National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Protected Areas Center, Silver Spring, Maryland

November 2004

An Inventory of GIS-Based 

Decision-Support Tools for MPAs
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs

Prepared by the National Marine Protected Areas Center

in cooperation with the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Coastal Services Center

Danielle Pattison, David dosReis, and Hamilton Smillie 

November 2004

www.mpa.gov
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 1 background

NATIONAL MPA CENTER BACKGROUND

Executive Order No. 13158 

on Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 

Signed in May of 2000, Executive Order No. 13158 

calls upon federal, state, local, and tribal governments 

and the private sector to work together to strengthen 

the protection of U.S. ocean and coastal resources. 

The order directs the Department of Commerce’s 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), working in partnership with the Department 

of the Interior (DOI), to establish a National Marine 

Protected Areas Center to provide the science, tools, 

and strategies to help build a national system of MPAs. 

Located in Silver Spring, Maryland, the National MPA 

Center will help build and support partnerships, fostering cooperation among and providing assistance to a 

range of governmental and nongovernmental entities 

working to develop, evaluate, and sustain a national 

MPA system.

In addition to the National MPA Center, two supporting institutes were formed to broaden both the technical expertise and the geographic representation of 

MPA efforts. The National MPA Center’s Science 

Institute is located in Santa Cruz, California, and 

the National MPA Center’s Training and Technical Assistance Institute (TTAI) is located at the 

NOAA Coastal Services Center in Charleston, 

South Carolina.

The TTAI provides resource managers with skills, 

products, and processes related to MPAs. Assistance may take the form of a customized technology tool, issue-based education modules, training 

in process skills (e.g., facilitation), or training in 

the use and application of geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies. The institute provides direct training and 

technical assistance and operates as a referral service to connect managers and other stakeholders 

with a network of organizations and individuals 

that offer MPA-related assistance and expertise. 

Given the limited resources within many MPA 

programs, the TTAI seeks to develop products 

and services that can reduce duplicated effort and 

increase efficiencies across a broad array of sites.

An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 3

DECISION-SUPPORT TOOL INVENTORY

Introduction 

Many decision-support tools have been created over the 

past few years to address a variety of issues both within 

and around marine protected areas (MPAs). Because 

these tools are often site-specific or designed for a 

particular audience, secondary user groups may not be 

aware of their existence. This can lead to duplicated 

efforts to create similar products. In addition, some of 

these tools require only minor modifications to become 

useful to another group or for another purpose. This 

report is intended to document and publicize existing 

decision-support tools in order to raise their visibility 

within the MPA community, minimize duplicative efforts, and increase the use of decision-support tools.

For the purposes of this report, the term “decisionsupport tool” refers to an interactive, computer-based 

system that manipulates and presents spatial data 

to support informed, objective, and, in some cases, 

participatory decision making. Typically, these tools 

are used to evaluate a suite of proposed management 

actions or outcomes based on assigned criteria. This 

inventory is not intended to be a comprehensive list 

of geographic information system (GIS) applications to 

MPAs. Rather, it will focus specifically on customized 

GIS-based decision support tools that could be applied 

by marine protected areas (MPA) staff to support siting, zoning, monitoring, or MPA-related analyses (e.g., 

biodiversity or habitat suitability analyses). In addition, 

this inventory should be considered a living document 

that will be updated regularly as new tools and techniques become available.

Criteria for Inclusion

The goal of this report is to identify decision-support 

tools with a high utility for MPA processes; specifically, 

it identifies those that are GIS-based, MPA-related (i.e., 

those that support siting, zoning, monitoring, etc.), publicly available (i.e., low or no cost), and participatory or 

interactive. As a result, these four primary criteria were 

used to determine whether a tool was appropriate for 

inclusion. Certain tools or applications may not meet 

every one of the above criteria; however, they provide 

the general framework for evaluation. MPA Training 

and Technical Assistance Institute (TTAI) staff 

evaluated each tool to determine both its compatibility with the defined criteria and the level to 

which it may be extended for other purposes or 

geographic regions. 

It is important to note that some of these tools 

may not have been created for or used by an 

MPA site; however, if the underlying analyses or 

decision processes implemented within the tool 

are appropriate for use within an MPA, it was 

included. 

Content

The bulk of this inventory is in a list format with a 

descriptive summary of each tool explaining what 

the tool does, who developed it, what types of data 

are necessary to use it, if it is geographically specific, and how it may be useful to MPA activities. 

In addition to describing tools that are currently 

available for use, the inventory also lists tools 

that are under development or are the intended 

outcomes of current projects. The distinction 

will therefore be made in each summary as to the 

current or upcoming availability of the tool. The 

first section of the inventory covers marine-based 

decision-support tools. This section is followed by 

a more in-depth and detailed characterization of 

two of these tools and a discussion of their actual 

use and applicability to recent MPA issues or processes. The third section of the inventory is in the 

form of a short, annotated bibliography covering 

the more technical aspects of marine-related decision-support tools. Entries in this section provide 

references and summaries to documents on 

subjects such as the development of tools, their 

detailed underlying processes, and the creation of 

algorithms, models, and data layers. 

