong 

emotions in public, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer quiet 

speech. Across the region, residents usually share personal 

information only with family or close friends and are reserved 

when interacting with strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems 

such as schools or 

through informal 

learning by watching 

adults or peers (Photo: 

Central School in 1910 

Ukraine).

Prior to the 14th 

century, most formal 

education in the region 

occurred in religious institutions where clergymen taught 

religion and basic literacy. Notably, while Hungary, Poland, and 

the Czech Republic had established universities as early as the 

14th century, secular centers of higher academic learning were 

slow to develop elsewhere in the region. Nevertheless, by the 

late 1800s, extensive public school networks administered both 

religious and secular curricula to millions of students across the 

region. 

Most Eastern European governments established free and 

compulsory public education systems in the early 20th century. 

The subsequent Soviet occupation and influence brought 

significant changes to schools and curricula. During that period, 

the education system promoted Soviet ideology and communist 

tenets and emphasized Russian culture and language. It also 

GENERAL

CULTURE
prioritized vocational instruction, while simultaneously 

suppressing Eastern European languages and culture. 

Today, most Eastern European students receive free and 

compulsory schooling at the primary and secondary levels. 

School enrollment rates are high, and nearly 100% of Eastern 

European residents are literate. Challenges to the education 

systems include low teacher salaries, rural school closures, 

and disparities in educational attainment between majority 

groups and linguistic and ethnic minorities. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. As in most Western 

cultures, Eastern Europeans tend to be preoccupied more with 

time management than relationship-building. They too value

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and candid professional 

interactions. Within their personal lives, however, most Eastern 

Europeans invest significant time into establishing and 

maintaining relationships (Photo: A Polish paratrooper interacts 

with a US National 

Guard soldier). 

They also like to build

relations before 

conducting business,

which tends to move 

more slowly in 

Eastern Europe than 

in the US. Throughout 

the region, residents 

usually begin discussions with light conversation. Most 

communication is explicit and direct, with frequent eye contact.

Eastern Europeans generally require less personal space when 

conversing than is common in the US. One exception is in 

Slovenia, where residents maintain about the same personal 

distance as in the US. 

Eastern European states observe a number of public holidays

such as Christmas, Easter, and their respective independence 

day. Further, all Eastern European states commemorate both 

the end of World War II and the Soviet era, as well as unique 

seasonal or harvest holidays.

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most Eastern European forms of artistic expression – 

including art, architecture, dance, music, and theater – reflect

the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign presence, and 

modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in Eastern Europe typically 

promote themes such as nature, the seasons, rural life, and 

love. Folk songs, festivals, and dance are particularly popular 

in rural areas, often utilizing traditional instruments. Most 

common dances are performed in pairs, circles, or lines. Under 

Russian and Soviet influence, classical ballet became a 

common form of dance across the region. Classical music and 

opera remain popular, as well as rock, jazz, and international 

pop music. Government financing for the arts largely declined 

after the Soviet era, yet artistic freedom has increased 

significantly (Photo: 

Slovak dancers perform 

in a circle). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in visual 

arts. Eastern Europeans

also practice various 

traditional handicrafts 

and folk art that reflect 

the region’s rich peasant history, along with Christian or ancient 

pagan motifs. Common handicrafts include pottery, 

embroidery, and baskets. Soccer is the most widely followed 

sport in the region, followed by basketball, volleyball, and 

gymnastics. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey,

skiing, and ice skating.

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures, and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Eastern European dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly 

seasoned. Most meals consist of a staple, such as potatoes, 

oats, or barley served with a meat, fresh salad, and various 

breads. While beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage, 

some residents enjoy unique 

herbal liquors or vodka. Notably, 

the region also has a rich 

history of wine production,

dating back to the 1st century 

BC (Photo: Hungarian pork 

goulash and dumplings). 

Health in Eastern Europe has 

improved significantly in recent 

decades, evidenced by 

decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents 

have access to free, state-funded healthcare in modern 

facilities. 

Nevertheless, the region’s healthcare systems face several 

challenges. The quality of care varies significantly between 

private/public and urban/rural facilities. Generally, public

facilities concentrate in cities and are ill-equipped, 

overcrowded, understaffed, and plagued by corruption. 

Meanwhile, private facilities offer first-rate care mostly to the 

wealthy. Finally, a shrinking yet aging population threatens to 

burden already overloaded national healthcare services in 

many states.

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases such as cardiovascular, 

cancer, respiratory, liver and diabetes account for the majority 

of deaths across Eastern Europe. In addition, the region’s 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol 

poisoning. Mostly a result of Soviet-era industrial policies, 

pollution is a widespread hazard throughout Eastern Europe, 

causing further health-related issues.

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Prior to the 19th century, the Eastern European 

states maintained largely agrarian economies, with residents 

GENERAL

CULTURE
engaging in subsistence agriculture or laboring as serfs on 

large elite landholdings (Photo: Belarusian currency). 

During the 1800s, several states began to industrialize, while 

Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Slovenia remained primarily 

agrarian. Industrialization intensified throughout the region in 

the Soviet era, when all states followed a centrally-controlled 

and planned 

economic system, 

establishing large 

collective farms and 

developing various 

heavy industries. 

Following the end of 

communism, the 

states immediately 

sought to decentralize their economies and adopt liberal, free 

market systems. While the transition initially caused their 

economies to contract, by the early 2000s, all 10 nations 

experienced growth. For most states, accession into the EU 

further spurred economic expansion. In 2008, the global 

financial crisis slowed investment in the region, reducing 

demand for exports and causing severe economic contractions 

in every state except Poland and Belarus. 

Some of the states reacted quickly to the crisis with strict 

internal reforms which allowed their economies to rebound 

within a few years. Others were slow to respond and suffered a 

protracted recession. Notably, the crisis in Ukraine has hurt 

that country’s recent economic growth, while Belarus continues 

to experience economic stagnation. 

The economic outlook in the region is varied. Some states such 

as Romania, Czech Republic, and Slovenia appear poised to 

maintain stable growth rates. The non-EU member states of

Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova are impacted the most by 

geopolitical events in Russia. All 10 states are vulnerable to 

economic fluctuations due to their export-oriented economies. 

Some common economic challenges include persistent 

corruption, aging populations, and emigration of skilled 

workers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner, except for 

Belarus, which heavily relies on trade with Russia. As EU 

members, most Eastern European states benefit from a secure 

business environment and free movement of goods and 

services. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. All 10 Eastern European states have invested in 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, particularly in urban areas. While Slovenia maintains

the region’s best roads, Ukraine and Romania have some of 

the world’s worst. Rural infrastructure is typically less 

developed, and 

corruption often 

impedes progress on 

road and rail projects. 

Generally in better 

condition than roads, 

railways connect major 

cities throughout the 

region, though some services are slow and inefficient. The 

Black Sea and major rivers, notably the Danube, host important 

ports. Although modern information technology is available in 

all states, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Bulgaria, and Romania 

have some of Europe’s least developed networks. Internet use 

also varies widely, with well over 80% of Slovaks using the 

Internet at home compared to just under 50% of Ukrainians

(Photo: US soldiers speak with a Polish resident).

While Poland relies on fossil fuels for 87% of its energy needs, 

nuclear fuels account for 61% of Hungary’s energy usage. 

Most Eastern European states depend on imported natural gas 

and oil from Russia and the Middle East. Governments

throughout the region have announced their intention to

increase the use of renewable resources such as hydroelectric 

plants, wind, and other renewables. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize Eastern European society at large, we will focus 

on specific features of Polish society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

In its long history, Poland has experienced flourishing heights 

of nationhood and brutal foreign oppression. Established by 

Slavic tribes in the 1st millenium AD, Poland rose to become a 

major European power by the 16th century then fell prey to 

European expansionism. By the late 18th century, Poland had 

been erased from the map of Europe. Ruled by competing 

European empires for 123 years, Poles endured the 

suppression of their language, traditions, and culture. Reemerging in the early 20th century, Poland suffered devastation 

during World War II and then decades of oppressive rule under 

a Soviet-backed communist government. In 1989, Poland 

became the first Soviet 

bloc country to embrace

democracy and the free 

market.

Early History

Evidence of early human

activity in Poland

includes stone artifacts 

dating to about 100,000 

years found at Ciemna 

Cave near the modern-day city of Kraków. Poland became too 

cold for human habitation during the last Ice Age, yet by about

12,000 BC, conditions had warmed enough for vegetation and 

animals to return. Hunter-gatherers likely followed reindeer as 

they migrated into the region (Photo: Satellite view of Poland 

and its neighbors).

By the 6th millennium BC, semi-permanent farming 

communities formed in the Vistula and Oder river basins. 

Houses were typically simple wooden constructions partially 

situated underground for protection from the cold. Inhabitants

also made pottery, traded copper, and mined flint in the Holy 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Cross Mountains and salt near Kraków. A settlement in northcentral Poland dating around 4,300 BC featured fortifications, 

over 30 longhouses, and copper jewelry. By about 2,500 BC, 

inhabitants constructed hilltop settlements with earthen and 

timber fortifications. 

Around 500 BC, Celtic tribes moved into southern Poland, 

while Germanic tribes occupied the North. Around the turn of 

the millennium, Germanic tribes gradually expelled the Celts.

During this period, regional inhabitants began participating in 

profitable trade networks that extended from northern Europe 

as far as the Roman Empire in the South. (Photo: 

Reconstruction of a settlement wall at Biskupin prehistoric site 

dating to 700 BC).

Arrival of the Slavs

Meanwhile, Slavic tribes 

were leaving their

homeland in Central Asia, 

settling north of the Black 

Sea by around the turn of 

the millennium. In the 5th

century AD, Germanic 

tribes moved south to invade the Roman Empire, disrupting the 

Slavs’ Black Sea settlements and prompting many to migrate

again. While other Slavic groups moved northeast and south, 

the ancestors of the Poles, known as the West Slavs, spread 

through much of Central Europe. Between the 5th-8th 

centuries, they settled much of modern-day Poland, displacing 

or absorbing the Germanic communities.

The Polanie: One of these Slavic groups, the Polanie (“people 

of the field”), gave Poland its name. Settling on the Warta River 

in west-central Poland, the Polanie united under tribal chief 

Piast in the 10th century. 

The Piast Dynasty 

Seeking to enlarge his holdings, Polania’s leader Duke 

Mieszko I came into conflict with regional rivals. The Germanic 

Holy Roman Empire was especially threatening, seeking to 

expand eastward while Christianizing pagan tribes such as the 

Slavs. To avoid invasion and forced conversion, Mieszko I 

appealed directly to the Catholic Church in Rome for support 
HISTORY &

MYTH

and adopted Christianity in 966 (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality). This move, recognized by many Poles as the 

beginning of Polish history, established Mieszko I as a subject 

of the Pope (the leader of the 

Catholic Church), giving him 

legitimacy before other Christian 

regional rulers (Illustration: 18thcentury depiction of Duke Mieszko 

I).

Expansion to Kingdom: Until his 

death in 992, Mieszko I worked to 

expand the Duchy from his capital 

at Gniezno (see “The Legend of 

Lech, Czech, and Rus” below), 

conquering several neighboring 

Slavic tribes and establishing 

borders similar to those of modernday Poland. His son, Duke Bolesław I Chrobry (“the Brave”), 

also held these expansionist goals, conquering areas of 

modern-day Ukraine. In 1025, Gniezno’s Catholic archbishop 

crowned Bolesław I the King, making Poland equal to Europe’s 

other monarchies. 

Division and Restoration: In subsequent years, a succession 

of conflicts divided the Kingdom, and neighboring states preyed 

upon it, seizing territory. Seeking to end instability on his 

border, in 1038 the Holy Roman Emperor lent financial and 

military support to the campaign of his relative and grandson of 

Boleslaw I, Grand duke Kazimierz I, to gain the Polish throne. 

Known as “the Restorer,” Kazimierz I reclaimed lost territory 

and moved the Polish capital to Kraków, where it would remain 

until 1596.

The Period of Divisions

Kazimierz I and his successors engaged in several border wars 

while quelling internal strife. By the early 13th century, Poland 

was fragmented by infighting and succession conflicts that 

caused instability lasting nearly 200 years.

The Teutonic Knights: Meanwhile, pagan Lithuanians, 

Prussians, and other groups were threatening the North. In 

1226, Polish Duke Conrad invited the Teutonic Knights, a 
HISTORY &

MYTH

German Christian military order, to support him in his conflicts 

with the Prussians. Conrad granted the Knights a territorial 

base, yet the Knights soon turned on the Poles to pursue their 

own expansionist goals. After a 

series of ruthless campaigns, the 

Knights subjugated the Prussians by 

1283, established their own feudal 

state, and repopulated it with 

German settlers. Having control of 

the Polish port city of Gdańsk (called 

Danzig by the Germans), this 

powerful state was able to deny the 

Poles’ access to the Baltic Sea.

Tatar Invasions: Between 1241-

1297, Muslim Tatars from Central 

Asia raided South and Central 

Poland, destroying major towns, 

decimating the Polish population, then mostly retreating (see p. 

8 of Religion and Spirituality). Subsequently, German settlers 

moved in to fill the void (Illustration: A 1430 depiction of Tatars 

besieging the Polish city of Legnica in 1241). 

Economic and Social Changes: Despite this upheaval, 

Poland’s salt, silver, and gold mining industries grew in the 

13th century. Further, large landed estates formed, employing

free tenant farmers. The promise of personal freedom, fixed 

rents, and limited self-governance attracted additional settlers 

from German-speaking areas. In 1264, the High Duke of 

Poland, Bolesław V, granted Jews personal freedom, legal 

autonomy, and protection against forced baptism into the 

Christian faith. Experiencing persecution in the West, many 

Jews subsequently resettled in Polish lands (see p. 2 of 

Religion and Spirituality).

The Last Piast: Kazimierz III Wielki

In the 14th century, Kazimierz III Wielki (“the Great”, r. 1333-

70) consolidated the Kingdom’s holdings, while annexing 

territories in modern-day Ukraine. With this expansion, the 

Kingdom grew beyond ethnic Polish territory for the first time. 

Kazimierz III’s almost 40-year reign included several significant 

achievements. He proposed a legal code, introduced a new 
HISTORY &

MYTH

form of currency, oversaw the construction of numerous castles 

and cathedrals, and founded one of Europe’s first universities, 

known today as the Jagiellonian University (see p. 1 of 

Learning and Knowledge). He also opened the entire Kingdom 

to Jewish settlement, resulting in the development of an 

important Jewish center in the town of Kazimierz, adjacent to 

Kraków, (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). Despite this 

progress, Kazimierz III failed to reclaim Polish territories still 

under the control of Bohemia and the Teutonic Knights.

Union with Lithuania: the Jagiellonian Dynasty

Upon Kazimierz III’s death, his nephew, King Louis of Hungary, 

ascended to the Polish throne. After Louis’ death in 1382, 

Polish nobles selected his 10-year old daughter Jadwiga as an 

interim “King,” the only Polish female to ever hold this title. The 

Polish nobility then chose Duke Jogaila of Lithuania as 

Jadwiga’s future husband, who would replace her as King. 

Lithuania at that time was a large, multi-ethnic state comprising 

much of present-day Lithuania, 

Belarus, and Ukraine. The pagan 

Lithuanians hoped that Poland would 

help protect them from the crusading 

Teutonic Knights. Complying with 

Poland’s request, Jogaila adopted 

Christianity and was baptized 

Władysław II Jagiełło. A year later he 

became King of Poland upon his 

marriage to Jadwiga (Illustration: Early 

20th century portrait of Jadwiga).

Władysław II’s rule (1386-1434) 

marked the beginning of the PolishLithuanian union, creating what was 

Europe’s largest country at the time. Together, the Poles and 

Lithuanians managed to keep invaders, such as the Tatars, 

Teutonic Knights, Russians, and Ottoman Turks at bay while 

extending their borders from the Baltic to the Black Sea. The 

Jagiellonian dynasty would rule Poland for almost 200 years.

Battle of Grunwald: Meanwhile, the Teutonic Knights 

continued to invade Polish-Lithuanian territory on the pretext of 

Christianizing any pagan inhabitants. When residents rebelled 
HISTORY &

MYTH

against the Germans in 1409, the Polish-Lithuanian state 

rallied to their support, raising an army of 150,000 against the 

Germans’ force of 80,000. The armies met at Grunwald (near 

the present-day Polish village of 

Stębark) in 1410. The ensuing daylong conflict resulted in a crushing 

defeat for the Knights. 

Skirmishes with the Teutonic Knights 

continued for decades, yet by the 

mid-15th century, the weakened 

Knights had relinquished territories, 

most notably the port of Gdańsk, 

thus restoring Poland’s access to the 

Baltic Sea. During the late 15th

century, Poland’s first Sejm or 

Parliament (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations) was 

established, and the Polish-Lithuanian union expanded into 

neighboring Bohemia and Hungary. As Jagiellonian control was 

established over nearly all of Central and Eastern Europe, the 

Polish-Lithuanian union enjoyed a long period of prosperity and 

growth (Photo: Kraków’s monument to the Battle of Grunwald).

The Golden Age 

The reigns of the last 2 Jagiellonian kings, Zygmunt I Stary 

(“the Old”) (r. 1506-48) and Zygmunt II August (r. 1548-72), 

comprised a Golden Age for Poland. A new constitution 

stipulated that proposed laws required approval by the Sejm, 

curbing the King’s power and opening law-making authority to 

the landed nobility. Polish literature flourished (see p. 6 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation), and the university in Kraków 

became a center of astronomical-mathematical thought. This 

institute of higher learning would educate scientists like Mikołaj 

Kopernik (Nicolaus Copernicus), who advanced the 

revolutionary idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of 

the solar system (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge).

Poland-Lithuania comprised a massive territory with dozens of 

ethnic groups. Besides Poles and Lithuanians, the union was 

home to Estonians, Latvians, Ukrainians, Prussians, 

Bohemians, Hungarians, and Tatars, among others. Poland 

also became a center of religious tolerance during this period. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

As the rest of Europe was rocked by conflict during the 

Reformation and Counter Reformation (see p. 2-3 of Religion 

and Spirituality), the 1573 Compact of Warsaw guaranteed 

religious freedom for all Christians. Further, Jews in Poland 

continued to avoid the restrictions and persecution prevalent in 

other European countries, and by the late 16th century, Poland 

had the world’s largest Jewish population, estimated at 

150,000 (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality).

Despite these positive developments, the region’s peasants 

saw their plight worsen over the course of the 16th century. 

Gradually, small landowners lost control of their lands and were 

forced to become serfs – enslaved laborers who were bought 

and sold with the land they worked for wealthy landowners. 

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Meanwhile, the union faced a mounting menace from 

expansionist Russia to the East and the Ottoman Turks in the 

South. To ensure 

support in the face of 

these threats, the 

Polish King sought 

permanent unification 

with Lithuania. The 

subsequent 1569 

Union of Lublin established the Republic of the Two Nations, 

also known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. A joint 

state with a single ruler, the Commonwealth had a legislative 

assembly and a common currency. While Poland was clearly 

the dominant partner, each part retained administrative control 

of its territory, treasury, and army. To mark the new 

relationship, the Commonwealth chose Warsaw as its new 

capital in 1596. At its climax, the Commonwealth comprised 

nearly 400,000 sq mi (more than 3 times Poland’s present 

size), some 11 million inhabitants, and would last for over 200 

years (Illustration: Early 17th-century depiction of the city of 

Poznań).

The Royal Republic: In the Commonwealth, the combined 

office of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania became 

an elected one. Electors comprised the nobility known as the 

szlachta – about 10% of the population. While candidates for 
HISTORY &

MYTH

office had to be Roman Catholics, there were few other 

requirements. Consequently, Commonwealth heads were not 

necessarily Lithuanian or Polish. Instead, the nobility often 

elected leaders of other nationalities, such as a Frenchman, a 

Transylvanian prince, and a series of Swedish nobles 

(Illustration: An 18th- century depiction of Polish and Lithuanian 

szlachta).