This report focuses primarily on the U.S.; however, a limited number of international examples 

are presented as well. In response to an advertisement in MPA News, a few international sites 

contacted the project team to describe useful 

tools and processes for MPA siting and manageinventory
4 An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 

inventory

nongovernmental associations, that will be developing 

additional tools or determining the applicability of 

existing tools. As a result, these groups are also considered a prime audience for the report. In order to meet 

the requirements of both audiences, the report will include information that is general enough to spur interest within less technically focused staff, in addition to 

references to more detailed technical documents that 

will allow GIS and development staff to determine applicability for their regions or issues. Managers will be 

able to learn from the overall descriptions of existing 

tools or projects and generate ideas in terms of how to 

apply a similar strategy in their regions. Although manger-level staff may not be interested in the technical details, they are necessary to allow GIS staff to determine 

the suitability of the tool. 

ment applied within their respective countries. 

This document highlights one specific MPA siting 

example in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in 

Australia, given the applicability of the analyses 

and the potential for U.S. managers to consider 

similar strategies or applications in their regions. 

Audience 

The primary audience for this report is MPA 

managers since this group voiced the need for 

such an inventory. Also, managers are ultimately 

responsible for programmatic decisions regarding 

tool development or implementation. Nevertheless, it is the technical staff within these programs, 

as well as those within academic institutions and 
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 5

MARINE-BASED DECISION-SUPPORT TOOLS

This section includes a descriptive list of decision-support 

tools that could potentially support MPA management 

purposes. The following criteria were used to determine 

whether a tool was appropriate for inclusion: Marine-related, GIS-based, publicly available, and participatory or 

interactive. It should be noted that a tool does not have 

to fulfill all of the criteria to be included in this list, but 

it must have the potential to assist the MPA community 

in their management efforts. Included in this section are 

tools that are currently available, as well as tools that are 

likely forthcoming as a result of recent or ongoing projects. 

This distinction will be made clear in the tool summary.

Channel Islands - Spatial 

Support and Analysis Tool (CI-SSAT), 

NOAA Coastal Services Center. www.csc.noaa.gov/

communities/agreement.html

CI-SSAT is a GIS-based tool developed by NOAA’s 

Coastal Services Center to aid in the process of siting marine reserves around the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary. The tool was designed to help the various 

stakeholder groups involved reach consensus about the 

most appropriate place to site marine ecological reserves. 

The program uses ecological and socioeconomic data to 

do a preliminary assessment of the resources affected by 

a chosen site location. Users are able to weight criteria, in 

essence creating a numerical scale for their own perceived 

importance of the various factors. The user then has the 

ability to select or draw a proposed site and get a preliminary idea of what and how ecological or economic factors 

may be influenced. CI-SSAT uses a simple algorithm to 

compute suitability of site locations, and the processes 

could be adaptable to any location provided the appropriate site-specific data layers area available. CI-SSAT is 

not currently being distributed. For more information on 

CI-SSAT, please refer to the Web site above or contact 

NOAA Coastal Services Center at csc@csc.noaa.gov.

Ecopath with Ecosim, Ecopath. 

www.ecopath.org

Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) is an ecological software 

package developed at the University of British Columbia’s Fishery Centre with the help and sponsorship of 

partners from around the world. EwE can be used 

to examine the fishery resources in an ecosystem, 

explore specific management decisions, and assess 

impacts and issues related to an MPA siting. EwE 

consists of three main components (Ecopath, 

Ecosim, and Ecospace), each of which builds upon 

and adds functionality to the previous component. 

The first component, Ecopath, is used for mass-balance modeling of an ecosystem, and requires data 

which are usually available through fish stock assessments, ecological studies, or literature. Ecosim, 

the second module, adds a time component to the 

model based on the results from Ecopath and the 

policy in place. The final module, Ecospace, is a 

simulation tool that predicts the spatial pattern 

of various ecosystems’ components. This spatial 

simulation combines the results of the Ecopath 

and Ecosim models with user-provided habitat 

preferences. EwE is freely available for download 

on the Ecopath website, and comes in both DOS 

and Windows versions. Utilizing EwE (version 

including Ecospace) allows for the exploration of 

various management options, including placement 

of MPAs, and the impacts these options would have 

on the ecosystem. 

Evaluating Vessel Speed Restrictions to Mitigate Impacts to Marine Mammals in the Stellwagen 

Bank National Marine Sanctuary, 

NOAA Coastal Services Center. www.csc.noaa.gov/

mpa/stellwagen.pdf

This project resulted in a stand-alone tool that 

evaluates of a suite of zoning alternatives based on 

the potential of each to reduce the risk of injury 

and mortality to cetaceans, while minimizing economic impact to the user community. The tool 

was designed for use by the sanctuary advisory 

committee and developed at the NOAA Coastal 

Service Center. The tool allows speed zones to 

be tested against any number of vessel routes, 

speeds, and operating costs and returns relative 

economic impact values that will, in turn, help 

the users design the most effective speed zone 

tools
6 An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 

scheme with limited economic impact. The tool 

is highly adaptable to other locations and could 

be used to solve similar problems facing other marine protected areas. The tool runs on ArcGIS8.x 

and is available free of charge by request. Contact 

csc@csc.noaa.gov. 

Geographic Information and Decision Support Tool – GiDSS, National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research.

The Geographic Information and Decision Support Tool – GiDSS is currently being developed 

at the National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef 

Research. This tool will be part of an interactive 

mapping site that includes hundreds of layers of 

marine and coastal data for the Florida Keys. Users will be able to specify their particular problem 

or issue, and the tool, using a herring-bone decision tree, will return suggested data layers related 

to the issue. The group is also working toward 

incorporating models into the system. An initial 

version of the tool should be publicly available by 

the end of the year. For more information on this 

tool, contact John McManus at 305-361-4814. 

Habitat Suitability Modeling 

(HSM), NOAA’s Biogeography Program, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science. http:

//biogeo.nos.noaa.gov/products/apps/hsm/

Habitat Suitability Modeling (HSM) is a mapping 

tool used to estimate the habitat suitability of an 

area for a given species. The tool was developed 

by NOAA’s Biogeography Program staff and 

ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute) 

in an effort to develop techniques for rapid assessment of coastal resources and to identify suitable 

habitat areas for coastal species. For HSM to 

generate its maps, the user must supply different 

environmental data layers as well as habitat suitability ratings for each environmental data type. 

HSM uses this information, along with standard 

or customized algorithms, to produce habitat 

suitability maps for certain fish and invertebrate 

species. HSM also has the ability to predict the 

effects of environmental change on different species. Using HSM to develop species and habitat 

distribution maps is potentially useful for MPA 

siting efforts, and its ability to assess the effects of 

planned changes to an area should make it helpful in 

evaluating different management and zoning options. 

As a basic suitability model, the tool can be used in 

any geographic area for which the user has appropriate 

data. HSM was designed to be used on a Windows NT 

computer with ArcView3.2 and requires the Spatial 

Analyst extension. At this time, distribution of the 

tool is on hold, but updating it to ArcGIS 8x or 9 

is being considered. If this occurs, the tool will again 

become publicly available.

NOAA Technical Report: Integrated 

Spatial Data Model Tools for AutoClassification and Delineation of 

Species-Specific Habitat Maps from 

High-Resolution, Digital Hydrographic Data. Rikk Kvitek, Pat Iampietro, and 

Erica Summers-Morris. 2003 http://seafloor.csumb.edu/

publications/Kvitek_NA17OC2586_Rpt.pdf

This project set out to create a species-specific model 

for classifying habitat and assessing distribution and 

abundance of particular species through the use of 

high resolution multibeam data and ArcGIS functionality. The project was led by Rikk Kviteck at California 

State University Monterey Bay with the assistance of 

Pat Iampeitro and Erica Summers-Morris, among others. The intention was to create a tool that could identify sensitive fish habitats and predict the location of 

fish based on species-habitat associations, which would 

have obvious implications regarding the management 

of marine protected areas. To date, the methodology 

has not been packaged into an extension or tool. At 

this point, it is more a collection of methods, which 

must be conducted by hand. The model was created 

for use at a study site in Monterey Bay, California, but 

the methods could apply to other sites where highresolution mutlibeam bathymetry data have been collected. Currently, the methodology as detailed within 

the above-mentioned NOAA Technical Report can be 

performed with any GIS software that has vector and 

GRID/raster analysis tools. The authors have future 

plans to package the methodologies into a tool or 

extension using ArcGIS as the platform. For additional information on this project, please contact Rikk 

Kvitek at rikk_kvitek@csumb.edu, or Pat Iampeitro at 

pat_iampietro@csumb.edu.

tools
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 7

OCEAN – Ocean Communities 

3E Analysis Network, EcoTrust. 

www.ecotrust.org/gis/ocean.html 

OCEAN, the Ocean Communities 3E Analysis Network is a suite of tools developed by EcoTrust to meet 

the need of communities and managers in the Pacific 

Northwest for the ability to spatially integrate and analyze ecological, economic, and sociocultural data. (The 

three E’s stand for equity, ecology, and economy.) The 

OCEAN framework consists of databases and tools 

that can be used to perform spatial queries and statistical analyses to better understand economic patterns of 

spatial behavior and marine management decisions. 

Many past applications of OCEAN have focused 

on fisheries management and its effects on adjacent 

coastal communities. A major strength of this tool 

is its participatory approach that incorporates local 

knowledge. The geographic coverage of the framework 

is the U.S. West Coast. The OCEAN framework itself 

is not available for distribution; rather, it is used for 

applications done through project-specific partnerships 

with EcoTrust, for which a consulting fee is required. 