Nicknamed the “Royal 

Republic” due to its elected 

ruler, the Commonwealth was 

relatively successful initially. 

Over the years, Polish culture

and language came to 

dominate as Poles settled 

throughout the 

Commonwealth. Nevertheless, within a few decades, it became 

apparent that the Commonwealth’s governing structure was 

unsound. Because its leaders often had conflicts of interest or 

were beholden to other foreign powers, the Commonwealth 

had periods of inconsistent governance. Beginning in 1652, 

legislative efforts became paralyzed by the assembly’s rule that 

only 1 member’s veto was required to stop legislation. 

The Deluge: Concurrently, a series of other challenges known 

as the potop (“deluge”) arose. Ukrainians in the 

Commonwealth rebelled, seeking their own state, and in 1654, 

Russians occupied the Commonwealth’s East. Soon, 

Protestant Sweden launched its own invasion, sacking and 

destroying Catholic churches and monasteries (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality) and briefly conquering the 

Commonwealth. Although the Commonwealth suppressed the 

rebellion and repelled the 2 invaders, the efforts depleted the 

state’s coffers. Between 1648-1667, conflict, famine, and 

disease resulted in the deaths of about 1/3 of the population. 

Yet, the Commonwealth experienced some success during this 

period. Polish forces led by King Jan III Sobieski played a 

pivotal role in repelling Muslim Ottoman Turkish invaders in 

Ukraine in 1673 and in Austria a decade later. Today, many 

Poles still recognize this feat as the moment Poland “saved” 

Christian Europe from Muslim rule. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Decline and Partition

In the early 18th century, the Commonwealth attacked 

Sweden. After defeating the Commonwealth, the Swedes 

deposed its ruler and, in collusion with Russian Tsar Peter I 

(“the Great”), handpicked a new leader. Over the next century,

the Commonwealth came under the heavy influence of Russia, 

which maneuvered to 

ensure its preferred 

leaders took office

(Illustration: The 1764 

election of the 

Commonwealth leader).

By the mid-18th century, 

the Commonwealth saw 

significant internal unrest 

compounded by continuing 

interference by its powerful 

neighbors. In 1768, civil war erupted. Severely weakened, the 

Commonwealth was largely unable to resist its foreign rivals, 

who beginning in 1772, moved to divide the Commonwealth 

among themselves. That year, the Commonwealth lost about 

30% of its territory to Prussia, Austria, and Russia. In an effort 

to avoid further partition, the Commonwealth initiated several 

reforms, including emancipating its serfs and ending the 

parliament’s paralyzing veto rule. In 1791, the Commonwealth 

adopted Europe’s 1st and the world’s 2nd constitution (after the 

US). This “May 3 Constitution” is celebrated with a national 

holiday today (see p. 2 of Time and Space).

These reform efforts alarmed the Commonwealth’s rivals. In 

1792, Russia invaded, and despite vigorous resistance, the 

Commonwealth underwent a 2nd partition in 1793 that resulted 

in Prussia claiming the Polish port city of Gdańsk. 

A year later, Polish military engineer and hero of the American 

Revolution Tadeusz Kosciuśzko led a popular insurrection 

against the Russians. Despite some initial success, the revolt 

was soon suppressed. Russia, Prussia, and Austria then 

partitioned the Commonwealth for a 3rd and final time in 1795. 

Prussia absorbed Western and Northern Poland, Austria 

claimed Southern Poland, and Russia controlled Eastern 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Poland and most of Lithuania. Poland remained absent from

the map of Europe for the next 123 years (Illustration: 19thcentury portrait of Tadeusz Kosciuśzko). 

Resistance in Partitioned 

Poland

Many European leaders

condemned the partitioning of 

Poland as an international crime,

yet Napoleon’s revolution in 

France distracted European 

powers from what became known 

as the “Polish Question.” 

Nevertheless, Polish identity 

persisted as resistance to 

oppression took many forms. 

The Duchy of Warsaw: Polish 

resistance efforts focused initially on French Emperor 

Napoleon and his quest to establish a European empire. 

Beginning in 1797, Polish volunteer legions joined Napoleon’s 

forces in his various campaigns. After Napoleon’s 1806 defeat 

of Prussia, Polish armed units aligned with the French. In 

return, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw from the 

conquered Prussian territory in 1807. Following victory against 

the Austrians in 1809, the Duchy reclaimed Austrian-held 

Polish territory and grew to include some 4 million people and 

the cities of Warsaw, Kraków, and Poznań. Hoping a victory 

would continue to further their cause, some 100,000 Polish 

soldiers participated in Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of 

Russia in 1812. Following Napoleon’s defeat, the 1815 

Congress of Vienna dissolved the Duchy, returned some of its 

territory to Prussia, made Kraków a free city, and reorganized 

the remaining territory as the Congress Kingdom of Poland.

The Congress Kingdom: Never an independent state, the 

Congress Kingdom gradually came under tighter control of 

Russia, whose Eastern European holdings also included the 

former Commonwealth territories of Lithuania, Ukraine, and 

Belarus. Meanwhile, the Poles continued to plot against their 

foreign rulers, forming secret societies and staging a series of 

uprisings between 1830-1863.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The 1830 uprising occurred in Warsaw and became a fullfledged war that spread to Lithuania. Following suppression of 

the uprising, Russia conducted 

severe reprisals, arrests, and 

deportations. Many of Poland’s 

intellectual elite fled to France, 

including famed composer Frédéric 

Chopin (pictured in 1849). From 

France, Polish writers and artists 

looked to their nation’s plight as 

inspiration (see p. 4 and 7 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation).

Meanwhile, conflict within 

partitioned Poland continued. 

Following an 1846 uprising in free 

Kraków, the Austrians re-took the 

city, provoking additional violence and inspiring larger revolts in 

1848. While Russia implemented reforms following its 1856 

defeat in the Crimean War, unrest continued. In the 1863

“January Insurrection,” fighting extended into Lithuania and 

Belarus.

Vistula Land: In subsequent decades, Russia carried out 

additional reprisals in the region it now called Vistula Land. The 

Russians stepped up deportations to Siberia, while confiscating 

estates. They also implemented anti-Catholic and Russification 

policies, such as banning the Polish language and supporting 

the Orthodox Church (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Meanwhile, rapid industrialization and urbanization made 

Vistula Land the Russian Empire’s most developed region. 

In 1871, Prussia joined with other Germanic kingdoms and 

duchies to form the German Empire. In their partitioned 

territories, the Germans initiated harsh anti-Catholic and 

Germanization policies. By contrast, Poles in the Austriancontrolled region enjoyed some political autonomy, while

institutions like the university in Kraków helped Polish culture 

flourish. Nevertheless, many Poles across the partitioned 

territories avoided political and economic hardships by 

migrating elsewhere. Between 1870-1914, some 3.6 million 

Poles permanently left the region, many immigrating to the US.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Rise of Political Movements: In the 1890s, Polish political 

movements gained momentum. Lower-class grievances and 

Polish nationalism found voice in Józef Piłsudski’s Polish 

Socialist Party, while Roman Dmowski’s National Democracy

party emphasized the Polish nationalist struggle combined with

anti-Jewish and anti-Ukrainian sentiment. 

World War I (WWI)

When WWI broke out in 1914, these political leaders aligned 

along opposite sides in the hope that the winner would support 

Poland’s post-war liberation. Piłsudski (pictured) led a brigade 

for the Central Powers, comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, 

the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria, 

while Dmowski sided with the Allies, 

comprising France, Britain, Russia, 

and the US.

In 1915, the Central Powers expelled

Russia from the Congress Kingdom, 

and a year later, proclaimed a new 

Polish state. Although its borders 

remained undefined, the move 

brought renewed international 

attention to the “Polish Question.” 

Unsatisfied with progress toward independence, Piłsudski 

demanded concrete promises from the Central Powers, 

prompting Germany to jail him in 1917 and increasing his 

renown as a Polish patriot. In Paris, meanwhile, Dmowski 

founded the Polish National Committee which organized a 

Polish army comprised primarily of American Poles to fight for 

the French.

In 1917, the Russians were too preoccupied by civil war to 

engage closely in Polish affairs. In early 1918, US President 

Wilson made the creation of an independent Polish state one of 

his “Fourteen Points” for postwar peace negotiations. With the 

Austrian Empire’s collapse and the German army’s surrender 

in late 1918, WWI ended. In sum, WWI devastated Poland. Of 

the approximately 2 million Polish troops conscripted to fight for 

the Russian, German, or Austrian armies, some 450,000 died. 

Much of the fighting took place on Polish territory, where 

scorched earth strategies left many regions uninhabitable. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Independence

At war’s end, Piłsudski declared Poland’s independence and 

himself head of state. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles transferred 

territories, notably the so-called “Polish Corridor” granting 

access to the Baltic Sea, from defeated Germany to the new 

Republic of Poland. Even though that region was historically 

Polish and inhabited by a Polish majority, this transfer 

provoked significant resentment among Germans because it 

cut off the German Empire from its territories in East Prussia. In 

fact, this transfer would become Nazi Germany’s excuse for 

invasion some 20 years later (see “World War II” below). The 

transfer did not include the majority-German port city of 

Gdańsk, which became a free city. 

Meanwhile, Poland’s other borders remained undefined as 

Poland clashed with nearly all its neighbors. Seeking to 

construct a bulwark against expansionist Russia, now the 

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Piłsudski pursued

a renewed Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, though Lithuania 

rejected the idea. Within a month of WWI’s end, the USSR, 

Poland, and Lithuania were fighting over boundaries. 

Polish-Soviet War: Throughout 1919, Polish forces battled the 

Soviets. Fighting centered in Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania 

until mid-1920, when Soviet forces pushed all the way to 

Warsaw. There, 

Piłsudski’s troops

stopped the Soviet

advance in the 2-week 

Battle of Warsaw, an 

event commemorated

every year as Armed 

Forces Day (see p. 2 of Time and Space). Peace negotiations 

in 1921 awarded significant territory to Poland, including parts 

of Ukraine, Belarus, and much of southern Lithuania and its 

capital, Vilnius, which Poland would hold until the start of World 

War II (Photo: Polish soldiers display captured Soviet battle 

flags after the Battle of Warsaw).

The Second Republic

With more than 27 million inhabitants, inter-war Poland was 

Europe’s 6th largest country. Following 1919 parliamentary 
HISTORY &

MYTH

elections, Piłsudski relinquished some powers to the Sejm

while remaining head-of-state. A new constitution in 1921 

granted the Sejm more power than the executive branch, and a 

year later, Piłsudski retired from 

office. 

The new parliamentary system 

proved unstable. The 1st elected 

President held office only a few days 

before his assassination. In 1926, 

Piłsudski reemerged to lead an 

armed demonstration against the 

political stalemate, then staged a 

coup. Refusing to take office as

President, Piłsudski installed his own 

candidate then became Defense 

Minister. Although not occupying the 

Presidency, Piłsudski held ultimate power, suppressing the 

opposition and establishing an authoritarian military regime. 

Upon Piłsudski’s 1935 death, Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły 

(pictured in 1937) assumed leadership of Poland until its 1939 

invasion and occupation.

The 1920s saw significant industrialization and agrarian reform

as Polish cultural and intellectual life blossomed. The Great 

Depression hit Poland hard in the 1930s, contributing to 

widespread unemployment and poverty. Meanwhile, other 

challenges arose. A defining feature of the newly-independent 

country was its Polish Catholic identity, yet Poland was also 

home to significant populations of Ukrainians (around 16% of 

the total population) and Jews (about 10%), as well as 

numerous Belarusians and Germans. Poland’s Ukrainian 

populations rejected Polish rule, with extremists committing

acts of terrorism as Poles responded in kind. In the 1930s, 

Poland experienced waves of anti-Semitism, though Poland 

never introduced any anti-Jewish legislation. 

Expansionist Neighbors: Compounding its internal tensions, 

Poland faced aggressive posturing from its expansionist 

neighbors, Germany and the USSR. In the early 1930s, Poland 

signed nonaggression pacts with both countries, hoping these 

agreements would prevent invasion. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Germany under Nazi leader Adolf Hitler became increasingly 

belligerent. In March 1939, Germany demanded that Poland 

return the “Polish Corridor.” Poland refused, then negotiated a 

mutual defense alliance with Britain and France. Just 5 months 

later, unbeknownst to Poland and the rest of Europe, Germany 

and the USSR signed a nonaggression pact which divided 

Eastern Europe into Soviet and German spheres of influence

while partitioning Poland between the 2 powers.

World War II (WWII)

On September 1, 1939, 

on the pretext of 

recovering Gdańsk and 

the “Polish Corridor,” 

Germany invaded Poland, 

initiating WWII. While 

Britain and France quickly 

declared war on 

Germany, they were 

unable to provide Poland much-needed military support. A few 

weeks later, the USSR invaded from the East. By the end of 

September, Poland fell, with its territory divided between the 2 

powers (Photo: Polish soldiers defend Warsaw in 1939).

In an attempt to eliminate the country’s spiritual and intellectual 

leadership, the Nazis soon began to deport or execute religious 

leaders and other educated elite, while sending other Poles to 

labor camps. With its sizeable Jewish population, Poland 

became a target of and location for some of the Nazi regime’s 

most horrific activities. Nazis murdered Jews in mass 

executions, while confining others to barbed wire-surrounded

ghettoes before shipping them by rail to extermination camps.

In sum, the Nazi occupation was devastating to Poland. An 

estimated 5.6 million Poles died, or roughly 16% of the total 

population and 97% of the Jewish population (see p. 5 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Several of Nazi Germany’s most 

notorious death and slave labor camps, such as AuschwitzBirkenau (called Oświęcim in Polish) and Treblinka, were 

located in Poland. As part of its Lebensraum (“living space”) 

policy, Nazi Germany tried to Germanize Poland’s territory, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

replacing the deported or executed Poles with around 1 million 

German settlers (Photo: 

The entrance to Birkenau 

camp).

Resistance: Immediately 

upon invasion, Poles

mounted armed 

resistance. Their Armia 

Krajowa (Home Army or

AK) became Europe’s

largest underground army 

during WWII with approximately 400,000 members. Supported 

by the Polish government-in-exile in London, resistance 

coordinated by the AK flared in ghettoes and camps across the 

country. Polish troops also fought under the Allies in battles 

across the continent. 

In June 1941, Germany turned on its former ally and attacked 

the USSR. Over the next 4 years, they fought a bitter war 

extending from Moscow to Berlin, with many of the battles 

taking place on Polish territory. Although they were technically 

allies from this point, the Polish government-in-exile and the 

USSR experienced strained relations through much of the war. 

The situation worsened after information concerning the 

atrocities committed by the Soviets against Poles in the early 

years of the war became public. 

Katyń Massacre: As a consequence of its occupation of 

eastern Poland in 1940-41, the USSR captured some 1.6 

million Poles and deported them to various labor camps

located throughout the USSR. Later, the world learned that the 

USSR also carried out mass executions of some of these 

Polish prisoners. One notorious incident occurred in 1940 in 

the Katyń Forest near the present-day Russian city of 

Smolensk. There, the Soviet military and secret police 

executed and buried in mass graves some 21,000 members of 

the Polish educated elite such as military officers, judges, 

teachers, physicians, and lawyers. The USSR refused to claim

responsibility for the massacre until 1992. The Katyń

Massacre, as it was known,continues to color Polish-Russian 

relations today (see “Plane Crash at Smolensk” below).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Warsaw Uprising: In 1943, the German Army began to retreat 

from Russia, and by 1944, the Soviets were advancing rapidly 

against the Germans. As the Soviets approached Warsaw in 

late summer, the Polish government-in-exile and the AK saw its 

chance, mounting a 2-month long uprising against the German 

occupiers. Expecting the Soviets to come to their aid, the Poles 

fought bitterly, yet the Soviets lent no support, prevented Allied 

planes from resupplying the AK, and even halted outside the 

city to observe the fighting, which resulted in the deaths of

some 200,000 civilians and 15,000 combatants. Forced to 

retreat in the face of the Soviet threat, the Germans razed the 

city as they departed, reducing it to rubble. When the Soviets 

officially liberated Warsaw in 1945, they found it largely 

abandoned.

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

By 1942, the Nazis had confined some 500,000 

Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto, a section of the city the 

Nazis surrounded with barbed wire and later a wall. 

There, the Jews suffered appalling conditions, with 

thousands dying of starvation and disease monthly. 

In mid-1942, the Nazis began transferring ghetto 

inhabitants to the Treblinka death camp. By fall, just 

55,000 Jews remained and deportations slowed. 

Resistance soon unified as the Jewish Fighting 

Organization (ŽOB), and when deportations 

resumed in January 1943, the ŽOB hid residents 

and organized fighting units, compelling the Nazis to 

withdraw. In April, Jews armed with whatever 

weapons they could find attacked, destroying tanks 

and killing troops. The ŽOB managed to hold off the 

Nazis for almost a month. By mid-May, the Jews had

little ammunition left, and rather than be captured, 

many fighters took their own lives. Upon retaking the 

ghetto, the Nazis deported the remaining inhabitants 

then dynamited Warsaw’s Great Synagogue.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Postwar Settlements and Population Movements: Even 

before war’s end, the USSR maneuvered to control postwar 

Poland’s path, jailing or executing resistance leaders. The 

USSR further established its own pro-communist Polish 

Committee of National Liberation in Moscow in competition to 

the Polish government-in-exile in London. At the February 1945 

Yalta Conference, the Allies set Poland’s eastern border along

the 1939 Nazi Germany-USSR demarcation and agreed that 

postwar Poland would remain within the Soviet sphere of 

influence. Despite the Allies’ agreement to create a provisional 

Polish government together, the USSR installed its own procommunist provisional government in Warsaw. Following the 

war’s end, the Potsdam Conference in late summer 1945 

moved Poland’s western border about 120 mi west, granting

Poland German-majority 

territories that it had not 

held since the Middle Ages.

These boundary changes

set Poland’s modern-day 

borders in an area 20% 

smaller than prewar 

Poland. They also

compelled population transfers of perhaps more than 10 million 

people including Poles and Germans but also Lithuanians, 

Ukrainians, and Belarusians, among others across Eastern and 

Central Europe. Some of these transfers were involuntary – the 

Soviets expelled Germans and Ukrainians from Poland, while 

forcibly relocating Poles from Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania

to Poland. As a result, Poland largely lost its ethnic diversity

(see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel lays a wreath at the 

Warsaw Ghetto Memorial).

The People’s Republic of Poland

Although they had pledged to allow free elections, the Soviet 

occupiers moved quickly to suppress opposition parties and

dissidents, and restrict Poles’ rights. In 1947, Soviet-backed 

candidates won 417 of 434 seats in the Sejm as Bolesław 

Bierut, a staunch communist and Soviet ally, assumed the 

Presidency. Over the next 2 years, Bierut and the communists 
HISTORY &

MYTH

consolidated power through the Polish United Worker’s Party 

(PZPR). In 1952, Poland adopted a Soviet-style constitution 

and became the People’s Republic of Poland. 

During the late 1940s-early 1950s, the PZPR-controlled 

government oversaw postwar reconstruction. Following the 

USSR’s Stalinist model, Poland nationalized all commercial 

enterprises, pursued limited agricultural collectivization, and 

promoted heavy industry. To strengthen its position, the PZPR 

sought to undermine the legitimacy of the Roman Catholic 

Church, which nevertheless remained an important element of 

Polish identity and provided a continuing source of resistance 

to communism over the years (see p. 5-6 of Religion and 

Spirituality). 

Reform and Unrest under Gomułka

After Soviet leader Stalin’s 1953 death, 

the Polish government instituted 

reforms. Following Bierut’s unexpected 

1956 death, a massive workers’ strike

in Poznań demanding “bread and 

freedom” rocked the country and was 

suppressed violently. Although the

USSR threatened to invade if

Władysław Gomułka (pictured) became 

the new PZPR leader, Gomułka 

persuaded the Soviets to desist, earning him popular support. 