For more information contact Charles Steinback - 

charles@ecotrust.org

The Oceanographic Analyst 

Extension, USGS, Alaska Biological Science Center. www.absc.usgs.gov/glba/gistools/

index.htm#OCEANOGRAPHIC

The Oceanographic Analyst Extension (OAE) is an ArcView 3x extension developed by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS). The extension allows users to bring a 

variety of oceanographic data into a GIS, thus integrating them with other spatial data sets. It specifically 

allows for the import, processing, and display of raw 

Sea-bird CTD (conductivity, temperature, and depth) 

data. The extension can be used to create 3-D views 

and contour plots of the cast data. OAE can also convert NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) 

weather station data into a more standard and usable 

format. Other functionalities of the tool include 

calculating photic depth and integrating chlorophylla data, which can be used to help visualize plankton 

booms, mixing zones, and circulation patterns. OAE 

has no geographic limitations and has the potential 

to be useful in establishing the oceanographic base 

data necessary for the siting and monitoring of 

marine protected areas. OAE is to be used within 

ArcView 3x and requires the Spatial Analyst extension to function properly. OAE can be downloaded for free from the GIS tools section of the 

USGS Web site. 

Sites, The Nature Conservancy. 

www.biogeog.ucsb.edu/projects/tnc/overview.html

The Nature Conservancy contracted with the University of California at Santa Barbara to develop 

Sites, an analytical toolbox for ecoregional conservation planning, as a reserve siting tool that incorporates spatial design criteria into the site-selection process. Sites allows users to address complex 

problems by sorting through large volumes of data 

and comparing alternative scenarios or portfolios. 

A region can be broken down into “planning 

units” (grids, watersheds, etc.) that are used as the 

building blocks to assemble different portfolios. 

The input files needed to run the system include 

the planning units, the elements within each unit, 

and the goals for each element (i.e., species). The 

system then uses algorithms to select the planning 

units that make up the most efficient portfolio 

for the goals entered. The user can set parameters 

related to the goals, cost assumptions, and spatial 

complexities. The toolbox interface (ArcView 3.x 

customization) gives the user a specialized menu 

and new buttons for running functions and displaying results. Users should view solutions selected by Sites as initial solutions, which may require 

additional review to incorporate local knowledge, 

judgement, and other factors not considered in the 

system. Sites has been used in a variety of planning 

studies in diverse locations, including a project to 

identify potential networks of marine reserves in 

the Florida Keys (see Leslie paper in annotated bibliography section). A Sites zip file, freely available 

for download from the above Web site, contains 

Sites 1.0 software, a manual, and an example. (The 

Site Selection Module included in Sites 1.0 was 

initially developed as SPEXAN by Ian Ball and 

Hugh Possingham at the University of Adelaide, 

Australia). Users will need a PC with at least 8 Mb 

of RAM and Windows to run the software, and 

ArcView 3.x to run the graphical interface.

tools

An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 9

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO PROCESSES 

USING DECISION-SUPPORT TOOLS 

This section highlights two decision-support tools that 

have been used in actual MPA zoning and monitoring 

activities. The first example will detail MARXAN, a tool 

used by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 

in recent efforts to zone existing MPAs. The second example describes OceanMap, a tool used by EcoTrust to 

incorporate local knowledge from fishermen and community input into MPA planning processes in California. These examples are highly applicable to MPAs and 

the streamlined integration of spatial technology with 

data gathering and analysis of these processes are especially interesting. Again, the tools detailed here are 

GIS-based, publicly available (i.e., low or no cost), and 

participatory or interactive. 

I. Great Barrier Reef Marine 

Park’s Representative Areas 

Program (RAP) 

The Process

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is a multiple-use 

park, zoned to manage human activities and protect 

natural and other values. Originally 4 percent was 

zoned as no-take, and those areas were primarily protecting coral reef habitat. With increased awareness of 

the importance of an ecosystem approach and interconnected habitats, the Representative Areas Program 

(RAP) set out to develop a network of protected areas 

that would adequately represent the full range of habitats and communities within the marine park. The 

goal was to design a network to maximize the region’s 

biodiversity protection while minimizing socioeconomic and cultural costs.

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority considered a variety of inputs when identifying potential sites, 

including expert option, stakeholder involvement, and 

analytical approaches. Throughout the process, the park 

authority used multiple geospatial technologies to help 

facilitate the development of each stage, which ultimately improved the overall effectiveness of the project. The 

application of spatial data and tools helped the park 

authority communicate with stakeholders, incorporate 

public comment, identify representative examples of the 

various habitats and communities within the park, 

consider connectivity among each, and build upon 

the existing network of protected areas. 

During the initial phases of the program, interviews and research efforts led to the development 

of two sets of operating principles: biophysical 

principles and social, economic, and cultural principles. Biophysical principles included recommendations regarding the desired size, replication, and 

amount of different habitat types in protected areas. The social, economic, and cultural principles 

addressed placement issues to minimize potenital 

user conflicts and maximize public acceptance 

and ease of enforcement. Marine reserve design 

software, known as MARXAN, was adapted for 

use in the RAP. MARXAN uses an objective function to implement the operational principles, and 

simulated annealing to identify networks of areas 

that optimize the objective function.

By integrating GIS into each stage of the process, the 

park authority was able to increase the efficiency and 

timeliness with which data and information could 

be distributed to constituents. Within days of the 

data collection phase, maps were circulated to partners and stakeholders for discussion and feedback. 

Stakeholders were then asked to submit suggested 

areas based on the best available data. This inclusion instilled faith in the process, limited distrust 

among participants, and allowed all groups to have 

an equal standing in the process to ensure an impartial outcome. GIS allowed planners, stakeholder 

representatives, political authorities, and the public 

to visualize a broad range of data that supply a tangible and quantifiable characterization of the natural 

and human values of the Great Barrier Reef. 

Based on these data, staff were able to use 

predefined reserve design criteria to generate 

potential boundary alternatives for comment. 

Participants were also permitted to use these 

maps to present additional boundary options for 

consideration. Because these discussions were in 

reference to real data and map displays, the group 

was quickly able to highlight preferred regions. 

The facilitated communication and data exchange 

processes
10 An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 

was critical to the success of the zoning process, 

allowing the group to identify locations that preserve areas of high biodiversity while minimizing 

impact on the user communities. Also, once the 

sites were defined, the Great Barrier Reef Marine 

Park Authority was able to generate legal boundary descriptions for 672 areas directly from the 

spatial data, ensuring a more exact and defensible 

boundary (see www.reefed.edu.au/rap/ for these 

descriptions).

The Tool Applied

MARXAN

www.ecology.uq.edu.au/marxan.htm

MARXAN is a software tool that delivers decision 

support for reserve system design. The tool primarily uses a randomization method known as simulated annealing to find the most efficient solution 

to site selection. Based on defined criteria for biodiversity targets, the model calculates a “cost” for 

each potential solution and attempts to minimize 

this cost, while generating a near-optimal solution. 

Hundreds of different scenarios can be run and 

compared in order to evaluate a suite of outcomes 

and spatial patterns to determine the most critical 

areas for conservation. However, it is important 

to note that any model or decision-support tool is 

only as accurate or effective as the data available to 

it. For such a large geographic region as the Great 

Barrier Reef, it is difficult to collect sufficient information to feed these models. In addition, if the 

desire were to consider historical fishing grounds 

or known spawning locations, for example, this information is often not well documented and could 

be very time-consuming to generate. 

Nevertheless, MARXAN was well received due 

to its inherent impartiality. There was less apprehension among the participants, a sense that 

decisions were based on “sound science,” and an 

understanding that outputs truly addressed the 

defined criteria (e.g., for species, habitats, defined 

biodiversity targets, and boundary length). Although the stakeholders may not have understood 

the algorithms behind MARXAN, they were able 

to review the input parameters and visualize the 

output, which was generally an optimization of 

priority factors described in the Draft Zoning 

Plan. As a result, the initial response to the draft plan 

was very positive. Another important factor was that 

the participatory elements of the process allowed those 

involved to be actively engaged from the inception of 

the zoning process. 

MARXAN is simply a “tool” to bring participants 

toward an acceptable outcome. Before using it, the 

group must have already considered which elements 

of reserve design are most critical to addressing priority issues for a given site. The two primary design parameters employed by Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 

Authority related to biophysical and social aspects of 

the region. For example, the reserve design criteria for 

a particular scenario may require that the site include a 

certain percentage of each defined bioregion and that it 

minimize socioeconomic impacts on the user community (www.reefed.edu.au/rap/overview/principles/). 

However, although these design principles remained 

constant, site selection was an iterative process in which 

proposed areas within the draft zoning plan changed 

as new information came to light during public consultation. This is not uncommon, given that local 

knowledge regarding historical fishing areas and other 

cultural areas is becoming more widely appreciated in 

these processes.

MARXAN was considered a critical element in the development of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park zoning plan; however, it does have some limitations. In 

addition to the technical expertise required to operate 

the model, it is unable to ingest preferences for spatial 

configurations or specific reserve size. Due to these 

constraints, MARXAN was one of many tools and 

technologies applied throughout the process. Park authority technical staff also conducted additional (nonautomated) spatial analyses to overcome such software 

constraints and ensure that the public was consulted 

during each zoning iteration.

MARXAN is a stand-alone application that was created as the marine version of the terrestrial reserve 

design software SPEXAN. Both are basic extensions 

of a FORTRAN 77 program SIMAN. To download 

the application, please go to the following Web site 

www.ecology.uq.edu.au/marxan.htm#get_download or 

contact Hugh Possingham at hpossingham@zen.uq.edu.

au, University of Queensland, Australia. The developers 

of MARXAN are happy to make this software freely available, but they do ask that users remain in contact and inprocesses

form them of subsequent applications and publications.
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 11

II. EcoTrust’s Use of OceanMap

The Process

The California Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) 

requires the California Department of Fish and Game 

(CDFG) to implement a network of MPAs in state waters. As part of this effort, it is required that profiles be 

compiled of fishing activities. One source of data for 

these profiles is fishermen. In order to accelerate the 

incorporation of this information, a pilot study was 

conducted to test the utility of geospatial analysis tools 

for eliciting and integrating fishermen’s knowledge 

into MPA planning processes in California. 