Gomułka led Poland’s government for the next 14 years. 

In the early period, his regime undertook reforms, such as 

freeing political prisoners, reprivatizing collectivized farmland, 

and improving relations with the Catholic Church. Gradually, 

however, he became increasingly authoritarian, and reforms 

slowed. By the 1960s, the PZPR had limited the activities of the 

Church and repressed intellectual life. Gomułka lost further 

popularity in 1968 when police violently suppressed student 

demonstrations, as Poland provided troops for the Soviet 

invasion of neighboring Czechoslovakia with the intent of 

suppressing a protest movement there. When Gomułka

announced food price increases in 1970, strikes erupted at 

several shipyards. Authorities quelled the protests with force, 

resulting in 44 deaths. Shortly thereafter, Gomułka resigned. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Reform and Unrest under Gierek

As PZPR chief over the next 10 years, Edward Gierek 

attempted to stimulate the economy by borrowing from the 

West. The move was initially successful, and Poland’s standard 

of living improved somewhat. Yet the 1973 worldwide oil crisis 

and internal economic mismanagement caused a severe 

economic downturn. Rising prices and shortages of goods 

stoked public unrest. Further, government-proposed

constitutional amendments cementing Poland’s ties with the 

USSR and limiting citizens’ rights were unpopular. 

Additional price increases in 1976 led to worker strikes that 

were again brutally suppressed. By the late 1970s, Gierek 

faced strong opposition from workers, intellectuals, and the 

Catholic Church. The Church’s influence grew substantially 

after the 1978 election of the Archbishop of Kraków as Pope 

John Paul II (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality). The pope’s 

1979 visit to Poland was especially inspirational to Poles 

seeking national, patriotic, and ethical leadership.

In response to additional food price increases in 1980, workers 

around the country went on strike, paralyzing shipyards and 

mines. Nonviolent demonstrations at the Lenin Shipyard in 

Gdańsk were led by Lech Wałęsa. Unlike previous episodes of 

unrest, these worker strikes inspired protest across the Soviet 

bloc and result in 

permanent change in 

Poland.

After prolonged 

negotiations, the 

government signed the 

Gdańsk Agreement 

acceding to the strikers’

demand to organize independent trade unions. Workers’ 

delegations subsequently formed Solidarność (“Solidarity”), a 

nationwide, independent, self-governing trade union with 

Wałęsa as its leader. Over time, Solidarity grew to include 

around 60% of the Polish workforce and 1/4 of the entire 

population. Wałęsa quickly became the international symbol of 

democratic movements across Eastern Europe (Photo: 1981 

“Solidarity Weekly” newspaper).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Solidarity and the Gradual Collapse of Communism

Threatened by Solidarity’s popularity, the PZPR removed 

Gierek from office. Yet Gierek’s replacement lasted just slightly 

more than a year before continuing social unrest compelled the 

PZPR to install General Wojciech Jaruzelski as PZPR leader, 

Prime Minister (PM), and commander-in-chief of the armed 

forces in 1981. With the support of the USSR and Poland’s 

communist hardliners, Jaruzelski withdrew official recognition 

of Solidarity, declared martial law, and arrested most of the 

Solidarity leadership, including Wałęsa. While these moves 

effectively hobbled Solidarity, they did 

nothing to help Poland’s worsening 

economic situation or reverse workers’ 

hostility toward the government. 

Convinced he had slowed Solidarity’s 

momentum, Jaruzelski released 

Wałęsa in 1982 and lifted martial law a 

year later. Meanwhile, the economic 

crisis worsened, with the population 

suffering under food scarcity and 

rationing. Still outlawed, Solidarity was 

operating underground when Wałęsa 

was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in late 1983, bringing 

worldwide attention to the Polish workers’ cause (Photo: 

Wałęsa visits New York in 2005).

An Opening: Beginning in 1985, Soviet leader Mikhail 

Gorbachev introduced reforms known as perestroika

(restructuring) and glasnost (openness) that would eventually 

result in the dissolution of the USSR. Although the attempted 

reforms were largely unsuccessful, they signaled that the era of 

Soviet intervention in its satellite countries was over, sparking

democratic movements across Eastern Europe.

Consequently, Jaruzelski initiated his own reforms, yet 

renewed strikes in 1988 compelled him to engage with 

Solidarity and other opposition movements. Subsequent 

roundtable negotiations led by the Catholic Church resulted in 

the legal recognition of Solidarity and its right to submit 

candidates for elected office. This “negotiated revolution” 

marked the end of communism in Poland.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Post-communist Poland

In June 1989, Poland held “semi-free” parliamentary elections

(meaning the communists were guaranteed a certain number 

of seats). Solidarity candidates won nearly all the races they

contested, and although Jaruzelski retained the office of 

President, a non-communist took office as PM. In 1990

presidential elections, Solidarity leader Wałęsa won easily, 

becoming Poland’s first non-communist President.

That year, the new Polish government initiated a “shock 

therapy” program intended to rapidly transition Poland’s 

economy from a centrally-planned communist system to a free 

market. Although the program initially led to some economic 

instabilities and widespread 

economic hardships, it was 

ultimately successful (see p. 1 of 

Economy and Resources). 

After the PZPR disbanded in 1990,

some of its members regrouped to 

form the Social Democratic Party 

(SLD). Meanwhile, Solidarity 

experienced significant internal 

strife, causing government 

instability during Wałęsa’s 5-year

tenure as President, with frequent 

PM changes. In 1993 parliamentary elections, the SLD and its 

allies won the majority of legislative seats. In the 1995 

presidential election, former PZPR member and SLD candidate 

Aleksander Kwaśniewski narrowly defeated Wałęsa. A popular 

leader, Kwaśniewski oversaw passage of a new constitution in 

1997 and won re-election in 2000. His SLD coalition also 

managed to stay in power in Parliament until 2005, providing 

the country with a measure of political stability. (Photo: Former 

US President Bush and President Kwaśniewski).

Contemporary Poland

In the 2005 elections, the conservative, nationalist, and 

strongly anti-corruption Law and Justice (PiS) party prevailed 

over the SLD. PiS founders, identical twin brothers Lech and 

Jarosław Kaczyński took office as President and PM, 

respectively. Forced to abandon their coalition partners due to 
HISTORY &

MYTH

scandal, PiS called an early parliamentary election in 2007. 

Unexpectedly, PiS lost to the center-right Civic Platform (PO), 

and the PO’s leader Donald Tusk replaced Jarosław Kaczyński 

as PM. 

Plane Crash at Smolensk: In 2010, a plane carrying President 

Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and prominent Polish government, 

military, and civilian leaders crashed in Russia, killing all 

onboard. Compounding the tragedy, the Polish delegation had 

been traveling to Smolensk to attend a 

memorial service marking the 70th

anniversary of the Katyń Massacre. The 

event provoked widespread mourning

in Poland. Though some suspected foul 

play, subsequent investigations 

revealed the crash was due to pilot 

error (Photo: President Lech Kaczyński 

at Vandenberg AFB in 2007).

Interim President Bronisław 

Komorowski of PO narrowly defeated 

Jarosław Kaczyński in a special 

election to fill the office left vacant by 

Lech Kaczyński’s death. Rewarding PO for a strong economy, 

voters returned that party to power in the 2011 parliamentary 

elections, making Tusk the first PM since the end of 

communism to serve consecutive terms. 

Since then, PO has been rocked by several corruption

scandals as nationalist, conservative, and far-right groups have 

expanded. Riding a growing nationalist sentiment, PiS leader 

Andrzej Duda narrowly won the Presidency in 2015 elections, 

dashing Komorowski’s hopes for a 2nd term. In the 

parliamentary elections later that year, PiS won a majority in 

the Sejm. PiS member Beata Szydło was then PM until 

unexpectedly resigning in late 2017 to be replaced by Mateusz 

Morawiecki (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations). 

Since coming to power, PiS has distanced itself from the 

European Union (EU), which Poland joined in 2004, and 

cultivated relations with some far-right groups while taking

steps towards authoritarianism (see p. 5-7 of Political and 

Social Relations). Several recent PiS reform efforts have 
HISTORY &

MYTH

generated significant public outcry and rebuke from the EU that 

claims these reforms threaten judicial independence, the rule of 

law, and democracy itself. Although he holds no elected office, 

PiS founder Jarosław Kaczyński remains the driving force 

behind the party and a very influential figure in Polish society 

(see p. 6 of Political and Social Relations).

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. 

The Legend of Lech, Czech, and Rus

This legend relates the origins of 3 Slavic peoples, the Poles 

(or Lechites), Czechs, and the Rus (Russians) and was 

recorded in the late 13th-century Kronika Wielkopolska or 

Chronicle of Greater Poland. 

According to the legend, 3 brothers named Lech, Czech, and 

Rus left their homeland for a hunting trip. Because each 

brother followed different prey, they were soon separated. 

While Rus headed east and settled in the steppe, Czech turned

west where he chose to remain in the Bohemian hills. The 3rd 

brother, Lech, continued north until 

he came to a beautiful land with 

clear water. 

While hunting, Lech followed the 

track of his arrow and came faceto-face with a fierce but beautiful 

white eagle perching on the limb of 

an oak tree and guarding its nest. 

As the eagle took flight and soared 

into the sky, the red light of the 

setting sun glinted on the tips of the 

eagle’s wings. Believing this was a good omen, Lech declared 

that he and his tribe would remain at that place. The resulting

settlement of Gniezno (“eagle’s nest”) became Poland’s first 

capital. Throughout Poland’s history, both the eagle imagery 

and the white and red colors mentioned in the myth have been 

incorporated into Poland’s flag and coat of arms (pictured).
Official Name

Republic of Poland

Rzeczpospolita Polska

Political Borders

Russia: 130 mi

Lithuania: 65 mi

Belarus: 260 mi

Ukraine: 332 mi

Slovakia: 336 mi

Czech Republic: 495 mi

Germany: 290 mi

Coastline: 273 mi

Capital

Warsaw

Demographics

Poland has a population of about 38.5 million, making it the 6th 

most populous member of the European Union (EU). 

Significantly, Poland’s population is declining at an annual rate 

of -0.13%, in part due to low birth rates (see p. 3 of Sex and 

Gender) and emigration prompted by Poles’ search for 

employment and education opportunities abroad. About 61% of 

the population lives in metropolitan areas, concentrating in and 

around the capital city of 

Warsaw, the southern 

region surrounding

Kraków, and along 

Poland’s northern coast. 

Flag

Officially adopted in 1919, 

the Polish flag consists of 

2 equal horizontal white 

and red stripes. The flag’s colors derive from the Polish coat of 

arms. According to myth, Poland’s 1st king encountered a 

white eagle while hunting and incorporated the imagery into the 

royal coat of arms (see p. 24 of History and Myth).

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Located in Central Europe (Eastern Europe by some sources), 

Poland shares a border with Russia (the enclave of 

Kaliningrad) to the North, Lithuania to the Northeast, Belarus 

and Ukraine to the East, Slovakia to the South, Czech Republic

to the Southwest, and Germany to the West. Poland’s long 

northern coastline faces the Baltic Sea. Poland’s total land area 

is about 117,500 sq mi, making it slightly smaller than New 

Mexico and about the same size as Italy.

Poland has low, mostly flat terrain. Coastal lowlands along the

northern Baltic shoreline eventually give way to rolling plains in 

Poland’s center and hilly uplands in the East. Mountains rise 

along Poland’s southern border, where the nation’s highest 

point, located in the Tatry Mountains, reaches about 8,199 ft. 

Forests cover about 31% 

of Poland, while rich, 

fertile land and pastures 

stretch across nearly 1/2 

of the country. Poland’s 2 

longest rivers, the Vistula 

and the Oder, flow from 

the mountains in the 

South to the Baltic Sea in 

the North. Several large 

Polish cities, including the capital city of Warsaw, Kraków, and 

Gdańsk, are situated along the Vistula. Poland’s central 

location in Continental Europe, its flat terrain, and lack of 

natural barriers left it vulnerable to invasion by foreign armies 

throughout its history (see History and Myth) (Photo: Polish 

pastures). 

Climate

Poland experiences a temperate continental climate with 4 

distinct seasons. Summers tend to be short but warm, 

punctuated by frequent showers and thunderstorms. 

Temperatures in the summer month of July average 67°F. 

Winters are long, cold, cloudy, and wet, with temperatures in 

the winter month of January averaging 27°F. Generally, coastal 

regions experience warmer temperatures due to the warm Gulf 

Stream. Snowfall typically occurs November-March, while 

rainfall is heaviest May-August. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Poland is vulnerable to relatively few natural hazards. Harsh 

winters, characterized by heavy snowfall and cold 

temperatures, comprise the most significant hazards. The 

country also occasionally experiences flooding. 

Environmental Issues

Rapid industrialization during Poland’s communist era (see p. 

18-21 of History and Myth) resulted in widespread 

environmental degradation such as significant water, soil, and 

air pollution. Damaging activities included deforestation, the 

improper disposal of industrial waste, and dumping of 

untreated sewage into 

groundwater reservoirs

(Photo: Wawel Castle in 

Kraków along the banks 

of the Vistula river). 

After the fall of 

communism in 1989, the 

Polish government 

curtailed development of 

heavy industries and enacted measures to reduce

environmental degradation. Nevertheless, environmental

issues continue to plague Poland today. For example, 

emissions from coal-fired power plants cause air pollution and

intermittently result in acid rain, which in turn damages 

Poland’s forests. Moreover, while the government regulates 

agricultural runoff and disposal of industrial and hazardous 

waste, harmful byproducts continue to pollute municipal water 

sources across the country. Air pollution from automobile 

emissions is a concern in most major cities. 

Government

Poland is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 16 provinces

(wojewodztwa), administered by governors and elected local 

councils. Adopted in 1997 (see p. 22 of History and Myth), 

Poland’s constitution separates power among the executive, 

legislative, and judicial branches while outlining the 

fundamental rights of freedom of speech, press, and religion for 

Polish citizens. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

The President, who is head-of-state and commander-in-chief of 

Poland’s Armed Forces, is elected by popular vote and may

serve up to 2 consecutive 5-year terms. Although the 

President’s powers are largely ceremonial, the is responsible 

for making governmental appointments and representing 

Poland abroad. In addition, the President retains the power to 

influence and veto proposed legislation, but the Parliament 

(see “Legislative Branch” below) may overturn a veto with a 3/5 

majority vote. The 

current President, 

Andrzej Duda (pictured

with former US 

President Obama), took 

office in 2015. 

Executive power is 

vested in the Prime 

Minister (PM), who is 

head-of-government. 

With the support of a Council of Ministers, the PM oversees the 

country’s day-to-day affairs. Appointed by the President and 

approved by the Parliament, the PM is traditionally a member 

of the political party that holds the most seats in the Parliament. 

Poland’s current PM, Mateusz Morawiecki, took office in late 

2017. 

Legislative Branch

Poland’s legislature is a 2-chamber Parliament composed of a 

100-seat Senate and a 460-seat Sejm or lower house. Senate 

members are directly elected in single-seat districts by a 

nationwide majority vote, while Sejm members are elected in 

multi-seat districts by a proportional representation vote. All 

Parliament members serve 4-year terms. The Parliament 

controls all federal legislative powers, including amending the 

constitution, appointing positions in government, approving 

declarations of war, and passing the national budget.

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court (Sad Najwyzszy), a 

Constitutional Tribunal, State Tribunal, administrative courts, 

and system of lower regional and appellate courts. As the 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
highest court, the Supreme Court divides into civil, criminal, 

labor and social insurance, and military chambers and is the

final court of appeal for civil, criminal, and military cases. A 25-

member National 

Judiciary Council 

nominates and the 

President approves the 

Supreme Court justices to 

serve until retirement at 

age 65, though justices 

can extend their tenure. 

In mid-2018, amid an 

increasingly authoritative 

political environment (see “Political Climate” below), the 

government carried out a sweeping purge of the Supreme 

Court, forcing 27 justices to retire, including the top judge. The 

move incited large-scale protests, with critics charging that the 

ruling Law and Justice Party (PiS – see “Political Climate” 

below) was attempting to take over Poland’s justice system.

The move also drew complaints from international observers

who claim this and other PiS steps to control the judicial 

system threaten the rule of law and democratic standards

(Photo: Former US Secretary of State Tillerson greets Polish 

Foreign Minister Waszczykowski). 

Political Climate

Poland’s political landscape includes a multi-party system in 

which political parties or coalitions of parties compete for 

power. Generally, those parties and coalitions which hold the 

majority of seats in the Parliament also hold the bulk of 

government leadership positions. Ruling parties and coalitions 

tend to dissolve frequently, resulting in infighting and numerous

changes in government leadership. For example, the office of 

the PM and membership in the Council of Ministers change

often. Since 1991, Poland has had 16 PMs, with the most 

recent assuming power in December 2017 following the 

sudden resignation of the previous incumbent. By contrast, 

Poland has had just 5 Presidents during the same period. 

While the government generally allows political parties to 

operate without restriction, parties must win at least 5% of the 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
national vote to gain 

representation in the Sejm. 

Special-interest minority groups, 

such as the ethnic German 

minority (see “Ethnic Groups”

below), are exempt from this rule.

Poland’s current government is 

controlled by the conservative, 

far-right PiS led by the politically 

influential former PM and PiS 

founder Jarosław Kaczyński

(pictured with former US 

Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice) (see p. 22-23 of History 

and Myth). Rising to power amid a recent growth in social 

conservatism and nationalist movements, PiS swept the 2015 

Parliamentary elections to become the first single party to gain 

an outright majority in the Sejm since the 1989 fall of 

communism. Over the last several years, PiS has promoted an 

increasingly authoritarian political agenda seeking to reform 

Poland’s social, political, and economic spheres and increase 

the influence of the 

Catholic Church in Polish 

society (see p. 5-6 of 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Although popular among 

Polish conservatives, PiS 

sparks heated and 

polarizing public debate

among moderate political 

and civil society groups. 

PiS’s attempt to pass an abortion ban in late 2016 (see p. 4 of 

Sex and Gender) was especially controversial, sparking mass 

protests throughout Poland. Although the government 

ultimately withdrew the ban, PiS has recently taken other 

authoritarian measures to curtail reproductive rights, regulate 

freedom of speech and assembly, tighten control over state 

media, and limit judicial independence (Photo: Warsaw). 

Supporters argue PiS’s actions represent a broader desire 

among Poles to return to traditional Catholic values they 

believe will preserve the Polish nation. Conversely, opposition 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
groups accuse the government of subverting democracy.

Among PiS’s critics, the most prominent and vocal is the 

center-right Civic Platform (PO) party, which led Poland’s 

government from 2007-15 (see p. 22-23 of History and Myth) 

and is currently the 2nd largest party in the Sejm. In 2017, 

prominent PO member and former PM Donald Tusk began his 

2nd term as President of the European Council, the body 

responsible for setting the EU’s political direction and priorities. 

Despite recent efforts by PiS to curb historically widespread

corruption, bribery and other corrupt practices continue to 

permeate the government, aggravating political tensions, 

engendering public distrust of officials, and making many Poles 

skeptical of the political process.

Defense

The Polish Armed Forces 

(PAF) are a unified 

military force consisting of 

primarily ground forces 

with smaller maritime and 

air branches, having a 

joint strength of 99,300 

active duty troops and 

73,400 paramilitary troops. They are charged with defending 

against foreign and domestic threats, performing search and 

rescue operations, and protecting critical infrastructure (Photo: 

Polish forces conduct exercises along Poland’s Baltic coast).

Poland relies on its allies to respond to larger, state-level 

threats, receiving the majority of military support from the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – a political and military 

alliance among 28 nations (including the US) that promotes its 

members’ security through collective defense. Poland is 

currently implementing a significant military modernization plan, 

allocating about $35 billion towards a wide range of equipment 

upgrades and acquisitions through 2022. 