Environmental Defense and the Institute for Fisheries 

Research (IFR) collaborated on the pilot project to develop and test protocols for collecting, analyzing, and 

presenting locally relevant information. In addition 

to eliciting fishermen’s knowledge, the project was 

designed to test ways to incorporate this information 

into the decision-making process, and to test spatially 

explicit methods for rapid socioeconomic assessments 

for MPA planning. EcoTrust worked with Environmental Defense to develop a GIS-based tool for the project, 

as well as conduct interviews.

The project focused on the north central region of 

California, where five main port areas were identified. 

Fishing representatives were involved in the design 

phase and helped develop the list of research questions 

to be asked of interviewees in each port. They also suggested other fishermen as potential interview participants based on the length of their fishing careers, their 

depth of knowledge, and their willingness to be interviewed. During semi-structured interviews, fishermen 

were asked questions related to four analytical areas: 

demographics, oceanographic information, biological 

information, and management. When appropriate, interviewees indicated on charts the locations and spatial 

extents of areas in response to questions. Interviewees’ 

responses were then entered into a GIS mapping application called OceanMap, allowing the information 

gathered to be represented spatially and available for 

analysis. Other data layers in OceanMap, with which the 

local knowledge could be viewed and analyzed, included 

existing MPAs, habitat data, bathymetry, and nautical 

charts. After initial analysis, interview participants were 

invited to follow-up meetings to review the results, make 

any corrections or give additional input, and approve 

the maps for use in presentations and publications.

This project demonstrates a process for incorporating local knowledge into decision making, which 

adds an important participatory component for 

stakeholders and yields significant information. It 

may also help identify less contentious siting alternatives by looking at MPA siting with fishermen’s 

socioeconomic concerns in mind early in the decision-making process. OceanMap aids this process 

by facilitating the spatial representation of local 

knowledge and its compatibility with other data 

sources.

Another EcoTrust project that utilized OceanMap 

was the Spatial Community Outreach Project 

(SCOOP). This collaborative effort between 

EcoTrust and the Pacific Marine Conservation 

Council (PMCC) gathered information from 

fishing communities on the impacts of rock fish 

conservation areas that were closed to fishing. EcoTrust and PMCC looked into the area closures and 

the impacts to adjacent communities and reported 

back to the Pacific Fisheries Management Council. 

In addition to gathering information on fishing 

behavior, target species, and incurred costs, the 

principle investigators were interested in hearing 

recommendations on alternative spatial management proposals for the future. 

The Tool Applied 

OceanMap

OceanMap was developed jointly by EcoTrust and 

Environmental Defense as part of the local knowledge project described above and carried out in 

support of the Marine Life Protection Act in the 

State of California. OceanMap is a collection of 

scripts within an ArcView project file that allows 

users to perform various spatial tasks. The tool 

also acts as an information gathering device for 

participatory research to help facilitate discussion 

and feedback through input dialogs, maps, and 

personal interviews. 

OceanMap utilizes both scientific and socioeconomic data in its processes. The socioeconomic 

data, which many consider to be one of the data 

gaps in the MPA community, is a fundamental 

component to the OceanMap application. The 

socioeconomic data must first be gathered, which 

in the past has been done through group meetprocesses
12 An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 

ings, interception of interviewees in ports, and 

scheduled one-on-one interviews. The project 

partners found that the interviews worked best, 

and that the participants were very receptive when 

the process was framed correctly.

OceanMap can be used to find socioeconomic 

hotspots by species. Interviewees draw or indicate 

areas, by species, about the location of fishing 

grounds and rank the relative importance of each. 

Users can also profile areas of socioeconomic importance, oceanographic processes, species diversity, and fishing effort. The data are then put into 

the OceanMap application for spatial analysis. 

The analyses range from simple overlap analyses 

to complex suitability analyses based on biological, 

physical, and socioeconomic databases. Once all 

of the socioeconomic data is aggregated, the data 

are overlayed with biological hotspots and unique 

or important natural and cultural features. The results 

will allow decision makers to make more informed decisions based upon sound science and economics. 

While the tool was originally designed for California, 

it has since been customized to include Oregon as 

well. With the appropriate data sets it can be tailored 

for specific areas and uses, and it is easily replicated. 

It should be noted that the majority of the processes 

packaged within OceanMap are fairly simple operations and could be conducted easily by most GIS analysts. However, the customization of the interface to 

automate these analyses and tools makes it useful to 

MPA managers and staff who may not have in-depth 

geospatial analysis skills. OceanMap is to be used 

within ArcView3.x and requires the Spatial Analyst extension. This tool is publicly available and is distributed 

by Environmental Defense upon requested. For more 

information on OceanMap, please contact Peter Black 

at pblack@environmentaldefense.org.

processes
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 13

This section of the inventory is an annotated bibliography covering the more technical aspects of marine 

related decision support tools. Entries in this section 

provide references and summaries to documents on 

subjects such as the development of tools, their detailed 

underlying processes, and the creation of algorithms, 

models, and data layers. 