Army: The Polish Army is a well-equipped, well-trained force 

of 48,200 active-duty troops consisting of 9 maneuver 

regiments, divisions, and brigades (including reconnaissance, 

armored, mechanized, and air maneuver), 5 combat support 

regiments, a helicopter brigade, and 3 air defense regiments. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Air Force: The Polish Air Force consists of 16,600 active-duty 

personnel and has 2 fighter squadrons, 3 fighter/ground attack 

squadrons, 2 fighter/ground attack/ISR squadrons, a search 

and rescue squadron, 2 transport squadrons, 3 training 

squadrons, 2 transport helicopter squadrons, and an air 

defense brigade. The 

Air Force is equipped 

with 98 combat capable 

aircraft and 78 

helicopters (Photo: A 

US Airman instructs a 

Polish trainee how to 

properly use a helmet 

and oxygen mask). 

Navy: Consisting of 

7,700 active-duty

personnel, the Polish Navy is the smallest of the branches, with 

5 tactical submarines, 2 principal surface combatants, 4 patrol 

and coastal combatants, 20 mine warfare and 

countermeasures vessels, 8 amphibious ships and craft, and 

21 logistics and support vessels. 

The Polish Navy also comprises a Naval Aviation unit staffed 

with 1,300 active-duty personnel divided into 2 anti-submarine 

warfare and search and rescue squadrons, a maritime patrol 

squadron, and 2 transport squadrons. 

Special Forces: Comprised of 3,000 active-duty personnel, 

the Polish Special Forces divide into 3 Special Forces units, a 

combat support unit, and 

a combat service support 

unit (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry 

visits Polish and US 

troops stationed at Lask 

Military Airbase). 

Paramilitary: The Polish

Paramilitary forces consist 

of 14,300 Border Guards, including 3,700 Maritime Border 

Guards, and 59,100 Prevention Unit (Police) members. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations 

Following the end of the communist era in 1989, Poland

diverged from Russian influence to pursue political, economic, 

and military integration with its Western European neighbors, 

joining NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004. Recently, amid an 

increasingly nationalistic and isolationist political environment, 

Poland has somewhat distanced itself from its Western 

European allies, causing some regional tension. 

International Cooperation: As a NATO member, Poland 

regularly participates in and hosts NATO military exercises, 

notably holding the annual NATO Summit in Warsaw in 2016. 

Moreover, in 2017 Poland allowed NATO to permanently 

station troops along Poland’s northern border with the Russian 

enclave of Kaliningrad. Poland is also currently constructing a 

NATO ballistic-missiledefense (BMD) 

system, scheduled to 

be completed in 2018. 

Once completed, the 

BMD will further 

enhance NATO 

operability in the 

region and help deter 

a recently aggressive 

Russia (see “Security 

Issues” below) (Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry 

poses with the Foreign Ministers of NATO member nations

during the 2016 NATO Summit in Warsaw).

In addition to actively participating in NATO, Poland closely 

cooperates regionally with its Baltic, Nordic, and Central 

European neighbors on a number of common political, 

economic, and social issues. For example, Poland joined with 

Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic in 1991 to form the

Visegrad Group, a political and cultural alliance intended to 

advance military, economic, social, and energy cooperation 

among its 4 members. Poland is also a member of numerous 

other international organizations, including the Euro-Atlantic 

Partnership Council, the Organization for Security and 

Cooperation in Europe, the International Monetary Fund, the 

World Bank, and the World Trade Organization.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the EU: The EU is a political and economic 

partnership among 28 nations located in Europe. Poland

enjoys lucrative trade ties with the EU and relies on the 

partnership as a political and military buffer against external 

security threats. Since the 2015 emergence of Poland’s rightwing, nationalist government, EU-Poland relations have 

become somewhat strained. Specifically, the EU views 

Poland’s recent efforts to restructure the judiciary (see “Judicial 

Branch” above) and control state media as subversive to 

democracy and the rule of law. 

Moreover, as Europe’s migrant crises continues (see “Security 

Issues” below), Poland’s reluctance to accept refugees despite 

a mandatory EU relocation plan has deepened the diplomatic 

rift. Amid these tensions, EU leaders have publicly reproached 

Poland, threatening economic sanctions, fines, and other 

penalties. 

Relations with the US: Although the US and Poland first 

established diplomatic ties in 1919, bilateral relations severed 

at the onset of World War II (WWII) (see p. 15 of History and 

Myth) and subsequently remained strained for nearly 5 

decades during Poland’s communist era. After Poland emerged

from communist rule in 1989, the 2 nations soon reestablished 

bilateral ties, with the US supporting the new Polish 

government in its efforts to build a free market economy, 

democratic institutions, and civil society. The US strongly 

advocated for Poland’s 

entry into NATO in 1999 

and promoted Poland’s 

2004 bid to join the EU

(Photo: A US Army soldier

participates in NATO 

training exercises in 

Poland).

In recent years, Poland

has emerged as an important regional security partner for the 

US, cooperating on issues such as nonproliferation, energy 

security, missile defense, counter-terrorism, protection of 

human rights, and promotion of democracy in the region. 

Poland has participated in US and NATO-led operations in Iraq 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
and Afghanistan. Most recently, Poland has delivered

significant contributions to operations to counter the Islamic 

State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS, also known as Daesh, ISIL, and 

IS) – a notoriously brutal militant Islamist group.

The US provides substantial defense assistance to Poland, 

providing military training and equipment to bolster Polish

military capabilty and interoperability with US and NATO 

forces. In 2016, for example, over 16,000 US military personnel 

participated in various military exercises in Poland. In addition 

to close military ties, the 2 nations share lucrative trade 

relations. The US is Poland’s principal investor outside the EU.

Moreover, the US and Poland have signed several bilateral 

trade and investment agreements promoting US-Polish joint 

ventures and allowing goods, services, and capital to move 

more freely between the 2 nations. 

Security Issues

Poland’s security environment is largely dominated by its 

historically volatile relationship with Russia, although Europe’s 

recent migrant crisis has intensified security concerns. Poland 

relies heavily on military and economic support from NATO, the 

US, the EU, and other allies to help insulate it from large, 

external threats, 

notably a recently 

aggressive Russia

(Photo: US and Polish 

troops participate in the 

Polish Armed Forces 

Day Parade). 

Migrant Crisis:

Political unrest in Syria, 

Iraq, and Afghanistan 

has compelled thousands of refugees and migrants to flee into 

Northern and Western Europe. Seeking to alleviate pressure 

on Greece and Italy, 2 nations disproportionately affected by 

the migrant crisis, the EU adopted a mandatory relocation plan 

in 2015 requiring EU member states to absorb a portion of the 

asylum-seekers. While Poland initially agreed to take in about 

6,200 refugees, in late 2015, the Polish government rejected 

the quota, citing security concerns after several Islamist 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
terrorists carried out damaging attacks in France. Since then, 

Poland’s refusal to accept migrants has inflamed intra-EU 

relations, with some Western European nations accusing

Poland of failing fulfill its share of the economic and social 

burden of the ongoing crisis.

Relations with Russia: Poland and Russia share historically 

tense relations (see p. 7-21 of History and Myth). Polish 

leaders generally view Russian intentions in the region with 

suspicion and wariness. Bilateral friction escalated most 

recently in 2014 following Russia’s annexation of Crimea and 

the Russian government’s ongoing support of separatist forces 

in Eastern Ukraine. Poland vocally advocated for harsh EU 

sanctions against Russia in 2014. This move consequently 

evoked equally harsh Russian retaliatory sanctions against 

Poland which damaged Poland’s economy and further soured

relations between the 

2 nations (Photo: 

Polish troops line up 

in formation). 

Tensions since then 

have remained high. 

Amid continuing 

unrest in Eastern 

Ukraine and the 

bolstering of Russian 

military capacity in neighboring Kaliningrad, Poland has 

requested and received enhanced support from NATO, such as

an increase in the number of NATO troops permanently 

stationed within Poland. International observers worry the 

increase in NATO military presence will further deepen regional 

tensions.

Poland’s significant reliance on trade with Russia (see p. 6 of 

Economics and Resources and p. 2 of Technology and 

Materials) leaves the former nation particularly vulnerable to 

economic disruptions from Russia. To reduce dependence on 

Russian imports, Poland has advocated for closer energy and 

economic integration with Western Europe. Russia’s refusal to 

acknowledge humanitarian abuses committed during the 

communist era also contributes to bilateral tensions.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Modern Poland is one of the most ethnically homogenous 

countries in Europe, with 97% of Polish citizens identifying as 

ethnic Poles. As late as WWII, Poland had a relatively diverse 

population due to its history of shifting borders and religious 

tolerance. Nevertheless, Nazi genocide during WWII combined 

with anti-Semitism and population transfers after the war 

drastically reduced Poland’s once-thriving minority 

communities of Jews, Germans, and Ukrainians (see p. 5 of 

Religion and Spirituality and p. 18 of History and Myth). 

Under the 2005 Law on National and Ethnic Minorities and 

Regional Language, Poland recognizes 14 minorities, 

consisting mostly of small populations numbering in the mere 

1,000s. Of those, 9 ethnic minorities are based on nationality, 

the largest being German (0.2% of the total population), 

Ukrainian (0.1%) and Belarusian (0.1%). Other national 

minorities include Czech, Lithuanian, Armenian, Russian, 

Slovak, and Jewish. 

Poland also recognizes 4 stateless ethnic minorities. These 

include the Lipka Tatars, numbering around 3,000; 

descendants of Central Asian Tatars who settled in the region 

centuries ago (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality); and the 

Crimean Jewish Karaim (also called 

Karaites), who number around 300. 

Other groups include the Lemkos, 

originally mountain shepherds and

numbering around 7,000, and about 

12,000 Roma or “Gypsies” who live

primarily on urban outskirts (Photo: A 

Romani boy wearing a bear costume). 

Silesians, a loosely-defined group with 

Polish and German characteristics, 

populates a region now divided among

Poland, Germany, and the Czech 

Republic and constitute the largest ethnic minority in Poland at 

1.1% of the population. Some Silesians have attempted to 

register as a national minority or have sought autonomy from 

the Polish state, yet Poland refuses them official minority 

status. Some Poles claim 2 or more ethnic identities. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

While post-war population movements and decades of 

communist centralization erased most ethnic distinctions 

among Poles, some regional linguistic and cultural differences 

remain. For example, a slight variation in dialect separates 

Kashubians in northern Poland from the rest of the population

(see p. 1-2 of Language and Communication). Similarly, some 

Poles stereotype residents of the Central-West as being 

preoccupied with high-tech economic advancement. 

Historically, Poles lived in primarily rural, agricultural 

communities where members relied on family and social 

networks, such as those of the Catholic Church, to meet their

physical and spiritual needs. 

Government-mandated urbanization 

and industrialization during the 

communist era triggered various 

socio-economic changes that 

fundamentally altered Polish 

society. Nevertheless, traditional 

relationships and the influence of 

the Catholic Church retained their 

importance during the nearly 5 

decades of communist rule (see p. 

18-21 of History and Myth and p. 5-

6 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Family and social networks became important sources of 

goods, services, and ideas for many Poles who viewed 

government-controlled communist organizations as corrupt, 

ineffective, and untrustworthy (Photo: Catholic altar carved into 

the Wieliczka salt mines near Kraków). 

Today, Polish society divides along rural-urban, male-female, 

and rich-poor lines. Generally, urban dwellers, males, and the 

wealthy enjoy greater access to educational and economic 

opportunities and hold the most social prestige. Women are 

more likely victims of domestic violence and discrimination in 

the workplace (see p. 1-2 of Sex and Gender). Polish society is 

also marked by generational divides. Older generations remain 

cautious towards the government and skeptical of the free 

market economic system. This tendency is particularly true of 

older, well-educated Poles whom the communist system 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
supported but have since lost economic protections under the 

free market system. 

By contrast, younger generations have generally embraced a 

more optimistic outlook toward recent political and economic 

changes. They generally prefer urban life and technological 

innovations. Nevertheless, due to high unemployment (see p. 2 

of Economics and Resources), Polish youth are more likely to 

emigrate to other EU nations in search of better opportunities, 

causing concerns that Poland is losing a generation of talented 

and entrepreneurial 

youth (Photo: A US 

soldier helping Polish 

schoolchildren learn 

English in 2015).

While minorities are 

generally integrated 

within Polish society, 

many still maintain 

pride in their ethnic heritage and take advantage of special 

rights offered to them. Minorities have established 

approximately 200 ethnic organizations since gaining freedom 

of association in 1989, and minority political parties receive 

special consideration for election to the Sejm. Legallyrecognized minorities 

also have the right to 

study and teach their 

language in areas 

where minority groups

comprise 20% or more 

of the population (see 

p. 5 of Learning and 

Knowledge). 

Nevertheless, some 

ethnic minorities face discrimination and socio-economic 

exclusion. For example, the Roma continue to endure negative 

social stereotypes, employment discrimination, and 

harassment by far-right groups despite various attempts by the 

Polish government to integrate them (Photo: A train station in 

Warsaw). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview 

According to 2016 Polish 

government estimates,

86% of the population is 

Roman Catholic. Other 

groups such as atheists, 

those who claim no 

religious affiliation, and 

other Christians

(Jehovah’s Witnesses, 

Greek Catholics, Evangelical Lutherans, Polish Orthodox, and 

Pentecostals) comprise less than 5% of the population. 

Followers of other traditions such as Judaism and Islam, 

number in the 1,000s (Photo: Wawel Cathedral in Kraków).

Poland’s constitution protects freedom of religion and 

recognizes no state religion. While the law allows individuals to 

worship, teach, and practice in both private and public spheres 

according to their personal beliefs, it limits the activities of 

religious groups that infringe on the rights of others or disrupt

public order, state security, or morality. Poland presently 

recognizes 184 registered religious groups, including the 

Roman Catholic Church, Polish Orthodox Church, Methodist 

Church, Pentecostal Church, Muslim Religious Union, and the 

Union of Jewish Communities, among others. All registered 

groups enjoy equal protection and rights under the law, 

including the right to erect places of worship, teach religion in 

public or private schools, and officiate at marriages. Yet the 

Catholic Church receives some special privileges and has 

especially close ties with the Polish government.

Poland’s Early Spiritual Landscape

Many of the region’s early inhabitants practiced a variety of 

indigenous religions that worshiped multiple deities and 

objects, such as the sun, moon, and mountains. Other groups

practiced animism, the belief that the spirit of life or 

consciousness resides in all natural animate and inanimate 

objects, such as trees, rocks, hills, fields, and animals. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Arrival and Spread of Christianity 

Missionaries from neighboring Bohemia first brought 

Christianity to Poland in the 10th century. Converting primarily 

for political reasons, Polish leader Mieszko I adopted Roman 

Catholicism as his Kingdom’s official religion in 966. In 

accepting Christianity directly from the Pope, the leader of the 

Catholic Church in Rome, Mieszko gained official 

acknowledgement of his Kingdom and was able to avoid 

conquest by neighboring German crusaders (see p. 3 of 

History and Myth). His conversion also helped to justify 

conquest and consolidation of the pagan tribes within his 

territory (see p. 3 of History and Myth) (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of Defense 

Chuck Hagel visits 

Dabrowka Church in 

Kiszków). 

While few Poles initially 

followed Mieszko’s lead in 

converting, over the next 2 

centuries, Polish rulers

gradually suppressed 

indigenous traditions. They specifically prohibited certain 

elements of pagan religions, imposed Catholic rites and rituals, 

and initiated compulsory contributions to the Church. By the 

mid-12th century, much of the population had converted to 

Roman Catholic Christianity which subsequently took firm root.

As Poland acquired new territory in the 13th-15th centuries, its 

population became more diverse. For example, most of the 

inhabitants of newly-conquered eastern lands were members 

of the Russian Orthodox Church. Meanwhile, Jews had been 

arriving since as early as the 11th century and continued to 

immigrate in large numbers in subsequent centuries. Although 

officially Catholic, Poland was Europe’s most tolerant state 

during this period, allowing Orthodox monasteries, Jewish 

synagogues, and Muslim mosques to coexist peacefully with 

Roman Catholic institutions.

The Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Protestant Reformation began in the early 16th century to 

answer a call for change in the Roman Catholic Church. A key 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
event in the movement occurred when Martin Luther nailed his 

95 theses to a church door in Germany in 1517. Critical of 

several Catholic Church teachings and the authority of the 

pope, Luther’s ideas spread quickly, especially through the use 

of the newly-invented printing press. 

Within Poland, Protestantism initially found support among 

noble families. Yet the Catholic Church soon mounted its own 

“Counter-Reformation,” enacting reforms to re-convert areas 

influenced by the Protestants. During this time, the Catholic 

Church neither expelled nor persecuted Protestants but instead 

pursued peaceful methods to regain its membership. Among 

other initiatives, the Church restructured priestly training and 

elements of religious life, while Jesuit monks opened schools 

and proselytized across Poland. 

In contrast to most other European states, Poland 

demonstrated significant religious tolerance in the 16th century

(see p. 6-7 of History and Myth), welcoming groups seeking 

economic stability or fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. 

These groups included Jews, Muslim Tatars, French 

Huguenots (Protestants), and Bohemian Protestants. 

As a consequence of the Counter-Reformation, Protestantism 

did not take root, as pro-Catholic and anti-Protestant fervor 

swept Poland in the mid17th century. Subsequent 

conflicts with Protestant 

Swedes, Orthodox 

Russians, and Muslim 

Turks and Tatars worked 

to strengthen the 

connection between 

Polish identity and 

Roman Catholicism and 

decrease religious 

toleration. Through the 18th century, Catholicism flourished. 

Monastic orders became increasingly influential in Polish 

culture, economy, and education. Prominent in both political 

and social life, Catholicism also continued to strengthen its

connection to Polish national identity (Photo: The Church of St. 

Phillip and St. Jacob in Sękowa dates to the 16th century).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion under Foreign Rule

Prussia, Austria, and Russia had partitioned Poland by the end 

of the 18th century (see p. 9-10 of History and Myth). Resentful 

of their lack of freedom and the repression of their culture and 

language, most Poles remained faithful Catholics. Over the 

next 123 years of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church 

cemented its connection to Polish identity, working to 

safeguard Polish religious and literary traditions while shaping 

social, political, and intellectual life. 

During the 19th century, Polish rebellions provoked harsh 

retaliations in Russian-controlled regions (see p. 11 of History 

and Myth). To support and promote the country’s Russification, 

the government banned new construction of Catholic churches, 

converted others to Orthodox worship, closed Catholic 

monasteries, and deported clergy. Despite this oppression, 

Catholicism remained popular. 

Poland’s Jews lost their historic legal protections under 

partition. Anti-Semitism spiked in the late 19th century and 

early 20th centuries, when some Jewish communities 

experienced pogroms (attacks). 

Jewish Life in Poland

During the medieval period, Poland’s Jewish 

population grew steadily to comprise the world’s 

largest Jewish community by the 16th century (see p. 

7 of History and Myth). Scholars estimate that nearly 

80% of the world’s Jews resided in Poland at this 

time, enjoying autonomy and relative peace. Through 

the 18th century, Poland was home to a vibrant 

Jewish culture, with Jews occupying many leading 

positions in society as craftsmen, physicians, 

scientists, and bankers. Although the Jewish 

community suffered under the 19th-century 

occupations, Jews made up nearly 25% of Kraków’s 

population, 33% of Warsaw’s, and up to 90% of the

population of many small towns as World War II 

began.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
World War II (WWII)

Poland’s Christian community experienced significant losses 

during WWII, when many clergy fled as refugees or were 

deported to Soviet labor camps (see p. 15 of History and Myth). 

While significant, these losses pale in comparison to the 

staggering trauma experienced by Poland’s Jewish community

under the Nazi regime (see p. 15-16 of History and Myth). 

Just before WWII, Jews comprised about 10% of Poland’s

population or about 3 million people. When WWII began with 

Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939, some Jews in 

Poland fled to neighboring countries, though others remained, 

unable to escape or unwilling to leave their homes and 

relatives. Over the course of their almost 6-year occupation of 

Poland, the Nazis 

confined Jews to ghettos, 

murdered them outright in 

mass shootings, shipped 

them to labor camps, or 

exterminated them in 

concentration camps. 

Some of the war’s most 

notorious and horrific 

concentration camps were 

located in Poland. For example, Auschwitz-Birkenau, west of 

Kraków, was the site of the murder of nearly 1.5 million Jews, 

Roma, and other “undesirables,” as well as those who opposed 

the Nazi regime (see p. 15 of History and Myth). By the war’s 

end in 1945, the Nazis had exterminated some 97% of 

Poland’s Jews (Photo: US Army soldiers visit Auschwitz).

Religion during the Communist Period

At the conclusion of WWII, Poland came under the control of a 

Soviet-backed communist government (see p. 18-19 of History 

and Myth). The communists’ atheistic worldview, or the 

disbelief in deities and the rejection of religion, brought 

significant changes to Poland’s religious landscape. 

For example, the communist government sought to dismantle 

the Catholic Church and other religious institutions by 

drastically restricting their activities. The state destroyed many 

churches, mosques, and synagogues, while confiscating others 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
to convert them for alternative uses. Moreover, the state 

dissolved seminaries, monasteries, and convents, banned 

religious literature, excluded religion from educational policy 

and curriculum, and executed, deported, or banned members 

of the Catholic clergy. 

Despite this repression, many Poles continued their religious 

practices in secret, while maintaining a strong connection to the 

Catholic Church. Moreover, unlike in other communist states, 

the Catholic Church in Poland eventually regained some 

autonomy to become the only large institution beyond the 

state’s control. Over the years, the Church became a symbol of 

moral integrity, Polish identity, and defense against communist 

repression. 

Catholicism gained even 

more momentum in 1978, 

when the Polish 

Archbishop of Kraków, 

Karol Jozef Wojtyla, was 

elected to the papacy as 

Pope John Paul II

(pictured with former US

President Ronald Reagan). As the first non-Italian to assume 

the position since the 16th century, Pope John Paul II was a

vocal opponent of communism and advocate of Polish 

nationalism, further popularizing the Catholic Church. 

Other prominent Church leaders emerged as outspoken critics 

of the communist regime. The 1984 murder of activist priest 

Jerzy Popiełuszko by government agents was particularly 

effective in catalyzing political opposition movements (see p. 

21 of History and Myth). After the 1989 fall of communism, 

freedom of religion was restored. Religious organizations 

resumed their range of educational and charitable activities as

the Catholic Church enjoyed a surge of interest. 

Religion Today

Roman Catholicism continues to be central to national identity. 

While Poland generally has a tolerant society free of religious 

violence, a recent rise in conservative, right-wing political 

ideology (see p. 4-7 of Political and Social Relations) and 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
associated anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim sentiment has caused 

some tension among 

religious groups.

Roman Catholicism: 

Most of Poland’s

Roman Catholics are 

ethnic Poles (see p. 14

of Political and Social 

Relations), and the

Roman Catholic Church 

exerts significant influence in Polish society. Catholic 

institutions offer numerous social services, while public school 

curricula often include religious instruction (see p. 4-5 of 

Learning and Knowledge) (Photo: A Catholic monastery). 

Despite constitutionally-mandated separation of church and 

state, the Catholic Church is quite active in politics. For 

example, the Church helps guide national legislative policy 

through the Joint Government-Episcopate Committee which 

regularly meets with governmental leaders to discuss social, 

political, and religious matters. Recently, the Church’s 

conservative stance on issues such as contraception, abortion, 

and homosexuality

and its role within an

increasingly liberal 

society has triggered 

heated public debate 

(Photo: The interior of 

a Catholic church in 

Czaplinek in northern 

Poland). 

Judaism: Following 

WWII, about 137,000 Jewish survivors chose to remain in or 

return to Poland, yet resettled Jewish communities often 

encountered lingering anti-Semitism. Facing hostility from the 

new communist government and discrimination from other 

Poles, many Jews, including prominent artists, academics, and 

scientists, eventually chose to leave Poland. By 1989, Poland’s 

Jewish population comprised just 5,000 people.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Nevertheless, the Jewish community has grown some over the 

last 3 decades. Today, between 20,000-40,000 Jews live in 

Poland, primarily in Warsaw. While still relatively small, the 

Jewish community has experienced a cultural revival. Warsaw 

and Kraków hold annual Jewish heritage festivals (see p. 3 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation), while Warsaw houses several 

Jewish museums and insitutions that draw thousands of 

visitors anually and serve as 

important educational 

centers of Jewish history 

and culture. 

Notably, some tension 

exists between the Polish 

government and members 

of the Jewish community 

predominantly concerning 

the claim process to 

compensate individuals for property lost during or after WWII. 

Moreover, right-wing hate groups and some politicians espouse 

anti-Semitic views, while some media outlets promote antiSemitic and disciminatory content [Photo: A rabbi (Jewish 

religious leader) speaks with visitors to the Noźyk Synagogue 

in Warsaw]. 

Islam: Muslim Tatars settled in Poland as early as the 13th

century (see p. 4 of History and Myth). While they also suffered 

under years of foreign occupation and communist religious 

repression, some have retained their ethnic and religious 

identity. Today, Poland is home to about 25,000 Muslims, 

though only about 10% of this group are ethnically Tatar. Most 

of Poland’s Muslims are migrants and temporary workers from 

the Middle East and Africa. 

Poland has experienced a recent rise in anti-Muslim sentiment, 

incited in part by Europe’s ongoing migrant crisis (see p. 12-13

of Political and Social Relations). Groups in several 

communities, notably Warsaw, Łódź, and towns in the rural 

Northeast, have organized anti-immigrant marches featuring

anti-Muslim slogans and banners. Moreover, a 2016 poll 

indicated that about 66% of the Polish population hold negative 

views of Muslims.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview 

The family is the basis of Polish society. Poles typically maintain

close ties with both their immediate and extended family 

members, sharing good 

fortune with their relations 

and involving them in

family decisions. 

Residence

At the end of World War II

(WWII), nearly 2/3 of the 

population lived in the 

countryside. As the 

communist government pursued limited agricultural 

collectivization and heavy industrialization in the 1950s (see p. 

19 of History and Myth and p. 1 of Economics and Resources), 

this pattern began to shift rapidly. By the late 1960s, about 1/2 

of the population lived in urban areas. Today, some 61% live in 

Poland’s cities and towns.

Urban: Warsaw was almost completely destroyed during WWII

(see p. 17 of History and Myth). Consequently, today most of its 

buildings date from the period since 1950, and many of the city’s 

residents still live in Soviet-style concrete block apartments built 

in the 1960s-70s

(pictured above). 

Since the 1990s, new 

housing construction 

includes modern 

apartment buildings 

and some singlefamily homes, 

primarily in the 

suburbs. Many of 

Poland’s other cities 

maintain historic city centers, some dating to the medieval 

period, though they also feature Soviet-era apartment buildings

intermixed with modern construction (Photo: A US Army unit in 

the historic district of Elbląg in northern Poland).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
In general, Poles prefer to own rather than rent their city homes

and apartments and expect to pass them to the next generation. 

Dwellings are often small, with 1-2 bedrooms and a living room 

that may also be used for sleeping. While furnishings are usually 

basic and traditional, most homes feature modern appliances 

and electronics. Residents often decorate their balconies with 

flowers.

Rural: Before WWII, rural settlement patterns varied by region. 

The North was characterized by large, landed estates historically 

populated by the nobility, many of German nationality (see p. 3-

4 of History and Myth). In Poland’s center and East, small 

villages featuring wooden buildings were the norm. Today, most 

village residents occupy small, free-standing single-family brick 

or cinderblock homes. The countryside also features some 

small, family farms (Photo: 

View of the countryside and 

village of Siemiechów in 

southern Poland).

Family Structure

Even if both parents work 

outside the home (see p. 1 of 

Sex and Gender), the father 

is traditionally the head of the 

household and primary breadwinner, while the mother holds 

responsibility for most household chores, such as cleaning and 

cooking. Most Poles live as nuclear families (2 parents and their 

children), though an increasing number of children grow up in 

single-parent homes, and 

some households include 

extended family (Photo: US 

Army soldier poses with a 

Polish child in Elblag). 

Poles generally value 

extended family relationships, 

making time to visit and have 

meals with relatives on a weekly basis. Some grandparents 

provide childcare if both parents work outside the home. Poles 

feel a strong sense of loyalty to their elders, often choosing to 

provide physical and financial care for their aging parents. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Nursing homes generally house only elderly who are without 

close kin or have serious medical conditions. 

Children

Most Polish families have 1-2 children, though rural residents 

may have more. Parents instill a sense of responsibility and 

respect for authority by teaching children how to help around the 

house from an early age. Parents also instill patriotism and a 

strong sense of 

etiquette in young 

children, while holding 

strict expectations of 

obedience. By contrast, 

parents typically allow 

adolescents a

significant amount of 

autonomy and 

independence. Children 

usually live at home 

until marriage, although some may move out to pursue 

education or employment opportunities elsewhere (Photo: A US 

Navy sailor visits a school in Szezecin). 

Birth: A birth is a festive occasion. Friends and relatives visit the 

home bearing gifts, such as flowers or sweets, to ensure the 

baby an enjoyable life. Later, the child’s parents appoint 

godparents, who promise to help raise the child and typically 

remain important figures throughout the child’s life.

Catholic Poles typically baptize their babies when they are a few 

months old. During the ceremony, friends and relatives hide gold 

coins in the baby’s diaper for good luck. Another way parents try 

to ensure good luck is to tie red ribbons to cradles and strollers. 

Childhood Milestones: Other significant childhood milestones 

coincide with Roman Catholic religious sacraments, such as first 

communion and confirmation, celebrated at ages 8 and 15 

respectively. Both events involve formal attire, special church 

services, and meals shared with extended family. 

Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically interact from a young age, socializing at 

school and sports events, and begin dating in their teens. Young 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
people tend to date several potential partners before becoming 

serious, then date for a year or more before deciding to marry. 

Although Poles traditionally disapprove of cohabitation outside 

of marriage, a growing number of couples are deciding to live 

together before or instead of marrying. 

In line with Roman Catholic teachings, Poles typically view 

marriage as a holy contract with one lifelong spouse. Though 

some marriages historically served as strategic alliances 

between families, most couples today marry for love. Some 

Poles marry young, around 18-20 for women and 21 for men, 

though most wait until age 25-29. The number of marriages has 

been steadily decreasing since 2008. Experts suggest this trend 

may be due to increased rates of cohabitation and to the fact 

that significant numbers of young people permanently or 

temporarily leave Poland seeking employment and educational 

opportunities abroad. 

Weddings: To become engaged, the young man traditionally 

sought the permission of the woman’s parents. Although this 

practice is less common today, couples still typically enjoy a long 

engagement before 

setting the wedding date. 

Poles may marry in a civil 

ceremony held at a local 

government registry or 

they may opt for a religious 

ceremony held at a church

and file their marriage 

papers at the registry 

separately. During civil 

ceremonies, the bride and groom recite vows, exchange rings, 

and then sign a marriage contract. By contrast, church weddings 

tend to be larger events, where the couple’s extended families 

watch as they speak their vows and exchange rings and a priest 

sanctifies the union (Photo: Interior of Krzeszów Abbey church 

in southwestern Poland).

After the ceremony, whether civil or religious, couples typically

host a reception at a restaurant or reception hall. Weddings are 

usually held on Saturdays, and the festivities often last into the 

next morning or in some cases for several days. Some brides 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
and guests wear traditional folk costumes (see p. 1 of Aesthetics 

and Recreation), a custom that is especially prevalent among 

members of the Tatar ethnic group (see p. 14 of Political and 

Social Relations and p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Poles enjoy many unique wedding traditions. For example, 

friends may “block” the couple’s path to the wedding ceremony

and request “payment” of vodka to clear the way. Upon arriving 

at the reception venue, the groom typically carries the bride over 

the threshold. During the festivities, the parents traditionally 

serve the newlyweds a symbolic meal of bread, salt, and wine.

While the bread represents the parents’ hope that the new 

couple always experiences abundance, the salt signifies the 

difficulties they will inevitably face. The wine demonstrates the 

parents’ hope for happiness and health for the new couple. 

The highlight of the festivities occurs at midnight, in a ritual called 

the oczepiny. The bride throws her veil to the young, unmarried 

women in attendance, 

while the groom tosses his 

tie to the eligible young 

men. Tradition says that 

the young people who 

catch the items will marry 

next. As the festivities are 

ending, guests pay for the 

honor of a final dance with 

the bride by pinning money 

to her dress or placing it in a designated basket. The couple then 

uses the funds for their honeymoon. Guests toss rice and coins

at the couple as they depart (Photo: US Army soldier poses with 

a Polish child in Elbląg).

Divorce: In line with Roman Catholic teachings, divorce 

traditionally held significant social stigma. Today, divorce is 

increasingly common, especially in urban areas, though strict 

legal requirements can make it difficult to obtain. Under Polish 

law, a couple seeking divorce must prove irreconcilable 

differences and attest that there is no chance for future 

reconciliation. A judge may refuse to grant a divorce if he deems

it not in the best interest of the couple’s children or believes the 

person initiating the request is responsible for the marriage’s 

F

KINSHIP

AMILY &
failure. Despite such legal hurdles, the Polish divorce rate in 

2015 was 1.8 per 1,000 people, similar to rates in neighboring 

Slovakia and Germany yet significantly lower than neighboring 

Lithuania’s rate of 3.5 and the US rate of 3.6. 

Death

Following a loved one’s death, mourners gather for a casket 

viewing at the deceased family’s 

home, a church, or funeral parlor. 

Family members take turns sitting 

with the deceased, even overnight,

reciting prayers, singing hymns, and 

receiving condolences. During the 

viewing, the family may follow several 

traditional practices, such as lighting 

candles, opening the windows of the 

home to allow the soul to escape to 

heaven, or stopping the home’s 

clocks at the time of the person’s 

death (Photo: Monument in a 

cemetery in the city of Będzin in southern Poland).

After the viewing, mourners gather at a church for a funeral 

service then burial in a cemetery. After the funeral, the family 

hosts a stypa, a special meal in honor of the deceased. The 

meal typically includes foods that symbolize the soul’s journey 

after death, such as grain to represent rebirth, honey for the 

sweet reunion with God, and poppy seeds for a good rest. 

Mourners typically gather 

again for a shared meal a 

year after the death. 

Some Poles visit their 

loved ones’ graves 

freqently throughout the 

year, leaving candles 

and flowers. On 

Wszytkich Świętych or 

All Saints’ Day, Poles 

gather in cemeteries to light candles and pray for the souls of 

their deceased family members (Photo: US Army soldier 

participates in an All Saints’ Day ceremony in Drawsko 

Pomorskie in northwestern Poland). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

While Poles’ outlook on gender roles is changing, Polish society 

is traditionally patriarchal, meaning that men hold most power 

and authority. Although 

women and men have 

equal rights before the 

law, women continue to 

face workplace

inequalities and genderbased violence. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Polish women traditionally hold responsibility 

for household chores and childcare even if she works outside 

the home (see p.2 of Family and Kinship) (Photo: Former Polish 

Prime Minister Beata Szydło with German Chancellor Angela 

Merkel in 2017).

Labor Force: In 2016, about 49% of Polish women worked 

outside the home. This rate is similar to those of neighboring 

Slovakia and the Czech Republic but lower than the US rate of 

56%. Women are well represented in high-level government and 

business positions. Some 44% of Poland’s managerial jobs are 

held by women, the European Union’s (EU) 2nd highest rate 

after Latvia. While women earn about 7% less than men on 

average, this gap is significantly smaller than the EU average of 

16% and is one of the EU’s smallest. Nevertheless, women with 

post-secondary education typically earn some 30% less than 

men with similar qualifications. Women also experience 

widespread harassment and discrimination in the workplace. 

Gender and the Law

While no national law guarantees women equal rights, the Equal 

Treatment Act of 2010 includes gender as one of many potential 

forms of discrimination, which is outlawed. Polish law does 

stipulate equal treatment in inheritance and parental authority as 

well as equal access to financial services. Though the process 

is burdensome (see p. 5-6 of Family and Kinship), both men and 

women may initiate divorce proceedings. 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Despite this supporting legal framework, some gender 

disparities and unequal treatment still exist. For example, 

women suffer discrimination in hiring and promotion processes. 

Further, while the law criminalizes sexual harassment in the 

workplace, the burden of proof for both discrimination and 

harassment lies entirely on the victim. As a result, victims of 

these crimes face significant hurdles when seeking justice. 

According to some observers, the PiS-led government (see p. 5-

7 of Political and Social Relations) has recently supported an 

array of issues that seem aimed at reducing women’s rights

rather than enhancing them. For example, the government has 

recently advocated Poland’s withdrawal from an international 

treaty aimed at preventing violence against women. Polish 

officials have also withheld funding from several women’s 

organizations, claiming their support to female victims of 

domestic violence is 

discriminatory to men (Photo: 

Former Polish PM Beata 

Szydło signs the Paris 

Climate Agreement).

Gender and Politics

Women serve at all levels of 

government. Legislative 

quotas passed by the Sejm (lower house of Parliament) in 2011 

mandate that at least 35% of lower house candidates are 

female. As of 2016, women held 27% of Sejm seats, compared 

to almost 20% in the US Congress. Women also serve in other

top government posts. Poland elected its 1st female Prime 

Minister (PM) in 1992. Recently, Ewa Kopacz held the post in

2014-15. Succeeding her, Beata Szydło was PM until late 2017 

(see p. 23 of History and Myth). 

Gender Based Violence (GBV) 

GBV is a widespread problem in Poland. After significant public 

debate, Poland passed a domestic violence law in 2015 despite 

protest among some lawmakers that it threatened traditional 

family structures. Since then, there is little indication that the 

number of GBV cases has decreased. Recent government steps 

(see “Gender and the Law” above) suggest the government is 

lessening its support for GBV victims rather than increasing it.

SEX &

GENDER
Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal and punishable by up to 

12 years in prison. Domestic violence may incur a sentence of 

maximum 5 years in prison, though most perpetrators receive 

suspended sentences. Official statistics understate the true 

scope of the problem, as victims are often unwilling to report 

GBV incidents due to social stigma and burdensome reporting 

procedures. Even if victims report incidents, the police are 

sometimes reluctant to intervene in what they view as family 

matters. Similarly, legally-mandated local interagency teams 

charged with dealing with GBV cases sometimes choose to 

address what they see as a “family problem” than bring criminal 

charges against perpetrators. 

Trafficking: Poland is a source, transit point, and destination for 

sex and labor trafficking of both adults and children from Europe, 

Asia, and Africa. Roma children (see p. 14 and 16 of Political 

and Social Relations) are particularly vulnerable to forced 

begging in urban areas. The government has made notable

efforts to eliminate trafficking yet still has challenges in 

identifying underage 

victims and prosecuting 

labor trafficking cases

(Photo: Polish women at a 

political protest).

Sex and Procreation

At 1.35 children per 

woman in 2015, Poland’s 

birthrate is well below the 

rate required to maintain a stable population and is the EU’s 2ndlowest rate. To counteract this trend, the PiS-government 

recently implemented a subsidy program to encourage families 

to have at least 2 children (see p. 3 of Economics and 

Resources). 

While there are no legal restrictions on the right to obtain 

contraceptives, some policies most likely based on tenets of the 

Catholic faith, hinder women’s access. For example, the 

government denies subsidies for contraceptives, unlike other 

medications, while allowing medical professionals to refuse to 

prescribe contraceptives. Further, voluntary forms of sterilization

are illegal. 

SEX &

GENDER
Though abortions were widely available during the communist

era (see p. 18-21 of History and Myth), current Polish abortion 

laws are among the EU’s strictest. Abortions are permissible 

only within the first 12 weeks of the pregnancy and only in the 

case of severe fetal defect, if the pregnancy is the result of rape 

or incest, or if it poses a grave threat to the mother’s life (Photo: 

Residents of Zagan 

welcome US soldiers).