Adams, Christiaan Scott. An interactive, online geographic information system 

(GIS) for stakeholder participation in 

environmental site selection. MIT, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. January 16, 

2004. http://dogfish.mit.edu/eSite/thesis/AdamsCS_Text.pdf

This thesis details an interactive, on-line geographic 

information system (GIS) that was developed to enhance the involvement of stakeholders in the public 

participation processes of site selection issues in the 

marine environment. Displaying educational material 

and interactive maps of relevant data, this tool allows 

users to input personal preferences for the criteria they 

value in the siting decision and produces a map showing the most and least suitable sites according to the 

user’s weighting of the criteria. Other decision-making 

processes focus on finding an optimum solution from 

a number of alternatives using an objective analysis of 

the criteria, but they are often inaccessible to stakeholders and do not consider the fairness of the outcome. 

This tool is intended to educate stakeholders and enhance their involvement in the public decision-making 

process. To demonstrate the interactive, on-line GIS 

concept, a Web site called eSite was assembled (http:

//dogfish.mit.edu/eSite/), using as its case study the 

hypothetical issue of siting marine reserves within the 

Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. The program behind eSite calculates a ranked suitability map of 

more and less suitable locations according to the user’s 

preferences. eSite is built around an on-line GIS, using 

raster, or grid-based, data.

Ardron, Jeff. A GIS recipe for determining benthic complexity: An 

indicator of species richness. 

Draft #8. In Press, Marine Geography, 2002. 

www.livingoceans.org/files/complexity_draft8.pdf

This paper examines the development of GISbased measurement for physical (benthic) complexity and describes the process steps used to 

conduct the modeling. The author discusses the 

fact that benthic complexity has proven very useful as an indicator of species richness, so in the 

absence of good comprehensive biological data, 

physical complexity could be used as a surrogate 

to direct marine planning and research activities. 

Ardron, J., J. Lash, and D. Haggarty. 2002. 

Modelling a network of marine 

protected areas for the central 

coast of British Columbia. Ver. 3.1. 

Living Oceans Society. British Columbia, Canada. 

www.livingoceans.org/documents/LOS_MPA_model_v31_web.pdf

In this paper, the authors detail the modeling 

methodologies and results of the development 

and refinement of hypothetical marine protected 

areas for the central coast of British Columbia. 

The authors utilized various spatial modeling 

techniques within a GIS in the development of 

a classification scheme. The scheme, which accounts for both physical and biological factors, 

along with other inputs, was entered into MARXAN (v.1.2) software to produce the potential MPA 

networks. The model results were validated 

through stakeholder input, expert opinions, and 

review of previous studies. The paper includes a 

section on the assumptions and limitations of the 

approach used. 

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

bibliography
14 An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 

Beck, M.W., M.Odaya, J.J. Bachant, J. Bergan, B. Keller, 

R. Martin, R. Matthews, C. Porter, and G. Ramseur. 

2000. Identification of priority sites for 

conservation in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico: An ecoregional plan. The 

Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. 

www.epa.gov/gmpo/habitat/NGoM_Final_allfigs.PDF

In this report, the authors detail the processes used to 

choose a set of high-priority sites for conservation in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. The goal of the process was to 

identify sites that, if protected, would fully represent the biological diversity of the nearshore waters of the region. The 

two primary tools used to assemble the priority areas were: 

(i) a reserve selection algorithm, Sites v1.0, and (ii) expert 

interviews and an expert workshop. The requirements for 

the Sites program included information on the distribution 

and abundance of target habitats and species across bays, 

as well as a set of conservation goals. Based on the inputs, 

the program was used to establish the minimum number 

of sites meeting the targeted goals. The results were then 

used to spur discussion among experts, who were asked to 

evaluate the assumptions, data and results, and select their 

own priority sites. The final set of priority sites were assembled as a result of combining the Sites results with the 

comments from the experts. TNC has a number of similar 

projects in other regions around the United States. 

Grober-Dunsmor, Rikki, Jason Hale, Jim Beets, Tom 

Frazer, Nick Funicelli, and Paul Zwick. Applying 

landscape ecology principles to the 

design and management of marine 

reserves. USGS. http://cars.er.usgs.gov/posters/

Coral_and_Marine/Mngmt_of_Marine_Reserves/

mngmt_of_marine_reserves.html

The authors explore the use of landscape-level metrics as 

a way to describe coral reefs and their associated habitats 

and explore the potential use of these metrics as predictors of reef fish assemblage structure. Landscape metrics 

(e.g., habitat diversity) were calculated for 10 coral reefs 

and their adjacent habitats around the island of St. John 

(USVI) to describe differences in the “reefscape.” Two 

metrics, habitat diversity and total area of seagrass around 

the reef, were then correlated with various measures of reef 

fish abundance and species richness. The authors present 

this landscape approach as an aid to coral reef managers in 

their efforts to better design and manage marine reserves.