This stringency has 

resulted in an

underground industry of 

“abortion tourism,” with

clinics in neighboring 

countries providing

these services to Polish 

women. In collaboration 

with the Roman Catholic Church, the PiS-led government (see 

p. 5-7 of Political and Social Relations) introduced a policy 

proposal in 2016 that would outlaw abortions in all cases, 

including rape, and impose prison sentences for women and 

physicians who terminated pregnancies. The proposal provoked

mass protests across Poland, causing the government to

withdraw the plan. In 2017, a bill to liberalize abortion laws, 

legalizing all abortion through the 12th week of pregnancy, never 

came to a vote. As of 2018, the Parliament is considering a bill 

that would further tighten the laws by outlawing abortion in the 

case of fetal defect. 

Homosexuality

Individuals who identify as LGBTQ experience harassment and

discrimination at school and in the workplace, even though

employment laws prohibit discrimination based on sexual 

orientation. Further, hate crime legislation offers no gender 

identity protections. Still, Polish society is becoming more open: 

a 2017 gay rights parade in Warsaw attracted some 50,000 

supporters and Polish law enforcement has created a special 

handbook to guide police in treating LGBTQ individuals with 

respect and tolerance. Even though the PiS-led government 

continues to oppose civil unions for same-sex couples, Poland’s 

Supreme Court recognized same-sex cohabitants in 2016, 

granting them limited legal rights and protections. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Poland’s official language is Polish, spoken as a first language 

by about 97% of the population. Despite efforts by foreign rulers 

to suppress the language during the 19th century (see p. 11 of 

History and Myth), Polish thrived. Along with Roman Catholicism 

(see p. 6-7 of Religion and Spirituality), the language is an 

important part of Polish national identity today. 

Polish

Polish is a member of the 

West Slavic branch of the 

Slavic family of languages 

and is related to Czech 

and Slovak. Before World 

War II (WWII), regional 

residents spoke 4 major 

Polish dialects (Greater 

Polish, Lesser Polish, Masovian, and Upper Silesian). After the 

war, mass population movements (see p. 18 of History and 

Myth) and enhanced education supported the development of a 

standard variety. Today, most Poles speak the standard form 

with some regional differences in accent and vocabulary. Polish 

is written with the Latin script used for English, with 9 additional 

letters: ą, ć, ę, ł, ń, ó, ś, ź, ż. Of note, the letter “w” in Polish is 

pronounced like the English “v” (Photo: US troops cross the 

border from Germany into Poland). 

Minority and Regional Languages

Polish law distinguishes 14 minority languages that correspond 

to the 14 officially-recognized national and ethnic minorities (see 

p. 14 of Political and Social Relations). Specifically, the law 

recognizes 9 national minority languages (German, Russian, 

Belarusian, Czech, Lithuanian, Armenian, Slovak, Ukrainian, 

and Yiddish) and 4 ethnic minority languages (Karaim, Rusyn,

Tatar, and Romani (the language of the Roma or “Gypsies” – 

see p. 14 and 16 of Political and Social Relations). Further, the 

government recognizes 1 regional language, Kashubian. 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Of these, German and Russian have the most speakers in 

Poland, some 7.4 million and 6.9 million respectively. Most of the 

other languages have fewer than 30,000 speakers each, except 

for Kashubian, which has around 100,000. The Polish 

government grants speakers of these languages certain rights

such as the right to receive limited instruction in their minority

language in school (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

English

Since Poland’s post-communism pivot to Western Europe and 

2004 accession to the EU, English has replaced Russian as the 

language of business. According to a recent assessment, 

Poland ranks in the global top-10 for English proficiency, ahead 

of Germany, Singapore, and Switzerland. Approximately 30% of 

the population has some knowledge of English, though 

individuals’ skills vary by age and residence. In general, younger 

Poles living in large cities are much more likely to speak English 

than the older generation and those living in rural areas. 

Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Poland requires not only 

knowledge of Polish, but also the ability to interact effectively 

using language. This broad notion of competence includes 

paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal space, touch, gestures), and 

interaction management (conversation initiation, turn-taking, 

and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted as 

the speaker intends. 

Esperanto: An International Artificial Language

Invented in 1887 by Polish physician L.L. Zamenhof, 

Esperanto is the world’s most widely-used artificial 

language. Created so that peoples of different cultures 

and ethnicities could communicate in a “neutral 

tongue,” Esperanto never enjoyed the widespread 

success that Zamenhof intended, though it is spoken 

by more than 2 million people in 100 countries today. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Style

Communication patterns reflect the values Poles place on selfreliance and candor. Poles usually communicate in a 

straightforward and realistic manner, and compared to 

Americans, they may appear guarded or overly formal among 

new acquaintances and business contacts. Comfortable in 

silence and typically unemotional around strangers, some Poles, 

especially those in rural areas, can appear aloof and unfriendly.

Nevertheless, they are generally hospitable and outgoing 

among family and friends. Poles tend to be lively

conversationalists, often speaking loudly and forcefully. Rarely

a sign of anger, such animation indicates instead a speaker’s 

passion for the subject. 

Greetings

Greetings vary depending 

on age, gender, and 

social situation. Adult 

acquaintances typically 

exchange handshakes, 

while female friends and 

relatives often embrace 

and exchange 3 cheek kisses. Older men may bow and kiss a 

woman’s hand as a sign of respect, although this tradition is 

diminishing. Friends may orally greet each other with a simple 

Cześć (“hi”) or Hej (“hello”). More formal greetings include Dzień

dobry (“good day”) and Dobry wieczór (“good evening”)

(Photo: Former US President Obama shakes hands with former 

Polish President Komorowski).

Names

Polish names comprise a first (given) and a last (family) name, 

with a woman traditionally taking her husband’s last name upon 

marriage. Female first names almost always end in “a,” while 

male names may end in any letter, including “a.” Most last

names have different forms to indicate gender. For example, 

many common male last names end in –ski and –cki while the 

female versions end in –ska or –cka. A few family names do not 

change to indicate gender, such as those ending in -wicz. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

Poles use different forms of address to demonstrate respect and 

the nature of the relationship. For example, Poles typically 

address elders, superiors, and acquaintances with Pan (Mr.) 

and Pani (Ms. or Mrs.) followed by the last name. Close friends 

and family members address each other by first name. 

Colleagues and acquaintances maintain formal forms of address 

until they mutually agree to 

use first names.

Conversational Topics

Conversation in business 

settings and among 

acquaintances may be

quite formal, centering on

general inquiries about the 

well-being of a person and his family members. Sometimes 

direct, such inquiries are meant to establish an open and honest 

dialogue. In informal settings, conversation flows more freely

and covers a range of topics. While Poles often discuss sensitive 

topics, foreign nationals should avoid potentially sensitive or

controversial subjects such as Poland’s experience during 

WWII, the communist era, religion, and current politics (see p. 5-

7 of Political and Social Relations). While some Poles cultivate 

a dark sense of humor and enjoy making jokes about the 

country’s history and current challenges, foreign nationals 

should remain neutral to avoid offense (Photo: US servicemen 

with a Polish WWII veteran).

Gestures

Poles typically make extensive use of their hands and bodies 

during conversation, such as leaning forward or standing up to 

make a particularly important point. To wish good luck, Poles 

hold their thumbs within closed fists. Foreign nationals should 

avoid speaking with their hands in their pockets, a stance Poles 

consider rude. 

Language and Training Sources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center website

at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. Click on 

the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then Language 

Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Polish

Hello Witaj

Hi Cześć

Good morning Dzień dobry

Good afternoon/evening Dobry wieczór

My name is... Nazywam się ...

Yes Tak

No Nie

Please Proszę

Thank you Dziękuję

You’re welcome Proszę

Good night Dobranoc

Where are you from? Skąd jesteś?

Where do you live? Gdzie mieszkasz?

I am American Jestem Amerykaninem 

(m)/Amerykanką (f)

Do you speak 

(English/Polish)?

Czy mówisz po (angielsku/polsku)?

Today Dzisiaj

Tomorrow Jutro

Yesterday Wczoraj

The meal was very good Bardzo mi smakowało

Look! Popatrz!

Excuse me Przepraszam

Pardon? Słucham?

I don’t understand Nie rozumiem

What? Co?

Where? Gdzie?

How? W jaki sposób?

When? Kiedy?

Why? Czemu? Or Dlaczego?

I Ja

You Ty

You (formal) Pan (m)/Pani (f)

He/she On/ona

What time is it? Która godzina?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 99.8%

• Male: 99.9%

• Female: 99.7%

Early History of Education

Before the arrival of formal education, along with introduction 

and spread of Christianity (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality), 

regional inhabitants informally transmitted values, skills, beliefs, 

and historical knowledge to younger generations. Beginning in

the 11th century, the Catholic Church established schools to 

train clergymen, with most instruction in Latin. 

Formal education expanded in the 13th century with the 

establishment of provincial schools for the children of nobles, 

knights, and merchants. Seeking to create a class of 

administrators and lawyers, King Kazimierz III Wielki founded a 

university in Kraków in 1364 (see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

Known as the Jagiellonian University 

today, the institution became the 

center of medieval Poland’s 

intellectual life, producing such 

famous alumni as Nicolaus 

Copernicus (see p. 6 of History and 

Myth) (Photo: Statue of Copernicus in 

Toruń).

Additional provincial schools opened 

during the 15th century, providing 

instruction in religion and basic Latin. 

As part of the Counter-Reformation 

(see p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality), the Catholic Church, in 

particular the Jesuit order, opened a network of primary schools 

in the 16th century. Despite this increase in educational 

opportunities, relatively few Poles attended these schools since 

many were serfs bound to the land (see p. 7 of History and 

Myth). 

In the 18th century, secular schools appeared. In 1773, the 

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (see p. 8-9 of History and 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Myth) established the Commission of National Education (KEN), 

the world’s first ministry of education. The KEN introduced a 

uniform education system focusing on math, natural science, 

and Polish language studies (instead of Latin), while integrating 

trade and agricultural skills at the primary level.

During much of the 18th century, war and disease caused 

stagnation in the number and quality of educational offerings. By 

1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austria had partitioned Poland (see 

p. 9 of History and Myth), with each power administering its own 

school system. Even though the Austrians permitted instruction 

in Polish, they largely neglected the education system as a 

whole. Meanwhile, in its territories, Prussia suppressed Polish 

language and culture, while creating a comprehensive Germanlanguage educational system modeled on Prussia’s own 

schools. In Russian-held areas, authorities repressed the Polish 

language and closed many schools, resulting in a largely

uneducated populace. Despite this oppression, Poles scattered 

across the region continued to teach and publish in Polish.

Early 20th Century Education 

When Poland reemerged as an independent nation in 1918 (see 

p. 13 of History and Myth), the new nation prioritized education. 

Primary schooling became compulsory, while post-primary 

opportunities expanded with the development of new secondary 

schools and universities in several cities. Nevertheless,

economic hardships in 

the 1930s dramatically

reduced attendance 

rates, with few children 

in rural areas 

advancing past 

primary school. 

(Photo: Warsaw 

University). 

During World War II

(WWII), (see p. 15-17 of History and Myth), Nazi occupying 

forces attempted to suppress Polish culture, closing all 

secondary schools and universities to Poles and prohibiting

instruction in Polish language and history in primary schools. 

The Nazis deported or executed many educators. For example,

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
most of the Jagiellonian University’s professors were sent to 

concentration camps (see p. 15-16 of History and Myth). 

Polish teachers established the underground Secret Teaching 

Organization to keep Polish language and culture alive during 

the war years. Even as the Nazis continued to target educated 

Poles, some 8,000 teachers provided instruction in Polish history 

to some 1.5 million students in secret schools, while hundreds 

of professors gave lessons at secret universities.

Education under Communism

The postwar Soviet occupation and subsequent establishment 

of the communist People’s Republic of Poland (see p. 18 of 

History and Myth) transformed Polish education. Changes in the 

immediate postwar years included the expansion of technical 

and vocation offerings to support the regime’s industrialization 

goals and an emphasis on the Russian language in addition to

Polish. In the late 1950s, broader government reforms (see p. 

19 of History and Myth) included some education initiatives, 

notably the restoration of optional Catholic religious education in 

schools. 

Laws adopted in 1961 reaffirmed 4 goals of the education 

system: prepare workers for industry; develop citizens with the

proper communist attitudes; spread the values of the working 

class; and instill 

respect for work and 

Polish values. In the 

1960s, the 

government again 

outlawed religious 

instruction in schools, 

though it did allow 

after-school instruction 

at Catholic churches, 

which some 80% of 

primary-age children attended. As part of the Solidarity 

movement after 1980 (see p. 20-21 of History and Myth), 

teachers and students regularly demanded educational

restructuring. Nevertheless, little real change occurred until the 

end of communism in 1990 (Photo: School in Sępolno in western 

Poland).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Modern Education

In 1990, reformers moved quickly to return optional Catholic 

instruction to the public-school classroom. Further, new laws 

legalized private schools, established minimum educational 

standards, and gave students, parents, and teachers significant 

autonomy in instructional content and methods. Today, Polish

students demonstrate good scholastic achievement: in a 2015 

assessment of 72 countries, Polish students ranked around 17th

compared to the US ranking around 30th. In 2014, the 

government spent almost 12% of its budget on education, 

comparable to neighboring Germany and slightly below the US 

rate.

In 2017, the PiS-controlled government (see p. 5-7 of Political 

and Social Relations) introduced comprehensively unpopular

changes to Poland’s educational system. Specifically, reforms 

reversed a 1999 law creating new lower-secondary schools 

which were responsible for improving educational outcomes. 

The subsequent reincorporation of lower-secondary students 

into primary schools resulted in the closure of some 7,000 lowersecondary schools and 

the layoffs of up to 9,000 

teachers (Photo: US 

Navy Capt visits a school 

in Słupsk in northern 

Poland).

These organizational 

changes provoked

teacher strikes and 

protests. Further, some aspects of the reforms attracted

significant international media attention, namely their revision of 

the curriculum to incorporate the nationalist and conservative 

ideology of the ruling PiS (see p. 5-7 of Political and Social 

Relations), For example, the primary school curriculum was 

rewritten to emphasize Poland’s military history and heroes over 

world and regional history. Some changes were especially 

controversial, such as the removal of the Holocaust from history 

lessons on WWII. Reflecting PiS’s strong connection to the 

Catholic Church, sexual education classes no longer include 

instruction on contraception methods (see p. 3-4 of Sex and 

Gender).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
By law, Poland’s 184 officially-recognized religious groups (see 

p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality) provide voluntary religious 

instruction in public and private schools. Public schools must 

provide religious instruction in any of the registered faiths if at 

least 7 students request it. Each religious group determines 

course content and provides a qualified instructor who is paid by 

the government. Students may request an optional ethics class 

instead of a religion class. Not surprising given the 

predominance of Roman Catholicism among the population (see 

p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality), most public schools offer 

Catholic religious education. Further, many public-school

classrooms predominantly display Catholic crucifixes or other 

Christian symbols.

Pre-Primary: Public and private preschools provide optional

education for children aged 3-5 and obligatory education for 6-

year-olds. While the law states that every child is entitled to a 

pre-primary education, enrollment still lags. As of 2015, some

65% of 3-year-olds were enrolled in pre-primary programs, 

significantly lower than the European Union (EU) average of 

80%. Around 79% of pre-primary students attended public 

institutions in 2015. 

Primary: Consisting of 

8 grades starting at age 

7, primary school is 

compulsory. The 

curriculum for the lower 

grades (1-3) includes 

the Polish language, a 

modern foreign 

language, music, art,

integrated math and science lessons, and computer classes. In 

the upper grades (4-8) students also have lessons in Polish 

history, civics, natural science, mathematics, and technology. By 

law, primary schools serving minority populations must offer 

lessons in both Polish and the relevant minority language. As of

2014, some 96% of children of the appropriate age attended

primary school (Photo: Primary school students in Gniezno).

Secondary: Secondary education encompasses 2 tracks: 

general and vocational/technical. Neither is compulsory. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Comprising grades 9-12 (around ages 15-19), general 

secondary school allows students to deepen their knowledge of 

basic school subjects and pursue electives and a second 

modern foreign language. Schools serving minority populations 

also provide instruction in the relevant minority language (see p. 

1-2 of Language and Communication). Secondary school 

graduates must pass an external examination to advance to 

post-secondary education. 

Students pursuing secondary vocational/technical education 

choose between a basic 

vocational school (3 

grades) and an uppersecondary technical 

school (5 grades). Basic 

vocational school 

graduates may choose to 

continue their education at 

second-level vocational 

schools. All 

vocational/technical graduates who pass an external 

examination may continue their education at the university level.

In 2014, some 93% of children of the appropriate age attended 

secondary schools (Photo: US Navy sailor enjoys a presentation 

from Polish schoolchildren in Słupsk). 

Post-Secondary Education

Poland has a long history of higher education. Since its founding 

in the 14th century, Kraków’s Jagiellonian University continues 

to be one of Poland’s foremost universities, serving some 40,000 

students today. Other prominent institutions include the 

University of Warsaw, the Warsaw University of Technology, 

and Adam Mickiewicz University Poznań. 

In all, some 138 pubic and 310 private institutions offer postsecondary programs of study with more than 100 offering 

programs in English. Public university education is free to

citizens of the EU, though most such programs have stringent 

admissions requirements and are taught primarily in Polish. As 

of 2016, some 30% of Poles aged 25-64 had attained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, lower than the US rate of 35% but 

higher than the EU average of 28%. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Poles appreciate direct and honest communication, while 

reserving physical affection and informality for close friends 

and family. In general, personal connections are valued and 

key to conducting successful business in Poland. 

Time and Work

Poland’s work week

typically runs MondayFriday from 9:00am5:00pm, though some 

individuals prefer 

7:00am-3:00pm. A few

offices open Saturdays 

from 9:00am-1:00pm. 

While hours vary, many shops and markets open MondayFriday from 8:00am-6:00pm and Saturday from 10:00am2:00pm. Shopping centers, by contrast, have longer hours and 

are typically open weekends from 9:00am-8:00pm. Poland’s 

trade unions have been collaborating with the Roman Catholic 

Church in an effort to ban all shopping on Sundays by 2020

(Photo: Shops along Kamienica Street in Kraków). 

Most banks open Monday-Friday from 9:00am-4:00pm and 

Saturday from 9:00am-1:00 pm. Post office hours are typically 

Monday-Friday from 8:00am-7:00pm and Saturday from 

8:00am-1pm. Generally, restaurants are open from 11:00 am10pm daily. Museums are usually closed on Mondays and are 

open for abbreviated hours outside of the peak tourist season. 

Working Conditions: Under Polish labor law, the legal work 

week is 40 hours, with up to 8 hours of paid overtime. Poles 

also receive double compensation for overtime worked during 

public holidays, Sundays, and overnight. Certain labor laws are 

intended to protect women and mothers in the workplace, yet 

they are seldom enforced. In addition to paid public holidays, 

Polish workers receive at least 20 days of paid vacation a year. 

Time Zone: Poland adheres to Central European Time (CET),

which is 1 hour ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 6

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Poland

observes daylight savings time. 

Date Notation: Like the US, Poland uses the Western

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Poles typically write 

the day first, followed by the month and year. 

Time and Business

Polish business interactions tend to be somewhat formal (see 

p. 3 of Language and Communication). Communications are 

typically direct and open: participants freely speak their 

opinions and expect foreign nationals to do the same. 

Polish business partners typically refrain from using first

names, preferring titles and last names. Upon meeting, Poles 

greet each person individually, usually by shaking hands (see 

p. 3 of Language and Communication). While Poles appreciate 

punctuality, arriving somewhat late is typically acceptable given 

prior notification

Once seated, meeting participants typically exchange business 

cards and share coffee or tea. While the most senior manager 

usually leads the meeting, the atmosphere is usually relaxed. 