Leslie, H., M. Ruckelshaus, I.R. Ball, S. Andelman, 

and H.P. Possingham. 2003. Using siting algorithms in the design of marine 

reserve networks. Ecological Applications. 

www.sam.sdu.dk/fame/menu/pdfnov/leslie.pdf

The purpose of this paper is to describe how reservesiting algorithms can be used to help identify marine reserve systems that comprehensively represent 

all habitat types in a sensible spatial arrangement. 

Using benthic habitat data from the Florida Keys, 

the authors investigated the relative influence of 

spatial information, planning-unit size, detail of 

habitat classification, and magnitude of the overall 

conservation goal on the resulting network scenarios. Using a flexible optimization tool (simulated annealing), they were able to identify many adequate 

reserve systems that met the conservation goals. The 

authors also discuss “irreplaceability analysis”, a particular useful output of the algorithm that is a count 

of the number of times unique planning units were 

included in reserve design scenarios. 

O’Donnell, V., Cronin, M. & Cummins, V. Sustainable coastal habitats: GIS 

tools for effective decision support. Coastal & Marine Resources Centre, 

Environmental Research Institute, University 

College Cork, Ireland. www.gisig.it/coastgis/papers/

o%27donnell.pdf

This paper describes a project working to develop 

an efficient tool to aid in the management of protected areas, both marine and terrestrial, by calculating threats to environmentally sensitive coastal 

habitats. A GIS based Sensitivity Analysis Model 

will assess the various impacts of activities such as 

agriculture, burning, aquaculture, tourism etc on 

the protected species on sites that are protected in 

name but often not in planning and future management. The anticipated output from the tool will 

be a hierarchical list of designated sites, highlighting those most at risk from human and natural 

impacts. The project is ongoing and is hoped to 

eventually result in an output that will be a GIS, via 

the internet or an ArcView extension. For more 

information about this project, please contact Vicki 

bibliography

O’Donnell at v.odonnell@ucc.ie. 
An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs 15

Sala, E., O. Aburto-Oropeza, G. Paredes, I. Parra, J. C. 

Barrera, and P. K. Dayton. A general model 

for designing networks of marine 

reserves. Science 298: 1991-1993. 

2002. www.cciforum.org/pdfs/Sala_Marine_

Reserves.pdf

The authors describe a means of establishing marine 

reserve networks by using optimization algorithms 

and multiple levels of information on biodiversity, 

ecological processes (spawning, recruitment, and larval 

connectivity), and socioeconomic factors in the Gulf 

of California. The authors set out to design a network 

of marine reserves to protect biodiversity and complement fisheries management. They concluded that 

a network covering 40 percent of rocky reef habitat 

could fulfill many conservation goals while also reducing some social conflict. The authors assert that the 

quantitative approach used in this paper provides a 

powerful tool for decision makers tasked with siting 

marine reserves.

Sutherland, Michael, Sam Machari Ng’ang’a, and Sue 

Nichols. In search of New Brunswick’s 

marine administrative boundaries. 

Symposium on Geospatial Theory, Processing and Applications. Ottawa, 2002. www.isprs.org/commission4/

proceedings/pdfpapers/272.pdf

This paper describes New Brunswick’s recent efforts 

to delineate the possible maximum spatial extent of 

its administrative boundaries. The purpose is to determine the spatial extent of the marine space over 

which New Brunswick exercises jurisdiction and administration in order to support provincial marine 

policies and good governance of its marine resources. The two GIS tools used to complete boundaries 

were CARIS GIS and CARIS LOTS (Law of the 

Sea). The paper outlines the process used, including various GIS tools and supporting legal research, 

in the creation of the marine boundary polygons. 

The technical and governance implications of the 

process and the product are also discussed.

bibliography
16 An Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs

The tools highlighted in this report provide functionality ranging from visualizing and integrating 

oceanographic data to site suitability modeling 

and incorporating stakeholder input. The references and specific project descriptions give additional technical background and illustrate how 

spatial tools can be used in conjunction with other 

mechanisms to facilitate MPA related management decisions. By documenting these summaries 

and examples, it is anticipated that MPA managers 

and staff will have the necessary initial information to determine the applicability of particular 

tools to their own management needs. 

The intent of this inventory is to make the MPA community aware of existing GIS-based decision-support 

tools that may aid them in a variety of MPA-related 

activities (siting, zoning, monitoring, etc). Because new 

tools and techniques will invariably be developed and 

improved upon, it is the intent of MPA TTAI staff to 

maintain this inventory as a living document. As such, 

the inventory will be updated on a regular basis to reflect these changes and will be available in hard copy 

or online at www.mpa.gov. Members of the MPA community are encouraged to alert TTAI staff to any tools, 

projects, or papers that would be appropriate for future 

inclusion. 

Conclusion

conclusion

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Protected Areas Center, Silver Spring, Maryland

November 2004