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 6: Epiphany 

• March/April: Easter

• May 1: Labor Day

• May 3 Constitution Day 

• May/June: Corpus Christi Day

• August 15: Assumption/Armed Forces Day

• November 1: All Saints Day

• November 11: Independence Day

• December 25 and 26: Christmas 

Any holiday that falls on a weekend is observed on 

the following Monday.

SPACE

TIME &
Poles may interrupt presentations to ask questions or add 

comments. Formal meetings tend to take place in the office, 

though businesspeople may hold lunch or dinner meetings in 

order to cement relationships rather than hold serious 

discussions (Photo: A 

NATO meeting in 

Bemowo Piskie in 

northeastern Poland in 

2017).

Though more prevalent 

during the communist

era (see p. 18-21 of 

History and Myth), 

hierarchical business structures remain the norm in some

Polish offices. Even in less hierarchical environments, decisionmaking generally follows a structured process. Personal 

contacts and informal networks were key to navigating the 

extensive red tape and bureaucracy of the communist era and 

remain the norm today. Furthermore, the exchange of small, 

non-monetary gifts helps to nurture these informal networks 

(Photo: US, UK, 

Croatian, and Romanian 

soldiers meet with local 

Polish landowners in 

2018).

Personal Space 

As in most societies, 

personal space in 

Poland depends on the 

nature of the 

relationship. Generally, Poles tend to maintain about an arm’s 

length of distance when interacting with acquaintances and 

strangers. With friends and family, the space is much smaller. 

Touch: Conversational touching depends largely on the level 

of familiarity. While formal situations rarely involve touching 

beyond handshakes (see p. 3 of Language and 

Communication), Poles typically engage in more informal

same-sex touching than Americans. For example, female 

friends often hold hands to demonstrate affection. Similarly, 

SPACE

TIME &
male friends often touch each other on the back or arm during 

informal conversations to make a point or indicate agreement.

Eye Contact: Poles typically engage in direct eye contact 

during greetings (see p. 3 of Language and Communication) to 

convey interest, respect, and transparency. Nevertheless, too 

much direct eye contact or staring may be considered a sign of 

aggression. Men typically avoid extended eye contact when 

interacting with female acquaintances and unrelated women. 

Photographs

Government installations such as police and military buildings, 

bridges, transportation hubs, and ports generally discourage or 

prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should obtain the 

permission of a Pole before taking his photo. 

Driving

Some drivers have aggressive habits, often violating traffic 

rules and passing other vehicles in dangerous areas on narrow 

roads. In rural regions, obstacles such as horse-drawn carts 

and agricultural 

vehicles can make 

driving hazardous, 

particularly at night. 

Traffic is usually

heavy in densely 

populated areas, 

where ongoing road 

construction also 

hinders traffic flow. 

Nevertheless, the 

number of trafficrelated deaths has 

steadily decreased over the last decade. At 9 per 100,000 

people in 2015, Poland’s rate of traffic-related deaths is one of 

the EU’s higher rates, significantly higher than in neighboring 

Germany (4) yet lower than in the US (11) (Photo: Gdańsk 

traffic). 

Like Americans, Poles drive on the right side of the road. 

Poland’s streetcars command the right of way in all situations. 

The law also mandates the use headlights at all times, 

regardless of time of day or weather conditions. 

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Poland’s traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect 

the country’s rural customs, Catholic influence, history of 

foreign occupations, and modern global traditions. 

Dress and Appearance 

Traditional: As late as the 1980s, some women wore 

traditional clothing on a regular basis but less so in modern 

times. Some Poles wear traditional costumes for festivals, 

special events, and church services. Styles, colors, and fabrics 

tend to vary by region. 

Women’s attire typically consists of a white blouse (kabotek) 

worn beneath a corset-like vest (wierzcheń) and paired with a 

scarf (merynka) tied across the chest. The outfit also includes

layers of skirts beneath a pleated dress (kiecka). While single 

girls typically braid their hair into flower wreaths (garlanda), 

older women tend to

cover their hair with

scarves whose colors 

indicate their married or 

widowed status. 

Men’s wear consists of a 

vest worn beneath a long 

jacket (kamzela). A silk 

kerchief (jedbowka) adds 

flair. Traditionally, the style of pants varied with social class: 

wealthy men tended to wear breeches of deer leather

(jelenioki) and lower-class opting for cloth trousers. A widebrimmed hat (kania) finishes the look (Photo: Polish men in 

traditional clothes). 

Modern: For everyday dress, most Poles wear clothing that 

reflects the latest European fashion trends. Poles historically 

favored conservative styles and muted colors, though as 

Poland’s economy has expanded, so has the popularity of a 

wider range of colors and styles. Nevertheless, business attire 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
remains modest and formal, with men preferring suits and 

women wearing dresses or blouses with trousers. 

While older women, particularly in rural areas, tend to wear 

head scarves and long skirts with stockings, the younger 

generation typically favors more mainstream European styles.

Younger Poles are especially fond of denim, sneakers, and 

apparel from US sport teams. For most Poles, the high price of 

clothing makes second-hand stores common places to shop. 

Recreation and Leisure

Poles typically prefer to spend their leisure time with family and

close friends, particularly outdoors where they often walk, hike, 

and kayak in Poland’s 23 national parks. During the summer, 

Poles enjoy collecting mushrooms and berries in the woods. 

Favorite indoor activities include watching television, reading, 

and playing card games. Largely unavailable during the 

communist era, movie theaters, bars and clubs, shopping 

centers and restaurants

are now popular places 

to spend leisure time. 

Many Poles use their 

generous vacation time 

(see p. 1 of Time and 

Space) to travel both 

within and beyond the 

country. Weekend trips to the mountains, shore, and various 

lakes are also common leisurely activities (Photo: Skiers in the 

northern town of Elbląg). 

Holidays and Festivals: As a predominantly Catholic nation

(see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality), Poland’s primary holidays 

are Christmas and Easter. Christmas Eve festivities typically 

begin when the first star of the night is seen and consists of a 

12-course meal eaten at a table with hay under the tablecloth 

to represent Christ’s birth in a manger. Later, Poles gather at 

church for a midnight mass.

Easter traditionally consists of a series of observances 

beginning weeks prior to the official holiday. First, Poles 

celebrate the week-long Carnival with elaborate parties, 

feasting, and drinking. Each day typically has its own rituals 

and traditions. On Fat Thursday, for example, it is customary to 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
eat traditional doughnuts (pączki). Residents in mountainous 

regions celebrate Carnival with sleigh rides, bonfires, and 

mulled beverages. Poles then observe 40 days of Lent, a 

period of solemn reflection and temperance. They then

celebrate the official Easter “Holy Week” consisting of Palm 

Sunday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, 

Easter Sunday, and Easter Monday. Observances typically 

involve attending church 

services and sharing 

meals (Photo: 

Traditional Polish 

Easter basket). 

Some holiday

celebrations mix 

Christian elements with 

pagan traditions. For 

example, on All Saints’ 

Day (see p. 6 of Family and Kinship), Catholic Poles visit the

cemetery to pray and leave food at their loved ones’ graves for 

the spirits of the departed. On Śmigus-dyngus (“Wet 

Monday”), celebrated on Easter Monday, boys roam the streets 

and douse unsuspecting people with buckets of water. While 

some scholars believe the practice has its origins in ancient 

fertility rituals, others suggest it refers to the baptism of Duke 

Mieszko I and his 10th-century unification of the Polish tribes 

under Christianity (see p. 2-3 of History and Myth). 

Various cities host song, dance, and music festivals often

dedicated to Poland’s most famous classical composer, 

Frédéric Chopin (see p. 11 of History and Myth). The Warsaw 

Autumn Festival of Contemporary Music features modern 

musical acts, while the Warsaw Street Art Festival held during 

the summer features visual and installation art around the city. 

The Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków commemorates Jewish 

history and culture and is one of the world’s largest events. 

Sports and Games

Sports: Soccer is Poland’s most popular sport, followed by

basketball, volleyball, and track and field. Cycling and running 

are also common, though bikes remain primarily a mode of 

transportation rather than a form of recreation in rural areas.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Snow skiing is popular in Poland’s Tatra mountain range, and 

the Mazury Lakes are a favored destination for sailing 

enthusiasts. 

Soccer: Most sizeable urban centers have their own soccer 

teams. In the 1970s-80s, Poland’s national team was among

the world’s best, winning 

the gold medal in the 1972 

Olympics and placing 3rd

in the 1974 and 1982 FIFA 

World Cups. More 

recently, Poland advanced 

to the quarterfinals of the 

2016 European 

championship, although in 

the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 

Poland failed to advance to the knockout stage (Photo: US 

Army paratroopers play soccer with a local club from Drawsko 

Pomorskie).

Traditional Games: Poles also enjoy various traditional 

games. Similar to baseball, palant requires players to hit a ball 

with a bat and run to a finish line before the other team can tag 

them with the ball. Popular among herdsman prior to World 

War II, kapela requires players try to knock over a small stone 

pyramid with another stone. Invented in the 1930s and similar 

to volleyball, pierścieniówka (“ring ball”) requires teams to use 

both hands as they toss a ball back and forth through 3 holes in 

a suspended net.

Music 

Traditional: The sounds and melodies of traditional Polish 

music date to the Middle Ages, when the Polish court began to 

provide significant patronage to musicians. Later composers

looked to these traditions as inspiration. For example, 19thcentury composer Frédéric Chopin used the rhythms and 

melodies of traditional Polish folk songs in his compositions, 

becoming the musical embodiment of “Polishness” for many of 

his countrymen (see p. 11 of History and Myth). Today, Poles 

enjoy both older folk styles and all types of classical music,

such as opera, symphony, chamber, and choral. Considered 

Poland’s greatest living composer, Krysztof Penderecki has 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
written all types of music, from operas to Hollywood film 

themes (Photo: Polish 

musicians in Kraków). 

Modern: Contemporary 

musical genres also thrive 

in Poland. Poland’s first

rock musician, Tadeusz 

Nalepa, started his 

musical career in the 

1960s. In the early 1980s, 

the rock bands Lady Pank 

and Republika gained some international acclaim. Even though 

the communist government outlawed jazz during the first 2 

decades of its rule, the jazz scene managed to thrive. A 

subgenre of dance music called “Disco Polo” emerged in the 

1990s and is still popular. Today, Poles indulge the full range of 

international pop, rock, hip-hop, 

and other styles. 

Dance

Several traditional Polish dances 

are well known across Europe. A 

slow, deliberate dance originating 

in the 17th-century royal court, the 

Polonaise is performed by a 

promenade of couples gliding 

across the dance floor, while 

bending the knees slightly with 

every 3rd step. By contrast, the 

Mazurka is a highly unrehearsed

yet lively waltz performed by a 

circle of couples who stamp their 

feet and click their heels. In the Krakowiak, a traditional dance

from the city of Kraków, couples circle a band while the lead 

male dancer sings and indicates the steps (Photo: Traditional 

Polish dancers). 

Theater and Cinema

The origins of Polish theater trace to the 18th century, when 

the first original plays written in Polish were performed. During

the communist era, the government was only marginally 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
successful in manipulating this theatrical tradition into a mode 

of propaganda. Instead, playwrights cleverly used language to 

critique the regime while avoiding the censor. Popular since the 

early 20th century, cabaret is a theater form that combines 

satire and music to mimic public figures and Polish stereotypes 

(Photo: Wrocław’s 

puppet theater has 

won many awards and 

is known throughout 

Europe). 

Polish film also has a 

rich history. While the 

first Polish film 

premiered in 1908, it 

was only after World 

War II (WWII) that 

Polish productions gained significant international attention. 

Internationally acclaimed Polish filmmaker Andrzej Wajda 

received several Oscar nominations, most recently for his 2007 

film Katyń, a depiction of the 1940 massacre of Poles by the 

Soviets (see p. 16 of History and Myth). In 2015, the Polish film

Ida won an Oscar for its portrayal of a young woman orphaned 

during WWII as she comes to terms with her Jewish identity in 

1962 Poland. 

Literature 

Over the centuries Polish literature served as both an 

expression of national identity and an outlet of opposition to

foreign occupiers. Poland’s oldest literature comprises orallytransmitted poems, myths, and legends featuring a range of

characters like bandits, saints, and dragons. While the oldest 

written Polish texts date to the 10th century, Polish emerged as 

a language of literature during the 16th-century “Golden Age” 

(see p. 6 of History and Myth). During this period, Mikołay Rej

was the first author to write exclusively in Polish, while Jan 

Kochanowski devised new Polish-language verse forms that 

earned him the nickname “father of Polish literature.” 

During the 17th-18th centuries, Polish literature focused on 

political awareness and building a national identity within the 

multi-ethnic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (see p. 7-8 of 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
History and Myth). This quest for a national narrative continued 

through the foreign occupations of the 19th century (see p. 9-

11 of History and Myth), inspiring writers like poet, dramatist, 

essayist, and political activist Adam Mickiewicz. Recognized as 

Poland’s national epic, his poem Pan Tadeusz tells the story of 

2 feuding noble families in Russia-controlled Poland in the 

early 19th century. The late 19th-early 20th centuries saw the 

emergence of several great Polish prose writers, notably 

Joseph Conrad, although he wrote primarily in English in his 

later life.

During the communist era, the state promoted “Socialist

Realism,” an artistic tradition intended to glorify the industrial 

worker and farmer. Some authors promoted other styles, often

using literary devices to covertly critique the regime. For 

example, Tadeusz Konwicki wrote 2 novels in the late 1970s 

that used satire and parody to protest the communist 

government. Writing from Chicago, Czesław Miłosz, a 

Lithuanian-born Pole, won the 1980 Nobel Prize for Literature 

for his work critiquing artists who accommodated communism. 

Poet and essayist Wisława Szymborska won the same prize in 

1996 for her poems exploring war, terrorism, and obsession.

Folk Arts and Handicrafts

Poland has a rich folk-art tradition, including woodcarving, 

ceramics, embroidery, 

decorated Easter eggs 

(pisanki), amber and 

other jewelry, and 

painting. These works 

often demonstrate a 

unique combination of 

Christian symbols and 

ancient pagan themes. 

For example, common 

motifs of the traditional 

craft of papercutting (wycinanki) include flowering trees, 

roosters, and women’s silhouettes that symbolize heaven and 

earth, fertility, and mother earth. Handmade Polish ceramics 

featuring floral and geometric designs are well-known across 

Europe today (Photo: A Polish woman embroiders). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Poles value hospitality and socializing with family and friends 

over meals. From spring-fall, Poles gather to barbecue, picnic, 

and collect wild foods such as berries and mushrooms. Polish 

cuisine is characterized by simply seasoned yet hearty dishes 

featuring fresh, local ingredients.

Dining Customs

Most Poles supplement 3 daily meals with mid-morning and 

late-afternoon snacks. While lunch is traditionally the largest 

and main meal, dinner also tends to be substantial. Most visits 

to a home are arranged in advance, though close friends and 

family may drop by unannounced, especially in rural areas. 

Poles may invite guests for afternoon tea and sweets, full 

meals, or evening drinks and snacks. 

When invited to a Polish home for a meal, guests typically

arrive on time, bringing gifts of alcohol, sweets, or flowers. 

Upon entering a home, guests remove their shoes and replace 

them with slippers, usually provided by the host. Meals typically 

consist of a series of courses served at a leisurely pace. Hosts 

serve their guests first and offer multiple helpings throughout 

the meal. Leaving a small amount of food on the plate signifies 

that a diner is full. Poles consider it impolite to leave the table 

until all diners have finished eating. Alcoholic beverages 

accompany most meals 

and are especially 

prominent during formal 

dinners and on special 

occasions (Photo: A table 

set for breakfast).

Diet 

Polish cuisine reflects the 

nation’s agrarian past and 

features seasonal produce, 

foraged wild foods, and local meat and fish. Culinary traditions 

also reflect the historic need to preserve food through Poland’s 

harsh winters. For example, many traditional dishes are rich in 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
pickled, smoked, dried, and salted ingredients. A main staple, 

potatoes are prepared in a variety of ways, such as boiled, 

fried, incorporated into salads, or transformed into dumplings 

and pancakes. Bread is another staple that accompanies 

almost every meal. Polish families often purchase fresh bread 

daily. Popular types include coarse dark and sour white ryes 

enjoyed with cheese, butter, 

or jam. Other common 

grains include rice, barley, 

oats, and buckwheat. 

Meat is particularly popular, 

with many dishes featuring

pork, chicken, lamb, beef, 

or kielbasa (sausage – 

pictured) as a primary 

ingredient. Kielbasa may be boiled, baked, smoked, or grilled 

and served alone, on a bun, with onions, peppers, and 

sauerkraut, or as part of a soup. Poles also enjoy several types 

of fish, notably carp, herring, and salmon, typically served fried, 

smoked, pickled, salted, or incorporated into soups or salads. 

Common vegetables include beets, cabbage, carrots, 

cucumbers, and a variety of legumes such as peas, beans, and 

lentils. Poles prepare freshly-gathered wild mushrooms in a 

variety of ways such as fried, boiled, pickled, or made into rich 

sauces, fillings, and soups. Locally grown fruits, like cherries, 

apples, plums, strawberries, raspberries, and currants are 

especially widespread in the spring and summer. Polish dishes

also incorporate assorted dairy products such as cheese, 

yogurt, milk, sour cream, and cottage cheese. Dill, marjoram, 

caraway seeds, parsley, chives, and black pepper accent many 

dishes.

Popular Dishes and Meals

For breakfast, Poles typically dine on bread, cheese, cured 

meats, eggs (prepared in a variety of ways), yogurt, porridge, 

or cold cereal served with milk. Lunch typically includes 3 

courses consisting of a rich soup, followed by a meat or fish 

dish served with potatoes and cooked seasonal vegetables or 

fresh salad, and a dessert. Dinner may comprise several 

courses or be a smaller meal.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Popular dishes include pierogi (dumplings stuffed with a 

variety of fillings such as minced meat, vegetables, cheese, or 

potatoes and served with butter or sour cream); bigos (a thick 

stew of sausage, pork, or beef cooked with mushrooms, 

sauerkraut, or sweet cabbage); źurek (fermented rye flour 

stewed in sausage stock and served with a boiled egg); 

gołąbki (rolled cabbage leaves stuffed with spiced minced 

meat); schab pieczony (roasted pork loin); barszcz (beet root 

soup), and golonka (boiled ham hocks, served with pureed 

peas and sauerkraut). For dessert, Poles prefer poppy seed 

pastries, sernik (cheese cake), and pączki (donuts). Babka, a 

tall, yeast-risen 

cake, is particularly 

popular at holidays

(Photo: A traditional 

dish of pork and 

potato dumplings

from western 

Poland). 

Beverages 

Coffee and tea 

served with lemon 

and sugar are the 

most popular beverages and consumed throughout the day. 

Vodka, first distilled in Poland in the 15th century, is the most 

common alcoholic beverage, though beer and wine have 

gained in popularity in recent years. Many Poles enjoy shots of 

chilled, unflavored vodka (czysta) with morsels of sausage, dill 

pickles, or pickled herring. Sweetened, flavored vodka varieties 

include cherry, honey, herbal, and mint, among others. 

Eating Out

Poles in urban areas tend to eat out regularly. Restaurants 

range from upscale establishments serving regional and 

international foods to small, casual eateries. Cafes (kawiarnia) 

serving coffee, tea, and sweet pastries are popular sites for 

socializing. Self-serve cafeterias (bar mleczny or “milk bars”) 

offer inexpensive meals. Restaurants do not automatically add 

a service fee and wait staff may expect a tip of about 10% for 

good service. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Poles’ overall health has improved in recent decades, primarily 

due to increased government investment. Between 1990- 

2015, infant mortality (the proportion of infants who die before 

age 1) decreased dramatically from 15 to 4 deaths per 1,000 

live births. Meanwhile, maternal mortality reduced from 17 to 3 

deaths per 100,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth 

increased from about 71 to 78 years, close to the US and 

European Union averages of 80. While Poles generally have 

access to free, modern healthcare, the quality of care 

diminishes significantly in rural areas, where facilities are 

sparse, understaffed, and 

ill-equipped (Photo: Polish 

military personnel 

participate in field surgical 

care led by the US Army). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine 

consists of the knowledge, 

practices, and skills 

derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, and 

theories. Traditional Polish medicine uses herbal and other 

remedies, not surgical methods, to identify and treat the causes 

of illness. Knowledge of natural remedies is widespread, 

particularly among older generations. Many Poles supplement 

modern therapies with traditional treatments, with some Poles 

relying entirely on alternative remedies to treat common 

ailments such as coughs, colds, allergies, and digestive issues. 

Herbal products are widely available in pharmacies and stores, 

while street merchants commonly sell a variety of homemade 

herbal medicines. Patients may also seek alternative therapies 

at “health resorts” – spas offering a range of natural therapeutic 

services such as medicinal baths and mud or salt treatments. 

Other therapies include acupuncture (the process of inserting 

long, thin needles into a patient’s skin), cupping (the process of 

applying heated cups to the skin to extract impurities and 

improve circulation), and homeopathy (a form of alternative 

medicine developed in 18th-century Germany in which a 

patient ingests diluted plant, mineral, and animal substances to 

trigger the body’s natural system of healing).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

Poland’s Ministry of Health oversees the national healthcare 

system, regulating industry-wide requirements and standards, 

controlling health spending, and managing large, central 

hospitals. The healthcare system is predominantly funded by 

the National Health Fund 

(NHF), a compulsory 

national health insurance 

system. General 

practitioners provide 

primary and preventative 

care, treat chronic 

illnesses, and act as their 

patients’ gatekeepers to 

more advanced or 

specialized services, such 

as oncology, dermatology, and gynecology. In 2016, Poland 

had 800 general hospitals (Photo: Pediatric hospital in Wrocław 

in western Poland). 

Healthcare System Challenges: Although the NHF covers 

nearly 98% of the population and guarantees free access to a 

broad range of medical and dental services, high out-of-pocket 

expenses for medication, medical devices, and some medical 

procedures force some Poles to forgo or delay treatment. 

Concentrated in cities, public hospitals and clinics tend to be 

outdated, poorly equipped, and understaffed. The consequent 

high demand for treatment drives physicians and nurses in 

public facilities to work long hours, while concurrently causing

many patients to wait for long periods before receiving care. 

While private facilities offer timely primary and specialist care, 

they are unaffordable for many Poles. Moreover, corruption 

permeates Poland’s healthcare industry. Bribery is especially 

prevalent in public facilities, where patients may seek faster or 

preferential treatment from doctors by paying additional fees. 

Quality of care further diminishes in rural areas, where clinics 

offer limited medical procedures and generally underserve rural 

dwellers. 

Some physicians and nurse choose to practice outside of 

Poland, attracted by better working conditions, higher pay, and 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
opportunities for professional advancement. Poland’s aging 

population is likely to add significant strain to the already 

overburdened national healthcare system in coming decades.

In 2013, nearly 2/3 of Poles expressed significant 

dissatisfaction in national health services, notably care 

provided in public facilities.

Health Challenges

As in most developed countries with aging populations, the 

prevalence of chronic and non-communicable “lifestyle” 

diseases has increased, and they now account for about 90% 

of all deaths. In 2014, the top causes of death were 

cardiovascular diseases (49%) and cancer (26%), followed by 

digestive and respiratory diseases and diabetes. Preventable 

“external causes,” such as car accidents, suicides, drownings, 

falls, and drug use resulted in about 6% of deaths, the same as 

the US rate. Notably, tobacco and alcohol consumption in 

Poland is higher than in neighboring European countries, 

resulting in elevated levels of associated diseases, such as

respiratory illnesses and liver cirrhosis. Communicable 

diseases, like tuberculosis and hepatitis, infectious and 

parasitic diseases, and HIV/AIDS account for about 4% of 

deaths (Photo: A US 

Army member 

bandages a child’s arm 

as part of a 

demonstration).

Non-fatal yet common 

health issues afflicting 

Poles include low back 

and neck pain, high 

blood pressure, 

arthritis, migraines, stomach ulcers, anxiety, and depression. 

Further, insufficient physical activity and unhealthy eating 

habits have led to increased rates of obesity. In 2016, about 

23% of Polish adults were obese, lower than the US rate of 

36% and similar to averages in neighboring countries. In an 

effort to educate Poles on the dangers of unhealthy lifestyles, 

the Polish government enacted an awareness program in 2016 

to promote healthy behaviors and reverse high rates of obesity, 

smoking, and other unhealthy habits. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most Poles subsisted as peasants or serfs (see p. 

7 of History and Myth) in an agrarian-based economy. Other 

Poles worked in the region’s salt and coal mines. While Poland 

experienced some industrialization and economic growth as an 

independent nation between the world wars, its economy was 

destroyed during World War II (WWII). Following the war, Poland 

pursued economic policies prioritizing heavy industrialization 

and limited agricultural 

collectivization modeled 

on the centrally planned 

Soviet system (Photo: 

18th-century painting of 

merchants purchasing 

grain from Polish nobles).

Throughout the 1970s80s Poland’s economy 

was stagnant. Alternating attempts at economic integration with

Europe and the USSR produced limited growth and some 

increase in Poles’ standard of living. Meanwhile, repeated food 

price increases sparked protests and strikes. The 1980s saw a 

severe financial crisis, with the country teetering on bankruptcy

due to a swollen government deficit and hyperinflation. The 

population suffered significant hardships, notably food 

shortages and scarcity (see p. 19 of History and Myth). 

Poland’s transition from a centrally-planned economy to a freemarket system after the 1989 end of communism was painful. 

Following the advice of international lending organizations, the 

government initiated a “shock therapy” that froze wages, 

removed price controls, and privatized state-owned enterprises. 

By 1991, the country had entered a severe recession, with GDP 

contracting by 7%. 

These years saw a continued decrease in industrial and 

agricultural output combined with increased unemployment. 

Nevertheless, the rate of inflation began to decrease, and by 

1992 Poland saw economic progress, averaging 5% growth in

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
GDP from 1992-2000. Significantly, the 1994 Mass Privatization 

Program allowed regular Poles to purchase stock in newlyprivatized large and medium-sized industries, thereby avoiding 

much of the corruption that marred the privatization process in 

other post-communist East European countries. By 2001, 

privately-owned enterprises comprised some 70% of GDP.

Despite these notable achievements, the conversion from a 

centrally-planned economy to the free market was still difficult 

for many Poles. Unemployment crested at almost 20% in 2002.

With one of Europe’s fastest-growing economies, Poland gained

accession to the European Union (EU) in 2004, bringing both 

significant financial support and further economic integration 

with Western Europe. Buoyed by the advantages brought by EU 

membership, unemployment dropped to 7% in 2007. Poland 

weathered the 2008-09 

global financial crisis well, 

even continuing to expand 

and becoming the only 

European country to avoid 

a recession during this 

period (Photo: Downtown 

Warsaw). 

Although unemployment 

grew to 10% in 2013, growth continued to average 3% per year 

between 2011-15. Poland’s current economic outlook is largely 

positive. GDP grew by 4% in 2017, and experts predict it will 

continue to grow 3-4% through 2019, fueled mainly by private 

consumption. Once a major problem, unemployment was just 

5.3% in 2017, 3 points below the EU average. 

Although Poland has proven to be a post-communism success 

story, it still faces serious economic challenges. Per capita

income has grown rapidly yet remains just 38% of the EU

average. Further, Poland faces a shrinking labor pool driven by 

emigration, a low birth rate, and government policies reducing 

retirement age. Another major threat is Britain’s impending exit 

from the EU. Some 830,000 Poles live and work in Britain and 

send large proportions of their income to family members in 

Poland. Britain’s exit from the EU would alter this crucial 

economic relationship. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Since coming to power in 2015, Poland’s Law and Justice Party

(PiS – see p. 5-7 of Political and Social Relations) has pursued 

a nationalist and populist economic platform. The PiS-led 

government has emphasized economic independence from 

foreign control, re-nationalizing Poland’s 2nd largest bank in 

2016 with the result that both of Poland’s leading banks are now 

under state control. Populist economic measures include 

lowering the retirement age from 67 to 65 years for men and 60 

for women and implementing the Family 500+ program providing

families monthly subsidies for every 2nd and additional child. 

Services

Accounting for about 64% of GDP and 58% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and most significant segment of the 

Polish economy. Key components include retail, financial 

services, tourism, and business services.

Business Services: Poland has become a world leader in this 

sub-sector, emerging as a popular destination for offshored 

business centers thanks to its modern infrastructure, Central 

European time zone, and well-educated, English-speaking 

populace (see p. 2 of Language and Communication).

Tourism: In 2015, 

around 17 million 

tourists visited 

Poland, bringing 

in over $9 billion. 

Foreign tourists, 

predominantly Germans, visit a variety of cultural and historical 

attractions, such as the cities of Warsaw, Wrocław, and Kraków 

(pictured); nature areas such as the Tatra Mountains and the 

Białowieża Forest; and historical sites related to WWII, such as 

Auschwitz and Treblinka (see p. 15 of History and Myth).

Industry

Even as industry has declined in importance since the 

communist era, it remains the 2nd largest economic sector, 

accounting for about 33% of GDP and employing 30% of the 

labor force. Experts predict industry will grow by 4% between 

2017-19, making it the fastest growing sector. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Manufacturing: Manufacturing makes up some 20% of GDP.

Poland is a major manufacturer of machinery and transport 

equipment, metals, industrial chemicals, and textiles. 

Nevertheless, by some estimates Poland’s manufacturing sector

is only 1/2 as productive as those in other EU countries. Poland’s 

fish-processing industry is one of Europe’s largest, with the 

country importing and processing some 600,000 tons of fish then 

re-exporting over 125,000 tons annually, mostly to Germany. 

Mining: Once the economic driver of Poland’s industry, the

mining sub-sector today is significantly reduced yet still 

economically viable. Poland is the world’s 9th-largest producer 

of coal; the world’s 2nd-largest producer of rhenium (used in the 

production of gasoline and jet engines); the world’s 7th-largest 

producer of silver; and the world’s 13th-largest producer of 

copper. While all of Poland’s coal is consumed domestically, 

other minerals are exported, mostly to the EU and China.

Shipbuilding: World-famous as the birthplace of the Solidarity 

movement (see p. 20 of History and Myth), Poland’s shipyards 

were once central to the nation’s economy. Even throughout the 

1990s, Poland’s shipyards produced some 30-40 new ships 

each year and sustained 

some 25,000 jobs in 1999. 

In 2008, the European 

Commission ruled that 

Poland’s shipyards were 

receiving illegal subsidies, 

incurring a €2 billion fine. 

This decision devastated

the industry, with 

employment dropping to

less than 10,000 a year later. Focusing primarily on ship repair 

today, Polish shipyards produced just 12 new ships in 2016 and 

employed about 11,300 people (Photo: A Polish cargo ship in 

Gdańsk). 

Agriculture

Historically the main component of the economy, agriculture 

today makes up just 2.4% of GDP and employs 11.5% of the 

labor force. While some 36% of Poland’s land is arable and 

comprises Europe’s 4th largest area, the agricultural sector has 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
remained relatively inefficient due to small farm sizes, a lack of 

advanced technology, and a focus on low value-added produce. 

Nevertheless, the sector remains productive. In 2016, Poland 

was the EU’s 7th-largest producer of agricultural goods, the EU’s 

largest poultry producer, its 

3rd-largest cereals 

producer, and the world’s

3rd-largest apple grower 

(Photo: A cabbage field and 

apartment blocks on the 

outskirts of Warsaw).

Forestry: With over 30% of 

its territory covered in 

woodlands, Poland has a 

robust forestry industry. An important wood-products exporter,

Poland is the EU leader in the production of fiberboard and the 

world’s 4th-largest exporter of furniture.

Fishing: In 2015, Poland’s fishing fleet consisted of 875 vessels 

harvesting over 187,000 tons of cod, sprat, herring, salmon, sea 

trout, and flatfish. Poland’s fishing fleet comprises a local Baltic 

fleet and a long-distance fleet operating off the coast of Africa.

Inland aquaculture produced almost 40,000 tons of fish in 2013, 

almost 1/2 consisted of carp, a popular traditional food (see p. 2 

of Sustenance and Health). 

Currency

Poland’s currency is the złoty (zł), issued in 6 banknote values

(10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) and 3 coins (1, 2, 5). The złoty

subdivides into 100 groszy which are issued in 6 coin values (1, 

2, 5, 10, 20, 50). The exchange rate has held relatively steady 

in recent years with $1 worth about 3.56zł (1zł is about 28¢). 

Foreign Trade

Totaling $221 billion in 2017, Poland’s exports primarily 

consisted of machinery and transport equipment; manufactured 

goods; and food and live animals to Germany (27%), the UK 

(7%), the Czech Republic (7%), France (5%), Italy (5%), and the 

Netherlands (5%). In the same year, imports totalling $222 billion 

comprised machinery and transport equipment; manufactured 

goods; chemicals; minerals; fuels; and lubricants from Germany 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
(28%), China (8%), the Netherlands (6%), Russia (6%), Italy 

(5%), France (4%), and the Czech Republic (4%). 

European Union

Membership in the EU (see p. 11 of Political and Social 

Relations) provides a large common market for exports, a more 

secure business environment, and easier access to investment 

and development funds. In 2016, some 80% of exports were 

destined for the EU, while 72% of imports originated in the EU. 

An overwhelming majority of Poles supports EU membership. 

Nevertheless, the PiS-led government is skeptical of certain EU 

directives and policies. PiS is especially reluctant to adopt the 

Euro, the EU’s currency, since the government’s monetary

independence during the 2008-09 global financial crisis enabled 

it to withstand the crisis better than any other EU member. 

Although Poland is treaty-bound to adopt the Euro, there is no 

fixed date for that occurrence (Photo: Warsaw National Stadium, 

built for the 2012

European Soccer 

Championships).

In addition to 

condemnation of PiS’s 

judiciary purge in 2018 

(see p. 5 of Political 

and Social Relations) 

the EU also has 

objected to what it 

considers Poland’s illegal logging in the Białowieża Forest, a 

protected area home to unique plant and animal species, notably 

Europe’s only wild bison. As of 2018, the 2 sides have been in 

negotiations and appear headed to a resolution.

Foreign Aid

Poland has been the main beneficiary of EU aid, receiving some

€106 billion since 2014. Some 2/3 of funds are earmarked for 

regional projects such as public transportation, sewage systems, 

and research centers, while the remaining 1/3 go to agriculture 

and rural development projects. Poland’s military received $1.5 

million in 2017 from the US. In 2015, Poland provided some 

$442 million in official development assistance, mainly to 

Angola, Belarus, Ukraine, China, and Ethiopia. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Poland’s physical infrastructure lags that of Western Europe, yet 

new upgrade projects are forthcoming. Poles enjoy relatively 

free speech and unrestricted Internet access, yet some laws and 

practices have recently restricted press freedoms.

Transportation

While many Poles use privately-owned vehicles, others also 

travel by bus, train, tram, taxi, bicycle, or foot. Warsaw has an 

underground metro, and all of Poland’s major cities have 

efficient and reliable mass transit systems such as buses and 

streetcars that operate all night. High-speed trains serve major 

cities, while regular trains 

and buses provide service to 

smaller communities and 

international destinations

(Photo: Polish train). 

Poland’s central location in 

Europe and its ports on the 

Baltic Sea make it a central

hub for international trade. Nevertheless, transportation 

infrastructure is in poor condition outside of major cities. 

Consequently, the European Union (EU) and the Polish 

government have invested heavily in upgrading roadways and 

railways. 

Roadways: Poland has some 260,000 mi of roads, 69% of them

paved. While roadways in and between major cities are wellmaintained, most rural roads are in poor condition and often 

unpaved, making them unsuitable for commercial use. The EU 

has committed $5.71 billion in 2017 to the maintenance of

existing roads and construction of new highways.

Railways: Poland has almost 12,000 mi of railways that connect 

its cities and towns with the rest of Europe. Since the end of 

communism in 1989 (see p. 21-22 of History and Myth), 

passenger and cargo volume has decreased significantly. 

Today, the state-owned Polskie Koleje Panstwowe (Polish 

State Railways) operates most of Poland’s trains. Long-distance 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
service includes high-speed rail from Warsaw to Gdynia, 

Kraków, Katowice, and Wrocław, and direct international 

connections to Berlin, Prague, Budapest, and Vienna. 

Ports and Waterways: Poland has over 2,400 mi of navigable 

waterways. Its largest Baltic Sea ports are Gdynia, SzczecinŚwinoujście, and Gdańsk, the latter is the Baltic’s largest 

container port. Ferry service connects Poland with Germany and 

Sweden. 

Airways: Poland has 126 airports, 87 with paved runways. The 

largest, Warsaw Chopin Airport, served almost 13 million 

passengers in 2016. Poland’s national carrier, LOT airlines, is 

majority-owned by the 

government (Photo: LOT 

airlines plane). 

Energy

Historically, Poland has 

relied on its significant 

reserves of high-quality coal 

for energy generation (see p. 

4 of Economics and Resources). Despite diversification efforts,

Poland still generates about 78% of its energy from fossil fuels, 

some 2/3 of that from coal. The remaining 22% comes from 

renewable sources, such as biomass, wind, hydroelectric, and 

solar. The Polish government has pursued several projects 

aimed at decreasing its reliance on Russia for oil and natural 

gas. These projects include the development of 2 nuclear power 

plants, the 2015 construction of a Liquified Natural Gas import 

terminal at Szczecin-Świnoujście, and a network of regional oil 

pipelines. 

Media

While Poland’s constitution protects freedom of speech and 

press, in practice the media experience significant restrictions. 

By law, support of activities against government policy, morality, 

or the common good, or that are offensive to Christianity are 

punishable with fines. Further, speech that promotes fascism, 

communism, or anti-Semitism is punishable with fines and jail 

time. In 2017, a privately-owned television channel was found 

guilty under these laws and forced to pay hefty fines for its 

coverage of anti-government demonstrations. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Since coming to power in 2015 (see p. 23 of History and Myth), 

the ruling PiS has moved to exert greater control over the press. 

For example, PiS created a new National Media Council and 

granted it the power to fire public media employees, with some 

100 journalists subsequently resigning or facing dismissal. The 

party also recently forced state-owned companies to withdraw 

advertising from media outlets that have been critical of the 

government. Meanwhile, legislation passed in 2018 criminalizes 

accusations of collective responsibility against Poland for Nazi 

German war crimes. The law has been interpreted to refer to the 

term “Polish” to describe World War II-era concentration camps 

located in Poland. This law has been especially controversial 

and attracted international 

attention (Photo: An open-air 

market in Warsaw). 

Print Media: Poland’s 2

largest dailies are Fakt and 

Gazeta Wyborcza. As with

domestic publications, these 

papers are partly owned by foreign interests, which has led the 

government to limit foreign ownership of media companies. 

Newspapers are also available in English and German.

TV and Radio: The public Telewizja Polska network broadcasts 

many of Poland’s most popular TV programs, with 2 national 

channels, a regional channel, and 4 cable and satellite channels. 

State-owned Polskie Radio operates 5 national radio stations. 

Privately-owned stations include Radio RMF, Radio Zet, and the

Catholic Radio Maryja. 

Telecommunications

In 2017, Poland’s modern telecommunications network

consisted of about 24 landline and 146 mobile phone 

subscriptions per 100 people. 

Internet: Poland has a relatively modern Internet infrastructure, 

although its reach is somewhat limited. Around 73% of Poles 

regularly use the Internet, while the country had about 19 

broadband subscriptions and 59 mobile broadband 

subscriptions per 100 people in 2017. While Poles enjoy 

unrestricted access to the Internet, the government may block 

websites it suspects of having connections to terrorism.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL