Land Manager's Guide 

e Birds of 

by 

Paul B. Hamel 

Incorporating the results of P.B. Hamel, H.E. LeGrand Jr., M.R. Lennartz, and 

S.A. Gauthreaux, Jr. 1982. Bird habitat relationships on Southeastern forest lands. 

U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report SE-22. 

The Nature Conservancy, 

Chapel H111, North Carolina 

7he # Nature 

and 

The U .S. Forest Service, Southern Region, 

Atlanta, Georgia 
Hamel, Paul B. 1992. Land manager's guide to the birds of the South. The Nat~re 

Conservancy, Southeastern Region, Chapel Hilt, NC. 437 p. 

Forested habitats and their suitability for bird species in the South are described. 

For each species, a summary of biological knowledge regarding status, distribution, 

and habitat requirements is presented. General and specific habitat requirements 

for each species are given in the form of habitat relationship matrices. This information is designed to be used by land managers as a guide for evaluating and 

prescribing land management practices. 

Keywords: Birds; habitat relationships; forest management. 

Cover: Golden-winged warbler by Isidor Jeklin for the Cornell Laboratory of 

Ornithology. 

Additional copies are available for $20.00, postpaid from: The Nature Conservancy, 

P.0 . Box 2267, Chapel Will, NC 275 15-2267. 
PREFACE 

T he current work is a revision of Bird-Habitat Relatiorlships on Soiltheastent 

Forest Lands, co-authored with Harry E. LeCrand, Jr., Michael R, Lennartz, 

and Sidney A. Gauthreaux, Jr. It was fashioned from that work and a subsequent 

unpublished report I prepared for the Southern Region ofthe Forest Service in 1983. 

Unfortunately, it has not been possible to do extensive field work or to review the 

growing body of literature on bird habitat relationships in the South during the 

preparation of this work. Instead, this has been primarilya project of compiling data 

on the distribution of these species in states not included in the earlier work and 

preparing more recent maps. A newchapter on forest fragmentation is also included. 

This work is offered in the hope that it will assist land managers ofail stripes to meet 

their objectives and provide habitat for the full range of wildlife species in the 

process. Such a task is nowhere near as easy as is that of preparing a work like this 

one. My hat is off to those who undertake the stewardship of the dwindling supply 

of our natural resources. 

The bottom line: I take full responsibility for everything in these pages and regret 

all errors of omission and commission. 

iii 
AC OWLEDGMENTS 

o the current edition: This work was supported by a cooperative agreement 

between the U. S. Forest Service Southern Region and the Southeastern 

Heritage Task Force of the Nature Conservancy. I am indebted to Joe Jacob and 

Laura Mason of the Nature Conservancy for patient and speedy assistance with the 

work. Mike Hamby and Bob Walker of the Forest Service Southern Region 

Geometronics unit handled digitization of the range maps. Chris Frye and the 

Southern Region Management Systems Possumwerks gang assisted with map file 

conversion. Donna Bayless did some of the particularly tedious proofreading. 

I am especially grateful to Jim Fenwood of the Forest Service, who has undertaken 

the difficult tasks of shepherding the manuscript through the editorial process and 

preparation ofcamera-ready copy. He has been patient with my sometimes eccentric 

behavior. 

Sam Droege of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Breeding Bird Survey was 

extremely helpful in providing data from that project on which the maps of breeding 

distribution are based. Celina Solomon helped with the preparation of the manuscript. I thank each of these individuals for their help. I thank Doug James, Harry 

LeGrand, Joe Neal, Chuck Nicholson, and Brainerd Palmer-Ball for their willingness to review the maps. 

I acknowledge the spirit of inquiry and curiosity of my co-authors of the first 

edition. Without the firm ground they provided in the first work, this revision would 

have been unthinkable. 

To the first edition: This work was supported by cooperative agreements between 

the U. S. Forest Service and the Clemson University Department of Zoology. We 

owe much to Jerry Verner for discussion and stimulation that led to the development 

of our matrix presentation format. Earlier drafts of the manuscript have benefited 

from review by Danny Bystrak, Andy Clewell, Dick Conner, Noel Cost, Dick 

DeCraaf, Jim Dickson, John Fussell, Bob Hooper, Fran James, Syd Johnson, Jim 

Karr, Joe McClure, Ray Sheffield, Henry Stevenson, Paul Sykes, and Noel Wamer. 

We appreciate their comments and have accepted most of their suggestions. For 

those cases in which we incorrectly overruled them, as well as those where we did so 

correctly, we accept full responsibility. 

We especially acknowledge those dedicated individuals who conducted Breeding 

Bird Censuses and Winter Bird Population Studies. The late Wendell P. Smith, who 

conducted no fewer than 125 censuses on several plots near his North Wilkesboro, 

NC, home between 1954 and 1977, deserves particular mention. 

Chris Oliver typed the Narrative Species Accounts from an often cryptic original 

longhand draft. Anna Ross gave valuable assistance with proofreading and organization of the tables. Bob Biesterfeldt and Me1 Weiland effectively shepherded the 

manuscript through editing and preparation of camera copy, respectively. 
Table of Contents 

Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................ 1 

Legal . Historical Background .......................................... 1 

Purpose ...................................................... 2 

Ecological Perspective .............................................. 2 

Management Overview of Vegetation Types .................................. 3 

Expected Uses of This Work .......................................... 3 

Limitations .................................................... 4 

Chapter I1 Use of This Manual .................................... 5 

Organization ................................................... 5 

Basic Use of This Work ............................................. 8 

Sources of Error ................................................ 10 

Chapter I11 Relationship of Birds to Vegetation Types ...................... 11 

.................................................. Introduction 11 

Vegetation Type Accounts ........................................... 13 

Everglades. Tropical Hardwoods. Mangroves ................................ 13 

Pine Savanna. Southern Scrub Oak. Sand Pine Southern Scrub Oak. 

Longleaf Pine-Scrub Oak. Sandhills Longleaf Pine .............................. 23 

Southern Mixed Mesic Hardwoods. Bayswamp.Pocosin. Pond Pine.Pocosin. Long Leaf 

Pine-Slash Pine. Oak-Gum-Cypress ...................................... 34 

Live Oak Maritime. Elm-Ash-Cotton Wood. Loblolly Pine-Short Leaf Pine. 

Virginia Pine-Pitch Pine. Mixed Pine-Hardwood ............................... 50 

0ak.Hickory. White Pine.Hemlock. Cove Hardwoods. Maple.Beech.Birch. Spruce-Fir .......... 67 

Chapter IV Narrative Species Accounts .............................. 80 

Glossary ................................................ 354 

Literaturecited ............................................ 359 

Appendices ............................................... 367 

A . Summaries of Published Bird Censuses ................................. A-1 

B . Species Occurrence by Vegetation Type. Habitat Suitability. and Season ............... B-1 

C . Summary of Published Bird Density Information in the Southeast. 

from Breeding Bird Censuses and Winter Bird Population Studies. 1947-1979 ............ C-1 

D . Species Associations (Guilds) by Nest Sites. by Foraging Substrates and Behavior. 

and by Diets ............................................... 13-1 

E . Species Requiring Snags. Cavities. or Both ............................... E-1 

F . Species Requiring Large Sawtimber Trees. at Least 20" (50 CM) D.B H. . ............... F- 1 

G . Species Requiring Forest Interior Conditions or Areas of Extensive Forest .............. G-1 

H . Species Using Slash Piles. Windrows and Downed Logs ....................... H-1 

I . Species Using Rock Outcrops. Caves. Crevices. and Earthen Banks .................. 1-1 

J . Species Using Aquatic Habitats for Foraging or Nesting ......................... J-1 

K . SAF Forest Types Equivalent to Vegetation Types in this Work ................... IS-1 

L . USFS Forest Types Equivalent to Vegetation Types in this Work ................... L-1 

M . Neotropical Migratory Birds Treated in this Work ........................... M-1 

N .............................................. . Species Codes N-1 

Index to Bird Species ...................................... Index-1 

Chapter I. 

INTRODUCTION 

Legal-Historica Background 

F orests cover approximately 70% of the landscape in 

the South. In addition to providing valuable supplies 

of wood, fiber, and fuel, they provide invaluable or indispensable habitats for several hundred species of native 

vertebrates. Foresters, wildlife biologists, and other land 

resource managers have long accepted as a truism the statement that "forest management is wildlife management". 

Any management activity that alters the structure and composition of forest vegetation vitally alters wildlife habitats 

and associated wildlife communities and populations. 

Whether these habitat alterations result in good or bad 

wildlife management, however, depends on the forest manager's foresight and ability to consider (and plan for) wildlife requirements when scheduling habitat manipulations. In 

the not too distant past, wildlife management was synonymous with game management and the forest manager's job 

was relatively simple. Scheduling forest management treatments required consideration of the needs of only a handful 

of game birds and mammals. Legislative action over the past 

two decades, however, has significantly increased the public 

forest manager's responsibilities toward wildlife, especially 

on federal lands. 

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 requires 

that the environmental impacts of any federally funded land 

management program be examined and evaluated. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 mandates protection and 

management of endangered and threatened species on Federal lands, and prohibits any adverse impacts on critical 

habitats. And the National Forest Management Act of 1976 

has been interpreted as directing national forest managers to 

protect biological diversity and maintain viable populations 

of all native plants and anlmals. The result of these statutory 

regulations is that all animals, not just game animals, have 

been recognized as renewable forest resources. Consequently, managers of national forests have been directed to 

incorporate the habitat requirements of all native, forestdwelling anlmals into their land management plans. 

Planning for the entire forest wildlife community is a 

formidable task. One need only consider that vertebrates 

alone on the national forests in a single state may number 

several hundred species; the Southern Region of the USDA 

Forest Service encompasses 13 states stretching from Texas 

and Florida to Virginia and Kentucky (and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, not covered by this publication, as 

well). 

Effective planning for such a vast array of wildlife habitats 

and species is a presumptive illusion unless managers are 

equipped with a comprehensive, accessible data base outlining the life histories and habitat requirements of all species. No such data base currently exists for southern forest 

habitats. Adequate information exists, however, in the litT 

erature, and in the notes, files, and experience of knowledgeable biologists to make portions of such a data base a reality. 

The need is to review all available sources of information, 

extract and compile the relevant facts on life histories and 

habitat requirements, and synthesize the diverse data into a 

form usable by the forest wildlife manager. 

This book represents a beginning step toward such a synthesis. It is a comprehensive summary of the life histories 

and habitat associations of all bird species that breed, winter, 

or both in forest habitats in the South. It is limited in scope, 

taxonomically to the birds, and geographically to the 13 

Southern states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, 

Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, eastern 

Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, eastern Texas, and 

Virginia. I hope that this will provide the impetus and 

direction for a truly complete atlas of wildlife habitat relationships for all wildlife taxa across southern forest habitats. 

Long-term plans are for such an atlas to be made available 

both in printed form and as part of a computerized geographic information system. 
T he purpose of the present work is to provide forest land wilt help forest managers to assess effects of potential land 

managers with a comprehensive data base on the life management decisions on birds. 

histories and habitat associations of southern forest birds. 2. Provide a regional avifaunal work summarizing biologiSpecifically, I have attempted to: cal information about the states in the Forest Service South1. Provide specific, detailed information on habitats and ern Region. 

their suitability for individual bird species. This information 

Ecological Pets 

T he basic assumptions of this work are that (a) each bird 

species is adapted to certain successional conditions 

of certain forest vegetation types, and that (b) where those 

conditions are present within the species' range the birds 

will be too. A corollary assumption is that habitat conditions 

required by species can be produced by purposeful management actions. These assumptions seem reasonable, but require further elaboration and verification. 

Forest habitats are continuously distributed across the 

southern landscape. Numerous studies, of which Whittaker 

(1967) is a classic illustration, have documented that tree 

species are distributed independently of each other across 

environmental gradients. However, naturalists have proposed forest or vegetation type classifications (e.g. Braun 

1964) in order to discuss, to research, or to manage these 

continuous communities. The discrete categories of vegetation classifications are, at best, only approximations of the 

variability of the ecosystems they characterize. At the same 

time, communication about wildlife habitat relationships 

and integration of wildlife and timber management is facilitated substantially by such classifications. 

Our success in relating birds to vegetation types and successional stages depends upon the accuracy of our assumptions. Our model, that bird distribution is determined 

primarily by habitat selection based upon certain key habitat 

elements, is reasonable but unproven. If such a model is 

reasonably accurate, and if the requisite habitat elements can 

be associated with vegetation types, then the habitat-relationships approach presented here will be adequate (Shugart 

et al. 1978). 

Experience in game management demonstrates that specific habitat elements can be produced by purposeful manipulations. Our knowledge of habitat requirements is the 

major limiting factor in such management. If our model of 

habitat associations is accurate then habitat management 

will work. Where knowledge of habitat requirements is 

weak or lacking, however, the anticipated effects of management are less certain. 

Present knowledge of habitat requirements for most bird 

species is based upon field observations rather than controlled studies of requisite habitat elements. Numerous species 

occupy many forest types, indicating that species habitat 

requirements may have little direct association with vegetation type categories. While uncertainties inherent in linking 

requirements to discrete habitat categories must be acknowledged, they need not be feared. Where appropriate, habitat 

relationships described in terms of vegetation types must be 

abandoned in favor of approaches more precisely tuned to 

the biology of particular species. 
Management Ovenriew of Vegetation Types 

and Suc 

V egetation types and their successional stages form the 

organizational basis of this work. I have adopted type 

categories that are meaningful to understanding the distribution of avian communities in the South. These vegetation 

types do not coincide precisely with any standard forest 

classification scheme. Introductory remarks to each vegetation type define the equivalency relationships between these 

vegetation types and those recognized by the National Forest Systems (WS; USDA 19791, the Society of American 

Foresters (SAF; Eyre 1980), and the Forest Service RenewEx Uses of This Work 

T his work is an information retrieval source for 2 

primary applications. First, and primarily, this book is 

designed for forest land managers involved with planning 

silvicultural manipulations of forest stands. It is intended to 

aid the manager both in prescribing treatments aimed at 

improving avian habitats and in assessing and ameliorating 

the impacts of other management activities on bird communities. Second, given the acknowledged imprecision of 

much of the available data on avian habitat associations, I 

offer it as a working hypothesis for ornithologists and as a 

challenge to stimulate research on avian habitat requirements. 

Land Management Applications 

At the local or ranger district level, the work can be used 

to prescribe habitat improvements for birds and to infer 

consequences to bird populations of alternative management practices. This use is applicable to project planning 

during preparation of compartment prescriptions. The matrices can be used to determine anticipated consequences to 

the avifauna whenever the effects of a silvicultural treatment 

can be expressed as changes in forest stands, such as alterations in species composition, canopy cover, or understory 

density. On a larger scale, such as forest planning, the work 

can be used to estimate the effects on bird communities of 

alternative management prescriptions in larger management 

units defined by vegetation composition and structure. Projections made with the rnatrices can be extended over the 

time frame involved in the planning process. At the state or 

regional level, the work forms the basis for evaluating the 

efficacy of established or proposed wildlife management 

able Resources Inventory and Evaluation (RRE: McClure 

1979, Cost 1979). 

I recognize 4 successional stages based upon vegetation 

physiognomy. These 4 physiognornie stages can be related 

to specific stand ages only imprecisely. Numerous factors 

peculiar to individual sites and their sunoundings inject 

enormous variation into attempts to define successional 

stages by age alone. In my opinion, the most important 

features for habitat selection by birds are physiognomic 

ones, not ages; I have adopted successional stages defined 

in that fashion. 

policies. (Indeed, the species list in Appendix B is my 

estimate of the breeding and wintering avifauna of forest 

habitats of the 13 states in the South.) 

Ornithological and Ecological 

Applications 

Two specific applications of this work to present ornithological and ecological study exist. First, the habitat matrices 

constitute hypotheses of bird community structure in the 

Southeast. Second, the review of the published census literature identifies areas in which new quantitative data are 

needed. 

Ornithologists and ecologists recognize that vegetation 

structure and composition are powerful predictors of the 

composition and richness of bird communities (e.g. MacArthur 1972, Cyr and Cyr 1979, Beedy 1981, Holrnes and 

Robinson 1981). I have extended that recognition into the 

assumption that structure and composition of vegetative 

habitats are a sufficient set of factors to predict accurately 

the bird communities of homogeneous patches of forest 

such as stands of 8-20 ha (20-50 acres). The vegetation type 

matrices are constructed on that basis. In so doing I have 

given only passing consideration to interspecific interactions as determinants of observed communities in spite of 

an extensive literature dealing with them (Cody 1974, Cody 

and Diamond 1975, but see also Wiens 1977). The specieshabitat matrices are thus hypotheses of bird communities; 

hypotheses constructed from an initial assumption that adaptation to the vegetative environment influences community structure more than competitive processes. Careful 
empirical tests of these hypotheses will reveal the extent to 

which the assumption is reasonable. 

Whether this assumption is reasonable or unreasonable, 

comparisons of extant breeding and winter bird communities with predicted communities will be valuable. Results of 

such studies can be used to improve our understanding of 

the composition of avian communities. Simitarly, this information is vitally important to implement and improve habiLimitations 

T his work 

different 

is 1 in a series, produced independently by 

workers, to supply management information 

on nongame species in different areas of the United States 

(Thomas 1979, Verner and Boss 1980, DeGraaf et al. 1980, 

U. S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Region 1981, Evans 

and Kirkman 1981). Like the others, this is a review of 

relevant information about the life histories and habitat 

requirements of the included species. Information relating 

bird species to forested habitats constitutes a summary of 

literature and of professional judgments. As such, these lists 

are hypotheses subject to empirical verification. All the 

limitations addressed in the symposium on avian censusing 

(Ralph and Scott 1981) and by Verner (1985) apply to the 

published censuses utilized in this work. These include 

observer variability (Eagles and Tobias 1978); peculiarities 

of specific plots; nonstandard reporting of vegetative characteristics; single year samples; uneven coverage of different habitat types; uncertainties of field techniques, data 

analyses, and data summarization (Robbins 1978); as well 

as other factors such as the landscape context in which a 

particular stand is located. 

tat management for avian communities in the South. Failures of the predictions are the raw material for the development of more successful models of avian community 

structure. Extensive gaps exist in our knowledge of avian 

communities in the South and of the species that compose 

those communities. Identified gaps provide an outline of 

valuable future research needs in avian ecology and nongame management in the South. 

Biological attributes of certain species render them difficult to interpret. Problem species include those whose home 

ranges are Larger than usual forest stands (many raptors, 

turkeys, crows, some woodpeckers, and all wading birds); 

nocturnal species (such as owls and nightjars); aerial feeders 

(including swifts and swallows); all winter species, especially erratically occurring "winter finches" and flocking 

frugivores (such as American Robins and Cedar Waxwings); and all species that occur at low densities, such as 

below 1 bird or pair per 40 ha (100 acres). 

I stress the great importance of testing these data by 

monitoring and censusing avian communities in forest 

stands, and then using the results of those tests to improve 

the data. The ultimate value of hypothesized, estimated, or 

predicted community composition lies in the ability to attach 

a measure of error to the prediction. Confident estimation of 

error rates for these hypothesized densities awaits considerably more study. Data of unknown precision, such as these, 

when accepted as facts rather than as hypotheses, can lead 

to bad management decisions as easily as to good ones. This 

work is a starting point. 
Chapter 11. 

USE OF THIS MANUAL 

T his work treats the bird specles that regularly breed, 

winter, or both In forest habitats in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, 

North Carolina, eastern Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, eastern Texas, and Virginia as shown below (shaded 

areas denote national forests.) 

Organization 

D ata on these bird species are presented in an integrated 

fashion that involves 3 separate, cross-referenced 

methods: species-habitat matrices, narrative species accounts, and special appendices. Additional, specific instructions for using the information provided are given in 

introductory remarks to the separate sections. The present 

chapter outlines each of the sections and presents general 

strategies for using the work to predict bird communities, to 

plan management activities for birds, and to evaluate management alternatives. 

Species that migrate through the region but neither breed 

nor winter here are excluded. Species that do not utilize 

forests or forest successional habitats have been omitted, 

with the exception of species occurring in the Everglades 

and coastal Louisiana marshes. Thus, a number of waterbirds, especially waterfowl, shorebirds, and gulls and terns, 

are omitted from this survey. These birds are, for the most 

part, associated with ponds, marshes, mudflats, and other 

wetland habitats. On the other hand, most members of the 

orders Pelecaniformes and Ciconiiformes are discussed, 

because they usually nest in shrubs or trees, even though 

they forage in aquatic, often nonforested, habitats. A few 

species with urban habitats, such as Rock Dove, European 

Starling, and House Sparrow, are included, because they 

frequently perch in trees, and they forage in early successional stages of forest habitats. European Starlings frequently nest in trees and roost in forests or thickets in the 

winter. 

In summary, the work includes all land birds that breed or 

winter regularly in forest habitats of the South; I exclude 

only a small number of recently introduced species that are 

poorly established. Most of these latter species occur only 

in subtropical Florida. 

Qualitative Bird-Habitat Association 

Matrices 

For each of 23 vegetation types, a habitat association 

matrix shows how bird species commonly use stands of that 

type. The bird-habitat matrices are similar to those designed 

by Verner and Boss (1980) for the presentation of data on 

bird-habitat associations of the Sierra Nevada in California. 

Vegetation type designations are based on those presented 

by several sources (e.g., Shelford 1963, Braun 1964), but 

they do not correspond to any single scheme. A vegetation 

type classification suits this purpose better than a forest type 

classification. Forest type classifications are typically based 

solely on commercially important tree species. Vegetation 
type categories utilizing major plant associations, topography, and geography better capture the rich vaiation in forest 

habitats. In general, birds seem to select habitats primarily 

on the basis of physical structure of vegetation as well as 

topography, rather than on the presence of single tree species. Obviously, however, composition is important as well, 

as indicated in the nmes of certain species, e.g. Pine Warbler, Sedge Wren. 

The vegettttion types chosen for this study include essentially all of the major types found in the 13 states of the 

South. Everglades is included because it covers a large 

po~-rion of southern Florida and is considered a distinct 

vegetation type by all authorities. In several cases it became 

necessary to designate types not generally recognized by 

most authorities in order to include "mixed" forests, especially forests with a combination of pine and hardwood 

overstory trees. Many bird species utilize such forests to a 

greater extent than either pure coniferous or pure deciduous 

forests. However, it must be borne in mind that both forest 

type and vegetation type designations are arbitrary concepts 

rather than discrete entities. Consequently, any use of forest 

type or vegetation type masks some important natural variation. I persist in using these conceptual categories to facilitate practical handling of an enormous mass of data and to 

integrate information on bird habitats into the same conceptual framework used by forest managers in their forest 

resource inventories and planning. 

The matrices do not contain all habitats present In the 

South. (A habitat is a slngle successional stage column in a 

matrix, representing a range of age classes of similar physiognomy within a single vegetation type.) The habitats in a 

matrix consist only of seral stages of major forest vegetation types. Habitats associated with urban, suburban, and 

agricultural land uses, as well as wetlands such as marshes, 

reservoirs, and oceanic habitats, are not treated. Inclusion of 

these additional types would have increased greatly the 

number of matrices and the excluded habitats would be of 

little concern to the forest land manager, for whom the work 

is primarily intended. 

The seral stages of the vegetation types are similar to those 

used by Verner and Boss (1980) and DeGraaf et al. (1980). 

The 4 classes are grasslforb, shrublseedling, saplinglpoletimber, and sawtimber. Too few data exist to permit 

treatment of distinct canopy coverage classes in the older 

age classes or distinct understory volume classes, or to 

recognize separate classes of other important habitat variables. Not all of the vegetation types exhibit all 4 seral 

stages. For example, the Everglades type exists only in the 

grasslforb stage. 

Each bird species included in the study is listed in the 

matrices for those vegetation types used by individuals of 

that species. A few species, mainly those of urban habitats 

and agricultural areas, utilize none of the habitats extensively. For many species, optimal habitats are not present in 

any of these vegetation types, and only suitable or marginal 

habitats are indicated. Data presented in the matrices were 

derived from examination of all relevant literature plus 

accumulated field experience where literature sources were 

inadequate or lacking (Hamel et al. 1982). In some cases, 

especially for birds found primarily in Florida where Hamel 

et al. (1982) had limited field experience, decisions on 

habitat use were based almost solely on the literature. Frequently used references were Sprunt (1 9541, Ogden (1 9691, 

Roberlson and KushIan (1974), and Kale (1978). 

Treatment of each type involves: (A) definition of the type; 

(B) equivalence relations between our vegetation type and 

the U. S. Forest Service National Forest Systems (NFS; 

USDA 19791, Society of American Foresters (SAF; Eyre 

1980), and USFS Renewable Resource Evaluation (RRE; 

McClure 1979, Cost 1979) types; (C) pertinent physiographic and other considerations about the type; (D) important bird-habitat interactions in the type; (E) a summary of 

the published censuses and other literature on birds in the 

type; (F) lists of characteristic and restricted species in the 

type; and (6) the matrix of seasonal bird-habitat associations for the type. Each matrix includes a list of breeding 

and wintering birds associated with the type, and suitability 

ratings of each successional stage habitat (grasslforb, 

shrublseedling, saplinglpoletimber, and sawtimber) of the 

type for each bird species. Discussion of each of these 

elements of a treatment is presented in the introductory 

remarks to Chapter III. 

Presented for each bird species in each matrix are columns 

of information on utilization of various habitat elements, 

and on specific habitat requirements. These additional cob 

umns of information will be useful to the worker in evaluating the potential of specific stands in the type as habitats 

for individual bird species. 

Qualitative data presented in the matrices reflect general 

faunal accounts of the species, and, wherever possible, 

published census information from the South. Because few 

published data are available for much of the region, I have 

relied on accumulated field experience where published 

information is lacking. 

Quantitative estimates of the breeding and winter densities 

of bird species of the South were obtained primarily from 2 

programs of the National Audubon Society, the Breeding 

Bird Census (BBC; Hall 19641, begun in 1936, and the 

Winter Bird Populations Study (WBPS; Kolb 1965), initiated in 1948. In concept, both programs are plot studies. The 

BBC utilizes a spot-mapping approach to density estimation 

(Intl. Bird Census Comm. 19701, while the WBPS uses 

mean numbers of individualsltrip as its data. Studies are 

published in the Journal ofField Ornithology at the present 

time. Formerly they were published in American Birds and 

its predecessor, Audubon Field Notes, and include an account of the habitat as well as a list of bird species with 

abundance estimates standardized to birdsl4O ha (100 

acres). 

All studies made in the 5 southeastern states (Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, and Georgia) that 

appeared in either publication since establishment of 

Audubon Field Notes in 1947 until 1979 were included in 

the sample. I referred to selected studies from among the 28 

published in 1981, but was unable to include these in the 

analyses. Several studies made in aquatic or marine habitats 

were also excluded from analysis. 

From each account the following data were extracted: 

State, 

latitude and longitude, 

plot size, 

elevation, 

vegetation type as defined for the matrix herein, 

successional stage as defined for the matrix herein, 

bird species, and 

bird abundance standardized to birdsf40 ha (100 acres). 

Rare species are recorded in the BBC and WBPS as "+" 

to signify an abundance of less than 1 territory or individual 

on the plot and as "V" for species that visited the plot but 

did not breed or winter there. I adopted 2 conventions to 

express these low abundances quantitatively for our presentation. First, visiting species (V) were uniformly accorded 

an abundance of 0.1 individuals or pairsf40 ha. Second, 

species recorded as "+" were assigned abundances of 1 

individual or pair140 ha for plots < 20 ha in size, and 0.5 

individuals or pairs140 ha for larger plots. Furthermore, I 

usually rounded larger abundance figures to the nearest 

integer. 

This quantitative census literature is the most comprehensive source of abundance data on birds in the Southeast. It 

is, nevertheless, subject to a variety of errors, some of which 

restrict the usefulness of the data for present purposes. The 

symposium on bird censusing (Ralph and Scott 1981) presents detailed criticism of the spot-mapping technique. All 

sources of error identified there may affect results reported 

in this quantitative literature. Additional uncertainty affects 

the utility of the censuses. Published habitat descriptions, 

particularly in the first 25 years of these programs, were 

qualitative narratives lacking specific numerical data. 

Hence, assignments of plots to vegetation types and particularly to successional stages is subject to an unknown amount 

of error. I have chosen to ignore this source of error for the 

most part. However, where published results differed widely 

from other literature and field experience (as the 5 1 pairsl40 

ha of Field Sparrows reported from a sawtimber plot in 

oak-hickory vegetation in Virginia), I have used the other 

literature and our experience in preference to the published 

censuses. 

Organization of Narrative Species 

Accounts 

The narrative species accounts cioseiy follow the formats 

of Verner and Boss (1 980) and DeGraaf et al. (1980), so that 

the Weatments will be comparable. The purpose of the 

narratives is to provide both quantitative and qualitattve 

information on the biology and habitat requirements of the 

species. %'here a species has been given legal protection in 

addition to that prok~ided by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 

a section on legal status lists the federal andlor state designation for species and subspecies. State natural heritage 

programs that track the species are fisted in this section as 

well. The section also mentions those cases in which the bird 

was listed by Tale (1981) on the National Audubon Society's Blue List of species whose populations are thought to 

be declining. When a species has been designated as sensitive by the Regional Forester, national forests where this 

listing applies are noted. 

The abundance status of each species is also listed, with 

information on arrival and departure dates and elevation of 

occurrence. Comments on habitats, habitat requirements, 

sample densities, reproduction, food habits, and foragingnesting guild are intended to provide insight into the biology 

of each species. This information is presented in order to 

assist the manager in prescribing treatments of forest habitats to benefit birds. A range map, showing both breeding 

and wintering ranges, is provided for each species. The maps 

will assist in interpretation of lists of occurrence by state and 

physiographic province as these relate to actual range 

boundaries. The references listed provide access to accounts 

of species in generally available faunal works. 

The majority of the data entered in the narratives is a 

composite of information taken from several sources. 

Breeding and food habits data are taken primarily from Bent 

(1926-1958; Bent and Austin 1968a, 1968b, 1968~) and 

Ehrlich et al. (1988). The following also were helpful in 

providing breeding data: Palmer (1962), Reilly (1968), Robbins and Bystrak (1977), and Larner (1979). Data for preparing the range maps and status sections were obtained 

from Sprunt (1 954), Burleigh (195 8), Pearson et al. (19591, 

Ogden (1969), Sprunt and Chamberlain (1970), Robertson 

and Kushlan (19741, Denton (1977), and Larner (1979), 

Root (1988), the Breeding Bird Survey (Sam Droege, pers. 

comm.), as well as Christmas Bird Count and other data 

found in American Birds. 

In summary, these accounts are designed to give the reader 

some general information on the status and biology of each 

species, with habitat descriptions supplementing the habitat 

data provided in the matrices. Further explanation of the 

categories is provided in the introductory remarks to Chapter IV. 
Organization of Appendices 

I have reorganized some of the information presented in 

the vegetation type and narrative species accounts into a set 

of 12 appendices. These are intended as cross-referenced 

summaries of information frequently sought by managers, 

Basic Use of This Work 

Preparing a Bird List 

The most basic use of this work is for preparing a bird list 

for a plot or forest stand in a particular location. All uses of 

the work for inventory or management will require at least 

one such bird list. In order to accomplish this, the following 

steps are required: 

A. Specifying the characteristics of the stand or forest 

property in terms of: 

1. Geographic location 

(a) state 

(b) physiographic province, see Figure 1. 

2. Vegetation type, in NFS, SAF, RRE, or this scheme. 

NFS and SAF types can be translated into ours by 

use of Appendices K and L. 

3. Successional stage, as grasslforb, shrublseedling, 

saplinglpoletimber, or sawtimber. 

4. Particular features of the site, such as closed vs. open 

canopy, presence and size of snags, rock outcrops, 

earth banks, permanent or temporary water, and 

other features. 

5. Size of the plot. Appendix I lists species with 

potential area sensitivity that may require forested 

areas of certain minimal sizes. 

B. Referring to the appropriate vegetation type matrix to 

identify the pool of species most likely associated with 

the site: 

1. Locate the appropriate vegetation type in the manual; 

2. identify the appropriate successional stage column 

in the table for that vegetation type; 

3. list the species with entries for the appropriate season 

in that column; 

4. screen the list 

(a) omit those species not occurring in the state and 

physiographic province of the plot; 

(b) further eliminate those species whose substrate 

utilization or specific requirements include features 

not present on the site. 

6. At this point a probable bird list has been developed 

for the plot. It may be used without further modification 

as an estimate of species that are likely to use the plot. 

Successful management depends upon the precision with 

which they would otherwise have to extract repeatedly from 

data dispersed in the vegetation type treatments and narrative species accounts. Pertinent comments about each appendix, including questions each is designed to answer, are 

provided in introductory remarks to the appendices. 

which the effects of management activities on bird populations can be assessed. Bird communities in forest stands can 

be predicted and monitored at 3 levels of precision. Presence-absence information is the simplest and least informative level of precision. If a land manager wants to know 

whether or not his management program is providing habitat 

for a bird species, or whether or not their property has 

potential to harbor certain species, presence-absence information is satisfactory. 

More specific prediction can also be done, on two levels, 

(A) a semi-quantitative and (B) a quantitative one. 

A. The semi-quantitative level involves the suitability 

ratings presented for different successional stage habitats of each vegetation type for each bird species. If a 

land manager wants to know whether or not their 

management program Is providing better quality habitats for a bird species, then they must be able to rate the 

relative suitabilities of different habitat conditions 

available before and after the treatments are conducted. 

Semi-quantitative predictions can be made as follows: 

entries in the successional stage columns of each matrix are listed on an ordinal scale of relative suitability, 

as marginal ("M"), suitable ("S"), or optimal ("0) 

habitat for the species. In general, birds for whom a 

habitat is optimal are more likely to be present than 

those for whom it is suitable. Birds for whom the 

habitat is marginal may or may not be present (Hamel 

et al. 1988). Birds with large body sizes or large home 

ranges are less likely to occur in a habitat of a given 

suitability than are species whose body sizes or home 

ranges are small. 

B. Quantitative predictions can be derived from suitability ratings in any of several ways, depending upon the 

assumptions the user wishes to make about the relationship of suitability rating to actual density. If a land 

manager has developed specific production goals in 

terms of populations of a species, then they require 

quantitative information on the density of the species 

before and after management activities are performed. 

I suggest 2 alternative methods for converting suitability ratings to estimated densities, involving (1) the 

average recorded density on plots in the South or (2) 

the maximum average density recorded on plots in a 

single habitat in the South. 
Estimated density figures can be calculated from 

these average density figures and the habitat suitability 

ratings in a number of ways. Preliminary attempts to 

predict density on the basis of habitat suitability ratings 

and validate those predictions against published censuses have been encouraging (LeGrand and Hamel 

1980, Hamel et al. 1986, Hamel et al. 1988); however, 

until extensive field testing is conducted, the results are 

nothing more than educated guesses. In any case, the 

methods work best with those territorial species whose 

home ranges are small relative to the size of a forest 

stand (ca. 8-20 ha); they work poorly or not at all with 

non-territorial species and those with large home 

ranges. Thus, densities of most passerines and woodpeckers can be predicted more accurately than can 

herons and egrets, hawks, Pileated Woodpeckers, 

crows, and nocturnal species such as owls and caprimulgids. 

Many conversion functions are possible. It is the 

user's responsibility to choose an appropriate one. 

Because each of the suggested methods depends upon 

an average of several or many censuses, predictions 

made with these techniques will not generate suggested 

densities in optimal habitats that are as large as the 

largest published from the Southeast. They can thus be 

considered conservative techniques in this sense. Contrariwise, as averages overestimate low values, these 

techniques may overestimate the lowest densities recorded. I encourage users to test these data rationally, 

and to apply them prudently. 

Predicting Effects of a Management 

Treatment 

Often the manager's purpose in predicting bird lists will 

be to allow assessment of effects that proposed management activities are likely to have on the associated avifauna. 

The ability to anticipate impacts on birds provides the 

manager with the foresight to impose restrictions or mitigating actions to ameliorate any probable adverse impacts. 

Evaluating effects of alternative management treatments on 

the avifauna involves the following steps: 

A. The possible treatment and its effects on the vegetation 

of a stand must be specified in terms compatible with 

the vegetation data presented in the matrices. Anticipated treatment effects might include type conversions, shifts in successional stages, or other alterations 

to vegetation structure or specific habitat components. 

B. A pre-treatment list must be developed, as above, to 

reflect the expected bird community of the stand before 

treatment. 

C. Second, a post-treatment list must be developed, as 

above, to reflect the expected bird community of the 

stand after treatment. 

D. A comparison of the 2 lists will reveal those birds 

likely to benefit and those likely to be adversely impacted by the treatment. 

E. These effects can potentially be quantified in terms not 

only of presence of individual species but also in terms 

of relative abundance. 

I;. The final results of the analysis constitute a crude 

community level assessment of the potential effects of 

the treatment. 

Assessing effects of alternative management treatments 

primarily involves relating the effects of the proposed treatments to habitat elements listed in the matrices. Once the 

effects are specified in this way, preparing a bird list that 

reflects the anticipated treatment is a straightforward process of referring to the matrices, For example, a manager may 

wish to examine and compare the effects of controlled 

burning, of clearcutting, or of type conversion on the avifauna of a stand. 

Each of these treatments constitutes a change in one or 

more vegetative habitat elements in that stand. Controlled 

burning involves selective removal of leaf litter, herbaceous 

groundcover, and woody understory vegetation, without 

impacting the overstory. Thus, species dependent upon the 

understory and midstory will be negatively impacted and 

those dependent upon the overstory likely will be unaffected. In the matrix, the pre- and post-treatment lists will 

both come from the same successional stage column; the 

post-treatment list will not include species dependent upon 

the removed understory, leaf litter,and herbaceous cover. 

Clearcutting involves a change in successional stage from 

sawtimber to grass-forb, and the bird lists are prepared from 

the different columns in the same matrix. 

Modifications to the post-treatment list can be made depending upon how specific habitat elements, such as slash 

piles and windrows, are treated during site preparation after 

the cut. Finally, type conversion involves a change from one 

vegetation type to another, and the effects of such a management alternative can be found by comparing the relevant 

list from the initial vegetation type with that from the final 

vegetation type. Many other aldrnative treatments can be 

evaluated by describing their effects upon specific habitat 

elements and using combinations of matrix columns to 

determine which birds will be affected by the proposed 

management activities. Users must keep in mind that this is 

a summary document, based upon hypotheses of habitat 

relationships, and that projections of species changes as a 

result of management activity are projections only, and 

considerable testing must be done before the accuracy of 

these projections can be indicated. 
Prescribing 

Selected or 

Habitat Management for 

Featured Species 

Developing management programs to benefit selected species or selected groups of species is a process similar to that 

of assessing the effi=c& of alternative management activities. 

In this situation, however, instead of determining which 

birds will be affected by which management practices, the 

emphasis is placed upon finding specific management practices that will benefit the selected species. 

Species may be selected for management for many reasons, such as their sensitivity to specific disturbances, legal 

status, glamour, aesthetics, recreational or economic value, 

desirability to birdwatchers, or other reasons. Once a species 

is selected, development of a management program for it 

begins with the narrative species account and associated 

reference material, matrix entries, and appendices, in which 

data are presented on the specific requirements of the species. The manager can, using this information, choose specific management practices that enhance the development 

of those habitat elements required by the birds. For example, 

management programs deslgned to Increase populations of 

cavity nesters, such as Pileated Woodpeckers, requlre the 

provision of sufficient quantities of snags of the proper size. 

Given this information, the manager can choose an appropriate method to provide the requisite snags. 

Sou of Error in P icting Bird Lists and 

E terndive Silvicultural Prescriptions 

ources of error exist at every step in using the manual 

to predict the composition of bird communities. First, 

because of gaps in the published literature, the initial suitability ratings are not entirely accurate; changes in these 

will result in potentially large changes in densities computed 

from them. The ratings are likely to vary most where species 

use similar habitats to differing degrees in different locations. Likewise, the history of a particular stand can have a 

strong bearing on the avifauna found there. Stands on poor, 

eroded sites cannot be expected to support plant or animal 

communities as rich as stands that have not been subject to 

such past abuse. Presence or absence of species in an otherwise suitable habitat may also be affected by the size of the 

patch of forest in which the habitat is located (C.S. Robbins 

1979, Robbins et al. 1989). 

Second, mean densities derived from published censuses 

may not adequately reflect densities achieved by the birds 

in nature. For example, the high average breeding density 

for Northern Parulas (44 pairsl40 ha) is only 30% of the 

highest density recorded in the South, and less than 50% of 

that routinely recorded in censuses in old-growth bottomland hardwood stands in Congaree Swamp NatIonali Monument in South Carolina (Hamel 1989). The reasons for this 

discrepancy are inherent in the variability and unevenness 

of coverage in published censuses. 

Third, possible conversion functions relating suitability 

ratings to predicted densities are not thoroughly tested, thus 

they can be expected to add further uncertainties. Finally, 

combining predicted densities for pre- and post-treatment 

conditions magnifies any existing errors. 

Because of the various sources of error in data presented 

in this manual, the manager must use caution and sound 

professional judgment in developing predictions and Interpretations from them. In spite of the problems noted above, 

these data are the most comprehensive available for the 

South. The wildlife resource is certainly best served when 

the manager applies the best information available rather 

than decrying the lack of or imprecision of data and doing 

nothing at all. By applying and testing the principles and 

data at hand we will be able to improve our efforts and our 

precision in the future. 
Chapter HI 

LATIONSHIPS OF BI 

GETATION TYPES 

T his chapter presents matrices showing associations of 

birds to habitat for the 23 vegetation types recognized 

in this manual. Each matrix is preceded by a short narrative 

account. Each account presents the definition of the type, 

includes pertinent remarks on the physiographic or other 

features associated with the type that are important to birds, 

and identifies the type with corresponding SAF and NFS 

forest types. Each account further lists relevant BBC or 

WBPS data from the type published in 1947-1979; presents 

lists of species that are characteristic of or restricted to the 

type; and, where available, lists useful references to birds in 

the type. 

The matrices can also be found as Lotus 1,2,3 and Excel 

spreadsheets, and as delimited text files on a floppy diskette 

which accompanies this book. Instructions for using the 

spreadsheets are included with the diskette. 

Exhaustive lists of literature bearing only vaguely on birdhabitat associations in the types are not presented. Instead, 

only the most important reviews dealing specifically with 

bird-habitat associations and management of birds in the 

type are included. Such pertinent literature is scarce or 

nonexistent, pointing out areas in which research, often 

extensive research, is necessary. Much of the available 

information resulted from several recent workshops conducted to compile existing material and outline future research needs (Smith 1975; DeGraaf 1978a,1978b; DeGraaf 

and Evans 1979; DeGraaf and Tilghman 1980). 

The sequence of the vegetation types generally reflects a 

geographic and physiographic gradient from Everglades 

marsh in the lowlands of southern Florida to spruce-fir forest 

in the highlands of North Carolina and Virginia. The vegetation types are: 

1. Everglades, 

2. Tropical hardwoods, 

3. Mangroves, 

4. Pine savanna, 

5. Southern scrub oak, 

6. Sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

7. Longleaf pine-scrub oak, 

8. Sandhills longleaf pine, 

9. Southern mixed mesic hardwoods, 

10. Bay swamp-pocosin, 

1 1. Pond pine pocosin, 

12. Longleaf pine-slash pine 

13.Oak-gum-cypress, 

14. Live oak maritime, 

15. Elm-ash-cottonwood 

16. Loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 

17, Virginia pine-pitch pine, 

18. Mixed pine-hardwood, 

19. Oak-hickory, 

20. White pine-hemlock, 

2 1. Cove hardwoods, 

22. Maple-beech-birch, and 

23. Spruce-fir. 

Accounts are grouped, to the extent practicable, with accounts of vegetation types likely to occur in the same 

physiographic region. Each group is followed by a matrix 

which lists the birds that occur in each type. Each entry 

includes information about the suitability of successionalZ 

stages of the type, substrate utilization patterns, and specific 

habitat requirements of the birds. Each species that occurs 

in a particular vegetation type has a row in the matrix for 

that vegetation type for each season (breeding, or wintering, 

or both) in which it occurs in that type. Entries in the rows 

of the matrices are grouped into 4 categories, reading left to 

right across a matrix: (A) seasonal occurrence; (B) suitability of successional stages of that vegetation type; (C) utilization of various canopy layer substrates of a forest; and (D) 

specific habitat requirements. Three of these categories (A), 

(C), and (D) pertain specifically to the bird species, in&- 

pendently of the vegetation type. The fourth category, @), 

indicates the suitability of each of 4 successional stages of 

the vegetation type for each species. The distinction between the bird species dependent categories (A,C, and D) 

and the bird-habitat association category, (B), is important, 

because the information presented in categories (A), (C), or 

(D) may not apply in the same way in all vegetation types. 
Thus, some combinations of columns may provide contradictory or inaccurate infomation; it is the user's responsibility to recognize this possibility. At the present time, 

insufficient data exist to permit indication of differential use 

of substrates, key habitat requirements, and successional 

stages of habitats in different parts of the South. The narrative specles accounts provide general information on relative abundance of the species in different physiographic 

regions. 

Geographic and seasonal occurrence 

The first column of each matrix lists the seasons (Breeding-B, or Winter-W) in which a species occurs in the South. 

A final column in this sectlon, "Local Area," is provided for 

the user to mark species known to occur in his or her local 

area. 

Successional stages 

For each of 4 successional stage habitats of each vegetation 

type I present a suitability rating for each species in each 

season of occurrence in that vegetation type. The stages are 

( 1 )grass/forb, (2)shrub/seedling, (3)sapling/poletimber, and 

(4)sawtimber. Four levels of suitability of the different 

successional stages of a vegetation type are possible for each 

species in each season of occurrence. The levels are "Woptimal habitat, "S"suitab1e habitat, and "Mmmarginal habitat; 

blank columns indicate unsuitable habitats in which the 

species is unlikely to occur. Optimal habitats are those in 

which the species occurs in highest frequency, greatest 

numbers, or both. Similarly, suboptimal and marginal habitats are those in which the species occurs in successively 

lower numbers and frequency. 

Substrate utilization 

Here are listed, in simplified form, those portions of the 

forest environment utilized by each species for various life 

activities. The main objective in this presentation has been 

to associate the species with the various canopy levels they 

use, rather than to identify all recognizable behaviord categories. Thus, the reader will understand that such disparate 

activities as singing, roosting, sleeping, and preening have 

been combined under the general rubric of "prching.'"e 

data presented in these columns of the matrices were derived 

from the species accounts from which the narratives were 

prepared. Appendix D groups the species by this information, and by that in the guild accounts, into nesting, foraging, 

and dietary guilds. 

Specific requirements 

Here are presented those habitat elements in Southern forests requiring particular attention from managers along with 

species likely to be affected by manipulation of those elements. Because these elements are of particular importance, 

I further group the species associated with most of these 

elements into separate appendices devoted specifically to 

single elements. Some of the information presented here is 

common knowledge, such as the species requiring earth 

banks, rock outcrops, and slash piles or windrows. Other 

information is reasonably well supported by a combination 

of literature and field experience, such as the species utilizing aquatic habitats or snags (Scott et al. 1977, Evans and 

Conner 1979). Requirements for differing canopy densities, 

grassy forest openings, and particularly for large sawtimber 

trees, are more conjectural, because too few data exist for 

the South. Research into old-growth associations in the 

South is desperately needed, for known virgin stands are 

scarce and not all types are represented. I have included only 

those species in the list of species of large sawtimber trees 

where the authors of Hamel et al. (1982) agreed that a 

species achieved greater density and frequency of occurrence in stands of such trees. Other species not listed may 

achieve greater abundance in old-growth stands as well. 
Vegetation Type Accounts 

Everglades (EVER) 

This nonforested vegetation type that has no SAF or NFS 

counterpart is included because it is an extensive, nonmarine 

environment that occupies a substantial part of southern 

Florida. Everglades are biologically important as the primary habitat for numerous aquatic and marsh inhabiting 

birds. For purposes of this work, the coastal wetlands of the 

nurthern Gulf Coast in Lousiana are considered equivalent 

to this type. 

Only the grassiforb stage habitat is included in the matrix. 

I assume, in the characterizations, that some scattered trees 

and shrubs are present as perching sites, but that these are 

not aggregated into hammocks of forest stand proportions 

(ca. 20-50 acres, 8-20 ha). 

One BBC and 1 WBPS have been published for this type 

from the Southeast 1947- 1979. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Least Bitterns, 

American Bitterns (W), Northern Harriers (W), King Rails, 

Common Yellowthroats, and Red-winged Blackbirds. 

Restricted primarily to this type are Snail Kites. 

Many common species of the type are treated in Sprunt et 

al. (1978). Wade et al. (1980) discuss this and other south 

Florida vegetation types. S ykes and Hunter (1 978) present 

some information on habitat use by birds in modified Everglades habitats. 

Tropical Hardwoods (TROP) 

This vegetation type includes forests of central and southern Florida in which various species of mostly tropical 

broadleaf evergreen trees, singly or in combination, constitute a plurality of the stocking. These forests are rarely, if 

ever, flooded. No NFS equivalent exists, The type is the 

same as SAF type 105, tropical hardwoods; and RRE type 

95, other tropical. 

No BBC or WPS was reported from this type in 1947- 

1979. 

Characteristic bird species of this vegetation type are 

White-crowned Pigeons (B), Yellow-billed Cuckoos (B), 

Great Crested Flycatchers (W), Gray Catbirds (W), Whiteeyed Vireos, Black-whiskered Vireos (B), Prairie Warblers 

(W), Palm Warblers (W), and Northern Cardinals. 

Black-whiskered Vireos (B) are restricted to this type. 

Wade et al. (1980) discuss this and other south Florida 

vegetation types. 

Mangroves (MANG) 

This vegetation type includes forests, primarily in southern 

Florida, in which red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), black 

mangrove (Avicennia nitida), or white mangrove (hguncularia racemosa), singly or in combination, constitute a plurality of the stocking. There is no NE;S equivalent. It is 

equivalent to SAF type 106, mangrove; and to RRE type 93, 

mangrove. The type is most closely associated with brackish 

and saltwater environments. As such it provides important 

nesting substrates for numerous aquatic species such as 

Magnificent Frigatebirds and many waders. 

No BBC or WBPS was done in this type in the Southeast 

1947- 1979. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Tricolored Herons (B), White Ibises (B), Gray Kingbirds (B), Fish Crows, 

Black-whiskered Vireos (B), Prairie Warblers (W), and 

Red-winged Blackbirds. 

Restricted to this type are Magnificent Frigatebirds (B), 

Reddish Egrets (B), Roseate Spoonbills (B), Mangrove 

Cuckoos, and Black-whiskered Vireos (B). 

Wade et al. (1980) discuss this and other south Florida 

vegetation types. 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 crn Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Speeific Requirements 

--- --- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specrfic Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags 8 - Brackish Code Key - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

- 

Yellow-billed Cuckoo 

-- 

huck-will's-w~dow 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Spedic Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt -1. 

-*1 

Common Name Specific Rsquirments 

NLC *SW NR? 

Amer~can Rob~n 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 


Common Name Specific Re~uirments 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Nin. Snags A - All 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

Code Key * - All Requirements EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags £3. - Brackish 
Pine Savanna (PSAV) 

A pine savanna is a "forest" of widely scattered trees in 

which longleaf pine, slash pine, or south Florida slash pine, 

singly or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. The type is most prominent in central and southern 

Florida, in a physiographic situation such as marl flats and 

forest prairies (RREi Ph siographic Class 37). Basal areas S 

are low, about 10-20 ft lacre (0.2-5 m2/ha). The savanna 

physiognomy, combining trees with grassland, is primarily 

responsible for the birds associated with this type. 

The type has no specific SAF or RRE type designation. 

NFS type 98, undrained flatwoods, is an approximation. The 

NFS Compartment Prescription Fieldbook (USDA 1979) 

indicates that such areas may be designated as nonstocked 

within one of the management types. 

No BBC was conducted in this type in the Southeast 

1947-1979. A single plot was censused during 9 WBPS. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Crested Caracaras, American Kestrels (W), Common Bobwhites, Sandhill Cranes, Burrowing Owls, Eastern Bluebirds, Pine 

Warblers, Eastern Meadowlarks, Rufous-sided Towhees, 

and Bachman' s Sparrows. 

Restricted to this type are Black-shouldered Kites, Crested 

Caracaras, and Sandhill Cranes. 

Southern Scrub Oak (SOSO) 

This type comprises forests of sandy, upland topography 

in which various species of scrub oaks (Quercus sp.) make 

up at least 75 percent of the stocking. This type is the same 

as NFS types 57, scrub oak; and 49, bear oak-southern scrub 

oaks-yellow pine (in part). It corresponds to SAF type 72, 

southern scrub oak; and to RRE type 57, southern scrub oak. 

Four censuses have been published from this type, all from 

Florida; 2 BBC and 2 WBPS were conducted on shrub-seedling plots. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Northern Bobwhites, Common Ground-Doves, Scrub Jays, Carolina 

Wrens, and Rufous-sided Towhees. 

Scrub Jays are restricted to the type. 

Sand Pine-Southern Scrub Oak (SPSO) 

This vegetation type consists of forests of sandy, upland 

topography in which sand pine (Pinus clausa) and scrub 

oaks (any of several Quercus sp.) each constitute at least 25 

percent of the stocking. The type corresponds to NFS types 

34, sand pine; 19, sand pim-hardwood; and 49, bear oaksouthern scrub oaks-yellow pine (where the yelIow pine is 

sand pine). It is equivalent to SAF type 69, sand pine; and 

to RRE type 34, sand pine. 

Published censuses consist of one BBC and one WBPS, 

both made in poletimber stands in Florida. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Common 

Ground-Doves, Scrub Jays, and Rufous-sided Towhees. 

Scrub Jays are restricted to this type. 

Long leaf Pine-Scrub Oak (LLSO) 

These are forests of sandy, upland topography in which 

longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and scrub oaks (any of several Quercus sp.) each make up at least 25 percent of the 

stocking. The type corresponds to NFS type 21, longleaf 

pine, with extensive scrub oak understory; and to NFS type 

49, bear oak-southern scrub oaks-yellow pine (where yellow 

pine is longleaf pine). It is equ~valent to SAF type 71, 

longleaf pine-scrub oak; and to RRE type 21, longleaf pine, 

with extensive scrub oak understory. 

Nine censuses have been published from this type. Six 

BBC were conducted on 2 saplinglpoletimber plots in Florida, and a single saplinglpoletimber plot in that state was 

censused during one winter. A sawtimber plot in North 

Carolina was censused during 2 winters. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Pine Warblers 

and Rufous-sided Towhees. 

No species are restricted to this type. 

Sandhills Longleaf Pine (SHLL) 

These are forests of sandy, upland topography in which 

longleaf pine composes a majority of the stocking, and 

where hardwoods make up less than 25 percent of the 

stocking. The type corresponds to NFS type 21, longleaf 

pine (in part). It is equivalent to SAF type 70, longleaf pine 

(in part); and to RRE type 2 1, longleaf pine (in part). In each 

case the combination of the longleaf pine and physiographic 

condition, such as sandhills (RRE Physiographic Class 14) 

or sand dunes and sand ridges (RRE Physiographic Class 

12) characterizes the type. 

No BBC or WBPS was conducted in this type in the 

Southeast in 1947- 1979. 

Cfzaracteristic of this vegetation type are Red-cockaded 

Woodpeckers, Brown-headed Nuthatches, and Pine Warblers. 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

----- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Speck Requiremb F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags €3. - Brackish 

Gate Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name 

Redshouldered Hawk 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 em Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Speak Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

Chuckwill'swidow 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 crn Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 crn Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 crn Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 crn Min. Snags B. - Braclcrsh 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 

Common Name Specific Requirments 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) SpeclfK: Rwuiremts F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 em Min. Snags 0. - BracMsh 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 

Common Name Specific Requirements 

- 

-- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - AII 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 crn Min. Snags B. - Brackish Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Habitat Suitability by Vegetation Type and Successional Stage Vegetation Layer k I I, 

Specific Requirements Common Name 

Claycolored Sparrow 

-- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Rquirments Common Name 

hitethroated Sparrow 

h~tecrowned Sparrow 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Cbcies 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 

Southern Mixed Mesic Hardwoods 

(SMMH) 

These are forests along stream banks or bluffs in southern 

Georgia and northern Florida where beech (Fagus grandifotia) or southern magnolia (1Magtzolia grandiflora), singly 

or in combination, constitute a plurality of the stocking. It is 

equivalent to WS type 69, beech-magnolia. The type has 

no strict analog among 1980 SAF types, although the 1954 

SAF type 90, beech-magnolia, is comparable (Soc. Amer. 

Foresters 1954). No RRE type corresponds to it, although it 

may be classed as RE type 50, oak-hickory, on bluffs (RRE 

Physiographic Class 23) or rolling uplands (RRE Physiographic Class 22). 

No BBC or WBPS was conducted in this type in the 

Southeast in 1947- 1979. Engstrom (198 1) conducted a 

Breeding Bird Census in an undisturbed sawtimber stand in 

Florida in 1980. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Pileated Woodpeckers, Red-bellied Woodpeckers, Great Crested Flycatchers (B), Blue Jays, Tufted Titmice, Carolina Wrens, Hermit 

Thrushes (W), and Northern Cardinals. 

No species are restricted to the type. 

Bay Swamp-Pocosin (BSPO) 

These are forests of boggy, poorly drained soils in which 

various species of broadleaf evergreen "bay" trees, singly 

or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. The 

primary species are blackgum or swamp tupelo (Nyssa 

sylvatica var. biflora), red bay (Persea borbonia), sweet bay 

(Magnolia virginiana), lobloll y bay (Cordonia lasianthus), 

fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), gallberry (Ilex sp.), and the semievergreen titi (Cyrilla racemiflora). The type is equivalent 

to WS type 68, sweet-bay-swamp tupelo-red maple and 

possibly 99, brush species, where the species is titi. It is the 

source of the hardwood component of NFS types 14, slash 

pine-hardwood (in part); and 18, pond pine-hardwood. This 

type corresponds to SAF types 85, slash pine hardwood (in 

part); 104, sweet-bay-swamp tupelo-red bay; and 74, cabbage palmetto (in part). The analogous RRE designation is 

type 60, oak-gum-cypress in physiographic conditions such 

as bays and wet pocosins (RRE Physiographic Class 36), 

small drains (RRE Physiographic Class 33), and possibly 

cypress strands (RRE Physiographic Class 32) and cypress 

ponds (RRE Physiographic Class 34). 

Four censuses have been conducted in the type in the 

Southeast during 1947-1979, a single WBPS in a poletimber 

stand in Georgia, and BBC on 3 grasslforb plots in South 

Carolina. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Red-bellied 

Woodpeckers, Winter Wrens (W), Carolina Wrens, American Robins (W), Hermit Thrushes (W), Yellow-rumped 

Warblers (W), White-throated Sparrows (W), and Fox Sparrows (W). 

No species are restricted to this type. 

Richardson (1981) presents information on pocosln habitats. 

Pond Pine Pocosin (PPPO) 

These are forests of boggy, poorly drained soils in which 

pond pine (Pinus seratina) makes up a majority of the 

stocking. The type corresponds to NFS types 36, pond pine; 

1 8, pond pine-hardutood (in part); 40, hardwood-pond pine 

(in part); and probably 66, Atlantic white-cedar. It is equivalent to SAF type 98, pond pine; and probably includes sites 

supporting type 97, Atlantic white-cedar. It is equivalent to 

RRE type 36, pond pine. I have little experience with the 

birds of Atlantic white-cedar stands. Inclusion of the type 

here reflects Braun's (1964:290) treatment of it as a bog 

forest success~onal to bay swamp pocosln vegetation. 

No BBC or WBPS was conducted in this type in the 

Southeast in 1947- 1979. Terwilliger (198 la, 198 1 b) conducted two BBC in sawtimber Atlantic white-cedar stands 

in the Dismal Swamp in 1980, 1 in North Carolina and the 

other in Virginia. Prairie Warblers were the most numerous 

birds on both plots. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Carolina Chickadees and Carolina Wrens. 

No species are restricted to the type. 

Richardson (I98 1) presents information on pocosin habitats. 

Longleaf Pine-Slash Pine (LLSL) 

These are forests of moist, flat topography in which longleaf pine or slash pine (Pinus elliottii), singly or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. This type, 

growing on flatwoods and dry pocosins, corresponds to NFS 

types 21, longleaf pine; 22, slash pine; and 14, slash pinehardwood (in part). It is equivalent to SAF types 70, longleaf 

pine; 83, longleaf pine-slash pine; 84, slash pine; 1 1 1, south 

Florida slash pine; and 85, slash pine-hardwood (in part). It 

is equivalent to RRE types 2 1, longleaf pine; and 22, slash 

pine. 

Sixteen censuses from thls type have been published (Table 1). 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Red-headed 

Woodpeckers IB). Red-cockaded Woodpeckers, Brownheaded Nuthatches, Eastern Bluebirds, Pine Warblers, and 

Bachman's Sparrows. 

Restricted to this type are Red-cockaded Woodpeckers 

and Henslow's Sparrows (W). 

Wood and Niles (1978) present introductory information 

on management of nongame wildlife in this type. Dickson 

et al. (1980) summari~e information from three censuses in 

this type. 
Table 1. Published BBC and WBPS from longleaf pineslash pine in the Southeast in 1947- 1979 

a Entries are listed as 'Plots (Years censused)." 

Oak-Gum-Cypress (OGCY) 

This type consists of bottomland or swamp forests in 

which water tupelo (Nyssa aquatics), blackgum, sweetgum 

(Liquidambar styraciflua), oaks, or cypress (=odium sp.), 

singly or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. The type contains a number of NFS and SAF types 

(Table 2), and coincides with the RRE designation 60, 

oak-gum-c ypress . Major development of oak-gum-cypress vegetation is 

along the floodplains of large Coastal Plain rivers throughout the South; the type also occurs in headwater swamps in 

the Outer Coastal Plain. Some stands are intermediate between this type and either the elm-ash-cottonwood type or 

the bay swamp pocosin type or upland hardwoods of the 

oak-hickory type. The status of such stands is determined 

by substrate conditions and by whether the water in the 

stands is flowing or standing. Where floodwaters frequently 

flow through the stands, conditions between oak-gum-cypress and elm-ash-cottonwood prevail; where floodwaters 

stand for prolonged periods and flow little, conditions between oak gum-cypress and bay swamp-pocosin can occur. 

The most important variable in the type, extent and duration of flooding, has profound and predictable effects not 

only on the vegetation but also on the bird communities. For 

example, birds that commonly utilize understory vegetation 

and the ground are not found on the wetter sites in this type. 

Prothonotary Warblers are confined to those wetter sites. 

Twelve censuses have been published from this type in the 

Southeast 1947- 1979 (Table 3). 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Red-shouldered 

Hawks, Yellow-billed Cuckoos (B), Barred Owls, Pileated 

Woodpeckers, Red- bellied Woodpeckers, Red- headed 

Woodpeckers (esp. W), Acadian Flycatchers (B), Tufted 

Titmice, Blue -gray Gnatcatchers (B), Prothonotary Warblers (B), Northern Parulas (B), Yellow-rumped Warblers 

(W), Yellow-throated Warblers (B), and Rusty Blackbirds 

(W). 

Restricted to this type are Swallow-tailed Kites (B), MISsissippi Kites (B), and Bachman's Warblers (B). 

Management of birds in bottomland habitats has been 

treated by Dickson (1978), Dickson and Noble (1978), 

Burdick et al. (1 988), Hamel (in press), and Hamel and Ford 

(unpubl. data). Dickson et al. (1980) summarize 7 censuses 

from this type. 

Table 2. SAF and NFS forest types included in oak-gumcypress. 

/ NFS number SAF number / SAF or NFS name / 

92 Isweetgum-willow oak / I I 

swamp chestnut oakcherrybark oak 

I 

6 1 

65 

9 1 

23 

24 

I 

96 

62 

overcup oak-water 

hickory 

r 

1 00 

101 

sweetgum-Nuttall 

oak-willow oak 

64 

pondcypress 

baldcypress 

/laurel oak-willow oak 

67 

Table 3. Published BBC and WBPS from oak-gum-cypress in the Southeast in 1947-1979. 

I I 

bald cypress-water 

tupelo 

68 

sweetbay-swamp 

tupelo-red maple 

(in part) 

" Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused)." 

I 1 State Season 

Successional stagea 

Sapling/ 

poletimber Sawtimber I 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

-- 

Ilow-crowned Night Heron 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A- All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags 6. - Brackish 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh (b) Speafic Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags 8. - Brackish 

0 

4 Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Liv~ng Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

---- 

reater Roadrunner 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min, Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

GJ (b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min Snags B. - Brackish 

a Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

tern Screech-Owl 

huck-w~ll's-widow 

~by-throated Humm~ngb~rd 

-- - - -- - - -- - 

lack-ch~nned Humm~ngb~rd 

- - -- -- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A-AII P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh (b) Spec& Requirmb F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish Code Key * - AII Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
(a) B - Breed~ng First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Speafic Requiremsnts F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags 

2 B. - Brackish 

chck K@Y " - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
(a) B - Breedlng F~rst Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wlnterlng N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

0 0 
Common Name Specific Rttquirements 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

Ruby-crowned K~nglet 

. - - 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Rquirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

P 

w Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 

Common Name Specific Requirements 

--- ---*rrrrx--v----w 

-- - - pp 

merican Redstart 

Northern Waterthrush 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 crn Min. Snags F - Fresh 

P (b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 crn Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

VI Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

Lou~s~ana Waterthrush 

-- 

(a) B - Breed~ng F~rst Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 1 5 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - W~nter~ng N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Spec~fic Requ~rernents F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requtrements 

(3 0 0 
Common Name 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

A 

-cl Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags 

P - Perches 

A - All 

BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
fit fit fit fit 

,,,I 

LOV3mCO YNrn-4. 
Live Oak Maritime (LOMA) 

These are forests in which live oak (Quercus virginiana) 

makes up at least 50 percent of the stocking. The type is best 

developed in areas under the influence of salt spray and 

maritime breezes along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and on 

barrier islands. The type has no precise NFS, SAF, or RRE 

equivalent; such stands would probably be classed as oak 

hammocks (NFS type 77) or oak-hickory (RRE type 50) 

growing on sand dunes and sand ridges (RRE Physiographic 

Class 12). Cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmerto) is a frequent 

component of stands of this type; SAF type 74, cabbage 

palmetto, is an associated type common in peninsular Florida. Likewise, SAF type 73, southern redcedar, is an associated forest type. 

This type is important as nesting habitat for many birds 

that feed in aquatic habitats. The winter avifauna of live oak 

maritime forests is also very diverse. Look for accidental 

insectivorous and nectarivorous species here in winter. 

Eleven BBC and WBPS have been published from this 

type in the Southeast in 1947- 1979 (Table 4). 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Great Crested 

Flycatchers (B), Fish Crows, Carolina Wrens, Rubycrowned Kinglets (W), Solitary Vireos (W), Northern Parulas (B), Yellow-rumped Warblers (W), Yellow-throated 

Warblers, Boat tailed Grackles, Northern Cardinals, 

Rufous-sided Towhees, and Fox Sparrows (W). 

No species are restricted to the type. 

Table 4. Published BBC and WBPS from live oak maritime in the Southeast in 1947- 1979. 

" Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused)." 

Elm-Ash-Cottonwood (EACO) 

These are bottomland forests in which elm (Ulmus sp.), 

ash (Fraxinus sp.), or cottonwood (Populus deltoides or P. 

heteruphylla), singly or in combination, compose a plurality 

of the stocking. The type corresponds to a number of NFS 

and SAF types (Table 51, and to RRE type 70, elm-ash-cottonwood. 

In the South, this type reaches its greatest development in 

the batture lands of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. 

In the Coastal Plain, elm ash-cottonwood vegetation occurs 

as riverfront hardwoods, as the pioneer plant community on 

new Iand in river meanders, and as the early successionaf 

community to oak-gum-cypress on abandoned farmland. ft 

also occurs in the bottomlands of streams outside the Coastal 

Plain. 

The considerations pointed out for the effects of water 

levels on the avifauna of oak-gum-cypress forests apply also 

to the birds of elm-ash cottonwood stands. 

Seventy-ttvo BBC and WBPS have been published from 

the type in the Southeast in 1947-1979 (Table 6). The vast 

majority of these were conducted by Wendell P. Smith on 

plots along the Yadkin River near North Wilkesboro, North 

Carolina. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Wild Turkeys, 

American Woodcocks, Yellow-billed Cue koos (B), Pileated 

Woodpeckers, Red-bellied Woodpeckers, Acadian Flycatchers (B), Carolina Wrens, American Robins (W), Blue 

gray Gnatcatchers (B), Yellow-rumped Warblers (W), Kentucky Warblers (B), Hooded Warblers (B), American Redstarts (B), and White-throated Sparrows (W). 

Restricted to this type are Mississippi Kites (B) and Bachman's Warblers (B). 

Samson (1979) presents introductory information on management of birds in this type. 

Table 5. SAF and NFS forest types equivalent to elm-ashcottonwood. 

NFS number SAF number SAF or NFS name 

7 1 39 black ash-American 1 

elm-red maple 

yellow-poplar I 57 (except in 

72 6 1 1 river birch-sycamore I I 

76 62 silver mapleAmerican elm 

I 

American elm-green 
Table 6. Published BBC and WBPS from elm-ash-cottonwood in the Southeast in 1947- 1979. 

a Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused).'" 

A 6.3 acre (2.5 ha) sapling stand surrounded by agricultural fields. 

Loblolly Pine-Shortleaf Pine (LBSH) 

These are forests in which loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) or 

shortleaf pine (P. echinata), singly or in combination, constitute a plurality of the stocking. The type corresponds to 

NFS and RRE types 3 1, loblolly pine; 32, shortleaf pine; 35, 

eastern redcedar; and 37, spruce pine. Equivalent SAF types 

are 46, eastern redcedar; 75, shortleaf pine; 80, loblolly 

pine-shortleaf pine; and 8 1, loblolly pine. The type occurs 

in a wide variety of topographic conditions across most of 

the physiographic regions of the South outside of Florida. 

In unmanaged conditions the type is successional to an array 

of hardwood types, from and mesic and hydric types, such 

as bay swamp-pocosin, elm-ash-cottonwood, and oak-gum 

cypress, to upland types, such as oak-hickory. Mature sawtimber stands very often have a substantial hardwood component appropriate to the successional sequence on the site. 

Thus, the avifauna of older stands lncludes species typical 

of hardwood stands in those geographic and physiographic 

locations. Frequently, mature stands typed as loblolly pine 

or shortleaf pine in management prescriptions appear to be 

rnixed pine-hardwood stands. Such stands have complements of birds typical of mixed pine-hardwood stands. 

Users of this matrix must consider those facts when estimating bird communities in this type. 

Inclusion of the eastern redcedar stands in this type is 

warranted, for the most part. Bird communities are similar 

in redcedar and pine stands. Several important exceptions 

must be noted, however. Red-cockaded Woodpeckers, 

Brown-headed Nuthatches, Yellow-throated Warblers, Pine 

Warblers, and Red Crossbills will be very rarely found in 

redcedar and mixed redcedar-hardwood stands. 

Timber management for pine is often quite intensive in this 

type. Certain silvicultural practices, such as regular controlled burning and herbicide injection of hardwoods, produce 

stands of essentially pure pine. The bird communities of 

these pine stands are very different from those in stands with 

a mixture of pine and hardwood. Users of the matrix must 

consider the actual stand composition when assessing bird 

communities in this type. 

Twelve BBC and WBPS conducted in this type in the 

Southeast were published in 1947- 1979 (Table 7). 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Eastern WoodPewees (B), Carolina Chickadees, Red-breasted Nuthatches 

(W), Brown-headed Nuthatches, Brown Creepers (W), 

Golden-crowned Kinglets (W), Ruby-crowned Kinglets 

(W), Pine Warblers, and Dark-eyed Juncos (W). 

No species are restricted to the type. 

Meyers and Johnson (1978) analyze bird-habitat relat~onships in this type. Dickson et al. (1980) summarize 16 

censuses from this type. 

Table 7. Published Breeding Bird Censuses and Winter 

Bird Population Studies from loblolly pine-shortleaf pine 

in the Southeast in 1947-1979. 

" Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused)." 

Carolina 

Virginia Pine-Pitch Pine (VPPT) 

These are forests in which Virglnia pine (Pinus virginiana) 

or pitch pine (P. rigida), singly or in combination, make up 

a plurality of the stocking; less than 25 percent of the 

stocking is hardwoods. The type corresponds to SAF types 

45, pitch pine; and 79, Virginia pine. NFS and RRE types, 

33, Virginia pine; 38, pitch pine; and 39, Table Mountain 

pine are equivalent. Stands in the type usually grow on 

upland sites under severe conditions, e.g. high elevation, 

southern exposure, poor soils, or xeric situations. This type 

is successional to upland hardwoods. Comments made 

above with respect to succession in loblolly pine-shortleaf 

pine apply here as well. 

Eight censuses from this type in the Southeast were published in 1947-1979. One poletimber stand in Virginia was 

censused during 7 winters; a shrublseedling stand in Virginia was censused in 1 winter. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Red-breasted 

Nuthatches (W) and Golden-crowned Kinglets (W). 

No species are restricted to this type. 

Capen (1 979) presents information on bird-habitat associaI Winter 1 

I 

tions in this type. 

0 0 0 
Mixed Pine-Hardwood (MPHW) 

These are forests in which hardwoods (usually oaks) and 

pines (usually loblolly pine or shortleaf pine) each constitute 

at least 25 percent of the stocking. The type corresponds to 

NFS types 1 I, eastern redcedar-hardwood; 12, shortleaf 

pine-oak; 13, loblolly pine-hardwood (in part, see below); 

15, pitch pine-oak; 16 Virginia pine-oak; 20, Table Mountain pine-oak (in part, see below); 43, oak-eastern redcedar; 

44, southern red oak-yellow pine; 45, chestnut oak-scarlet 

oak-yellow pine; 46, bottomland hardwood-yellow pine (in 

part, see below); 47, white oak-black oak-yellow pine; 48, 

northern red oak-hickory-yellow pine; and 49, bear oaksouthern scrub oak-yellow pine (in which the oak is bear 

oak). Equivalent SAF types are 76, shortIeaf pine-oak; 78, 

Virginia pine-oak (in part, see below); and 82, loblolly 

pine-hardwood (in part, see below). 

Many stands classed as pine in management prescriptions 

have sufficient stocking of hardwoods to support bird communities typical of mixed pine-hardwood stands. Our treatment of mixed pine-hardwood focuses on stands in which 

the pine is loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, or, to a lesser extent, 

Virginia pine. Thus, the treatment involves all mixed pinehardwood stands in the Piedmont, lower Mountains, Appalachian Plateau, Ozark Highlands, and Interior Low Plateau 

physiographic provinces. Mixed pine-hardwood stands on 

upland sites in the Coastal Plain are covered by this treatment as well. Mixed pine-hardwood stands in Coastal Plain 

bottomlands are better treated as bottomland hardwood 

stands (oak-gum-cypress, elm-ash-cottonwood, or bay 

swamp-pocosin types) with appropriate addition of bird 

species typical of loblolly pine stands. In mixed stands 

containing Virginia pine, the expected species pool is virtually the same as for mixed loblolly pine-hardwood or 

shortleaf pine-hardwood; however, stated suitability ratings 

for these mixed types may be uniformly too high for the 

poorer Virginia pine sites. Stands of hardwood and pitch 

pine or Table Mountain pine are best treated as combinations of Virg~nia pine-pltch pine and the approp~ate hardwood type. 

Inclusion of the eastern redcedar stands in this type is 

warranted, for the most part. Bird communities are similar 

in redcedar and pine stands. Several important exceptions 

must be noted, however. Red-cockaded Woodpeckers, 

Brown-headed Nuthatches, Yellow-throated Warblers, Pine 

Warblers, and Red CrossbiIls will be very rarely found in 

redcedar and mixed redcedar-hardwood stands. 

Eighty-three censuses made in this type in the Southeast 

were published in 1947-1979 (Table 8). 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Chuck-will'swidows (B ), Whip poor-wills (B), Great Crested Flycatchers 

(B), Eastern Wood-Pewees (B), Blue Jays, Carolina Chickadees, Tufted Titmice, Brown Creepers (W), Hermit 

Thrushes (W), Ruby-crowned Kinglets (W), Yellowrumped Warblers (W), Summer Tanagers (B), Northern 

Cardinals, Dark-eyed Juncos (W), and Fox Sparrows (W). 

No species are restricted to this type. 

Evans (1978) treats bird-habitat associations in this type. 

Dickson et al. (1980) summarize four censuses from this 

type. Kerlinger and Doremus (1981) studied birds in mixed 

pitch pine-hardwood stands. 

Table 8. Published BBC and WBPS from mixed pinehardwood in the Southeast in 1947-1979. 

a Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused)." 

Georgia Breeding 

Winter 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

l(11) 

l(l0) 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

---- --- 

- --- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Cades 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Spec& Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

VI 

o Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

PDT NBT PBT N46 

-- -- -- 

Short-ta~led Hawk 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Requiremsnts Common Name 

-necked Pheasant 

-- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

cn (b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

cn Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

Pa-&- 

Amer~can Woodcock 

mmon Ground-Dove 

Black-b~lled Cuckoo 

- --- - - - - 

ellow-b~lled Cuckoo 

- - - - - - -- 

~eater Roadrunner 

-- -- - -- - - 

ommon Barn-Owl 

-- 

Eastern Screech-Owl 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 


(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

CJl (b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags E3. - Brackish 

CD Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 

Specific Requirements Common Name 

~ ----'"--".*"-"- 

olden-winged Warbler 

hestnut-sided Warbler 

". 

ck-throated Green Warbler 

eliaw-throated Warbler 

(a) B - Breeding First Lener 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 crn Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - W~nlenng N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 crn Min. Snags A - All 

F" - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Spific Rquiremmk F - Forages CG - Closed Canopy EE3 - Earth Banks 46 - 46 crn Min. Snags €3. - Brackish 

9 We Key " - AII Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 


(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags 

W - Wintering (c) Water Codes 

N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh (b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy El3 - Earth l3anks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags 

Code Key B. - Brackish 

* - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

Western Meadowlark 

oat-tailed Grackle 

Common Grackle 

- - - - 

Northern (Balt~more) Or~ole 

- 

Wh~te-w~nged Crossb~ll 

(a) B - Breeding F~rst Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 crn Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 crn Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Nin. Snags £3. - Brackish cn 

m Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Reguirements 

-- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 

W - Wintering N - Nests 

P - Perches 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages 

Code Key * - All Requirements 

2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Oak-Hic kory (OKHK) 

These are forests in which a plurality of ths stocking 

comprises upland oaks and hickories (Car)la sp.), singly or 

in combination, and where pines make up less than 25 

percent of the stocking. Equivalent NFS types are 10, white 

pine-upland hardwoods (in part); 42, upland hardwoodswhite pine (in part); 5 1, post oak-blackjack oak; 52, chestnut 

oak; 53, white oak-red O~K-hickory; 54, white oak; 55, 

northern red oak; and 59, scarlet oak. The type corresponds 

to SAF types 20, white pine-northern red oak-red maple (in 

part); 40, post oak- blackjack oak; 43, bear oak; 44, chestnut 

oak; 50, black locust; 5 1, white pine -chestnut oak (in part); 

52, white oak-black oak-northern red oak; 53, white oak; 55, 

northern red oak (in uplands); 60, chestnut oak-scarlet oak; 

64, sassafras-persimmon; 88, black locust; 99, brush species 

(on upper slopes); and 110, black oak. RRE types 50, 

oak-hickory; and 52, chestnut oak are included in the type. 

Oak-hickory forests occur across a wide range of geographic 

and physiographic conditions. Bird communities of this type 

also vary across the South. Users of this matrix must consider this fact when estimating the bird community on a 

specific site. 

Ninety-two censuses made in oak-hickory plots in the 

Southeast were published in 1947- 1979 (Table 9). 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Red-bellied 

Woodpeckers, Hairy Woodpeckers, Downy Woodpeckers, 

Blue Jays, Tufted Titmice, White- breasted Nuthatches, 

Carolina Wrens, Wood Thrushes (B), Red-eyed Vireos (B ), 

Ovenbirds (B), and Scarlet Tanagers (B). 

No species are restricted to the type. 

Evans (1978) and Probst (1979) treat bird-habitat associations in this type. Dickson et al. (1980) summarize 27 

censuses from this type. Hamel et al. (1986), Ford and 

Hamel (1988) and Hamel et al. (1988) discuss bird communities and the prediction of bird communities in this type. 

Table 9. Published BBC and WBPS from oak-hickory in 

the Southeast in 1947-1979. 

" Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused)." 

White Pine-Hemlock (WPHM) 

These are forests in which white pine (Pinus strobus) or 

hemlock (primarily Tsuga canadensis and rarely 7'. caroliniana), singly or in combinat~on, compose a plurality of the 

stocking. Equivalent NFS types are 2, red pine; 3, white 

pine; 4, white pine-hemlock; 5, hemlock; 8, hemlock-hardwood (in part); 9, white pine-cove hardwoods (in part); 10, 

white pine-upland hardwoods (in part); 41, cove hardwoods-white pine-hemlock (in part); and 42, upland hardwoods-white pine (in part). The type corresponds to SAF 

types 20, white pine-northern red oak-red maple (in part); 

2 1, eastern white pine; 22, white pine-hemlock; 23, eastern 

hemlock: 24, hemlock-yellow birch (in part); and 5 1, white 

pine-chestnut oak (in part). Equivalent RRE type is 4, white 

pine-hemlock. 

Three BBC have been published from sawtimber stands in 

this type; a North Carolina plot was studied in 2 years and 

a Virginia plot was censused in 1 year. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Solitary Vireos 

(B), Northern Parulas (B), Black-throated Green Warblers 

(B), Blackburnian Warblers (B), Canada Warblers (B), and 

Dark-eyed Juncos. 

No species are restricted to the type. 

Capen (1979) presents information on bird-habitat associations in this type. Dickson et al. (1980) summarize 9 

censuses from this type. 

Cove Hardwoods (COVE) 

These are forests in which many species of hardwoods 

together compose a plurality of the stocking and which 

occur on moist, fertile, protected sites in deep hollows 

extending back into mountain ranges. Characteristic tree 

species are yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), basswood (Tilia heterophylla), sugar maple (Acer saccharurn), 

buckeye (Aesculus octandra), and white oak (Quercus 

alba). Equivalent NFS types are 8, hemlock-hardwood (in 

part); 9, white pine-cove hardwoods (in part); 41, cove 

hardwoods-white pine-hemlock (in part); 50, yellow-poplar 

(in the Mountains); 55, northern red oak; 56, yellow-poplarwhite oak-northern red oak; and 99, brush species (on lower 

slopes in coves). The type corresponds to SAF types 26, 

sugar maple-basswood (in part); 28, black cherry-maple (in 

part); 55, northern red oak (in part); 57, yellow-poplar (in 

the Mountains); 58, yellow-poplar-eastern hemlock; 59, 

yellow-poplar-white oak-northern red oak; and 108, red 

maple (in the Mountains). No precise RRE equivalent exists; oak hickory (RRE type 50) or maple-beech-birch (RRE 

type 80) stands growing in mountain coves (RRE Physiographic Class 27) or on mountain saddles and moist slopes 

(RRE Physiographic Class 24) approximate the cove hardwoods designation. 

Eleven BBC were done in sawtimber cove hardwoods 

stands in the Southeast in 1947-19'79; 10 were made on a 

single plot in Georgia, and the remaining 1 was conducted 

on a North Carolina plot. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Pileated Woodpeckers, White breasted Nuthatches, Solitary Vireos (B), 
Red-eyed Vireos (B), Black-and-white Warblers (B), 

Black-throated B1 ue Warblers (B), Canada Warblers (B j, 

Scarlet Tanagers (B), and Dark-eyed Juncos. 

Cerulean Warblers are restricted to the type in the breeding 

season in the Mountains. 

I-fooper (1978) and Smson (2979) discuss bird-habitat 

associations in cove hadwood forests. 

Maple-Beech-Birch (MABB) 

These are forests in which sugar maple (Acer saccharurn), 

beech (Fagus grmdgolia), or yellow birch (Bet~la Eutea), 

singly or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. In the South, stands of this type occur primarily at higher 

elevations in the Blue Ridge Mountains. Equivalent NFS 

types are 17, red-spruce-noahern hardwoods (in part j; and 

8 1, sugar maple-beech-yellow birch. The type corresponds 

to SAF types 17, pin cherry; 24, hemlock-yellow birch (in 

part); 25, sugar maple-beech-yellow birch; 26, sugar rnaplebasswood (in part); 27, sugar maple; 28, black cherry-maple 

(in part); 30, red spruce-yellow birch (in part); 31, red 

spruce-sugar maple-beech (in part); and 60, beech-sugar 

maple. The corresponding RRE type is 80, maple-beechbirch. 

No census from this type in the Southeast was published 

in 1947-1979. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are White-breasted 

Nuthatches, Veeries (B), Solitary Vireos (B), Blackthroated Blue Warblers (B), Rose-breasted Grosbeaks (B), 

and Dark-eyed Juncos (B). 

Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers are restricted to this type in the 

breeding season in the South. 

Noon and Able (19781, Noon et al. (1979), and Samson 

f 1979) present information on the avihuna of this type. 

Spruce-Fir (SPFR) 

These are forests in which red spruce (Picea rubens) or 

Fraser fir (Abiespaseri), singly or in combination, constitute a plurality of the stocking. In the South the type is 

confined to sites at the highest elevations (above 4500 ft, 

I450 rn) in the Mountains in Nod Carolina, Tennessee, and 

Virginia. Equivdent NFS types are 6, Fraser fir; 7, red 

spruce-Fraser fir; and 17, red spruce-northern harbwods (in 

part j. The type conesponds to SAF types 30, red spruce-yellow birch (in part); 31, red spmce-sugw maple-beech (in 

part); 32, red spruce; and 34, red spruce-Fraser fir. The 

corresponding RRE type is 10, spruce-fir. 

Two BBC, 1 from each of 2 sawtirnber stands in North 

Carolina, were reported from this type in f 947- 1979. 

Characteristic of this vegetation type are Black-capped 

Chickadees, Red-breasted Nu&atches (B), Brown Creepers 

(B), Winter Wrens (B), Golden-crowned Kinglets (B), Solitary Vireos (B), Black-throated Green Warblers (B), Blackburnian Warblers (B), and Dark-eyed Juncos. 

Restricted to this type are Saw-whet Owls (B), Olive-sided 

Flycatchers (B), Red-breasted Nuthatches (B), Brown 

Creepers (B), Hermit Thrushes (B), Swainson's Thrushes 

(B), Golden-crowned Kinglets (B), Nashville Warblers (B), 

MagnoIia Warblers (B), Purple Finches (B), Pine Siskins 

(B), and Red Crossbills (B j. 

Noon and Able (1978) and Crawford and Titterington 

(1 979) discuss birds in spruce-fir forests. 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

a 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Lags 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Frssh 

m (b) SpeGmc Rquirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags E3. - Brackish 

(D Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree 5 - Salt 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

- - - - - - -- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Common Name Specific Requirements 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 13 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 3 Code Key * - AII Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 



Specific Requirements Common Name 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags d B. - Brackish 

UI We Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
mau30 tnolrnm 

mmam 

CCCC 

U)cDU)U) 
(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - Ail 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

-4 (b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

-4 We Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
Specific Requirements Common Name 

" --. 

"" 

-" .-.. -- 

(a) B - Breeding First Letter 2nd and 3rd Letters GO - Grassy Openings 15 - 15 cm Min. Snags (c) Water Codes 

W - Wintering N - Nests DT - Dead Trees DL - Downed Logs 25 - 25 cm Min. Snags A - All 

P - Perches BT - Big Trees RP - Rocky Places 35 - 35 cm Min. Snags F - Fresh 

(b) Specific Requirements F - Forages CC - Closed Canopy EB - Earth Banks 46 - 46 cm Min. Snags B. - Brackish 

Code Key * - All Requirements OC - Open Canopy LC - Living Cavity Tree S - Salt 
8 5 T3 

o c6 2- % 2% 

$7Ly'cn at, I 

3au_ccjcn 

rnVIcncn cncnCr)CT) cbmacb ctcc 

mama 
Chapter IV. 

NAR IVE SPECIES ACCOUNTS 

his chapter presents brief narrative summaries of the 

biology of the 269 species treated in thts manual, 

gleaned and condensed from literature and personal experience, The names of the species agree with those of the 

Amer~can Ornithologists Union (1983). Four letter code 

names for the species are those of the IJ. S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Bird Banding Laboratory. Usually these codes involve the first 1 or 2 letters of the words in the English 

common name, and they are unique among North American 

birds. For a small number of resident game birds, no published codes exist. For these, and for a few species with 

morphologically distinguishable Eastern populations (e.g. 

Myrtle warbler), non-standard codes are indicated by "*". 

As many as 1 1 sections may compose an individual account: 

protection status, 

abundance status, 

primary habitats, 

key habitat requirements, 

sample breeding densities in the South, 

sample winter densities in the South, 

reproduction, 

food habits, 

guild, 

references, and 

a range map. 

Protection status 

l'his sect~on cannot be considered an up-to-date listing; nor 

should it be used in lieu of official documentation from the 

Fish and Wildlife Service for Federal listings, from the US 

Forest Service for sensitive species listing, and from states 

for their jurisdictions. It does serve to indicate to the user 

those species that have. at the time of this writing (March 

1990), been recognized as meriting special protective measures to maintain their populations by the Federal Government or one or more state governments. This information 

was compiled from the Federal Register and by direct correspondence with the resource management agencres of the 

stares wtehin and adjacent to the U. S. Forest Serv~ce Southern Region. For each listed species, the affected subspec~es 

and the specific designations applied by each listing agency 

are rndicated. Two lists are maintained in several states, an 

offic~ai list designated by one resource management agency. 

and an unofficial list maintained by the Natural Heritage 

Program in that state. I have included species on either of 

these lists. 

Abundance status 

The relative abundance of a given species in the South is 

presented, often by physiographic region or state. Abundance classes are listed only by symbols: A = abundant, VC 

= very common, C = common, FC = fairly common, U = 

uncommon, R = rare, VR = very rare. Where 2 statuses are 

listed together (such as FC to C), the abundance of the 

species tends to be intermediate between the two categories. 

The arrival and departure dates list the time when a given 

species is expected to be seen first, or seen last, on the 

breeding or w~ntering grounds, taking geography lnto consideration. For example, a species that breeds over the entire 

South may have a spring arrlval listed as "mid-April to early 

May." Arrival in southern Florida would be expected in 

mid-April, arrival in the Carolinas in late April, and arrival 

in northern Arkansas would be in early May. Likewise, for 

a fall departure listed as "late September to late October," 

.the species would be seen last in northern Virginia in late 

September, and in late October in southern Florida. For 

species that winter in the region but do not breed, the 

situation is reversed. Thus, a fall arrival listed as "early 

October to early November" indicates that the first individuals are seen in the northern part of the wintering range 

typically in early October, but not until early November in 

the southern portion. The dates apply to the arrival and 

departure on the breeding and wintering grounds only, and 

not to points along the migration route. For example, a 

species that nests only in the mountains, arriving from late 

April to early May, might migrate through Florida in early 

or mid-April. 

Range map 

A range map showing the breeding and wintering distributions is provided for each species. The maps are based on 

Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data for breeding distributions 

and on the work of Root (1988) for winter distributions. BBS 

data from 1966- 1985 were summarized and smooth contours drawn for 1,5, 10. and 30% of the highest mean count 

of birdslroute across the South. Areas with at least 30% of 
the peak value are considered High, those with at least 10% 

Medium, and those with at least 5% of peak value are 

considered Low Abundance. From the computer produced 

summaries, I drew the breeding distributions presented here. 

Winter distributions represent a similar process of interpretation, utilizing the maps of Root 11988) as the starting point. 

These distributions were digitzed and stored in a geographic information system as ARC coverages for each 

species. Maps in this chapter were produced from these 

coverages. Both the digital map files and ARC corerages 

are available for use by managers and researchers. These 

range maps are the first in which relative abundance in 

different parts of species ranges is simultaneously presented 

for both breeding and winter seasons. As such, they should 

be of use to managers. As with so much else in this work, 

t~o, they present hypotheses rather than proven facts. Further experience and field work done with these data in mind 

will lead to their improvement. 

Primary habitats 

Many of the major vegetation types and their habitats 

utilized by the specre are listed. Much of this material is 

given in coded form in the bird-habitat association matrices 

in Chapter 111. Material presented in narrative form here is 

intended to clarify or amplify that presented in the matrices. 

Key habitat requirements 

The essential features in the habitats where a given species 

occurs are presented. such as an abandoned woodpecker 

cavity, a dense understory layer, or a cliff ledge. Where 

possible, this information is included in the matrices in 

Chapter I11 to be of maximal usefulness to the manager; it 

is presented here to provide clarification and reinforcement 

of the matrix entries. 

Sample breeding densities, sample 

winter densities 

These 2 sections summarue the published BBC and 

WBPS relevant to the range of population densities achieved 

by each species in the Southeast. I present, in each account, 

one or more habitats (a habitat is a single successional stage 

of a vegetation type) representing the low mean densities 

recorded in 1947- I979 in the Southeast, and one or more 

hab~tats in which the high mean densities uere ach~eced. 

Each listing includes notation of the rnean density in the 

selected habitat, followed parenthetically by the nurnber of 

censuses rn that habltat on which the mean IS based. In cases 

In which the same mean density I% as recorded from several 

habitats, a11 habitats with that rnean densrtj are listed. The 

values glven are rnean values; as such, sart1e of the nurnerous sources of varrability In reporting density ;Ire reduced; 

however. the reader must recognize these as samples, and 

not as absolute limits on the densities of the species. Summary statistics from the Breeding Bird Survey are included 

here as well. 

Reproduction 

Thrs 1s a summary of the breeding biology of the species. 

The dates of the breeding season listed for each specles refer 

oniy to eggs In the nests, and not to counship, nest building, 

or fledging of young. The span of dates for the "beeding 

season refers to the species as a whole and not to an individual pair of birds. In most cases, individuals of a given species 

in the southern portion of the range tend to breed earlier than 

those in the northern portion. Information on the structure 

and placement of the nest and the clutch size are also 

presented. When the structure of the nest is not described 

for a species, it is assumed that the nest is cup-shaped, and 

made of twigs, grasses, or other similar items. Although the 

data for the period of the breeding season are taken only 

from the Southeast, data on nest structure, nest placement, 

and clutch slze were gathered in many parts of North America and are not restricted to the Southeast. There IS, however, 

usually little difference in the breeding biology of most 

species in the South as compared with other parts of their 

breeding ranges. 

Food habits 

This section includes a brief summary of the food items 

consumed by individuals of a species, the manner of foraging, and the substmtes (such as shallow water or tree foliage) 

on which they forage. 

Guild 

A brief summary of the nesting and foraging habits is 

expressed in a terse phrase. For most species the guild is 

expressed as: nesting site, foraging substrate, foraging technique, and diet. Species that do not breed in the South do not 

have a phrase concerning nesting. The designation of a 

given term (such as "gleaning" or "carnivore") is based on 

the predorninant manner of foraging, food type, or other 

aspects. Where two or rnore classes of the same category rue 

frequent, the word "or" is used. For example, a species 

whose individuals forage commonly both in tall herbaceous 

co\er and in shrubs is listed as "herb or bush." Where 

indit idu~ils ctf n species change their diet noticeably from 

surltrner to \$inter, such as from primarily insects to mainly 

seeds, 11 hyphen is used to separate the sumnier diet from the 

winter diet (insectivi>re-granivore). For species that breed 

ctnly. or winter only, in the South, the guild listed is that for 

the season of occurrence in the region. Definitions of all 

terrils found in the guild section are listed in the Glosstrry. 
References 

Most of the infomation condensed in the narrative accounts has been drawn from general literature sources. This 

brief section presents a series of citations of faunal worksmany state bird books as we11 as nationwide and regional 

accounts that treat the species. These works were chosen in 

part beeause of their general information, but also because 

of their wide availability, in the belief that each user of the 

present manual will have at his or her disposal at least one 

of thern. Each citation of one of the general works includes 

a page reference to the account of the cited species. This 

provides the user with an immediately available "second 

opinion" of the biology of each species, against which 

questions raised by this treatment can be settled. In addition 

to the general works, other important works dealing with the 

general biology or management of the species are also listed. 

A recent work, Degraaf, et al. 1991, became available 

shortly before this work went to press, It contains useful 

general life history and and habitat assoctat~on lnformat~on 

for most of the species covered in this book. 
Pied-bi ed Grebe 

PROTECTION STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Tennessee Natural 

Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program, 

West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- mostly U to locally FC in the Coastal Plain, 

but R over much of this section; VR and erratic in the 

Piedmont and in mountain valleys. Wintering- FC to C 

over most of the region, though U in the mountains. 

ClDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- lakes, ponds, or impoundments, where there 

is emergent vegetation for hiding the nest. Winteringlakes, ponds, impoundments, sluggish streams, bays, canals, 

and other open water; prefer fresh water, but frequently 

occur on brackish water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- emergent vegetation in a body of fresh or 

slightly brackish water. Wintering- open body of fresh or 

brackish water. 

Recorded on 29 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 5 birds, overall mean 0.02M.23 

blrdslroute, total of route means 23 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine, 3(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from April to July, rarely to 

October in Florida, with the peak from mid-May to midJune. Nests are floating masses of dead vegetation, anchored 

to reeds or other live vegetation in a lake or pond. Eggs 

usually number from 4 to 7 per clutch, with a range of 2 to 

10. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage by diving from the surface of a body of water and 

capturing aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, and other small 

animals; plants are rarely eaten. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, aquatic diving insectivore or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:83; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986: 152; DeGraaf 

et al. 1980:lOl; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A): 103; Ehrlich et 

al. 1988:12; Forbush and May 1939:9; Imhof 1976:56; 

James and Neal 1986:74; Lowery 1974: 109; Mengel 

1965:155; Monroe et al. 1988:2; Oberholser 1974(1):67; 

Palmer 1962:104; Potter et al. 1980:42; Rappole et al. 

1983: 156; Robinson 1990:26; Root 1988:5; Sprunt 1954:4; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 197054; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:45; Verner and Boss 1980:95 
Brown Pe 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Endangered. P, o. carcatinensis state 

listed as Endangered in Delaware, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia; and as Special 

Concern in Alabama, Florida, and North Carolina. Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- locally C, in colonies, north toocracoke Inlet, 

North Carolina; occur in summer over the en tire coast north 

to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina. Wintering- C along the 

coast of peninsular Florida; less numerous elsewhere; U to 

FC along the North Carolina coast, and U in western Florida. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- generally on islands, where there are shrub 

thickets or dense stands of small trees; infrequently on the 

ground among grasses. Foraging- coastlines, inlets, bays, 

and the inshore ocean: always near salt water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- vegetation, usually woody, along the coast; 

prefer islands. Foraging- shallow salt water and ad~acent 

shores. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 16 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 45 birds, overall mean 

0.22rfi2.4 1 birdslroute, total of route means 191 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from December to August in Florida, 

and March to June northward; the peak is from mid-April to 

early June. Nests are built in bushes or small trees, or on the 

ground, invariably in colonies on islands. Three eggs are the 

most common clutch, but 2 are also frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Brown Pelicans plunge into a body of water, usually the 

ocean, from an average height of 25 feet (8 m) and capture 

fish below the water surface. 

GUILD 

Ground or bush nesting, aquatic pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:89; Ehrlich et al. 1988:20; Forbush and May 

1939:20; Imhof 197662; Kale 1978:23; James and Neal 

1986:?9; Lowery 1974: 12 1 ; Oberholser 1974(1):80; Palmer 

1962:271; Potter et al. 1980:51; Rappole et al. 1983:157; 

Robinson 1990:3 1 ; Root 1988:9; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:67; Sprunt 1954:13; Stewart and Robbins 1958:49. 
st4 Cormorant 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri, by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, as "in 

need of management'"^ Tennessee, and Significantly Rare 

in North Carolina. Blue Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored 

by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- locally FC to C in Florida; elsewhere, breed 

only at isolated sites. Non-breeders occur along the entire 

coastline in summer. Wintering- C to A along the Atlantic 

and Gulf coasts, south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; C 

in inland Florida; U inland north of Florida, 

CCIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 54 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 97 birds, overall mean 

0.231-3.47 birdsiroute, total of route means 207 birds. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- trees in or near a large body of water, generally 

near fresh water. Foraging- open bodies of water, preferably salt water. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends frorn late December to late 

October, but the peak is from early March to mid-June. 

Nests are platforms built in tall trees, usually near the edge 

of a lake or other body of water; mainly in colonies. The 

usual clutch size is 3, with 4 infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Dive frorn the surface of a body of water and chase fish 

underwater; crustaceans are rarely taken. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aquatic diving carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:92, 93; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):77; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:26; Forbush and May 1939:23; Irnhof 

1976:65: James and Neal 1986:79; Lowery 1974: 132; 

Mengel 1965: 157; Monroe et a(. 1988:4; Oberholser 

1974( 1):90; Palmer 1962325; Potter et al. 1980:55; RapPRIMARY HABITATS pole et aI. 1983: 157; Robinson 1990:31; Root 1988:ll; 

Sprunt 1954: 18; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:73; Stewart 

Nest site- generally in swamps or scattered trees along and Robbins 1958:50. the shore of a lake or other body of water. Foragingmainly along the coast, such as in bays, inshore ocean. or 

inlets; also ;it large lakes inland. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Permanent Residents-Presently Fairly Common to 

Common, formerly Very Common, along the Gulf Coast of 

Texas and extreme southwestern Louisiana. Much more 

scarce inland, they are established at a few heronries, some 

of which are in woodlands. Portnoy (198 1) reports 7660 

breeding adults in his survey of Louisiana-Mississippi-Alabama coasts, 1976. Young birds wander widely after the 

nesting season. During the winter months the population 

may be concentrated in the southern part of the range, S of 

27' I?. 

CIDENTAL LOI 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons-Xoas tal swamps and marshes, occasionally 

inland lakes. These birds are most often associated with 

fresh or brackish water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

A11 seasons-The birds require water for fishing and 

elevated perches in trees, shrubs, or on the ground for 

nesting, roosting, and drying their plumage after fishing. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding has been recorded (eggs in nests) in all months 

except November-January. The birds lay their clutches of 

3-5 eggs in flimsy nests built in a variety of sites including 

the ground, shrubs, and perhaps preferably, trees. They 

typically nest in colonies. Like some other fish-eating birds, 

Olivaceous Cormorants have suffered severe population 

declines since World War 11, apparently because of eggshell 

thinning resulting from pesticides. 

FOOD HABITS 

The primary food is fish, especially Cnnzbusla sp., whlck 

they capture by diving and pursuing underwater. They also 

eat other aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial, bush, or tree nesting, aquatic diving or probing 

carnivore or insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:26; Forbush and May 1939:24; Lowery 

1974: 134; Morrison and Slack 1977; Oberholser 1974 

(1):92; Palmer 1962:340; Portnoy 198 1; Rappole et al. 

1983: 157,413; Root 1988: 1 1 ; Sutton 1967:20. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, "in need of managementwin Tennessee, and Significantly Rare in North 

Carolina. Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Cornmission, Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of Florida; IJ to locally FC 

elsewhere. Wintering- C in Florida; mainly U in Georgia 

and South Carolina; R in North Carolina. 

ClDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- open or semi-open body of fresh or brackish 

water, with trees nearby for nesting, perching, or roosting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(1) Everglades. Recorded on 68 of 888 BBS routes in the 

South, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 18 birds, overall 

mean 0.13M.86 birdslroute, total of route means 1 12 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 3(:) sapling/poletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from December to August in 

Florida, with the peak in the Southeast from mid-March to 

mid-May. Nests are platforms, built in trees near water, 

often in colonies with herons and egrets. The usual clutch 

size is 3 or 4, with 5 infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Anhingas dive or sink below the surface of a body of water 

and spear fish with their bills. Some aquatic insects, amphibians, reptiles, and crustaceans are also taken. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic diving carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:94; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):6 1 ; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:24; Forbush and May 1939:25; Imhof 1976:66; 

James and Neal 1986:81; Lowery 1974:135; Mengel 

1965: 158; Monroe et al. 1988:4; Oberholser 1974(1):95; 

Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962:357; Potter et al. 

198057; Rappole et al. 1983:157; Robinson 1990:32; Root 

1988: 12; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:74; Sprunt 1954:20; 

Stewart and Robbins 19585 1. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATrUS 

Breeding- only in the Marquesas Keys, Florida, where 

an average of 100 pairs have nested since 1959; widespread 

breeders south of the United States; non-breeders are FC to 

C in summer along the southern two-thirds of the Florida 

coast; R north of Florida in summer. Wintering- mostly U 

in the range, but FC in the keys. 

ing- inshore ocean and bays; roost in coastal thickets, 

particularly in mangroves. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- dense shrub or tree thickets on coastal islands. 

Foraging- coastal areas, with thickets for roosting, 

The nesting season is poorly known in Florida, but it is 

mainly from February to April; the young take about 6 

months to completely fledge. Nests are typical ones built in 

mangroves on isfands, in a colony. The clutch consists of a 

single egg. 

FOOD HABITS 

They forage by swooping over a body of water, usually 

the ocean, and taking fish from the surface. They also chase 

other seabirds and force them to drop prey items. Almost all 

foraging is done in flight. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, aerial or aquatic pouncing or piratical 

carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in mangrove thickets on islands; the only 

colony in Florida nests in red mangrove thickets. ForagBurleigh 195896; Ehrlich et al. 198820; Forbush and May 

193926; Imhof 1976:68; James and Neal 1986:82; Lowery 

1974: 136; Oberholser 1974(1):98; Palmer 1962:367; Potter 

et al. 1980:58; Robinson 1990:33; Root 1988:12; Sprunt 

1954:2 1; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:76; Kale 1978:25. 
American Bittern 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, Rare in West 

Virginia, and Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Blue 

Listed by Tate (198 1). Monitored by Georgia Freshwater 

Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Tennessee 

Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- mostly R to li within the range; R in coastal 

Virginia and North Carolina; possibly breed in South Carolina and Georgia, but not regularly. Wintering- U in coastal 

Virginia; U to FC in the Carolinas and Georgia near the 

coast, but R inland; FC over most of Florida. Majority of the 

population nest to the north of the region. Fall arrivalmid-September to mid-October; sprlng departure- late 

April to early May. 

CIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- mainly in extensive freshwater marshes, 

where the vegetation is over 3 feet ( l m) high, and especially 

SO In the breeding season. At other seasons occur In all types 

of marshes, even where salty, but prefer fresh water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Marshes with tall vegetation, showing a preference .for 

fresh water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in one habitat. Recorded on 7 of 888 

EBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 

0.7 birds, overall mean 0.002M.03 birdslroute, total of route 

means 1.9 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

5f 1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early May to early July, 

with a peak from mid-May to mid-June. The platform nests 

are built in marshes, usually only a few inches above the 

water. The clutch size ranges from 3 to 7, with 4 or 5 usual. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed in marshes, taking fish, crayfish, insects, frogs, 

salamanders, and other animals from shallow water, andlor 

marsh vzgetation. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or aquatic gleaning or stalking 

carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 1 15; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986: 153; DeCraaf 

et al. 1980: 122; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(,4):29; Ehrlich et 

al. 1988:32; Forbush and May 1939:38; Imhof 1976:83; 

James and Neal 1986: 83; Lowery 1974: 153; Mengel 

1965: 170; Monroe et al. 198814; Oberholser 1973jIl: 1 19; 

Bhlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962:499; Potter et af. 

1980:72; Rappole et al. 1983: 160; Robinson 1990:33; Root 

1988: 13; Sprunt 1954:38; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:95; 

Stewartbad Robbins 1958:61. 
Least Bittern 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, Rare in West 

Virginia and "in need of management" in Tennessee. Blue 

Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by Arkansas Natural 

Heritage Commission, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 

Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- FC to C over most of Florida, and in coastal 

areas farther north; generally R to U, with a limited amount 

of habitat inland. Wintering- FC to C in a few areas of 

southern Florida, but mostly U. Spring arrival- early April 

to late April; fall departure- poorly known, but probably 

mid-September to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- generally in freshwater marshes, especially 

where the vegetation is at least 3 feet (1 rn) high; commonly 

in cattails (Typha spp.). Common in brackish marshes, but 

infrequent in salt marshes. 

Marshes with tall herbaceous cover, preferably in fresh 

water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

4.5(2) grassfforb bay swamp-pocosin. Recorded on 20 of 

888 BBS routes in the South, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 14 birds, overall mean 0.0339.46 birdsfroute, total of 

route means 24 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late March to mid-July, with the 

peak from late April to early June. The nests are platforms 

built in marshes, generally 1 to 2 feet (.3-6 m) above the 

water. The typical clutch size is 4 or 5, ranging from 3 to 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in marshes, taking small fish, frogs, tadpoles, 

slugs, leeches, and many other animals. Prey are taken from 

shallow water, mud, or marsh vegetation. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or aquatic gleaning carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 1 17; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986: 154; DeGraaf 

et al. 1980:124; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):53; Ehrlich et 

al. 1988:30; Forbush and May 1939:40; Imhof 1976:83; 

Kale 1978:8 1 ; James and Neal 1986:83; Lowery 1974: 15 1 ; 

Mengel 1965: 169; Monroe et al. 1988:4; Oberholser 

1974(I): 120; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962:49 1 ; Potter 

et al. 1980:70; Rappole et al. 1983: 160; Robinson 1990:34; 

Root 1988:13, 273; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:96; 

Sprunt 1954:40; Stewart and Robbins 1958:60. 
G ue Heron 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, Tennessee 

listed as "in need of management." Blue Listed by Tate 

(1981). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Florida Natural Areas Inventory ("Great White" form), 

Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- nest in colonies; C over much of Florida; 

mostly U to locally FC northward: post-season dispersal 

carries birds to the entire region by July. Wintering- C over 

most of Florida and northward along the coast; U to FC 

elsewhere, but R to U at higher elevations. 

ClDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in colonies in swamps or trees on the edge of 

a body of water; favor tall trees, and not common in thickets 

with other waders; mainly in fresh water areas. Foragingmudflats, shallow water shores of ponds, lakes, and bays, 

and in marshes; in fresh or salt water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- trees near a body of water; usually tall trees in 

a remote area. Foraging- shallow shores or mudflats in all 

salinity ranges. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 9 habitats. Recorded on 388 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 

24 birds, overall mean O.65t-1.87 birdslroute, total of route 

means 582 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 2!1) Everglades. 

The nesting season occurs throughout the year in southern 

Florida, with a peak in that state in February and March. 

Farther north, most nesting is in April or May. Most nests 

are built in the canopies of tall trees in swamps or along 

shores of bodies of water. Clutch size 3-6, most commonly 

4, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

The birds wade in shallow water and chase fish, but they 

also take frogs, snakes, insects, and other aquatic animals. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:97, 99; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:155; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 104; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):49; Ehrlich et al. 1988:42; Forbush and May 1939:27, 28; Imhof 

1976:70; Kale 1978:69; James and Neal 1986:85; Lowery 

1974: 139; Mengel 1965: 159; Meyeneicks 1960:86; Monroe et al. 1988:4; Oberholser 1974(I): 100, 101 ; Ohlendorf 

et al. 1979; Palmer 1962333-403; Potter et al. 1980:61; 

Robbins et al. 1986: 14; Rappole et al. 1983: 158; Robinson 

1990:35; Root 1988:14; Sprunt 1954:23-26; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:78, 79; Stewart and Robbins 19585 1 ; 

Verner and Boss 1980:96. 
Great Egret 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky hcaderny of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, Tennessee fisted 

as "in need of management." Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Cornmission, Florida Natural Lreas Inventory, 

Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of the range, though local in the 

inner Coastal Plain. Wintering- U to FG in Virginia; FC in 

the Caro1inas;increasing to C in Georgia and Florida, and 

especially so in southern Florida. Light to moderate postbreeding dispersal throughout the region fron July to September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in thickets of trees or shrubs oncoastal islands, 

in remote swamps, or along a lake shore in tall trees. 

Foraging- in shallow water of ponds, lakes, marshes, and 

bays, and on mudflats; favor fresh water, but commonly use 

salt water. 

Nest site- trees (or rarely shrubs) near a large body of 

water. Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in four habitats. Recorded on 222 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 218 birds, overall mean 1.7421 1.85 birdslroute, total 

of route means 1548 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 3(1) saplinglpoletimber bay swamp-pocosin. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late December to July, 

occasionally into the fall in Florida. The peak is from late 

March to late May. The nests are typical for waders, stick 

platforms built in trees, usually 20 to 40 feet (6- 12 m) from 

the ground. The clutch size seldom is other than 3 or 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in shallow water, taking fish, frogs, small snakes, 

crayfish, and many other items. 

Tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 100; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 106; Eagar and 

Hatcher 1982(A):65: Ehrlich et al. 1988:40: Forbush and 

May 193929; Imhof 1976:77; Kale 1978:73; James and 

Neal 1986:87; Lowery 1974: 144; Mengel 1965: 164; Monroe et al. 19885; Oberholser 1974(1): 103; Ohlendorf et al. 

1979; Palrner 1962406; Potter et al. 1980:65: Rappole et al. 

1983: 159; Robinson 1990:35; Root 1988: 15; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:81; Sprunt f954:26; Stewart and Robbins 195855; 
Sn Egret 

PROTECTION STATUS 

SNEG 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Florida listed as Special Concern. hlonitored by Arkansas 

Katural Heritage Commission, Tennessee Natural Heritage 

Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive, National Forests in Florida. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of Florida, and on the coast 

elsewhere; R to U inland north of Florida. Wintering- Li in 

Virginia, increasing to FC in southern North Carolina, and 

becoming C over most of Florida and Louisiana. Very light 

post-breeding dispersal to the remainder of the region. seldom reaching the mountains. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- shrub or tree thickets on islands. lake 111:irgins. 

or in swamps; illmost always with flocks of otlier waders. 

Foraging- in shallow water of ponds. lakes, marshes. bays, 

and other bodies of water; preter fresh \linter, but often irt 

brackish and salt water. 

Nest site- thickets of shrubs or trees near water. Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in two habitats. Recorded on 102 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 77 birds, overall mean 0.5 15 3.35 birdsiroute. total of 

route means 455 birds. 

SAMPLE VVINTER DENSITIES 

l(2) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

The nesting season extends from mid-January to late July, 

with a peak from mid-April to mid-May. The nests are 

placed in trees in thickets, mainly 10 to 20 feet (3-6 m) from 

the ground; almost always in colonies with other species of 

waders. The clutch size ranges from 2 to 5, with 3 most 

common. 

FOOD HABITS 

Like most waders, Snowies forage in shallow water by 

stalking small fish, crustaceans, frogs, aquatic insects, and 

other items. 

GUILD * 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 102: DeCraaf st ill. 1980: 108; Eagar and 

Hr~tcher 1982(A):91; Ehrlich st 31. 1988:40; Forbusli and 

Mnq 1939:30; Irnhof I976:79; Jar~ies and Neal 1986:89: 

Kale I978:75; Lc3~ erq 1971: 147: >lensel 1965: 165; 3leq - 

erreicks 1960: 125: hlonroe et ;XI. 1988:5; Oberholser 

197411): 101; Ohleridorf st al. 1979; Palriier 1462:356; Porter 

et 31. IClXO:6h; Rrlppole et ril. 1983: 15"3 Robinson 1990:36: 

Rt~clt 1988: L 6; Sprunt and C11;11l1berl3iri 1 9'770:83; Sprurlt 

I954:78; Stefi31-t ;iriC1 Robblr~s 1958:56. 
ue Heron 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, Special Concern 

in Florida and Alabama (unofficially). Manitsred by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, TennesseeNatural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest 

Service sensitive, National Forests in Florida 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- in colonies; C over most of Florida, as well 

as along the coasts; generally U in the interim Coastal Plain 

north of Florida, decreasing northward. Wintering- C over 

most of Florida. Large scale post-breedin g movements; 

present over most of the region in July and August. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- usually in mixed species c~l~nies; nest in 

swamps, coastal forests, and especially in thickets and 

woods on coastal islands. Foraging- forage on mudflats 

and shallow water of estuaries, lakes, streams, and other 

bodies of water; prefer to forage in fresh water. 

Nest site- woods or thickest near a body of water. 

Foraging- shorelines of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in two habitats. Recorded on 259 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 54 birds, overall mean 1.051fr4.05 birdslroute, total of 

route means 938 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(2) grass/forb longleaf pine-slash pine, 1(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from January to September, 

with the peak from early April to mid-May. The platform 

nests are built in shrubs or trees, generally 5 to 15 feet (2-5 

m) from the ground, and near water; always in colonies. The 

clutch size is usually 3 to 5, rarely 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed by wading in shallow water and taking small fish, 

frogs, snakes, crustaceans, and various insects; at times feed 

on mudflats. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic stai~ing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 107; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 1 14; Eagar and 

Hatcher 1982(A):93; Ehrlich et al. 1988:36; Forbush and 

May 1939:33; Imhof 1976:72; Kale 1978:72; James and 

Neal 1986:90; Lowery 1974: 140; Mengel 1965: 163; Monroe et aI. 1988:5; Oberholser 1974(I): I 10; Ohlendorf et al. 

1979; Palmer 1962:428; Potter et al. 198053; Rappole et al. 

1983: 158; Robinson 1990:36; Root 1988: 17; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:87; Sprunt 1954:33; Stewart and Robbins 1958:54. 
ored Heron (Louisiana Heron) 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Florida listed as Special Concern. Monitored by Arkansas 

Natural Heritage Commission, Virginia Natural Heritage 

Program. Forest Service sensitive, National Forests in Florida. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of Florida, and elsewhere along 

the coast; do not breed inland north of Florida, except at 

Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge in Georgia, and casually at Eufaula Refuge in that state. Wintering- C over most 

of Florida, decreasing northward. Light post-breeding dispersal throughout the region, seldom reaching the mountains. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- thickets near water, usually near the coast. 

Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2(1) Everglades. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sapiing/poletimber live oak maritime, l(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from January to mid-August, 

with the peak from early April to early June. The nests are 

built in shrubs or trees, mainly in colonies with other species 

of waders. The clutch size is commonly 3,4, or 5, rarely 2 

or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage mainly in shallow salt or brackish water, taking 

small fish, frogs, crayfish, and numerous other items. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 105; DeCraaf et al. 1980: 112; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:36; Forbush and May 1939:32; Imhof 197680; Kale 

1978:77; James and Neal 198693; Lowery 1974: 147; OberPRIMARY HABITATS holser 1974(I): 108; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962:464; 

Potter et al. 1980:68; Rappole et al. 1983:159; Robinson 

Nest site- thickets of shrubs or trees on islands or lake 1990:37; Root 1988: 18; sprunt and chamberlain 1970~85; shores; not numerous in swamps; most common near the Sprunt 1954:32; Stewart and Robbins 1958:57, 

coast. Foraging- shallow water and mudflats, usually in 

salt water, such as in bays and in salt marshes, 
Reddish Egret 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as category C2. State listed as Threatened 

in Texas, and Special Concern in Florida, and Alabama 

(unofficialfy). Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands 

and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U, perhaps locally FC, at a few sites in 

extreme southern Florida; a few pairs nest sparingly north 

to Tampa Bay. Non-breeding (since they nest mostly in 

winter, a "wintering" status would be inappropriate)- 

mainly U in extreme southern Florida at all seasons; R to IJ 

along the entire Gulf coast during most of the year; generally 

R along the Atlantic coast of Florida, and mainly during the 

warmer months. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- forage in salt water habitats; shallow bays, 

creeks, and shores. Nest in thickets on islands, generally in 

mangroves. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site in dense thickets of small trees or shrubs on 

coastal islands, favoring mangroves; foraging habitats must 

have shallow salt water. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from December to May, with the peak 

from January to March. The nests are built 5 to 15 feet (2-5 

m) from the ground in dense coastal thickets, mainly in 

mangroves. The clutch size is generally 3 or 4, ranging from 

2 to 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

These egrets wade in shallow salt water and stalk after 

small fish, frogs, tadpoles, and occasionally crustaceans. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:lM; Ehrlich et al. 1988:38; Forbush and 

May 1939:31; Imhof 1976:77; Kale 1978:51; Lowery 

1974: 143; Meyerreicks 1960: 106; Monroe et al. 1988%; 

Oberholser 1974(1): 106; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 

1962:448; Potter et al. 1980:65; Rappole et al. 1983:159; 

Root 1988: 18; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:84; Sprunt 

1954:29. 
e Egret 

Bubulcus ibis 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by 

Tennessee Natural Heritage Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- G over most of the range, though local in the 

inner Coastal Plain. Wintering-R in the Carolinas, increasIng to C in the southern part of Florida. Cattle Egrets spread 

into the southeast from tropical regions in the early 1950s; 

their numbers rose sharply in the 1950s and 1960s. Spring 

arrival- mid-March to mid-April; fall departure- early 

October to mid-November. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- nest in thickets or swamps with other herons 

and egrets, frequently on coastal islands; large numbers also 

nest in inland swamps. Foraging- rnainly in cattle pastures; 

also in other grassy areas, pond margins, and mudtlats; 

seldom near tidal water. 

Nest site- thickets or woods near water. Foragingcattle pastures or other short grass areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 298 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean '744 birds, overall mean 

13.23rt49.08 birdsfroute, total of route means 1 1,75 1 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(2) grassfforb longleaf pine-slash pine, 2.4(8) saplingfpoletimber pine savanna, 2.5(2) sawtimber IongIeaf 

pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from early April to late July, with June 

the most common time for egg laying. Nests are built in 

thickets of trees or shrubs near water, generally 5 to 15 feet 

(2-5 m) from the ground. The average clutch size is 4 or 5, 

with 3 being frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and other small invertebrates from grass, 

bare ground, or from the backs of cattle. hfost foraging is 

done in pastures and other grasslands; only infrequently near 

water. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

DeCraaf et al. 1980: 1 10; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):87; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:38; Imhof 197674; James and Neal 

198693; Lowery 1974: 14 1 ; Mengel 1965: 164; Monroe et 

al. 1988:6; Oberholser 1974 (I): 113; Ohlendorf et a1. 1979; 

Palmer I962:438; Potter et al. 1980:64; Rappole et al. 

1983: 158; Robbins et al. 1986: 16; Robinson 1990:38; Root 

1 988: 19; Sprunt 1953:3 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958:55. 
n-backed Heron (Green Heron) 

6mde S~&~US GNW 

ABUNDANCE STATUS SAMPLE BREEDfNG DENSITIES 

Breeding- C over most of the Coastal Plain; FG to C in 0.6(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 13(1) Everglades. 

the Piedmont; mostly 14 in mountains. Wintering- G in the Recorded on 5 18 of 888 BBS routes In the region. 1966- 

southern half of Florida, decreasing northward; R to U north 1985; maximum route mean 20 birds, overall mean 

of Florida. Spring arrival- mid-March to mid-April. 1.06k1.74 birdslroute, total of route means 942 birds. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- singly or in small colonies; usually near fresh 

water, but often near brackish or salt water; in swamps, 

thickets, or dense woods. Foraging- on shores, shallow 

water, marshes, and infrequently on mudflats; often in 

wooded areas, such as swamps and along creeks. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- moderate to dense woods or shrub thickets 

near a body of water. Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sapling/poletimber live oak maritime, 5(1) saplingfpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late March to late July, 

with a peak from mid-April to late May. The nests are built 

in shrubs or trees, most commonly 5 to 20 feet (2-6 m) from 

the ground, in a swampy place not far from water. The 

normal clutch size is 4 or 5, ranging from 3 to 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds forage in shallow water, or from a stick just 

out of the water, stabbing at fish, reptiles, amphibians, and 

other aquatic animals in the water. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 109; ReGraaf and Rudis 1986: 156; DeGraaf 

et al. 1980:116; Ehrlich et al. 1988:34; Forbush and May 

1939:34; Imhof 1974:7 1 ; James and Neal 1986:94; Lowery 

1974: 140; Mengel 1965: 162; Meyerreicks 1960:3; Monroe 

et al. 1988:6; Oberholser 1974(I): 1 1 1 ; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; 

Palmer 1962:415; Potter et al. 1980:62; Rappole et al. 

1983: 158; Robbins et al. 1986: 16; Robinson 1990:39; Root 

1988:20; Sprunt 1954:34; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:88; 

Stewart and Robbins 195853; Verner and Boss 1980:97. 
Black-crowned N 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of' Sclences and Nature Preserves Commission, Threatened and 

"in need of management83n Tennessee; and Special Concern in Alabama (unofficially). Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, 

Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of Florida, and elsewhere near 

the coast; U inland on Coastal Plain, but casual or accidental 

as a breeder farther inland. Wintering- essentially the same 

as the breeding status, though some withdrawal southward 

from inland sites. Inland post-breeding dispersal is very 

rare; in fact, most individuals inland are migrants to and 

from breeding areas to the north of the region. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- dense woods or thickets, near a lake or bay. 

Foraging- generally nocturnal, seldom seen during the 

day; shallow water of marshes, bays, lakes, and ponds. 

Occur in both fresh and salt water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- dense thickets near a body of water. Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in one habitat. Recorded on 55 of 888 

BBS routes in th:: region, 1966-1985; maximbm route mean 

10 birds, overall mean 0.05kO.47 birdslroute, total of route 

means 46 birds. BBS information was not used in preparation of the map of breeding distribution. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber live oak maritime, 26(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-March to midJune, with the peak from mid-April to mid-May. The nests 

are built in dense vegetation in thickets, mainly from 10 to 

30 feet (3-6 m) above the ground; almost always In colonies. 

The usual clutch size is 3 to 5, ranging from 2 to 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in shallow water for fish, crustaceans, aquatic 

insects, frogs, and other items. They feed only at night and 

spend the day in dense thickets. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, nocturnal aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 1 1 1 ; DeCraaf and Rudis 1986: 157; DeCraaf 

et al. 1980:118; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):45; Ehrlich et 

al. 1988:32; Forbush and May 1939:35; Imbof 1976:80; 

Kale 1978:78; James and Neal 1986:95; Lowery 1974: 149; 

Mengel 1965: 166; Monroe et al. 1933:6; Oberholser 

1974(I): 115; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962:472; Potter 

et al. 1980:68; Rappole et al. 1983: 160; Robinson 1990:39; 

Root 1988:21; Sprunt 1954:35; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:89; Stewart and Robbins 1958:58; Verner and Boss 

1980:98. 
rowned Night Heron 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Threatened by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Florida Natural 

Areas Inventory, Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

other bodies of water; occur in wooded areas more frequently than most waders, 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- dense woods or thickets near water, preferably 

in swamps. Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC over most of Florida; mainly U elsewhere 

in the Outer Coastal Plain, and R in the inner Coastal Plain; 

VR and sporadic in the Piedmont, and in the Virginia 

mountains. Wintering- FC to C in southern Florida; mostly 

U in northern Florida; R in Georgia and South Carolina. 

Light post-breeding dispersal inland. Spring arrival- late 

March to mid-April; fall departure- October to mid-November. 

IDENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- favor swamps and riverbottom forests; less 

numerous in coastal thickets or woods along a lake shore. 

Forag~ng- both nocturnal and diurnal; ma~nPy use freshwater habitats; swamps, streams. marshes, lake shores, and 

Recorded as Visitor in two habitats. Recorded on 132 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 29 birds, overall mean 0.18k1.37 birdslroute, total of 

route means 164 birds. BBS information was not used in 

preparation of the map of breeding distribution. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late March to mid-July, 

with a peak from mid-April to early May. The nests are built 

in shrubs or trees, mainly in a swamp. They seldom nest in 

large colonies. Clutch sizes are generally 3 to 5, ranging 

from 2 to 7. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed in shallow water, and take mostly crustaceans (such 

as crabs); other items include fish, frogs, and insects. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic stalking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 113; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986: 158; DeGraaf 

et al. 1980: 120; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):55; Ehrlich et 

al. 1988:34; Forbush and May 1939:37; Imhof 1976:81; 

Kale 1978:79; James and Neal 1986:96; Lowery 1974: 15 1; 

Mengel 1965:167; Monroe et al. 1988:6; Oberholser 

1974(1): 117; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962:484; Potter et al. 1980:69; Rappole et al. 1983:160; Robinson 

1990:40; Root 1988:22; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:90; 

Sprunt 1954:37; Stewart and Robbins 1958:59. 
White Ibis 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Virginia 

Natural Heritage Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC over most of Florida and the coast of 

Georgia and South Carolina; FC to C over the remainder of 

the range; have nested once in Virginia. Wintering- C to 

VG in Florida; generally 117 to FC northward along the coast. 

Light to moderate post-breeding dispersal to most of the 

region, but few mountain records; mainly July and August. 

The population of White Ibises has increased greatly over 

the past several decades, especially north of Florida. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- thickets or forests near water, especially fresh 

water; commonly nest in swamps and bottomlands. as well 

as in coastal thickets. Foraging- in shallow water of bays, 

streams, ponds, swamps, and marshes; occur on both fresh 

and salt water shores. 

Nest site- thickets of trees or shrubs near a body of water. 

Foraging- shores of bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in two habitats. Recorded on 110 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 157 birds, overall mean 1.6 129.70 birdslroute, total of 

route means 143 1 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 14(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from January (in south Florida) 

to late July, with the peak from late March to mid-May. The 

nests are placed in trees or shrubs, usually at low or medium 

heights, in dense vegetation near water. Clutch size 2-5, 

usually 3-4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in shallow water, on mudflats, and rarely in grassy 

areas, where they glean or probe. Primary food is crustaceans; fish, frogs, aquatic insects, etc., are also taken. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, aquatic gleaning or probing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:120; Ehrlich et al. 1988:46; Forbush and 

May 1939:44; Imhof 1976:89; Kale 1978:83; James and 

Neal 1986:97; Lowery 1974: 158; Monroe et al. 1988:7; 

Oberholser 1974(1): 128; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 

1962:522; Potter et al. 1980:75; Rappole et al. 1983: 161; 

Robinson 1990:4 1 ; Root 198823; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970: 100; Sprunt 1954:45. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Threatened in North Carolina. Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Florida Natural 

Areas Inventory, Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C on the coast of Virginia and northern North 

Carolina; decreasing southward to IJ to FC in Georgia; FC 

to C over much of Florida, though less numerous there than 

most other species of waders. Wintering- FC to C in much 

of Florida; R along the coast from Georgia to Virginia. 

Post-breeding dispersal is very rare inland. These birds have 

become much more numerous in this century, first in Florida, and within the past several decades in the northern part 

of the range. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- primarily thickets of small trees or shrubs near 

water, and commonly near the coast. Foraging- mostly in 

shallow water, such as ponds, pools, marshes, and estuaries, 

at times in grassy areas; feed in water of any salinity. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- thickets near a body of water. Foragingshores of bodies of water; occasionally in grasslands. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 15 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 35 birds, overall mean 

0.07rt1.22 birdslroute, total of route means 61 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late March to late June, 

with a peak from mid-April to late May. The nests are 

generally placed in shrubs or trees in thickets near water, 

and very seldom on the ground. The clutch size is usually 3 

or 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in shallow water, on mud, or occasionally in grassy 

places. They glean or probe for food in mud or water, taking 

crayfish, aquatic insects, and other invertebrates, but relatively few fish are consumed. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic gleaning or probing insectivore or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958: 120; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:159; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:44; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 126; Forbush and May 

1939:42; Imhof 197686; Kale 1978:82; James and Neal 

1986:97; Lowery 1974: 156; Monroe et al. 1988:7; Oberholser 1974fI): 126; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 19625 15; 

Potter et al. 1980:74; Rappole et al. 1983: 161 ; Robinson 

1990:4 1 ; Root 1988:24; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:98; 

Sprunt 1954:43; Stewart and Robbins 1958:63. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Category 2. State listed as Threatened 

in Texas. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Pemanent Residents-On the western Gulf Coast, these 

birds are Fairly Common but localized along the Texas coast 

and in southwestern Louisiana. Increasingly rare farther east 

in Mississippi and Alabama, they are also rarely found in 

inland heronries, some in wooded areas, east Texas. Portnoy 

(198 1) reports more than 12000 of the birds in his survey of 

breeding colonies on the Louisiana-Mississippi-Alabama 

coasts, 1976. They are absent from the eastern areas in the 

winter. The birds were more common before the widespread 

use of organic pesticides in rice farming. 

CIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- White-faced Ibises utilize habitats very 

similar to those selected by the related Glossy Ibises (Plegadis falcinellus). They inhabit coastal swamps and 

marshes, irrigated ricefields, and other low-lytng areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- Coastal swamps and marshes where the 

birds can forage in water ca. 6-8 in (1-2 dm) or less deep. In 

common with Glossy Ibises, these birds are apparently 

much more partial to fresh water than are White Ibises 

(Eudocimus albus). 

REPRODUCTION 

The birds build their solidly constructed nests of sticks 

and grasses in shrubs, trees or on the ground, near water, in 

marshes or swamps. In colonies in mangroves these birds 

nest more frequently in oystergrass than in the shrubs (Portnoy 1981). They frequently nest in mixed-species colonies 

with herons, egrets, rails, and other ibises. The clutch is 2-7, 

usually 3-4 eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

The primary foods of White-faced Ibises are aquatic 

invertebrates and small vertebrate animals captured by 

probing into water or soft mud. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic gleaning or probing insectivore or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:46; Forbush and May 1939:43; Imhof 

197637; James and Neal 1986:98; Lowery 1974: 157; Monroe et al. 1988:7; Oberholser 1974 (1):127; Palmer 

1962515; Portnoy 1981; Rappole et al. 1983:161, 417; 

Robinson 1990:42; Root 1988:24; Sprunt 1954:44; Sutton 

1967:44. 
Roseate Spoonbi 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Florida fisted as Special Concern. Monitored by Louisiana 

Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

in salt or brackish water; shallow water of bays, tidal creeks, 

ponds, and other bodies of water, 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- thickets of small trees on coastal islands. 

Foraging- shallow water, generally salt or brackish water. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from November to January, 

peaking in mid-November to early January. The bulky, stick 

nests are placed in mangroves or other trees, generally 

within 30 feet (9 m) of the ground. Clutch size 2-5, typically 

3. 

Breeding- FC in extreme southern Florida; nest in small 

numbers northward on the Gulf Coast to Tampa Bay. Nonbreeding- occur regularly, often FC, over much of the 

southern half of Florida throughout the year; most numerous 

in coastal areas; R to VR elsewhere in Florida, with a few 

reaching the Georgia coast in the summer. Numbers of these 

birds decline greatly in Florida between 1880 and 1950, but 

the population is increasing steadily at the present, though 

still far below pre-1880 numbers. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in shallow water by sweeping the bill from side to 

side, straining or picking prey items from the water. Brackish water is favored. Prey consist primarily of small fish; 

some small aquatic insects, crustaceans, and a few plants are 

.also taken. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, aquatic filter-feeding or gleanlng 

insectivore or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- dense thickets of small trees along the coast, 

preferably on islands of mangroves. Foraging- generally 

Allen 1966; Burleigh 1958:122; Ehrlich et al. 1988:48; 

Forbush and May 1939:45; Imhof 1976:91; Kale 197852; 

James and Neal 1986:98; Lowery 1974:160; Oberholser 

1974(I): 132; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; Palmer 1962534; Potter 

et al. 1980:76; Rappole et al. 1983:162; Robinson 1990:42; 

Root 1988:25; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 101 ; Sprunt 

1954:47. 
Wood Stork 

north of Florida; habitats include swamps, lake shores, 

pools, streams, estuaies, and mudflats. 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally Iisted as Endangered. State Iisted as Endangered 

in Flonda, North Carohna, and South Carolina. Threatened 

in Texas, and Special Concern in Alabama (unofficially). 

Blue Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U to FC within the range, locally C at a few 

rookeries; nest north to Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia, and 

on very rare occasions possibly in coastal South Carolina. 

Non-breeding- during the warmer months, FC over much 

of Florida, and northward along the coast to central South 

Carolina; small numbers occur on the coast north to southern 

North Carolina, and inland over the southern halves of South 

Carolina and Georgia. In the colder months (when most 

breeding occurs), most individuals are in Florida; R on the 

coasts of Georgia and South Carolina. Stork numbers have 

declined drastically in recent decades, largely because of 

fluctuating water levels in the Florida wetlands. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in swamps, tall trees along lake shores or 

thickets of trees or large shrubs; mainly near fresh water, but 

also rn coastai areas. Foraging- favor fresh water in Florida, but frequent all salintty types, and mainly in salt water 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site--- trees (or rarely shrubs) near a large body of 

b3ater. Foraging- areas of shallow water, preferably where 

6 to 10 inches ( 1-2 dm) deep. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 44 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 19 birds, overall mean 

0.13+1.01 birdslroute, total of route means 1 13 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 ( 1 ) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-December to late 

April, with the peak from late January to mid-March. The 

stick platform nests are usually placed high in trees in a 

swamp. Three eggs are normal, with 2 or 4 rather uncommon. 

FOOD HABITS 

Storks feed in shallow water, moving the bill around in 

the water until it touches a prey item, when the bill then 

quickly grabs the animal in a reflex action. Prey items are 

mainly fish, but also frogs, tadpoles, crustaceans, and others. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aquatic stalking or gleaning carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Burleigh 1958:118; Ehrlich et al. 1988:42; Forbush and 

May 19394 1 ; Imhof 1976:84; Kale 1978:3; James and Neal 

1986:98: Lowery 1974: 154; Mengel 1965: 17 1 ; Monroe et 

al. 1988:7; Oberholser 1974fI): 124; Ohlendorf et al. 1979; 

Palmer 1962:509; Potter et al. 1980:73; Rappole et al. 

1983: 16 1 ; Robinson 1990:32; Root 1988:25; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:97; Sprunt 1954:4 1; Stewart and Robbins 1958:63. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C over most of the Coastal Plain and 

Piedmont; FC in the lower elevations of the Virginia mountains, but U in the North Carolina mountains. WinteringG over much of the Coastal Plain, U in the Piedmont, and 

VR in the mountains. 

CIDBNTAL LOI 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in a cavity, such as a nest box or a tree cavity, 

in a swamp, wooded stream, or at a lake or pond. Foragingstrictly in fresh water, and usually near wooded areas; open 

swamps, wooded lakes, streams, or in marshes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- a cavity near a body of fresh water. Foragingbody of fresh water, usually close to wooded cover. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1.6(2) sapling/poletimber oak-gum- cypress, 13(3) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 265 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 14 

birds, overall mean 0.31f 0.96 birdslroute, total of route 

means 280 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 4(1) sapIing/poIetimber bay swamp-pocosin, 4(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late February to late July, 

with peak in late March to late April. Nest in cavities, such 

as abandoned Pileated Woodpecker holes, other large tree 

cavities, or in nest boxes; always near or over water. Clutch 

size 9-14, averaging 1 1- 12. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in shallow fresh water, usually near deciduous 

woods or other vegetation. Glean food from water surface, 

from vegetation, etc. Summer diet includes aquatic insects, 

other invertebrates, as well as fish, tadpoles, and plants. 

Winter diet is primarily plant matter, often acorns. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, aquatic diving or gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bellrose 1976: 170; Burleigh 1958: 145; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 162; DeCraaf et al. 1980: 150; Ehrlich et al. 1988:74; 

Forbush and May 1939:70; Imhof 1976: 1 1 1 ; James and 

Neal 1986: 105; Johnsgard 1978: 160; Lowery 1974: 190; 

Mengel 1965:186; Monroe et al. 1988:9; Oberholser 

1974(1): 17 1; Palmer 1976(111):252; Potter et al. 1980:90; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 165; Robbins et al. 1986: 18; Robinson 

1990:48; Root 1988:29; Scott et al. 1977:8; Sprunt 1954:73; 

Sprunt arid Chamberlain 1970: 124; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:85; Verner and Boss 1980: 108, 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding-Some wild Mallards nested in the lowlands of 

western Kentucky in historic times. Presently, the number 

of domestic birds, escapes, and hybrids makes the discussion of nesting of truly wild birds in the South moot. Winter-Occur throughout the South, are more common in the 

Coastal Plain than father inland, and most numerous in the 

southern Mississippi River valley. The birds winter as far 

north as ice free water permits. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons-Marshes, lakes, reservoirs, and flooded 

bottomlands; almost exclusively in fresh water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons-Shallow water ca. 12- 16 in deep (3-4 dm) 

for foraging, and vegetation cover such as cattails or reeds 

for nesting. R. B. Hamilton (pers. cornm.) suggests that the 

females, particularly, may depend for winter survival on 

flooded bottomland timber. 

REPRODUCTION 

Scattered breeding records exist for the entire region, 

primarily by feral individuals and hybrids with domestic 

stock. Nests are always placed upon the ground in herbaceous vegetation, where the females incubate clutches of 

8- 12 eggs. The season extends from March-July . 

FOOD HABITS 

Mallards have a varied diet of waste grain, seeds and stems 

of herbs, as well as grasses, acorns, cypress seeds, and other 

mast. A small proportion of the food consists of small 

invertebrate animals and a few fish. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, aquatic or terrestrial gleaning or probing 

omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973: 11; Burleigh 1958: 13 1 ; DeGraaf et al. 

1980:134; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:165; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:60; Forbush and May 1939:58; Imhof 1976: 101; 

James and Neal 1986: 109; Johnsgard 1978:216; Leopold et 

al. 1981:76; Lowery 1974: 18 1 ; Mengel 1965: 177; Monroe 

et al. 1988:9; Oberholser 1974 (I): 153; Palmer 1976(11):275; 

Potter et al. 1980:83; Rappole et al. 1983: 163,419; Robbins 

et al. 1986:16; Robinson 1990:50; Root 1988:31, 275; 

Sprunt 1954:59; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 112; Sutton 

1967:60; Verner and Boss 1980: 102. 
ed Merganser 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Seiences and Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program, West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to casual, as well as sporadic; only in 

northeastern North Carolina and southeastern Virginia. 

Wintering- generally FC over most of the Coastal Plain, U 

to locally FC in the Piedmont, and R to U in the mountains. 

Most Hooded Mergansers breed north of the region. Fall 

arrival- late October to mid-November; spring departure- late March to mid-April. 

ACCIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

I E2Z.l BREEDING 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in a cavity (usually in a tree or bird box), in a 

swamp or bottomland forest. Foraging- usually in freshwater swamps, lakes, or ponds; infrequent in brackish water, 

but rare in salt water. Often in open bodies of water in winter, 

but close to wooded cover during the breeding season. 

KEY HABITAT REQUlREMENTS 

Nest site- a cavity near water in wooded country. Foraging- body of water, usually fresh water. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSiTiES 

l(1) grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding occurs from mid-February to late April, with 

peak in early to mid-March. Nests are placed in cavities such 

as nest boxes or abandoned Pileated Woodpecker holes. 

Clutch size 6- 18, usually 8- 12. 

FOOD HABITS 

Dive beneath the water surface of a lake, pond, or swamp 

for small fish, crayfish, other crustaceans, aquatic insects, 

etc. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, aquatic diving carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bellrose 1976:437; Burleigh 1958: 163; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:175; DeGraaf et al. 1980:166; Ehrlich et al. 1988:94; 

Forbush and May 1939:89; Imhof 1976:124; James and 

Neal 1986: 127; Johnsgard 1978:346; Lowery 1974:207; 

Mengel 1965: 197; Monroe et al. 1988: 13; Oberholser 

1974(I): 195; Palmer 1976(III):448; Potter et al. 1980:99; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 166; Robinson 1990:61; Root 1988:45; 

Scott et al. 1977:12; Sprunt 1954:86; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 145; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 102; Verner and 

Boss 1980: 1 17, 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State l~sted as Threatened In North Carolina, Rare in West 

Virginia, and "in need of management'3n Tennessee. Blue 

Listed by Tate (1 98 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- C throughout Florida, the Coastal Plain of 

Georgia and South Carolina, and most of Virginia; FC in the 

Coastal Plain of North Carolina; U to locally FC in the 

Piedmont of the Carolinas and Georgia; VR to absent in the 

mountains of North Carolina and extreme western Virginia, 

and in the Florida Keys. Essentially non-migratory. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- mainly in remote woodlands, with the nest on 

the ground in a thicket, in a hollow log, in a shed, or in many 

other spots. Partial to limestone cliffs in karst areas. Foraging- soar over a wide variety of habitats, from woods to 

open country; frequently feed in cities and towns in the 

southern part of the region. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor rn four habitats. Recorded on 3 15 of 

888 BBS routes in the region. 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 34 birds, overall mean 0,9w.72 birdslroute, total of 

route means 798 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplingipoletimber bay swamp- pocosin, 4(2) grass 

forb loblolly pine-shortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding occurs from January to July, with peak egg-laying activity from early March to mid-April. Build no nests, 

but lay the two egg clutch on cliffs, in caves, hollow trees, 

logs, sheds, or under thickets. 

FOOD HABITS 

Often feed in large flocks on carrion detected visually 

while soaring. Prey is primarily carrion, and occasionally 

young animals, garbage, etc. They are reputed to have a 

weak sense of smell. 

GUILD 

Cavity, ground, or ledge nesting, terrestrial soaring scavenger. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:28; Burleigh 1958: 170; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):71; Ehrlich et al. 1988:216; Forbush and May 

1939:95: Imhof 1976: 129; James and Neal 1986: 13 1 ; Lowery 1974:216; Mengel 1965:201; Monroe et al. 1988:14; 

Oberholser 1974(1):203; Potter et al. 1980: 103; Rappole et 

al. 1983: 167; Robinson 1990:64; Root 1988:48; Scott et al. 

1977: 15; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 150; Sprunt 

1954:92; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 106. 

Nest site- a sheltered spot in many situations, but usually 

in a forest. Foraging- no essential habitat requirements, 

though generally not in rugged mountainous areas. 
Turkey Vu 

Cahartes aura 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as "in need of management" in Tennessee. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- C throughout the Coastal Plain; FC to 

locally C inland, less numerous at higher elevations. Moderate to heavy spring and fall migration through the region, 

mainly of birds that breed to the north of the region and 

winter primarily in the southern portion of the region. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- usually in a woodland, or in a remote area; 

commonly on the ground in a wooded thicket, in an old barn 

or shed, or on ledges of cliffs. Foraging- occur over many 

habitats as they soar, searching for carrion; often over mountains or woodlands, and somewhat less so around extensive 

fields. These birds are not associated with any single habitat. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- a sheltered spot on the ground or on a ledge, 

in many situations. Foraging- no essential habitat requirements. 

Recorded as Visitor in 12 habitats; 0.5(1) sawtimber 

Ioblolly pine-shortleaf pine. Recorded on 506 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 61 

birds, overall mean 3.08S.50 birdslroute, total of route 

means 2733 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(3) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 6(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from March to June, with peak 

in early April to early May. Do not build nests, but lay the 

clutch of two eggs on cliffs, in caves, in hollow logs, in old 

sheds, or beneath the vegetation of thickets. 

FOOD HABITS 

Usually alone or in pairs, soar and glide on set wings 

searching for their primarily carrion prey. Possibly locate 

carrion by smell; rarely kill live prey. 

GUILD 

Cavity, ground, or ledge nesting, terrestrial soaring scavenger. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937: 12; Burleigh 1958: 168; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:178; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 172; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):67; Ehrlich et al. 1988:216; Forbush and May 

1939:94; Imhof 1976: 128; James and Neal 1986: 132; Lowery 1974:213; Mengel 1965:200; Monroe et al. 1988: 14; 

Oberholser 1974(1):201: Potter et al. 1980: 102; Rappole et 

al. 1983: 1 67; Robbins et al. 1986: 18; Robinson 1990:65; 

Root 1988:49; Scott et al. 1977: 14; Sprunt 1954:90; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970: 149; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 104; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 1 19. 
Osprey 

Pandm halaetus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Acadensy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, in Missouri, Tennessee, and Alabma (unofficially); Threatened in South 

Carolina; Protected in Texas; Special Concern in Monroe 

County, Florida; and Rare in West Virginia. Blue Listed by 

Tate (198 1). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Georgia Freshwater VG7etlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, 

Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory. Forest Service sensitive on Chattahoochee-Oconee, Cherokee , Daniel Boone, 

Francis Marion-Sumter, Kisatchie National Forests, National Forests in Florida, and Savannah River Forest Station. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding C over much of Florida; FC to locally C elsewhere in tidal areas, local further inland. Somewhat less 

numerous than 30 to 40 years ago. Wintering- U along the 

coast and in pasts of northwestern Florida; increasing southward, becoming C in southern Florida. Spring arrival- late 

February to mid-March; fall departure- late October to 

mid-November. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- usually in an exposed structure (dead tree, 

marker, buoy, and others) near or in a large body of water; 

prefer coastal to inland shores. Foraging- always at large 

bodies of water: bays, takes, and even the ocean; prefer salt 

water shores, and favor a few trees for perching. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- a conspicuous structure, commonly a dead 

tree, near a large body of water. Foraging- large bodies of 

water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in one habitat. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine, 0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from November to early July, 

with a Florida peak from mid-March to mid-April, and a 

Virginia peak from late April to mid-May. The nests are 

commonly built in the tops of trees, especially dead ones. 

Other sites include buoys, platforms, and markers; rarely on 

the ground. The clutch size is almost always 3, rarely 2 or 

4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Ospreys feed almost entirely on fish, diving onto them 

from a considerable height. 

GUILD 

Tree or ledge nesting, aquatic pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:352; Burleigh 1958:193; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986: 179; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 194; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):23; Ehrlich et al. 1988:242; Forbush and May 

1939: 121; Imhof 1976: 146; Kale 1978:30; James and Neal 

1986: 134; Lowery 1974:239; Mengel 1965:2 18; Monroe et 

al. 1988: 14; Oberholser 1974(I): 249; Ogden 1977; Potter et 

af. 1980:114; Rappole et al. 1983: 170; Robbins et a1. 

1986:21; Robinson 1990:65; Root 1988:50; Sprunt 

1954: f 20; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 177; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 118; Verner and Boss 1980: 131. 
American Swa 

Elanods f0Ifimtus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Category C2. State listed as Endangered 

in South Carolina, Threatened in Texas, and Special Concern in Alabama (unofficially). Monitored by Arkansas 

Natural Heritage Commission, Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural 

Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive, Francis Marion 

National Forest 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in southern Florida; FC to locally C over 

most of the remainder of Florida; mostly U and local in the 

Georgia and South Carolina portion of the range; 1 or 2 

pairs possibly nest in coastal North Carolina. Winter south 

of the United States. Spring arrival- late February to midMarch; fall departure- mid-August to late September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Prefer a mixture of swamp forests and marshes; feed over 

marshes and ponds, as well as in open swamps, usually 

avoid dry or upland habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature trees (either in forests or in the open) adjacent to 

marshes or ponds; usually a swamp is essential. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 27 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 7 birds, overall mean 0.04B.37 

birdslroute, total of route means 35 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-March to mid-May, 

with peak in April. Nests are usually built at great heights 

in living trees, often in pines; in forests near water. Clutch 

size 2, or less commonly 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in the air by gracefully swooping and gliding. 

Snatch prey from foliage and branches of trees, and from 

other substrates; often eat on the wing. Diet is primarily 

small reptiles, amphibians, large insects, and some nestling 

birds. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aerial or soaring insectivore, or pouncing 

carnivore on various substrates. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:44; Burleigh 1958: 172; Ehrlich et al. 1988:22; 

Forbush and May 1939:97; Imhof 1976: 13 1 ; James and 

Neal 1986: 135; Lowery 1974:219; Mengel 1965:204; Monroe et al. 1988: 15; Oberholser 1974(1):208; Potter et al. 

1980: 105; Rappole et al. 1983: 167; Robinson 1990:66; 

Sprunt 1954:94; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 153; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958: 107. 
PROTECTION STATUS PRIMARY HABITATS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inttentory. Louisiana 

Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- VR, status is poorly known; seldom more 

than 1 or 2 are sighted in a given year. Non-migratory. 

Presumably somewhat more numerous in the 19th Century, 

but these have always been rare birds in Florida. Most occur 

in Mexico and Central America. 

GCIDEKTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

,411 seasons- open, savanna-like habitats with scattered 

trees: prairies, marshes, and other fields. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Scattered trees or saplings in extensive open country. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from February to May, with peak 

in April. Nests are built in trees 10-30 feet (3-9 m) high. 

Clutch size 4-5, sometimes 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in slow flight, often hovering, at low heights over 

open areas. Drop onto the ground chiefly for small rnamrnals; small birds, lizards, amphibians, and large insects, 

etc., are also taken. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, pouncing carnivore on many substrates. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 193753; Ehrlich et al. 1988:222; Forbush and May 

1939:96; Imhof 1976: 130; Kale 197854; James and Neal 

1986: 135; Lowery 19742 19; Oberholser 1974(1):206; Potter et al. 1980: 104; Robbins et al. 1986: 18; Root 1988:5 1; 

Sprunt 1953:93; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 152; Verner 

and Boss 1980: 12 1. 
tf? (Everglade Kite) 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Endangered. State listed as Endangered 

in Florida. Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and 

Heritage Inventory Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- R and restricted, only in southern Florida, 

where perhaps 100 pairs are present. Most "Snail Kites" 

occur from Mexico and the West Indies south to South 

America. Non-migratory, but gregarious and somewhat nomadic. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUH HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- extensive freshwater marshes, usually 

where scattered shrubs or small trees are present, in addition 

to areas of shallow open water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Freshwater marshes where Apple Snails (Pomaceu 

paludosa) are present. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-February to mid-July 

with peak in mid-March to late April. Nests are placed in 

marsh grassed, shrubs, or small trees. The birds readily 

accept artificial platforms into which the nests have been 

transferred. Clutch size 2-4, usually 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed almost entirely on large freshwater snails, (Pomacea 

paludosa), which are located while the birds fly slowly low 

over the marshes, and are captured by pouncing. Captured 

prey are taken to a tree or feeding post for eating. 

GUILD 

Bush or ground nesting, aquatic or herb pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:70; Ehrlich et al. 1988:224; Forbush and May 

1939:98; Kale 1978:4; Oberholser 1974(1):211; Sprunt 

1954:98; Stieglitz and Thompson 1967; Sykes 1979. 
issippi Kite 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Tennessee, as Special Concern by Kentucb Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Comission, and as Significantly Rare in North 

Carolina. Monitored by South Carolina Heritage Trust Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to locally C along large rivers in the range; 

U over most of the range; probably breed sparingly at 

several sites in North Carolina. Winter to the south of the 

United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to late April; fall 

departure- late August to late September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Primarily in extensive riverbottom hardwoods, where the 

nests are built, but feed over adjacent fields or marshes. 

Much foraging is done in the vicinity of cultivated fields, as 

well as over bottomland woods. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 94 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 23 birds, overall mean 

0.19k1.38 birds!route, total of route means 171 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from May to July, with peak in 

early June. Nests built high in canopies of trees, sometimes 

over 100 feet (30 m), in forests. Clutch size 1-2, sometimes 

3. 

FOOD HABITS 

While on the wing over open areas or forests, Mississippi 

Kites capture and eat their primarily large insect prey. 

Occasionally take reptiles and amphibians. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aerial insectivore at various heights. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:63; Burleigh 1958:173; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):21; Ehrlich et al. 1988:220; Forbush and May 

1939:98; Imhof 1976: 132; James and Neal 1986: 135; Lowery 1974:220; Mengel 1965:204; Monroe et al. 1988: 15; 

Oberholser 1974(1):209; Potter et al. 1980: 105; Rappole et 

al. 1983:168; Robbins et al. 1986:18; Robinson 1990:67; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 155; Sprunt 1954:97. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

ti. I. Eeucocephcllus is federally fisted as Endangered. State 

fisted as Endangered in Alabama, Arkansa, Delaware, 

Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, 

North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, 

Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia; as Threatened in Florida, and as Rare in West Virginia (sic). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

A11 seasons- have greatly declined throughout the Southeast since the 1930's and 1940's. mainly because of poor 

reproductive success resulting directly from the use of DDT, 

a chemical that causes egg-shell thinning in the birds. At 

present, FC over much of the Florida peninsula; U in the 

Chesapeake Bay area of Virginia, and in parts of northern 

Florida and coastal South Carolina; R and local elsewhere, 

mainly along the coast north of Florida. Have not nested in 

the past several years in Georgia and North Carolina, though 

breeding in these states could resume at any time. There is 

some migration of individuals throughout the Southeast, and 

small numbers winter on a few of the large inland lakes 

along the Mississippi River in Tennessee and Kentucky and 

in Northwestern Arkansas. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- usually in a large liv~ng tree near a body of 

water, either in the open or in a grove, but seldom in deep 

woods; usually in a conspicuous location. Foraging- almost always near estuaries, lakes, large ponds, open 

marshes, and shorelines; feed in both salt water and fresh 

water. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- tall, usually living trees near water. Foraging- large bodies of water, with trees nearby for perching. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in one habitat. Recorded on 13 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 

1 bird, overall mean 0.007rfr0.078 birdslroute, total of route 

means 7 birds. BBS information was not used in preparation 

of the map of breeding distribution. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from early November to May, 

with a peak in Florida from early December to late January, 

and in Virginia from late February to mid-March. The large 

nests, reused in succeeding years, are built in crotches of 

large living trees (usually); pines are common nest sites. 

Two is the normal clutch size; rarely 1 or 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

Bald Eagles soar over a body of water and swoop to the 

surface for fish. They also scavenge for dead fish along 

shores, and they occasionally consume birds and small 

mammals. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aquatic soaring or pouncing carnivore or 

scavenger. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:321-348; Burleigh 1958: 189; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:180; DeGraaf et al. 1980:190; Eagar and 

Hatcher 1982(A):9; Ehrlich et al. 1988:220; Forbush and 

May 1939: 1 17; Imhof 1976: 143; James and Neal 1986: 136; 

Kale 1978:27; Lowery 1974:236; Mengel 1965:215; Monroe et ai. 1988:15; Oberholser 1974(1):244; Potter et al. 

1980: 112; Robinson 1990:68; Root 1988:52; Spencer 1976; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 172; Sprunt 1954: 1 16; Steenhoff and Brown 1978; Stewart and Robbins 1958:115; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 129. 
Northern Harrier (Marsh HW 

Circus cvmetls 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri. Threatened in 

Tennessee, Significantly Rare in North Carolina, and Rare 

in West Virginia. Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to U along the Virginia coast; VR to R along 

the northern coast of North Carolina; a few breeding records 

for northern Florida, but very irregular. Fli'intering- C in 

most coastal localities; U to FC in inland Florida, but mostly 

U zlsewhere inland; R in the mountains. Fall anival- late 

August to late September; spring departure- early April to 

early May. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- extensive marsh, Wintering- large areas of 

open country, preferably marshes but also weedy fields. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(2) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 2.5(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

The nesting season extends from early May to late May, 

perhaps into April and June; the peak appears to be in early 

May and mid-May. The nests are built on the ground in a 

marsh, amid tall reeds. The clutch size is frequently 4 to 6, 

ranging up to 9. 

FOOD HABITS 

The birds fly slowly over a marsh or field, generally within 

10 feet (3 rnj of the ground, and drop onto small mammals. 

At times, birds, herps, and insects are also taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:78; Burleigh 1958: 19 1 ; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 18 1; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 192; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):43; Ehrlich et al. 1988:226; Forbush and May 

1939: 1 19; Irnhof 1976: 145; James and Neal 1986: 139; 

Lowery 1974:238; Mengel 1965:217; Monroe et al. 

1988: 15; Oberholser 1974(1):246; Potter et al. 1980: 1 14; 

PRIMARY HABITATS Robbins et al. 1986:21; Rappole et al. 1983:170; Robinson 

1990:69; Root 1988:53; Sprunt 1954: 1 18; Sprunt and 

Breeding- only in marshes. generally where fresh or Chamberlain 1970: 175; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 1 16; 

brackish and rather extensive. Wintering- favor extensive Verner and Boss 1980: 130; Watson 1977. 

marshes, but also forage at weedy fields and other open 

country habitats. Absolutely avoid wooded habitats. 
Sharpsh nned Hawk 

Amipiter striatus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri. Threatened in 

Tennessee, Rare in West Virginia, Significantly Rare in 

North Carolina, and Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, and in 

Alabama (unofficially). Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. Forest 

Service sensitive, Jefferson National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- mostly U in the Southern Appalachians and 

Cumberland Plateau; R elsewhere. Wintering- FC in 

coastal areas; mostly U to FC elsewhere. Heavy fall! migration along the coast and in the mountains, less so elsewhere. 

Fall arrival- mid-August to late September; spring departure- mid-April to early May. 

CIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY' HABITATS 

Nest site- in a wide variety of forests, but generally 

where extensive. Most numerous in mixed forest, but not 

partial to hardwoods or conifers. Foraging- a mixture of 

woods and open country is preferred, especially a complex 

of woodlots and openings; occur in most types of wood, but 

in winter mainly in pines. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- forests of many types; few strict requirements. 

Foraging- mixture of woods and open country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sawtimber loblolly pine- shortleaf pine. Recorded 

on 47 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 1 bird, overall mean 0.008rfr 0.04 

birdslroute, total of route means 8 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(2) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 3.5(4) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early May to Iate June with 

peak in late May. Nests are hidden in the canopies of large 

forest trees, often pines. Clutch size 3-8, usually 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Sharpies are bird hawks, chasing and catching small birds 

on the wing in woodlands. Seldom forage in open areas. 

Small mammals, lizards, and insects are also taken. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aerial or hawking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:95; Burleigh 1958: 175; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 182; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 176; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):27; Ehrlich et al. 1988:226; Forbush and May 

1939: 101; Imhof 1976: 134; James and Neal 1986: 141; 

Lowery 1974:223; Mengel 1965:206; Monroe et al. 

1988: 15; Oberholser 1974(1):214; Potter et al. 1980: 106; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 168: Robbins et al. 1986:18; Robinson 

1990:69; koot 198854, 2'7'7; Sprunt 1954: 102; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970: 156; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 108; 

Verner and Boss 1 980: 1 23. 
per's Hawk 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri, Threatened in 

North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee; and Special 

Concern by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature 

Preserves Commission, and in Alabama (unofficially). Blue 

Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by Arkansas Natural 

Heritage Commission, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 

Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Listed as Forest Service sensitive on National 

Forests in Texas, Jefferson, George Washington, and 

Kisatchie National Forests. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U in the northern parts of the South; generally R elsewhere, south to central Florida. Winteringmostly U throughout the region; not numerous anywhere. 

Moderate migration of individuals into the Southeast in the 

fall; generally more numerous everywhere in winter than in 

summer. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in forests of a wide variety, either in an 

extensive stand or near an opening. Foraging- usually 

where forests or woodlots are interspersed with fields and 

other openings; mainly in mixed woods or pinewoods in 

winter. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- tn a wide variety of forested habitats. Foraging- woodlands with scattered fields or other openings. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as \cTisitor in 4 habitats, l(3) sawtimber mixed 

pine-hardwood. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sapling/poletimber bay swamp-pocosin, 0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 0.5(2) grasslforb or 

shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, l(2) sawtimber mixed 

pine-hardwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early April to late May, 

with peak occurring during early to mid-May. Nests are 

placed in crotches of limbs well up in forest trees. Clutch 

size 3-6, usually 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Chase and catch medium-sized (e.g. Robin-sized) birds 

on the wing or from other substrates, usually in forests, 

occasionally in open areas. Lizards and amphibians are also 

taken. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, aerial or hawking carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937: 1 12; Burleigh 1958: 177; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:183; DeGraaf et al. 1980:178; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):25; Ehrlich et al. 1988:228; Forbush and May 

1939: 104; Irnhof 1976: 135; James and Xeal 1986: 14 1 ; Kale 

19'78:85; Lowery 1974:224; Mengel 1965207; Monroe et 

al. 1988: 16; Oberholser 1974(1):2 16; Potter et al. 1980: 108; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 168; Robbins et al. 1986:18; Robinson 

1990:70; Root 1988:54, 278; Sprunt 1954: 104; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970: 158; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 109; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 124. 
Northern Goshawk 

Amb$er amfils 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- These birds apparently come into the South only 

when their northern food supplies fail. They are Very Rare 

in Kentucky, Virginia, and in the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, and in northern Arkansas, Their occurrence is inegular farther south. Fomerly they bred in 

Kentucky, they have bred in Maryland, and the breeding 

range may be expanding to the south. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Unknown. Breeding densities as low as 1 pr11500-4000 

ha (3800- 10000 acres; Brown and Arnadon 1968) and as 

high as 0.82 pr1260 ha (640 ac; DeGraaf et al. 1980) have 

been reported. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds are secretive and fierce predators on mediumsized and larger birds, such as grouse, jays, and woodpeckers. Grouse, quail, and poultry are often taken, reflecting the 

birds' preference for gallinaceous prey. A number of Arkansas records are associated with poultry farms in the northern 

part of that state. They also eat such mammals as squirrels, 

weasels, chipmunks, rabbits, groundsquirrels, and mice. 

Goshawks' primary foraging method is a surprise attack 

from an elevated, concealed perch. Once after prey, they will 

pursue doggedly, even on the ground by running under 

shrubs, etc. (or into buildings!; Bent 1937: 133). Mengel 

(1965) reports that these birds may have followed the wintering hordes of Passenger Pigeons (Ectopistes migratorius) 

before the decimation of the latter in the last century. They 

require about 120-150 gm (4-5 oz) of meat/day, about the 

weight of a plucked pigeon [Brown and Amadon 

1968(11):455]. 

GUILD 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Aerial, pouncing or hawking carnivore at variable heights 

Winter- Extensive forested areas, woods edges, prirnarily in upland forest types where they may utilize coniferous 

and mixed habitats more than deciduous forests, BreedingMay prefer to nest in a headwaters area. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Extensive forested areas. 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973: 19; Bent 1937: 125, 139; Brown and 

Arnadon 1968(11):452; DeCraaf et al. 1980:174; DeGraaf 

and Rudis 1986:184; Ehrlich et al. 1988:228; Forbush and 

May 1939: 100; Imhof 1976: 133; James and Neal 1986: 142; 

Lowery 1974:22 1 ; Mengel 1965:205; Monroe et al. 

1988: 16; Oberholser 1974 iI):2 13; Potter et al. 1980: 106; 

Robinson 1990:'7 1 ; Root 1988:54, 278; Sprunt 1954: 101; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958: 108; Sutton 1967:99; Verner and 

Boss 1980: 122. 
Red-shou dered Hawk 

PROTECT18N STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri, '"in need of management" in Tennessee, and Special Concern in Alabama 

(unofficially). Blue Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- C in the southern half of Florida: FC to C 

elsewhere in Florida; FC over the remainder of the Coastal 

Plain; mainly U in the Piedmont; R in the mountains, with 

most occurring in Virginia. Light migration into the Southeast in the fall: thus, probably slightly more numerous in 

winter than in summer at most localities. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- generally in swamps or bottomland forests; at 

times in other moist forests: never nest in upland forests. 

Foraging- seldom far from wetlands; feed at marshes, 

wooded lakes or ponds, or in swamps. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest slte- wet or moist hardwood forests. Foragingwetlands, both rn forests and open areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.5(3) sapling/poletirnber oak-gum- cypress, 3.5(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood. Recorded on 333 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 23 

birds. overall mean 0.62f 1.91 birdsiroute, total of route 

means 550 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(4) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 5(1) sapIingfpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late January to early June, with 

the peak from early March to early April. Nests are built in 

crotehes in large trees growing in swamps or bottomlands; 

generally not reused in succeeding years. Two or 3 eggs are 

normal, rarely 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

The birds observe prey from soaring flight or Rom a perch, 

and swoop onto small mammals, herps, large insects, and 

occasionally birds; generally feed in wetlands. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, soaring or pouncing carnivore on variable 

substrates. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937: 180-2 1 1 ; Burleigh 1958: 182- 185; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:185; DeCraaf et al. 1980:182; Eagar and 

Watcher 1982(A):63; Ehrlich et al. 1988:230; Forbush and 

May 1939: 108; Imhof 1976: 137; James and Neal 1986: 142: 

Lowery 1973:227; &fengel 19&5:2 1 1 ; Monroe et al. 

1988: 16; Oberholser 1974(1):22 1 ; Potter et al. 1980: 1 10; 

Robbins et al. 1986:2 1 ; Robinson 19907 1 ; Root 1988:56; 

Sprunt 1954: 107- 109; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 162, 

167; Stewart and Robbins 1958:112; Verner and Boss 

1980: 126. 
Broad-w nged Hawk 

Buteo ~IaWtews 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Louisiana Natural Heritage Pragram. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- deciduous or mixed forests, usually in uplands. Wintering- woodlands. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Breeding- U to FC in the mountains; Uin the Piedmont; 

R over most of the Coastal Plain portion of the range. 

Wintering- U in southern Florida. Scattered winter records 

over most of the region, but many (or perhaps the majority) 

of those north of Florida are suspect. Most of the birds winter 

south of the United States. Heavy fall migration in the 

mountain section, mainly in late September. Spring arrival- mid-March to mid-April; fall departure- late September to late October. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- mainly in deciduous forests ; prefer upland 

often hilly, woods, as opposed to bottomlands; forage 

mainly in woodlands, and not normally over extensive open 

country, Wintering- mainly in woodlands, preferring 

broadleaf evergreen woods. 

116) sawtimber oak-hickory, 3(1) saplingfpoletirnber oakgum-cypress. Recorded on 212 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 3 birds, overall 

mean 0.09M.24 birdsfroute, total of route means 83 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to mid-June, 

with a peak from early to mid-May. The nests are built in 

crotches of trees, in the canopy, either in conifers or hardwoods; and usually used for just one season, Two eggs are 

the most common clutch size, but 3 eggs are frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Broad-wings generally spot prey from a perch, but also in 

soaring flight. Small mammals, herps, and large insects are 

the normal foods, taken from inside a forest. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, pouncing carnivore on variable substrates. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:236; Burleigh 1958: 185; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 186; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 184; Ehrlich et al. 1988:230; 

Forbush and May 1939: 1 10; Imhof 1976: 138; James and 

Neal 1986:143; Lowery 1974:228; Mengel 1965;212; Monroe et al. 1988:16; Oberholser 1974(1):232; Potter et al. 

1980: 1 10; Rappole et al. 1983: 169; Robbins et al. 1986:2 1 ; 

Robinson 1990:72; Root 1988:54, 278; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 168; Sprunt 1954: 109; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 113. 
Short-tai ed Hawk 

Buteo brachyuws 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R, and breeding habits rather poorly known; 

primarily in the southern two-thirds of Florida; most numerous in the center of the state. Wintering- U in the Everglades National Park, but R elsewhere, mainly in the 

southern quarter of the state. Most occur south of the United 

States. 

ACCIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITAT 

Nest site- in swamps or bottomland woods, especially in 

cypress swamps, less so in mangrove forests; occasionally 

in pines or in upland woods. Foraging- mainly in wetlands, 

such as open swamps, wooded streams, marshes, and bottomlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- moist or wet forests. Foraging- mainIy wet 

places, such as s-aamps, marshes, or ponds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late January to early 

May, with a peak from mid-March to late April. The nests 

are placed in crotches of trees, especially cypresses. The 

usual clutch size is 2, with a range of 1 to 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

Usually spot prey while soaring, often at great heights. 

They swoop down onto birds, the major prey item, as well 

as onto rodents, herps, and large insects. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, soaring or pouncing carnivore on various 

substrates. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:254; Ehrlich et al. 1988:240; Forbush and May 

1939: 113; Imhof 1976: 141; Kale 197855; Oberholser 

1974(1):233; Root 1988:54; Sprunt 1954: 11 1. 
Swainson's Hawk 

Butm swainmni 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as category 3C. Blue Listed by Tate 

(198 1). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- R to U in extreme southern Florida, in 

extensive fields. Breed to the west of the region (western 

North America); most winter in South America. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Generally in the vicinity of freshly plowed fields; less 

numerous in other types of fields; always in extensive open 

country. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive, usually plowed, fields. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 ( 1) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Observe prey from a perch in open country and drop to 

the ground to feed. Large insects are most common prey, but 

rodents, herps, and other animals are also taken. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial pouncing insectivore or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:222; Ehrlich et al. 1988:234; Forbush and May 

1939: 1 12; Imhof 1976: 139; James and Neal 1986: 144; 

Lowery 1974:230; Monroe et al. 1988: 16; Oberholser 

1974(1):234; Potter et al. 1980: 11 1; Rappole et al. 1983: 169; 

Robinson 1990:73; Root 198854, 278; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 169; Sprunt 1954: 1 10; Verner and Boss 

1980: 127. 
Red-tai ed Hawk 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally FC throughout the Southeast. Wintering- more numerous in most localities at this season 

than in summer; C over most of the region, though generally 

tT in southern Florida at all seasons. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in mature. usually deciduous or mixed forests; 

primarily in uplands. Foraging- prefer a mixture of forests 

and extensive open fields; generally in deciduous or mixed 

forests. In winter favor more open habitats than during the 

nesting season. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- mature forests, mainly in upland hardwoods. 

Foraging- mixture of forests and open country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 7 habitats, l(1) sawtimber cove 

hardwoods. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(6) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 3(1) 

grasslforb oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-February to midJune, with a peak from mid-Mxch to mid-April. The nests 

are placed in crotches of trees, usually large ones, in woodland. They are used year after year, if not taken over by 

another species (such as Great Horned Owl). Two is the 

usual clutch size; 3 eggs are rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed on rodents and other small to medium-sized mammals, with some herps and birds taken. The birds sight prey 

from soaring flight or from a perch and swoop down on the 

animals. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, terrestrial or herb soarlng or pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937: 147-179; Burleigh 1958: 179-182; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:187; DeGraaf et al. 1980:180; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:232; Forbush and May 1939: 105; Imhof 1976: 136; 

James and Neal 1986: 144; Lowery 1974:225; Mengel 

1965:208; Monroe et al. 1988: 16; Oberholser 1974(1):2 17; 

Potter et al. 1980: 109; Rappole et al. 1983: 168; Robbins et 

al. 1986:18; Robinson 1990:73; Root 1988:55; Sprunt 

1954: 105; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 159; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 1 10; Verner and Boss 1980: 125 
Ferruginous Hawk 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Category 2. State listed as Special 

Concern in OMahoma. Listed as Special Concern by Tate 

and Tate (1982). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter-Very Rare in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. 

These birds are Occasional visitors from the Great Plains 

that penetrate the region usually only W of the Mississippi 

River. In some years they are Uncommon, but in most 

winters absent from the region east of 96' W. Occasionally 

(formerly regularly) nest in the Texas panhandle as far south 

as 33O N. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter-Extensive open areas in upland situations, agricultural lands, and especially prairies. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter-Extensive treeless areas with a few perches and 

abundant rodent populations. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Fenuginous Hawks eat mice, groundsquirrels, and other 

small mammals as large as jackrabbits. Prairie dogs were 

their specialty in the past. Occasionally snakes, grasshoppers, crickets, lizards, and birds are taken. They frequently 

dine on roadkills in the winter, when many experience the 

same fate, Foraging methods include quartering back and 

forth low over the fields, or soaring and hovering at greater 

heights. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb soaring or pouncing carnivore or scavenger 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:284; Brown and Amadon 1968(11):626; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:236; James and Neal 1986:147; Lowery 

1974:232; Monroe et al. 1988:63; Oberholser 1974 (1):227; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 169; Root 1988:57; Sutton 1967: 113. 
Rough- egged Hawk 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- U in extreme northern Virginia, and near the 

coast of that state; VR to R, and somewhat erratic, southward to central North Carolina; many scattered records 

elsewhere in the region. Breed to the north of the region. Fall 

arrival- late October to mid-December; spring departuremid-February to late March. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Extensive open country; avoid woodlands. Occur in large 

expanses of marshes or grassy fields; less commonly around 

plowed fields and coastal dunes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive areas of fields or marshes; favor a few widely 

scattered trees or fence posts for perching. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Rough-legs fly slowly and low over fields or marshes, and 

drop onto rodents they find. Some prey are observed from 

perches. Large insects and medium-sized mammals are 

sometimes eaten. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:269; Burleigh 1958:187; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 188; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 186; Ehrlich et al. 1988:234; 

Forbush and May 1939: 1 13; Imhof 1976: 141 ; James and 

Neal 1986: 148; Lowery 1974:232; Mengel 1965:214; Monroe et al. 1988:17; Oberholser 1974(1):226; Potter et al. 

1980: 1 1 1; Robinson 1990:73; Root 1988:58; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970: 170; Sprunt 1954: 1 13; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 114. 
den Eag 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in South Carolina, Tennessee; 

Threatened in Alabama (unofficially); Significantly Rare in 

North Carolina, and Rare in West Virginia. Monitored by 

Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Oklahoma 

Natural Heritage Inventory, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive on Chattahoochee, George 

Washington National Forests, National Forests in North 

Carolina. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to casual in the Southern Appalachians as 

summer visitors, but do not currently breed; apparently 

nested on rare occasions many decades ago in the mountains 

of Virginia and North Carolina, though positive records are 

not known. Wintering- more numerous at this season than 

in summer; R at high elevations in North Carolina; VR and 

local elsewhere, though generally absent from the Florida 

peninsula. The majority of the population in North America 

breeds in the western half of the continent. 

ACClBENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- only on ledges of steep and remote mountain 

cliffs. Foraging- prefer extensive open country, such as 

large pastures, fields, or marshes. Most frequently seen in 

the region in high elevation fields, pastures, and grassy 

balds; may be seen soaring over forests, but most foraging 

is in open areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- a ledge on a cliff. Foraging- extensive open 

country, mainly at high elevations (over 4000 feet, 1200 m). 

REPRODUCTION 

Rumors indicate that Golden Eagles once nested in the 

region, but this has never been proved. Based on data from 

other areas. the nests are built on ledges of cliffs in remote 

places. Two is the usual clutch size, rarely 1 or 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

These eagles soar high over fields or woods, stooping onto 

prey they observe. Small to medium-sized mammals are the 

major food items; some carrion and birds are taken. 

GUILD 

Ledge nesting, terrestrial soaring carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1937:293; Burleigh 1958: 187; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 189; DeGraaf et al. 1980:188; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):17; Ehrlich et al. 1988:218; Forbush and May 

1939: 1 15; Imhof 1976: 142; James and Neal 1986: 148; 

Lowery 1974:234; Mengel 1965:214; Monroe et al. 

1988: 17; Oberholser 1974(1):242; Potter et al. 1980: 1 1 1; 

Robinson 1990:74; Root 1988:60; Sprunt 1954: 1 15; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970: 17 1; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 115; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 128. 
Crested Cara 

plancus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federal1 y listed as Threatened. State listed as Threatened 

in Florida. Blue Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- restricted to a fairly small area in peninsular 

Florida (though widespread in Mexico and Central America); U in the central section of the range, mainly in the 

Kissimmee Prairie; R near the coasts. Non-migratory. A 

steady decline has occurred in the Florida population, and 

only several hundred individuals are believed to exist. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Prairie and savanna areas, usually in fairly dry areas with 

scattered trees and saplings, especially cabbage palmettos. 

The open areas may be native pralrle, pastures, or cult'lvated 

fields. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive open country with scattered trees; a typical 

savanna landscape. 

The breeding season extends from September to April, 

with a peak from late January to late February. The nests are 

usually built in the crowns of small cabbage palmettos, often 

not high above ground, and always in open country. Two 

eggs are common, 3 frequent, and 4 rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Caracaras frequently forage on carrion, as well as on a 

great variety of live animals. They often find food by soaring, or by stalking on foot in short grass habitats. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial pouncing or stalking carnivore or 

scavenger. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938: 127; Ehrlich et al. 1988:244; Forbush and May 

1939: 123; Kale 1978:34; Lowery 1974:242; Oberholser 

1974(1):25 1; Potter et al. 1980: 1 16; Root 1988:61; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970: 178; Sprunt 1954: 121. 
American Kestre 

Fdw sparvMius ME 

PROTECTION STATUS 

F. s. paulus federally listed category C2, state listed as 

nreatened in Florida. Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). Forest 

Service sensitive, Chataboochee-Oconee National Forests 

and National Forests in Florida. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U over most of Virginia, and the mountains 

of North Carolina; R over most of Georgia, and the Piedmont of the Carolinas; IJ to FC in Florida, most numerous 

in the central portion; very few nest in the Coastal Plain of 

the Carolinas, and Absent from extreme southern Florida. 

Wintering- C throughout the Coastal Plain, even VC in 

parts of Florida and Louisiana; FC to C farther inland, least 

numerous at higher elevations. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in extensive open country, where scattered 

trees occur, such as in open pine savannas, trees in a pasture 

or grassy field, or telephone poles in open areas. Foragingin open areas; plowed fields, grassy fields, savannas, roadsides, and woodland margins; usually perch on telephone 

wires or poles or in exposed trees. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- a cavity (such as in a dead tree) in extensive 

open country. Foraging- open country with scattered high 

perches. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) shrub-seedling southern scrub oak, 1.7(3) sawtimber oak-hickory. Recorded on 195 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 7 birds, overall 

mean 0.19rfr11.61 birdslroute, total of route means 170 birds. 

BBS information was not used in preparation of the map of 

breeding distribution. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(9) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 6.2(4) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late March to early June, 

with a peak from mid-April to mid-May. The usual nest sites 

are cavities in dead trees, dug by woodpeckers; also used are 

holes in telephone poles and crevices in buildings. The 

clutch generally contains 4 or 5 eggs, with a range of 3 to 7. 

FOOD HABITS 

Kestrels sit on exposed perches, commonly telephone 

wires, and drop to the ground when food is spotted; they also 

hover over fields. Small mammals and birds predominate 

in winter diet. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, terrestrial pouncing insectivore-carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938: 106-1 26; Burleigh 1958: 199,200; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:190; DeGraaf et al. 1980:198; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:244; Forbush and May 1939: 1 3 1 ; Imhof 1976: 150; 

James and Neal 1986: 149; Kale 1978:32; Lowery 1974:245; 

Mengel 1965:222; Monroe et al. 1988: 17; Oberholser 

1974(1):260; Potter et al. 1980: 1 17; Rappole et al. 1983: 17 1; 

Robbins et al. 198621 ; Robinson 1990:75; Root 1988:62; 

Scott et al. 1977: 18; Sprunt 1954: 126; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970: 182; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 122; Verner and 

Boss 1980: 135. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia, and Special Concern 

in Alabama (unofficially). Blue Listed by Tate (1981). 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

large fields or pastures. Perches, such as fence posts, bare 

trees, or telephone poles, must be present for observing prey. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Wintering- generally U along the entire coast; R in the 

interior of Florida; VR to R, and erratic, elsewhere inland. 

Often FC along the Atlantic coast in fall. Breed to the north 

of the region. Fall arrival- early September to mid-October; spring departure- mid-March to early May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Only in open country; most numerous at coastal wetlands, 

such as mudflats, ponds, marshes and thickets. Often in 

Extensive open country, usually near coastal wetlands. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(4) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 1(1) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

GUILD 

Aerial or pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938:70-95; Burleigh 1958: 197, 198; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986: 191; Ehrlich et al. 1988:246; Forbush and May 

1939: 129; Imhof 1976: 149; James and Neal 1986: 15 1 ; Kale 

1978: 1 1 1 ; Lowery 1974:245; Mengel 1965:22 1 ; Monroe et 

al. 1988: 17; Oberholser 1974(1):258; Potter et al. 1980: 117; 

Rappole et al. 1983:171; Robinson 1990:75; Root 1988:63, 

279; Scott et al. 1977: 17; Sprunt 1954: 125; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970: 18 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 12 1 ; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 134. 
Peregrine Fa 

PROTECTION STATUS 

F. p. anatum and I;. p. tundrius are federally listed as 

Endangered and Threatened, respectively, and state listed as 

Endangered in Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, 

South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia; Threatened in Alabama (unofficiafly); and Rare in 

West hiirginia [sic]. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- Nest primarily north of the region. Formerly 

nested at high elevations on rare occasions in the mountains 

from Virginia and Kentucky to northwestern Georgia. 

Hacked birds and their descendants now breed sporadically 

throughout their former mountain range. Wintering- U 

along the coast of Florida, but mainly in the southern half of 

the state; generally R elsewhere along the coast, and in the 

interior of Florida; VR and erratic elsewhere. Moderate fall 

migration along the Atlantic coast. Fall arrival- mid-September to mid-October; spring departure- early April to 

early May. 

[DENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest only on remote cliffs, where ledges are present. 

Foraglng- along the coast, they prefer open areas, such as 

mudflats, dunes, ponds, and marshes; inland, mainly where 

a mixture of forests and extensive fields, ~narshes, or water 

are present. Perches, such as telephone poles, bare trees, or 

stumps, are generally necessary. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- a ledge on a cliff. Foraging- extensive open 

country, preferably near wetlands; at times in or near forests. 

The breeding season is poorly known in the Southeast, as 

few nests have been found. It is apparently from March to 

May. Nests are built on ledges on remote cliffs. The clutch 

size is mainly 3 or 4, rarely 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Observe prey items from a perch or during soaring flight. 

They swoop down on medium-sized birds from above, 

striking them in midair. Birds such as doves, pigeons, quail, 

and shorebirds are often taken. 

GUILD 

Ledge nesting, aerial or pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938:42-69; BurIeigh 1958: 195; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986: 192; DeGraaf et al. 1980: 196; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):5; Ehrlich et al. 1988:248; Forbush and May 

1939: 126; Hickey 1969; Imhof 1976: 148; James and NeaI 

1986:151; Kale 1978:7; Lowery 1974:243; Mengel 

1965:219; Monroe et al. 1988: 17; Oberholser 1974(1):254; 

Potter et al. 1980: 1 16; Rappole et al. 1983: 170; RatcIiffe 

1980; Robinson 1990:76; Root 1988:63, 279; Scott et al. 

1977:16; Sprunt 1954:123; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970: 179; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 119; Verner and Boss 

1980: 133. 
ack Franco 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Permanent resident- Kno~n only from one area In 

Cameron Parish, Louisiana, where birds introduced into a 

tract for hunting have become established, and are now 

Fairly Common in that limited area. 

CCIDENTAL LOW MEDlUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

A11 seasons- Grasslands, cultivated fields, and early 

successional stages of a number of primarily upland forest 

types . 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- Grassland habitats with adequate nesting 

cover and sufficient elevated perches for males to display. 

REPRODUCTION 

Females build grass-lined nests in shallow depressions in 

grassy fields, where they lay 4-18, usually 6-10, eggs. The 

season extends from March-October. 

FOOD HABITS 

These francolins eat a diversity of foods including all parts 

of a variety of plants, waste grain, other seeds; and some 

small animals, especially ground-dwelling insects. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Long 198 1: 135; Lowery 1974:25 1. 
ked Pheasant 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Introduced from Europe. All seasons- locally C on 

Hatteras Island, North Carolina; elsewhere, occur only in 

Virginia, where R to U in most areas; not thriving in that 

state, and introductions elsewhere have been unsuccess fuI. 

Non-migratory . 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Occur in fields, meadows, croplands, and dry borders of 

marshes; generally where the vegetation is 1 to 3 feet (.3- 1 

m) high. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Moderate to tall herbaceous cover. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to mid-July, 

with the peak probably from mid-April to early May. The 

nests are built on the ground, well hidden in fields or other 

grasslands, Clutch size ranges from 6 to 15, with 10 to 20 

common. 

FOOD HABITS 

Pheasants forage on the ground, gleaning seeds, fruits, and 

nuts, as well as numerous insects. A Iarge amount of seeds 

consumed are various crop and grain varieties. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1932:310; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986: 194; DeGraaf et 

al. 1980:206; Ehrlich et al. 1988:268; Forbush and May 

1939: 15 1 ; Oberholser 1974(1):279; Potter et al. 1980: 12 1 ; 

Robinson 1990:78; Root 1988:65; Stewart and Robbiils 

1958:125. 
Ruffed Grouse 

urnbeIIcfs 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

A11 season- FC over most of the range in the mountains; 

U and local away from the mountains in Virginia. Mainly 

over 1500 feet (500 m), ranging to the highest elevations. 

Despite their numbers, they are secretive and quiet, and 

often difficult to find. Non-migratory. 

ACCIDENTAL LOR 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Forests of a wide variety; in summer mainly in deciduous 

or mixed forests, where the understory is moderate to rather 

light, and often where very hilly. In winter, they move to 

areas with some evergreen cover, and are found mainly in 

mixed forests. They often forage along wooded roadsides or 

openings in woods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Hardwood or mixed forests, usually in uplands, with a 

moderate understory; some evergreen cover is preferred in 

winter. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.5(5) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 8(3) saplinglpoletimber oak-hickory . 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 ( 1) saplinglpoletimber oak- hickory, 3.7(3) shrub-seedling oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to early June, 

with the peak from late April to mid-May. The nests are built 

on the ground in thick cover in a woodland usually next to 

a tree, shrub, or fallen log. The clutch size is generally 9 to 

12, ranging from 8 to 14. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds forage by walking on the ground, gleaning 

and scratching for seeds, or in shrubs or small trees, taking 

buds, fruits, and leaves; some insects are also eaten. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial or bush gleaning folivore, 

frugivore, or granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1932: 141-177; Bump et al. 1947; Burleigh 1958:202; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:196; DeGraaf et at. 1980:202; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:250; Forbush and May 1939: 135; Imhof 

1976: 152; James and Neal 1986: 153; Johnsgard 1973:253; 

Mengel 1965:223; Monroe et al. 1988: 17; Potter et al. 

1980: 119; Robbins et al. 1986:21; Robinson 1990:78; Root 

1988:66; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:185; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 124. 
d Turkey 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

A11 seasons- R over much of the Coastal Plain, but FC 

to C in certain bottomlands; U to FC inland; ti at higher 

elevations. Not at all widespread, and completely absent 

from many localities; most numerous in wildlife refuges, 

state or national parks or forests, or on game management 

lands. Very secretive for such large birds; non-migratory. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Most common in extensive bottomland forests, where 

understory is moderate; also in extensive upland hardwood 

or mixed forests, less so in pine forests; not numerous in 

open woods, wood margins, and woodland openings, 

though they do forage in these areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature forests with a moderate understory, preferably in 

bottomlands. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.8(2) sawtimber loblolly pine- shortleaf pine, 2(1) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.8(2) sawtimber oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late March to late May, 

with a peak from late April to mid-May. The nests are built 

on the ground in woodlands, well hidden under shrubs or 

other vegetation. The usual clutch size is 8 to 15, occasionally 20, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Turkeys forage on the ground, gleaning a wide variety of 

food items. Seeds, nuts, fruits, and other plant foods are most 

numerous, bur substantial numbers of insects are also consumed. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1932:323-344; Burleigh 1958:205; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:197; DeGraaf et al. 1980:208; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:268; Forbush and May 1939:152; Hewitt 1967; Imhof 

1976:154; James and Neal 1986:154; Lowery 1974:253; 

Mengel 1965:227; Monroe et al. 1988:18; Oberholser 

1974(1):282; Potter et al. 1980: 122; Robinson 1990:79; 

Root 1988:68; Sprunt 1954: 13 1 - 133; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 188; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 126; Verner and 

Boss 1980: 141. 
Northern Bobwhite (~obwhite) 

Colinus virainianus 

PROTECTION STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Blue Listed by Tate (198 1) 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

114) saplin@poletimber oak-hickory, 12(5) shrub-seedling southern scrub oak, Recorded on 57 1 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 277 birds, 

overall mean 21.34S7 birdsiroute. total of route means 

All seasons- C to often VC throughout, though not 15,955 birds. 

numerous in the higher mountains. Non-migratory. Occur 

in coveys of 10 to 30 birds in non-breeding seasons. REPRODUCT1C)N 

ACCIDEKTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

The nesting season extends from mid-April to mid-September, with a peak from mid-May to mid-June. The nests 

are built on the ground, in dense grass or other thick cover, 

in hedgerows or thickets. The clutch size ranges from 12 to 

20, with 14 to 16 being common. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds feed on the ground in thick cover, taking 

seeds, nuts, fruits, and other items, including some insects. 

Insects are commonly eaten in summer, as well as seeds. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Bent 19329-36; Burleigh 1958:204; DeGraaf and Rudis 

Brushy areas; favored habitat is abandoned fields; also 1986: 199; DeGraaf et al. 1980:204; Ehrlich et al. 1988:260; 

numerous in hedgerows, thickets, woodland margins, and Forbush and May 1939: 147; Imhof 1976:153; James and 

open woods (usually pines). Neal 1986:157; Johnsgard 1973:408; Lowery 1974:249; 

Mengel 1965:226; Monroe et al. 1988:18; Oberhofser 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 1974(1):270; Potter et al. 1980: 120; Reid and Goodrum 

1979; Robbins et al. 198621; Robinson 1990:80; Root 

Thickets where tall herbs, shrubs, and saplings are present. 1988:69; Rosahn 1980; Rosene 1969; Sprunt 1954: 128- 13 1; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:186; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:125. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Poorly Known in Alabama. Monitored by 

North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- perhaps the most secretive birds in North 

America, and quiet (as well) during the winter months; exact 

status poorly known. Seemingly R most everywhere along 

the coast, north to North Carolina; locally numerous, possibly C, in a few areas; might winter regularly in coastal 

Virginia. Breed to the north of the region. Fall arrival- late 

September to mid-October; spring departure- late March 

to early May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

The drier poaions of marshes, mainly fresh or brackish 

ones; wet grassy areas, such as low meadows; infrequent in 

dry fields or grain fields. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Thick herbaceous cover in semi-moist places; at tirnes in 

dry areas. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not nest in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

These very secretive birds glean small invertebrates from 

mud, shallow water, or the vegetation of a marsh; some plant 

seeds are also taken. 

Herb gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:3 16; Burleigh 1958:221; Ehrlich et al. 1988: 100; 

Forbush and May 1939: 164; Imhof 1976: 160; James and 

Neal 1986: 159; Lowery 1974:267; Mengel 1965:232; Monroe et al. 1988:18; Oberholser 1974(1):299; Potter et al. 

1980: 129; Robinson 1990:80; Sprunt 1954: 147; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970: 197; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 130. 
ack Rai 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Poorly Known in Alabama (unofficially), 

Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored by Florida 

Natural Areas Inventory, Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and 

Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage 

Program, Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia 

Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- secretive at all seasons, and call mainly at 

night in warm weather; thus, the status is poorly known. R 

over rnuch of the breeding range, though locally G in some 

coastal areas; R and irregular inland. Wintering- probably 

some withdrawal southward, but this is only speculation; 

apparently only near the coast in winter, ranging north at 

least to North Carolina, and perhaps Virginia. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

with matted grass only 6 inches (15 em) high, in others in 

tall sedges over 3 feet (1 rn) high. Less frequent in fresh 

marshes, moist meadows, and other damp spots. Rare in wet 

salt marshes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Dense herbaceous cover of marshes or wet meadows. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to mid-August. 

The peak is poorly known, but it is likely from late May to 

early July. Nests are built in marshes or wet meadows, on 

the ground, with grasses arched over the top. Clutch size is 

generally 6 to 10, rarely to 13. 

FOOD HABITS 

These very secretive rails glean small invertebrates and 

some seeds from mud, shallow water, and vegetation in 

marshes. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:326-336; Burleigh 1958:222; DeGraaf et al. 

1980:2 18; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):3 1 ; Ehrlich et al. 

1988: 102; Forbush and May 1939: 165; Imhof 1976: 161; 

Kale 1978:114; James and Neal 1986:159; Lowery 

1974:268; Oberholser 1974(1):300; Potter et al. 1980: 130; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 172; Robinson 1990:81; Root 1988:73; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 198; Sprunt 1954: 148; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 130; Wilbur 1974. 

All seasons- favor brackish marshes, or the dry portions 

of salt marshes in a wide range of vegetation; in some areas 
Clapper Rai 

PROTECTION STATUS KEY HABITN REQUIREMENTS 

R. 1. insularurn federally listed as category 62, and with R. 

E. seottil' monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

Salt marshes. 

REPRODUCTION 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

A11 seasons- C to VC essentially everywhere along the 

coast, south to central Florida; mostly U in southern Florida. 

Light migration of individuals into the Southeast, as there 

are several inland tower kills, but seasonal changes of abundance in the region are not detectable. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- essentially in salt marshes, favoring 

Spartina alterniJjlora, and infrequent in brackish marshes. 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to mid-October, with a peak from early May to mid-June. The nests 

are built in salt marshes, mainly in clumps of grass on high 

ground. Clutch size is generally 9 to 12, ranging from 6 to 

14. 

FOOD HABITS 

Clean or probe for prey items from mud or shallow water 

in marshes. Small crabs, mollusks, insects, and other invertebrates are taken; rarely plant material. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or aquatic gleaning or probing 

carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:267-292; Burleigh 1958:2 16, 217; DeCraaf et 

a]. 1980:212; Ehrlich et a]. 1988:98; Forbush and May 

1939: 160; Imhof 1976: 158; Kale 1978: 1 12, 1 13; Lowery 

1974:265; Oberholser 1974(1):294; Potter et al. 1980: 127; 

Robinson 1990:8 1; Root 1988:73; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970: 194; Sprunt 1954: 143- 145; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 127; Wilbur and Tomlinson 1976 
King Rai 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State Iisted as Endangered b3 Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Presertes Commission. BIue Listed by 

Tate (198 1). Monitored by ,Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia 

Natural Heritage Program, \Vest Virginia Natural Heritage 

Pro, Gram. 

KEY HIABITN REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C in suitable habitat in most of Florida, 

southern Louisiana, and northward near the coast; R in most 

inland areas north of Florida. wintering- mostly U in 

coastal Virginia; FC along the southern Atlantic and Gulf 

coasts; FC to C in most of Florida; R elsewhere. Essentially 

absent at all seasons in the mountains. Inland status at all 

seasons is poorly known. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- extensive freshwrrter or brzickish marshes; 

occasionally In rice fields or wet meado\\ls. 

Favor freshwater marshes; also use brackish areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

I(].) Everglades. Recorded on 21 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 34 birds, overall 

mean 0.08k1.27 birdsiroute, iota1 of route means 67 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

4( 1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from April to early July, but 

the peak is poorly known. The nests are built in marshes, 

generally several inches above the water. Usual clutch size 

is 8 to 11, ranging from 6 to 15. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds glean or probe for food in mud or shallow 

water in marshes, The summer prey items are mainly invertebrates, but plant material is also consumed in winter. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or aquatic gleaning or probing 

carnivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:260; Burleigh 1958:2 15; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:200; DeGraaf et al. 1980:2 10; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):33; Ehrlich et al. 1988:96; Forbush and May 

19339: 159; Imhof 1976: 157; Jarnes and Neal 1986: 159; 

Lowery 1973:264; Meanlej t 969a; hlengel 1965:230; 

Monroe et 31. 1988: 18; Oberholser 1974(1):293; Potter st al. 

1980: 126; Rappole et at. 1983: 172; Robinson 1990:8 I; Root 

1988:73; Sprunt and Chiimherlain 1970:193; Sprunt 

1954: 13 1 ; Sts~ '1st and Rohbins 1958: 126. 
Virginia Rai 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U to locally FC on the coast and tidewater 

sections of Virginia and North Carolina, but mainly in 

Virginia. Status inland poorly known; apparently VR to R 

in much of Virginia; have occurred in summer in both 

Carolinas, Georgia, and Tennessee, nesting on occasions, 

but believed to be only of casual occurrence. WinteringFC to locally C along the coasts of 'Virginia and North 

Carolina; FC southward along the coast to central Florida, 

and the northern Gulf coast; U in south Florida. Inland, 

apparently R to locally U, though regular in suitable 

marshes. Fall arrival- early September to early October; 

spring departure- late April to mid-May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- generally in fresh or brackish marshes; 

infrequent in salt marshes (and mainly in winter). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Marshes, preferably extensive ones, but marshes of very 

small size (0.1 ha) are also inhabited. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1511) saplinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small 

plot). 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-May to mid-July, 

with a peak from mid-May to early June. Nests are built in 

marshes, usually only a few inches above the water. Clutch 

size is generally 8 or 9, ranging from 7 to 12. 

FOOD HABITS 

These rails feed on a great variety of small animals, such 

as insects, small fish, worms, and others; rarely plant material. Forage is by gleaning or probing in shallow water or 

mud in marshes. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or aquatic gleaning or probing 

insectivore or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926292; Burleigh 1958:218; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986201; DeGraaf et al. 1980:214; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):35; Ehrlich et al. 1988:98; Forbush and May 

1939: 162; Imhof 1976: 158; James and Neal 1986: 160; 

Lowery 1974:265; Mengel 1965:23 1; Monroe et all. 

1988: 18; Oberholser 1974(1):295; Potter et al. 1980: 128; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 172; Robinson 1990:82; Root 1988:75; 

Sprunt 1954: 145; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970: 196; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 128; Verner and Boss 1980: 142. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West 

Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R in tidewater Virginia; exact status poorly 

known. Wintering- C along the northern haif of the Atlantic coast of Florida; FC elsewhere in Florida, and northward 

on the coast to southern North Carolina; decreasing to R in 

coastal Virginia; R inland (north of Florida). Fall anivalmid-August to mid-September; spring departure- early to 

mid-May . 

CCIDEWTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- generally in freshwater marshes; infrequent 

in brackish ones, and very rare in salt marshes. Also occur 

in winter in wet grassy areas, such as low meadows. 

EAarshes, usually in fresh ones; small marshes (0.1 ha) 

may be inhabited, as well as extensive marshes. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

Nesting data for the Southeast are essentially non-existent; 

the only evidence of breeding being an adult with young in 

June, and a nest with eggs in late April, both in Virginia. The 

nests are built in marshes several inches above the water. 

Clutch size varies from 6 to 15, with 10 or 1 1 being normal. 

FOOD HABITS 

Soras glean food from mud or shallow water in marshes, 

with a variety of seeds and small invertebrates being taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or aquatic gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926303; Burleigh 1958:220; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:202; DeGraaf et al. 1980:216; Ehrlich et al. 1988: 100; 

Forbush and May 1939: 163; Imhof 1976: 159; James and 

Neal 1986: 16 1 ; Lowery 1974:266; Mengel I 965:23 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988: 18; Oberholser 1974(1):297; Potter et al. 

1980: 128; Rappole et al. 1983: 172; Robinson 1990:83; Root 

1988:76; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:196; Sprunt 

1954: 146; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 129. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory, Tennessee Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- only U to FC over the range, in general, but 

C at many localities; U in most of South Carolina and North 

Carolina. Wintering- only in peninsular Florida, where 'U 

in most areas. Spring arrival- early April to late April; fall 

departure- late August to early Octoberr. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Freshwater wetlands with emergent and floating vegetation along the margins. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

I(1) Everglades. Recorded on 14 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 6 birds, overall 

mean 0.03rtr0.33 birdslroute, total of route means 24 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

4(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- margins of lakes or ponds with floating and 

emergent vegetation; marshes with open water; open 

swamps with marsh vegetation. Use freshwater habitats 

only. 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to late June, 

with the peak from early May to late May. The nests are 

shallow cups, supported by vegetation, just above the water 

in marshes; usually close to open water. Typical clutch size 

is 6 to 8, ranging from 5 to 10. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean small insects and seeds in summer, and mainly 

seeds and other plant matter in winter. Foraging is done on 

lily pads, in mud? in marsh vegetation, or shallow water. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, aquatlc or herb gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926339; Burleigh 1958:223; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):57; Ehrlich et al. 1988:102; Forbush and May 

1939: 165; Imhof 1976: 161 ; James and Neal 1986: 161; 

Lowery 1974:269; iMonroe et al. 1988:19; Oberholser 

1974(1):302; Potter et al. 1980: 13 1; Rappole et al. 1983: 173; 

Robinson 1990:84; Root 1988:77; Sprunt 1954: 150; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:203: Stewart and Robbins 1958: 131. 
Common Moorhen mon Gallinu 

Gallinula chloropus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by 

Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Tennessee Natural 

Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program, 

West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

12(1) saplingi'poletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small 

plot). Recorded on 50 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 64 birds, overall mean 

0.27s.66 birdslroute, total of route means 240 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally C over most of Florida, and in the 

Outer Coastal Plain of Georgia and South Carolina; mostly 

U to locally FC elsewhere in the range. Wintering- C over 

most of Florida; FC along the coast north to South Carolina; 

generally U elsewhere, and R to U in Virginia. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDIL'M HIGH 

tsEY WINTERING 

57 rzzB BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- freshwater ponds, lakes, marshes, and open 

swamps, where marsh vegetation occurs along the edges of 

the water; prefer somewhat more open water than Purple 

Gallinules do, Avoid brackish or salty habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Open fresh water w~th marshy vegetation along the shores. 

0.5C1) sapling/poletimber bay swamp-pocosin, 2(I) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from mid-May to mid-July, with the 

peak from late May to mid-June. The nests are built in marsh 

vegetation just above the water, usually not far from open 

water. Clutch size ranges from 6 to 17, with 10 to 12 usual. 

FOOD MAB1TS 

These birds glean food from shallow water or marsh 

vegetation, taking mainly parts of aquatic plants, such as 

seeds, roots, and berries. Invertebrates are infrequently 

taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, aquatic or herb gleaning granivore or 

folivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:346; Burleigh 1958:225; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986203; DeGraaf et al. 1980:220; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):51; Ehrlich et al. 1988:104; Forbush and May 

1939: 166; Imhof 1976: 162; James and Neal 1986: 163; 

Lowery 1974:270; Mengel 1965:233; Monroe et al. 

1988: 19; Oberholser 1974(1):303; Potter et al. 1980: 132; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 173; Robinson 1990:84; Root 1988:7'7; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:204; Sprunt 1954: 152; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 132. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by 

kkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Tennessee Natural 

Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program, 

West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- mostly U in Florida; VR to R, and sporadic 

nester elsewhere, mainly near the coast; non-breeding birds 

are often C over much of the breeding range in summer. 

Wintering- C to A along the coast and in most of Florida; 

FC to C inland elsewhere, but generally CT in the mountains. 

Fall arrival- early October to late October; spring departure- mid-April to early May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- on lakes or ponds where some marsh vegetation is present; generally avoid wooded areas, such as open 

swamps. Wintering--- mainly on lakes and ponds, but also 

on bays and other brackish water. Rare on salt water; tend 

to occur in more open water in winter than in summer. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- body of fresh water with marsh vegetation. 

Wintering- open, shallow fresh water; infrequently in 

brackish water. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5 (I) Everglades, S(1) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late April to late July, 

with the peak likely from mid-May to mid-June. Nests are 

floating platforms or reeds, anchored to marsh vegetation, 

near or at the edge of a lake or pond. Clutch sizes are usually 

8 to 12, ranging from 6 to 20. 

FOOD HABITS 

Coots forage in water, tipping from the surface and 

obtaining roots and leaves of plants, in addition to aquatic 

invertebrates, fish, and other items. They occasionally dive 

underwater, and often walk on shores gleaning food items. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, aquatic gleaning or diving omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:358; Burleigh 1958:226; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:204; DeGraaf et al. 1980:222; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):95; Ehrlich et al. 1988: 104; Forbush and May 

1939: 168; Imhof 1976: 163; James and Neal 1986: 164; 

Lowery 1974:271; Mengel 1965:233; Monroe et al. 

1988: 19; Oberholser 1974(1):304; Potter et al. 1980: 133; 

Rappole et al, 1983: 173; Robinson 1990:85; Root 1988:78; 

Sprunt 1954: 153; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:206; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 132; Verner and Boss 1980: 143. 
PROTECTION STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

State listed as Special Concern in Florida. Monitored by 

Ceorgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program. Forest Service sensitive, National Forests in Florida. 

Vegetation near open fresh water, preferably in fairly 

dense woody areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 0.5(1) Everglades. 

All seasons- generally U to FC over most of Florida; 

locally C in a few places; R and poorly known in Georgia. 

Non-migratory . SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 3(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from December to September, 

with the peak from mid-March to mid-April. The platform 

nests are usually built in marshes, but may also be placed in 

shrubs or small trees up to 15 feet (5 m) from the ground. 

Clutch size ranges from 4 to 8, and is usually 5 or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Limpkins wade in shallow water or walk on muddy shores, 

consuming mainly large aquatic snails. Other mollusks, 

DENTAL LOW crustaceans, insects, and herps are also taken. 

GUILD 

PRIMARY HABITATS Ground or bush nesting, aquatic gleaning carnivore. 

Open swamps, marshes, swamp borders, lake margins, 

and woods or thickets along rivers are the principal habitats: 

occur only in freshwater situations. Active at night as well 

as during daylight. Forage in shallow fresh water. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1926:254; Burleigh 1958:213; Ehrlich et al. 1988:96; 

Forbush and May 1939:157; Kale 1978:86; Lowery 

1974:262; Oberholser 1974(1):29 1 ; Potter et al. 1980: 125; 

Robinson 1990:86; Root 1988:'73; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970: 192; Sprunt 1954: 138. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endmgered in Alabama (unofficially); "in 

need of management'yn Tennessee. C. c. prateasis listed as 

Threatened in Florida, and C. c. pulla listed as Endangered 

in Mississippi, Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands 

and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory. G. c. 

pillla Forest Service sensitive , National Forests in Mississippi. C. c. pratensis Forest Service sensitive, National Forests in Florida. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U over most of the range, but locally FC. 

Wintering- FC to locally C in a few areas, though U over 

much of Florida. The breeding population is non-migratory, 

but a moderate migration of individuals from the Great 

Lakes and Canada into the region occurs in November. 

Breeding--- extensive prairies or marshes with shallow 

open water. Wintering- extensive areas of short grass, 

either wet or somewhat dry. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in one habitat. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber bay swamp-pocosin, l(2) 

grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late January to August, with the 

peak from late February to late March. The nests are built 

on mounds of grasses and dead plants in marshes or shallow 

ponds. Two eggs form the usual clutch; 1 or 3 are rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Cranes glean items from shallow water, mud, or short 

grass; the major foods are roots, tubers, seeds, and other 

plant matter. Insects, herps, and other animals are also 

consumed. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial or aquatic gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITAT 

Breeding- prairies with marshy areas and small ponds; 

open pine savannas with srnall pools or ponds. Winteringin similar habitats as for breeding, though not as restricted 

to shallow ponds; prairies, marshes, cattle pastures, and 

margins of bodies of fresh water; often in somewhat dry 

areas In winter. 

Bent 1926:23 1-253; Buller 1979; Burleigh 1958:212; Eagar 

and Hatcher 1982(A):7; Ehrlich et al. 1988:48; Forbush and 

May 1939: 156; Imhof 1976: 156; James and Neal 1986: 166; 

Lowery 1974:26 1 ; Mengel 1965:229: Monroe et af, 

1988: 19; Oberholser 1974(1):288; Potter et al. 1980: 124; 

Rappole et al. 1983: 171; Robinson 1990:86: Root 1988:78, 

279; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:191; Sprunt 1954:135; 

Kale 1978:36. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- F"C over most of Virginia, and the Piedmont 

of the Carolinas and Georgia; generally U elsewhere, becoming R near the coast. Wintering- FC to C over most of 

the Southeast, but less numerous in the mountains. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM IiIGH 

rm WINTERING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- prefer large fields with a few areas of bare 

ground; also nest on gravel rooftops in towns; common 

habitats are plowed fields, pastures, and farms, preferably 

near ponds or lakes. Wintering- considerably more widespread; mudflats, plowed fields, pastures, large lawns, airports, and other areas with bare ground or short grass. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- extensive open country with some patches of 

bare ground or gravel. Wintering- open areas in short grass 

or bare ground, in wet or dry situations. 

1(4) grassiforb elm-ash- cottonwood. Recorded on 5 15 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximurn route 

mean 35 birds, overall mean 2.58k4.24 birdsiroute, total of 

route means 2293 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

2.5(13) grasslforb elm-ash- cottonwood, 66(4) sawtimber 

longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-Mach to mid-June, 

with the peak from late March to mid-May. Nests are usually 

on the ground, in a bare area or near gravel, but not exposed. 

The birds frequently nest on flat-topped gravel roofs. Four 

eggs are the normal clutch, with 3 or 5 fairly common. 

FOOD HABITS 

Killdeers glean small insects and other invertebrates from 

such substrates as mudflats, bare ground, and short grass. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1927202; Burleigh 1958:235; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:205; DeGraaf et al. 1980:226; Ehrlich et al. 1988: 114; 

Forbush and May 1939: 173; Imhof 1976: 168; James and 

Neal 1986: 168; Lowery 1974:279; hkngel 1965:236; Monroe et al. 1988:20; Oberholser 1974(1):3 16; Potter et al. 

1980: 140; Rappole et al. 1983: 175; Robbins et al. 1986:23: 

Robinson 1990:90; Root 1988:83; Sprunt 1954: 161 ; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 19702 15; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 136; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 144. 
and Sandpiper 

Bartmmia lmicauda 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State Listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, Rare in West 

Virginia. Blue Listed by Tate ( 198 1 j. Monitored by Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory, Virginia Natural Heritage 

Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R, only in Virginia; occur in the extreme 

northern Piedmont, and in valleys in the northern half of the 

mountains. Formerly more numerous as breeders in the 

mountains of that state. The bulk of the population breeds 

to the north of the region, and all individuals winter south 

of the United States. Spring arrival- late March to midApril; fall departure- late August to mid-September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Fields or meadows where the grass is 1 to 3 feet 1.3- 1 rn) 

high; must have an extensive area, perhaps 10 to 15 acres (4 

to 6 ha), 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive grasslands, with moderate to tall vegetation, 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 19 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 15 birds, overall mean 

0.04M.57 birdsiroute, total of route means 35 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season is poorly known, but it is apparently 

from early May to mid-June. Nests are placed on the ground 

in dense grasses in a field. Four is the usual clutch size, with 

3 or 5 frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

These shorebirds forage in tall grasses for insects, which 

are gleaned from the ground or vegetation. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 192755; Burleigh 1958:246; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:207; DeGraaf et al. 1980:232; Ehrlich et al. 1988: 154; 

Forbush and May 1939: 1 85; Imhof 1976: 177; James and 

Neal 1986: 172; Lowery 1974:29 1 ; Mengel 1965:242; Monroe et al. 1988:22; Oberholser 1974(1):334; Potter et ai. 

1980: 145; Rappole et al. 1983: 177; Robbins et al. 1986:23; 

Robinson 1990:96; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:227; 

Sprunt 1954: 172; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 141. 
Common Snipe 

Gdlinago gallnag0 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- C over most of the Coastal Plain; FC inland 

; U in the lower mountains, but R above 3000 feet (900 m). 

Breed to the north of the region. Fall arrival- early September to early October; spring departure- late April to 

mid-May . 

CIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM AIGB 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor damp grassy places, such as boggy spots in pastures, 

short-grass marshes, margins of marshes and ponds, and on 

mudflats. Prefer freshwater situations. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Damp ground in open countq, generally where short grass 

is present. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) grassiforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 7.5(2) grassiforb 

longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the Southeast. 

FOOD HABITS 

Snipes probe their long bills into mud or wet ground for 

various worms, insects, insect larvae, and other invertebrates. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or aquatic probing insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1929:78-98; Burleigh 1958:242; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:208; DeCraaf et al. 1980:230; Ehrlich et al. 1988: 138; 

Forbush and May 1939: 181; Imhof 1976: 175; James and 

Neal 1986: 180; Lowery 1974:305; Mengel 1965:241; Monroe et al. 1988:26; Oberholser 1974(1):327; Potter et al. 

1980:153; Rappole et al. 1983:176; Robbins et al. 1986:23; 

Robinson 1990: 107; Root 1988: 103; Sprunt 1954: 169; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:222; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 140; Verner and Boss 1980: 145. 
American Woodcock 

minor 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U to FC over most of the northern part of the 

region; U over the remainder of the range, Wintering-- I;C 

to perhaps locally C throughout the southern part of the 

region and northern Florida; mostly U elsewhere, and R in 

the southern Appalachians; accidental in the Ozarks and 

Ouachitas. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- woodland thickets and bottomland forests, 

preferably where somewhat moist, with moderate shrub and 

understory layers, and plenty of dead leaves on the ground. 

Forage in moist woods or in open places, commonly in 

plowed fields, marshes, roadsides, and other short grass 

habitats; in the South, woodcock feed only at night, thus 

seldom seen in daylight except when flushed from a forest 

floor. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous or mixed woods with an abundance or dead 

leaves on the ground; generally in moist soil. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.612) sawtimber oak-gum-cy press, 15(8) sapIingipoIetimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 31 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 1 bird, overall mean 0.007B.04 

birdslroute, t;otal of route means 7 birds. BBS information 

was not used in preparation of the map of breeding distribution. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(3) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late February to midMay, with the peak from mid-March to mid-April. Nests are 

built on the ground in woodlands with plenty of dead leaves, 

often under shrubs or saplings. Clutch sizes range from 3 to 

5, with 4 most common. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds feed at twilight or at night, probing in damp 

ground fields or woods for earthworms and larvae. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, nocturnal or crepuscular terrestrial probing insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1929:61; Burleigh 1958:240; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:209; DeGraaf et al. 1980:228; Dwyer et al. 1979; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988: 140; Forbush and May 1939: 178; Imhof 

1976: 173: James and Neal 1986: 182; Lowery 1974:303; 

Mengel 1965:239; Monroe et al. 1988:26; Oberholser 

1974(1):325; Potter et al. 1980: 152; Robinson 1990: 107; 

Root 1988: 104; Sheldon 1967; Sprunt 1954: 167; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:220; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 139. 
Rock Dove 

ABUNDANCE STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ittl seasons- C to A in cities and town throughout the 

Southeast; infrequently away from urban areas. except at 

farms; not common in most of the mountains. Non-migratory. Introduced from Europe. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- cities with ledges on buildings for nesting, 

and parks or other open places for foraging; often feed on 

concrete and other man-made substances. Also occur in 

farmyards, such as in feedlots. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

A ledge on a building or inside a barn; bare ground or short 

grass for foraging. 

Recorded on 401 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1965- 

1985; maximum route mean 179 birds, overall mean 

2.50B.01 birdslroute, total of route means 2332 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 85(2) sawtimber live oak 

maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends fiom February to August, with 

a likely peak in April and May. Nests are built on ledges on 

man-made structures; commonly on city buildings, but also 

in barns or sheds. under bridges, and in many other places. 

Two is the normal clutch size, sometimes only 1. 

FOOD HABITS 

These tame birds forage almost entirePy 9n the ground, 

gleaning seeds and grain; some insects and berries are eaten 

from time to time. 

GUILD 

Ledge nesting, terrestrial gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:2 15; DeGraaf et al. 1950:236; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:274; Forbush and May 1939:25 1; Irnhof 

1976:22 1 ; James and Neal 1986: 196; Lowery 1974:358; 

Mengei 1965:265; Monroe et al. 1988:31; Oberholser 

1974(1):4 13; Potter et al. 1980: 188; Robbins et al. 1986:25; 

Robinson 1990: 1 19; Root 1988: 1 19; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:287. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as category C2. State lisimisted as Threatened 

in Florida. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- generally in broadleaf evergreens; prefer 

mangrove thickets, but also use tropical hammocks and 

other thickets. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- G in the restricted range imi in s outhern Florida, 

mainly on the Keys, but also on the aes adjacent mainland. 

Wintering- U to FC, but the bulk of thesde breeding population leaves Florida in the winter. Primari iuilly a species of the 

West Indies. Spring arrival- late MarcM=h t.o late April; fall 

departure- poorly known, perhaps mairrik-in ly in October. 

WINTERING 3WC 

Moderate to dense stands of broadleaf evergreens, generally where berries are present. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season is poorly known in Florida, though it 

probably extends from May to July. Nests are built in trees 

or shrubs, in rather dense woods or thickets. Two is the usual 

clutch size, though single egg clutches are not rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

These pigeons feed almost wholly in trees, picking berries 

and other fruits from twigs. Also take some insects and 

seeds. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning frugivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1932:369; Ehrlich et al. 1988:272; Forbush and May 

1939:250; Kale 1978:43; Rappole et al. 1983: 189; Root 

1988: 119; Sprunt 1954:230. 
White-winged Dove 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter-Along the western Gulf Coast they are Ijncommon but regular in Texas and Louisiana, and increasingly 

Rare farther east and farther inland. While primary breeding 

range is south of the region, White-winged Doves breed 

regularly on Galveston Island, Texas, and occasionally in 

coastal Louisiana. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter-Dense herb or shrub cover for foraging and 

resting. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1/40 ha on 1 census, sawtimber Longleaf Pine-Slash Pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

These birds build their frail platform nests of sticks and 

small twigs in shrubs, trees or other vegetation. They lay 

1-3, usually 2, eggs; laying dates extend from mid-April to 

mid-August. 

FOOC) HABITS 

Primary foods are seeds of a variety of shrubs, grasses, 

cacti, grains, and weed species. Some fruits and insects are 

also taken. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning granivore or omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

White-winged Doves inhabit the dry brushlands of southern and western Texas, Mexico, and the Southwest, where 

they nest in shade trees in towns, citrus groves, and thickets 

in brushland. Winter-In the region they are confined to 

shrubby thickets in coastal prairies and grasslands. 

Bent 1932:425, 428; Burleigh 1958:303; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:280; Imhof 1976:222; Lowery 1974:359; Oberholser 

1974 (1):422; Potter et al. 1980:188; Rappole et al. 

1983:190, 450; Robbins et al. 1986:28; Root 1988:120; 

Sprunt 1954:235; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:609. 
Mourning Dove 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- VC nearly everywhere in. the Southeast; 

tend to be C in the lower mountains in summer, but somewhat less numerous in winter; scarce above 4500 feet ( 1350 

m). There is considerable movement of birds into the region 

in the winter, when Mourning Doves are A at many pf aces. 

WINTERING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- prefer open woods, wood margins, trees or 

shrubs along a hedgerow, or woods in residential areas; 

seldom nest in deep woods; nests are not far from open 

fields. Foraging- in cultivated fields, plowed fields, farrnyards, roadsides, lawns, and other areas of short grass or bare 

ground. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- trees, saplings, or shrubs in the vicinity of 

fields or other open country. Foraging- open areas of bare 

ground or short grass, generally in agricultural country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.?(13) grasslforb or shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 

1 1(3) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 545 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 

246 birds, overall mean 25.9732.1 1 birdslroute, total of 

route means 23,064 btrds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIIES 

1(1) shrub-seedling southern scrub oak, l(2) grasslforb 

longleaf pine-slash pine, l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gumcypress, l(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 1(1) 

sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 70(9) saplinglpoletimber 

pine savanna. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early March to late 

August, with the peak from mid-March to mid-April. Nests 

are frail platforms of sticks, placed at a fairly low (often 10 

to 15 feet, 3-5 m) height in trees or shrubs, mainly along a 

wooded edge. Clutch sizes range from 1 to 4, though 2 is the 

usual number. 

FOOD HABITS 

These doves forage mainly in short grass or on bare 

ground. Seeds and other grains form nearly the entire diet. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1932:402-4 16; Burleigh 1958:303,305: DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:216; DeGraaf et ai. 1980:238; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:278; Forbusb and May 1939:252; Imhof 1976:223; 

James and Neal 1986: 196; Lowery 1974:359; Mengel 

1965:265; Monroe et al. 1988:32; Oberholser 1974(1):4 13; 

Potter et al. 1980: 189; Rappole et al. 1983: 190; Robbins et 

al. 1986:28: Robinson 1990: 120; Root 1988: 121; Sprunt 

1954:232; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:288; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 172; Verner and Boss 1980: 152. 
Common Ground Dove Ground DOV~) 

Columbina passerina mm 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern in Alabama (unofficially), 

Significantly Rare in North Carolina. hlonitored by Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- C over most of Florida and extreme southern Georgia; FC north on the coast to central South Carolina; 

U to locally FC elsewhere, occurring north to Beaufort Inlet, 

North Carolina. Essentially non-migratory, though vagrants 

have occurred at many places in the region. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- generally In a shrub or small tree along a 

woodland edge. in a thlcket or hedgerow, or in residential 

areas. Foraging- favor sandy soil, such as In dunes, lawns. 

roadsides, farrt~yards, and others. Generally infrequent In 

open fields or extensive open country: usually stay close to 

woods or thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(2) saplingipoletirnber mixed pine-hardwood, 6(2) 

shrub-seedling southern scrub oak. Recorded on 134 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 

5 1 birds, overall mean 0.58rt2.57 birdsiroute, total of route 

means 5 16 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

112) saplingipoletirnber pine savanna, 6j4) sawtirnber 

longleaf pine-slash pine, 7(1) shrub-seedling live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late February to mid-October, with a peak from rnid-April to mid-June. The frail 

platform nests are built in shrubs, low trees. or on the 

ground. The clutch size is usually 2, with 3 not unusual. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds forage on the ground, especially in sandy soil. 

They glean seeds primarily, with some berries and insects 

also consumed. 

GUILD 

Bush or ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1932:435-443; Burleigh 1958:3 10, 3 1 1; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:76: Forbush and May 1939:255; Imhof 1976:225: 

Janles and Neal 1956: 199: Lowery 1973:36 1 ; Oberholser 

1973(1):324; Potter et 21. 1980: 190; Robbins et al. 1986:28; 

Roblnson 1990: 12 1 : Root 1988: 123; Sprunt 1953:236; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:290; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 175. 

Nest site- srnaII trees or shrubs nctt far froin open itrerrs. 

For~igtng- short grass or bare ground, rniiinly in sandy scjil. 
ed Cuckoo 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Significantly Rare in North Carolina. hilonitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous forests, particularly in dark, tangled places; 

mainly in montane country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U in the mountains of Virginia and extreme 

nofihern North Carolina; R in the remainder of the Southern 

Appalachians, eastern Kentucky, and northern Virginia; VR 

and sporadic farther south. Accidental in the Ozarks and 

Ouachitas. Winter south of the United States. Spring arrival- late April to mid-May; fall departure- late September to mid-October. 

IDENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Mature and usually extensive deciduous forests, often 

where tangles are present; at times in rather open woods, 

such as along streams; also in mixed forests on occasions; 

range up to 5000 feet (1500 m). 

Recorded as Visitor in two habitats. Recorded on 49 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maxrmum route 

mean 3 birds, overall mean 0.03kO. 18 birdslroute, total of 

route means 24 birds. BBS information was not used in 

preparation of the map of breeding distribution. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to mid-July, 

with a likely peak during the first half of June. The nests are 

built in shrubs or trees, often within 10 feet (3 rn) of the 

ground, usually in dense tangles. The most common clutch 

size is 2 or 3, ranging from 2 to 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds feed primarily on caterpillars, especially hairy 

ones. Foraging is generally in the canopy of trees where 

tangles are present. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:70; Burleigh 1958:317; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:217; DeGraaf et al. 1980:242; Ehrlich et al. 1988:286; 

Forbush and May 1939:259; Imhof 1976:229; James and 

Neal 1986:201; Lowery 1974:370; Mengel 1965:272; Monroe et al. 1988:32; Oberholser 1974(1):435; Potter et al. 

1980: 196; Rappole et al. 1983: 191 ; Robbins et al. 1986:28; 

Robinson 1990: 123; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:296; 

Sprunt 1954:244; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 177. 
ed Cuckoo 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C throughout the Coastal Plain; FC to C in the 

Piedmont; FC in mountain valleys, but seldom above 3500 

feet (1050 rn), Winter south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- early April to early May; fall departure- early 

October to late October. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.4(3) shrub-seedling mixed pine- hardwood, 7.8(23) 

sawtimber oak-hickory, 8.5(6) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 568 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 46 birds, overall mean 

5.873fi6.90 birdslroute, total of route means 5216 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to mid-September, with the peak during the first half of May in Florida, 

but from early June to early July farther north. The frail nests 

are built in dense tangles (often in vines) in small to medium-sized trees, but usually within 20 feet (6 m) of the 

ground. The usual clutch size is 3 or 4, ranging from 1 to 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

These cuckoos forage on caterpillars, especially hairy 

ones, in the vegetation in the canopy of trees. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

m m WINTERING 

BREEDING REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Mainly in deciduous forests, especially where moist; 

bottomland woods, woodland thickets, and other hardwood 

forests; usually where tangles occur in the canopy. Generally avoid coniferous woods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Bent 1940:54-69; Burleigh 1958:315; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:218; DeGraaf et al. 1980:240; Ehrlich et al. 1988:286; 

Forbush and May 1939:257; Imhof 1976:228; James and 

Neal 1986:201; Lowery 1974:368; Mengel 1965:27 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:32; Oberholser 1974(1):434; Potter et al. 

1980: 194; Rappole et al. 1983: 190; Robbins et al. 1986:28; 

Robinson 1990: 124; Root 1988: 123; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:295; Sprunt 1954:243; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 176. 

Broadleaf woods or forests, especially in rather thick 

vegetation. 
Mangrove Cuc 

minor mw 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding--- U, in the Florida Keys, and the mainland from 

the southern tip north to the central Gulf coast. Winteringpresumably somewhat less numerous than in summer, apparently R in many areas. Details of seasonal movements 

are poorly known. Apparently absent in winter north of 

Everglades National Park. Primarily a West Indian species. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- mainly in mangrove thickets; also occur in 

tropical hammocks and other thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Dense broadleaf evergreen woods, generally In mangroves. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to mid-July, 

but the peak is unknown. The nests are usually built in 

mangroves, being well hidden in the dense vegetation of a 

mangrove forest. Two or 3 eggs is the usual clutch size. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds are easily overlooked in the dense foliage of 

mangroves, where most foraging takes place, They take 

caterpillars most commonly, but other insects are eaten also. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:51; Ehrlich et al. 1988:288; Forbush and May 

1939:257; Kale 1978:57; Oberholser 1974(1):434; Rappole 

et al. 1983: 190; Root 1988: 123; Sprunt 1954:242. 
Greater Roadrunner 

w califomianus G 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Permanent residents-Common in interior Texas: Uncommon in east Texas, the Texas coast, and eastern Oklahoma; Rare to Locally Common in Arkansas and 

northwestern Louisiana. Populations of these sedentary 

birds are susceptible to extensive mortality during cold 

winters (Evans and Probasco 1982). The birds are extending 

their range eastward. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

A11 seasons-Open stands with bare ground, particularly 

shrub-seedling areas but also a variety of upland habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons-"Bare ground with more or less scattered 

trees and bushes where it can walk about freely; it is not 

much interested in botany." (Oberholser 1974 (1):437) 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber Oak-hickory on 2 censuses. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Not recorded on a census in region; outside region, 0.5140 

ha in Live oak-mesquite brushland, 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early March to early 

October. Egg dates include April and May. Roadrunners 

build a large nest of sticks in a shrub or small tree, or even 

a hollow stump, most often between 3-15 ft (1-5 m) up. 

Clutch size 2-13, usually 3-6. 

FOOD HABITS 

These ' Snake-kil lers' eat snakes, grasshoppers, lizards, 

and other small animals which they chase and capture. They 

also eat birds, eggs, insects, and some fruits and seeds. "The 

Road-runner is as nearly omnivorous as any of our birds, 

eating anything in its habitat that is readily available and 

swallowable" (W. L. McAtee, in Bent 1940:50). 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial or herb gleaning or staIking 

carnivore or insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:36; Ehrlich et al. 1988:284; James and Neai 

1986:202; Lowery 1974:370; Oberholser 19'74 (I):436; 

Root 1988:124; Sutton 1967:244; Verner and Boss 

1980: 153. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- FC in most of southern Florida; locally C 

in a few areas, mainly near Lake Okeeehobee; scarce in the 

Keys. Essentially non-migratory. Invaded Florida from the 

West Indies, mainly since 1930. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Scattered trees or shrubs in open country, especially in 

agricultural areas. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

16(3) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- generally around farms and fields with 

scattered groves, thickets, and hedgerows; often occur 

around cattle, and occur in residential areas. The nests are 

built in trees or shrubs along a hedgerow or in a thicket. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season apparently extends from March to September, 

but the peak is poorly known. Nests are very bulky structures 

placed in shrubs or trees; several females may lay eggs in 

the same nest. Generally 3 or 4 eggs are laid by a female, 

but communal nests with 20 or more eggs have been reported. 

FOOD HABITS 

They forage primarily on insects, as well as ticks, with 

some seeds and fruits taken. Most foraging is on the ground 

in short grass, especially In pastures, though they do feed in 

trees. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940: 19; Ehrlich et al. 1988:282; Lowery 1974:37 1 ; 

Oberhoiser 1974(1):439; Root 1988: 124; Sprunt 1954:245. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding-Primasy range is in south Texas, outside the 

region; occasionally they breed in the Mississippi River 

delta region of Louisiana. Winter- They are locally Uncommon to Fairly Common along the western Gulf Coast 

in Texas and Louisiana, and Very Rare east as far as the 

Alabama coast. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- Agricultural areas, pastures, coastal prairies, citrus orchards, and early successional areas are winter 

habitats for these birds. In Louisiana the birds frequent citrus 

orchards, old fields, and pastures. In south Texas the birds 

breed in dry thornscrub thickets (Pithecellobiumflexicaule 

and mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons-Crass or shrubby areas for foraging and 

shrub cover for nesting and roosting, usually not far from 

water, 

REPRODUCTION 

These birds place their bulky nests in shrubs or small trees, 

usually 6- 12 ft (2-4 m) up, but sometimes as high as 25 ft (8 

m). The season extends from mid-May to mid-July. Clutch 

size 3-6, or as many as 14 when more than one female is 

involved. 

FOOD HABITS 

Large insects form an important part of the diet; the birds 

often follow cattle while foraging. They also consume other 

small animals and some fruit. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial, herb, or bush gleaning 

insectivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940: 19,35; Ehrlich et al. 1988:284; Imhof 1976:230; 

James and Neal 1986:203; Lowery 1974:372; Monroe et al. 

1988:32; Oberholser 1974 (I):440; Robinson 1990: 124; 

Root 1988: 124; Sprunt 1954:246; Sutton 1967:246. 
Common Barn-Ow 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri, "in need of management" in Tennessee, Special Concern by Kentucky 

Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission 

and Oklahoma, and Rare in West Virginia. Blue Listed by 

Tate (1 98 1). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, South Carolina Heritage Trust Program. 

KEY HAB1Tb4T REQUIREMENTS 

Forage in extensive fields or mwshes; xst in sheltered 

cavities or old buildings, and roost in dense cover of evergreen trees or saplings. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(2) sapling- poletimber live oak maritime. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

All seasons- generally U over the entire area, but somewhat more numerous near the coast. Absent in the higher 

elevations (presumably) migrating into the Southeast in fall; 

tend to be more numerous coastally and in southern Florida 

in winter than in summer, at some places being FC. 

IDENT'ZL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- strictly in open country; favor extensive 

marshes and weedy fields for foraging. May nest in old 

barns, hunting blinds, in belfries, tree cavities, or in many 

other places; frequently nest in towns and residential areas. 

In winter, the birds roost in dense trees or shrubs, often in 

stands of young pines or cedars, 

l(1) sapling/poletimber pine savanna. 

Breed in all months of the year, even north of Florida. The 

peak is generally from March to May. Nest in sheltered 

cavities or other dark areas; often in old barns, hunting 

blinds, tree cavities, and belfries. The usual clutch size is 5 

to 7, ranging up to 1 1. 

FOOD HABITS 

These owls feed at night by flying low over marshes or 

fields, dropping onto rodents and other small mammals they 

hear. 

GUILD 

Ledge or cavity nesting, nocturnal herb pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938: 140; Burleigh 1958:3 19; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:219; DeGraaf et al. 1980:244; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):39; Ehrlich et al. 1988:288; Forbush and May 

1939:260; Imhof 1976:231 James and Neal 1986:205; 

Lowery 1974:376; Mengel 1965:274; Monroe et al. 

1988:32; Oberholser 1974(1):442; Potter et al. 1980: 197; 

Robinson 1990:124; Root 1988:125, 282; Scott et al. 

1977: 19; Sprunt 1954:248; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:299; Stewart 1980; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 178; 

Verner and Boss 1980: 154. 
Eastern Sc h-Ow 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1 98 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- essentially C throughout; in the Mountains 

rarely up to 4500 feet (, I350 m). Believed to be non-migratory. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 4 habitats. 2.8(5) sawtimber cove 

hwdwoods. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.51 1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 2.5(11) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood. 

BREEDING 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to late May, 

with a peak from early April to mid-April. Nest in cavities, 

not dug by the birds; mainly in old woodpecker holes, but 

also in natural tree cavities and bird houses. The average 

clutch size is 4 or 5, ra.nging from 3 to 8. 

FOCID HABITS 

Screech Owls sit on perches, usually in woods, and drop 

to the ground when food is seen or (at night) heard. Insects, 

rodents, herps, birds, and other invertebrates are taken. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, nocturnal terrestrial pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- in a wide variety of woods and forests; prefer 

open to medium growth woods, both in residential areas and 

in rural country; pine woods or mixed woods are favored 

over bottomlands and swaps. Foraging- in open to medium 

growth woods, and also in open areas, such as fields, clearings, and wood margins. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Bent 1938:243-385; Burleigh 1958:321-324; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:220; DeGraaf et al. 1980:246; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:298; Forbush and May 1939:261; Irnhof 1976:232; 

James and Neal 1986:206; Lowery 1974:378; Mengel 

1965:275; Monroe et al. 1988:32; Oberholser 1974(1):444; 

Potter et al. 1980:198; Robbins et al. 1986:30; Robinson 

1990: 125; Root 1988: 125; Scott et al. 197730; Sprunt 

1954:249; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:301; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 179; Van Camp and Henny 1975; Verner and 

Boss 1980: 155. 

Nest site- a cavity, generally in a tree, in a woodland; few 

strict requirements. Foraging- no essential requirements, 

but woodlands of some type must be present. 
G Horned Ow 

Bubo viminianus GHOW 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- FC essentially throughout the region, but 

scarce over 3500 feet (1050 m). Non-migratory. 

CIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.3(18) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 0.6(4) sawtimber oak-hickory, l(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pinescrub oak. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Recorded as 1 individuall40 ha on 13 plots in 5 habitats. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-December to late 

April, with the peak from mid-January to early March. At 

most localities, Great Horned Owls are the first birds to 

begin nesting in late winter. Do not build nests; instead, they 

utilize abandoned hawk or crow nests in treetops, especlaIly 

in pines. Rarely nest on ledges or other sites. Two eggs are 

common, with 3 frequent. 

FOOD HABITATS 

These owls may hunt in flight, or from a perch. They 

pounce on rabbits. squirrels, other mammals, birds, and 

herps, on open ground or the woodland floor, always at 

night. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Tree nesting, nocturnal terrestrial pouncing carnivore. 

Nest site- generally in pinewoods or mixed woods in 

upland areas; favor medium growth woods, but near the 

coast may nest in rather open groves. Not normally associated with wet or moist forests, and infrequent in deciduous 

forests. Foraging- both inside forests or in adjacent open 

country; especially in weedy fields and marshes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- fairly mature woods or forests, preferably in 

pines. Foraging- no essential requirements, but a combination of woods and fieldlmarsh is usually present. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938:295-357; Burleigh 1958:325; DeCraaf and Rudis 

Z986:221; DeCraaf et al. 1980:248; Ehrlich et al. 1988:292; 

Forbush and May 1939:265; Imhof 1976:233; James and 

Neal 1986:207; Lowery 1974:379; Mengel 1965:277; Monroe et al. 1988:32; Oberholser 1974(1): 447; Potter et al. 

1980:200; Robbins et al. 1986:30; Robinson 1990: 125; Root 

1988:126; Sprunt 1954:250; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:303; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 179; Verner and Boss 

1980;157. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Don't expect these birds in the South very often. 

They are Very Rare in the northern part of the region: 

Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Virginia; and Extremely Rare in Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, the Carolinas, 

and Georgia. They may only reach the South when the 

lemming food source in their Arctic and Sub-arctic range is 

scarce. Dates of occurrence extend from November to 

March. 

CIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM 

mkss3 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Pastures, cultivated fields, very early successional areas in a variety of types; also beach and dune areas 

along the ocean shore. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Extensive open areas. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

None known. Evans (1980) reports densities of 2 birds/km2 

in agricultural land in Ontario, and as high as 15/km2 near 

grain elevators near Duluth, Minnesota. Averages in the 

South and Southeast will be microscopic compared to these. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

REPRODUCTION 

In the North, Snowy Owls are carnivorous on ground 

dwelling mammals and birds. When they visit the South they 

take a wider variety of foods, including songbirds and carrion. 

GUILD 

Diurnal or nocturnal terrestrial pouncing carnivore 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:41; Bent 1938:358; Burleigh 1958:327; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:222; Ehrlich et al. 1988:296; Forbush and May 1939:267; Imhof 1976:234; James and Neal 

1986:208; Lowery 1974:380; Mengel 1965:278; Monroe et 

al. 1988:33; Oberholser 1974 (1):449; Potter et al. 1980:200; 

Robinson 1990: 126; Root 1988: 126,283; Sprunt 1954:499; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:304, 610; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 180; Sutton 1967:259. 
Burrowing Ow 

Athene mnimlan'a 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State fisted as Special Concern in Florida. Monitored by 

Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory. Blue Listed by Tate 

(1981). A. c, floridana fisted as Forest Service sensitive on 

National Forests in Florida. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

At1 seasons- quite local, but often F;G where found; R 

over most of the range. Non-migratory. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Extensive open country; such as prairies, savannas, grassy 

fields, airports, and large lawns. Favor sandy areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Short grass habitats in sandy soil. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 35 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

19885; maximum route mean f 17 birds, overall mean 

0. f9k3.94 birdslroute, total of route means 166 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from November to mid-May, 

with the peak from early April to mid-April. Nest in underground burrows in sandy soil, either dug by the birds or taken 

over from other animals. Nests are often in colonies, always 

in an open area of short grass. The usual clutch size is 5 or 

6, ranging from 4 to 8. 

FOOD HABITS 

Most foraging is at night, though they are sometimes active 

by day. The owls run along the ground for prey items or 

make short chases in the air, feeding on beetles, other insects, 

rodents, herps, and other animals. 

GUILD 

Burrow nesting, nocturnal terrestrial stalking insectivore 

or carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938:384-400; Ehrlich et al. 1988:306; Forbush and 

May 1939:271; Imhof 1976234; Kale 1978:97; James and 

Neal 1986:208; Lowery 1974:38 1 ; Oberholser 1974(1):454; 

Potter et al. 1980:201; Rappole et al. 1983: 191; Robbins et 

al. 1986:30; Root 1988: 127, 283; Sprunt 1954:25 1-252; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:305; Verner and Boss 

1980: 159. 
Barred Ow 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

A11 seasons- FC to G in the CoastaI Plain; FC ot er much 

of the Piedmont; marnly U in the mountains, but regularly 

occur to the tops of the highest mountains 166001- feet, 1980 

m), Non-migratorl). 

ACClDEKTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest site- generally in swamps or bottomlands hardwoods in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain; in the mountains 

occur along wooded streams, in spruce-fir forest, or in 

hemlocks. Foraging- in both moist forests and in open 

country, such as weedy fields and marshes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Nest site- wet or moist forests, usually in swamps; cavities must be present for nesting. Foraging- in moist woods, 

usually with fields or marshes in the vicinity. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Vis~tor rn 3 Aabrtats, 1 ..lj5) sapiling/poietimber oak-gum-cy press, 1.7(28) sawt~mber mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 249 of 888 BBS routes In the region. 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 5 birds, overall mean 

0.19k 0.53 birdslroute, total of route means 170 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 (1) in four habitats, 2(1) saplinglpoIetimber oak-gum-cypress, 2.4(17) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-January to mid-May. 

with the peak from late February to late March. Nest usually 

in large trees that are hollow at the top, in swamps or moist 

woods; rarely in old crow or hawk nests. Two eggs form the 

usual clutch, with 3 also frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

These owls forage at night from flight or from a perch. 

They drop onto rodents (usually), but also consume birds, 

herps, insects, crustaceans, and many animals. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, nocturnal pouncing carnivore on variable 

substrates. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938: 182-1201 ; Burleigh 1958:327; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:224; DeCraaf et al. L980:250; Ehrlich et al. 1988:292; 

Forbush and May 1939:272; Imhof 19'76:235; Sarnes and 

Neal 1986:208; Lowery 1973:38 1 ; Mengel 1965:279; Monroe et al. 1988:33; Oberholser 1973(1):455; Potter et al. 

1980:20 1 ; Robbins et al. 1986:30; Robinson L 990: 126; Root 

1988: 127: Scott et al. 1977:27; Sprunt 1953:253; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1W70:306: Srewiwt and Robbins 1958: 180. 
Long Ow 

Asio oius EOW 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia, Pocsrly Known in 

Alabama (unofficially). Monitored by Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R, and poorly known, in the mountains of 

Virginia and the extreme northern Piedmont of that state. 

Wintering- very secretive at this season, as they are silent 

and roost in dense trees; apparently R but regular over the 

region south to central South Carolina and central Georgia. 

Fall arrival- mid-October to late November; spring departure- late February to early April. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in dense and fairly dark coniferous forests, 

probably most numerous in white pines or hemlocks. Wintering- in dense dark places; most often in dense stands of 

plne saplings; but also in pine forests, thick cedars In old 

fields, and thickets. Forage at all seasons in forests and in 

fields. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- cool. coniferous forests; abandoned nests of 

crows or hawks are generalIy requisite for nesting. Wintering- dense conifers, usually not far from open fields. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to late May, 

but the peak is not known, as few nests have been found in 

Virginia. Nest in abandoned crow or hawk nests, generally 

in crotches in evergreen trees in a cool, shady forest. Four 

or 5 is the normal clutch size, with a range of 3 to 8. 

FOOD HABITS 

Like most owls, these birds forage at night either in flight 

or from a perch, in woods or in the open. They drop to the 

ground for rodents or other small mammals; birds are taken 

rarely. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, nocturnal terrestrial pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Armstrong 1958; Bent 1938: 153; Burleigh 1958:329; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:226; DeGraaf et al. 1980:252; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:290; Forbush and May 1939:274; Imhof 

1976:236; James and Neal 1986:2 10; Lowery 1974:382; 

Mengel 1965:280; Monroe et al. 1988:33; Oberholser 

1974(1):458; Potter et al. 1980:203; Robinson 1990: 127; 

Root 1988: 128; Sprunt 1954:255; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:3 1 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 18 1 ; Verner and Boss 

1980: 162;. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). Monitored by Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R in Loudoun County, Virginia; formerly 

scarce breeders along the Virginia coast. Breed mainly north 

of the region. Wintering- U to locally FC along the coast 

of the region, and in tidewater areas; VR to R, and erratic, 

inland; regular only in Loudoun County away from the 

coast. Fall arrival- late October to mid-November; spring 

departure- mid-March to mid-April. 

[DENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in large wet meadows or marshes, preferably 

fresh or brackish ones. Wintering- mainly in marshes 

(fresh, brackish, or salt), but also in weedy fields, wet 

meadows, dunes, and shrub thickets. Roost in grassy cover 

or in shrubs. Unlike other owls, which are almost strictly 

nocturnal, these birds frequently forage in the very late 

afternoon in partial light. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- extensive areas of tall grasses or sedges in 

damp places. Wintering- marshes or other grasslands. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

4(1) grasslforb loblolly pine- shortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from rnid-April to mid-May, 

but the peak is not known, though presumably in late April 

or early May. The nests are built on the ground in marshes, 

well hidden in tall grasses. The clutch is usually 5 to 7 eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

These owls forage by slowly flying a few feet over a marsh 

or weedy field, then dropping onto prey when movement is 

seen or heard. Rodents are the primary food, but other small 

mammals, insects, and birds are sometimes taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, nocturnal herb pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938: 169; Burleigh 1958:329; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:227; DeGraaf et al. 1980:254; Ehrlich et al. 1988:290; 

Forbush and May 1939:275; Imhof 1976:237; James and 

Neal 1986:2 10; Lowery 1974:383; Mengel 1965:28 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:33; Oberholser 1974(1):459; Potter et al. 

1980:203; Rappole et al. 1983: 191; Robinson 1990: 127; 

Root 1988: 129; Sprunt 1954:256; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:3 12; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 18 1 ; Verner and Boss 

1980: 163:. 
Northern Saw-whet Ow 

A amdims 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as nreatened in North Carolina, Rare In West 

Virginia, Poorly Known in Alabama (unofficially). Monitored by Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia 

Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive, Jefferson National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- at high elevations in the Blue Ridge, generally 

over 5000 feet (1500 m); R in Virginia; U in North Carolina, 

but FC in a few areas. Wintering- status poorly known, as 

they are silent at this season; apparently R over most of the 

region. Fall arrival- mid-October to mid-November; 

spring departure- mid-March to early April. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in spruce-fir forests, or where mixed with 

hardwoods; nest in cavities in dead trees. Wintering- in 

conifers, such as pinewoods, dense young pines, and cedars; 

often in conifers in open country. Forage in woods primarily 

in summer, but in woods or fields in winter. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- eavi ty In dead tree in a spruce-fir forest. Wintering- dense conifers, usually saplings, in either woods or 

open country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber spruce-fir 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season IS poorly known, and no active nest has 

been discovered in the region; it is probably late April to 

early June. Nest in abandoned woodpecker cavities in dead 

trees in spruce-fir forest. Clutch sizes are usually 5 or 6, 

ranging from 4 to 7. 

FOOD HABITS 

These tiny owls search for food from apereh, usually inside 

a forest. They drop onto rodents and other small mammals, 

and forage only at night. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, nocturnal terrestrial pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1938:228-242; Burleigh 1958:33 1 ; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:229; DeCraaf et al. 1980:256; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):85; Ehrlich et al. 1988:304; Forbush and May 

1939:278; Imhof 1976:238; James and Neal 1986:211; 

Lowery 1974:383; Mengel 1965:282; Monroe et al. 

1988:33; Oberholser 1974(1):461; Potter et al. 1980:203; 

Robinson 1990:128; Root 1988: 126, 283; Scott et al. 

1977:30; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:313; StewM and 

Robbins 1958: 182; Verner and Boss 1980: 164. 
Common Nigh 

ChordeiIles minor 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C over much of Florida, especially in the southern part; U 

to FC, but local, elsewhere. More numerous in cities than in 

rural country. Arrive from early April to early May, and 

depart from late September to mid-October. Large flocks of 

migrants are frequently seen from late August to mid-September, mainly in the mountains. Winter south of the United 

States. 

1 BREEDING v$ 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Over most of Florida. and northward along the coast, prefer 

area with sand and bare ground, such as dunes, open scrubby 

woods, and margins of thickets. Inland they nest mainly in 

cities and large towns, where they breed on flat-topped 

gravel roofs. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Areas of bare ground, both on graveled rooftops in cities 

and in sandy soil in rural country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 5 habitats, 334) saplinglpoletimber Iongleaf pine-scrub oak. Recorded on 354 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 208 

birds, overall mean 2.50rfr9.34 birdsfroute, total of route 

means 2222 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breed from mid-April (in Florida) to mid-July, peaking 

from mid-May to mid-June. Eggs, almost always 2, are laid 

directly onto gravel or sand, as no nest is built. 

FOOD HABITS 

Nighthawks catch a variety of insects in extended flight, 

generally well off the ground. They feed mostly in very late 

afternoon and at night; are frequently seen before dark. 

GUILD 

Ground or ledge nesting, nocturnal aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:205-243; Burleigh 1958:335, 337; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:230; DeGraaf et al. 1980:260; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:3 12; Forbush and May 1939:282; Imhof 1976:241; 

James and Neal 1986:2 12; Kale 1978:58; Lowery 1974:389; 

Mengel 1965:285; Monroe et 31. 1988:34; Oberholser 

1974(1):470; Potter et al. 1980:206; Rappole et al. 1983: 192; 

Robbins et al. 1986:30; Robinson 1990: 128; Root 1988: 129; 

Sprunt 1953:260: Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:3 19; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 185; Verner and Boss 1980: 166. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C over most of its breeding range, especially in the Coastal 

Plain; R to U in Florida in winter. Arrive early April to late 

April; depart- August to September (departure dates 

poorly known). 

CClDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breed in woods and forests, primarily dry or rnesic ones; 

pines or hardwoods, but favor mixed woods; feed mainly 

over adjacent fields and clearings. Winter in dense woods, 

hammocks, etc.; mainly in broadleaf evergreen woods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- woodlands of many types, with a light to 

moderate understory, generally near open country. Wintering- woodlands of broadleaf evergreens, generally with a 

moderate understory, 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.3(2) saplingjpoletimber live oak marit~me, 0.6(7) sawtimber mixed pine-hardtvood, 6(3) sawtimber longleaf pineslash pine, 7(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak. 

Recorded on 365 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 12 birds, overall mean 1.05i: 

90 birdsfroute, total of route means 932 birds, 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

From mid-March in Florida, until late June; peak is from 

early May to late May. The birds lay their eggs (almost 

always 2) in a woodland on the ground in dead leaves. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed at night, chasing insects in sustained flight over fields, 

clearings, and woods. Large insects, such as moths and 

beetles, are preferred; rarely small birds are taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, nocturnal aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940: 147; Burleigh 1958:332; Ehrlich et a!. 1988:308; 

Forbush and May 1939:279; Imhof 1976:239; James and 

Neal 1986:2 12; Lowery 1974:386; Mengel 1965:282; Monroe et al. 1988:34; Oberholser 1974(1):462; Potter et al. 

1980:205; Rappole et al. 1983: 192; Robbins et al. 1986:30; 

Robinson 1990: 129; Root 1988: 130; Sprunt 1954:257; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:315; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 1 83. 
Whip r-wi 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1 98 I), 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C, somewhat less so in the mountains (absent 

at higher elevations). Winter- U to FC in central and 

southern Florida, apparently lj elsewhere. Arrive- midMarch to early April, and depart in September and October 

(depasture dates poorly known). 

ClDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITNS 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l.f3(6) sapling/poIetimber oak-hickory , 3.7(3) shrub-seedling mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 146 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 7 

birds, overall mean 0.2M.68 birdsfroute, total of route 

means 183 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplingfpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

2(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breed from mid-April to early July, with a peak from early 

May to early June. Lay their clutches of 2 in a woodland on 

the ground on dead leaves. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed at night, catching insects in sustained flight over 

fields, woods, or small openings. A wide variety of flying 

insects are taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, nocturnal aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940: 163- 186; Burleigh 1958:333; DeGraaf and Rudls 

1986:23 1 ; DeGraaf et al. 1980:258; Ehrlich et a). 1988:308; Breeding- woodlands, usually not far from fields and Forbush and May 1939:280; Imhof f 976:240; James and other open country. Inhabit mostly medium-growth and Neal 1986:2 13; Lowery 1974:388; Mengel 1965:284; Mon- upland woods, primarily where deciduous or mixed. Feed roe et al. 1988:34; Oberholser 1974(1):464; Potter et al. over adjacent fields. Wintering- primarily in mixed woods, 1980:206; Rappole et al. 1983: 192; Robbins et al. 1986:30; often in broadleaf evergreen woods. Robinson 1990: 130; Root 1988: 130; Sprunt 1954:259: 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:317; Stewart and Robbins 

KEY HAB1TAT REQUIREMENTS 1958: 184. 

Breeding- medium growth woods of many types, usually 

in uplands and not far from open country. Winterlngbroadleaf evergreen woods, not far from open country. 
Chimney Swift 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to A nearly throughout; less numerous in the 

mountains, though C in muck of this region. Winter south 

of the United States. Arrive from mid-March to mid-April, 

and depart from early October to late October. 

14(2) grassiforb mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 537 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 93 birds, overall mean 8.0921 1.53 birdslroute, total of 

route means 7 182 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

-- 1 D BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Mainly around towns, cities, and other open areas near 

human settlements. Feed over various habitats, even forests, 

but most common over open country and residential areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 16 habitats, 1.3(4) sawtimber oakgum-cypress, 2.6(2) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum- cypress, 

The stick nest is glued by saliva to the inside of a hollow 

or open structure; usually in the inside of a tall chimney, 

rarely in a hollow tree. Clutch size usually 4 or 5, rarely 3 or 

6. Breed from early May to mid-July, peaking from late May 

to mid-June. 

FOOD HABITS 

The swifts are the most aerial of all landbirds, catching 

small insects in sustained flight. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:27 1 ; Burleigh 1958:339; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:232; DeGraaf et al. 1980:262; Ehrlich et al. 1988:316; 

Forbush and May 1939284; Imhof 1976:243; James and 

Neal 1986:2 15; Lowery 1974:394; Mengel 1965:287; Monroe et al. 1988:34; Oberholser 1974(1):475; Potter et al. 

1980:208; Rappole et al. 1983: 193; Robbins et al. 1986:30; 

Robinson 1990: 13 1 ; Scott et al. 1977:3 1 ; Sprunt 1954:263; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:321; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 186. 
Buff-be id Humm 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Occasionali stragglers somet~mes are found in the 

Mississippi River Delta region of Louisiana, DecernberFebruary. 

Lq = 

mmm 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Suburban areas, evergreen thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- The birds may depend for survival upon ornamental flowers and hummingbird feeders. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Like other hummingbirds, these birds hover while feeding. 

Their diet consists of nectar and insects. They are notable 

for defending feeding territories against other hummingbirds; because they are large hummingbirds, they usually 

succeed in such defense. 

GUILD 

Herb or bush gleaning or probing nectarivore or Insectivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:444; Ehrlich et al. 1988:320; Lowery 1974:405; 

Oberholser 1974 (1):494; Rappole et al. 1983: 196. 
Ruby-throated Humm 

A us mubris tl 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1 98 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding--- FC over most of the Southeast, seldom G 

anywhere. Wintering- mostly U along eastern Gulf Coast 

and in Florida, tending to increase In numbers in extreme 

southern Florida. Spring arrival is mainly euly April to late 

April; departure is from mid-September to mid-October. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

i BREEDING ! 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding and wintering- quite varied, but always near 

tubular flowers. They are more numerous insamewhat moist 

areas, such as bottomland woods, wet thickets, and tangles. 

Also inhabit upland woods, overgrown fields, and residential areas. Generally avoid coniferous woods. 

KEY HABITAT REQktlREMENIE 

Breeding- woody vegetation (woods or thickets) near 

tubular flowers, usually in moist habitats. tvintering woods 

or thickets near tubular flowers or hummingbird feeders. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in seven habitats, 4.2(14) sawtimber 

oak-hickory, 5.4(5) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded 

on 374 of 888 BBS routes in the South. 1966-1985; maximum route mean 11 birds, overall mean 0.37M.76 

birdsiroute, total of route means 330 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum- cypress, 0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 4.2(4) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Nesting ranges from early April (in Florida) to mid-July, 

with the peak from mid-May to early June. Nests are very 

small cups saddled on the tops of branches, in woodlands or 

thickets. Typically the nest is 10-20 feet (3-6 m) above the 

ground, usually near or over a stream. the clutch size is 

always 2. 

FOOD HABITS 

Generally small insects and nectar obtained from tubular 

flowers, while hovering. Most foraging is within 10 feet (3 

m) of the ground. Frequently take colored sugar-water from 

hummingbird feeders. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, nectarivore or insectivore. 

REFER ENCES 

Bent 1940:332; Burleigh 1958:34 1 ; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:233; DeGraaf et al. 1980:264; Ehrlich et al. 11988:328; 

Forbush and May 1939:286; Imhof 1976:244; James and 

Neal 1986:2 16; Lowery 1974:400; Mengel 1965:288; Monroe et al. 1988:34; Oberholser 1974(1):482; Potter et al. 

1980:209; Rappole et al. 1983: 194; Robbins et al. 1986:32; 

Robinson 1990: 132; Root 1988: 130; Sprunt 1954:265; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:323; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 187. 
ackchinned Hummingbird 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Very rare and inegular in Mississippi River 

Delta region of Louisiana. Our knowledge of winter distribution of these and other hummers is undergoing a period 

of clarification thanks to several workers, such as N. Newfield in the New Orleans area, R. Sargent in the Birmingham 

area, and others. 

WIKTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Evergreen thickets, suburban areas with ornamental flowers and hummingbird feeders. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- These birds, like other wintering hummingbirds 

of the Gulf Coast, probably depend for survival on a combination of favorable weather and ornamental flowers and 

hummingbird feeders provided for them. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Black-chinned Hummingbirds forage pr~marily by hovering and probing for nectar and gleanlng insects from blooms 

of a variety of plants. They also have been observed hawking for insects away from flowers. 

Cleaning or probing at various heights, nectarivore or 

insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:352; Ehrlich et al. 1988:328; Lowery 1974:402; 

Oberholser 1974 (I):483; Rappole et al. 1983:194; Root 

1988: 131 ; Sutton 1967:286; Verner and Boss 1980: 170. 
us Hummingbird 

SeIspho~~~s 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- These most northern of hummrngbirds are occasional visitors to the Gulf Coast in October April, where 

they are regular and Locally Common on the Texas coast, 

Uncommon but regular in south Louisiana, and Rare and 

irregular east into Alabama and the extreme western end of 

the Florida panhandle. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Gardens, suburban areas, and particularly 

around hummingbird feeders. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Cultivated tubular flowers, especially red ones 

such as Salvia sp. and hibiscus for feeding. The birds often 

disappear after prolonged cold spells, possibly because they 

do not survive. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Rufous Hummingbirds forage while hovering. They probe 

tubular flowers for nectar, glean small insects from the 

plants, and eat sugar-water from feeders. These birds are 

vigorously territorial in defense of food sources. 

GUILD 

Herb or bush gleaning or probing hovering nectarivore or 

insectivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940:396; Conway and Drennan 1979; Ehrlich et all. 

1988:334; Imhof 1976:245; James and Neal 1986:217; 

Lowery 1974:404; Monroe et al. 1988:35; Oberholser 1974 

(I):489; Potter et al. 1980:210; Rappole et al. 1983: 195,457; 

Robinson 1990: 133; Root 1988: 13 1 ; Sprunt 1954:266; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:324; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 189; Sutton 1967:288; Verner and Boss 1980: 1'73. 
ted Kingfisher 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Brzeding and wintering- C near the coast; mostly FC 

elsewhere, but U over much of the higher elevations. Not C 

as breeders in southern Florida. There is some movement of 

birds into the Southeast, from farther north, in the fall. 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding and wintering- always near water, such as 

lakes, ponds, streams, and tidewater. Breed in holes in 

vertical banks along streams or lakes. Perch on trees, stubs, 

telephone wires, etc. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- vertical, sandy banks adjacent to or near a 

body of water. Wintering- a body of water \$ith scattered 

perches. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

regton, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 5 birds, overall 

mean 0.26k0.47 birdsiroute, total of route means 228 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 0.5(1) shrub-seedling 

oak-hickory, 2.3(3) satvtimber live oak marltime, S(1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Nesting occurs from early April to mid-June, for the most 

part, with a peak from early May to late May. The nests are 

long tunnels or burrows, dug by the birds, in vertical banks 

of sand or dirt near water. Commonly 6 or 7 eggs are laid, 

though 5 or 8 eggs are not an unusual clutch. 

FOOD HABITS 

Kingfishers hover or fly slowly over water and plunge into 

the water when food is sighted. Small fish are the primary 

food, but some insects, crayfish, shellfish, and other prey 

items are also taken. 

GUILD 

Burrow nesting, aquatic pouncing carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1940: 1 1 I - 129; Burleigh 1958:344; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:234; DeGraaf et al. 1980:266; Ehrlich et al. 1988:336; 

Forbush and May 1939:290; Imhof 1976:247; James and 

Neal 1986:2 18; Lowery 1974:406; Mengel 1965:289; Monroe st 31. 1988:35: Oberholser 1974(1):501; Potter et al. 

1980:2 1 1 ; Rappole et al. 1983: 197; Robbins et al. 1986:32; 

Robinson 1990: 133; Root 1988: 132; Sprunt 1954:268; 

Sprunt and Chatnberlain 1970:326; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 1 89; Verner and Boss 1980: 175. 

Recorded as Visitor in 6 habitats, 0.6(2) sawtirnber elmash-cottonwood. Recorded on 369 of 888 BBS routes in the 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as "in need of management'5n Tennessee. Blue 

Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by West Virginia Xatural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

FC, though local, in much of the Coastal Plain; mostly f_J 

and local in the Piedmont; generally R below 2500 feet (750 

m) in the Mountains and absent above that elevation except 

in migration. Noticeable fall migrat~on In September. 

Slightly more numerous in winter than in summer, particularly in swamps and bottomland woods. 

GIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGA 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- prefer open woods and groves, such as parks, 

campuses, open pinewoods, rural groves, and open swamps. 

Wintering- same habitats as for breeding, except considerably more numerous in winter in beaver pond woods, open 

woods, open swamps, and other wet places where there is an 

abundance of dead trees. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- open, mature woods and groves. with dead 

trees, stubs, or poles for nesting. brintering- open woods. 

especially in bottomIands. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(t) shrub-seedling southern scrub oak, 3.8(4) saplinglpoletinber mixed pine-hardwood, 4(2) grassiforb 

mixed pine- hardwood. Recorded on 369 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 13 birds, 

overall mean 0.7 lk1.48 birdslroute, total of route means 630 

birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(2) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 5(1) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Nesting season ranges from mid-April to mid-July, with 

the peak from mid-May to mid-June. Nest cavities are dug 

by the birds in dead trees or limbs (usually); occasionailly in 

telephone poles or fence posts. They usually nest in fairly 

open situations. Five eggs are most commonly laid, though 

4'6, or 7 are frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds have a varied diet. They usually dig for insects 

and grubs in the bark of trunks and twigs; but also take nuts 

and berries from twigs, flycatch for flying insects, and probe 

for insects on the ground. 

GUILD 

Cavity-nesting tree trunk probing insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939: 195; BurIeigh 1958:355; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:235; DeCraaf et al. 1980:274; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):75; EhrIich et al. 1988:342; Forbush and May 

1939:298; Imhof 1976:25 1 : James and Neal 1986:2 19: 

Lowery 1974:412; Mengel 1965:293; Monroe et al. 

1988:35; Oberholses 1974(1):5 14; Robbins et al. 1986:34: 

Potter et al. 1980:2 f 6; Robinson 1990: 11 33; Root 1988: 134; 

Scott et a). 1977:39; Sprunt 1954:276; Sprunt and ChamberIain 1970:333; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 193. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C throughout the Coastal Plain and Piedmont; LT in the 

mountains up to approximately 2500 feet ('750 m), and 

generafly absent above 3000 feet (900 rn). Non-migratory. 

CIDGNTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- widespread in woodlands and forests; most 

common in bottomland hardwoods, but also common in 

upland deciduous woods, pine forests, and residential woodlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding and wintering- mature woodlands or forests of 

many types with some dead trees or stubs for nesting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(2) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, l(1) 

shrub-seedling loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, l(1) saplingpoletimber o&-hickory, 8,1(33) sawtimber oak-hickory, 9.415) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 10(8) sawtimber 

longleaf pine-slash pine, 1214) saplinglpoletimber oak-gumcypress. Recorded on 527 of 888 BBS routes in the reglon, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 51 birds, overall mean 

5.79rt7.29 birdslroute, total of route means 5145 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(5) shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, lo(?) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 15(1) sapling/poletimber iongleaf 

pine-scrub oak, 1612) sapling/poletimber live oak maritime, 

26(1) saplindpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to early July, 

with the peak from late April to mid-May. Nest in cavities 

dug by the birds dead trees or branches in woodland. Occasionally they nest in abandoned holes dug by other specles. 

Eggs are generally 4 or 5 to a cictch, rarely as few as 3 or as 

many as 8. 

FOOD HABITS 

The birds pick and probe for food on trunks and branches 

of trees, preferably hardwoods. Insects and insect larvae are 

the chief foods, but fruits, nuts, and berries are also consumed. They occasionally feed on the ground. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk probing insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939:237; Burleigh 1958:35 1,353; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:236; DeGraaf et al. 1980:272; Ehrlich et al. 1988:340; 

Forbush and May 1939997; Imhof 1976:250; James and 

Neal 1986:220; Ki.oli et al. 1980; Lowery 1974:4 1 1 ; Mengel 

1965295; Monroe et al. 1988:35; Oberholser 1974(1):5 10; 

Potter et al. 1980:216; Robbins et al. 1986:34; Robinson 

1990:134; Root 1988:137; Scott et al. 1977:36; Sprunt 

1954:274; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:332; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 192. 
id Sapsucker 

PROTECTION STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

State Iisted as "in need of management" in Tennessee, Breeding- dead trees in or near high elevation deciduous 

Signlficantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored by Virginia forest. Winterlag- woodlands of many types, mainly in 

Natural Heritage Program, West Virginia Natural Heritage hardwoods. 

Program. Forest Service sensitive on Jefferson National 

Forest. SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS Recorded as Visitor in grassiforb mixed pine-hardwood. 

Breeding- mostly U and local, mainly over 4000 feet SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

(1200 m) in the Southern Appalachians. Wintering- FC to 

C over the entire Southeast. Fall migration mainly from late 0.5(1) saplinglpoietimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

September to mid-October; spring migration generally from 9.5(2) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 16(1) saplate March to late April. linglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 

I I 

WINTERING 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to mid-June, 

with the peak probably from mid-May to late May (few nests 

with eggs have been found in the Southeast). Nest cavities 

are dug by the birds in dead trees or stubs, and are generally 

in open situations. Eggs are usually 5 or 6, with 4 or 7 being 

frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Sapsuckers feed on insects and grubs in the bark of trees, 

drill holes in bark to feed on cambium and sap, and also pick 

berries and nuts in winter. They rarely feed on the ground. 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk probing omnivore. 

PRIMARY HABITATS REFERENCES 

Breeding- high elevation deciduous forests that are open Bent 1939: 126- 153; ~~~l~i~h 1958:356, 358; D~G~~

and 

with dead trees, such as near burns, diseased areas, woodland Rudis 986:237; D~G~~~~ et al. 1980:276; E~~~~ and 

borders, and blowdowns. Wintering- in various habitats; Hatcher 1982(A):81; ~h~.i~h et al. 1988:348; ~~~b~

and 

mainly in open deciduous woods. groves, residential areas, May 1939:299; Imhof 1976:252: James and Neal 1986:220; and parks; not common in deep, dense woods. Lawrence 1967; Lowery 1974:4 13: Mengel 1965:299; 

Pvfonroe et al. 1988:35; Oberholser 1974(1):5 18; Potter et al. 

1980:217; Rappole et al. 1983: 198; Robbins et al. 1986:34; 

Robinson 1990: 134; Root 1988: 138; Scott et al. 1977:42; 

Sprunt 1954:27'7; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:335; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 194; Verner and Boss 1980: 180. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C over most of the regton, but only FC in the mountains; 

generally only FC in Florida, becoming C" in the southern 

half of that state. Essentially non-migratory. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

A11 seasons- a wide variety of woodlands; inhabit middle- aged and mature woods, from uplands to lowlands; 

prefer hardwoods to conifers. Common in woodlots, groves, 

parks, and residential areas as well as in forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- middle-aged to rnature trees in many situations; dead trees or stubs necessary for nesting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.3(2) sawt~mber lobiolly pine-shortleaf plne, 0.3(4) 

shrub-seedling tnixed pine-hxdwood. 5.7(10) sawtirnber 

cove hardwood?;. 6.1433) snwtirnber oak-hickory, 8.7t3) 

saw timber eim-ash-uottonfi ood. Recctrded on 393 of 888 

BBS routes tn the region, 1966- 1985; maxlrnurn route mean 

25 brrds, overall mean 1.785 2.48 btrdsiroute, total of route 

means f 578 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 ( 1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 113) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash, l(3) sawtimber live oak maritime, l(1) shrub-seedling Virginia pine-pitch pine, 0.6(8) 

shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 4.10 sawtimber 

oak-hickory, 8(1) saplingipoletimber oak- hickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early April to late May, 

with a peak from mid-April to early May. Nest cavities are 

dug by the birds in dead trees or stubs; frequently excavated 

in stubs of living trees. Like most woodpecker cavities, nest 

holes are at medium height from the ground (30-50 feet or 

9- 15 m). Eggs are usually 4 or 5, rarely 3 or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

They probe in bark of trunks and twigs for insects and 

larvae in both hardwoods and conifers. Nuts and berries are 

infrequently taken. Downies feed on smaller twigs and in 

smaller trees than other woodpeckers 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal or bush probing insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939:35-7 1 ; Burleigh 1958:360-363; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:238; DeCraaf et al. 1980:280; Ehrlich et a1. 

1988:350; Forbush and May 1939:302; Imhof 1976253; 

Jarnes and Neal 1986:22 1 ; Kroll et 31. 1980; Lawrence 1967; 

Lowery 1974:313; Mengel 1965:302; Monroe st al. 

1958:35; Oberholser 1974(1):522: Potter et al. 1980:219; 

Robbinset al. 1986:33; Robinson 1990: 135; Root 19813: 13 1; 

Scott et ill. 197'795; Sprunt 1953:280; Sprunt and Chamberfain 1970:-337, 318; Steurxt :tnd Robbins 1958: 196; Verner 

and Boss 1980: 183. 
Hairy 

Picods vilostfs 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by Florida Natural 

Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

FC in the mountains and most of the Piedmont; generally 

IJ over most of the Coastal Plain; especially scarce in southern Florida, Essentially non-migratory. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- mature forests of many types; mainly in 

deciduous or mixed woods, but do occur in spruce-fir, 

hemlocks, and pines; not partial to either uplands or lowlands, but generally scarce in woods near human habitation. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

A11 seasons--- mature, and usually extensive, forest; dead 

trees or stubs required for nesting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.7(3) sapling/poletimber oak-gum- cypress, 5.3(8) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 5.5(20) sawtimber oak-hickory , 

10(2) sawtirnber white pine-hemlock. Recorded on 315 af 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 4 birds, overall mean 0.20M.41 birdslroute, total of 

route means 18 1 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(1) saplingfpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 1(1) sapling poletimber oak-hickory, 1(1) sawtirnber live oak martime, l(1) saplinglpoletimber Virginia pine-pitch pine, 5(1) 

saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, 5(3) sawtimber 

elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from early April to mid-May, with the 

peak in late April and early May. Nest cavities are dug by 

the birds in dead trees or stubs, and are usually well hidden 

in the forest interior. Commonly 4 eggs are laid, but 5 are 

regular, as well. 

FOOD HABITS 

Very similar to most other woodpeckers; generally probe 

for insects and larvae on bark of trunks and limbs, favoring 

deciduous trees. A few berries and nuts are consumed in cold 

water. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk probing ~nsectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939: 13-44; Burleigh 1958:358-360; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:239; DeCraaf et al. 1980:2'78; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:352; Forbush and May 1939:300; Irnhof 19'76:253; 

James and Neal 1986:22 1 ; Kale 1978:99; Kroll et al. 1980; 

Lawrence 1967; Lowery 1974:4 13; Mengel 1965:299; 

Monroe et al. 1988:35; Oberholser 1974(1):521; Potter et al. 

1980:218; Robinson 1990: 135; Root 1988: 142; Scott et a'l. 

1977:44; Sprunt 1954:279; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:336; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 196; Verner and Boss 

1980: 1 82. 
kaded Wood ker 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Endangered. State listed ds Endangered 

in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, 

Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South 

Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia; and as Threatened 

in Florida. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) sapling/poletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 1.5(2) 

sawtirnber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

2(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash plne. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

In the Coastal Plain; U to locally FC from southeastern 

North Carolina to northern Florida, west to Texas; R further 

inland. Local, non-migratory and very much dependent 

upon public lands. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Strictly in open pinewoods; prefer longleaf pine, but also 

use loblolly, shortleaf, and slash pines. Habitat is generally 

of fairly mature trees with little or no rnidstory (resembling 

a park-like stand). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature and open pinewoods; and some trees must have 

proper heartwood conditions for nest cavities. The birds 

prefer conditions of minimal understory. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season is from early April to late May, with 

the peak from late April to mid-May. The nest cavity is 

unique: it is always in the trunk of a live pine. The birds dig 

their own cavity, and they then peck small holes around the 

exterior of the nest hole to cause sap to run. Eggs are usually 

3 or 4, rarely 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

The birds pick and probe for insects and larvae in the bark 

of pines (very seldom on hardwoods). They feed fairly high 

up on the trunks of the trees, as well as on large branches. 

Nuts and berries are rarely taken. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk probing insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939:72; Burleigh 1958: 363; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):11; Ehrlich et al. 1988:356; Forbush and May 

1939:304; Hooper et al. 1980; Irnhof 1976:254; Jackson et 

al. 1979; James and Neal 1986222; Kale 1978: 1 1 ; Lennartz 

and McClure 1979; Lowery 1974:4 15; Mengel 1965:306; 

Monroe et al. 1988:35; Oberholser 1974(1):526; Patterson 

and Robertson 1981; Potter et al. 1980:220; Robinson 

1990:136; Root 1988:143; Scott et al. 1977:49; Sprunt 

1954:280; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:339; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958: 197; Thompson 197 1. 
PROTECTION STATUS: 

Federal1 y listed as Endangered, state I isted in virtually all 

states within former range. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS: 

Permanent Resident- commonly believed to be extirpated entirely from former range in continental United 

States. A tiny population currently is known in the mountains in eastern Cuba. 

PRIMARY HABITATS: 

Associated with extensive tracts (1500 acres, 300 halpair) 

of primarily old-growth forests. Bottomland forests are most 

commonly associated with these birds, although Jackson (in 

litt.) believes pine forests also formed habitat for them. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: 

Extensive areas of old-growth forests, where dead and 

dying trees are frequent. Tanner (1942) presents suggestions 

for land management in which timber harvest and Ivory 

billed Woodpecker occurrence are simultaneously possible. 

SAMPLE DENSITIES: 

Not recorded on a BBS or BBC in the region. Tanner 

(1942) estimated 1 pr/15 km2 of suitable habitat. 

REPRODUCTION: 

Breeding season was apparently from January-April and 

variable at any particular site. Nests were built in a dead tree 

or dead part of a living tree in great variety of species, usually 

above 13 m height. Mean recorded clutch size 2.6-2.9 (range 

1-5, n=18). 

FOOD HABITS: 

Larvae of wood-boring insects, particularly of Cerambycids, Buprestids, and Elaterids that feed in cambium of large 

recently-dead limbs of live trees and boles of recently-dead 

trees. Tanner (1942) noted that preferred prey of Ivory-billed 

Woodpeckers were much less abundant than those Pileated 

Woodpeckers. Fruits and mast were also taken. 

GUILD: 

Cavity nesting, arboreal probing insectivore. 

REFERENCES: 

Tanner 1942:l-110. 
Northern F 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C over most of the South; FC at lower and middle elevat~crns in the mountains, but scruce o\ er 3000 feet (1200 m). 

There is some movement of flickers into the Southeast in 

fall. They tend to be conspicuously more C on the coast in 

winter than in summer. Migration is generally in October 

and No~ember, and again in March and April. 

I WINTERING 

BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- prefer open woods and groves (generally 

hardwoods) in a variety of situations; wooded residential 

areas. woodland margins, groves in rural country, and many 

forest types. They are seldotn comrrlon in deep. extensive 

forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- open wotrds, groves, or scattered trees. with 

dead trees or poles for a nesting cavity. UJintering- open 

wc~ods and scattered trees. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

',).5(5":awt1inber longleat p~ne-slash ptne, 0.6~3) s;lwtrrttber cove hardwoocls, 3. ! (28) sa\$ timber mixed pine-hardkvood, 3(5) \:tpltngipolet~rnber mired ptne-hardivor,ci, h(3) 

sa\vtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 465 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 13 

birds, overall mean 1.39k2.05 birdslroute, total of route 

means 1239 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplingipoletimber bay swamp- pocosin, 0.5(14) 

grassiforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 0.5(1 j shrub-seedling t7irginia pine-pitch pine, 6.7(3) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 10(3) sawtimber iongleaf pine-slash pine, 25(3) 

sawtimber live oak maritime, 

Nesting season ranges from late March to mid-July, with 

a peak from late April to mid-May. Nests are cavities, dug 

by the birds, generally in dead trees, but sometimes in 

telephone poles or posts; the holes are usually high above 

the ground. Clutch size is commonly 6 to 8, ranging from 4 

to 10. 

FOOD HABITS 

Flickers feed commonly on ants, as well as other insects; 

berries and seeds are frequently taken in fall and winter. 

They probe for insects on tree trunks and limbs, but spend 

considerably time on the ground feeding on ants. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk or terrestrial probing insectivoreomnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939:259-308: Burleigh 1958:346-338; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:232; DeCraaf et al. 1980:268: Ehrlich et 31. 

1988:338: Forbush and Maj 1939:29 1; Irnhof 1976:218: 

James and Neal 1986:224: Lawrence 1967; Lowerj 

197-3:309: Mengel 1965:290; Monroe et al. 1988:36: Oberholser 1973(11:506, 508: Potter et al. 1980:2 13; Rnbbins et 

ill. 1986:32; Robtnson 1990: t 37: Root 1988: 135; Scott et al. 

1977:33; Sprunt 1(354:27 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

I970:328, 320: Stcktart 2nd Rcjbbtns 1958: 1900: Vernrr and 

Boss 1980: 176. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

FC in most of the Coastal Plain and mouneai ns; generally 

U to locally FC in the Piedmont. They areabsent from the 

higher mountains. Non-migratory . 

0.6(2) sapling/poletim"br Virglnia p~ne-pitch plne, 4(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-hiekory, 5.5(2) saplinglpoletimber live 

oak maritime. Recorded on 426 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 19 birds, overall 

mean 1.09t-1.95 birdsiroute, total of route means 968 birds. 

BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- mature and extensive forests, primarily in 

deciduous forests. Occur in both deep woods and swamps 

as well as in rather open and upland forests; seem most 

numerous in riverbottom hardwoods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding and wintering- mature and extentsive forests 

with dead trees for nesting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sawtimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine,4jf ) sawtirnber live oak maritime, 7.2(10) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to late May, 

with the peak from mid-April to late April. Nests are large 

cavities, dug by the birds in dead trees, usually over 30 feet 

(9 m) from the ground; mainly in forests where well hidden. 

Clutch size is commonly 4, with 3 or 5 also frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

They feed on the trunks of large trees, for the most part, 

but are frequently seen also on fallen logs. They probe in the 

wood for ants, insects, and insect larvae; some fruits and 

berries are taken in fall and winter. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk probing insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1939: 164- 194; Burleigh 1958:348; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:243; DeGraaf et al. 1980:270; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:360; Forbush and May 1939:294; Imhof 1976:249; 

James and Neal 1986:225; Kroll et al. 1980; Lowery 

1974:410; Mengel 1965293; Monroe et al. 1988:36; Oberholser 1974(1):509; Potter et al. 1980:214; Robbins et al. 

1986:34; Robinson 1990: 137; Root 1988: 147; Scott et al. 

1977:35; Sprunt 1954:273; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:33 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 19 1 ; Verner and Boss 

1980: 177. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Threatened in North Carolina. ftlonitored by 

Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program, West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive on George Washington National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to VR everywhere; mainly confined to the 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park; mostly above 5000 

feet (1501) m). Apparently more numerous 50 or more years 

ago. Winter south of the United States. Arrival- early May 

to mid-May; departure- late August to late September. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

High elevation coniferous forest with openings and dead 

trees. 

The breeding season is poorly known in the South, but is 

probably from late May to early July. The peak is presumably in early and mid-June. Nests are built on horizontal 

limbs of conifers, generally fairly high up in the trees. Clutch 

size is almost always 3; 4 eggs are rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

These flycatchers eat flying insects strictly, especially bees 

and wasps. The birds sally after the insects from conspicuous perches near tree tops, particularly dead branches in 

conifers. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, arboreal hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:288; Burleigh 1958:385; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986244; DeGraaf et al. 1980:304; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):97; Ehrlich et al. 1988:376; Forbush and May 

1939:320; Imhof 2976:27 1 ; James and Neal 1986:227; 

Lowery 1974:436; Mengel 1965:317; Monroe et al. 

1988:36; Oberholser 1974(11):563; Potter et al. 1980:234; 

Rappole et al. 1983:205; Robbins et al. 1986:39; Robinson 

1990: 138; Sprunt 1954:299; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:358; Stewart and Robbins 1958:208; Verner and Boss 

1980: 196. 

Favor openings and edges of coniferous forests, mainly in 

spruce-fir; generally in areas where dead trees are present 

(from disease or fire) above 5000 feet (1500 m). 
Eastern Wood-P 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over nearly a11 the Southeast, up to 3000 feet 

(900 m); FC up to 4500 feet (1 350 m); seldnrn above 4500 

feet, IXinter south of the United States. Arrive from midApril to early May; depart from early October to late October. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

A variety of open to medium-growth forests and woodlots; 

favor neither pines nor hardwoods; preferred habitat is a 

rather open, mature woodland in a rather dry situation. 

Inhabit open pines, parks, wooded residential areas, as well 

as remote forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Open to medium-growth woods, with few other specific 

requirements. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1.413) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 9.3(28) sawtimber oakhickory, 9.5(11) saplinglpoletimber oak .hickory, 1 l(3) 

sawtimber lobloily pine-shortleaf pine. Recorded on 434 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 27 birds, overall mean 2.791t4.37 birdslroute, total of 

route means 2475 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from mid-May to mid-July, with the 

peak from early June to mid-June. Nests are built well out 

from the trunks of hardwoods or conifers, on horizontal 

limbs, and generally 15-50 feet (4-15 m) from the ground. 

Clutch size is usually 3, though 2 or 4 are frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Pewees sally after flying lnseets from a twig of a tree. Most 

foraging occurs at the canopy level; occasionally hover at 

%eaves and twigs to take insects. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, arboreal hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:266; Burleigh 1958:384; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986245; DeCraaf et al. 1980:302; Ehrlich et al. 1988:376; 

Forbush and May 1939:319; Imhof 1976270; James and 

Neal 1986:227; Lowery 1974:435; Mengel 1965:3 16; Monroe et al. 1988:36; Oberholser 1974(11):561; Potter et a1. 

1980:233; Rappole et al. 1983:205; Robbins et al. 198639; 

Robinson 1990:139; Root 1988:148; Sprunt 1954:297; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:357; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:206. 
Acadian F ycatcher 

Emdona virsens 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C nearly throughout; occur in the mountains 

up to 4000 feet (1200 m). Winter south of the United States. 

Spring arrival- early April to early May; fall departureearly September to early October. 

r ACCIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH "( i I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

hlainly in deciduous forests near streams; favored habitats 

are bottomland hardwoods and rich deciduous forests along 

small streams. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Moist deciduous forests with a moderate understory, generally near a stream. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(1) shrub-seedling lablolly plne- shortleaf pine, 3f 1) sawtimber live oak maritime, 28(5) sawtimber oak-gum- cypress, 43j10) sawtimber cove hardwood. Recorded on 340 

of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 26 birds, overall mean 1.1 1k2.62 birdslroute, total of 

route means 988 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late April to late July, with the 

peak from late May to mid-June. Nests are built on horizontal or down-hanging branches of deciduous trees in forests, 

usually over a stream. Typical nest is 10-15 feet (3-4 m) 

above the ground. Clutch size is generally 3. with 2 or 4 

being somewhat rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Acadians generally sit near a stream on a branch 10-40 feet 

(3- 12 m) from the ground, beneath the hardwood canopy, 

and sally after flying insects. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, arboreal hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942: 183; Burleigh 1958:379; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:247; DeCraaf et al. 1980:294; Ehrlich et al. 1988:386; 

Forbush and May 1939:316; Imhof 1976:267; James and 

Neal 1986:228; Lowery 1974:432; Mengel 1965:3 13; Monroe et al. 1988:36; Oberholser 1974(11):552; Potter et al. 

1980:230; Rappole et al. 1983:202; Robbins et al. 1986:39; 

Robinson 1990: 140; Sprunt 1954:295; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:355; Stewart and Robbins 1958:203. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Significantly Rare in North Carolina, Poorly 

Known in Alabama. klonitored by Tennessee Natural Heritage Program, Virginia NaturaI Heritage Program. Forest 

Service listed as sensitive on George Washington and Jefferson National Forests. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R and quite local, at elevations above 3500 

feet (1050 m), known to occur in summer at Mt. Rogers in 

Virginia; and in North Carolina in Watauga County, at Roan 

Mt., and in southern Haywood County. These recent colonizers have begun breeding in the region within the past 15 

years. Winter south of the United States. Arrive late, probably from mid-May to late May: departure is probably from 

mid-August to mid-September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Two distinct habitats- high elevation bogs, with scattered 

shrubs and saplings, and high elevation shrub-sapling thickets in uplands. Occur in alders (Altzus crispa) on Roan Mt., 

as well as in spruce-fir saplings and blackbeny thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

High elevation (above 1050 m) shrub or sapling thickets. 

REPRODUCTION 

Essentially nothing is known of the breeding season in the 

Southeast, and no nest with eggs has been found in the 

region. The season probably extends from early June to 

early July. Nests are built in shrubs or saplings, within 10 

feet (3 m) of the ground. The usual clutch size is 3 or 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Essentially the same as the Willow Flycatcher. They sally 

out after flying insects in thickets and bogs. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:204; Burleigh 1958:38 1 ; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:248; Ehrlich et al. 1988:388; Forbush and May 

1939:3 17; Irnhof 1976:269; James and Neal 1986:230; 

Lowery 1974:434; Mengel 1965:3 14; Monroe et al. 

1988:37; Oberholser 1974(11):553; Potter et al. 1980:23 1 ; 

Rappole et aI. 1983:202; Robbins et al. 1986:39; Robinson 

1990: 140; Sprunt 1954:297: Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:356: Stewart and Robbins 1958:204. 
ycatcher 

PROTECTION STATUS: 

Forest Service sensitive on the Jefferson National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS: 

Breeding-- VR only in high mountains of southwest 

Virginia, such as Mount Rogers. Winter south of the United 

States. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: 

Moist moss covered openings in high elevation spruce-fir 

forests, may utilize root wads jvikhrotsj of fallen spruces for 

nesting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES: 

Not recorded on a BBS or BBC in the region. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS: 

Mainly in high elevation spruce-fir forests; favored habitats are moist openings in these forests with a rich groundcover of mosses. 

REPRODUCTION: 

The season extends from late May to late July. Nests in 

the primary breeding range to the north of the region are 

usually built in mats of mosses, on or only a meter or so 

above the ground, and frequently in the root masses (vikhrots) of upended spruce or fir trees. Clutch size is generally 

3 or 4, with 5 being somewhat rare. 

FOOD HABITS: 

Yellow-bellied Flycatchers are active foragers in low 

vegetation, where they take many spiders, as well as large 

numbers of Hymenoptera, particularly ants, and other insects. 

GUILD: 

Ground or bush nesting, bush or herbaceous gleaning or 

hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES: 

Bent 1942: 174; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:246; DeGraaf et 

al. 1980:292; Ehrlich et al. 1988:390; Forbush and May 

1939; Imhof 1976:267; James and Neal 1986:228; Monroe 

et al. 1988; Potter et al. 1980:229; Rappole et al. 1983:202; 

Robbins et al. 1986; Robinson 1990: 139; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:354; Stewart and Robbins 1958:202. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Poorly Known in Alabama. BI ue Listed by 

Tate (198 1). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Gommission, Georgia Freshwater VITetlands and Hentage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U to locally FC in mountain valleys along 

streams; quite R above 2000 feet (850 m ); R toVR, and local 

in the Piedmont, mostly in Virginia. Winter south of the 

United States. Arrive very late, generally from mid-May to 

late May; depart from mid-August to mid-September. 

CIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Generally in shrub thickets along streams or ponds in open 

country; favor alders and willows; seldom far from water. 

Also inhabit bogs, but to a lesser extent than streamside 

shrubbery. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Shrub or sapling thickets in open country, generally near 

water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.7(3) shmb-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 39(18) saplinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season is apparently from early June to late 

June, with a probable peak in early and mid-June (few nests 

with eggs have been found in the region). Nests are built in 

shrubs or small trees, usually 2-8 feet (6-3 m) from the 

ground, in thickets. The clutch size is 3 or 4, rarely 2. 

FOOD HABITS 

Sally after flying insects from shrubs and saplings in 

thickets, foraging entirely within 20 feet (6 m) of the ground. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942: 197; Burleigh 1958:38 1 ; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:249; DeGraaf et al. 1980:296; Ehrlich et al. 1988:388; 

Forbush and May 1939:317; Imhof 1976:267; James and 

Neal 1986:230; Lowery 1974:433; Mengel 1965:3 14; Monroe et al. 1988:37; Oberholser 1974(II):553: Potter et al. 

1980:230; Rappole et al. 1983:202; Robbins et al. 1986:39; 

Robinson 1990: 141 ; Sprunt 1954:297; Sprunt and Charnberiain 1970:356; Stewart and Robbins 1958:204; Verner 

and Boss 1980:191. 
st F her 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as mreatened by Kentucky Academy of Seiences and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage 

Inventory Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- very local, being U in many areas of the 

mountains, FC in some others, but C in only a few areas. 

Occur mainly between 2500-4500 feet (750- 1350 m). Wintering- R to U in extreme southern Florida; bulk of the 

breeding population winters south of the Unites States. 

Spring arrival- mid-April to early May; fall departuremid-September to early October. 

CIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor groves, open woods, streamside trees. 

woods in residential areas, and golf courses; mostly in rural, 

open country where scattered hardwoods are present. Avoid 

deep woods, and infrequent in conifers. Wintering- generally at the edge of hammocks and other woods, or in thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding--- open woods or goves in the mountains, but 

few strict requirements. Wintering- shrubs, saplings, or 

other bmshy places. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in grassfforb oak-hickory, 15(2) saplinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 13 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 10 birds, overall mean 0.02s.33 

birdsfroute, total of route means 16 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(3) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to mid-June, 

with the peak from late May to early June. Nests are built 

on horizontal limbs, well out from the trunks of hardwood 

trees (rarely conifer), generally 15-25 feet (4-8 m) off the 

ground. The clutch size is most commonly 4, but 3, 5, and 

6 also occur. 

FOOL) HABITS 

Essentially only flying insects, caught in flight from a 

perch. The perch is usually a branch of a tree in a fairly open 

situation, and foraging (in the summer) is mainly 15-50 feet 

(4- 15 m) from the ground. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, arboreal hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:2 13; Burleigh 1958:382; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:250; DeCraaf et al. 1980:300; Ehrlich et al. 1988:384; 

Forbush and May 1939:3 18; Imhof 1976:270; James and 

Neal 1986:233; Lowery 1974:434; Mengel 19653 15; Monroe et al. 1988:37; Oberholser 1974(11):555; Potter et al. 

1980:232; Rappole et al. 1983:203; Robbins et al. 1986:39; 

Robinson 1990: 142; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:356; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958:205. 
Eastern Ph 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C in the mountains; mostly FC east of 

the mountains. Wintering- generally FC over the Coastal 

Plain and most of the Piedmont; rather U in the mountains. 

Migration mainly in March, and October - November. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- usually, but not necessarily, near water; the 

preferred habitats are near small bridges over creeks, in 

farmyards, near cliffs and waterfalls. Wintering- widespread in open or partly open stream margins, farmyards, 

hedgerows, stubble fields, wood margins, and even residential areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- ledges, such as on buildings, under bridges, or 

on cliffs; no other essential requirements. Wintering- no 

essential requirements, but usually in open habitats. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) sawt~mber elm-ash-cottonwood, 8.3(7) sawtimber 

oak-hickory , 9(2) shrub-seed1 ing mixed pine-hardwood. 

Recorded on 331 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 13 birds, overall mean 

1.03S.05 birdslroute, total of route means 9 12 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 (I) Everglades, 1(1) shrub-seedling southern scrub oak, 

l(1) saplingfpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, l(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, l(1) shrub-seedling Virginia 

pine-pitch pine, 1(2) saplinglpoletimber Virginia pine-pitch 

pine, l(5) grassfforb mixed pine-hardwood, 1(3) grassfforb 

oak-hickory, 7(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 

14(2) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season ranges from late March to mid-July, 

with the peak from mid-April to late May. Nests are built in 

crannies or on ledges in sheltered places; most commonly 

underneath bridges over streams, but also on rafters of barns 

and farm houses, on cliff ledges, and other spots. Five is the 

most common clutch size, with a range from 3 to 8. 

FOOD HABITS 

Sally for flying insects from a perch, such as a bare twig 

or telephone wire, usually during the warmer months; do 

much feeding from the ground, dropping onto prey from a 

perch, especially in winter. 

GUILD 

Ledge nesting, hawking or pouncing insectivore at variable heights. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942: 140; Burleigh 1958:376; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:25 1 ; DeGraaf et al. 1980:290; Ehrlich et al. 1988:378; 

Forbush and May 19393 13; Irnhof 1976:264; James and 

Neal 1986:233; Lowery 1974:430; Mengel 1965:3 1 I ; Monroe et al. 1988:37; Oberholser 1974(11):547; Potter et al. 

1980:228; Rappole et al. 1983:201; Robbins et a1. 1986:36; 

Robinson 1990: 143; Root 1988: 149; Sprunt 1954:294; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:353; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:201. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter-Uncommon but regular in small numbers along 

the western Gulf Coast in Louisiana, Texas, and southwestern Arkansas, mid-September to March; Rare farther east 

into southwestern Tennessee, Mississippi, coastal Alabama, 

and the Florida panhandle. 

eZZdm BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter-Riparian woodland of cottonwood and willow, 

or scattered shrubs and trees near water, in a variety of forest 

types; the water is often a watering hole or farm pond made 

by people. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter-"the periphery of a small pond that has at least a 

few willows on its edge." (Lowery 1974:437) 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Vermilion Flycatchers glean and hawk for insects in the 

outer foliage of shrubs and small trees. 

GUILD 

Herb, bush or arboreal gleaning, hawking or pouncing 

insectivore 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 197351; Bent 1942:302; Burleigh 1958:387; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:382; Imhof 1976:272; James and Neal 

1986:235; Lowery 1974:437; Mengel 1965:3 18; Monroe et 

al. 1988:38; Oberholser 1974 (II):565; Potter et al. 

1980:235; Rappole et al. 1983:205; Robinson 1990:144; 

Root 1988: 15 1; Sprunt 1954299; Sprunt and chamberlain 

1970:614; Sutton 1967:350. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter-Very Rare, early October early April, In the Winter- Not presently known. 

Mississippi River Delta region of Louisiana and along the 

Texas Gulf Coast. They may also winter in the Florida Keys. REPRODUCT~ON 

Do not breed in the region. 

Ash-throated Flycatchers are primarily insectivorous but 

also consume fruit. Most of the foraging is hawking from a 

perch after such aerial prey as bees, wasps, and ants; they 

glean foliage for caterpillars and other food as well. During 

the winter the birds are usually observed below 2 m, and 

frequently glean rather than hawk for insect prey. 

GUILD 

Bush or arboreal hawking or glean~ng insectivore or ornnivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:128; Ehrlich et al. 1988:372; Irnhof 1976:262; 

PRIMARY HABITATS Lowery 1974:430; Murphy 1982; Oberholser 1974 (II):545; 

Potter et al. 1980:228; Rappole et al. 1983:201, 459; RobThese birds are found in coastal Live Oak (Q~ercus vir- bins et al, 1986:36; Robinson 1g90: 144; Root 1988: 150; 

g~rrinna) thickets, mattes, and chenieres during the winter, scott et al, 1977~57; sprunt 1954:293; Stewart and Robbins 

and in arid lands during the breeding season. They may also 1958:201; Sutton 1967:337; verner and B~~~ 1980: 188. 

use mangroves. 
Great Crested F her 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the Coastal Plain; FC to C in the Piedmont; U to PC in the lower mountains, but generally absent 

above 4500 feet (1 350 m), Wintering- U to FC in southern 

Florida, mainly at the southern tip and Keys; majority of the 

breeding population winters south of Florida. Spring mival---- late Mxch to late April; fall departure- mid-September to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- medium-growth to somewhat open woods 

and forest; occur in hardwoods, mixed woods, or pines (no 

clear preference); also found in groves and wooded residential areas, but generally scarce in dense forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- woodlands or forests, generally somewhat 

open, with a suitable cavity for a nest. Wintering- a wide 

of woodlands and forests. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

mzitlme, 15(5) saplingIpoletimbr mixed pine-hardwod, 

25(4) sawtimber o&-gum-cypress, Recorded on 535 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 

43 birds, overall man 3.7 135.58 birdstroute, total of route 

means 3295 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sapling/poletirnber live o& maritime,7(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 7.3(6) saplingtpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late March (in Florida) to early 

July, with the peak from early May to early June. These 

flycatchers nest in vacant cavities. Generally these cavities 

are old woodpecker holes in dead trees or stubs, but they 

also nest in bird boxes, natural cavities, and even mailboxes. 

Nests are lined with twigs and often include a shed snakeskin. The clutch size is usually 5 or 6, with 4, 7, or 8 eggs 

rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Varied; sally after flying insects from a branch, generally 

in the canopy; hover at vegetation to take caterpillars md 

other insects; occasionally take fruits and berries. Do not 

hunt from exposed perches. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942: 106- 122; Burleigh 1958:373-376; DeCrataf and 

Rudis 1986:252; DeCraaf et al. 1980:288; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:370; Forbush and May 1939:3 1 1 ; Imhof 1976:262; 

James and Neal 1986:235; Lowery 1974:428; Mengel 

1965:3 10; Monroe et al. 1988:38; Oberholser 1974(IE):542; 

Potter et al. 1980~227; Rappole et al. 1983:2110; Robbins et 

ai. 1986:36; Robinson 1990: 144; Root 1988: 15 1 ; Scott et al. 

2(3) sawtlmber loblolly ptne-shortleaf pine, 2.3(10) sap- 197755; Sprunt 1954:291-294; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

Iingipoletimber oak-hickory, 12(2) sawtimber live oak 1970351,352; Stewm and Robbins 1958: 199. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter-Occasional and Very Rare. late November-late Winter-Riparian woodland of a variety of types, and 

January, along the Texas coast, in southeastern Louisiana in coastal live oak (Quercus virginiano) thickets. mottes, and 

the Mississippi River delta, and extreme south Florida. chenieres. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter-Not presently known. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Insects and possibly some fruit. These birds are the subtropical counterparts of Great Crested Flycatchers (M. crinrtus). 

GUILD 

Hawking insectivore at variable heights 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942: 123, 127; Ehrlich et al. 1988:372; Lowery 

1974:430; Murphy 1982; Oberholser 1974 (II):544; Rappole et al. 1983:201,459; Scott et al. 197756. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Small numbers winter in the southern half of Florida, 

mainly along the east coast and in the Keys. Breed mainly 

in the western United States; occur in fall (late September 

to November) along the Atlantic coast. Fall arrival in southern Florida is mid-October; depart in early April. 

CIDENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Open country. Usually on telephone wires, fences, or other 

exposed perches in the vicinity of fields, pastures, and other 

open spots. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive open country with plenty of exposed perches. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Most foraging is done by sallying after flying insects, but 

they frequently drop to the ground to feed on insects. 

GUILD 

Hawking or pouncing insectivore at variable helghts. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:57; Burleigh 1958:37 1 ; Ehrlich et al. 1988:364; 

Forbush and May 1939:310; Imhof 1976:260; James and 

Neal 1986:236; Lowery 1974:424; Monroe et al. 1988:38; 

Oberholser 1974(11):536; Potter et al. 1980:225; Rappole et 

al. 1983:199; Robbins et al. 1986:36; Robinson 1990:145; 

Root 1988:152, 284; Sprunt 1954:289; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:349; Stewart and Robbins 1958: 199; Verner 

and Boss 1980: 1 87. 
Eastern Kingbird 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of the Coastal Plain and Piedmont; U in mountain valleys, and generally absent above 

3000 feet (900 rn). Winter south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- late March to Mid-April, rarely to late April; fall 

departure- mid-August to late September. A heavy fall 

migration occurs along the coast. 

I ~fza@z?J BREEDING 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Birds of open country. Prefer areas with scattered trees, 

fences, telephone wires, and fields. Groves and roadsides 

are typical habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Open country with scattered trees, telephone wires, or 

other perches. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(2) sapIing/poletimber Iongleaf pine-slash pine, l(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 8(2) grass/forb mixed pinehardwood, 15(2) sapling poletimber (edge) 

eIm-ash-cottonwood (small plot), 10(3) grassfforb bay 

swamp-pocosin. Recorded on 523 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 36 birds, overall 

mean 3.32k4.65 birdslroute, total of route means 2945 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season is from early May to mid-July, with the 

peak from late May to mid-June. The nests are typical cup 

nests built in trees growing in the open, usually 15-25 feet 

(4-8 m) high. They frequently are well out from the trunks 

on horizontal limbs. The normal clutch is 3, sometimes 4 or 

5, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Kingbirds dart after flying insects from a conspicuous 

perch in a tree, on a fence, or on a telephone wire. In addition 

to flying insects, a few caterpillars and berries are gleaned 

frorn leaves and twigs. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, hawking insectivore at variable heights. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942: 1 1 ; Burleigh 1958:367; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:253; DeGraaf et al. 1980:286; Ehrlich et al. 192381360; 

Forbush and May 1939:308; Imhof 1976:257; James and 

Neal 1986:236; Lowery 1974:42 1; Mengel 1965:309; Monroe et al. 1988:38; Oberholser 1974(11):533; Potter et al. 

1980:224; Rappole et al. 1983:198; Robbins et al. 1986:36; 

Robinson 1990: 146; Root 1988: 152; Sprunt 1954:286; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:347; Stewart and Robbins 

1958: 198. 
Gray Kingb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the southern half of Florida, particufarly 

in the Key. Decreasing in abundance northward; thus, Rand 

local in northwestern Florida and the coasts of Georgia and 

South Carolina. Winter south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- Iate March to mid-April; fall departure- Iate 

August to late September. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Scattered trees, shrubs, or thickets not far from salt water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early April to late July, 

with the peak in mid-May and late May. The cup nests are 

usually 3-20 feet (1-6 m) from the ground, and are placed in 

thickets, especially in mangroves. The clutch size is generally 3, with 4 infrequent and 5 rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Sally after insects from a perch, or glean insects from 

vegetation while hovering. Flying insects are the most common food items. Berries and fruit are also taken. 

GUILD 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Open or semi-open areas near the coast; prefer the edges 

of mangroves and other thickets where plenty of perches 

exist; also occur in scattered trees in residential areas, wood 

margins, golf courses, and rural country. 

Bush or tree nesting, hawking insectivore at variable 

heights. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:29; Burleigh 1958:369; Ehrlich et al. 1988:362; 

Forbush and May 1939:3 10; Imhof 1976:258; Lowery 

1974:422; Potter et al. 1980:224; Rappole et al. 1983: 198; 

Sprunt 1954:287; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:348. 
Scissor-tailed F ~ycatc her 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breedingxommon throughout Texas amd Oklahoma, 

the birds are also conspicuous if not as numerous in western 

Louisiana and Arkansas, Extralimital breedi n grecords exist 

for Mississippi (Jackson et al. 1975), Saugh Carolina 

(Mancke 1982), and Tennessee (Robinsom 219918) ; breeding 

season records exist for Alabama. Winter-Rare af ong the 

Gulf Coast and in southern Florida. 

CCIDENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding-Open areas, coastal prairies, a~gxicultural lands, 

pastures, roadsides, areas with scattered treees. Wi nter habitats are similar. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding-Grass-forb stage habitats in a ~ari ety of types 

associated with some elevated perches, su c h as scattered 

trees, fences, powerlines, and scattered t:-rees for nesting. 

Winter requirements are similar. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded densities range from Visitor to 0.5 pairsl40 ha 

in open canopy riparian woodland, sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood (3 censuses), 0.6140 ha in virgin tallgrass prairie (1 

census), Visitor to 5 pairs140 ha in pasture with scattered oak 

and shortleaf pine sawtimber trees (2 censuses); all in eastern Oklahoma, where this is the state bird. 

REPRODUCTION 

The birds build their flimsy open cup nests In open country 

at a height of 5-80 ft (2-25 m), often below 15 ft (5 m), in a 

shrub, tree, or building or other structure. Clutches are 3-6, 

usually 4-5, laid in early April to late July. Scissor-tails are 

vigorous in defense of their nests against potential predators 

such as hawks, crows, and others. 

FOOD HABITS 

Scissor-tails are almost exclusively insectivorous and take 

large prey such as grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and others. Much foraging is done by sallying from a perch after 

airborne quarry, but the birds pounce on or glean terrestrial 

prey as well. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, hawking insectivore at variable 

heights. 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:48; Bent 1942:82; Burleigh 1958:372; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:368; Forbush and May 1939:3 1 1 ; Hamel 

et al. 1982:312; Imhof 1976:261; Jackson et al. 1975; James 

and Neal 1986:238; Lowery 1974:425; Mancke 1982; 

Mengel 1 965:5 1 8; Monroe et al. 1988:38; Oberholser 1974 

(II):540; Potter et al. 1980:226; Rappole et al. 1983:200; 

Robbins et al. 1986:36; Robinson 1990: 146; Root 1988: 152; 

Sprunt 1954:290; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:350. 61 3; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958: 199; Sutton 1967:333. 
Horned Lark. 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C over most of the Virginia Piedmont 

and Coastal Plain; generally U and local in the Piedmont of 

North Caolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; R to U in most 

of the mountains. Wintering- FC to C over most of Virginia; FC in parts of northern North Carolina, but generally 

U southward, Fall mival in October and November, and 

spring departure mainly in March. Erratic in migration, 

depending on the severity of the winter (more numerous in 

southern parts in cold winters). 

CIDENTAL LOW YEDlUY HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Always in short grass or bare ground habitats. Breedingmainly at airports, large plowed fields, and grazed pastures; 

also around extensive lawns. Wintering- most occur in 

pfowed fields, but also in dunes, short grass pastures, lawns 

and other bare ground habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

A11 seasons- extensive area of bare ground or short grass. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1.8(6) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood. Recorded on 159 

of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 343 birds, overall mean 2.3 1rfi17.55 birdslroute, total 

of route means 2055 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

3.7(10) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 90(7) grasslforb 

oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from early March to early July, with 

the peak from early April to mid-May. Nest sites are bare 

spots on the ground, frequently next to stones, dirt clods, or 

clumps of grass. Four eggs are most common, but 3 or 5 are 

not unusual. 

FOOD HABITS 

Larks feed exclusively on the ground. In summer they 

glean insects and other invertebrates from grass or the 

ground, but in winter they take mostly weed seeds. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942320-37 1 ; Burleigh 1958:389; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986254; DeGraaf et al. 1980:306; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:396; Forbush and May 1939:321; Imhof 1976:272; 

Jams and Neal 1986:240; Lowery 19'74:438; Mengel 

1965:3 18; Monroe et al. 1988:38; Oberholser 1974(11):568; 

Potter et al. 1980:235; Robbins et al. 1986:39; Robinson 

1990: 147; Root 1988: 153; Sprunt 1954:301; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:359, 360; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:208; Verner and Boss 1980: 197. 
Purple Martin 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1981). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over much of the Coastal Plain, but mostly 

FC in the Piedmont; U to FC in the Southern Appalachians. 

More numerous in the western than the eastern parts of the 

region. Not widespread, as they are restricted to areas where 

proper nest sites are available. Winter south of the United 

States. Arrive in Florida from late January to mid-February, 

and by mid-March in Virginia; depart very early, mainly 

mid-August to early October. 

ACCIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 

Lc.2 t'2Ta BREEDING 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Cavities in open country, preferably multi-celled ones 

such as martin houses and gourds. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in nine habitats. Recorded on 5 12 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 128 birds, overall mean 7.69k13.52 birdslroute, total 

of route means 6828 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSlf IES 

1(1) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late March to early July, with the 

peak from mid-April to late May. The nest is built in acavity, 

mainly in martin houses and gourds. Martins are highly 

colonial, and pairs nest in very close proximity to each other. 

The clutch size is usually 4 or 5, with a range of 3 to 9. 

FOOD HABITS 

Martins capture insects in sustained flight, frequently foraging several hours before dawn, as well as during daylight. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, aerial insectivore. 

PRIMARY HABITATS REFERENCES 

Breed almost entirely at multi-cellular bird houses or Bent 1942:489; 1958:399; DeGraaf and Rudis 

gourds; very rarely in other cavities. Feed over adjacent 1986:255; DeGraafet 1980:318; Ehrlich et 198g:398; 

country. primarily over ponds and fields. Often inhabit open Forbush and May 1939:334; lmhof 1976:280; James and 

residential areas and farmyards, as long as proper nesting Neal 1986:242; Lowery 1974:444; Mengel 1965:327; Mancavities are present. roe et al. 1988:39; Oberholser 1974(XI):582; Potter et al. 

1980:243; Rappole et al. 1983:207; Robbins et af. 198643; 

Robinson 1990: 148; Scott et al. 1977:62; Sprunt 1954:3 1 1; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:366; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:2 16. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Breeding- locally C on the Virginia coast; mostly R and Recorded on 18 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

local elsewhere in Virginia; one North Carolina nesting 1985; maximum route mean 3 birds, overall mean 0.0140.14 

record (1979); more numerous but local, in western Ken- birdsiroute, total of routs means 12 birds. 

tucky and Tennessee. Wintering- C to A along the Florida 

coast; C in the interior of Florida; generally gas far north 

as North Carolina and Virginia. Fall arrival in July and SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

August (but heavily in October); spring departure in March I(1) saplinglpoietimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 17(4) 

and April. sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- mainly where dead trees and stubs occur in or 

around ponds, lakes, or estuaries. Wintering- very widespread, but generally near water in open country; feed over 

marshes, ponds, lakes, bays, and in waxmyrtle (~Myrica 

cerifera) thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding cavities near open water. Wintering- open 

country, generally near water. Few essential requirements 

In winter. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late April to early July, 

with probable peak in mid-May and late May. Nest in 

cavities, not dug by the birds, usually in old woodpecker 

holes, but also in bird boxes. They often nest in colonies. 

Clutches average 5 eggs, but 4 and 6 eggs are frequently laid. 

FOOD HABITS 

At all seasons they catch flying insects in sustained flight, 

usually low over ponds, bays, or marshes. They commonly 

eat berries, especially waxmyrtle berries, in the winter. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, aerial insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:384; Burleigh 1958:392; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:256; DeGraaf et al. 1980:308; Ehrlich et al. 1988:396; 

Forbush and May 1939:324; Imhof 1976:274; James and 

Neal 1986:242; Lowery 1974:440; Mengel 1965:32 1 ; Monroe et al. 198839; Oberholser 1974(II): 573; Potter et 31. 

1980:237; Rappote et aI. 1983:206; Robbins et al. 198639; 

Robinson 1990: 148; Root 1988: 154, 284; Scott et al. 

1977:6 1 ; Sprunt 1953:302; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:36 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958:209; Verner and Boss 

1980: 199. 
Northern Rough-winged Swa 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC over most of their range, even in the 

mountains, but absent at high elevations. Wintering- R to 

Iocally U in southeastern Florida. Most of the breeding 

population winters south of the United States. Spring arrival- mainly early March to mid-March; fall departurevery early, mainly mid-July to late August. 

CIDENTAL LO1 

I e?zafzz2 BRBEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- usually at vertical banks on the shores of 

ponds, lakes, rivers, quarries, or road cuts; also nest in 

drainage pipes in buildings and under bridges. Forage over 

water or other open country. Wintering- mainly around 

bodies of water, such as lakes and ponds. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- vertical banks are preferred; otherwise, a long 

horizontal drainage pipe or other narrow tunnel. Wintering- no specific requ~rements, but generally near bodies of 

water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in six habitats, 0.2(9) shrub-seedling 

elm-ash-cottonwood. Recorded on 409 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 41 birds, 

overail mean 1.15i2.63 birdslroute, total of route means 

1023 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late April to mid-June, with the 

peak from late April to mid-May. Most nests are burrows 

dug by the birds in vertical banks, but horizontal pipes are 

also utilized for nesting. These swallows are rather solitary, 

though several nests may be placed in the same bank. Clutch 

size is usually 6 or 7, with a range of 4 to 8. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed principally on insects caught in sustained flight. 

GUILD 

Burrow nesting, aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:424; Burleigh 1958:394; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:257; DeGraaf et al. 1980:3 12; Ehrlich et al. 1988:400; 

Forbush and May 1939:327; Imhof 1976:275; James and 

Neal 1986:243; Lowery 1974:442; Lunk 1962; Mengel 

1965:323; Monroe et al. 1988:39; Oberholser 1974(11):576; 

Potter et al. 1980:239; Rappole et al. 1983:206; Robbins et 

al. 1986:4 1 ; Robinson 1990: 149; Root 1988: 154; Sprunt 

1954:306; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:363; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:2 13; Verner and Boss 1980:200. 
Bank Swallow 

PROTECTION STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored by Arkansas 

Natural Heritage Commission, Tennessee Natural Heritage 

Program, West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MKDlUY HIGH 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- in several widely scattered colonies in Virginia, and at one Piedmont site in North Carolina, and along 

the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers south to Rosedale, MS; R 

and very local. Winter to the south of the United States. 

Spring arrival from mid-April to mid-May; fall departure is 

early, from mid-July to mid-September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Cliffs or bluffs along a river, large stream, or lake; possibly 

in quarries or road cuts. 

A high, steep bank, preferably over 10 feet (3 m) high. 

Most nests are near water, but this is not an essential requiremen t. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 21 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 22 birds, overall mean 

0.06W.92 birdsfroute, total of route means 51 birds. BBS 

information was not used in preparation of the map of 

breeding distribution. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with the peak probably in late May and early June. Nests are 

long, horizontal burrows, dug by the birds, into high vertical 

banks. These swallows are highly colonla1,often placing 

dozens of nests in a single bank. Clutch size is usually 4 or 

5, with 6 being uncommon. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed almost entirely on flying insects caught in sustained 

flight over water or other open country. 

GUILD 

Burrow nesting, aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:400; Burleigh 1958:393; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986258; DeGraaf et al. 1980:3 10; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):59; Ehrlich et al. 1988:400; Forbush and May 

1939:326; Imhof 1976:275; James and Neal 1986:243; 

Lowery 1974:441; Mengel 1965:322; Monroe et al. 

1988:39; Oberholser 1974(11):574; Potter et al. 1980:238; 

Rappole et al. 1983:206; Robbins et al. 1986:41; Robinson 

1990:150; Sprunt 1954:305; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:362; Stewart and Robbins 1958:211. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Threatened in Mississippi and Rare in West 

Virginia, Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally LJ and very local, mainly at lakes in 

the Piedmont, but also sparingly in the Virginia mountains; 

most common at Ken Reservoir on the Virginia - North 

Carolina border. Have declined as breeders in the mountains 

since 1960, but greatly increased since then in the Piedmont. 

Some large colonies occur on cement bridges over large 

reservoirs in the Tennesse River Valley. Arrive mainly from 

mid-April to early May; depart mainly in August, rarely 

after mid-September. 

CClDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Nest primarily under bridges or on dams at large lakes. 

Thus, breeding sites are very restricted. In the mountains, 

nest mainly in barns. Foraging occurs over lakes, fields. or 

other open areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Bridges or dams in the Piedmont, and perhaps in the 

mountains; barns in the mountains. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 125 of 888 BBS routes In the reglon, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 349 birds, overall mean 

4.09f24.32 birdsfroute, total of route means 363 1 birds. 

BBS information was not used in preparation of the map of 

breeding distribution. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with a peak in early and mid-June. The unique nests are built 

of mud and are plastered onto vertical faces or corners 

beneath bridges, on dams, or barns. The nests are somewhat 

hemispherical, with a small entrance on the side. These birds 

are quite colonial, and frequently nest with Barn Swallows. 

The clutch size is usually 4 or 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

As with other swallows, Cliff Swallows feed exclusively 

on insects caught in sustained flight. 

GUILD 

Nesting on vertical faces, aerial insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1942:463-485; Burleigh 1958:398; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:259: DeGraaf et al. 1980:316; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:402; Forbush and May 1939:331; Imhof 1976:278; 

James and Neal 1986:244; Lowery 1974:444; Mengel 

1965:326; Monroe et al. 1988:40; Oberholser 1974(11):578; 

Potter et al. 1980242; Rappole et al. 1983:207; Robbins et 

al. 1986:4 1; Robinson 1990: 15 1 ; Sprunt 1954:3 10; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:365; Stewart and Robbins 1958:215; 

Verner and Boss 1980:202. 
Barn Swal 

ABUNDANCE STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Breeding- C to A throughout the inland physiograhpic 

provinces, especially in Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, 

and the Piedmont further east; mostly R to U elsewhere. 

decreasing southward. Increasing in numbers and expanding in range. Arrive from mid-March to early April; depart 

by late September to mid-atober, with the heaviest migration in August and early September. 

ACCIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

bZZ9 WINTERING 

~e‘zza~ BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Two major habitats: on darns or under bridges at lakes and 

ponds, and in barns or sheds in open country. They also nest 

under bridges over highways, under docks, and on or under 

many other structures. The vicinity of water is preferred. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Ledges of some type, usually on man-rnade structures; 

proximity to water is favored but not essential. 

Recorded as Visitor in 7 habitats, 10f2) grasslforb mixed 

pine-hardwood. Recorded on 523 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966 1985; maximum route mean 125 birds, overall 

mean 10.49t-16.83 birdslroute, total of route means 93 19 

birds. 

The breeding season extends from late April to late July, 

with the peak from early May to mid-June. Nests are cups 

placed on ledges, usually in sheltered spots; frequently 

under bridges, on dams, or inside barns. Colonies are most 

numerous at bridges over large lakes. Clutch size is usually 

3 or 5, with 6 eggs also frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed almost solely on flying insects captured in sustained 

flight over water, fields, or other open habitats. 

GUILD 

Ledge nesting, aerial insectivore. 

REFE RENCES 

Bent 1942439-462; Burleigh 1958:396; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:260; DeGraaf et al. 1980:3 14; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:402; Forbush and May 1939:329; Imhof 1976:276; 

James and Neal 1986:246; Lowery 1974:443; Mengel 

1965:324; Monroe et al. 1988:40; Oberholser 1974(11):577; 

Potter et al. 1980:240; Rappole et al. 1983:207; Robbins et 

31. 1986:3 1 ; Robinson 1990: 15 1; Root 1988: 155; Sprunt 

1953:307-3 10; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:363; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:2 13; Verner and Boss 1980:201. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding and Wintering- C to A throughout the Piedmont and Coastal Plain; FC in the mountains up to 4000 feet 

(1200 m). Heavy diurnal migration, mainly in the Piedmont, 

in April-May and September- October. 

timber mixed pine-hardwood, I fi( 1) sawtimber live oak 

maritime. Recorded on 536 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 100 birds, overall mean 

1 1.8s 14.77 birdslroute, total of route means 10,526 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

ACCIDENTAL LOR 

VINTERING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- a wide variety of woodlands and forests; 

most common in open, mature woods, especially in oaks, 

such as parks, residential areas, and campuses; also common 

in mixed woods. Not as numerous in deep forests or bottomlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Middle-aged to mature trees, preferably oaks, in a wide 

variety of situations; few strict requirements. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 6.4(29) sawtimber oakhickory, 8.2(11) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 8.6(36) saw0.5(4) grasslforb elm-ash- cottonwood, 9.4(3 1 ) sawtimber 

mixed pine-hardwood, 52(3) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

62(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-March to early 

July, with a peak from mid-April to mid-May. The typical 

cup nest in usualBy placed on a horizontal limb of a tree from 

10-50 feet (3-15 m) above ground. The normal clutch size 

is 4 or 5; rarely 3 or 6 eggs are laid. 

FOOD HABITS 

Blue Jays have a varied diet; in summer, they usually glean 

insects and other invertebrates from vegetation, but in winter they consume mainly nuts and seeds. Acorns are a 

favored winter food. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, arboreal gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946:32-56; Burleigh 1958:40 1-405; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:262; DeCraaf et al. 1980:322; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:408; Forbush and May 1939:337; Imhof 1976:28 11 ; 

James and Neal 1986:247 Lowery 1974:449; Mengel 

1965:329; Monroe et al. 1988:40; Oberholser 1974 (II):585; 

Potter et al. 1980:245; Robbins et al. 1986:43: Robinson 

1990: 152; Root 1988: 157; Sprunt 1954:3 13-3 16; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:368; Stewart and Robbins 1958:2 17. 
Scrub Jay 

SCJA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

A. c. coerulescens state listed as Threatened in Florida. 

Monitored by Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory. Blue 

Listed by Tate (1981). Forest Service sensitive, National 

Forests in Florida. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding and Wintering- FC over most of the range, in 

suitable habitat; locally C in a few places. Non-migratory. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDlUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Quite selective; limited to thick scrub vegetation in sandy 

areas, mainly in various species of scrub oaks; also where 

sand pine occurs with oaks. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

5(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, 7.5(2) 

shrub-seedling southern scrub oak. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

20(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, 28(2) 

shrub-seedling southern scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to mid-June, 

with a peak in mid-April and late April. The usual nest is 

built in a shrub or small tree and is generally well hidden. 

Four eggs is the most common clutch size, with 3 or 5 also 

frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Scrub Jays feed primarily in the vegetation of small oaks 

or other hardwood saplings. In the warmer months their diet 

is primarily insects and other small animals gleaned from 

the vegetation; in winter, nuts, seeds, and fruits are commonly taken. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 194677-1 17; Ehrlich et al. 1988:404; Forbush and 

May 1939:340; Kale 1978:45; Oberholser 1974(11):588; 

Robbins et al. 1986:46; Root 1988: 158; Sprunt 1954:316; 

Verner and Boss 1980:204. 

Oaks of sapling or pole-timber size, preferably in poor, 

sandy soil. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

AII seasons- G essentialiy everywhere, except rather U 

in southern Florida; occur on the highest mauntiains, but not 

C above 5000 feet (1500 m). Undoubtedly same migration 

into the Southeast in winter; crows are so common at all 

seasons that seasonal population changes are difficult to 

determine. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- generally in pine or mixed pine - hardwood 

forests, but feed mostly in cultivated fields, pastures, and 

other open habitats. Wintering- roost in forests, especially 

in pines, but continue to forage in a wide variety of open 

habitats (mainly agricultural ones). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- woodlands or forest, preferably rn pines. Wintering- no essential requirements, other than woods for 

roosting and open country for foraging. 

SAMPLE BREEDING [IENSITiES 

0.3(8 j shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 2.2(24) sawtinzber oak-hickory, 4.6(10) sapling/poletimber oak-hickory, 8( f ) sawtimber longleaf pine-slah pine. Recorded on 

536 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum 

route mean 165 birds, overall mean 20.93225.25 

birdslroute, total of route means 18,584 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) Everglades, l(1) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 

l(I) sawtimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 12(2 1 ) sawtimber mixed 

pine-hardwood, 66(29) grassiforb elm-as h-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late January (in Florida) 

to early June, with a peak in March and April. The typical 

nest is built in the crotch of a tree, generally in the canopy 

of a pine. The nest site is usually in a remote area, and the 

breeding pair is very quiet and secretive. The clutch size is 

usually 4 to 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Grows take a wide variety of food items, mainly from the 

ground. In the warmer months they feed mostly on insects 

and other small animals. In winter they commonIy take grain 

seeds and berries, in addition to small animals. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946:226-274; Burleigh 1958:406; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:263; DeCraaf et al. 1980:326; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:416; Forbush and May 1939:343; Imhof 1976:283; 

James and Neal 1986:250; Lowery 1974:450; MengeI 

1965:332; Monroe et al. 1988:40; Oberhotser 1974(11):596; 

Potter et a1. 1980:247; Robbins et al. 1986:46; Robinson 

1990: 152; Root 1988: 162; Sprunt 1954:3 18; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:371, 372; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:220; Verner and Boss 1980:208. 
Fish Crow 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Kentucky Nature Reserves Commission. 

Monitored by Tennessee Natural Heritage Progm, West 

Virginia Natural We~age Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C, often A, throughout Florida and tidewater 

areas of the other sbtes; inland (north of Rorida) mostly U 

to PC, but generally IZ in the Piedmont and mountain valleys. R in the upper Mississippi Valley. Wintering- essentially the same as for breeding, but usually absent in the 

Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain of North and South Carolina and Georgia. Spring arrival- late February to early 

April; fall departure- early October to mid-November. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Along the coast, occur in a wide variety of habitats; along 

shores, in marshes, thickets, and even woodlands. Inland, 

by are more restricted, being found mainly along the 

shores of lakes and rivers, or in pinewoods. Seldom feed in 

fields and pasmes, though they do occur in towns, residential. areas, and other urban areas. 

KEY HABITM REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- woods or thickets, preferably near water; few 

essential requirements. Wintering- no essential features, 

though generally near water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.4(3) sawtimber oak-hickory, 13(1) sapling/poletirnber 

mixed pine-hard wood. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.4(3) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 0.4(3) saplinglpoletimber Virginia pine-pitch pine, 0.4(3) sawtimber 

oak hickory, 68(3) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late March to mid-June, with a 

peak from late April to early June. The nests may be high in 

crotches of trees (usually pines) or in thickets; frequently 

nest in colonies. The clutch size is seldom other than 4 or 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Highly varied; dead fish, garbage, bird eggs, many kinds 

of small animals, berries, and other items are consumed. 

Most foraging is done on the ground, especially along 

shores, but they feed in trees and shrubs as well. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, temestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946:275; Burleigh 1958:408; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:2@; DeGraaf et al. 1980:328; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A):89; Ehrlich et aI. 1988:418; Forbush and May 

1939:346; Imhof 1976:284; James and Neal 1986:250; 

Lowery 1974:453; Monroe et al. 1988:40; Oberholser 

1974(11):597; Potter et al. 1980:248; Robbins et al. 1986:46; 

Robinson 1990: 153; Root 1988: 163; Sprunt 1954:32 1 ; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:373; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:221. 
Common Raven 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, and 

by Tennessee; Significantly Rare in North Carolina, and 

Rare in West Virginia. Monitored by Georgia Freshwater 

Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Oklahoma 

Natural Heritage Inventory. Forest Service sensitive on 

Chattahoochee, Cherokee, and Daniel Boone National Forests. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- U over most of the range, though FC in a 

few areas; tend to occur in flocks in winter, when several 

dozen or more individuals may share a roost. Occur mainly 

above 3500 feet (1050 m), but are present as low as 1500 

feet (450 m). Little or no migration of individuals into the 

Southeast from farther north, but considerable local movements do occur. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- only in the vicinity of rocky and remote cliffs 

(where the nest is placed); forage over various habitats, such 

as open woods, margins, and fields at high elevation. Frequently seen around campgrounds, picnic areas, dumps, and 

other places where garbage is left. Wintering- widespread 

in many montane habitats, especially in brushy areas and 

other open country in remote places. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- rocky cliffs with ledges (a sheer vertical cliff 

is unsuitable), especially where far from human habitation. 

Wintering- no essential requirements. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 4 habitats. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) shrub-seedling oak-hickory 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season is early for a passerine, extending 

from early March to late April; the peak is probably from 

late March to mid-April, Nests are usually built on ledges 

on the sides of high cliffs; rarely built in crotches in trees. 

Five or 6 eggs are most common; 4,7, or 8 eggs are rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Ravens have a highly varied diet, and forage mainly on the 

ground. Carrion and garbage are commonly consumed, as 

are small mammals, insects, berries, nuts, and other items. 

GUILD 

Ledge nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946: 183-2 14; Burleigh 1958:405; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:265; DeGraaf et al. 1980:324; Eagar and 

Hatcher 1982(A):19; Ehrlich et al. 1988:420; Forbush and 

May 1939:342; Hooper 1977; Imhof 1976:283; Mengel 

1965:33 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:40; Oberholser 1974(11):593; 

Potter et al. 1980:246; Robbins et al. 1986:46; Robinson 

1990: 153; Root 1988: 164; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:370; Stewart and Robbins 1958:218; Verner and Boss 

1980:207. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as nreatened in North Carolina, 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC in North Carolina part of range, and in 

northwestern Virginia (near the West Virginia border); 

mostly U elsewhere in Virginia. Wintering- some movement of birds from north of region into Virginia, so that they 

are FC over much of that state's mountain reglon, and U in 

the northern Piedmont. Little or no migration in winter into 

North Carolina. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in North Carolina, occur in spruce-fir and 

northern hardwoods, mainly over 4500 feet (1350 m); in 

Virginia, mainly in hardwoods or mixed forest. Winteringa wide variety of forests and woodlands, but prefer coniferous or mixed woods. Often in pines in winter. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- rather mature forests with dead trees or stubs 

for nesting sites. Wintering- woods of many types, with no 

strict requirements. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber cove hardwoods, sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 7(1) sawtimber spruce-fir. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

3(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 5(1) shrub-seedling oakhickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late April to early June, 

with a probable peak in mid-May and late May. Nest in 

cavities, generally in dead trees or stubs, but occasionally in 

bird boxes. The birds may dig their own cavities, or take 

over vacant ones dug by other species. The clutch size is 

mostly 6-8; 5,9, and 10 are rather rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

In summer, these chickadees glean insects and other small 

invertebrates from leaves and twigs; whereas, in winter they 

take insects, larvae, berries, and other fruit. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946:322-344; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:266; DeCraaf 

et al. 1980:330; Ehrlich et al. 1988:424; Forbush and May 

1939:347; Monroe et al. 1988:63; Oberholser 1974(11):605; 

Potter et al. 1980:250; Robbins et al. 1986:54; Robinson 

1990: 154; Root 1988: 165; Scott et al. 1947:63; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:222. 
ina Chickad 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C to VC nearly throughout; occur in mountains up to 5000 

feet (1 500 rn) where Black-capped Chickadees are absent. 

Non-migratory . 

I E?2m BREEDING bd 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- woods and forests of many types, but are 

most common in mixed pine-hardwood forests. Common in 

pinewoods, but less so in purely hardwood forests. Widespread in wooded residential areas, as well as in remote 

forested areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- mature woods with a few dead trees or stubs. 

Winter~ng- no essential requirements other than woodlands. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1 (1) shrub-seedling loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, l(2) 

shrub-seedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 13(34) sawtimber 

oak- hickory, 15(6) sawtimber oak-gum-cyprcss, 1 61 10) 

sawtirnber cove hardwoods. Recorded on 5 15 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 75 

birds, overall mean 5.2027.67 birdslroute, total of route 

means 4617 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber live oak maritime, 2.7(6) grass forb oakhickory, 14( 19) sawtirnber oak-hickory , 15('7) saplingpoletimber Virginia pine-pitch pine, 1613 1) sawtimber 

mixed pine-hardwood, 24f 1) saplindpoletimber oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from early April to mid-June, 

with the peak from mid-April to early May. Chickadees nest 

in cavities, usually in dead trees or stubs, at times in bird 

boxes. They may dig their own cavities or utilize existing 

ones. Six eggs represent the most frequent clutch size, with 

5,7, or 8 eggs not rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects from the twigs and foliage of trees in surnmer, and in winter forage mainly on insect larvae or eggs, 

berries, or seeds. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946344-355; BurIeigh 1958:409; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:426; Forbush and May 1939:349; Imhof 1976:286; 

James and Neal 1986:252; Lowery 1974:454; Mengel 

1965:335; Monroe et al. 1988:41; Oberholser 1974(11):606; 

Potter et al. 1980:25 1; Robbins et al. 1986:54; Robinson 

1990:154; Root 1988:166; Scott et al. 1977:64; Sprunt 

1954:323; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:374; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:224. 
Tufted T tmause 

Pam bidlor 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C to VC throughout: occur in the mountains up to 5000 

feet ( 1500 m). Non-migratory . 

WINTERING 

BREEIjlIjG 

PRIMARY HABITAT 

All seasons- widespread in woodlands and forests; prefer 

deciduous woods to pines. Both upland woods and bottomlands are suitable; commonly occur in residential areas, 

parks, and other open woods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- woods with a few dead trees or stubs for 

nesting. Wintering- woodlands of a great variety. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(1) shrub-seedling lobfolly pine-shortleaf pine, l(1 

shrub-seedling mixed pine-hardwood, 1 l(35) sawtimber 

mixed pine-hardwood, 13j34) satxitimber oak-hickory , 

20(11) sa~ltimber cove hardwoods, 23i5) sawtimber oakgum-cypress. Recorded on 514 of 888 BBS routes in the 

South, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 61 birds, overall 

mean 6.191-8.25 birdsiroute, total of route means 5501 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER 

0.5(1) saptinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 9.8(20) sawtimber oak-hickory, 12(3) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 

16(33) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 20(1) sapiingipoietirnber oak-hickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from early April to early June, with the 

peak from late April to mid-May. Titmice nest in cavities in 

trees or stubs, or in suitable bird boxes. They rarely dig their 

own cavities. The usual clutch size is 5 or 6; rarely 4, 7, or 

8. 

FOOD HABITS 

During the warmer months, titmice usually glean insects 

from foliage or twigs of trees, but in winter they take insect 

eggs, insect larvae, seeds, nuts, and a few other items. 

Titmice, as well as chickadees, are common at bird feeders 

in winter, consurning sunflower seeds and suet. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1946:393-4 1 1 ; Burleigh 1958:4 1 1 ; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:268; DeCraaf et al. 1980:334; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:422: Forbush and May 1939:351; Imhof 1976:286; 

James and Neal 1986:252; Lowery 1974:455; Mengel 

1965:336; Monroe et al. 1988:41; Oberholser 1974(11):608; 

Potter et al. 1980:252; Robbins et al. 1986:54; Robfnson 

1990: 155; Root 1988: 170; Scott et al. 1977:70; Sprunt 

1953:324; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:376; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:225. 
PROTECTION STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program, 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C in spruce-fir, but R and local at lower 

elevations in pines or hemlock; generally above 3500 feet 

(1050 m), but numerous only above 5000 feet (1500 rn). 

Wintering- very erratic, with a heavy migration into the 

region generally in alternate winters (in odd-numbered 

falls); FC to C in some winters, but U in others; usually more 

in the mountains and Piedmont than in the Coastal Plain. 

Fall arrival- mid-September to mid-October; spring departure- early April to late April. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- generally in spruce andlor fir forests; infrequently in hemlocks, and rarely in pines, Favor mature 

stands. Wintering- prefer coniferous woods, perhaps especially Virginia pines; rareIy seen in hardwoods. Occur in 

mature trees as well as saplings, particularly in rather dense 

stands; regularly found in residential woodlands. 

Breeding- montane coniferous woods with dead trees or 

stubs. Wintering- coniferous trees, with few other specific 

requirements. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSlTtES 

10(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-hickory, 14(2) sawtimber 

spruce-fir, 17(2) sawtimber white pine-hemlock. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) shrub-seedling oak-hickory, 1(l) sawtImber elmash-cottonwood, l(1) saplingfpoletimber loblolly pineshortleaf pine, l(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 334) saplingfpoletimber Virginia pine-pitch pine, 3.8(13) sawtimber 

mixed pine-hardwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to mid-June, 

with a probable peak in late May and early June. Nest in 

cavities, usually dug by the birds, in dead trees or stubs, in 

a coniferous forest. The clutch size is generally 5 or 6, with 

4 or 7 infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

In summer, these birds feed mainly on insects or larvae in 

the bark of evergreen trees, either on the trunk or on 

branches. In winter, they take insect larvae or eggs, nuts, and 

pine seeds. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal (trunk or foliage) probing or 

gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:22; Burleigh 1958~4 15; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:269; DeCraaf et al. 1980:338; Ehrlich et al. 1988:436; 

Forbush and May 1939:354; Imhof 1976:289; James and 

Neal 1986:254; Lowery 1974:457; Mengel 1945:34 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:41; Oberholser 1974(11):62 1 ; Potter et al. 

1980:254; Robbins et al. 1986:59; Robinson 1990: 155; Root 

1988:175, 285; Scott et al. 1977:74; Sprunt 1954:326; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:384; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:228; Verner and Boss 1980:2 16. 
Whitebreasted Nuthatch 

PROTECTION STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. Louisiana lil) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, l(1) sawtimber 

Natural Heritage Program. elm-ash-cottonwood, 5.1(9) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 

5.4(3) sawtimber white pine-hemlock, 5.6(5) sawtimber 

ABUNDANCE STATUS oak-gum-cypress, 6.5125) sawtimber oak-hickory. ReU to FC, and fairly widespread, in the mountains (below corded on 222 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; 

5000 feet; 1500 m) and in parts of the upper Piedmont; maximum route mean 8 birds, overall mean 0.359.96 

birdslroute, total of route means 314 birds. generally U elsewhere, becoming R near the coast. Formerly - 

regular over much of Florida, but seldom recorded in recent 

years. Seem to be most numerous in Virginia, decreasing in 

numbers southward. Light to moderate migration into the 

area in fall, and thus are slightly more numerous in most 

localities in winter than in summer. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- birds of mature trees, preferably hardwoods. 

Most numerous in rather open upland hardwood forests, but 

frequently occur in bottomlands, parks, campuses, residential areas, and other places where mature trees are found. 

KEY HABIM REQUlRElMENIS 

All seasons- mature trees, with stubs, knotholes, or other 

sites for nesting and roosting cavities; strong preference for 

hardwoods. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

I j 1) saplinglpoletirnber longleaf pine-slash pine, 1 ( 1 ) 

grasslforb oak-hickory, 2.8(22) sawtimber mixed pinehardwood, 3.713) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 4.4(17) 

sawtimber oak-hickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to late May, 

with the peak from early April to late April. They nest in 

cavities in living trees, particularly in knotholes. They may 

dig their own cavities or utilize those of other species. The 

main clutch size is 6, with a range of 5-8 eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Nuthatches creep up and down tree trunks and limbs, 

probing in the bark for insects, larvae, and insect eggs. In 

winter they also take a few seeds and nuts. 

Cavity nesting, tree trunk probing or glean~ng insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948: 1-2 1 ; Burleigh 1958:4 13; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:270; DeGraaf et al. 1980:336; Ehrlich et al. 1988:434; 

Forbush and May i939:352; Imhof 1976:288; James and 

Neal 1986:255; Kale 1978: 101; Lowery 1974:456; Mengel 

1965:337; Monroe et al. 1988:4 1 ; Oberholser 1974(11):619; 

Potter et al. 1980:254; Robbins et al. 198659; Robinson 

1990: 156; Root 1988:174; Scott et al. 1977:73; Sprunt 

1954:325; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:338; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:227; Verner and Boss 1980:2 15. 
Brown-h dd Nuthatch 

Sm ~usilla 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Tennessee Natural Heritage Program 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C essentially throughout the range; in the mountains of 

Georgia and South Carolina they occur up to 1800 feet 1550 

m), perhaps to 2000 feet (600 m). More widespread in the 

Coastal Plain because of the greater abundance of pines. 

Non-migratory. 

CIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

1 c3 WINTERIYC Yv ! / 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(I ) sawtlmber oak-hickory, 112) saplinglpofet~mber 

mixed pine-hardwood, 9.5(2) saplinglpoletimber longleaf 

pi ne-slash pine, 1 2(2) sap'iin@poletimber loblolly pineshortleaf pine. Recorded on 215 of 888 BBS routes in the 

regon, 1966- 1985; maxlmum route mean 19 birds, overall 

mean 0.75k1.99 birdsfroute, total of route rneans 668 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 4(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 5.5(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-scrub 

oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early March to midJune, with the peak from late March to late April. The usual 

nest is in a cavity, usually dug by the birds, in a stump, post, 

dead tree, or stub. It is generally within 20 feet (6 m) of the 

ground, often in an open and conspicuous location. The 

clutch size is mostly 5 or 6, with a range of 3-9. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, arboreal (trunk or foliage) probing or 

gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

1 E?i BREEDING \j_i 1 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- strictly in pines; prefer mature, open pinewoods; not often common in dense stands of pines. Widespread in residential woodlands, parks, and other areas 

where mature pines are present. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- a dead tree, stub, or post near or in plnes. 

Wintering- pine trees, particularly mature ones. 

Bent 1948:35-43; Burleigh 1958:416-420; Eagar and 

Hatcher 1982cA): 105; Ehrlich et al. 19811:438; Forbush and 

May 1939:355; Imhof 1976:290; James and Neal 1986:255; 

Lowery 1974:458; Oberholser 1974(11):623; Potter et al. 

1980:257; Robbins et al. 1986:59; Robinson 1990: 156; Root 

1988: 176; Scott et al. 1977:75; Sprunt 1954:32'7; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:384; Stewart and Robbins 1958:229. 
Brown C 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, 

Virginia Naturd Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- IJ to FC in spruce-fir forests, but generally R 

and local in hemlocks, pines, or mixed woods, Generally 

above 3500 feet (1050 m), and mostly over 5000 feet (1500 

m). Wintering- FC across the mountains, Piedmont, and 

Inner Coastal Plain; IJ in most of the Outer Coastal Plain. 

Fall arrival in mid-October and late October; spring departure from late March to mid-April. 

I BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor mature spruce andlor fir forests, or forests where hardwoods are mixed with spruce of fir; infrequent in hemlock or white pine forests. WinteringKEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- mature, montane forests, with a preference for 

spruce or fir. Wintering- no essential requirements, other 

than middle-aged to mature trees. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber cove hardwoods, 5.4(5) 

sawtimber oak-hickory, 5.5(2) sawtimber spruce-fir 8(2) 

sawtimber white pine-hemlock. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-hickory, l(2) sawtimber elmash-cottonwood, 3.7(6) saplinglpoletimber Virginia pinepitch pine, 3.7(18) sawtimber oak-hickory, 7(1) 

saplinglpoletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season is from mid-May to mid-July, with a 

probable peak from late May to late June. Typica'l nest is 

built behind a loose piece of bark still clinging to the trunk 

of a tree; usually the nest is on a spruce or fir tree. The clutch 

size is normally 5 or 6, with a range of 4-8. 

FOOD HABITS 

Creepers climb up tree trunks, keeping to the shaded side 

of the trunk; they also creep on large limbs. At all seasons 

they pick small insects, larvae, and insect eggs from crevices 

in the bark. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting (behind loose bark), tree trunk gleaning 

insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

widespread in many woodland types; favor mixed woods or 

pines, but are found frequently in hardwood forests as well, Bent 1948:56-79; Burleigh 1958:420-422; ~eGraaf and 

N~ clear preference for lowland or uplands woods, Corn- Rudis 1986:271; DeCraaf et al. 1980~340; Ehrlich et al. 

manly occur with flocks of kinglets, chickadees, and titmice 19881434; Forbush and May 1939~356; Imhof 1976:291; 

in winter. James and Neal 1986:257; Lowery 1974:458; Mengel 

1965:342; Monroe et al. 1988:4 1 ; Oberholser 1974(11):626; 

Potter et al. 1980:259; Robbins et al. 1986:59; Robinson 

1990: 157: Root 1988: 177; Scott et al. 1977:77; Sprunt 1954: 

328; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:385; Stewart and Robbins 1958:230; Verner and Boss 1980:2 18. 
Carolina Wren 

Thwothows luabvidmus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1981). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C to VC throughout, though somewhat less numerous in 

the mountains, and generally absent above 4000 feet (I 200 

m); most numerous in the Coastal Plain. Recent severe 

winters have reduced the mountain population. Non-migratory. 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HAMTATS 

All seasons- prefer brushy and tangled areas in or near 

woods. Inhabit many woodland types, particular1 y broadleaf 

evergreens; often common in wooded residential areas. A 

preference shown for moist or bottomland woods rather than 

dry or upland ones. Also found in overgrown fields and 

woodland margins. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- moderate to dense shrub, sapling, or other 

brushy cover, preferably in a wood1 and. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(1) saplingpoletimber longleaf pine-scruboak, 15(3) sapLinglpoletimber loblotly pine-shortleaf pine, 15(6) sawtirnber oak-gum-cypress, 15(30) sawtimber oak-hic kory, 2212) 

sawtimber live oak maritime, 275) saplin~poletimber oakgum-cypress, 43(3) sapling- poletimber live oak maritime. 

Recorded on 521 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 90 birds, overall mean 8.891fi 

12.78 birdsjroute, total of route means 7895 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplingipoletimber bay swamp-pocosln, 111) sawrimber live oak maritime, l(1) shrub-seedling Virginia pinepitch pine, 10(3) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 20(1) 

saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 34(2) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 48(1) sapling/poletimber 

oak-gum-cypress, 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early March to midJuly, with the peak from late April to mid-May. Build nests 

in a wide variety of places, generally in crannies or secluded 

places. They may be placed at the bases of trees, in upturned 

roots, in bird boxes or other cavities, on ledges of buildings, 

even in old hats, coat pockets, and other highly unusual sites. 

The clutch averages 5 eggs, with 4-6 the usual range of 

clutch sizes. 

FOOD HABITS 

Carolina Wrens feed almost entirely within 10 feet (3 m) 

of the ground, gleaning insects, larvae, and other invertebrates from shrubs, herbs, and the ground. 

GUILD 

Cavity, ledge, or ground nesting, terrestrial or bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:205-2 18; Burleigh 1958:430-433; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:272; DeCraaf et al. 1980:346; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:440; Forbush and May 1939:362; Irnhof 1976:295; 

James and Neal 1986:257; Lowery 1974:46 1 ; Mengel 

1965:349; Monroe et at. 1988:42; Oberholser 1974(11):635; 

Potter et al. 1980:263; Robbins et aI. 1986:63; Robinson 

1990: 158; Root 1988: 181; Scott et al. 1977:82; Sprunt 

1954:333; Sprunt and Chamberlain f 970:392; Stewart and 

Robbins I958:235. 
Bewick's Wren 

PROTECTION STATUS 

T, b. altus federally listed as category C1. State Iisted as 

Threatened in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama 

(unofficially); Rare in West Virginia, and Special Concern 

by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Kentucky Nature 

Preserves Commission. Blue Listed by Tate (1 98 1). bifonitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Georgia 

Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive on 

Chattahoochee, Cherokee, and George Washington National Forests. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- Primary range is west of the region; generally 

more common in the western part of the region, declining in 

abundance east of the Mississippi River to R and VR in 

Virginia; generally above 4000 feet (1200 m). In the early 

decades of this century, they were C over much of the 

mountain region, but have declined drastically, and are now 

virtually extirpated in North Carolina and Georgia. Wintering- now R, essentially only in western Georgia and the 

Florida panhandle; formerly in small numbers elsewhere in 

the region. Dependable winter range extends further east 

than breeding range. Migration mainly from mid-March to 

mid-April, and early October to early November. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDICM B16B 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- formerly malnly in towns and farmyards in 

mountain valleys now mostly at high elevztions in open, 

brushy country; habitats usually include brush piles, 

fencerows, and old barns. Wintering- in open, brushy 

places, especiaIly in tangles and brush near old barns. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- varied open csuntq, with shrubs, saplings, 

andlor brush piles. Wintering- brushy places in open country, particularly near sheds or barns. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 121 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 35 birds, overall mean 

0.5'71fr3.04 birdsfroute, total of route means 505 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) grasslforb loblollly pine-shogleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to late June, 

with the peak from early May to late May. Nests are built in 

cavities, crannies, or placed on ledges; the cavities are not 

dug by the birds. Frequent sites are inside a barn or shed, in 

a knothole, or rarely in a bird box. The clutch size is 

norrnally 5-7, with 4, 8, or 9 rare. 

FOOD HAB1TS 

Glean insects, insect eggs and larvae, and other invertebrates from shrubs, saplings, and tall herbs, and seldom feed 

more than 10 feet (3 m) off the ground. 

GUILD 

Cavity or Iedge nesting, bush or herb gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:176-204; Burleigh L958:428-430; Eagar and 

Hatcher 1982fA):47; Ehrlich et al. 1988:442; Forbush and 

May 1939:361; lrnhof 1976:294; James and Neal 1986:259; 

Lowery 1974:461; Mengel 1%5:347; Monroe et ai. 

1988:42; Oberholser 1974(TIj:633; Potter et al. 1980:262; 

Robbins et al. 1986:63; Robinson 1990: 158; Root 1988: 182; 

Scott et al. 1977:8 1; f prunt 1954:332; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:390; Stewart and Robbins 1958:233; Verner and 

Boss 1980:223. 
House Wren 

aedon 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FG, but rather restricted, in the Piedmont and 

Coastal Plain portion of the range; C in parts of mountains 

of Virginia and northern North Carolina. Wintering- C in 

Florida, and north to southern South Carolina; decreasing in 

numbers northward, and only U in the Piedmont portion of 

the winter range. Bulk of migration in April to early May, 

and late September through October. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- fairly open country with shrubbery, 

fencerows, and a few scattered trees is favored; generally 

House Wrens are found in residential areas and farmyards. 

In fact, as breeders, they are restricted to towns and suburbs 

over most of the Piedmont and Coastal Plain. Winteringwidespread in brushy places, and usually away from towns; 

favored habitats are overgrown fields, hedgerows, thickets, 

wood margins, and tangles under open pines. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- a cav~ty, such as a bird box, in open country 

with shrubs andlor saplings. Wintering- brushy coser 

(shrubs, sapltngs, and tall herbs) in many situations. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(1) shrub-seedling mixed pine-hardwood, 1(2) shrubseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 15(5) saptinglpofetimber 

elm-ash-cottonwood, 1 fi(2) grassfforb mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 104 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 28 birds, overall mean 

0.23-t-1.32 birdslroute, total of route means 208 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

4.3(3) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 511) saplingfpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 5(1) saplinglpoletimber 

live oak maritime, 5.5(2) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

The nesting season extends from mid-April to late July, 

with a peak from early May to early June. The nest is in a 

cavity, not dug by the birds, in open country. Usually nest 

in bird boxes, but the birds also utilize knotholes, old woodpecker holes, and other crannies. The normal clutch size is 

6-8, with a range of 5-9. 

FOOD HABITS 

At all seasons House Wrens glean insects and other small 

invertebrates from vegetation within 10 feet (3 m) of the 

ground (shrubs, saplings, or tall herbs). 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948: 1 13- 146; Burleigh 1958:422-425; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:273; DeGraaf et al. 1980:342; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:438; Forbush and May 1939:357; Imhof 1976:292; 

James and Neal 1986:261; Kendeigh 1941; Lowery 

1974:460; Mengel 1965:343; Monroe et al. 1988:42; Oberholser 1974(11):630; Potter et al. 1980:260; Rappole et al. 

1983:208; Robbins et al. 1986:59; Robinson 1990: 159; Root 

1988: 183; Scott et al. 1977:78; Sprunt 1954: 330; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:387; Stewart and Robbins 1958:23 1; 

Verner and Boss 1980:222. 
Winter Wren 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage 

Inventory Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to locally C above 4500 feet (1 350 m) in 

the Southern Appalachians. but R to U down to 3500 (1050 

m). Wintering- FC over most of the range, but R to U in 

Florida. Arrive in fall from early October to late October; 

depart from Iate March to mid-April. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- mainly in spruce-fir forests, where they inhabit tangles, uprooted trees, and other cover: away from 

spruce-fir they favor cool, dark ravines, especially under 

hemlocks, but also beneath hardwoods. Always in cool, 

moist, and tangled areas. Wintering- a wide variety of 

forests, where tangles, fallen logs, uprooted trees, or stream 

banks are found; not common in broadleaf evergreen woods 

and bottomlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- cool, moist forests where tangles are present. 

R7intering- tangles or thickets in woodlands. 

SAMPLE BREEDiNG DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber cove hardwoods, 34(2) 

sawtimber spruce-fir. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(4) saplinglpoletimber Virglnia pine-pitch plne, lf6) 

sawtimber oak-hickory, 3.2(2@ sawtimber mixed pinehardwood, 5.3(3) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION: 

The breeding season is from mid-May to mid-June, with 

the peak in late May and early June. Nests are built on or 

very near the ground in forests; sites include among the 

tangled roots of an upturned tree, along a stream bank, 

besides a fallen log, and inside a dense tangle. Usually 5-6 

is the clutch size, with 4 or 7 rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

At all seasons Winter Wrens consume insects, other small 

invertebrates, larvae, or insect eggs. These iterns are gleaned 

within 5 feet (1.5 m) of the ground, usually around tangles 

and stream banks. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948: 148- 175; Burleigh 1958:426-428; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:274; DeGraaf et al. 1980:344; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:440; Forbush and May 1939:359; Imhof 1976:293; 

James and Neal 1986:26 1 ; Lowery 1974:460; Mengel 

1965:346; Monroe et al. 1988:42; Oberholser 1974(II):63 1 ; 

Potter et al. 1980:261; Robbins et al. 1986:63; Robinson 

1990: 160; Root 1988: 184,285; Scott et al. 1977:80; Sprunt 

1954:33 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:389; Stewart and 

Robbins 19583232; Verner and Boss 1980:22 1. 
ge Wren Marsh wren 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Specid Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Sciences and Kentucky Nature Preserves Go 

as Rare in West Virginia. Blue Listed by Tate (1981). 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R and local in tidewater Virginia, only near 

Saxis and Virginia Beach. Wintering- FC to C in tidewater 

areas south to central Florida, most comrnon in coastal 

North Carolina; U inland and in the tidewater section of 

southern Florida Fall arrival- early September to early 

October; spring departure- early May to late May. 

brackish marshes, especially in the drier parts where scattered shrubs are present; less frequent in wet meadows and 

damp grass under open pines (flatwoods). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- moist herbaceous cover, usually where brackish. Wintering- moist herbaceous cover, either fresh or 

brackish conditions. 

REPRODUCTION 

No nest has been found in the South, though they are 

assumed to breed in Virginia. Data from north of the region 

suggest that the nesting season extends from late May to 

mid-August. Most frequent clutch size is 7, with a range of 

4-8. Nests are globular structures, with side entrances, attached to reeds in marshes or wet meadows. 

FOOD HABITS 

The food is solely insects and other small invertebrates, 

gleaned from herbs, the ground, or mud in a marsh. Feed at 

times in small shrubs. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:265; Burleigh 195 8:437; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:275; DeCraaf et al. 1980:350; Ehrlich et al. 1988:444; 

Forbush and May 1939:366; Imhof 1976:297; James and 

Neal 1986262; Lowery 1974:465; Mengel 1965:352; Monroe et al. 1988:42; Oberholser 1974(11):641; Potter et al. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 1980:265; Rappole et al. 1983:208; Robbins et al. 1986:67; 

Robinson 1990: 161; Root 1988: 184; Sprunt 1954:338; Breeding- brackish marshes, but perhaps in fresh Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:39'7; Stewart and Robbins 

marshes and wet meadows. Wintering- mostly in fresh to 958:236, 
Marsh Wren 

PROTECTION STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

6. p. mrianae and C. p. griseus state listed as Special 

Concern in Florida. Monitored by West Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- in tidewater area, G to A, but often quite 

local; generally R and local inland (in Virginia). Wintering- C in tidewater areas south to central Florida; mostly 

UI in southern Florida, and inland north to southern Georgia; 

R to U inland farther north (mainly in the Coastal Plain and 

extreme lower Piedmont). Migration generally from early 

April to mid-May, and mid-September to late October. 

CCIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

Breeding- a marsh, preferably an extensive brackish one, 

Wintering- a marsh or other damp grassy place. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

5(1) Everglades. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late April to mid-August, with the peak from late May to late June. Nests are 

spherical masses of "grass" with side entrances, attached to 

marsh vegetation, generally suspended 1 to 3 feet ('3-1) 

above the ground. The usual clutch size is 5 or 6, with 3,4, 

or 7 not rare. 

Strictly insects, invertebrates, and the larvae and eggs of 

these animals, gleaned from the ground, from marsh plants, 

or from the surface of shallow water near a marsh. 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:235-264; Burleigh 1958:433-437; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986276; DeGraaf et al. 1980:348; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:442; Forbush and May 1939:363; Imhof 1976:296; 

James and Neal 1986:263; Kale 1965; Kale 1978: 102, 103; 

Lowery 1974:463; Mengel 1965:351; Monroe et al. 

1988:43; Oberholser 1974(11):638; Potter et al. 1980:264; 

PRIMARY HABITATS Rappole et aI. 1983:208; Robinson 1990: 162; Root 

1988: 185; Sprunt 1954:334-338; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

Breeding- marshes, most commonly in brackish ones, 1970:393-397; Stewart and Robbins 195 8235; Verner and 

but also in fresh or salt marshes. Wintering- prefer brack- B~~~ 1980:224. 

ish marshes, but also salt or fresh marshes, and less frequently in wet meadows and other wet grassy places. Favor 

herbaceous cover at least 2 feet (.6 m) high. 
PR@tTECTIC)M STATUS 

State listed as Threatened in North Carolina. Blue Listed 

by Tate 1'195 1). Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage 

Rogram. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in spruce-fir forests; mostly U and local in 

hemlocks and white pines; generdly absent below 350-0 feet 

(1050 m). Wintering--- C to VC in the northern and western 

parts of the region and Piedmont, but decreasing to FC in 

most coastal areas; U in Florida, southern Georgia, and 

southern South Carolina. Fall arrival- early October to late 

October; spring depmture- late March to mid-April. 

ClDBNTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

WlNTERlPlG 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- montane coniferous forests; mainly in sprucefir, and infrequently in hemlocks or white pines; also where 

hardwoods are mixed with these conifers. Wintering- a 

wide vasiety of coniferous or mixed woods; prefer pinewoods, but also in pine-hardwoods, hemlocks, and sprucefir; seldom occur in pure hardwood stands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- mature and cool coniferous forests in the 

mountains. Wintering- coniferous trees, either in pure 

stands or mixed with hardwoods. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

50(2) sawtimber spmce- fir, 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpofetimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

4.4(17) sawtimber oak-hickory, 20(1) saplingpoletimber 

o&-hickory, 23(7) sapling/poletirrtber Virginia pine-pitch 

pine, 28(1) sapling/poletirnber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Few nests with eggs have been reported from the South. 

The breeding season likely occurs from early May to midJune, with a peak from mid-May to early June. Build small 

cup nests in conifers, generally over 30 feet (9 m) from the 

ground. The small size of the nests. plus the very dense 

foliage of spruce-fir forests, makes them very difficult to 

locate. The usual clutch size is 8 or 9, with a normal range 

of 5 to 10. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean and hover for small insects, larvae, insect eggs, and 

other small invertebrates in the foliage of conifers; infrequently forage in hardwoods. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949:382-399; Burleigh 1958:465; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:277; DeGraaf et al. 1980:374; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:448; Forbush and May 1939:388; Irnhof 1976:312; 

Jarnes and Neal 4986:264; Lowery 1974:480; Mengel 

1965:369; Monroe et al. 1988:43; Oberholser 1974(11):680; 

Potter et al. 1980:282; Robbins et al. 1986:83; Robinson 

1990: 163; Root 1988: 187; Spnrnt 1954:355; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:414; Stewat and Robbins 1958:254; 

Verner and Boss 1980:237. 
Ruby-crowned King 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- C to VC over most of the Coastal Plain and 

adjawnt physiographic provinces, decreases to U to the 

noah, as well as in southern Florida; U to FC at low elevations of mountains in the Carolinas and Georgia, and U in 

Virginia mountains. Breed north of the region. Fall arrivallate September to mid-Oetober; spring depature- midApril to early May. 

I BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Highly varied; prefer evergreen woods or thickets; most 

common in pinewoods or mixed woods, but also frequent in 

wood margins, thickets, and bmsh. Rather infrequent in pure 

fiardwod stands. Both species of kinglets occur in flocks 

with chickadees, titmice, and other small woodland species 

in winter. 

KEY HABITAT REQtftREMENTS 

Woods or thickets, but no essential features other than the 

presence of woody vegetation. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

O,5(1) shrubfseedling Virginia pine-pitch pine, 0.7(3) 

shblseedling oak-hickory, 15(19) sawtimber mixed pinehardwood, 34(2) sap1int;ffpoletimber live oak maritime, 

70(1) saplind poletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed extensively on small insects, insect eggs, and larvae; 

rarely on small seeds. Forage by gleaning or hovering for 

prey at foliage or twigs in trees, saplings, or shrubs. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949:400-4 18; Burleigh 1958:466; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:278; DeGraaf et al. 1980:376; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:450; Forbush and May 1939:389; Irnhof 1976:312; 

James and Neal 1986:264; Lowery 1974:480; Mengel 

1965:370; Monroe et al. 1988:43; Oberholser 1974(11):682; 

Potter et al. 1980:282; Rappole et al. 1983:212; Robbins et 

al. 1986:83; Robinson 1990: 164; Root 1988: 188; Sprunt 

1954:356; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:419; Stewart, and 

Robbins 1958:255; Verner and Boss 1980:238. 
ue-gray Gna catcher 

Poliop tila ca erulea BGGN 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in much of the South; FC at higher elevations, up to 3500 feet (1050 m), rarely to 40i30 feet (1200 

m). Wintering- C in the Florida peninsulaand western Gulf 

Coast, declining in abundance noI-thward, Spring arrivalearly March to early April; fall depafture- mid-September 

to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- primarily in moist deciduous forests, such as 

bottomland forests and swamps; seldom fa from water; 

avoid coniferous woods. Wintering- more widespread, 

occurring in many woodland types, frequently with kinglets, 

chickadees, and titmice; mixed forests and broadleaf evergreen woods preferred. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- mature and moist hardwood forest. Wintering- forests or thickets; no essential requirements, but 

mainly in broadleaf evergreens. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.7(3) saplinglpoletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 

8.7(9) saplingfpolletimber oak-hickory, 8.7(24) sawtimber 

oak-hickory, 26(5) sapfing/poletimber longleaf pine-southern scrub oak, 30(6) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 37(3) 

saplingfpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 461 of 

888 BBS routes in the South, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 32 birds, overall mean 2.19 + 3.79 birdslroute, total of 

route means 1943 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(4) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 1(2) sawtimber live 

oak maritime, 52(2) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 

60(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

98(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-April to early June, 

with the peak from early May to late May. Nests are small 

cups saddled on branches in deciduous (usually) trees, generally in the canopy. The usual clutch size is 4 or 5, rarely 3 

or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Consume small insects at all seasons, even in winter. Most 

foraging is done in the canopy by gleaning items from 

leaves, though they frequently hover. Some foraging occurs 

in saplings and shrubs. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949:344-368; Burleigh 1958:463; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:279; DeCraaf et al. 1980:372; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:450; Forbush and May 1939:387 Imhof 1976:311; 

James and Neal 1986:266; Lowery 1974:479; Mengel 

1965:368; Monroe et al. 1988:43; Oberholser 1974(11):678; 

Potter et al. 1980:281; Rappole et al. 1983:211; Robbins et 

al. 1986:83; Robinson 1990: 164; Root 1988: 189; Sprunt 

1954:353; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:413; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:253; Verner and Boss 1980:236. 
Eastern B uebird 

Sialia sialis EABL 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (1981). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- F;G in many areas, and C in others; most 

numerous in the Piedmont, interior low plateaus, and Ozark 

uplift; R in southern FIorida. Wintering- generally C over 

most of the South, but less so to the north and at higher 

elevations; R to U in southern Florida. In the mountains, 

seldom occur above 4000 feet (1 200 m). Moderate migration 

into the Southeast in fall and winter; most movement in 

October and March. 

a WINTERING 

ezzra BREEDING 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) saplinglpoletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 

5.212) grasslforb bay swamp-pocosin, 6(2) shrublseedling 

oak-hickory. Recorded on 491 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 29 birds, overall 

mean 3.28 Ifr 4.78 birdslroute, total of route means 2910 

birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.8(10) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 10(6) grasslforb 

oak-hickory, 12(2) grasslforb loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 

13(1) shrublseedling Virginia pine-pitch pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-March to mid-August, with the peak from late March to mid-May. Nests are 

built in cavities that are not dug by the birds. Most common 

sites are bird boxes, in the open, and within 10 feet (3 m) of 

the ground. Other sites include knotholes and old woodpecker holes. Clutch size is generally 4 or 5, rarely 3 or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Bluebirds sit on exposed perches, and drop to the ground 

when a prey item is spotted. Food is mainly insects and other 

invertebrates, taken from short grass or bare ground, rarely 

from trees or shrubs. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, terrestrial pouncing insectivore. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- prefer open country with scattered trees; 

orchards, groves. farmyards, roadsides, open residential areas, and open woods. They are particularly partial to open 

country where telephone lines are present for perching. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breed~ng- a cavlty (for nesting) in open or semi- open 

country, usually with a few scattered trees. Wintering- no 

essential requirements, though usually in open country with 

conspicuous perches. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949:233-262; Burleigh 1958:461; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:280; DeGraaf et al. 1980:370; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:452; Forbush and May 1939:385; Imhof 1976:309; 

James and Neal 1986:267; Lowery 1974:476; Mengel 

1965:367; Monroe et al. 1988:43; Oberholser 1974(11):672; 

Potter et al. 1980:279; Rappole et al. 1983:210; Robbins et 

al. 1986:78; Robinson 1990: 165; Root 1988: 191; Scott et al. 

1977:83; Sprunt 1954:35 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:4 1 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958:25 1. 
Veery 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage 

Inventory Progrm. 

ABUNDANCE STNUS 

Breeding- C in the Southern Appalachians above 4000 

feet (1200 m), but local down to 3000 feet (900 m) in 

Virginia and 3500 feet (1050 m) in North Carolina. Winter 

south of the United States. Root(1988) reported only 10 

winter records at coastal localities from Christmas Bird 

Count data. Spring arrival- late April to mid-May; fall 

departure- late August to late September. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Widespread in many montane forests; most common in 

mature deciduous forests with much understory. Also occur 

in numbers in hemlock forests, spruce-fir forests, and mixed 

forests, but mainly where moist with considerable understory. 

Montane forests with moderate understory, mainly above 

3500 feet (1050 m). 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor In saplinglpoletimber oak-hickory, 

17(2j sawtimber spruce-fir, t 8(2) sawtirnber mixed pinehardwood, 20(1j sawtirnber oak-hickory . 

The breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with a peak in late May and early June. The usual nest is 

built on the ground near a tussock, log, or shrub in a forest; 

at times the nest is placed in a shrub or a sapling. Four is the 

most common clutch size, with 3 or 5 infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Veeries feed almost solely on the forest floor, scratching 

for insects and other invertebrates in leaf litter. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949:217-233; Burleigh 1958:458-46 1 ; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:281; DeGraaf et at. 1980:3&8; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:458; Forbush and May 1939:383; Imhof 1976:308; 

James and Neal 1986:269; Lowery 1974: 475; Mengel 

1965:365; Monroe et al. 1988:43; Noon and Able 1978; 

Oberholser 1974(11):670; Potter et al. 1980:276; Rappole et 

al. 1983210; Robbins et al. 1986:78; Robinson 1990: 165; 

Sprunt 1954:35 1 ; Sprunt and ChamberEarn 1970:409; Stewart and Robbins 1958:250. 
nson's Thrush 

Catharus ustulatus SWTH 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia. hlon~tored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive on 

the Jefferson National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- Breed generally north of the region. One to 

several pairs have bred or probably bred at Mt. Rogers, 

Virginia, since 1966; a possible nesting in Rockbridge 

County, Virginia, in 1969. Winter south of the United States. 

Spring arrival- late April to mid-May; fall departureearly October to mid-October. 

WINTERING 

cZz2 BRBEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Spruce-fir forests only, apparently where the understory is 

sparse to moderate. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Spruce or fir forests, bur other specifics of the habitat are 

not well known in this region. 

REPRODUCTION 

No nest has been found in the South, but the breeding 

season is probably from mid-May to July. To the north of 

this region, nests are placed in shrubs or small trees. Clutch 

size is 3-4. rarely 5, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

These thrushes forage on the ground, as well as in trees and 

shrubs. They glean insects from foliage and scratch for 

insects and other invertebrates in dead leaves on the forest 

floor. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial or arboreal gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949: 163- 188; Burleigh 1958:454-456; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:283; DeGraaf et al. 1980:364; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:458; Forbush and May 1939:380; Imhof 1976:306; 

James and Neal 1986:270; Lowery 1974:474; Mengel 

1965:363; Monroe et al. 1988:44; Noon and Able 1978; 

Oberholser 1974(II):668; Potter et al. 1980:275, Rappole et 

al. 19832 10; Robbins et al. 1986:78; Robinson 1990: 167; 

Root 1988:195, 285; Sprunt 1954:349; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:407; Stewart and Robbins 1958:248; Verner 

and Boss 1980:232. 
Hermit Thrush 

Ca tha rus autta tus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

HETH 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia, Significantly Rare in 

North Carolina. Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage 

Program. Forest Service sensitive on Jefferson National 

Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R and local at high elevations in Virginia 

(above 4000 feet, 1200 m); one noted on territory in 1979 at 

Roan Mt., North Carolina. Wintering- FC to G over much 

of the Coastal Plain, though U in southern Florida; FC in the 

interior; generally U in the lower portion of the mountains. 

Fall arrival- mid-October to late October; spring departure- early April to early May. 

Breeding- spruce-fir forests, with a rather open understory. Wintering- woodlands with a moderate understory, 

especially where broadleaf evergreens are present. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5f 1) saplinglpoletimber bay swamp-pocosln, 2.8(6) sawtimber gak-hickory, 2.8(33) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 8.5(2) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

No nest has been found in the Southeast, though the 

breeding season likely extends from mid-May to July. Based 

on information gathered north of this region, the nests are 

usually built on the ground, rarely a few feet from the ground 

in shrubs or saplings. The usual clutch has 3 or 4 eggs, with 

5 or 6 being rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

In the summer, feed primarily on the ground on insects and 

other small invertebrates; but in winter, they take berries 

from trees and shrubs, in addition to some insects from the 

ground or from foliage. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore (summer), 

terrestrial or bush gleaning omnivore (winter). 

WINTERING 

BREEDING REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- spruce andlor fir forests, especially in moist 

spots, with a light to moderate understory. Winteringforests of a wide variety, but usually some evergreen cover 

is present; favor mixed forests, and most numerous where 

hollies, bays, or other broadleaf evergreens are present in the 

understory. 

Bent 1949: 123- 162; Burleigh 1958:45 1-454; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:284; DeCraaf et al. 1980:362; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:460; Forbush and May 1939:378; Imhof 1976:305; 

James and Neal 1986:270; Lowery 1974:474; Mengel 

1965:362; Monroe et al, 1988:44; Noon and Able 1978; 

Oberholser 1973(11):665; Potter et al. 1980:275; Rappole et 

a]. 1983:209; Robbins et al, 1986:78; Robinson 1990: 167; 

Root 1988:195; Sprunt 1954:348; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:405; Stewart and Robbins 1958:247: Verner and Boss 

1980:23 1. 
Wood Thrush 

ABUNDANCE STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Breeding- C throughout the eastern mountains and Piedmont, but generally U in the Outer Coastal Plain and western 

parts of the region, except the Ozarks; particularly scarce in 

southern Georgia and northern Florida. Occur in the mountains to 4000 feet (1200 m), rarely higher. Winter south of 

the United States. Spring arrival- late March to late April; 

fall departure- early October to late October. 

ACCIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

K-223 kxa WINTERING 

m e2;53 BREEDING '..-.- 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor deciduous or mixed forests with a fairly well-developed deciduous understory, especially where moist. Bottomland and other rich hardwood forests are prime habitats; 

also frequent in pine forests with a deciduous understory and 

in well-wooded residential areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Woodland understory of deciduous shrubs or saplings, 

especially where moist. 

l(2) sawtimber efm-ash-cottonwood, 15(6) sawtimber 

oak-gum-cypress, 15(25) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 

13(30) sawtimber oak-hickory, 4 l(3) sawtimber loblofly 

pine-shortleaf pine. Recorded on 400 of 888 BBS routes in 

the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 53 birds, 

overall mean 4.16 rt 7.26 birdslroute, total of route means 

3699 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late April to early 

August, with a peak from mid-May to early June. Nests are 

built in shrubs, saplings, or trees in wooded areas, mainly 5 

to 15 feet (1.5-5 m) from the ground. Clutch size is nearly 

always 3 or 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and other invertebrates on the forest floor, 

often among dead leaves on the ground. Some feeding 

occurs in shrubs and in low trees. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949: 101 ; Burleigh 1958:449; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:285; DeGraaf et al. 1980:360; Ehrlich et al. 1988:456; 

Forbush and May 1939:377; Imhof 1976:304; James and 

Neal 1986:273; Lowery 1974:473; Mengel 1965:361; Monroe et al. 1988:44; Noon and Able 1978; Oberholser 

1974(11):664; Potter et al. 1980:273; Rappole et al. 

1983:209; Robbins et al. 1986:71; Robinson 1990: 168; Root 

1988: 196; Sprunt 1954:347; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:404; Stewart and Robbins 1958:245. 
American Rob 

Turdus miaratorius AMRO 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to A essentially throughout inland physiographic provinces, FC to C over the Inner Coastal Plain, but 

U in the Outer Coastal Plain. Wintering- quite erratic in a 

given area from week to week; may be somewhat scarce one 

week, but very common a week later; generally C, often A, 

everywhere except the mountains, where usually only FC in 

the lower elevations, and probably R above 3500 feet (1050 

m). Heavy migration in March and in October and November. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- generally where lawns and other short grass 

areas are interspersed with shrubs and trees, such as residential areas, towns, farmyards, and parks. Also breed in sprucefir forests where openings or grassy areas are nearby, but 

elsewhere, they tend to occur near human settlements. Wintering- mostly in bottomland woods, andlor near berrybearing trees; generally in moist woods in early winter, but 

in late winter occur commonly on lawns, pastures, and other 

open places. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- trees or shrubs near lawns or other short grass. 

Wintering- no essential requirements, but mostly near 

berry-bearing trees and moist woods. 

SAMPLE BREED1NG DENSITIES 

0.5(16) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 5.3124) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 8(2) grasslforb mixed pinehardwood, 12(2) sawtimber spruce-fir. Recorded on 392 of 

888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route 

mean 156 birds, overall mean 7.47 + 15.67 birdslroute, total 

of route means 663 1 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

16(29) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 190(2) sapling/poletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late March to late August, with a 

peak from late April to late May. Nests are usually placed in 

trees or bushes, often in exposed locations. Occasionally, the 

nest is built on a ledge of a building, and rarely on the 

ground. Clutch size is commonly 4, with 3 or 5 frequent and 

6 rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

During the warmer months, robins consume earthworms 

and a wide variety of other invertebrates, feeding essentially 

on the ground. In the winter, berries and other fruits are the 

major food items, but they begin foraging for animal food 

on the ground in late winter. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore (summer), tree or bush gleaning frugivore (winter). 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1949: 14-65; Burieigh 1958:445-449; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:286; DeGraaf et al. 1980:358; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:462; Forbush and May 1939:373; Imhof 1976:303; 

James and Neal 1986:273; Lowery 1974:472; Mengel 

1965:358; Monroe et al. 1988:44; Oberholser 1974(II):660; 

Potter et al. 1980:272; Rappole et al. 1983:209; Robbins et 

al. 1986:7 1 ; Robinson 1990: 168; Root 1988: 197, 285; 

Sprunt 1954:345; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:40 1-404; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958:243; Verner and Boss 1980:229. 
Gray Catb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VG in mountains; decreasing in abundance toward the coast, where generally U. Wintering- C 

over most of Florida; FC in the Outer Coastal Plain farther 

north, but U in the Lower Coastal Plain, and R farther inland. 

Spring arrival- mid-April to Late April; fall depastureearly October to late October. 

i BREEDING 7 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- dense, dark, tangled vegetation, especially in 

shrubbery. Favor damp thickets along streams, but common 

in residential areas with abundant shrubbery. Winteringmainly in dense tangles in wood margins, thickets, and open 

woods, especially in broadleaf evergreen cover; generally 

scarce in residential areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- dense thickets or shrubbery, especially where 

moist. Wintering- dense tangles and thickets, but not necessariiy where moist. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

I (I) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, I ( I) sawtimber cove 

hardwoods, 14(2) sawtimber oak-gurn-cypress, 1612) sawtimber white pine-hemlock, 67(18) saplingfpofetimber elmash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded on 355 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 47 

birds, overall mean 1.46 It: 3.53 birdslroute, total of route 

means 1298 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(2) saplingipoletimber pine savanna, 29(4) sawtimber 

longleaf pine-slash pine, 53(1) shrublseedling live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late April to mid-August, with a 

peak from mid-May to early June. The nests are usually 

placed 4 to 8 feet (1-2.5 m) from the ground in dense 

shrubbery or vine tangles. The normal clutch size is 4, but 3 

or 5 eggs are frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

In the summer, catbirds feed mainly on insects gleaned 

from shrubs or saplings, but rather infrequently on the 

ground. They forage mostly on berries, and some seeds, in 

winter. Most feeding is done within 10 feet (3 m) of the 

ground. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush gleaning insectivore-frugivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948: 320; Burleigh 1958:44 1 ; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:287; DeGraaf et al. 1980:354; Ehrlich et al. 1988:468; 

Forbush and May 1939:369; Imhof 1976:300; James and 

Neal 1986275; Lowery 1974:466; Mengel 1965:355; Monroe et al. 1988:44; Oberholser 1974(11):648; Potter et al. 

1980:268; Rappole et aI. 1983:208; Robbins et al. 198657; 

Robinson 1990: 169; Root 1988: 198; Sprunt 1954:34 1; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:399; Stewart and Robbins 

1 958:230. 
Northern Mockingbird Mockingbird 

Mimus ~olva!o ttos NOMO 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C to A, and conspicuous, nearly everywhere; FC to C in 

mountain valleys to 2500 feet (750 m), and VR to absent 

above 3500 feet (1050 m). Generally non-migratory, though 

there are some localized population changes. 

BREEDING w I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- mainly in open residential or rural country. 

Prefer scattered trees or shrubs with telephone wires, fences, 

and other conspicuous perches. Most common in towns, 

suburbs, and roadsides. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- open country with scattered trees and/or 

shrubs. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) shrublseedling southern scrub oak, 0.6(11) 

shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 15(16) sapling 

poletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot), 22(1) sawtimber live oak maritime. Recorded on 588 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966-4985; maxlmum route mean 244 birds, 

overall mean 22.7 k 29.1 birdsiroute, total of route means 

20,169 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(2) grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine, 0.6(1) 

shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 15(9) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 17(3) sawtimber live oak maritime, L 8(2) 

shrublseedling southern scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

Nesting season extends from late March to mid-August, 

with the peak from late April to late May. The usual nest is 

a cup placed in a small tree or shrub, especially where 

covered with vines or where leaves are dense. Most nests 

are 5 to 15 feet (1.5-5 m) from the ground. Clutch size is 

generally 4 or 5, with 3 or 6 infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Mockingbirds feed mainly on insects in summer, but they 

feed mainly on berries and other fruits, with some insects, 

in winter. 'They forage commonly on the ground, as well as 

in shrubs or small trees. Most foraging is within 30 feet (9 

m) of the ground. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial or bush gleaning insectivore- omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:295-319; Burleigh 1958:439; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:288; DeGraaf et al. 1980:352; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:468; Forbush and May 1939:367; Imhof 1976:299; 

James and Neal 1986:276; Lowery 1974:466; Mengel 

1965:354; Monroe et al. 1988:45; Oberholser 1974(11):646; 

Potter et al. 1980:267; Robbins et al. 1986:67; Robinson 

1990: 170; Root 1988: 199; Sprunt 1954:339; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:398; Stewart and Robbins 1958:238; 

Verner and Boss 1980:227. 
Brown Thrasher 

Tmstoma rufum BRTH 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C nearly throughout, but only FC in much of 

the Southern Appalachians, occurring sparingly up to 5500 

feet (1650 m). Wintering- mostly U in the Southern Appalachians and northern Kentucky; FC over most of the remainder of the region; becoming C in lower Georgia and 

over Florida. Fall migration mainly in October and November; spring migration most common in March. 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- favor brushy places, usually in drier habitats 

than those of the Gray Catbird. Frequent overgrown fields, 

woodland borders, thickets, open woods, and residential 

areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- moderate to dense cover or shrubs, saplings, 

and other brush. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) saplinglpolet~rnber live oak maritime. 5.9(8) sawumber oak-hickory , 8(2) sawtimber oak-gum-cy press, 8(2) 

grasslforb mixed pine-hardwood, 22(13) saplinglpoletimber 

elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded on 483 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966-1385; maximum route mean 

28 birds, overall mean 2.97 + 3.95 birdslroute, total of route 

means 2636 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5f 1) saplingpoletimber bay swamp-pocosin, 15(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 15(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, 18(3) sawtimber 

live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late March to late July, 

with the peak from late April to late May. The usual nest is 

built in a shrub or small tree in a thicket or hedgerow, and it 

is generally 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) from the ground. Four is the 

most common clutch size, with a range of 3 to 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Thrashers take mostly insects in the warmer months, and 

feed on insects, seeds, nuts, and other items in winter. They 

forage essentially within 10 feet (3 m) of the ground, commonly on the ground, as well as in low vegetation. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial or bush gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1948:35 1-374; Burleigh 1958:443; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:289; DeGraaf et al. 1980:356; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:470; Forbush and May 1939:371; Irnhof 1976:301; 

James and Neal 1986:276; Lowery 1974:469; Mengel 

1965:356: Monroe et al. 1988:45; Oberholser 1974(11):650; 

Potter et al. 1980:270; Robbins et al. 1986:71; Robinson 

1990: 170; Root 1988:201; Sprunt 1954:342; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:400; Stewart and Robbins 1958:24 1. 
Water Pipit 

An thus spinoletta WAPI 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- generally C in the Coastal Plain, south to 

central Florida; mostly FC farther north; R and irregular in 

the mountains. Breed north of the region. Fall arrival- late 

September to early November; spring departure- late 

March to late April. Winter in flocks of as many as 200 birds, 

and tend to be erratic from month to month at a given 

locality. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Always in short grass or bare ground; plowed fields are 

favored; also in pastures, airports, large lawns, and mudflats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive areas of bare ground or short grass. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.8(2) grasslforb longleaf pine slash pine, 0.8(2) grassiforb 

elm-ash-cottonwood, 92(1) grasslforb loblolly pineshortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Pipits forage solely on the ground, picking insects and 

other invertebrates from grass or the soil. Some seeds are 

taken. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:25-40; Burleigh 1958:467; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:478; Forbush and May 1939:390; Imhof 1976:313; 

James and Neal 1986:278; Lowery 1974:482; Mengel 

1965:37 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:45; Oberholser 1974(11):685; 

Potter et al. 1980:283; Rappole et al. 1983:212; Robinson 

1990:170; Root 1988:205; Sprunt 1954:357; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970:420; Stewart and Robbins 1958:256; 

Verner and Boss 1980:239. 
Sprague's Pipit 

An thus spraaueii SPPI 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter-Uncommon to Scarce in Texas and Oklahoma, 

Rare and local farther east to the prairie regions of Arkansas, 

northwestern Mississippi, western Tennessee, and the Gulf 

Coast into Alabama, late September to early April. 

1974 (II):6871, "fond of wet spots in alfalfa fields and 

short-grass prairie" (Sutton 1967:452). Rey leave the 

fields when the turf reaches 2.5-3 in (6-8 em; B. B. Coffey, 

pers. comm.) 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

ACCIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

czx3 ESJ WINTERING 

a BREEDING 

3- 17 birdslit0 ha recorded on a mowed airport, upland site, 

on 5 censuses in Louisiana. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Insects and weed seeds gleaned from the ground or herbaceous vegetation in a dry grassy field. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb gleaning omnivore 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter-Very early successional stages of upland forest 

types, agricultural areas such as pastures, shortgrass prairies, 

and particularly airports. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Extensive areas of short grass: "Very low turf on dry 

ground seems to be the favorite feeding ground" [Oberholser 

Barbour et al. 1973:64; Bent 195052; Burleigh 1958:469; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:478; Forbush and May 1939:392; Imhof 

1976:3 14; Jackson, ed., 1981:28; James and Neal 1986:278; 

King 198 1; Lowery 1974:483; Mengel 19655 18; Monroe 

et al. 1988:63; Oberholser 1974 (II):686; Potter et al. 

1980:284; Rappole et al. 1983:212; Robinson 1990: 17 1; 

Root 1988:205, 286; Sprunt 1954:358; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:421, 620: Sutton 1967:452. 
Cedar Waxwing 

Bombvcilla cedrorum CEDW 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- li" to FC in the mountains, occurring to the 

highest elevations; R and erratic in the Piedmont and Appalachian plateaus portion of the breeding range. Winteringerratic at this season, wandering about in large Rocks; generally C over most of the region, though somewhat less 

numerous in the mountains and in southern Florida. Fall 

arrival- early September to early November (very erratic); 

spring departure- early May to late May. 

GCIDENTAL LOW MEDlUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- prefer open, mature conifers in many situations; openings or margins of spruce-fir forests, hemlock 

or white pine forests, residential areas with scattered trees, 

groves, and margins of bogs. Infrequent in hardwoods in 

summer. Wintering- in many wooded habitats, usually 

near berry-bearing trees or shrubs; occur in open woods, 

groves, residential areas, and wooded thickets; rather uncommon in remote or extensive forests, and tend to favor 

broadleaf trees at this season. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- scattered trees or open woods, preferably in 

conifers in the mountains. Wintering- berry-bearing trees 

or shrubs. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1 (2) shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood, 15( 1 ) saplingpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 77 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 9 birds, overall mean 0.13 t- 0.66 

birdslroute, total of route means 1 19 birds. BBS information 

was not used in preparation of the map of breeding distribution. 

SAMPLE VVINTER DENSITIES 

3(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 3(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 48(4) shrublseedling oak-hickory, 147(3) sawtirnber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late May to late August, 

with the peak from mid-June to late July. Nests are built 

fairly high up in trees, usually 25 to 50 feet (8-15 m) from 

the ground. A conifer in the open is a favored site. The clutch 

size averages 4, with 3,4, or 5 the usual range. 

FOOD HABITS 

In the summer, waxwings feed primarily on insects, 

gleaned from the foliage of trees; in winter they take mainly 

berries from shrubs and trees. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree or bush foliage gleaning insectivorefrugivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 195079; Burleigh 1958:470; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:291; DeGraaf et al. 1980:378; Ehrlich et al. 1988:484; 

Forbush and May 1939:393; Imhof 19763 15; James and 

Neal 1986:279: Lowery 1974:484; Mengel 1965:372; Monroe et al. 1988:45; Oberholser 1974611):689; Potter et al. 

1980:285; Rappole et al. 1983:212; Robbins et al. 1986:83; 

Robinson 1990: 17 1 ; Root 1988:206; Sprunt 1954:359; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:42 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:257: Verner and Boss 1980:240. 
Loggerhead Shrike 

Lanius ludovicianus LOSH 

PROTECTION STATUS 

L. 1. migrans federally listed as category C2. State listed as 

Endangered in Virginia, as Threatened in North Carolina, as 

Special Concern in Oklahoma, and as Rare in West Virginia. 

Blue Listed by Tate (1981 j. Monitored by Arkansas Natural 

Heritage Commission, Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, South Carolina Heritage Trust Program. Forest 

Service sensitive on George Washington, Jefferson, and 

Ouachita National Forests. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C over most of Florida; FC in the Coastal Plain; mostly U 

northward, and VR above 2000 feet (600 m). There is an 

increase in shrike populations over the South in winter. 

Numbers of this species have slowly, though drastically, 

declined in the region over the past 2 decades, particularly 

north of Florida. 

[ ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH % 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- strictly in open country habitats; usually in 

open fields, pastures, and cultivated fields where there are 

scattered trees for nesting and telephone wires of fences for 

perching. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Open country with scattered trees or shrubs and conspicuous perches; a thorny shrub is a favored nesting site. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in 5 habitats, 5(1) grasslforb oak-hickory. Recorded on 448 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 32 birds, overall mean 

1.55 + 3.3 1 birdslroute, total of route means 1,374 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(10) grass/forb elm-ash-cottonwood, 3.4(5) grasslforb 

oak-hickory, 6.2(4) saplingfpoletimber pine savanna. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late February (in Florida) 

to early July, with a peak from late March to late April. Nests 

are built in trees or shrubs in open country, usually 5 to 20 

feet (1.5-6 m) from the ground, and often in thorny shrubs. 

The clutch size is usually 4 or 5, with 6 being rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Shrikes watch for prey from a conspicuous perch, particularly from a telephone wire, and drop to the ground when a 

food item is observed. In summer they feed mainly on large 

insects, but in winter they feed on large insects, rodents, and 

small birds. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial pouncing insectivore or 

carnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950: 13 1- 18 1; Burleigh 1958:473-476; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:293; DeGraaf et al. 1980:382; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:466; Forbush and May 1939:397; Imhof 1976:317; 

James and Neal 1986:281; Lowery 1974:485; Mengel 

1965:374; Monroe et al. 1988:45; Oberholser 1974(11):694; 

Potter et al, 1980:287; Rappole et al. 1983:2 13; Robbins et 

al. 1986:83; Robinson 1990: 172; Root 1988:208; Sprunt 

1954:360; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:422; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:259; Verner and Boss 1980:242. 
European Star 

Sturnus vulgaris EUST 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

A, essentially everywhere, though not common at higher 

elevations; generally absent above 5W0 feet (1500 m). 

Occur in tremendous flocks in the non-breeding season, at 

times roosting in numbers of over a million birds. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- abundant in cities, towns, open residential 

areas, farms, and other places where humans live; not common in wooded residential areas. In the winter, forage in 

various urban and rural open country habitats, but the birds 

tend to roost in large flocks in woods, especially in moist 

and dense ones. Swamp forests or dense stands of pines are 

favored for roosting. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- a cavity, ledge, or cranny in open country, 

espwially around human habitation. Wintering- no essential requirements, though favor urban areas or farmlands for 

foraging. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0,7(12) grsslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 28(2) grasslforb 

mixed plne-hardwood. Recorded on 56 1 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 291 birds, 

overall mean 17.56 k 33.60 birdslroute, total of route means 

15,592 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

2(1) shrublseedling Virginia pine-pitch pine, 2(2) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 54(9) grasslforb oak-hickory, 

85(3) sawtimber live oak maritime, 148(28) grasslforb elmash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-March to mid-June, 

with the peak form early April to early May. Nests are placed 

in a variety of sites, usually in cavities or crannies of some 

kind. Common sites are old woodpecker holes, knotholes, 

crannies in buildings, and ledges on buildings. Clutch size 

is commonly 4 or 5, but 6 eggs are not unusual. 

FOOD HABITS 

Starlings forage mainly on insects in the summer, picking 

or probing into the ground for food. They take insects, 

berries, other fruits, and many additional items in winter. 

Human garbage is consumed at all seasons. Some foraging 

is done in trees or shrubs. 

GUILD 

Cavity or ledge nesting, terrestrial gleaning or probing 

omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:182; Burleigh 1958:476; Crase and DeHaven 

1975; DeCraaf and Rudis 1986:294; DeGraaf et al. 

1980:384; Dolbeer and Stehn 1979; Ehrlich et al. 1988:488; 

Forbush and May 1939399; Imhof 1976:319; James and 

Neal 1986:282; Lowery 1974:487; Mengel 1965:376; Monroe et al. 1988:46; Oberholser 1974(11):697; Potter et al. 

1980:289; Robbins et al. 1986:87; Robinson 1990: 173; Root 

1988:209, 286; Scott et al. 1977:86; Sprunt 1954:362; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:424; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:260; USDI Fish & WildI. Serv. 1980; Verner and Boss 

1 980: 243. 
White-eyed Vireo 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C nearly throughout; most abundant in the 

Coastal Plain; FC to C in lower mountains, ranging upward 

to approximately 4000 feet (1200 m). Wintering- FC to C 

in the southern half of Florida, decreasing to Li in the outer 

Coastal Plain frorn Texas to Georgia and South Carolina. 

Spring arrival- mid-March to mid-April; fall departureearly October to late October. 

r ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- primarily in dense thickets, especially where 

moist; common habitats are streamside shrubbery, swamp 

borders and openings, willow thickets, and damp tangles. 

Wintering- generally in evergreen shrubs and vines in 

woodland understory, wood margins, or thickets; seldom 

away from dense cover of shrubs or saplings. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- dense, and usually moist, thickets. Wintering- dense thickets where cover is mainly evergreen. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 14(5) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 28(5) saptinglpoletimber oakgum-cypress. Recorded on 489 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 82 birds, overall 

mean 4.37 Ifi 7.97 birdsfroute, total of route means 3,882 

birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(2) saplingfpoletimber pine savanna, l(4) sawtimber 

mixed pine-hardwood, 6.8(4) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash 

pine, lO(1) saplingfpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub 

oak, 17(1) saplingfpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends frorn late March to mid-July, with a 

peak frorn early May to late May. Nests are placed in shrubs, 

vine tangles, or small trees, generally 3 to 6 feet (1-2 m) 

above the ground, and often well hidden in a thicket. Four 

eggs represent the usual clutch, but 3 or 5 eggs are not rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Insects are the major food item throughout the year, though 

some berries are taken in winter. White-eyed Vireos forage 

almost exclusively between 3 and 15 feet (1-5 m) of the 

ground, gleaning insects from leaves and twigs. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:227-24 1 ; Burleigh 1958:478-483; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1936295; DeCraaf et al. 1980:386; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:488; Forbush and May 1939:401; Imhof 1976:32 1 ; 

James and Neal 1986:234; Lowery 1974:490; Mengel 

1965:377; Monroe et al. 1988:46; Oberholser 1974(11):702; 

Potter et al. 1980:290; Rappole et al. 1983:213; Robbins et 

al. 1936:37; Robinson 1990: 174; Root l988:209; Sprunt 

1954: 364; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:426; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:262. 
's Vireo 

Vireo b ellii BEVI 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentrf.ntw3mtuf ltm cky Academy of 

Sciences and Nature Preserves Commissz~s zssS;~ss~~rsm. and in Oklahoma. Blue Listed by Tate (1982). Monitoli itear) Stomared by Louisiana 

Natural Heritage Program, Tennessee Nat- rSmttirjr_st aral Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding-Uncommon to Rare in Texa r-llrsxai~ -.as and Oklahoma, 

late March-early August, Rare to locally 0 --C3 CTr C ornrnon in northern Arkansas, and Very Rare In southesr%&esme 4_rer31 Arkansas and 

northwestern Louisiana. 

CIDENTAL LOW MEDlUY HIGH 

IlNTERIN63K NC;3M%NG 3 PI EPRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding-Shrublseedling and sapling stfz sme stfzzs-ttands of elms, persimmon, willow, and locust, areas alonyn-nsrr ngyn = stIeams and in 

bottomlands, such as mesquite (Prosopis z"& zEs SF.) thickets, and 

cottonwood-willow stands. They also bree*-eesseee&=d in upland scrub 

oak stands, wild plum and sumac thickets~=r=t=~=twms ,, hedgerows, and 

mulberry shelterbelts. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding-Streamside thickets or upland scrub c 

stands; shrubby places in open areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded densities in the region range from 0.6-2 pairs

ha on 4 eastern Oklahoma censuses, 1 in virgin tallgr 

prairie and the rest in open canopy sawtimber elm-ash-c 

tonwood riparian vegetation. A single record of 1 pair/40 

in sawtimber Longleaf Pine-Slash Pine has been publish 

Recorded on 64 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 19 

maximum route mean 48 birds, overall mean 0.21 rfi 2 

birds/route, total of route means 186 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

These western counterparts of White-eyed Vireos 

griseus) hang their typical dangling-cup Vireo nest il 

shrub or small tree usually below 6 ft (2 m). The clutct 

3-5, usually 4 eggs, laid in May or June. J. Neal (pr 

comm.) notes a high incidence of Brown-headed Cowt 

(Molothrus ater) parasitism in Arkansas nests. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage at low heights in the interior of shrubs or sn 

trees, occasionally large trees, where they glean insel 

particularly grasshoppers, and other small invertebrate 2 

mals. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, herb or bush foliage gleaning insectivor

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:66; Bent 1950:253; Eagar and Hatc 

1982:A-109; Ehrlich et al. 1988:492; Forbush and h. 

1939:402; Imhof 1976:321; James and Neal 1986:2 

Lowery 1974:490; Mengel 1965:5 18; Monroe et 

1988:46; Oberholser 1974 (II):704; Potter et al. 1980:2 

Rappole et al. 1983:213; Robbins et al. 1986:87; Robin 

1990: 174; Sprunt 1954:501; Sutton 1967:477; Verner I 

Boss 1980:245. 
itary Vireo 

Vireo solitarius sow 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C and widespread in the Southern Appalachians, ranging to the highest elevations 16684 feet, 2018 m); 

mostly R and local in the Piedmont, though a moderate 

population exists in central North Carolina. Wintering- C 

in Florida and the Outer Coastal Plain; FC in the Inner 

Coastal Plain portion of the range; U to R farther inland. 

Spring arrival- mid-March to mid-April; fall departurelate October to mid-November. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in the mountains, in many forest types, but 

favor mixed coniferous-hardwood forests; spruce-fir, hemlock, and white pine forests; hardwood forests mainly above 

3500 feet (1050 m). In the Piedmont and mountain foothills, 

they inhabit mature pine forests of many types, but favor 

loblolly pine. Wintering- usually with chickadees, titmice, 

and kinglets in mixed woods or pine forests; often found in 

broadleaf evergreen trees. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- middle-aged to mature forests, mainly in the 

mountains. Wintering- woods of many types; no other 

essential requirements. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

3(l) shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood, 3.3(8) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 16(31 sawtimber white pinehemlock, 2812) sawtimber spruce-fir. Recorded on 30 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 

13 birds, overall mean 0.06 + 0.6 1 birdslroute, total of route 

means 5 1 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 

9(1) saplingfpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-April to early July, 

with a peak from late April to mid-May. Build nests in 

saplings or trees, commonly 5 to 10 feet (1.5-3 m) from the 

ground, but frequently in the canopy. Four is the usual clutch 

size, but 3 or 5 are also common. 

FOOD HABITS 

Insects are the main food item in summer; in winter, 

insects, larvae, and insect eggs are the primary items. The 

birds glean their food from leaves or twigs, mainly in the 

canopies of hardwoods and conifers. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERE CES 

Bent 1950:290-308; Burleigh 1958:485-489; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:296; DeGraaf et al. 1980:390; Ehrlich et aI. 

1988:494; Forbush and May 1939:404; Imhof 1976:324; 

James and Neal 1986:286; Lowery 1974:492; Mengel 

1965:380; Monroe et al. 1988:46; Oberholser 1974(11):708; 

Potter et al. 1980:292; Rappole et al. 1983:214; Robbins et 

al. 1986:89; Robinson 1990: 175; Root 1988:210; Sprunt 

1954:367; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:429,430; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:264; Verner and Boss 1980:246. 
ow-throated V 

Vireo fla vifrons YTVI 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally F;G over nearly all its range; U over 

much of Florida; in the mountains, range up to 3500 feet 

(1050 m). Wintering-- R to U in extreme southern Florida. 

Spring arrival--- mid- March to mid-April; fall departurelate September to mid-October. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- a wide variety of woodlands, favor mature 

deciduous trees in a fairly open setting, especially where 

moist. Habitats include streamside groves, parks, open hardwoods, woodland borders, and rather open bottomlands; 

avoid pure coniferous forests. Wintering- usually in mature, open to medium-growth broadleaf evergreen woods 

(hammocks). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- tall deciduous trees, usually near water and in 

a fairly open stand. Wintering- mature or medium-sized 

trees, usually broadleaf evergreens. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.3(2) sawtimber loblotly pine- shortleaf pine, 9(5) sawtirnber cove hardwoods. 9.8(4) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. 

Recorded on 343 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 16 birds, overall mean 0.74 t1.67 birddroute, total of route means 655 birds. 

The breeding season extends from late April to mid-July, 

with the peak from mid-May to early June. Typical nest is 

suspended inside the fork of two twigs of a tree, usually a 

deciduous one and generally 15-50 feet (5-15 m) from the 

ground. The most common clutch size is 4, with 3 or 5 

infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed almost solely on insects, gleaned from leaves and 

twigs of hardwood trees at least 20 feet (6 m) from the 

ground. Almost never seen below 15 feet (5 m) from the 

ground. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:276; Burleigh 1958:483; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:297; DeGraaf et al. 1980:388: Ehrlich et al. 1988:490; 

Forbush and May 1939:403; Imhof 1976:322; James and 

Neal l986:286; Lowery 1974: 492; Mengel 1965:379; Monroe et al. 1988:46; Oberholser 1974(11):707; Potter et al. 

1980:292; Rappole et al. 1983:214; Robbins et al. 1986:89; 

Robinson 1990: 176; Root 1988:210; Sprunt 1954:366; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:428; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:263. 
ing Vireo 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Signrficantly Rare In North Carolma, as 

Poorly Known in Alabama. Monitored by Louisiana Natural 

Heritage Program, Tennessee Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C in western Kentucky: U to locally FC 

in the western parts of the range, along Iarge streams and 

rivers; C in a few areas. Winter south of the United States. 

Spring arrival- mid-April to late April; fall departuremid-September to late September. 

A L 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Strictly in open mature hardwoods; restricted in the South 

to open hardwoods along rivers and large streams; do not 

occur in forests, but only where hardwoods line streams and 

riciers in open country. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Scattered hardwoods ~n open countv, espec~aily near a 

stream or ricer. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 97 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985: maximum route mean 9 birds, overall mean 0.13 rt 

0.67 birdslroute, total of route means 118 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with the peak probably from late May to early June. Nests 

are built in hardwood trees, usually in the canopy and well 

out on branches. The clutch size is most commonly 4, with 

3 or 5 less frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

The food is generally insects, with a few other invertebrates taken. The prey are gleaned from leaves and twigs in 

the canopy of deciduous trees. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:362-378; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:298; DeGraaf et al. 1980:396; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A): 1 1 1 ; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:498; Forbush and May 1939:408; Imhof 

1976:327; James and Neal 1986:287; Lowery 1974:496; 

Mengel 1965:385; Monroe et al. 1988:46; Oberholser 

1974(11):714; Potter et al. 1980:296; Rappole et al. 

1983:2 15; Robbins et al. 1986:89; Robinson 1990: 176; 

Sprunt 1954:373; Stewart and Robbins 1958:268; Verner 

and Boss 1980:247. 
Red-eyed Vireo 

Vireo oliiaceus REVI 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC over most of the South; somewhat 

less numerous jn the Outer Coastal Plain; range up to 5000 

feet (1501) m) in the mountains. Winter south of the United 

States. Spring arrival- late hfarch to late April; fall departure- early October to late October. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Deciduous forests of many types; favor mature hardwood 

forests, both in uplands and bottomlands; also found in 

mixed woods, even in the deciduous understory of pinewoods. Not common in open woods, such as parks or groves. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous forests. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

I (1) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 1.612) 

shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood, 29(34) sawtimb-er 

oak-hickory ,3 116) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 3212) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, CiO(11) sawtimber cove 

hardwoods. Recorded on 447 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 83 birds, overall 

mean 4.23 + 9.31 birds/route, totat of route means 3,760 

birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from early May to late July, 

with the peak from late May to mid-June. The nest is a 

typical Vireo one, suspended from twigs in a tree at a 

moderate height; usually in a deciduous tree. Four is the 

most common clutch size, with 3 infrequent and 5 rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and other small invertebrates from leaves 

and twigs in the canopy of hardwood trees. Seldom forage 

in conifers or in saplings. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:335; Burleigh 1958:489; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:300; DeGraaf et al. 1980:392; Ehrlich et al. 1988:496; 

Forbush and May 1939:406; Imhof 1976:325; James and 

Neal 1986:289; Lowery 1974:494; Mengel 1965:382; Monroe et al. 1988:47; Oberholser 1974(11):711; Potter et al. 

1980:294; Rappole et al. 1983:215; Robbins et al. 1986:89; 

Robinson 1990: 177; Root 1988:2 1 1 ; Sprunt 1954:370; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:431; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:265. 
Black-whiskered Vireo 

Vireo altiloauus BWVI 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the Florida Keys: FC or C in most of the 

remainder of its range in the region. Winter to the south of 

the United States. Spring arrival- late March to late April; 

fall departure- mid-September to early October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Primarily in dense mangroves, also in other fairly dense, 

broadleaf woods (such as hammocks); seldom far from the 

coast. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Broadleaf, usually evergrepn, woods or thickets in the 

vicinity of the coast. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. Recorded on 6 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 80 birds, overall mean 

0.16 k 3.02 birdslroute, total of route means 143 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season apparently extends from late May to 

late June, but the peak is not certain, as rather few nests with 

eggs have been reported fkom Florida. Nests are built in trees 

or shrubs, in dense cover, generally 5 to 15 feet (1.5-5 m) 

from the ground. The clutch size is usually 3, but frequently 

2. 

FOOD HABITS 

These vireos feed mainly on insects, with a few berries or 

other fruits taken. Foraging is by gleaning items from foliage 

of trees or saplings, mainly over 10 feet (3 m) from the 

ground. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1950:316; Ehrlich et al. 1988:496; Forbush and May 

1939:405; Irnhof 1976:324; Kale 1978:59; Lowery 

1974:493; Oberholser 1974(11):710; Potter et al. 1980:293; 

Rappole et al. 1983:214; Sprunt 1954:368. 
Bachman's Warbler 

Vermivora bachmanii snwn 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as Endangered. State listed as Endangered 

in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Garolina, Texas, and Virginia. Monitored by Tennessee Natural 

Heritage Program, 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- extremely R, possibly even extinct; a few 

recent sight reports, mainly from Francis Marion National 

Forest, South Carolina, but the last confirmed report was in 

the early 1960's. In the past breeding has been most frequent 

in I'On Swamp in that forest. These birds have always been 

rare and local, though considerably more numerous at the 

turn of the century. Winter in Cuba. Spring arrival- late 

February to mid-March; fall departure- late July to early 

September (departure dates poorly known). 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Bottomland forests or swamps with dense shrub layer, 

particularly in the vicinity of openings or internal edges. 

Almost always in hardwood forests; a preference for areas 

with blackbenies or cane, 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Moist deciduous forests with dense shrub layer, espec~ally 

where openings in the canopy are present. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from late March to mid-June, with the 

peak from late March to early April. Nests are generally less 

than 3 feet (1 m) from the ground, placed in dense shrub or 

vine tangles in swamps or bottomlands. The clutch size is 

usually 3 or 4, rarely 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

These warblers feed primarily in the mlddle and lower 

portions of hardwood trees and in shrubs, gleaning insects 

from leaves and twigs. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush or tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:67; Burleigh 1958504; Eagar and Hatcher 

1982(A): 13; Ehrlich et al. 1988:504,505; Forbush and May 

1939:4 1 6; Hamel 198 1 ; Hamel 1986; Hamel 1988; Hooper 

and Hamel 1977; Imhof 1976:337; James and Neal 

1986:290; Kale 1978: 13; Lowery 1974:498; Mengel 

1965:396; Monroe et a]. 1988:47; Oberholser 1974(11):724; 

Potter et al. 1980:305; Rappole et al. 1983:217; Sprunt 

1954:382; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:439. 
ue-winged Warb 

Vermivora pinus BWWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Significantly Rare in North Carolina. hfonitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to U in the Ozarks and much of the interior 

Inw plateaus; mostly U in the mountains of Georgia and 

extreme southwestern North Carolina, but R and local in the 

Virginia mountains; primarily occur below 2000 feet (600 

rn), and absent above 2500 feet (750 m); VR to R, and local, 

in the Piedmont portion of the range. Winter to the south of 

the United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to early May; 

fall departure- early September to mid-September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor overgrown fields or thickets, on fairly level ground. 

Often occur in moist situations, such as streamside shrubbery, but are not birds of dense thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous shrubs or saplings in a variety of situations (in 

open country). 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 54 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 8 birds, overall mean 0.06 + 0.48 

birdsfroute, total of route means 56 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with a peak from late May to early June. Build nests on or 

near the ground, in grass clumps or other dense herbaceous 

cover in old fields or thickets. The clutch size is most 

commonly 5, with 6 being frequent; 4 or 7 are rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Habits are very similar to those of Golden-winged Warblers. Forage mainly on insects, gleaned from the vegetation 

of shrubs or saplings, and less commonly in herbaceous 

cover. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 195358; Burleigh 1958502; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:301; DeCraaf et al. 1980:406; Ehrlich et al. 1988:500; 

Forbush and May 1939:415; Imhof 1976:335; James and 

Neal 1986:290; Lowery 1974501 ; Mengel 1965:394; Monroe et al. 1988:47; Oberholser 1974(11):723; Potter et at. 

1980:303; Rappole et al. 1983:217; Robbins et al. 1986:92; 

Robinson 1990: 178; Sprunt 1954:38 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:439; Stewart and Robbins 1958:276. 
Golden-winged Warbler 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commrssion. Blue 

Listed by Tate (198 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U over most of the Southern Appalachians, but 

FC in southwestern Worth Carolina and the Cumberland 

Plateau; range from 1000-5000 feet (300- 1500 rn), but most 

numerous between 2000-4000 feet (600- 1200 rn). Winter 

south of the United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to 

early May; fall departure- mid-September to late September. 

WINTERING 

BRBEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor abandoned fields with scattered deciduous saplings 

up to 25 feet (8 m) high; occasionally in open woods; also 

in woodland borders where saplings are present. Generally 

on hillsides rather than in valleys. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous saplings rn the mountains, especially In black 

Iocust (Robi~ia pseudo-acacia.) 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

14(2) shrublseedfing rnixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 

17 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maxirnum 

route mean 9 birds, overall mean 0.02 k 0.32 birdslroute, 

total of route means 18 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with the peak from late May to early June. Nests are built on 

or near the ground in abandoned fields or wood margins, and 

are well hidden in tall grasses or near the bases of saplings. 

The clutch size is usually 4 or 5; 6 or 7 eggs are rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds glean insects and other small invertebrates 

from the leaves and twigs of deciduous shrubs and saplings; 

only infrequently forage on the ground in tall grasses. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:47; Burleigh 1958:501; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986302; DeGraaf et al. 1980:404; Ehrlich et al. 1988:502; 

Forbush and May 1939:4 13; Irnhof 1976:334; James and 

Neal 1986:292; Lowery 1974:500; Mengel 1965:394; Monroe et al. 1988:47; Oberholser 1974(11):'721; Potter et al. 

1980:302; Rappole et al. 1983:216; Robbins et al. 1986:92; 

Robinson 1990: 179; Sprunt 1954:380; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:438; Stewart and Robbins 1958:275. 
Orange-crowned Warb 

Vermivora cela ta OCWA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Vciintering- FC over most of Florida and the Outer 

Coastal Plain, east to southeastern South Carolina; mostly 

U over the remainder of the Wintering range. Breed north 

and west of the region. Fa11 arrival- early October to early 

November; spring departure- early April to early May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Various types of thickets or brush; favor waxmyrtle thickets, wood margins, abandoned fields, hedgerows, and other 

shrubby areas; frequently in rather open woods, especially 

in broadleaf evergreens; also in weedy fields with sparrows. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Dense cover of shrubs, saplings, or herbs preferred, though 

no strict requirements. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, l(1) saplinglpoletimber bay swamp-pocosin, 1(1) saplinglpoletimber Iongleaf pine-slash pine, i(1) sawtimber longleaf 

pine-slash pine, l(3) sawtimber live oak maritime, l(2) 

sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 5(1) saplinglpoletimber 

oak-gum-cy press. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

The food items consist both of insects and berries, gleaned 

from leaves or twigs from shrubs or saplings (primarily), 

trees, or from herbaceous vegetation. 

GUILD 

Bush or herb gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:89- 104; Burleigh 1958:506; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:504; Forbush and May 1939:417; Imhof 1976:339; 

James and Neal 1986:293; Lowery 1974503; Mengel 

1965:397; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 1974(11):725; 

Potter et al. 1980:307; Rappole et al. 1983:217; Robbins et 

al. 1986:92; Robinson 1990: 18 1 ; Root 1988:212; Sprunt 

1954:385; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:443; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:279; Verner and Boss 1980:248. 
Nashvi e Warb 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West 

Virginia Nabral Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive 

on the George Wshington National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R and local, at high elevations in Virginia 

(mainly over 4000 feet, 1200 m); exact status is poorly 

known. Winter to the south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- late April to early May; fall departure- early 

October to mid-October. 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Mainly in small to medium-sized spruce or fir trees, such 

as along the margins of high elevation bogs and in spruce-fir 

forests and margins. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Spruce or fir trees or saplings. 

REPRODUCTION 

Apparently, no nest has been discovered in the South, 

though they are presumed to breed in Virginia. The season 

probably extends from mid- May to late June. Build nests 

on the ground, well hidden in mossy hummocks, tall grasses, 

or at the bases of trees or shrub. The clutch size is almost 

always 4 or 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed almost entirely on insects, larvae, and other small 

invertebrates. These items are gleaned from the leaves and 

twigs of shrubs and saplings, both hardwood and coniferous. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953: 105-1 18; Burleigh 1958507; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:304; DeGraaf et al. 1980:410; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:506; Forbush and May 1939:4 18; Imhof 1976:340; 

James and Neal 1986:293; Lowery 1974503; Mengel 

1965:398; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 1974(11):727; 

Potter et al. 1980:308; Rappole et al. 1983:2 18; Robbins et 

al. 1986:92; Robinson 1990: 182; Root 1988:211, 287; 

Sprunt 1954:386; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:445; Stewart and Robbins 1958:279; Verner and Boss 1980:249. 
fa-* 

kcNorthern Paru 

Parula americana NOPA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding C to VC in most of the Coastal Plain, especially 

in the Outer Coastal Plain; generally FC to C in the rnountains; mostly IJ elsewhere. Wintering- 17 over most of 

Florida range, but FC in the extreme south. Spring arrivalmid-March to mid-April; fall departure- early October to 

fate October. 

WNTERMG 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont, mainly in 

swamps and bottomland forests, especially where Spanish 

moss (Tillandsia usneoides) and Ustrea are common. In the 

mountains, favor hemlock or mixed hemlock-hardwood forest, particularly along streams, but occur in pure hardwood 

forests and other forests also. Wintering- in woodlands or 

forests, mainly in broadleaf evergreens. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- forests ot many types, but usually mature and 

rnorst ones where Spantsh moss or Lffrtea grow. Wintering- woodlands, rnainly broadleaf evergreen ones. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

3.45) saplinglpoletimber oak- hickory, 34(2) sapIin@poietimber Iive oak maritime, 36(5) sawtimber oakgum-cypress, 44(2) sapling/poletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

Recorded on 352 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 47 birds, overall mean 1.3 1 -t3.66 birdslroute, total of route means 1,164 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

10(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 12(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early April to late June, 

with the peak from late April to mid-May. Build nests in 

trees, generally at medium heights, and especially in clumps 

of Spanish moss or Usnea. The clutch size is usually 4 or 5, 

with a range of 3 to 7. 

FOOD HABITS 

At all seasons the primary items are insects, insect eggs, 

and larvae. These foods are gleaned from the vegetation of 

hardwood or coniferous trees, mainly in the canopy. Seldom 

forage within 25 feet (8 m) of the ground. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953: 135- 148; Burleigh 1958:509; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:305; DeCraaf et al. 1980:412; Ehrlich et al. 

19885 10; Forbush and May 1939:4 19; Imhof 1976:340; 

James and Neal 1986:294; Lowery 1974:504; Mengel 

1965:398; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 1974(11):73 1 ; 

Potter et al. 1980:308; Rappole et al. 1983:219; Robbins et 

al. 1986:92; Robinson 1990: 182; Root 19882 13; Sprunt 

1954:387; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:445,446; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:280. 
ow Warbler 

PROTECTION STATUS 

D. p. gundlachi listed as Special Concern in Florida. Blue 

Listed by Tate (198 1). Monitored by Arkansas Natural 

Heritage Commission, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the Southerr? Appalachians and parts of 

the upper Piedmont, interior low plateaus, and Ozarks; 

mostly U in the lower Piedmont and Coastal Plain portions 

of the range, though FC to C over nearly all of Virginia; a 

separate race occurs in extreme southern Florida. Majority 

of the breeding population winters south of the United 

States. Spring arrival- early April to late April; fall departure- early September to mid-October, but most of the 

migration occurs in July and August. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor willow thickets along streams, ponds, 

and lakes; in the mountains, also comrnon in shrubs and 

saplings in farmyards and other open places; essentially only 

in mangrove thickets in Florida. Wintering- hammocks, 

mangroves, or other shrubby places. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- broadleaf saplings or shrubs ln open country, 

Wintering- broadleaf evergreen shrubs or saplings. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1 ( 1 ) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 57(18) sapilinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 149 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 27 birds, overall mean 0.35 + 1.76 

birdslroute, total of route means 309 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early May to mid-June, 

with a peak from mid-May to late May. Nests are built in 

shrubs or small trees, usdally 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) off the 

ground. They are usually in areas of scattered trees or shrubs, 

and not often in thickets. Clutch size is 3-6, usually 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Insects and other small invertebrates form the bulk of the 

diet. They glean, and occasionally flycatch, food in the 

vegetation of hardwood shrubs and saplings, generally 

within 20 feet (6 m) of the ground. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953: 160- 194; Burleigh 19585 12-5 15; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:306; DeGraaf et al. 1980:414; Ehrlich et al. 

1988532; Forbush and May 1939:421; Imhof 1976:341; 

James and Neal 1986:294; Kale 1978:6 1 ; Lowery 1974:506; 

Mengel 1965:400; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 

1974(II):734; Potter et al. 1980:309; Rappole et at. 

1983:219; Robbins et al, 1986:94; Robinson 1990: 183; Root 

1988:214,287; Sprunt 1954:389-391; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:447; Stewart and Robbins 1958:282; Verner and 

Boss 1980:250. 
Chestnut-sided Warb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC in the mountains over 3500 feet (1050 

m); occur sparingly down to 2000 feet (600 m). Winter to 

the south of the United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to 

early May; fall departure- late September to mid-October. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

6(1) sawtimber cove hardwo=>ds, 36(2) shrub/seedling 

mixed pine-hadwood. Recorded on 19 of 888 BBS routes 

in the South, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 30 birds, 

overall mean 0.07 + 1.14 birdsfroute, total of route means 

61 birds. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor second growth woods and overgrown fields; most 

numerous in abandoned fields with scattered saplings, but 

also common along woodland edges and in open, parklike 

woods. Generally in hardwoods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous (usually) saplings or open, middle-aged woods. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to early July, 

with the peak from late May to early June. The typical nest 

is located 1-4 feet ( m) from the ground in a sapling or shrub, 

in an overgrown fieid or thicket. The usual clutch size is 4, 

with 3 being rare and 5 very rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

This species feeds essentially on insects gleaned from 

leaves and twigs. Most foraging is done in saplings, shrubs, 

and low in trees; mainly in deciduous vegetation. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:367; Burleigh 1958532; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986307; DeGraaf et al. 1980:430; Ehrlich et al. 1988:516; 

Forbush and May 1939:433; Imhof 1976352; James and 

Neal 1986:297; Lowery 1974507; Mengel 1965:4 13; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 1974(11):761; Potter et al. 

1980:319; Rappole et al. 1983:223; Robbins et al. 1986:96; 

Robinson 1990: 184; Sprunt 1954:402; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:463; Stewart and Robbins 1958:293. 
Magno ia Warb 

Dendroica ma anolia MAWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored by Virginia Mabrait Heritage Program. Forest Service 

sensitive, Jefferson and George Washington National Forests. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in northwestern Highland County, Virginia; 

R to U elsewhere at high elevations in Virginia; VR to R in 

exbeme northwestern North Carolina, where breding status 

is unclear; occur south to Roan Mountain. Wintering- R to 

U in extreme southern Florida. Spring arrival- late April to 

early May; fall departure- early October to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor spruce or fir forests, both mature stands 

or fairly young ones; also around the edges of bogs where 

spruce or fir occur; probably occur sparingly in hemlock 

forests; avoid pure hardwood forests, but rnay occur in 

mixed forests. Wintering- hammocks or other broadleaf 

evergreen woods. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- spruce andfor fir trees, in several situations: 

rarely in hemlocks. Wintering- broadleaf evergreen 

woods. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late May to late June. 

with a probable peak in early June and mid-June. Nests are 

usually built in conifers, mostly 3-10 feet (1-3 m) off the 

ground, but occasionally over 30 feet (9 m) from the ground. 

Four is the usual clutch size, rarely 3 or 5. As only one nest 

with eggs has been reported for the Southeast, data in this 

section are based on those gathered from elsewhere in the 

breeding range. 

FOOD HABITS 

Magnolia Warblers glean insects from the foliage of trees 

and saplings, usually in conifers. Forage at variable heights, 

but seldom on the ground. 

Bush or tree nesting, bush or tree foliage gleanrng insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953: 195; Burleigh 1958515; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:308; DeGraaf et al. 1980:416; Ehrlich et al. 1988:518; 

Forbush and May 1939:422; Imhof 1976343; James and 

Neal 1986:297; Lowery 197455 14; Mengel 1965:401; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 1974(11):737; Potter et al. 

1980:3 1 1 ; Rappole et al. 1983:2 19; Robbins et al. 1986:94; 

Robinson 1990: 184; Root 1988:215; Sprunt 1954:391; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:449; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:283. 
Cape May Warb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- U in extreme southern Florida. Breed to the 

north of the region, and the bulk of the nesting population 

&linters south of the United States. Fall arr~vaf- late September; spring departure- early May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Mainly in coastal hammocks; probably also occur in other 

broadleaf evergreen woods or thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Broadleaf evergreen woods. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the Southeast. 

FOOD HABITS 

Primarily insectivorous. In the fall and winter, fruit, such 

as grapes and berries, and nectar, are eaten as well. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush foliage gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:2 12; Burleigh l958:5 16; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:309; DeGraaf et al. 1980:418; Ehrlich et al. 1988514; 

Forbush and May 1939:423; Imhof 1976:343; James and 

Neal 1986:297; Lowery 19745 13; Mengel 1965:402; Monroe et al. 1988:48; Oberholser 1974(11):739; Potter et al. 

1980:312; Rappole et al. 1983:220; Robbins et al. 1986:94; 

Robinson 1990: 185; Root 1988:215; Sprunt 1954:392; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:451; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:284. 
ack-throated B ue Warb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C and widespread throughout the Southern 

Appalachians, over 5500 feet (1050 m); less numerous down 

to 2500 feet (750 m) and on Cumberland Pldreau in Kentucky and Tennessee. Wintering- U in extreme southern 

Florida. Spring arrival- mid-April to late April; fall departure- early October to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- a wide variety of forest types; favor mediurngrowth forests with a moderate to dense understory, especially rhododendron or mountain laurel; inhabit mixed forest, pure hardwoods, and even spruce-fir. Winteringessentially in broadleaf evergreen woods (hammocks). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- montane forests with a moderate to rich understory. Wintering- broadleaf evergreen woods. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

3(1) shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood, 49(3) sawtimber white pine-hemlock, 56(2) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 14 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966- 1985; maximum route mean 16 birds, overall mean 

0.05 + 0.70 birdslroute, total of route means 49 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with the peak from late May to early June. Nests are generally placed 1 to 4 feet (<1.5 m) from the ground in shrubs or 

small trees and are usually not well hidden. Rhododendrons 

are the favored sites for nests. The usual clutch size is 4, with 

3 infrequent and 5 rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects from twigs and leaves of hardwoods or 

conifers. Forage commonly from the middle of the crown 

down to the shrub and sapling layer. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, tree or bush foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:224-238; Burleigh 19585 17-520; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:310; DeCraaf et al. 1980:420; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:5 12; Forbush and May 1939:424, 425; Imhof 

1976:344; James and Neal 1986:298; Lowery 1974508; 

Mengel 1965:402; Monroe et al. 1988:49; Oberholser 

1974(11):740; Potter et al. 1980:312; Rappole et al. 

1983:220; Robbins et al. 1986:94; Robinson 1990: 186; Root 

1988:2 16; Sprunt 1954:393-394; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:452,453; Stewart and Robbins 1958:285. 
ow-rumped 

Dendroica coronata 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- A in the Coastal Plain, particularly along the 

coast; mostly C in the remainder of Georgia and South 

Carolina; declining in numbers northward, and only U to FC 

in northern parts of the region; R to U at higher elevations. 

Breed to the north. Fall arrival- late September to mid-October; spring departure- early May to mid-May. 

DENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Extremely widespread in wooded habitats; especially common in coastal waxmyrtle thickets; also common in bottomland hardwoods and swamps, woodland borders, 

pinewoods, overgrown fields, and thickets. Generally prefer 

moist habitats to dry and upland ones. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Trees or shrubs; no specific requirements. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) shntblseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 1(3) grasslforb 

oak-hickory, 1 10(4) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 

203(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 4 13(1) 

shrub/seedling live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Myrtle Warblers commonly take berries and seeds, as well 

as large numbers of insects, insect eggs, and larvae. They 

glean food from leaves and twigs, ranging from the canopy 

of mature trees to shrubs and saplings; infrequently forage 

on the ground. Some flycatching is also done. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree foliage gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:239-274; Burleigh 1958:520; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:311; DeGraaf et al. 1980:422; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:518; Forbush and May 1939:426; Imhof 1976:345; 

James and Neal 1986:298; Lowery 1974514; Mengel 

1965:404; Monroe et al. 1988:49; Oberholser 1974(11):74 1 - 

745; Potter et al. 1980:3 14; Rappole et al. 1983:220; Robbins et al. 1986:94; Robinson 1990:187; Root 1988:214; 

Sprunt 1954:395; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:454; Stewart and Robbins 1958:286; Verner and Boss 1980:25 1. 
Black-throated Gray Warb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter-Very Rare, late November-mid- April along the 

Texas coast, in sou&ern Louisiana, Mississippi, and western 

Tennessee. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter-live oak thickets, mottes, and chenieres. 

KEY HAB1TAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter--evergreen thickets; requirements poorly known. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds forage patiently at all heights through the 

foliage of shrubs and trees, where they glean a variety of 

insect prey, such as lepidopterans, beetles, grasshoppers, 

bugs, and ants, as well as other invefiebrates, e.g. spiders. 

GUILD 

Bush or arboreal gleaning insectivore 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973~74; Bent 1953:275; Ehrlich et al. 

1988520; Forbush and May 1939:428; Imhof 1976:346; 

Lowery 1974:510; Mengel 1965518; Monroe et al. 

1988:49; Oberholser 1974 (II):745; Potter et al. 1980:3 15; 

Rappole et al. 1983:220; Robinson 1990: 187; Root 

1988:216, 288; Sprunt 1954:396; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:455; Sutton 1967504; Verner and Boss 1980:252. 
ack-throated Green Warb 

Dendroica virens BTNW 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by South Carolina Heritage Trust Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally FC to C, but quite local, in the 

Southern Appalachians (mainly from 2000 feet (600 m) to 

the highest elevations); R and local in a few isolated mountain ranges extending into the western Piedmont. In the 

Coastal Plain, generally U to FC, but C in a few places; quite 

local. Wintering- 1J in extreme southern Florida. Spring 

arrival- mid-March to mid-April; fall departure- early 

October to mid-October. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in the mountains, occur mainly in coniferous 

or mixed forests; favor hemlocks and white pines, but also 

in spruce-fir and other species of pines; generally scarce in 

pure hardwood forest. In the Coastal Plain, inhabit swamps 

and bottomlands, commonly in cypress and white cedar 

[Chamaecyparis thyuides), but often in pure stands of hardwoods and mixed pine-hardwood areas. Wintering- most1 y 

in broadleaf evergreen woods, such as hammocks, 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- forests of many types, usually moist ones with 

conifers present. Wintering- broadleaf evergreen woods. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

7(2) sawtimber oak-hickory, 44(2) sawtimber spmce-fir. 

Recorded on 28 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 8 birds, overall mean 0.04 rf: 0.452 

birdslroute, total of route means 37 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from late April to late June, 

with a peak from mid-May to early June. Nests are built in 

trees, usually at middle heights; conifers are preferred. T'ne 

clutch size is most commonly 4, with 5 also frequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and other small invertebrates from leaves 

and twigs of trees, spending most of the time in the crowns 

of conifers, but also in hardwoods. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:29 1-3 15; Burleigh 1958:522-524; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:312; DeCraaf et al. 1980:424; Ehrlich et all. 

1988:522; Forbush and May 1939:429; Imhof 1976:347; 

James and Neal 1986:299; Lowery 1974:5 1 1 ; Mengel 

1965:405; Monroe et al. 1988:49; Oberholser 1974(11):749; 

Potter et al. 1980:3 15; Rappole et al. 1983:221; Robbins et 

al. 1986:96; Robinson 1990: 188; Root 1988:217; Spmnt 

1954:397; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:456,457; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:287. 
Blackburnian Warb 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as nreatened by Kentucky Academy of Science and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Service 

sensitive, George Washington National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC over most of the Southern Appalachians 

and Cumberland Mountains, above 3500 feet (1050 m); 

much less numerous down to 1600 feet (480 m). Winter 

south of the United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to 

early May; fall departure- early October to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor rather mature forests of many types; with a slight 

preference for hardwoods mixed with hemlock, spruce, or 

fir; numerous in pure spruce-fir forests or hemlock forests, 

but less common in pure hardwood stands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature mountain forests. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

6(2) sapling/poletimber oak-hickory, 6(1) sawtimber oakhickory, 611) sawtirnber cove hardwoods, 19(2) sawtimber 

spruce-fir, 2012) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 44(2) 

sawtirnber white pine-hemlock. Recorded on 9 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 6 

birds, overall mean 0.01 k 0.22 birdsfroute, total of route 

means 12 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with a peak from early June to mid-June. Place nests at 

various heights in trees, usually fairly high in conifers. The 

normal clutch size is 4, with 5 fairly uncommon. 

FOOD HABlTS 

Feed almost entirely on insects, gleaned from leaves and 

twigs of hardwood or coniferous trees. Most foraging is 

done in the crowns of the trees. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:337; Burleigh 1958525; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:3 13; DeGraaf et al. 1980:428; Ehrlich et al. 19885 16; 

Forbush and May 1939:43 1; Imhof 1976:350; James and 

Neal 1986:300; Lowery 19745 13; Mengel 1965:410; Monroe et al. 1988:49; Oberholser 1974(11):756; Potter et al. 

1980:317; Rappole et al. 1983522; Robbins et al. 1986:96; 

Robinson 1990: 188; Sprunt 1954:399; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:459; Stewart and Robbins 1958:290. 
ow-throated Warb 

Dendroica dominica YTWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

D, d. stoddardi federally listed as category C2, monitored 

by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC in most of the Coastal Plain; variously 

U to absent inland; FC to C in the lower mountains of 

Georgia, South Carolina, and southern North Carolina, but 

scarce to absent farther northward in the mountains. The 

near absence of these warblers over much of the Piedmont 

is a complete mystery. Wintering- FC over most of the 

range, becoming U at the northern edge of the range. Spring 

arrival- early March to mid-April; fall departure- early 

September to mid-October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- outside mountains, favor broadleaf evergreen 

woods or bottomland forests, especially where some pines 

or cypresses are present; most common where Spanish moss 

is present. In the mountains usually found in pinewoods or 

mixed pine-hasdwood forests. generally below 2000 feet 

(600 m). Winter~ng- in pinewoods, mixed hardwood-pine 

forest, or rn broadleaf evergreens. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- mature forests, often where moderately open 

and moist; few essential requirements. Wintering- woods 

with pines or broadleaf evergreens. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1.7(3) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 19(1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 25(1) sawtimber live oak maritime. Recorded on 256 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 17 birds, overall mean 

0.40 + 1.30 birdslroute, total of route means 353 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sapling/poletimber bay swamp-pocosin, lO(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, 20(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from early April to early June, 

with a peak from mid-April to early May. Nests are often 

built in clumps of Spanish moss, where water present; 

usually fairly high in conifers or hardwoods. Four is the 

normal clutch size, with 5 being uncommon. 

FOOD HABITS 

The primary food items are insects, with some larvae and 

insect eggs also taken in winter. Much of the food is gleaned 

from leaves and twigs, fairly high up in both conifers and 

hardwoods; however, they frequently creep on large limbs, 

and rarely trunks, for food. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage or trunk gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:349-362; Burleigh 1958527-532; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:524; Forbush and May 1939:432; Imhof 1976:35 1; 

James and Neal 1986:300; Kale 1978:62; Lowery 1974509; 

Mengel 1965:4 1 1; Monroe et al. 1988:49; Oberholser 1974 

(II):758; Potter et al, 1980:318; Rappole et al. 1983:222; 

Robbins et al. 1986:94; Robinson 1990: 189; Root 1988:217; 

Sprunt 1954:400: Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:460; Stewart and Robbins 1958:292. 
ne Warb 

Dendroica inu us PIWA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C and widespread in the Coastal Plain and 

Piedmont; mostly U northward in the lower mountains, and 

absent over 3000 feet (900 m). Wintering-Cin the Coastal 

Plain north to southeastern North Carolina; mostly FC in the 

Piedmont; U over most of Virginia, but VRto absent in the 

Southern Appalachians. 

ACCIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- middle-aged to mature pine forest; seldom 

in hardwoods; occur in open pinewoods and residential 

pinewoods, as well as in fairly dense stands of pines. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- pine woods in a variety of situations. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 12(8) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 1411) sawtimber live oak maritime, 25(3) sawtimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 30(3) 

saplinglpoletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf p ine, Recorded 

on 353 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 40 birds, overall mean 2.83 + 5.91 

birdslroute, total of route means 25 17 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1 ( 1 ) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 1(1) shrublseedling 

southern scrub oak, l(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 

l(1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, l(1) sawtimber oakhickory, l6(9) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 25(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 34(1) grasslforb 

loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 35(1) saplinglpletimber sand 

pine-southern scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-March to early 

June, with the peak from mid-April to early May. Nests are 

built in pines, usually at medium heights from the ground. 

The usual clutch size is 4, rarely 3 or 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

In the summer, Pine Warblers take essentially insects, but 

they forage on insects, berries, and small seeds in winter. 

They glean insects and berries from twigs and pine needles, 

and occasionally forage on the ground for seeds and insects. 

Most foraging is done in the crowns of pine trees. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:408-4 16; Burleigh 1958537; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986314; DeCraaf et al. 1980:436; Ehrlich et al. 

1988530; Forbush and May 1939:437; Imhof 1976:354; 

James and Neal 1986:301; Lowery 1974509; Mengel 

1965:416; Monroe et al. 1988:50; Oberholser 1974(11):765; 

Potter et al. 1980:32 1 ; Rappole et al. 1983:223; Robbins et 

al. 1986:96; Robinson 1990: 190; Root 1988:218; Sprunt 

1954:405-407; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:4fi6; Saewaa 

and Robbins 1958:296. 
Prairie Warbler 

Dendroica discolor PRAW 

PROTECTION STATUS 

D. p, paludicola monrtored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of the Piedmont, and the Coastal 

Plain of Virginia and North Carolina; decreasing in abundance westward and southward in the Coastal Plain (mostly 

U south to southern Georgia); generalIy only CT to FC in the 

lower mountains; in Florida, mainly confined to coastal 

areas, where they inhabit mangroves and are locally C; 

accidental in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Wintering- C 

in southern Florida, but decreasing greatly northward; R to 

U in coastal South Carolina. Spring arrival- mid-March to 

mid-April; fall departure- mid-September to mid-October. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- saplings or shrubs, usually in open country and 

in poor soil. Wintering- saplings, shrubs, or open woods; 

very few essential features. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(2) sapling/poletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 18(1) 

shrubfseedling loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 24(2) 

shrublseedling oak-hickory, 43(5) shrublseedling mixed 

pine-hardwood. Recorded on 314 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 66 birds, overall 

mean 1.06 k 3.36 birds/route, total of route means 939 birds. 

SAMPLE VVINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 5(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak. 

Breeding season extends from late April to early July, with 

the peak from mid-May to early June. Nests are generally 

placed 2 to 5 feet ( m) from the ground in saplings or shrubs, 

in an overgrown fields or thickets. Four is the usual clutch 

size, with 3 or 5 eggs rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Insects and other small invertebrates are the primary food 

items, gleaned from leaves and twigs of hardwoods or 

conifers. Most foraging occurs from 1- 10 feet (.3-3 m) from 

the ground. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush gleaning insectivore. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- abandoned fields with scattered saplings, 

scrubby thickets, cut-over or burned-over woods, woodland 

margins, and other sapling-shrub growth, generally in poor 

and dry soil; occur In mangrove thickets in Florida. Wintertrig- more wrdespread than in summer; in thickets, old 

fields, wood margins, and in open woods of many types. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:428-438; Burleigh 1958539; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986315; DeGraaf et al. 1980:438; Ehrlich et al. 

1988528; Forbush and May 1939439; Imhof 1976:356; 

James and Neal 1986:301; Kale 1978: 105; Lowery 

19745 12; Mengel 1965:4 18; Monroe et al. 1988:50; Nolan 

1978: Oberholser 1974(11):767; Potter et al. 1980:323; Rappole et al. 1983224; Robbins et al. 1986:96; Robinson 

1990: 19 1 ; Root 19882 19; Sprunt 1954:408-4 10; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:468; Stewart and Robbins 1958:298. 
Palm Warbler 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- C to A in the Florida peninsula; generally FC 

in the remainder of the Coastal Plain, though U in severe 

winters; U in the Piedmont (marnly in Georgia and South 

Carolina). Breed north of the region. Fall mrival- early 

September to late September; spring departuxe- mid-April 

to early May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Highly varied, but usually in open country; overgrown 

fields with pine saplings, woodland margins, weedy fields, 

residential shrubbery, thickets, and open woods. Commonly 

seen on the ground. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

No essential features, though usually associated with saplings, shrubs, or herbaceous cover in open country. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 0.8(2) grassfforb longleaf 

pine-slash pine, 20(1) shrubfseedling live oak maritime, 

33(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS 

Palm Warblers forage mainly within 10 feet (3 m) of the 

ground, commonly in saplings, weeds, or on the ground. 

Insects are the chief food item, but some berries ar,d seeds 

are taken. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial, herb, or bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:439-456; Burleigh 1958541-543; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:316; DeGraaf et al. 1980:440; Ehrlich et al. 

1988532; Forbush and May 1939:44 1 ; Imhof 1976:357; 

James and Neal 1986:303; Lowery 1974516; Mengel 

1965:4 19; Monroe et al. 198850; Oberholser 1974(11):769; 

Potter et al. 1980:324; Rappole et al. 1983:224; Robinson 

1990: 191 ; Root 1988:220; Sprunt 1954:410-412; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:470: Stewart and Robbins 1958:299. 
Cerulean Warbler 

Dendroica cerulea CERVV 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monttored by Ceorgta Freshwater Wetlands and Her~tage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally R and local in the decreasing breeding range, numbers apparently most concentrated in extensive tracts of forests along the Cumberland Mountains and 

certain locations in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Winter 

south of the United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to late 

April; fall departure- August to early September. 

CIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUY HIGH I 

m WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor mature and somewhat open hardwoods; in the 

mountains, mostly on hilly to steep slopes that have little 

understory. In the Coastal Plain, found in bottomlands where 

there is little understory. Always breed In mature hardwoods; never in conifers. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature hardwood forests with a sparse understory 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

9.8(6) sawtimber oak-hickory. Recorded on 4 1 of 888 BBS 

rGutes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 12 

birds, overall mean 0.08 4 0.68 birdslroute, total of route 

means 67 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from mid-May to late June, with a 

probable peak in late May and early June. Nests are built in 

hardwoods, well out from the trunks, and usually fairly high 

in the trees. Four is the most common clutch size, with 3 or 

5 rather infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed in the crown of deciduous trees, gleaning insects from 

leaves and t~igs. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:329; Burleigh 1958:524; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:319; DeGraaf et al. 1980:426; Ehrlich et al. 1988:514; 

Forbush and May 1939:430; Imhof 1976:348; James and 

Neal 1986:304; Lowery 1974507; Lynch 198 1; Mengel 

1965:408; Monroe et al. 1988:5 1; Oberholser 1974(11):755; 

Potter et al. 1980:316; Rappole et al. 1983:222; Robinson 

1990: 193;Robbins et al. in press; Sprunt 1954:398; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:459; Stewart and Robbins 1958:289. 
ack-and-White Warb 

Mnio tilta va ria BAWW 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of the mountains; R to U over the 

Piedmont and Coastal Plain, VR in Missi~sippi Alluvial 

Plain, except FC in northern Piedmont of Virginia; Wintering- FC in much of Florida, decreasing to Uin northeastern 

South Carolina and adjacent North Carolina. Spring arrival- mid-March to early April; fall departure- early October to late October. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in the mountains, generally in mature hardwood forests; cove forests, northern hardwoods, and other 

types; away from the mountains mainly in swamps or bottomland hardwoods, not numerous in upland hardwoods, 

except in foothills. Wintering- hardwoodl'orests, such as 

bottomlands, broadleaf evergreen woods, and hammocks; 

infrequent in conifers. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- mature hardwood forests. Wintering- hardwood forests, less so in mixed forests. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(3) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 9.8(5) sawtimber mixed 

pine-hardwood, 13(10j saplinglpoletimber oak-hickory, 

19(1l) sawtimber cove hardwoods. Recorded on 188 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 

11 birds, overall mean 0.30 It 1.06 birdslroute, total of route 

means 269 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) Everglades, 1(1) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 

l(2) sawtimber live oak maritime, lO(2) saplinglpoletimber 

live oak maritime, 10( 1 ) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

The nesting season extends from late April to mid-June, 

with the peak from early May to late May. Nest on the 

ground in forests, and usually at the bases of trees, shrubs, 

or logs. Five is the most common clutch size, with 4 also 

common. 

FOOD HABITS 

In summer feed entirely on insects, and in winter take 

insect eggs and larvae. The birds climb along trunks and 

limbs and pick food items from the bark, usually on hardwoods. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, tree trunk gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 19535; Burleigh 1958:492; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:320; DeGraaf et al. 1980:398; Ehrlich et al. 19885 12; 

Forbush and May 1939:410; Imhof 1976:328; James and 

Neal 1986:305; Lowery 1974:498; Mengel 1965:386; Monroe et al. 19885 1 ; Oberhoiser 1974(11):7 16; Potter et al. 

1980:297; Rappole et al. 19839 15; Robbins et al. 1986:89; 

Robinson 1990: 194; Root 1988:222; Sprunt 1954:375; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:432; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:269. 
American Redstart 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventoq. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- mostly FC to locally C in the lower elevations 

of the Southern Appalachims and Ozarks; FC to C in the 

Piedmont; locally FC to C in parts of the Coastal Plain; 

seldom in the mountains above 4000 feet (1200 m). Wintering- U in southern Florida. Spring arrival- early April to 

late April; fall departure- early October to mid-October. 

CIDENTAL 

E3 WINTERING 

lz3 fzzl BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, favor bottomland hardwoods and swamps, especially in extensive 

stands; in the mountains they occur in hardwoods along 

streams, usually where open and not heavily wooded; less 

frequent in medium-growth hardwood forests away from 

water. Wintering- mainly in broadleaf evergreen woods 

and thickets, such as hammocks and mangroves. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- hardwood forests, usually near water. Winming- broadled evergwn woods or thicke&. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2.7(5) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 16(8) saplingpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwod, 87(1) sawtimber ehash-cottonwood. Recorded on 98 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 10 birds, overall 

mean 0.12 t 0.62 birdslroute, total of route means 10'7 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber live oak maritime, 4(1) sawtimber longleaf 

pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early May to late June, with 

the peak in late May to early June. Cup nests are built 6-25 

feet (2-8 m) up in trees. Clutch size 3-5, usually 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean and hawk insect and other invertebrate prey in and 

below tree canopies at 10-50 feet (3-15 m). 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning or hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:656-68 1 ; Burleigh 1958:569-573; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:321; DeGraaf et al. 1980:460; Ehrlich et al. 

1988548; Forbush and May 1939:455; Imhof 1976:367; 

Kale 1978:64; James and Neal 1986:305; Lowery 19745 19; 

Mengel 1965:434; Monroe et al. 198851; Oberholser 

1974(11):795; Potter et al. 1980:335; Rappole et al. 

1983:227; Robbins et al. 1986:98; Robinson 1990: 195; Root 

1988:220; Sprunt 1954:427; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:486; Stewart and Robbins 1958:315. 
Prothonotary Warbler 

Protonotaria citrea PROW 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the Coastal Plain, lower Piedmont, and 

parts of the Interior Low Plateaus, Ozarks, and Ouachitas; 

generally FC but somewhat restricted in suitable habitat in 

the remainder of the Piedmont; a few breed in Virginia 

valleys. Winter to the south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- late March to mid-April; fall departure- mid-August to mid-September. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDlUY HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Almost always near standing water; prefer swamps that are 

somewhat open with scattered dead stumps; bottomland 

forests; extensive willow thickets near lakes or ponds. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Swamps or bottomlands with standing water and cavities 

in stumps, stubs, or dead trees. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

6(2) sawt~mber elm-ash-cottonwood, 28(4) sawtimber 

oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 276 of 888 BBS routes in 

the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 50 birds, 

overall mean 0.83 32.98 birdsi'route, total of route means 

740 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The season extends from mid-April to mid-June, with the 

peak from early May to late May. Nests are nearly always 

in cavities in dead trees, in stubs, or in cypress knees. They 

are not dug by the birds, and are usually 3 to 10 feet ( 1-3 m) 

above the ground (mainly over water). The clutch size is 

mostly 5 or 6, with 4 or 7 infrequent. 

FOOD HABITS 

Generally forage within 15 feet (5 m) of the ground or 

water surface, gleaning insects and other small invertebrates 

from leaves, twigs, stubs, and other places in a swamp or 

bottomland. 

GUILD 

Cavity nesting, bush gleaning insecitvore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:17; Burleigh 1958:493; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:322; DeGraaf et al, 1980:400; Ehrlich et al. 1988:SOO; 

Forbush and May 1939:411; Imhof 1976:330; James and 

Neal 1986:306; Lowery 1974525; Mengel 1965:387; Monroe et al. 198851; Oberholser 1974(11):718; Potter et al. 

1980999; Rappole et al. 1983:216; Robbins et al. 1986:92; 

Robinson 1990: 195; Scott et al. 1977:88; Sprunt 1954:376; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:433; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:271. 
Worm-eating Warb 

Helmitheros vermivorus WEWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Area\ Inventory, I,ou!\tana 

Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U to FC in the Southern Appalachian\ between 

1800 and 30(XI feet (540-900 m); ranges up to 4(HIO feet 

(1 200 m); R to U in mountains below 18110 feet (540 m); R 

and local in the Piedmont ar~d Coastal Plain partr of the 

range; VR in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Mort numerous 

near the junction of Georgia, South Carolina, and North 

Carolina. Wintering- R to U in extreme southern Florida. 

Spring arrival- mid-April to late April; fall departurernid-September to early October. 

DENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- occur in ravines and mountainsides In the 

mountains and Piedmont, in deciduous or mixed forests with 

a r~ch understory (especially of rhododendron or mountain 

laurel); In the Coastal Plain found in bottomland hardwoods 

with a rich understory of broadleaf evergreen shrubs or 

sapl~ngs. Wintering- mainly in dense hammocks, partlculariy with a dense understory layer. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- forests with a dense and usually broadleaf 

evergreen understory, main1 y on steep slopes. Winteringforests with a dense understory, in broadleaf evergreen 

cover. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2.9(4) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 30(10) sawtimber 

cove hardwoods. Recorded on 1 19 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 8 birds, overall 

mean 0.13 rt: 0.62 birdslroute, total of route means 1 16 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, 

with a peak from late May to early June. Nests are well 

hidden in leaf litter on the forest floor. The usual clutch size 

is 4 or 5, rarely 3 or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Feed primarily on insects and other invertebrates, but 

rarely on worms (as the common name suggests). Glean 

their prey from the forest floor or from shrub or sapling 

vegetation. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial or bush gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:38; Burleigh 1958:500; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:323; DeGraaf et al. 1980:402; Ehrlich et al. 1988:540; 

Forbush and May 1939:412; Imhof 1976:333; James and 

Neal 1986:308; Kale 1978: 104; Lowery 1974:524; hifengel 

1965:392; Monroe et al. 1988:5 1 ; Oberholser 1974(11):720; 

Potter et al. 1980:301; Rappole et al. 1983:216; Robbins et 

al. 198692; Robinson 1990: 196; Root 1988:2 12; Sprunt 

1954:379; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:437; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:273:. 
nson's Warb 

Limnothlypis swainsonii swwn 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Endangered in Missouri, '"in need of management" in Tennessee, and Special Concern in Alabama 

(unofficiaIly). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage 

Commission, Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory, South 

Carolina Heritage Trust Program, Virginia Natural Heritage 

Program, West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U, perhaps locally FC, in the Coastal Plain; FC 

to locally C in the mountains of South Carolina, northeastern 

Georgia, and adjacent North Carolina, but VR farther northward in the mountains; VR to R in the remainder of the range 

in the South. Winter to the south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- late March to late April; fall departure- mid-September to mid-October. 

CIDENTAL LOU MEDIUM HIGH 

HINTERlNG 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Coastal Plain and Piedmont- favor bottomland hardwoods, where rather damp with a good growth of cane; less 

numerous in swamps; in the mountains, occur in rhododendron or mountaln laurel (KaEmia tatqolia) tangles, generally 

in ravines in a hardwood or mixed forest. At all locations 

found in woods with a fairly dense understory. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Coastal Plain and Piedmont- bottomland forests with a 

rich understory. Mountatns- forests with rhododendron 

iusually) or mountain laurel understory. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

3(2) sawtimber ozk-gum-cypress, 8.8(9) sawtimber cove 

hardwoods, 17(2) sapling/poletimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on '74 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 3 birds, overall mean 0.05 +. 0.24 

birdslroute, total of route means 45 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

The breeding season extends from early May to early July, 

with a peak from mid-May to mid-June. Nests are large, 

bulky structures placed in saplings, shrubs, or vine tangles, 

and usually 2 to 10 feet (.6-3 m) above ground. Three is the 

usual clutch size, with 4 or 5 eggs rare. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and other invertebrates from the ground and 

leaf litter, or infrequently from the vegetation of shrubs, 

saplings, or vines. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:30; Burleigh 1958:495-499; Eddleman 1978; 

Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):73; Ehrlich et al. 1988:542; 

Forbush and May 1939:4 12; Imhof 1976:33 1 ; James and 

Neal 1986: 308; Lowery 1974:522; Meanley 1969b; Mengel 

1965:389; Monroe et aI. 1988:5 1 ; Oberholser 1974(II):7 19; 

Potter et aI. 1980:300; Rappole et al. 1983:216; Robbins et 

al. 1986:92; Robinson 1990: 196; Sprunt I954:378; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:435; Stewart and Robbins 1958:272. 
Ovenbird 

Seiurus aurocapillus OVEN 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC over most of the mountains and upper 

Piedmont, becoming only FC near the southern edge of the 

range; occur to highest elevations in the Ozarks and to 5000 

feet (1500 m) in the Southern Appalachians. Winteringhard to determine, as the birds are secretive; apparently FC 

in southern Florida, but U elsewhere. Spring arrival- late 

March to mid-April; fall departure- early October to midOctober. 

r ACCIDENTAL Low MBnlu~ HIGH -f\\\\'\t 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor rather dry deciduous forests, where the 

understory is moderate in density; also prefer a hilly terrain. 

Occur in mixed forests, in pinewoods with a deciduous 

understory, and to an extent in hardwood bottomlands. Wintering- in mixed or broadleaf evergreen forests with moderate understory. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- deciduous or mixed forests (rarely pure pinewoods) with moderate understory, preferably in uplands. 

Wintering- broadleaf evergreen woods. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1.5(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 2(2) sawtimber 

white pine-hemlock, 13(24) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 13125) sawtimber oak-hickory, 23(1) shrubjseedling 

loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 23(1) saplinglpoletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 23111) saplinglpoletimber oakhickory, 24(3) sawtimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine. 

Recorded on 149 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 34 birds, overall mean 0.78 -t3.03 birdslroute, total of route means 696 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

2.5(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 6(2) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends fiom early May to early July, 

peaking in mid-May to early June. The domed nests with 

side entrances are placed on the ground in dead leaves, 

usually at the bases of trees or shrubs. Clutch size is 3-6, 

typically 4-5, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Typically glean prey from leaf litter or soil; seldom forage 

in trees. Summer food primarily insects and other invertebrates; in winter some seeds and berries are also eaten. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:457-477; Burleigh 1958:543-548; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:324; DeGraaf et al. 1980:442; Ehrlich et al. 

1988542; Forbush and May 1939:442; Imhof 1976:358; 

James and Neal 1986:3 1 1 ; Lowery 1974:520; MengeI 

1965:421; Monroe et al. 198852; Oberholser 1974(11):770; 

Potter et al. 1980:325; Rappole et al. 1983:224; Robbins et 

al. 1986:96; Robinson 1990: 197; Root 1988:2 12, 287; 

Spmnt 1954:4 13; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:47 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958:301. 
Northern Water 

Seiurus noveboracensis NOWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia. klo-fiitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest Serv-ice sensitive on 

Jefferson and George Washington National Forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- shrubs or thickets near bogs or ponds in the 

higher mountains. Wintering- thickets near water. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS O.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime. 

Breeding- R and local, at high elevat~ons in Virginia 

(mainly above 4000 feet, 1200 m); Wintering- U to FC in 

the southern portion of Florida. The bulk of the population 

of this species breeds north of the region and winters south 

of the United States. Spring arrival- late April to early 

May; fall departure- poorly known, but probably early 

September to early October. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor edges of bogs, but also in shrubs and 

thickets at the edges of ponds or lakes. Wintering- in 

thickets near water, such as mangroves and the shores of 

strems or ponds. 

REPRODUCTION 

No nest has been reported from Virginia, but the season 

probably extends from late May to late June. Based on 

information gathered to the north of the region, the usual nest 

is built on the ground in a damp or boggy place, especially 

in sphagnum moss, and often at the base of a tree or log. The 

clutch size Is usually 4 or 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insect and other aquatic invertebrate prey from the 

shores of streams, ponds, etc. Almost strictly terrestrial. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial or aquatic gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:477-492; Burleigh 1958:548-552; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:325; DeGraaf et al. 1980:444; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:544; Forbush and May 1939:444; Imhof 1976:359; 

James and Neal 1986:3 13; Lowery 1974520; Mengel 

1965:422; Monroe et al. 198852; Oberholser 1974(11):772; 

Potter et al. 1980:326; Rappole et al. 1983:225; Robbins et 

al. 1986:96; Robinson 1990: 198; Root 1988:213, 287; 

Sprunt 1954:414; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:473; Stewart and Robbins 1958:302. 
Louisiana Waterthrush 

Seiurus mo ta cilia LOWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Louisiana 

Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC in the mountains and Piedmont, though in 

a somewhat restricted habitat; generally U in the Coastal 

Plain, being more numerous in Virginia and Louisiana and 

somewhat R in southern Georgia and Florida; rarely to 4000 

feet (1200 m) in the mountains. Winter to the south of the 

United States. Spring arrival- mid-March to early April; 

fall departure- very early for a warbler, usually mid-July 

to mid-September. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor deciduous or mixed forests with rocky streams, but 

also occur along sluggish streams and rivers, and infrequently in swamps. Always near streams or other small 

bodies of water, preferably with scattered rocks, in woodlands or forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Forest near a stream or river, usually where rocks project 

from the water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

3(1) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 4.6(22) sawtimber 

oak-hickory, 10(2) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 15(4) saplinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 180 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 4 birds, overall mean 0.14 rt. 0.40 

birdslroute, total of route means 122 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-April to early June; 

peak occurs late April to mid-May. Nests are built on the 

ground in forested habitats, generally in the sides of stream 

banks, but often among the roots of trees or stumps. Clutch 

size 4-6, usually 5, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground, always near streams, where insects 

and other small invertebrates are gleaned from the surface 

of rocks, mud, or water. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial or aquatic gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:493; Burleigh 1958:552; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:326; DeGraaf et al. 1980:446; Ehrlich et al. 1988:544; 

Forbush and May 1939:445; Imhof 1976:360; James and 

Neal 1986:3 13; Kale 1978:63; Lowery 1974:52 1 ; Mengel 

1965:423; Monroe et al. 1988:52; Oberholser 1974(11):773; 

Potter et al. 1980:326; Rappole et al. 1983:225; Robbins et 

al. 1986:96; Robinson 1990: 199; Root 1988:2 13; Sprunt 

1954:4 15; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:475; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:303. 
Kentucky Warb 

O~orornis fbrmosus KEWA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- mainly FC at lower elevations in the Southern 

Appalachians and Piedmont, spaulingly up to 3500 feet (1050 

m); FC in much of the Coastal Plain of tqrginia . northern 

North Carolina, as well as in the Coastal Plain from Alabama 

west, but generally tJ elsewhere in this section. Winter to the 

south of the United States. Spring arrival-- early April to 

late April; fall departure- early September to late September. 

GIDENTAL LOW MEDlUY HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor rich, moist deciduous forests; bottomland forests, 

rich woods near streams, and other moist hardwood types, 

Seldom in conifers; a rich understory of hardwoods is essential. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Moist deciduous forests with an abundant understory 

layer. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber mixed pine-hardwood, 5.8(16) 

sawtimber mixed pine-hardbrtood, 7.5(2) sawtimber ehash-cottonwood, 8.5(2) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress. Recorded on 297 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 20 birds, overall mean 0.82 k 2.08 

birdslroute, total of route means 73 f birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early May to mid-July; peak 

period is late May to early June. Cup nests are built on the 

ground usually in dense vegetation, such as the bases of 

shrubs or clumps of herbaceous vegetation. Usual clutch size 

is 4-5, rarely 3 or 6, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage usually on the ground, so~netlmes rn shrubs ro 18 

feet (3 m), gleaning insects from herbaceous vegetat~on, leaf 

litter, or soil. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore, 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:503; Burleigh 1958:554; Ehrlich et aI. 

1988:536; Forbush and May 1939:446; Imhof 1976:361; 

James and Neal 1986:314; Lowery 1974527; Mengel 

1965:424; Monroe et al. 198852; Oberholser 1974(11):775: 

Potter et al. 1980:327; Rappole et al. 1983:225; Robbins et 

al. 1986:98; Robinson 1990: 199; Sprunt 1954:4 16; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:476; Stewart and Robbins 1958:304. 
Mourning Warbler 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia. Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive, George Washington National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R in northwestern Highland County, Virginia, 

above 3000 feet (900 m). Winter south of the United States. 

Spring arrival- mid-May to late May; fall departurepoorly known, but probably late August to late September. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Fairly dense thickets; generally in the shrubby margins of 

bogs, but also in thickets in old fields or woodland edges, 

favoring blackberry (Rubus spp.) thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Dense thickets at high elevations. 

REPRODUCTION 

No nest has been found in the region. Breeding season 

apparently extends from late May to early July; possible 

peak in early to mid-June. Nest always in dense vegetation, 

usually on the ground, or in shrubs up to 3 feet (1 m). Clutch 

size 3-5, most commonly 4, eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insect and other small invertebrate prey from shrubs, 

saplings, or herbs. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, bush or herb gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953524; Burleigh 1958557; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:327; DeGraaf et al. 1980:448; Ehrlich et al. 1988534; 

Forbush and May 1939:448; Imhof 1976:363; James and 

Neal 1986:3 15; Lowery 1974529; Mengel 1965:426; Monroe et al. 198852; Oberholser 1974(11):778; Potter et al. 

1980:329; Rappole et al. 1983:226;Robbins et al. 1986:98; 

Robinson 1990:200; Sprunt 1954:4 18; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:478: Stewart and Robbins 1958:307. 
Common Yellowthroat 

Geothlv~is trichas COVE 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- G to VC nearly throughout, but only EC to C 

in the higher mountains. Wintering- G thraughout Florida 

and southeastern Lousiana; mostly FC in t%e remainder of 

the Coastal Plain; generally LJ farther inland. Spring arrival- late March to mid-April; fall departure-mid-October 

to early November. 

ClDENTAL LOW 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in shrubby, brushy places; abandoned fields, 

shrubby marshes, thickets, woodland borders, and swamp 

edges are typical; favor rnoist habitats, but frequently in 

uplands as well. Wintering- typically occur in damp 

places, such as brushy tangles, marsh edges, and damp 

thickets; inhabit fresh and brackish marshes, usually near 

shrubs. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- shrubs, saplings, or tall herbs, generally in 

open country. Wintering- moist places with shrubs, saplings, or tall herbaceous cover. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) shrublseedling southern scrub oak, 0.7(6) 

shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 1 8(4) grasslforb oakhickory, 29(3) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 41(18) saplinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 476 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 170 birds, overall mean 5.47 br: 10.70 

birdslroute, total of route means 4861 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine, 27(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 49(1) saplinglpoletimber 

oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late April to late July, with 

peak period in early to late May. Build nests on or near the 

ground in moist thickets, in dense grasses or reeds, occasionally in shrubs. Clutch size 3-6, most commonly 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects from reeds, grasses, and other vegetation, 

usually on or within 3 feet (1 m) of the ground. 

GUILD 

Ground or bush nesting, bush or herb glieanlng ~nsectlvore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953542-584; Burleigh 1958:557-562; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:328; DeGraaf et al. 1980:450; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:546; Forbush and May 1939:449; Imhof 1976363; 

James and Neal 1986:315; Lowery 1974526; Mengel 

1965:427; Monroe et al. 1988:53; Oberholser 1974(11):78 1; 

Potter et al. 1980:329; Rappole et al. 1983:226; Robbins et 

at, 1986:98; Robinson 1990:201; Root 1988:221; Sprunt 

1954:4 19-42 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:479-482; Stewart and Robbins 1958:308; Verner and Boss 1980:256. 
Hooded Warb 

Wilsonia citrina HOWA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC to C nearly throughout, even in the mountains, but rarely above 4000 feet (1200 m), strangely R in 

the Mississippi Alluvial Plain where formerly C in the early 

part of this century. Winter south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- late March to late April; fall departure- midSeptember to mid-October. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2(2) saplinglpoletimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 24(3) 

saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 2511) shrublseedling 

loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 47(10) sawtimber cove hardwoods. Recorded on 287 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 24 birds, overall mean 

0.96 + 2.57 birdslroute, total of route means 853 birds. 

ClDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

mmm 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late April to late June, with 

peak activity occurring in early to late May. The nests, often 

poorly concealed, are built 2-5 feet (.6-1.5 m) off the ground 

in shrubs or saplings. Clutch size is usually 3-4, occasionally 

5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage primarily in shrubs within 15 feet (5 m) of the 

ground, by gleaning and hawking insect and other invertebrate prey. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush or tree gleaning or hawking insectivore. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Primarily in deciduous forests, but also in mixed forests; 

favor moist forests with a fairly dense understory, such as 

bottomlands, rich woods, and ravines. Sometimes in the 

deciduous understory of mature pine forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Forests (usually deciduous) with a rich understory layer 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:610; Burleigh 1958:565; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:329; DeGraaf et al. 1980:454; Ehrlich et al. 1988:540; 

Forbush and May 1939:453; Imhof 1976:365; James and 

Neal 1986:3 16; Lowery 1974: 530; Mengel 1965:429; Monroe et al. 198853; Oberholser 1974(11):790; Potter et al. 

1980:332; Rappole et al. 1983:227; Robbins et al. 1986:98; 

Robinson 1990:202; Sprunt 1954:423; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:483; Stewart and Robbins 1958:3 11. 
Wilson's Warb 

ABUNDANCE STATUS KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter-Uncommon to Rare, in varying numbers, in 

southern Louisiana and along the Texas coast, occasional 

farther east. In certain years the birds are much more numerous than in others. 

EZ.3 rn WINTERING '%$ 

=a BREEDING \T -,J 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter-Thickets, lush stands of herbs, dense shrublseedling stands in a variety of forest types, forest edges, often 

near water. 

Winter-Dense low, shrubby vegetation. 

Do not breed in the South. 

FOOD HABITS; 

These birds actively glean small invertebrates from follage 

or hawk for flying insects from the foliage of shrubs or small 

trees. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree foliage gleaning or hawking insectivore 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:83; Bent 1953:626,639,642; Burleigh 

1958567; DeGraaf et al. i980:456; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:330; Ehrlich et al. 1988538; Forbush and May 

1939:454; Irnhof 1976:366; James and Neal 1986:317; 

Lowery 1974:530; Mengel 1965:432; Monroe et al. 

198853; Oberholser 1974 (II):791; Potter et al. 1980:333; 

Rappole et al. 1983:227, 477; Robbins et al. 1986:98; Robinson 1990:202; Root 1988:220, 288; Sprunt 1954:425; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:484, 626; Stewart and Robbins 1958:313; Sutton 1967:525; Verner and Boss 

1980:258. 
Canada Warb 

Wilsonia canadensis CAWA 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Mature Preserves Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in most areas of the North Carolina and 

Virginia mountains: FC in the Georgia mountains, but R to 

U in adjacent South Carolina; seldom occur below 3000 feet 

(900 m). Winter to the south of the United States. Spring 

arrival- late April to early May; fall departure mid-September to late September. 

rn WINTERING 

a BRBEDINC 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Dense understory or shrub layers in a variety of forests; 

prefer rhododendron or mountain laurel tangles; the canopy 

over the tangles may be spruce-fir, hemlocks, or pure hardwoods; ravines or other cool slopes are favored. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Montane forests with a dense shrub or understory layer, 

showing a preference for rhododendron. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

5(11 sawtimber spruce-fir, 2213) sawtimber white pinehemlock, 47(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 60(2) sawtimber 

mtxed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 3 of 888 BBS routes in 

the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 8 birds, overall mean 0.01 rt 0.26 birdsfroute, total of route means 10 

birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late May to early July, 

peaking in late May to early June. Ground nests are generally 

well-hidden near root tangles, bases of trees, in stream 

banks, etc. Clutch size 3-5, commonly 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean or hawk insect prey, usually below 10 feet (3 m) in 

low vegetation or on the ground. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, bush gleaning or hawking insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:646; Burleigh 1958568; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:331; DeCraaf et al. 1980:458; Ehrlich et al, 1988538; 

Forbush and May 1939:454; Imhof 1976: 367; James and 

Neal 1986:3 17; Lowery 1974: 53 1 ; Mengel 1965:432; Monroe et al. 198853; Oberholser 1974(11):792; Potter et al. 

1980:334; Rappole et al. 1983:227; Robinson 1990:203; 

Sprunt 1954:426; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:485. 
ow-breasted Chat 

lcteria virens YBCH 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over most of the South, less so at higher 

elevations and on the Outer Coastal Plain. Wintering- R to 

U, and secretive, along the coast; occur sporadically in 

peninsular Florida; scattered winter records from nearly 

throughout the Southeast. Spring arrival- mid-April to late 

April; fall departure- early September to late September. 

EX3 WINTERING 

c3 BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- overgrown fields, hedgerows, thickets, and 

woodland margins; generally in dry situations, particularly 

in briar thickets. Wintering- dense tangles, usually to 

broadleaf evergreens; hedgerows and thickets, especially in 

Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and privet 

(Ligustrum spp.). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- dense cover of shrubs or sap'lings. Wintering- thickets, mainly in broadleaf evergreen cover. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(3) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 28(6) 

shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood, 32( 17) saplingipoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 435 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 63 birds, overall mean 5.1 1 rf: 8.95 

birdslroute, total of route means 4538 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to early July, with 

peak occurring in mid-May to early June. Nests are generally 

built 2-8 feet (.6-2.5 m) up in dense vegetation such as vine 

tangles, Rubus thickets, etc. Difficult to find. Clutch size 

3-6, usually 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage in low vegetation, usually below 10 feet (3 m), 

occasionally on the ground. Glean prey from vegetation. 

Summer diet is insects and other small invertebrates; in 

winter berries are also eaten. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, bush foliage gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1953:587-601; Burleigh 1958:563-565; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:332; DeGraaf et al. 1980:452; Ehrlich et al. 

1988548; Forbush and May 1939:451; Imhof 1976:364; 

James and Neal 1986: 3 17; Lowery 1974533; Mengel 

1965:428; Monroe et al. 198853; Oberholser 1974(11):787; 

Potter et al. 1980:330; Rappole et al. 1983:226; Robbins et 

al. 1986:98; Robinson 1990:203; Root 1988:221, 288; 

Sprunt 1954:421; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:482; Stewart and Robbins 1958:3 10; Verner and Boss 1980:257. 
Summer Tanager 

Pira naa rubra SUTA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- G over most of the region, less so in the 

Mississippi Alluvial Plain; generally 'Ij in northern Virginia, 

and in mountain valleys; seldom above 2500 feet (750 m). 

Winter to the south of the United States. Spring arrivallate March to late April; fall departure- mid-September to 

mid-October. 

I rn WINTERING Uw I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Prefer open to medium-growth woods, usually in dry soil; 

favor mixed woods or hardwoods, but frequently in pinewoods; also in wooded residential areas and bottomlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Forests of many types, with a preference for dry sites. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.6(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 8.3(3) sapiinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 22(5) saplinglpoletimber 

longleaf pine-scrub oak. Recorded on 468 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 28 birds, 

overall mean 2.61 + 4.24 birdslroute, total of route means 

2322 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early May to mid-July, with 

peak in mid- to late May. Nests are built in trees, 20-40 feet 

(6-12 m) above the ground. Clutch size 3-4, sometimes 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean and hawk insects, particularly bees, wasps, and 

other flying forms; mostly in tree canopies. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:496-509; Burleigh 1958:605; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:630; Forbush and May 1939:482; Imhof 1976:385; 

James and Neal 1986:318; Lowery 1974:555; Mengel 

1965:459; Monroe et al. 1988:53; Oberholser 1974(11):850; 

Potter et al. 1980:354; Rappole et al. 1983:232; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 106; Robinson 1990:204; Root 1988:222; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:508; Sprunt 1954: 448; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:332. 
et Tanager 

Piranaa olivacea SCTA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the lower and middle elevations in the 

Ozarks, Ouachitas, and Southern Appalachians and Interior 

Low Plateaus (up to 4000 feet, 1200 m), but essentially 

absent above 5000 feet (1500 m); FC over most of the 

Piedmont and Cumberland Plateau. Generally TJ in the 

Coastal Plain section of the range. Winter south of the 

United States. Spring arrival- mid-April to late April; fall 

departure- early October to mid-October. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor mature deciduous forests, especially in uplands; also 

breed in bottomlands; less numerous in mixed forests. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature deciduous forests. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1 (1 ) shrublseedling Ioblolly pine-shortleaf pine, l(1) 

shrubfseedfing mixed pine-hardwood, 6.9125) sawtimber 

mrxed pine-hardwood, 9.8(23) sawtimber oak-hickory, 

13(11) sawtimber cove hardwoods, 19(3) sawtimber white 

pine-hemlock. Recorded on 178 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 2 1 birds, overall 

mean 0.59 rt: 2.07 birdsfroute, total of route means 528 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to early August, 

with peak from late May to mid-June. Nest at moderate 

heights, commonly 20-50 feet (6- 15 m), in a hardwood tree. 

Clutch size 3-5, most commonly 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects from leaves and twigs, usually 30 feet (9 m) 

or higher in tree canopies. Also eat berries, especially in the 

fall. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:479; Burleigh 1958:603; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:333; DeGraaf et al. 1980:480; Ehrlich et al. 1988:628; 

Forbush and May 1939:480; Imhof 1976:583; James and 

Neal 1986:3 19; Lowery 1974:554; Mengel 1965:457; Monroe et al. 198853; Oberholser 1974(11):847; Potter et al. 

1980:353; Rappole et al. 1983:231; Robbins et al. 1986: 106; 

Robinson 1990:205; Sprunt 1954:447; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970507; Stewart and Robbins 1958:330. 
Western Tanager 

Piranqa ludo viciana VVETA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Very Rare, late December-late March, along the 

Gulf Coast from Alabama west to Texas; occasional elsewhere, including the Atlantic Coast. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Not well known; possibly feeders or evergreen 

woods. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

These tanagers forage by gleaning from twigs and foliage 

of trees, as well as on the ground; and by hawking. Fruits, 

insects and some seeds are the primary foods. Insects form 

a major part of the summer diet; fruits and seeds the bulk of 

that in winter. They may depend on feeders for survival 

during winter cold spells in the region. 

Terrestrial, bush, or arboreal foliage gleanlng omnivore 

WINTERING 

BREEDING REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Coastal woodlands, such as live oak thickets, 

mottes, and chenieres. Often visit bird feeders in winter. 

Barbour et al. 1973:90; Bent 1958:466; Burleigh 

1958:602; Ehrlich et al. 1988:628; Forbush and May 

1939:479; Imhof 1976:383; James and Neal 1986:321; 

Lowery 1974553; Monroe et al. 198853; Oberholser 1974 

(II):845; Potter et al. 1980:353; Rappole et al. 1983:231; 

Robbins et al. 1986: 106; Robinson 1990:205; Root 

1988:222; Sprunt 1954503; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:629; Sutton 1967563: Verner and Boss 1980:267. 
Northern Cardina 

Cardinalis ca rdina /is NOCA 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- C to A nearly everywhere, though not 

common in the mctuntains at middle elevations, and absent 

above 4500 feet (1350 m). Essentially non-migratory; there 

are local movements, with many individuals leaving woodlands and flocking loosely in open habitats. 

plots) elm-ash-cottonwood, sawtimber loblolly pineshortleaf pine, saplinglpoletimber and sawtimber mixed 

pine-hardwood, sawtimber oak-hickory , sawtimber cove 

hardwoods. Recorded on 581 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 139 birds, overall 

mean 23.4 -t- 24.2 birdslroute, total of route means 20,828 

birds. 

ACCIDENTAL 

WINTERING 

1 ~ez?a BREEDING 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Widespread in wooded or shrubby habitats; favor open 

woods, margins, and thickets, being most common in 

wooded residential areas where shrubs abound. Generally 

not common in deep forests, but present in nearly all forest 

types except for high mountain ones. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Few specific requirements; generally in woodland understory, saplings, or shrubs. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak. 

Average density above 20 In I I habitats; sawtirnber longleaf 

pine-slash pine, saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, sapling/poletimber and sawtirnber live oak maritime, saplinglpoletimber and sawtlmber (max. 4 1 pairs140 ha on 2 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5f I) sapling/poletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak. 

Average density above 15 birdsl40 ha in 6 habitats; sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, max. 54(1) saplirlg/poletimber 

oak-gum-cypress and 54(2) sapling/poletimber live oak 

maritime, sawtimber live oak maritime, grass/forb oakhickory, shrublseedling oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding occurs from late March to early August, with peak 

occurring throughout May. Nest in a variety of situations, 

usually below 10 feet (3 m). Clutch size 3-4, rarely 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage most often on the ground, commonly also in shrubs 

and understory, occasionally higher. Cardinals glean insects, seeds, and berries; winter diet primarily vegetable 

matter. 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, terrestrial or bush foliage gleaning 

omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a: 1-22: Burleigh 1958:607-609; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:334; DeGraaf et al. 1980:482; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:554; Forbush and May 1939:483; Imhof 

19'76:386; James and Neal 1986:32 1 ; Lowery 1974:557; 

Mengel 1965:461; Monroe et al. 1988:54; Oberholser 

1974(11):853; Potter et al. 1980:356; Robbins et al. 

1986: 106: Robinson 1990:206; Root 1988:223; Sprunt 

1954:450; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:509; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:333. 
Rose-breasted Grosbeak 

Pheucticus ludovicianus RBGR 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C in the Southern Appalachians above 3500 

feet f 1050 m); less numerous down to 2500 feet (750 m). 

Winter south of the United States. Spring arrival- late April 

to early May; fall departure- early October to mid-October. 

[ ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH I 

WINTERING 

cz.zJ zza rn BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Almost strictly in hardwood forests; medium-growth and 

mature hardwoods are favored; also occur in open hardwoods in residential areas; rather uncommon in hardwoods 

mixed with spruce, fir, or hemlock. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2.7(3) sawtimber white pine-hemlock, 43(1) sawtimber 

cove hardwoods. Recorded on 19 ~>f 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 9 birds, overall 

mean 0.03 + 0.34 birdslroute, total of route means 26 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, with 

peak in late May to early June. Nests built at 5-25 feet (1.6-8 

m) in shrubs, saplings, or lower portions of trees; often in 

rhododendron. Clutch size 3-5, most commonly 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage primarily above 20 feet (6 m) in tree canopies, 

where they glean insects, seeds, and berries from twigs and 

leaves. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:36; Burleigh 1958:609; DeGraaf 

and Rudis 1986:335; DeGraaf et al. 1980:484; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:552; Forbush and May 1939:484; Imhof 1976:388; 

James and Neal 1986:322; Lowery 1974:558; Mengel 

1965:463; Monroe et al. 1988:54; Oberholser 1974(11):856; 

Potter et al. 1980:358; Rappole et al. 1983:232; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 106; Robinson 1990:207; Root 1988:225, 288; 

Sprunt 1954:45 1; Sprunt and Chamberlain 19705 11; Stewart and Robbins 1 958:334. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Mature hardwood forests in the mountains. 
ack-headed Grosbeak 

Pheucticus melanoce~halus BHGR 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Occafional and Rare in the western part of the 

region, early October-late April in Louisiana, late Decernber-late February in Texas. Winter records exist for Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, and other states farther east as 

well. 

probably a similar portion of those elsewhere in the region, 

have been in residential areas associated with feeders. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

winter- Evergreen woodlands and possibly feeders. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds are primarily insectivorous during the early 

summer, eating leaf beetles and scale insects particularly; 

and frugivorous and granivorous at other seasons; cherries 

are a favorite food. Their winter diet is a varied one. 

GUILD 

Tree foliage gleaning omnivore 

REFERENCES 

RINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Coastal woodlands, live oak thickets, mottes, 

and chenieres. About half of the Louisiana observations, and 

Bent and Austin 1968a:55, 58; Ehrlich et al. 1988554; 

Imhof 1976:389; James and Neal 1986:322; Lowery 

1974:559; Monroe et al. 198854; Oberholser 1974 (II):858; 

Potter et al. 1980:359; Rappole et a1.1983:232; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 106; Robinson 1990:207; Root 1988:225; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:630; Sutton 1967575; Verner and 

Boss 1980:268. 
ue Grosbeak 

Guiraca caerulea - BLGR 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding-- C in most of the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, 

and Ozark and Ouachita Uplifts, but U to FC in northern 

Virginia and parts of Kentucky: U in the lower mountains, 

and seldom over 2500 feet ("750 rn). Winter to the south of 

the United States. Spring arrival- early April to late April; 

fall departure- late September to mid-October. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.3(5) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood. 4(1) 

grassiforb loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 444) shrubfseedling 

mixed pine-hardwood, 5.4(5) sawtimber oak-hickory, 10(7) 

saplingipoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded on 493 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 40 birds, overall mean 3.15 t- 4.91 

birdslroute. total of route means 2800 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late May to early August, 

with peak in late May to mid-June. Build nests usuaily 3-12 

feet (1-4m) from the ground, in shrubs, saplings, or other 

vegetation in thickets. Clutch size 3-5, most often 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects, as well as weed and grain seeds, on or near 

the ground. 

GUILD ACCIDENTAL 

VlNTERlNG Bush nesting, herb or bush gleaning omnivore. 

BREEDING 

REFERENCES 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor abandoned fields with plenty of saplings, wood 

margins, dry thickets, and other brushy places; not as numerous in damp thickets as in uplands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Deciduous saplings or shrubs. 

Bent and Austin 1968a:67-80; Burleigh 1958:613; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:556; Forbush and May 1939:486; Imhof 

1976390; James and Neal 1986:323; Lowery 1974560; 

Mengel 1965:465; Monroe et al. 198854; Oberholser 

1974(11):860; Potter et al. 1980:360; Rappole et al. 

1983:233; Robbins et al. 1986: 106; Robinson 19901208; 

Root 1988:225; Sprunt 1954:452; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

19'70:s 12; Stewart and Robbins 1958:335; Verner and Boss 

1980:269. 
Indigo Bun 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC in most of the region, but less numerous toward the coast; occur infrequently above 5000 feet 

(1500 m). Wintering- U to FC, in the southern half of 

Florida. Spring arrival-- mid-April to early May; fall departure- early October to late October. 

WINTERING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- prefer wood margins, openings and clearings 

in woods, overgrown fields, and groves; not as common in 

shrubby thickets and hedgerows, because males favor a few 

trees within their territories; deciduous vegetation highly 

favored over conifers. Wintering- woodland edges, open 

woods, bushy edges, overgrown fields, and thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- deciduous saplings or trees in an open or partly 

open situation, particularly along woodland edges. Wintering- trees or shrubs in many situations, often in brushy 

places and thick cover. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.713) sawtimber IobloIly pine-shortleaf pine. 0.7(9) 

shrublseedling elm-asfi-cottor~wood, 2 1(2) sapling/poletirnber mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 476 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 125 

birds, overall mean 13.3 +. 19.1 birdslroute, total of route 

means 1 1,798 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) grasslforb oak-hickory, 10(4) sawtimber llongleaf 

pine-slash pine. 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to mid-August, 

peaking from late May to mid-June. Nests placed in variety 

of sites in vegetation, usually 3-12 feet (1-4 m) above the 

ground. Clutch size 2-5, usually 3-4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects, as well as seeds, grains, berries. Forage on 

the ground or in vegetation, generally below 15 feet (5 m). 

GUILD 

Bush nesting, herb or bush gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:80; Burleigh 1958:6 15; DeGraaf 

and Rudis 1986:336; DeGraaf et al. 1980:486; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:558; Forbush and May 1939:486; Imhof 1976:390; 

James and Neal 1986:323; Lowery 1197456 2 ; Mengei 

1965:466; Monroe et al. 1988:54; Oberholser 1974(11):863; 

Potter et a1 1980:361; Rappole et al. 1983:233; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 106; Robinson 1990:208; Root 1988:225; Sprunt 

1954:453; Sprunt and Chamberlain 19705 13; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:337:. 
Painted Bunting - 

Passerina ciris PABU 

PROTECTION STATUS SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Monitored by Tennessee Natural Heritage Program. Recorded as Visitor in sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine 

and sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 5.2(4) saplinglpoletimber mixed pine-hardwood, 912) sawtimber live 

oak maritime. Recorded on 192 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 5 1 birds, overall 

mean 1.81 t- 5.58 birdslroute, total of route means 1610 

birds. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- generally C in eastern part of the region along 

the immediate coast; localiy FC inland along a few of the 

larger rivers, such as the Savannah; mainly R to U at most 

inland sites within the range. In western parts, FC in 

Lousiana, Texas, and Oklahoma; U to R east to the Mississippi River into Mississippi and Tennessee. Wintering- U 

to locally FC, in southern Florida. 

SAMPLE 'WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber live oak maritime, 23(4) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

CCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

m m kzs33 

Breeding occurs in early May to late July, with peak from 

mid-May to early June. Nests built always in thick cover, 

generally 3-6 feet (1-2 m) from the ground. Clutch size 3-4, 

rarely 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage usually below 10 feet (3 m) in shrubs, saplings, and 

herbaceous vegetation. Glean insects and seeds in summer, 

insects and a variety of plant food in winter. 

GUILD 

BREEDING Bush nesting, herb or bush gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES PRIMARY HABITATS 

Bent and Austin 1968a: 137-155; Burleigh 1958:617; Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A): 101 ; Ehriich et al. 1988560; Forbush and May 1939:487; Irnhof 1976:392; James and Neal 

1986:324; Lowery 1974562; Monroe et ai. 1988:63; Oberholser 1974(11):868; Potter et al. 1980:362; Rappole et al. 

1983:234; Robbins et al. 1986: 108; Robinson 1990:209; 

Root 1988:225, 289; Sprunt 1954:455; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:5 14. 

Breeding- dense thickets, wood margins, hedgerows, and 

other dense shrubby areas; often comnon in residential 

areas with dense shrubbery; frequent dense stands of second-growth woods, but usually along the edges or openings. 

Wintering- dense shrubbery or second-growth woods, primarily in broadleaf evergreens; always in thick cover. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- dense thickets of shrubs, saplings, or second-growth trees, primarily near the coast. 
Dickcisse 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Rare in West Virginia. Blue Listed by Tate 

(198 1). Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to A in western part of the region, including 

cleared lands in Mississippi Alluvial Plains, decreasing to 

U in middle Tennessee and Alabama. R and very sporadic 

further east; primarily in the Piedmont, and in valleys of the 

Virginia mountains; most numerous in northern Virginia, 

but erratic even there. One to several pairs may oecur, or 

perhaps breed, in a given field one summer, only to disappear completely the next summer. In the 19th Century, 

Dickcissels were C in much of this area. Wintering- VR to 

R, and erratic, at scattered locations in the Piedmont and 

Coastal Plain, but generally near the coast; mainly near 

feeders. The bulk of the population breeds to the west of the 

region and winters south of the United States. Spring arrival- late April to late May, sometimes not arriving until 

July; fall departure- probably late August to mid-September . 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 YBDlUY HlGB 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- always in open "grassy" areas; usually in 

weedy fields or grain fields; also in meadows. Winteringseldom in grassy areas, but oecur with other native sparrows 

or with House Sparrows in hedgerows, weedy tangles. wood 

margins, and thickets; often at feeders in open residential 

areas where thickets or weedy cover is nearby. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- herbaceous cover where vegetation is at least 

2 feet ( .6 m) high. Wintering- few specific requirements, 

but mainly in shrubs, saplings, or tall forbs (such as composites). 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 229 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 115 birds, overall mean 3.98 t13.3 birddroute, total of route means 3539 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to early August, 

peaking probably in early to mid-June. Nest on the ground 

in dense grasses in a field. Clutch size 3-5, most often 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and seeds (summer) from the ground and 

herbaceous vegetation; mainly seeds in winter. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a: 158; Burleigh 1958:6 18; DeGraaf 

et al. 1980:488; Ehrlich et al. 1988:606; Forbush and May 

1939:488; Imhof 1976:392; James and Neal 1986:326; 

Lowery 1974:562: Mengel 1965:467; Monroe et a]. 

1988:54; Oberholser 1974(11):870; Potter et al. 1980:363; 

Rappole et al. 1983:234; Robbins et al. 1986: 108; Robinson 

1990:209; Root 1988:225, 289; Sprunt 1954:458; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:5 16; Stewart and Robbins 1958:338. 
Green-tai ed Towhee 

Pi~ilo chlorurus GTTO 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Irregular and Very Rare in east Texas, decreasing in abundance along the Gulf Coast: into Louisiana and 

Alabama. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

!Xi3 233 WI3TERING 

GZ.3 m BREEDlhG 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Shrubby or brushy areas, such as live oak thickets, mottes, chenieres, woods edge. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Dense thickets and edge. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

The winter diet consists primarily of weed seeds and 

grains, with some fruits and insects. The birds forage on the 

ground, in leaf litter, about the bases of shrubs, where they 

scratch through the debris with both feet, exposing prey 

beneath. Their habit of running along the ground frequently 

misleads observers into thinking the bird is a chipmunk. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial, herb, or bush gleaning omnivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:547; Burleigh 1958:635; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988564; Imhof 1976:402; James and Neal 1986:327; 

Lowery 1974568; Oberholser 1974 (11):892; Potter et al. 

1980:374; Rappole et a1.1983:235; Robinson 1990:210; 

Root 1988:226; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970522; Sutton 

1967598; Verner and Boss 1980:282. 
ous-sided Towhee 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC nearly throughout, even in the higher 

mountains. Wintering- C to VC nearly throughout, but 

mostly U in northern and western Virginia, and FC in the 

North Carolina mountains; not common in extreme southern 

Florida. There is some migration of birds into the region in 

winter, but it is hardly noticeable at most localities. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- very widespread; mainly in brushy places; 

woodland margins, overgrown fields, thickets, woodland 

understory, cutover woods, and shrubbery in residential 

areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Shrubs, saplings, or understory trees in a wide variety of 

situations, usually where a thicket is present. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2(2) sawtimber live oak maritime, 2(2) grassfforb mixed 

pine-hardwood, 4511) sapling/poletimber sand pine-southern scrub oak, 48(2) shrublseedling southern scrub oak, 

50f 1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, 65(2) 

shrublseedling oak-hickory . Recorded on 438 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 138 

birds, overall mean 9.56 t 15.3 birdslroute, total of route 

means 8487 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 0.8111) 

grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 75(2) shrublseedling 

southern scrub oak, 731) saplinglpoletimber sand pinesouthern scrub oak, 8511) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pinescrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-April to mid-August 

with peak from early May to early June. Nest in thickets or 

brushy places on the ground or in shrubs or saplings to 5 feet 

(1.5m) high. Clutch size 2-6, usually 3-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground in leaf litter, or in shrubs. Scratch in 

leaf litter to expose insects, seeds, and fruits which they 

glean. Winter diet more vegetarian than summer diet. 

GUILD 

Ground or bush nesting, terrestrial or bush gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:562-602; Burleigh 1958:635-64 1 ; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:337; DeGraaf et al. 1980:508; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:562; Forbush and May 1939502; Imhof 

1976:403; James and Neal 1986:327; Lowery 1974569; 

Mengel 1965:476; Monroe et al. 198855; Oberholser 

1974(11):894; Potter et al. 1980:374; Rappole et al. 

1983:235; Robbins et al. 1986: 1 1 1 ; Robinson 1990:210; 

Root 1988:227; Sprunt 1954:463-466; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970522-524; Stewart and Robbins 1958:348; 

Verner and Boss 1980:283. 
Bachman's Sparrow 

Airnophila aestivalis BACS 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Federally listed as category C2. State listed as Endangered 

in Tennessee; Threatened in North Carolina, Oklahoma, and 

by Kentucky Academy of Science and Kentucky Nature 

Preserves Commission. Monitored by Alabama Natural 

Heritage Program, Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, 

Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural 

Heritage Program, South Carolina Heritage Trust Program, 

Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West Virginia Natural 

Heritage Program. Forest Service sensitive on Jefferson, 

Kisatchie, Ozark-St. Francis, Ouachita National Forests and 

National Forests in North Carolina, Mississippi, and Texas. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC, but local, in the outer Coastal Plain; U in 

the Inner Coastal Plain; R in the Piedmont. Winteringvery secretive; actual abundance poorly known at this season; apparently FC in the Outer Coastal Plain; U in the Inner 

Coastal Plain. The species has declined in numbers in recent 

decades. 

r ACCIDEWTAL 

llNTERlNG 1 

BREEDING i 1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- in the Coastal Plain, usually In open pinewoods, especially &There there is a thick cover of grasses or 

saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). In the Piedmont, mainly in 

overgrown fields with scattered saplings, occasionally in 

open woods with thick grass cover. Wintering- mostly in 

thick grasses under open pinewoods; also in grassy fields, 

such as broomsedge. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- dense grassy places where scattered trees or 

saplings are present, usually in pines. Wintering- similar 

to breeding habitats; always in thick grassy cover. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine. 10(2) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine. Recorded on 135 

of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 1985; maximum route 

mean 36 birds, overall mean 0.43 k 2.10 birddroute, total of 

route means 383 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIIES 

I(1) shmblseedling southern scrub oak. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late April to mid-July, with 

peak during May. Build domed nests with side entrances on 

the ground in dense cover, such as under brush, saw palmettos, or saplings. Clutch size 3-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage strictly on the ground, in dense grass, palmettos, or 

shrubs. Glean insects and seeds in summer; winter diet 

probably seeds. 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning insectivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:956-975; Burleigh 1958:664-668; 

Eagar and Watcher 1982(A):15; Ehrlich et al. 1988:580; 

Forbush and May 19395 19: Imhof 1976:411; James and 

Neal 1986:330; Lowery 1974:578; Mengel 1965:490; Monroe et al. 1988:55; Oberholser 1974(11):917; Potter et al. 

1980:382; Robbins et al. 1986:118; Robinson 1990:211; 

Root 1988:229. 289; Sprunt 1954:484; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:537, 538; Stewart and Robbins 1958:358. 
ous-crowned Sparrow 

Airnophila ruficeps RCSP 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Permanent resident- A very small population occurs on 

Mt. Magazine, Logan Co., Arkansas. More common west 

of the region, the birds may be expanding their range into 

eastern sections of Oklahoma. Sutton (1967) reported the 

birds nesting in Latimer and Cherokee Counties in eastern 

Oklahoma at that time. Because they are sedentary, these 

birds may suffer extensive mortality in abnormally cold 

winters, after which they may be absent from parts of the 

range for unpredictable periods of time. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- Dry shrublseedling stands in upland situations with much bare ground, sparse grasses, and only 

scattered shrubs. Scrub oak types may be preferred. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- Rocky or gravelly south-facing slopes, with 

considerable bare, rocky ground, sparse herbaceous cover, 

with widely scattered shrubs and small trees. 

SAMPLE DENSITIES 

Bent and Austin (1968b) report densities of 2-5 pairsl40 

ha as recorded in several parts of the range, all west of the 

region. 

REPRODUCTION 

The birds build open nests of grasses on or very near the 

ground, in herbaceous cover or a shrub, or under a rock 

ledge, during mid-March to mid-August. Clutch is 2-5, 

usually 3 or 4 eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

Rufous-crowned Sparrows include a wide assortment of 

seeds and insects in their diets. The pattern of more than 90% 

animal food in the summer, more than 90% seeds in the 

winter, and nearly equal amounts of the two in spring and 

fall depicts a classic insectivore-granivore diet. The secretive birds find these foods during patient foraging on the 

ground, in leaf litter beneath shrubs, or around clumps of 

herbaceous vegetation. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore-granivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:9 19-956; Ehrlich et al. 1988:584; 

James and Neal 1986:33 1 ; Oberholser 1974 (II):9 16; Rappole et al. 1983:236; Root 1988:229; Sutton 19675 14; Wolf 

1977. 
American Tree Sparrow 

S~izella arborea ATSP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- FC to occasionally C in the northern half of 

the Virginia mountains and Piedmont; generally U elsewhere in Virginia; R over the North Carolina portion of the 

range. Usually are more numerous in severe winters than 

mild ones. Breed north of the region. Fall arrival- early 

November to late November: spring departure- midMarch to late March. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor weedy fields, hedgerows, and other brushy areas, 

generally with Field Sparrows. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

KTeedy or brushy cover in open counw. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.51 1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 20(1) shrublseedling Virginia pine-pitch pine. 45(l) grasslforb oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in this region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean seeds, particularly those of grasses and composites, 

from the ground, herbaceous vegetation, and occasionally 

from shrubs. 

GUILD 

Herb gleaning granivore, 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:1137; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:338; DeGraaf et al. 1980:524; Ehrlich et al. 1988584; 

Forbush and May 1939522; Imhof 1976:413; James and 

Neal 1986:332; Lowery 1974580; Mengel 1965:496: Monroe et 31. 1988:55; Oberholser 1974(11):933; Potter et al. 

1980:384; Robinson 19902 1 1 ; Root 1988:232; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:36 1. 
Chipping Sparrow 

Spizella passerina GHSP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS OF SPECIES 

Breeding- C in the mountains and Piedmont; FC over 

much of the Coastal. Plain, but U near the coast, WinteringG frorn southern South Carolina to central Florida and across 

the Coastal Plain to Texas and Oklahoma; decreasing to U 

northward, as well as in southern Florida. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor scattered trees with short grass nearby; 

wooded residential areas, rural groves, farmyards, golf 

courses, and open woods are primary habitats. Winteringgenerally in short grass areas; favor weedy fields, plowed 

fields, golf courses, hedgerows, and lawns. Tend to occur in 

more open habitats in winter than in summer. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- scattered trees and short grass, mainly in 

pines. Wintering- varirrous short grass habitats. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(1) sawtimber oak-gum-cypress, 1(1) shrublseedling 

elm-ash-cottonwood, I(1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 

1(2) sawtimber loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 14(7) sawtimber oak- hickory, 26(2) grasslforb mixed pine- hardwood. 

Recorded on 323 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 46 birds, overall mean 2.41 It 

5.33 birdslroute, total of route means 2 144 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) ciaplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 1(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, 25(1) gras~lforb loblolly 

pine-shortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends frorn mid-April to mid-August, 

with peak in May. Nests are placed in shrubs, saplings, or 

trees, often pines, usually from 5-25 feet (1.5-8 m) up, and 

not far from lawns or other short grass areas. Clutch size is 

2-5, usually 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground, particularly in short grasses. Glean 

insects and some seeds in summer; seeds are primary winter 

diet. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b: 1 166-1 186; Burleigh 1958:673; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:339; DeGraaf et al. 1980:526; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:586; Forbush and May 1939:523; Imhof 

1976:4 14; James and Neal 1986:333; Lowery 1974:582; 

Mengel 1965:497; Monroe et al. 198855; Oberholser 

1974(11):934; Potter et al. 1980:385; Rappole et al. 

1983:237; Robbins et at. 1986: 115; Robinson 1990:212; 

Root 1988:233; Sprunt 1954:486; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970541 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958:362; Verner and Boss 

1980:293. 
Clay-colored Sparrow 

S~izella ~allida CCSP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter-- Primary range is west of 97'W; farther east, these 

birds are Rare and irregular, mid-October-April, from east 

Texas to Alabama. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Open brushland, large woods openings, woodland borders, grasslforb and shrublseedling stands in upland 

types. In many respects their habitats are similar to those of 

Field Sparrows (S. pusilla). 

KEY HABITAT REQUlREMENTS 

Winter- Early successional stages of upland types, especially where the vegetation is not very dense. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds forage on the ground, in herbaceous vegetation, or low in shrubs, where they feed on a wide variety of 

seeds and insects, as well as some buds, catkins, and berries. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial, herb, or bush gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b: 1186; Burleigh 1958:702; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:588; Forbush and May 1939:524; Imhof 

1976:4 15; James and Neal 1986:334; Lowery 1974:583; 

Mengel 1965:523; Monroe et al. 1988:55; Oberholser 1974 

(II):936; Potter et al. 1980:385; Robbins et al. 1986:115; 

Robinson 1990:212; Root 1988:230; Sprunt 1954:487; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:542,637; Sutton 1967:626. 
d Sparrow 

S~izella ~usilla FISP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS OF SPECIES 

Breeding- C to VC over most of the region, but tJ in 

southern and coastal Georgia and parts of the Gulf Coastal 

Plain. Wintering- C to A in most areas, but IJ to FC in the 

southern half of Florida, 

WNTEMK I \ \ 

BREEDING . \ 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor scattered saplings or shrubs in weedy 

habitats; overgrown fields, woods margins, hedgerows, and 

thickets. Wintering- more numerous in open fields than 

summer; prime habitats are weedy fields, broomsedge 

fields, hedgerows, wood margins, and thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- scattered saplings, shrubs, and tall herbaceous 

cover. Wintering- dense cover of herbs, particular tall 

composites. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1.1(13 j shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 19(6) 

grassiforb oak-hickory (peculiar plot, wooded pasture). Recorded on 388 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 108 birds, overall mean 4.10 t- 8.09 

birdslroute, total of route means 3638 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

3,2(llj sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 19(6) grasslforb 

oak- hickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early April to mid-August, 

peaking in May. Nests are placed on the ground or in shrubs 

or saplings in thickets or old fields. Early nests are often on 

the ground; later ones are often placed in shrubs. Clutch size 

2-5, usually 3-4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground, especially in grasses and forbs about 

3 feet (1 m) tall, where they glean insects and seeds in 

summer, and seeds in winter. 

GUILD 

Bush or ground nesting, herb gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b: 1217-1235; Burleigh 1958:676; 

DeCraaf and Rudis 1986:340; DeGraaf et al. 1980528; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988586; Forbush and May 1939525; Imhof 

1976:4 15; James and Neal 1986:334; Lowery 1874:584; 

Mengel 1965:499; Monroe et al. 198855; Oberholser 

1974(11):939; Potter et al. 1980:386; Rappole et al. 

1983:237; Robbins et al. 1986: 1 18; Robinson 1990:213; 

Root 1988:234; Sprunt 1954:488; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

970:543; Stewart and Robbins 1958:363. 
Vesper Sparrow 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, as '-In 

need of management'3n Tennessee. Forest Service sensitive 

on the Cherokee National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- somewhat local, but generally FC at higher 

elevations in the Southern Appalachians, but U at lower 

elevations; mainly over 3000 feet (900 m); R in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of Virginia and in northern Kentucky. Wintering- FC to C in southern Georgia and 

northern Florida; less numerous elsewhere. Fall arrivalearly October to early November; spring departure- early 

April to late April. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- pastures, meadows, and grassy fields are preferred, generally where hilly and rocky; ideal habitat has a 

few rocks, shrubs, or fence posts for singing perches. Wintering- most numerous in sandy grasslands; sandy fields, 

pastures, airports, plowed fields; usually where herbaceous 

cover is less than I foot ( 3 dm) high. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding---- fields where grass is short to medium in 

height, usually in hilly areas, with scattered singing pmhes. 

Wintering- short grass or bare ground, preferably in sandy 

soil, 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in grassfforb loblolly pine-shortleaf 

pine and grasslforb mixed pine-hardwood, 1(2) sapiing/poletimber oak-hickory. Recorded on 16 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 7 

birds, overall mean 0.01 rt 0.21 birdslroute, total of route 

means 12 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 23(2) grasslforb loblolly pine-shortleaf pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late April to early August, 

with peak in mid-to-late May. Nests are placed on the 

ground in fields or pastures, often in or near clumps or 

tussocks of grass. Clutch size 3-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage by gleaning almost strictly on the ground. Summer 

diet mostly insects, with many seeds; winter diet is primarily 

grass and other seeds. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning insectivoregranivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:868-885; Burleigh 1958:662-664; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:341; DeGraaf et al. 1980:520; 

Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):79; Ehrlich et al. 1988572; 

Forbush and May 1939516; Imhof 1976:409; James and 

Neal 1986:335; Lowery 1974:577: Mengel 1965:487; Monroe et al. 1988:56; Oberholser 1974(11):912; Potter et al. 

1980:380; Rappole et al. 1983236; Robbins et al. 1986: 11 1; 

Robinson 19902 13; Root 1988:235; Sprunt 1954:48 1; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:535; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:356; Verner and Boss 1980:287. 
Lark Sparrow 

Chondestes arammacus LASP 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as nreatened by Kentucky Academy of Sciences and Nature Preserves Commission, as Rare in West 

Virginia, ""I need of management" in Tennessee, Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- Common in much of Texas and Oklahoma, 

Fairly Common in east Texas, northcentral Louisiana and 

Arkansas, and Rare in western Alabama, Tennessee, and 

Kentucky. The season extends from late March to mid-September. Winter-Rare in eastern Texas and: slouthern Louisiana. 

CIDENTAL LOR HEDIUM HIGH 

these birds frequent various disturbance features such as 

rock outcrops, sandhills, and erosion gullies, that provide 

sparse groundcover interspersed with bare substrate. An 

important Tennessee habitat are some of the larger limestone cedar glades and pastures in cedar glade country In the 

Central Basin of the state. Barbour et aI. (1973) suggest that 

strip mine reclamation may provide a suitable habitat for 

them. R. B. Hamilton (pers. comm.) associates them in 

winter with gravel roads in coastal marshes. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1 pairl40 ha on 2 eastern Oklahoma censuses of open 

canopy sawtimber Oak-hickory, Visitor to 1 pairf40 ha on 4 

eastern Oklahoma censuses of open canopy sawtimber elmash-cottonwood riparian woodland. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Not recorded on a census in the region, 

REPRODUCTION 

Open cup nests are placed on the ground or in small shrubs 

or trees in hedgerows, old-fields, or clearings in forest, 6-30 

ft (2- 10 m) up. The clutch is 3-6, often 4, laid in April-July. 

FOOD HABITS 

Lark Sparrows eat seeds of a variety of forbs and grasses, 

as well as small invertebrates. Oberholser (1974, vol. 11) 

notes that these birds walk and hop with apparently equal 

facility as they forage on the ground. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial, herb, or bush nesting, herb or terrestrial gleanPRIMARY HABITATS ing omnivore-granivore 

All seasons- Parklike habitats, oak savannah, abandoned REFERENCES 

fields, brush-lined pastures, prairies; the birds inhabit early 

successional stages in a variety of suburban Barbour et al. 1973:98; Bent and Austin 1968b:886; Burareas, agricultural areas, hedgerows at fie]& edges, shrub- lei& 1958:664; Eagar and Hatcher 1982:A-69; Ehrlich et 

sapling areas, as well as openings in woods, and roadsides. al. 1988:574; Forbush and May 1939:518; Imhof 1976:410; 

James and Neal 1986:335; Lowery 1974577; McNair 1982; 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS Mengel 1965:489; Monroe et al. 1988:56; Oberholser 1974 

(II):914; Potter et al. 1980:381; Rappoleet a1.1983:236,437; 

A11 seasons- Lark Sparrows may require some bare, Robbins et al. 1986:111; ~obcnson 1990:214; Root 

rocky ground in an old-field situation or a Low basal area 1988:236; Sprunt 1954:482, 483; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

forest stand with well-developed grasslforbunderstory and 1970:536, 635; Stewart and Robbins 1958:357; Sutton 

scattered shrubs. Mengel (1965) indicates that in Kentucky 1967:6 12; Verner and Boss 1980:288. 
Lark Bunting 

Calamos~iza melanocows LARB 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Tate and Tate (1982) list as Special Concern on basis of 

60% decline in reported sightings. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Of marginal occurrence in the region, Lark 

Buntings are Rare to Very Rare, erratically occurring winter 

residents in Oklahoma, Texas, southern Louisiana, and east 

into Alabama, mid-October-early April. The primary wintering grounds are to the southwest of the region. 

CIDENTAL LOR MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Crassiforb successiorlal stages in a variety of 

mesic to xeric forest types. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Extensive open areas with flat topography and 

short vegetation. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

In the winter, Lark Buntings glean seeds of a variety of 

weed and forb species, as well as such small invertebrates 

as they find while foraging on the ground. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb gleaning granivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:638; Burleigh 1958:641; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:606; Forbush and May 1939504; Imhof 

1976:404; Lowery 197457 1 ; Oberholser 1974 (II):899; 

Pleszczynska 1978; Potter et al. 1980:376; Rappole et 

a1.1983:235; Robbins et al. 1986: 1 1 1; Robinson 1990:215; 

Root 1988:246, 291; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:525, 

634; Sutton 1967:603. 
Savannah Sparrow 

Passerculus sandwichensis snvs 

PROTECTION STATUS 

lpswich Spmow (P. s. pn'nceps) listed as Endangered in 

South Cwolina, State Listed as Spcial Concern by Kentucky 

Academy of Science and Klentucky Nature Preserves Commission, as Significantly Rare in North Carolina. Monitored 

by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory 

Program, Tennessee Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding--- R and local in mountain valleys in Virginia, 

and in the extrerne northern Piedmont of that state. Wintering- C to A. in most of the Coastal Plain; decreasing 

northward; U in mountain valleys, but VR to R in northwestern Virginia. Fall arrival- mid-September to early October; 

spring departure -late April to mid-May. 

I BRBEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- grassy fields or meadows, preferably where 

the vegetation is 1-2 feet (.6 rn) high; in moist or dry ground. 

Wintering- prefer grassy areas, but in shorter grass than in 

summer; pastures, short-grass fields, airports, dunes, and 

weedy fields. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- gasslands with vegetation generally 1-2 feet 

(.6 rn) high. Wintering- grasses or forbs, usually where less 

than 6 inches (.2 rn) in height. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l.2(6) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 22(2) grasslforb 

loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 4"3(t) shrublseedling live oak 

maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season apparently extends from early May to late 

July, with probable peak from late May to mid-June. Nests 

are placed on the ground in tall grasses. Clutch size 3-6, 

usually 4-5. 

Forage on the ground in grasses usually less than 3 feet (I 

m) tall, where they glean insects and seeds. Primary diet is 

seeds, to which insects are added in summer. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:657-724; Burleigh 1958:643-647; 

DeCraaf and Rudis 1986:342; DeGraaf et al. 1980:510; 

Eagar and Hatcher 1982(A):99; Ehrlich et al. 1988:574; 

Forbush and May 1939505, 507; Imhof 1976:404; James 

and Neal 1986:336; Lowery 19745'72; Mengel 1965:478; 

Monroe et al. 198856; Oberholser 1974(11):901-903; Potter 

et at. 1980:376; Rappole et aI. 1983:235; Robbins et al. 

1986: 1 11 ; Robinson 1990:215; Root 1988:239: Sprunt 

1954:466-468; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:525-527; Stewart and Robbins 1958:349-352; Verner and Boss 

1980:285. 

t., 

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Grasshopper Sparrow 

Ammodramus savannarum GRSP 

PROTEGTtOM STATUS 

il, s. flonhnus federally listed as Endangered, state listed 

as Endangered in Florida. State listed as Threatened in 

Tennessee. Blue Listed by Tate (1981). Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Louisiana Natural 

Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- FC in the northern parts of the region, particularly the Interior Low Plateaus and Ridge and Valley, decreasing southward. Wintering- very secretive at this 

season, and easily overlooked; probably FC in southern 

Florida, U in the remainder of the Coastal Plain, and R in 

the Piedmont. Spring arrival- early April to mid-April; fall 

departure- early October to late October. 

BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor grassy fields; less numerous in weedy 

fields, pastures, and grain fields. iyintering- broomsedge 

(Andropogon spp.) fields are preferred; also in other 

grasses. weedy fields, and in herbs under open pinewoods. 

KEY HABITA'T REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding-- fields of several types, preferably where vegetation is approximately 1 foot ('3 rn) high. wintering- a 

wide variety of fields or grassy habitats. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

2(2) grasslforb mixed pine-hardwood, 16(4) shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 227 of 888 BBS 

routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 58 

birds, overall mean 0.78 -t 2.95 birdslroute, total of route 

means 69 1 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early April (in Florida) to 

mid-August. Peak occurs late April to early May in Florida, 

late May to early June elsewhere. Nests are placed on the 

ground in tall grasses. Clutch size 3-6, commonly 4-5. 

Forage on the ground in grasses usually about 1 foot (0.3 

m) tall, where they glean insects. Winter diet also includes 

seeds. Grasshopper Sparrows are more insectivorous than 

most other sparrows. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:725; Burleigh 1958:647-650; DeCraaf and Rudis 1986:343; DeGraaf et al, 1980:5 12; Eagar 

and Hatcher 1982(A):4 1; Ehrlich et al. 1988:566; Forbush 

and May 1939508; Imhof 1976:405; James and Neal 

1986:336; Kale 1978: 15; Lowery 1974572; Mengel 

1965:48 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:56; Oberholser 1974(11):903; 

Potter et al. 1980:377; Rappole et al. 1983:236; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 1 1 2; Robinson 1990:215; Root 1988:230, 290; 

Sprunt 1954:468; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:527; Stewart and Robbins 1958:352; Verner and Boss 1980:286. 
Henslow's Sparrow 

Ammodramus henslowii HESP 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Nature Preserves Cammission, as 

Rare in West Virginia, as Significantly Rare in North Carolina, and as Poorly Known in Alabama. Blue Listed by Tate 

(1981). Monitored by Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and 

Heritage Inventory Program, Louisiana Natural Heritage 

Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program, 

open pinewoods; also in broomsedge or other grasses, usualIy where moist. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- moist grassy areas, generally where extensive 

in area. 'Wintering- grassy areas, both under open pi~ewoods and away from trees. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R and local, in addition to being erratic from 

year to year; at the present, in northern andcentral Kentucky 

and in mountain valleys and the extreme northern Virginia; 

formerly more numerous. Wintering- very secretive at this 

season, and thus difficult to determine population size; 

generally U throughout the range. Fall arrival-late October 

to early November; spring departure- late March to early 

April. 

BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- wet meadows; less numerous in marsh borders 

or dry fields. Wintering- favor moist grassy spots under 

l(1) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to early July, 

probably peaking from late May to mid-June. Nests are built 

on the ground among grasses or forbs, generally in damp 

places. Clutch size 3-5, usually 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects (summer) and seeds (winter) from the 

ground in grasses usually 2 feet (0.5 m) or more tall. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb gleaning insectivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:776-788; Burleigh 1958:65 1-653; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:344; DeGraaf et al. 1980:514; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:568; Forbush and May 1939510; Imhof 

1976:407; James and Neal 1986:337; Lowery 1974573; 

Mengel 1965:484; Monroe et al. 1988:56; Oberholser 

1974(11):907; Potter et ai. 1980:378; Robbins et al. 

1986: 115; Robinson 1990:216; Root 1988:241; Sprunt 

1954:470; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970529,530; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:353. 
Le Conte's Sparrow 

Ammospiza leconteii LCSP 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Poorly Known in Alabama. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- very secretive, thus undoubtedly more numerous than records indicate; R to U in the Coastal Plain 

portion of the range; especialiy in the western part of the 

region; R in the Piedmont of Georgia. Breed to the northwest 

of the region. Fall arrival- late October to mid-November; 

spring departure- early April to late April. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor medium height to tall grasses often where matted; 

occur in broomsedge fields, old rice fields, open pinewoods, 

and dry edges of marshes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Herbaceous cover, preferably where vegetation is at least 

2 feet (0.6 m) high. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breed to the northwest of this region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean seeds and occasionally insects from the ground in 

dense grass. 

GUILD 

Herb gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:765; Burleigh 1958:650; 570; Forbush and May 19395 10; Imhof 1976:407; James and Neal 

1986:337; Lowery 1974574; Mengel 1965:485; Monroe et 

al. 198857; Oberholser 1974(11):906; Potter et al. 1980:379; 

Robbins et al. 1986:115; Robinson 1990:217; Root 

1988:242, 290; Sprunt 1954:470; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970529. 
Sharp-tai ed Sparrow 

Ammos~izacaudacuta STSP 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- locally C on the northern coast of Virginia; 

possibly a R breeder elsewhere on the Virginia coast. Wintering- C along the coast, except only U to FC in southern 

Florida. Fall arrival- early September to late September; 

spring departure- early May to late May. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- brackish or salt marshes; a slight preference 

for brackish marshes for breeding and salt marshes for 

wintering. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Brackish or salt marshes. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding occurs in May, with peak In late May (Virginia). 

Nests are placed near the ground above the high tide line in 

salt marsh grasses. Clutch size is 3-6, usually 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground, such as on the mud of a salt marsh, 

where they glean a variety of small animal prey (all year) 

and seeds (winter). 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning insectivoreomnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:789-818; Burleigh 1958:653-656; 

DeGraaf et al. 1980:516; Ehrlich et al. 1988:572; Forbush 

and May 1939:5 1 1,5 13; Imhof 1976408; James and Neal 

1986:339; Lowery 1974:575; Monroe et al. 1988:57; Oberholser 1974(11):908; Potter et al. 1980:379; Robinson 

1990:217; Root 1988:240; Sprunt 1954:47 1-473; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:531-533; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:353. 
de Sparrow 

PROTECTION STATUS 

A. m. mirabilis federally listed as Endangered, state listed 

as Endangered in Florida. A, m. juncicolus federally listed 

as category C2, state listed as Special Concern in Florida. A. 

m. peninsula state listed as Special Concern in Florida. A. 

rn. pelonotus federally listed as category C2, monitored by 

Florida Natural Areas Intfentory. A. nz.fisheri monitored by 

Florida Natural Areas Inventory. Monitored by Georgia 

Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

C in most coastal areas, though R in central and southern 

Florida. There is some migration of birds from Virginia and 

farther north to areas along the Atlantic coast from North 

Carolina southward. 

m 

mmm BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- occur strictly In brackish or salt marshes; 

generally more common in summer in brackish marshes, 

and in winter more numerous in salt marshes. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons-- salt or brackish marshes. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-April to late June, 

peaking in late April to late May. Nests are placed on or near 

the ground above the high water line in dense grasses or 

marshes. Clutch size 3-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground, such as or, the mud of marshes, or 

on grasses. Glean primarily invertebrates and insects in 

summer; many seeds are also taken i~ winter. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning insectivoreomnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b:8 19-868; Burleigh 1958:656-662; 

DeCraaf et al. 1980:518; Ehrlich et al. 1988:570; Forbush 

and May 1939:5 13-5 16; Imhof 1976:409; Kale 

1978: 16,19,47, 106,107,115; Lowery 1974576; Oberholser 

1974(11):9 10; Potter et al. 1980:380; Root 1988:241; Sprunt 

1954:473-48 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:533; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:355; Sykes 1980. 
Fox Sparrow 

Passerella ilia ca FOSP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- FC over most of the Piedmont and Coastal 

Plain; FC to C in the Outer Coastal Plain from Virginia to 

South Carolina and the Inner Coastal PIain from Alabama 

west; U at lower elevations mountains; R in Florida. Breed 

to the north of the region. Fall arrival- late October to late 

November; spring departure- early March to late March. 

CIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Dense cover of thickets or woodland understory; favor 

evergreen cover, particularly in broadleaf evergreen shrubs 

under pines of broadleaf evergreen trees; also in dense 

shrub-sapling thickets, woodland margins, and shrubbery; 

generally scarce in herbaceous cover of open fields. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Dense woodland understory or thickets, usually in evergreen cover. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) grassiforb oak-hickory, lO(1) sawtimber live oak 

maitime, 18(9) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage prirnarily by scratching in dead leaves for food, 

gleaning for seeds, berries, and other fruits. Occasionally 

forage in trees and shrubs. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning granivore or frugivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c:1392-1433; Burleigh 1958:683- 

685; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:345; DeGraaf et al. 1980532; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988596; Forbush and May 1939529; Imhof 

1976:419; James and Neal 1986:339; Lowery 1974:588; 

Mengel 1965504; Monroe et al. 1988:57; Oberholser 

1974(11):951; Potter et al. 1980:389; Robbins et al. 

1986:118; Robinson 1990:218; Root 1988:242; Sprunt 

1954:490; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:547; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:368; Verner and Boss 1980:298. 
Song Sparrow 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to A in the Southern Appalachians, ranglng 

to the highest elevations; FC to C in the upper Piedmont; 

mostly U in the lower Piedmont and in the Coastal Plain of 

Virginia; C along the Virginia coast, expanding northward 

across Kentucky and Tennessee. Wintering- A over most 

of the region though less numerous in the mountains; U in 

southern Florida. Fall arrival- early October to mid-October; spring departure- mid-April to late April. 

SOSP 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor shrubby areas in open country; residential shrubbery, farmyards, streamside thickets, hedgerows, 

and edges of ponds are frequent habitats. Wintering- occur 

in the same habitats as for breeding, but in many other 

habitats; most common in weedy fields, marshes and 

marshy edges, thickets, and other brushy places; usually in 

somewhat moist habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- shrubs or saplings in open country, in a wide 

variety of situations. Wlnter~ng- thick herbaceous cover or 

shrubby thickets. 

1.1(5) saplinglpoletimber oak-hickory, 10(2) grassiforb 

mixed pine-hadwood, 1 014) grassiforb oak-hickory ,35( 1 8) 

saplinglpoletimber elm-afh-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded on 150 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; 

maximum route mean 82 birds, overall mean 2.51 rfi 9.04 

birdslroute, total of route means 2234 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber live oak maritime, l(1) sapling/poletimber 

oak-hickory, 1 114) shrubheedling oak-hickory, 28(8) 

grassfforb oak-hickory . 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early April to mid-August, 

with peak in late April to early June. First nests are often 

placed on the ground, later ones in shrubs or saplings. Clutch 

size usually 4-5, sometimes 3. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage primarily on the ground, often also in shrubs, or 

saplings. Glean insects and some seeds in summer and 

mainly weed seeds in winter. 

GUILD 

Ground or bush nesting, terrestrial or herb gleaning insectivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968~: 1491- 1563; Burleigh 1958:689- 

694; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986346; DeGraaf et al. 1980:538; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:576; Forbush and May 1939533; Irnhof 

1976:422; James and Neal 1986:339; Lowery 1974589; 

Mengel 1965508; Monroe et al. 1988:57; Oberholser 

1974(11):956; Potter et al. 1980:390; Robbins et al. 

1986: 1 18; Robinson 1990:2 18; Root 1988:243; Sprunt 

1954:493; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970549-552; Stew& 

and Robbins 1958:37 1; Verner and Boss 1980:300. 
ncoln's Sparrow 

hllelos~iza iincolnii LISP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- secretive at this season, so the status is poorly 

known; R to 19 across parts of the region (west of the 

Mississippi River); R, though probably regular, over most 

of Alabma, Georgia, western South Carolina, and the 

northern half of Florida; R to perhaps U in coastal Virginia 

at least in December; VR elsewhere. Most records are birds 

seen on Christmas Bird Counts, in December; thus, the 

January and February status is little known. Breed to the 

north of the region. Fall arrival- late September to late 

October; spring departure- late April to mid-May. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor damp, brushy places; shrubs or saplings along a 

stream, pond margin, or marsh edge are the usual habitats; 

also in old fields, hedgerows, and weedy spots, usually 

where moist; commonly associate with Song and Swamp 

sparrows. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Shrubs and tall grass in moist places. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean primarily weed seeds, also berries and insects, from 

the ground and herbaceous vegetation; occasionally forage 

in shrubs. 

Herb gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c: 1434- 1473; Burleigh 1958:685; 

DeCraaf and Rudis 1986:347; DeGraaf et al. 1980534; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:598; Forbush and May 1939530; Imhof 

1976:420; James and Neal 1986:340; Lowery 19741588; 

Mengel 1965505; Monroe et al. 198857; Oberholser 

1974(11):953; Potter et al. 1980:390; Rappole et al. 

1983:238; Robbins et al. 1986: 1 18; Robinson 1990:219; 

Root 1988:244; Sprunt 1954:491; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:369; Verner and Boss 1980:299. 
Swamp Sparrow 

P 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest 

Service sensitive on the George Washington National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R in northwestern Highland County, Virginia. 

Wintering- C to A in the Coastal Plain, Mississippi Alluvial Plateau, and in the Piedmont north to southern Virginia; 

U in the mountains and in southern Florida. Most Swamp 

Sparrows breed north of the region. Fall arrival- early 

October to mid-October; spring departure- late April to 

mid-May . 

BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- essentially only in high elevation bogs, especially the shrubby margins of bogs. Wintering- in fresh or 

brackish marshes, marshy edges, stream and pond margins, 

damp fields, and hedgerows; usually in wet or damp spots 

where herbaceous cover is present. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding-- mountain bogs, usually in shrubby spots. Wintering- marshes or other damp herbaceous cover. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gum-cottonwood, 47(1) 

shrublseedling live oak maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, probably peaking in mid- to late May, although no nest has been 

found in the region. Nests are usually placed just off the 

ground in grass tussocks or small shrubs. Clutch size 3-6, 

usually 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground or in marsh vegetation, where they 

glean insects and some seeds in summer, and insects and 

seeds in winter. 

GUILD 

Ground or bush nesting, herb gleaning insectivore-ornnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c: 1474-1490; Burleigh 1958:687- 

689; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:348; DeGraaf et al. 1980536; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:598; Forbush and May 1939532; Imhof 

1976421 ; James and Neal 1986:342; Lowery 1974589; 

Mengel 1965:506; Monroe et al. 198858; Oberholser 

1974(11):954; Potter et al. 1980:390; Rappole et al. 

1983:238; Robbins et al. 1986:118; Robinson 1990:219; 

Root 1988:245; Sprunt 1954:492; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:548; Stewart and Robbins 1958:369. 
White-throated Sparrow 

Zonotrichia albicollis WTSP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- A over most of the region; C in the lower 

mountains and much of Kentucky and Central Tennessee; 

but not numerous at the higher elevations; U in central 

Florida. Breed north of the region. Fall arrival- early 

October; spring departure- early May to mid-May. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor woodland thickets; generally in low or moist deciduous or broadleaf evergreen woods; not common in open 

fields; primary habitats are open woods, bottomlands, wood 

margins, thickets, and shrubbery in residential areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Leafy ground and thickets within or near woodlands. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSIiTlES 

l(1) saplinglpoletimber longleaf pine-slash pine, l(1) 

shrubfseedling Virginia pine-pitch pine, 31(5) grasslforb 

oak-hickory, 100(3) sawtimber live oak maritime. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage mainly on the ground, especially in dead leaves; 

occasionally in shrubs or trees. Scratch in dead leaves for 

seeds; also glean berries and buds from shrubs or trees. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c: 1364; Burleigh 1958:68 1; DeCraaf 

and Rudis 1986:349; DeCraaf et al. 1980:530; Ehrlich et al. 

1988596; Forbush and May 1939528; Imhof 1976:418; 

James and Neal 1986:342; Lowery 1974587; Mengel 

1965503; Monroe et al. 1988:58; Oberholser 1974(11)949; 

Potter et al. 1980:388; Robbins et al. 1986:118; Robinson 

1990:220; Root 1988:246; Sprunt 1954:489; Sprunt and 

Chamberlain 1970545; Stewart and Robbins 1958:366. 
White-crowned Sparrow 

Zonotrichia leucophrys wcsp 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- tend to occur in small flocks, and thus are 

rather local; C west of the Mississippi River, northern Kentucky and Virginia mountain valleys; mostly If to FC across 

Tennessee and North Carolina; R to U across remainder of 

the region. 

"N""" *\?,: 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Open, weedy fields with some brushy tangles; hedgerows, 

briar thickets, and overgrown fields are principal habitats. 

Do not usually occur along woodland margins; favor extensive open country. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Weedy fields, generally with scattered shrubs or other 

tangles among the herbaceous cover. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in grassiforb oak-hickory , 0.8(8) 

shrubiseedling elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean seeds from the ground or herbaceous vegetation. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c: 1273- 135 1; Burleigh 1958:679- 

681; Ehrlich et al. 1988:594; Forbush and May 1939527; 

Imhof 1976:417; James and Neal 1986:343; Lowery 

1974585; Mengel 1965501; Monroe et al. 1988:58; Oberholser 1974(11):944; Potter et al. 1980:388; Rappole et al. 

1983:238; Robbins et al. 1986: 118; Robinson 1990:220; 

Root 1988:248; Sprunt 1954:488; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970544; Stewart and Robbins 1958:365; Verner and Boss 

1980:296. 
Harris' Sparrow 

Zonotrichia auerula HASP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Primary winter range of these birds is west of 

the region in the southern Great Plains west of 96' W. They 

occur regularly and are Uncommon to Scarce in eastern 

Oklahoma, east Texas, northwestern Arkansas, and northwestern Louisiana. They are Occasional and Rare farther 

east into Alabama, Tennessee, and western Kentucky. 

WINTERING kqd BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Preferred habitats include riparian woodland, 

shrublseedling and sapling stands in xnesic uplands near 

streams, usually in hardwood types. They are commonly 

found in open fields with tangles of shrubs, where they occur 

with White-crowned Sparrows (2. leucophrys). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Dense shrub cover along creeks and at woods 

edges. Harris' Sparrows are apparently partial to thickets 

with vine-covered trees, and ''areas where streams, hedgerows, and shelterbelts carry some eas tern-sty Ie trees and 

bushes westward into open prairie country" ((Oberholser 

1974, vol. 11). 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.5-9 birdsl40 ha on 3 eastern Oklahoma censuses of a 

single plot of open canopy sawtimber elm-ask-cottonwood 

riparian vegetation. 

REPRODUCTION 

110 not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Primarily vegetar~an, these sparrows consume seeds of a 

variety of agricultural weeds, as well as those of fruits, waste 

grain, and grasses. In wlnter they also eat buds and fruits of 

early bloomlng trees such as elm (Ulmus sp.). 

GUILD 

Terrestrial, gleaning granivore or omnivore; or bush or 

arboreal gleaning folivore. 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:lOO; Bent and Austin 1968c:1249; 

Burleigh 1958:678; Ehrlich et al. 1988592; Forbush and 

May 1939526; Imhof 1976:416; Jackson, ed., 198 1; James 

and Neal 1986:345; Lowery 1974585; Mengel 1965:50 1 ; 

Monroe et al. 1988:58; Oberholser 1974 (II):943; Potter et 

al. 1980:387; Robinson 1990:221; Root 1988:249; Sprunt 

1954503; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:637; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:365; Sutton 1967:630, 
Dark-eyed Junco 

Junco h vernalis DEJU, SCJU* 

PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by Kentucky Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to A in the mountains, mostly over 3500 feet 

(1050 m), Wintering- C to A in most areas; decreasing to 

U along the Gulf Coast and in southern Georgia and northern 

Florida. Fall arrival- late September to late October; spring 

departure- late March to late April. 

CCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- widespread at high elevations; usually in 

woods with short grass or lawns nearby; spruce-fir forest; 

various mixed forests; hardwood forests, preferably where 

cool and moist; even in residential areas with trees, shrubs, 

and lawns. Wintering- generally near pinewoods or mixed 

woods where short grass is nearby; commonly feed on lawns 

and grassy roadsides, with a wooded area nearby; also in 

open woods, wooded residential areas, and wood margins; 

infrequent in weedy fields and thickets. 

KEY HABITATS REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- cool and moist habitats with trees and short 

grass or open ground, only in the mountains. Winteringshort grass or bare ground near a woodland, usually associated with conifers. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

6( 1) sawtimber oak-hickory ,47(1) sawtirnber cove hardwoods, 7 l(2) sawtimber spruce-fir. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber live oak maritime, l(1) sawtimber elmash-cottonwood, ll(13) sawtirnber oak-hickory, 15(1) 

grasslforb loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 83(1) shrublseedling 

Virginia pine-pitch pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Usually rear 2 broods during breeding from mid-April to 

mid-August; peak for first brood in mid-May to early June; 

for second brood in July. Nests are generally placed on the 

ground in forests, especially along stream banks, uprooted 

trees, or trails. Occasionally nest in trees and shrubs, seldom 

above 5 feet (1.5 m). Clutch size 3-4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage primarily on the ground, often scratching in leaf 

litter. In summer glean insects and seeds; winter diet consists of seeds. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968b: 1021- 1098; Burleigh 1958:669- 

673; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:350; DeGraaf et al. 1980:522; 

Ehrlich et al, 1988:590; Forbush and May 1939:520; Irnhof 

1976:412; James and Neal 1986:347; Lowery 1974:578; 

Mengel 1965:493; Monroe et al. 1988:58; Oberholser 

1974(11):925-930; Potter et al. 1980:392; Robbins et al. 

1986: 1 15; Robinson 1990:222; Root 1988:25 1; Sprunt 

1954:485; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:539,540; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:359-361; Verner and Boss 1980:292. 
and Longspur 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- U and erratic, as well as local, in extreme 

eastern Virginia and northeastern North Carol lna and the 

norchern parts of the Coastal Plain in Arkansas and western 

Tennessee; generally VR and erratic el sewhere. Breed 

north of the region. Fall arrival- late October to late November; spring departure- early March ts early April. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Along the coast, prefer low dunes and very short grass 

habitats; inland, they favor extensive plowed fields, but also 

at airports, and with larks or Snow Buntings along the coast. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Bare ground or short grass, in extensive open country. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage on the ground in short grass or bare areas, where 

they glean grass and forb seeds. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c: 1597- 1627; Burleigh 1958:694; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:351; DeGraaf et al. 1980:540; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:602; Forbush and May 1939:536; Imhof 

1976:424; James and Neal 1986:348; Lowery 1974590; 

Mengel 1965:514; Monroe et al. 1988:58; Oberholser 

1974(11):961; Potter et al. 1980:392; Robinson 1990:222; 

Root 1988:253, 29 1 ; Sprunt 1954:494; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:552; Stewart and Robbins 1958:373. 
Smith's Longspur - 

< 

- 

Calcarius pictus SMLO 

i 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- These longspurs are Rare, mid-November-early 

April, in eastern Oklahoma, east Texas, most of Arkansas, 

northwestern Louisiana, western Tennessee, and northwestern Mississippi. Farther east they are occasionally found in 

Alabama. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- They inhabit very early successional stages of 

mesic to slightly hydric forest types, such as plowed fields, 

heavily grazed pastures, and airports. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Extensive grassy pastures, airports, and moist 

meadows where vegetation is low ( 1 dm, 4 in) and sparse. 

Smith's Longspurs are partial to fields of three-awn grass 

(Aristida sp.; Jeter 1953). 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Recorded 0.5 birdsf40 ha on a single Alabama census of 

an abandoned, mowed airport, upland site, with 0.2-0.8 rn 

(0.5-2.5 ft) tall grasses. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

During the winter these birds glean seeds of grasses and 

forbs, and lesser amounts of animal food, particularly insects and spiders, from the ground and low vegetation. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c:1628; Ehrlich et al. 1988:602; 

Forbush and May 1939:536; Imhof 1976:425; Jackson, ed., 

198 1 :47; James and Neal 1986:349; Jeter 1953; Lowery 

1974:592; Oberholser 1974 (II):963; Potter et al. 1980:393; 

Robinson 1990:223; Root 1988:253; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:553; Sutton 1967:640. 
Chestnut-co ared Longspur 

Calcarius orna tus CCLO 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Primary range is west of the region in the southern Great Plains. The birds are Casual to Rare, Pate Octobermid-April, in Oklahoma, east Texas, northwestern 

Louisiana, and prairie areas in Arkansas. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- They inhabit agricultural lands and very early 

successional stages of mesic forest types. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Extensive areas of short grass and brbs, approx. 

I dm (4 in) tall, often where moist or low-lying, suck as 

airports, pastures, and wet meadows. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

The winter diet includes primarily plant foods, such as 

waste grain, and seeds of grasses, sedges, and forbs. The 

birds glean these as they travel in flocks across the landscape. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb gleaning granivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968c:1635; Ehrlich et al. 1988:600; 

Forbush and May 1939537; James and Neal 1986:350; 

Lowery 1974:593; Oberholser 1974 (II):965; Robbins et al. 

1986: 121 ; Root 1988:253; Stewart and Robbins 1958:374; 

Sutton 1967:640. 
Snow Bunting 

Plectrophenax nivdis SNBU 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- U, and somewhat erratic, along the Virginia 

coast, often numerous at Craney Island near Norfolk; R to 

U along the North Carolina coast; R on the South Carolina 

coast, and on high elevation balds along the North Carolina 

- Tennessee border: VR elsewhere, mainly in northern Virginia. Breed north of the region. Fall arrival- early November to late November: spring departure- late February to 

mid-March. 

GIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Mainly in dunes, especially rather low and extensive ones; 

also on grassy balds in the high mountains. Seldom found 

in plowed fields or short grass habitats. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Primarily in sand dunes; otherwise In short grass of bare 

ground. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean seeds of grasses and forbs on the ground, usually in 

sand dunes. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968~1652-1677; Burleigh 1958:695; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:352; DeGraaf et al. 1980541; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:604; Forbush and May 1939537; James 

and Neal 1986:350; Lowery 1974:593; Mengel 19655 15; 

Monroe et al. 198859; Potter et al. 1980:393; Robinson 

1990:224; Root 1988:245, 290; Sprunt 1954:494; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:553; Stewart and Robbins 1958:374. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

State listed as Special Concern by KentuczI Ly Academy of 

Science and Kentucky Nature Preserve: sz Commission. 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage IEro,orarn, West 

Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Tall grassy places in open country. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

l(3) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R in Highland County, Vircurred in summer and possibly nested at : :sewerat. sites in 

Virginia and isolated locations in the Blue-.+grass region of 

Kentucky. The majority of the breeding p*wapdation nests 

north of the region and winters south of th*r=cUnited States. 

Spring arrival- late April to early May; :Fall departuremid-September to late September. 

Breeding season, poorly known in the Southeast, late May 

to late June, probably peaking in early in mid-June. Nest on 

the ground, well-concealed in grasses. Clutch size 4-7, 

usually 5-6. 

FOOD HABITS 

WINTERING 

m eZZd BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Glean insects from grasses or other herbaceous cover near 

the ground; in the fall, diet is primarily grain seeds. Formerly 

made serious depredations of rice crops in the coastal 

Carolinas. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, kerb gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:28; Burleigh 1958574; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:353; DeGraaf et al. 1980:464; Ehrlich et al. 1988:608; 

Forbush and May 1939:459; Imhof 1976:370; James and 

Neal 1986:350; Lowery 1974537; Mengel 1965:437; Monroe et al. 198855; Oberholser 1974(11):802; Potter et al. 

1980:338; Rappole et al. 1983:228; Robbins et al. 1986:98; 

Robinson 1990:224; Sprunt 1954:429; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:489; Stewart and Robbins 1958:3 18. 

Areas of tall grasses or other herbs; rneacilr caws, hay fields, 

or weedy fields, always where extensive. 
Red-winged Blackbird 

Agelaius phoeniceus RWBL 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to A in most of the region; C at higher 

elevations, but habitat somewhat more ~stricted. Wintering- VC to A everywhere except the mountains, where 

only U to FC at most places. 

1 E3mm BREEDING I 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- favor freshwater marshes, but also common in 

wet thickets, grassy fields, borders of lakes and ponds, and 

openings and edges of swamps, among other habitats. Wintering- forage in marshes, grain fields, cropland, edges of 

ponds, streams, and swamps, and in moist woodlands; roost 

in large flocks, often in marshes, but commonly with other 

blackbirds in thick woodlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- shrubs, saplings, or herbaceous vegetation, 

usually where moist or wet, but few essential requirements. 

Wintering- no essential features, but most foraging in 

varied open habitats. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.5(15) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 24(2) 

grassfforb mixed pine-hardwood, 34(2) sawtimkr oakgum-cypress. Recorded on 58 1 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 983 birds, overall 

mean 3 1.5 f 75.8 birdsfroute, total of route means 27,972 

birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(2) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 27(18) grassfforb 

elm-ash-cottonwood, 29(1) saplinglpoletimber oak-gumcypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season mid-April to mid-August; peak occurs in 

early to late May. Nests are placed in reeds, shrubs, or 

saplings, usually 1-3 feet (.3-1 HI) above ground or water. 

Clutch size usually 3-4, sometimes 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

In summer glean insects and other small invertebrates from 

the ground or low vegetation. In winter feed primarily on 

grain and weed seeds on the ground. 

GUILD 

Bush or ground nesting, herb or terrestrial gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:123-178; Burleigh 1958: 580-584; Crase and 

DeHaven 1975; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:354; DeGraaf et 

al. 1980:468; Dolbeer and Stehn 1979; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:6 12; Forbush and May 1939:465; Imhof 1976:374; 

James and Neal 1986:350; Lowery 197454 1 ; Mengel 

1965:442; Monroe et al. 198859; Oberholser 1974(11):809; 

Potter et al. 1980:341; Rappole et al. 1983:229; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 100; Robinson 1990:225; Root 1988:255, 291; 

Sprunt 1954:433-436; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:493; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958:321; USDI Fish & Wildl. Serv. 

1980; Verner and Boss 1980:262. 
Eastern Meadow 

Sturnella maana EAME 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Blue Listed by Tate (198 1). 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C to VC in most of the region, though somewhat less numerous near the coast and in the mountains; 

seldom occur over 5000 feet (1500 m); Wintering- a 

noticeable increase in numbers in most areas, becoming A 

at many localities. Partly migratory. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

AH seasons- prefer short to medium-height grasses; 

fields, pastures, and other grassy places. Favor somewhat 

taller grasses (up to 2 feet high, .6 m) for nesting than for 

foraging. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Grassy places in a wide variety of situations, 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0,6(2) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 20(2) grasslforb 

mixed pine-hardwood. Recorded on 567 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 46'7 birds, 

overall mean 22.4 k 37.5 birdsiroute, total of route means 

19,856 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

2.5(2) sawtimber longleaf prne-slash plne, 13(25) 

grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood, B 6(2) grassiforb loblolly 

pine-shortleaf pine, 18(1) sawtimber longleaf pine-scrub 

oak, 29(11) grassiforb oak-hickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-April to mid-July, 

peaking in early to late May. Domed ground nests with side 

entrances well-hidden in grass. Clutch size 3-7, usually 4-6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean and probe ground and grasses. Summer diet prlmarily consists of insects; in winter considerable amounts of 

grain and grass seeds are also taken. 

GUILD 

Ground nesting, terrestrial or herb probing or gleaning 

insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:53-83; Burlelgh 1958:576-579; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:355; DeGraaf et al. 1980:466; Ehrlich et a!. 

1988:610; Forbush and May 1939:461; Imhof 1976:37 I ; 

James and Neal 1986:352; Lanyon 1957; Lowery 1974:538; 

Mengel 1965:438; Monroe et al. 1988:59; Oberholser 

1974(11):804; Potter et al. 1980:339; Rappole et al. 

1983:228; Robbins et al. 1986: 100; Robinson 1990225; 

Root 1988:254; Sprunt 1954:430; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:49 1 ; Stewart and Robbins 1958:3 19. 
Western Meadowlark 

Sturnella nealecta WEME 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Tennessee Natural Heritage Program. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- Common outside the region in Texas and 

Oklahoma, these birds may occasionally breed in northwestern Lou~siana or in southwestern Tennessee. They are far 

more widespread and numerous in the region in the winter. 

Winter-Uncommon to Rare, mid-October-early April, in 

east Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas, Rare farther east into 

Alabama, central Kentucky. central Tennessee, and the 

western part of the Florida panhandle. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- Grasslforb successional stage in upland 

forest types, agricultural areas, pastures; similar to the habitats selected by Eastern Meadowlarks (S. magnu). 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- Extensive areas of short grass, similar to 

Eastern Meadowlarks. During the breeding season, these 

birds occupy areas that are slightly drier, with shorter and 

less dense grass than those occupied by the latter species, 

pmicularly where the 2 species occur together. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Not recorded in the region. 

SAMPLE VVlNTER OENSlTlES 

Recorded as 47 birdsl40 ha, combined with Eastern Meadowlarks, on a single census in open canopy sawtimber 

elm-ash-cottonwood riparian vegetation in eastern Oklahoma, 

REPRODUCTION 

Meadowlarks build covered, dome-shaped nests of grass 

on the ground in dense grass in open grassy fields. Clutch 

size 3-7, typically 5. The season extends from May-July. 

FOOD HABITS 

These birds glean their food from the ground or herbaceous 

vegetation. They also probe into the ground or mats of 

vegetation with their bills, which they then forcibly open to 

expose such potential prey as insect eggs or larvae. During 

the breeding season, insects form the staple diet; a variety 

of seeds are also eaten in the winter. 

GUILD 

Herb nesting, terrestrial or herb gleaning or probing insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:86; Bent 1958:84; Burleigh 1958579; 

Eagar and Hatcher 1982:A-107; Ehrlich et al. 1988:608; 

Forbush and May 1939:463; Imhof 1976:373; James and 

Neal 1986:353; Lowery 1974538; Mengel 1965:44 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:59; Oberholser 1974 (II):806; Potter et al. 

1980:341; Rappole et al. 1983:228; Robbins et al. 1986: 100; 

Robinson 1990:226; Root 1988:255; Sprunt and Charnberlain 1970:627; Sutton 1967539; Verner and Boss 1980:260. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- Occwional and Very Rare along the Gulf Coast 

of Texas and adjacent Louisiana; scattered winter records 

elsewhere in region. 

FINTERINC 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Winter- Marshes, pastures, livestock pens, agricultural 

areas. The birds are usually found with other blackbirds. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- Yellow-heads are primarily marsh dwellers. 

Winter- Like other blackbirds, they flock and wander 

widely in search of grain and other seed foods. Roosting 

sites for flocks of birds in dense sheltered vegetation are an 

important requirement during fall, winter, and spring. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

They eat grain, weed seeds, and a variety of insects gleaned 

while walking along the ground. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial or herb gleaning omnivore 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:86; Bent 1958:99; Burleigh 1958:580; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:612; Forbush and May 1939:464; Imhof 

1976:374; James and Neal 1986:353; Lowery 1974540; 

Mengel 1965:44 1 ; Monroe et al. 198859; Oberholser 1974 

(II):808; Potter et al. 1980:341; Rappoleet a1.1983:229,433; 

Robbins et al. 1986: 100; Robinson 1990:226; Root 

1988:256, 292; Sprunt 1954:432; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:492, 627; Stewart and Robbins 1958:320; Sutton 

196754 1 ; Verner and Boss 1980:26 1. 
Rusty Blackbird 

Eu~haaus carolinus RUBL 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- FC to C in most of the region though scarce 

in most of Florida; FC in the Piedmont; U at higher elevations, mostly in mountain valleys. Occur in large flocks, and 

are thus often C in one locality and quite scarce in a nearby 

area. Breed north of the region. Fall arrival- mid-October 

to mid-November; spring departure- early April to late 

April. 

VlNTERlNG 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor damp, wooded places; swamps, swamp margins, 

and wet thickets are the primary habitats, but they are 

frequently found in croplands and lawns with other blackbirds. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

No strict requirements, though usually found in moist or 

wet areas where hardwood trees are present. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

If 1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, 111) sawtimber oakhickory, 3.1(9) shrublseedfing elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in this region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects, small invertebrates, seeds, and berries, primarily on the ground in damp places. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:282-301; Burleigh 1958590; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:356; DeGraaf et al. 1980:474; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:614; Forbush and May 1939:471; Imhof 1976:378; 

James and Neal 1986:354; Lowery 1974545; Mengel 

1965:448; Monroe et al. 1988:60; Oberholser 1974(11):829; 

Potter et al. 1980:347; Robinson 1990:227; Root 1988:256, 

292; Sprunt 1954:44 1 ; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:499; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958:324. 
Brewer's B 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- occur locally, in flocks, thus not widespread; 

R to U at most localities, but PC in a few areas. Breed west 

of the region. Fall arrival- early November to late Novernber; spring departure- late March to early April, 

ACCIDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Open farming country; favor cattle pastures and feedlots, 

plowed fields, lawns, and other short grass areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Open country in agricultural habitats. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in this region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and grain seeds almost strictly from the 

ground. 

GUILD 

Terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:302; Burleigh 1958:592; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:614; Forbush and May 1939:472; Imhof 1976:378; 

James and Neal 1986:354: Lowery 1974:545; Mengel 

1965:449; Monroe et al. 1988:60; Oberholser 1974(11):830; 

Potter et al. 1980:348; Robbins et al. 1986:lOO; Robinson 

1990:227; Root 1988:256, 292; Sprunt 1954:442; Sprunt 

and Chamberlain 1970:500; Stewart and Robbins 1958:325; 

Verner and Boss 1980:265. 
Great-tai ed Grack 

Quiscalus mexicanus GTGR 

PROTECTION STATUS 

hlonitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Permanent Residents- Common breeders along the Gulf 

Coast of Texas and southwestern Louisiana (Cameron and 

Calcasieu Parishes), early March-late September. In the 

winter they retreat south and west along the Gulf Coast and 

are much less numerous than in the breeding season. The 

birds are Uncommon residents inland in Texas and Oklahoma along the western edge of the forests of those states. 

Their range is presently expanding in human-dominated 

habitats in the southern Great Plains and Southwest (Faanes 

and Norling 1981); a breeding record exists for extreme 

southwest Arkansas (Jackson 1982:988). This expansion is 

apparently taking place at the expense of the smaller Common Grackles ((12. quiscula, Pruitt and McGowan 1975). 

HfNTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- In Mexico and farther south "more than any 

other bird of northern Central America, they seek the neighborhood of man." pent 1958:335). Origindly in the region 

these were birds of south Texas brush country and coastal 

marshes. During the present century some of them have 

begun to utilize human-dominated landscapes such as residential areas, agricultural areas, parks, gardens, and orchards. This adaptation has permitted a range expansion 

through much of Texas, OMahoma, and into Arkansas, 

Kansas, Colorado, and Nebraska [Oberholser 1974(II)]. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- Open parkland, marshes, agricultural land, 

towns. Increasingly the range expansion of these birds appears to reflect the birds' adaptation to modification of the 

landscape by people. They do not penetrate closed canopy 

forest to any appreciable extent. 

REPRODUCTION 

These are colonial birds; males have harems, and the 

females build their large, bulky cup nests usually between 

5-15 ft (2-5 rn) up, in a variety of locations. Marshes, arid 

lands, coastal thickets, towns, ornamental grounds, and 

other sites are used. Clutch size is 3-5, usually 4. 

FOOD HABITS 

Truly omnivorous birds, Great-tailed Grackles eat a variety of foods from grain through insects, invertebrates, frogs, 

lizards, and fish, to carrion, dog food, and human table 

scraps. 

GUILD 

Herb, bush, or tree nesting, herb, terrestrial, or aquatic 

gleaning omnivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:335,35 1,352; Ehrlich et al. 1988:620; Jackson 

1982; James and Neal 1986:355; Lowery 1974546; Oberholser 1974 (II):832; Pruitt and McGowan 1975; Robbins et 

al. 1986: 100; Root 1988:256,292; Sutton 1967:553. 
ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- C to A essentially through out the range. 

Some migratory movements occur, but littlec hange in abundance at a given locality from season to seasan. 

CIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

~m~ 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Seldom far from water. Occur in thickets, open woods, 

residential areas, and other habitats near large bodies of 

water, generally near salt water. Most cornman in thickets 

adjacent to salt marshes and estuaries. Feed in marshes, 

lawns, and on shores. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Trees or shrubs, particularly thickets, in close proximity to 

large bodies of water. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in saplingpoletimber oak-gum-cypress, and saplinglpoletirnber mixed pine-hardwood, 5(1) 

Everglades. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber longleaf pine-slash pine, 44(2) grasslforb 

longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early March to late June, 

with peak occurring in late March to mid-May. Nests are 

built typically 3-10 feet (1-3 m) from the ground in shrubs 

or trees, often on the edges of woods or thickets, not far from 

water. Clutch size usually 3 in southern part of the region, 4 

farther north. 

FOOD HABITS 

Wide variety of animal and plant foods taken primarily by 

gleaning from the ground. Summer diet includes primarily 

animal prey; in winter seeds and grain are commonly eaten. 

Boat-tails scavenge throughout the year as well. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:357-374; Burleigh 1958593; Ehrlich et a'l. 

1988:618; Forbush and May 1939:473; Imhof 1976:38 ???; 

Lowery 1974548; Oberholser 1974(11):836; Potter et al. 

1980:348; Robbins et al. 1986:100; Root 1988:256, 292; 

Sprunt 1954:443; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:501; Stewart and Robbins 1958:326. 
Common Grackle 

Quiscalus quiscula COGR 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- VC to A nearly everywhere, except C in the 

mountains; seldom occur above 4500 feet (1350 m). Wintering- generally A in the Coastal Plain; C to Iocally A 

inland ; U in most of the mountains. Roost in huge flocks in 

the fall and winter, with the flocks of grackles and other 

blackbirds frequently numbering over one million birds. 

CIDENTAL LO1 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- usually nest in conifers, particularly in open 

stands; favored sites are groves of pines in residential areas 

or in farmyards; seldom nest in deep forests. Winteringroost in huge flocks in woodlands, generally in dense woods, 

swamps, or pinewoods. At all seasons forage in open areas; 

favorite sites are croplands, pastures, lawns, and plowed 

fields; infrequently feed in woodlands. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- scattered trees or groves in open country, 

mainly in pines. Wintering- no essential requirements, but 

usually in open, agricultural areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.2(15) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 28(l) sawtimber live oak maritime, 28(2) grassiforb mixed pine-hardwood, 82(16) saplinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood 

(small plot). Recorded on 559 of 888 BBS routes in the 

region, 1966- 1985; maximum route mean 788 birds, overall 

mean 32.3 t- 56.4 birdslroute, total of route means 28,711 

birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

0.8(2) sawtimber oak-hickory, 1(1) saplingfpoletimber 

bay swamp-pocosin, l(1) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 

16(5) shrublseedling elm-ash-cottonwood, 87(1) saplinglpoietimber oak-gum-cypress. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from late March to early August; 

peak in mid- to late April. Place nests often near tops of trees 

20 feet (6 m) or more high, in a variety of locations, including swamps, pine groves, etc. Clutch size 4-7, commonly 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Typically forage on the ground, gleaning insects and other 

animal food in summer, and grain and other seeds in winter. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting, terrestrial gleaning insectivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:374-420; Burleigh 1958596-599; Crase and 

DeHaven 1975; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:357; DeGraaf et 

al. 1980:476; Dolbeer and Stehn 1979; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:618; Forbush and May 1939:474, 475; Imhof 

1976:380; James and Neal 1986:355; Lowery 1974549; 

Mengel 1965:449; Monroe et al. 1988:60; Oberholser 

1974(11):838-841; Potter et al. 1980:349; Robbins et al. 

1986: 104; Robinson 1990:228; Root 1988:256,293; Sprunt 

1954:445; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970503-505; Stewart 

and Robbins 1958:326; USDI Fish & Wildl. Serv. 1980. 
Bronzed Cowbird 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- Uncommon-Rare along Texas coast, more 

common south of the region, Accidental along Gulf Coast 

east into Alabama, These birds are expanding their range 

into the region in agricultural areas. Most of the birds 

withdraw from the U. S. parts of the range in the winter. 

IDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

All seasons- Agricultural areas, cattle feedlots, pastures, 

open areas with scattered perches. They may also occur in 

suburban areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

All seasons- "Optimum habitat for this cowbird includes 

mostly open country with occasional trees and patches of 

tall brush in a fairly humid, hot climate; cattle in the landscape are helpful" "berhofser 1974 (II):544). 

REPRODUCTION 

These are parasitic breeders that lay their eggs in the nests 

of other birds. In the past, their primary hosts appear to have 

been orioles (Ictertls sp.) of a number of different species. 

In south Texas, however, they victimize a wider variety of 

small passerine species. Their range expansion is likely to 

continue, and may pose problems for populations of some 

small host species. 

FOOD HABITS 

Bronzed Cowbirds forage on the ground where they glean 

a variety of weed seeds, grain, and insects. When they follow 

cattle they take insects exposed by the latter as well as pick 

ticks from those animals. In winter they eat grain and seeds, 

flocking in company with other blackbirds. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:455; Ehrlich et al. 1988:616; Friedmann 

1929: 320; Lowery 1974:552; Oberholser 1974 (11): 843; 

Rappole et al. 1983:23 1,435; Root 1988:256. 
Brown-headed Cowbird 

Mlothrus ater BHCO 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- G over most of the South, perhaps decreasing 

across the region from northwest to southeast, U in southern 

Georgia and Florida. Wintering- C over most of the region, 

but U in the mountains; erratic in occurrence in winter, and 

move about in large flocks. Roost with other blackbirds and 

Starlings in winter. 

CClDENTAL LOW MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- as females lay eggs in other species nests, they 

roam from habitat to habitat. Cowbirds are usually found in 

open woods, margins, thickets, farmyards, and residential 

areas. Wintering- mainly in open country for foraging; 

favor cattle pastures and feedlots, but also in plowed fields, 

lawns, and other open places. Roost in forests or thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- no essential requirements. Wintering- open 

country, generally in pastures or feedlots; woods or thickets 

required for roosting. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.4(3) shrublseedfing mixed pine-hardwood, 1512) sapIingipoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot), 19(1) 

sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, Recorded on 561 of 888 

BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 

94 birds, overall mean 7.4 + 10.6 birdslroute, total of route 

means 6565 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

2(1) sawtimber oak-hickory, 9(3) grasdforb elm-ash-cottonwood, 9.5(2) grasslforb longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from early April to late July, with 

peak in mid-May to early June. Build no nest; female 

cowbirds lay usually 1, sometimes 2, eggs in the nests of 

other species. Clutch size probably 4-5. 

Glean insects, invertebrates, seeds, grain, and berries, 

mainly on the ground. Occasionally pick insects from cattle. 

Winter food primarily seeds and grain. 

GUILD 

Tree or bush nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:421-455; Burleigh 1958599; Crase and DeHaven 1975; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:358; DeCraaf et al. 

1980:478; Dolbeer and Stehn 1979; Ehrlich et al. 1988:6 16, 

6 19; Forbush and May 1939:477; Friedmann 1929: 145; 

Imhof 1976:381; James and Neal 1986:357; Lowery 

1974550; meng gel 1965:452; Monroe et al. 1988:60; Oberholser 1974(11):841; Potter et al. 1980:35 1; Rappole et al. 

1983:23 1; Robbins et al. 1986: 104; Robinson 1990:228; 

Root 1988:256, 293; Sprunt 1954:446; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:505; Stewart and Robbins 1958:328; USDI 

Fish & Wildl. Serv. 1980; Verner and Boss 1980:266. 
Orchard Oriole 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- C over the region, north of Flcllrida; generally 

only U to FC in the mountains, mainly conh ned to valleys; 

scarce over 2500 feet (750 m). Winter priimarily south of the 

United States. Spring arrival- late March t~r late April; fall 

departure- early for a songbird, mainly early August to 

early September. 

CIDENTAL LO1 MEDlUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Scattered hardwoods in open country; favor old orchards, 

groves, roadside or creekside trees, farmyards, and woodland margins. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

1(2) saplinglpoletimber mixed pine-hardwood, 12(1) 

grasslforb loblolly pine-shortleaf pine, 15(4) sapIinglpoletimber elm-ash-cottonwood (small plot). Recorded 

on 506 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 138 birds, overall mean 3.45 + 7.53 

birdslroute, total of route means 3062 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to late June, peaking in mid- to late May. Nests generally placed 1-30 feet 

(3-9 m) up in the canopies of hardwood trees. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean insects and other small invertebrates from leaves 

and twigs at middle ca:lopy levels of trees. Occasionally eat 

berries. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958: 191; Burleigh 1958:584; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:359; DeGraaf et al. 1980:470; Ehrlich et al. 1988:622; 

Forbush and May 1939:468; Imhof 1976:375; James and 

Neal 1986:359; Lowery 1974:541; Mengel 1965:445; Monroe et al. 1988:60; Oberholser 1974(11):813; Potter et al. 

1980:344; Rappole et al. 1983:229; Robbins et al. 1986: 104; 

Robinson 1990:229; Root 1988:256; Sprunt 1954:436; 

Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:495; Stewart and Robbins 

1958:322. 

Scattered hardwood trees in open country, 
Spot-breasted Oriole 

lcterus pectoralis SPOO 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- FC to locally C, but only in cities and 

residential areas; not numerous in rural areas. Introduced 

from Central America in 1949. Non-migratory. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Scattered trees in open, urban or residential areas; commonly in palms or palmettos, but also in other broadleaf 

trees. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Scattered trees in residential areas, 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

I .8(5) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 2.5(2) sawtirnber 

longleaf pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Little is known of the breeding habits, especially on the 

timing of egg-laying. The typical nest is a bag or cup 

structure placed at a moderate height in a tree, often in a 

palm. The clutch is generally 3 or 4 eggs. 

FOOD HABITS 

These orioles feed mainly on various fruits and nectar, and 

presumably some insects and small berries. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning frugivore or nectarivore. 

REFERENCES 

Ehrlich et al. 1986:626; Root 1988:256; Sprunt 1954:440. 
Northern Baltimore Oriole 

lcterus galbula NOOR, (BAOR* ) 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R over much of the range,FC to G in Southern 

Appalachian valleys valleys south to northwestern North 

Carolina, the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and eastern Oklahoma; generally R and erratic elsewhere. Wintering- essentially restricted to towns and residential areas in open 

country; U over most of the range, though I;C in the eastern 

half or North Carolina. Spring mivat- mid-April to early 

May; fall departure- early September to late September. 

LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

WINTERING . , 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- scattered hardwoods, usually along a stream 

or river, but also along roadsides, in farmyards, and other 

open country habitats. Wintering- almost always near 

feeders in towns, primarily with a good cover of evergreen 

shrubs and a scattering of hardwood trees; almost never in 

pines. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- scattered hardwoods in open country. kVintering- near feeders in towns or residential areas. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in shrub/see$ling, sap"lng/poletimber, 

and sawtimber oak-hickory, 4(2) grasslforb mixed pinehardwood. Recorded on 189 of 888 BBS routes in the reglon, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 17 birds, overall mean 

0.39 k 1.38 birds/route, total of route means 344 birds. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-May to mid-June, 

probably peaking in mid- to late May. Usual nest, a deep 

bag, is built in the canopy of a hardwood tree, usually above 

30 feet (9 rn). Clutch size 4, occasionally 5 or 6. 

FOOD HABITS 

In summer glean insects from twigs and leaves in canopies 

of hardwood trees. Winter foods include berries, insects, and 

items from feeders such as suet. fruits, and nuts. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning insectivore-omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:247-282; Burleigh 1958:586-590; DeGraaf and 

Rudis 1986:360; DeGraaf et al. 1980:472; Ehrlich et al. 

1988:624; Forbush and May 1939:469; Imhof 1976376; 

James and Neal 1986:36 1 ; Lowery 1974:543; Mengel 

1965:446; Oberholser 1974(11):823-827; Monroe et al. 

1988:61; Potter et al. 1980:346; Rappole et al. 1983:230; 

Robbins et al. 1986: 104; Robinson 1990:229; Root 

1988:257; Sprunt 1954:438, 439; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:497; Stewart and Robbins 1958:323; Verner and Boss 

1980:264. 
PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Virginia Natural Heritage Program. Forest 

Service sensitive on Jefferson National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to U at high elevations in Virginia, essentially only in Highland Counv and at Mt. Rogers. Wintering- somewhat variable in numbers from winter to winter, 

but present every year; C to VC over most of the region in 

some winters, only FC in others (usually in alternating 

years). On the whole, less numerous in the Coastal Plain 

than elsewhere, and seldom C in southern Georgia and 

E'lorida. Fall arrival- early October to early November; 

spring departure- late March to late April. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- spruce-fir forests, or bogs where spruce or fir 

is present. Wintering- favor hadwood forests, especially 

in trees with winter fruits or buds present; often in pine or 

mixed woods, and commonly occur in wooded residential 

areas. Infrequent in thickets and other brush places. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- spruce or fir trees. Wintering- woodlands of 

many types, both in hardwocxls and conifers, generally 

where seeds, buds, or dry fruits are present. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

O.Q(2) gasslfosb o&-hickory , 1 12(19) grassiforb elm-ashcottonwood, 15(3) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season apparently extends from mid-May to 

early July, with probable peak from late May to mid-June. 

Nests placed mainly in spruces, at heights of 15-25 feet (5-8 

m). Clutch size 3-6, commonly 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage mainly in tree canopies, occasionally on the ground 

where they glean insects, fruits, and berries in summer. 

Winter diet primarily seeds and buds, 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning omnivore (summer) and 

granivore or folivore (winter). 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:263-279; Burleigh 1958:622-624; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:362; DeGraaf et al. 1980:492; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:644; Forbush and May 1939:491; Imhof 

1976:396; James and Neal 1986:362; Lowery 1974:564; 

Mengel 1965:47 1 ; Monroe et al. 1988:6 1; Oberholser 

1974(11):874; Potter et al. 1980:365; Robbins et al. 

1986: 108; Robinson 1990:230; Root 1988:258,294; Sprunt 

1954:459; Sprunt and Chamberlain 19705 17; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:34 1 ; Verner and Boss 1980:272. 
House Finch 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- numbers increasing rapidly, but only in cities 

and towns; U to locally C in northern paads of the region, 

across Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, amd Tennessee 

into northern South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Wintering- both in urban and rural habitats at this season; FC 

to C over similar areas with wider occunemceacrcoss Arkansas, Texas, and OMahoma than during the breeding season. 

These western birds were introduced in thee New York City 

area several decades ago and have spread : tremendously in 

the last decade. Fall arrival- mid-Octobelstoexly November; spring departure- mid-March to earlly April. 

ACCIDENTAL Loll YEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- essentially limited to urban and suburban areas; thicket, residential shrubbery, and dense trees (often 

introduced conifers), usually near homes. Wintering- most 

common in suburban areas, but moderately widespread in 

open, rural country; shrubbery, weedy tangles, hedgerows, 

and brushy thickets. Frequently associate with House Sparrows or native sparrows, but only infrequrently with Purple 

Finches. 

KEY WABlWT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- dense shrubs or trees in open residential areas. 

Wintering- thickets and brushy places in open country, 

both suburban and rural. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded on 75 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 1966- 

1985; maximum route mean 19 birds, overall mean 0.26 f 

1.45 birdslroute, total of route means 232 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, l(1) sawtimber oakhickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season poorly known in the region, apparently 

extending from mid-April to early June. Nest at variable 

height in shrubs or trees, often in cedars or broadleaf evergreens. Clutch size 2-6, usually 4-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage primarily in shrubs or small trees, also in herbaceous vegetation. Glean insects, seeds, berries in summer; 

in winter eat primarily seeds and berries. 

GUILD 

Bush or tree nesting bush or herb gleaning omnivore 

(summer) and granivore or frugivore (winter). 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:290-321; DeCraaf and Rudis 

1986:363; DeGraaf et al. 1980:494; Ehrlich et al. 1988:646; 

Imhof 1976:397; James and Neal 1986:365; Monroe et al. 

1988:6 1 ; Oberholser 1974(11):877; Potter et al. 1980:367; 

Robbins et al. 1986:108; Robinson 1990:231; Root 

1988:259; Verner and Boss 1980:274;. 
Red Crossb 

Loxia cuwirostra RECR 

(F"-. 

4% 

<: 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, 

Georgia Freshwater Wetlands and Heritage Inventory Program, Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West Virginia 

Natural Heritage Program, Forest Service sensitive on the 

George Washington National Forest. 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- R to U in the higher elevations of North 

Carolina and southwestern Virginia, but erratic from summer to summer; most individuals apparently do not breed, 

but there are several positive nesting records; VR away from 

the higher mountains. Wintering- highly erratic; major 

invasions into the region occur only several times a decade, 

and usually do not follow the alternating year pattern of 

Evening Grosbeaks and Pine Siskins. Often absent everywhere in certain winters. Fall arrival- late October to late 

November; spring departure- late April to late May. 

AL 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- mainly in spruce-fir forests; occasionally in 

pine forests (principally in white pine). Wintering- coniferous woods; spruce-fir, hemlock, or pine; occasionally in 

hardwood trees. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Breeding- spruce-fir forests; Wintering- coniferous 

woods. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

Recorded as Visitor in saplindpoletimber oak-hickory and 

sawtimber spruce-fir. 

REPRODUCTION 

Red Crossbills are erratic breeders in the region. A few 

nests have been found in North Carolina, Virginia, and 

Tennessee. Breeding season probably extends from early 

March to July. Nests are generally placed in conifers, 10-40 

feet (3-12 m) up. Clutch size is 3-5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage mainly in the treetops of conifers, especially 

around cones, where they glean insects and use their unique 

crossed bills to pry out conifer seeds. Winter diet seeds, 

especially of conifers; in summer insects are also eaten. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree foliage gleaning or probing omnivoregranivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:497-526; Burleigh 1958:631-635; 

DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:364; DeGraaf et al. 1980:504; 

Ehrlich et al. 1988:638; Forbush and May 1939:500; Imhof 

1976:401; James and Neal 1986:365; Lowery 1974567; 

Mengel 1965:474; Monroe et al. 1988:61; Oberholser 

1974(11):889; Potter et al. 1980:372; Robbins et al. 

1986: 11 1; Robinson 1990:232; Root 1988:260,294; Sprunt 

1954:462; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970520; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:346; Verner and Boss 1980:28 1. 
White-winged Crossbi 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winkring- highly erratic; absent from the region in at 

least half of the winters: in other winters, R to focally U in 

extreme northern Virginia, the mountains of that state, the 

Cumberland Plateau in Kentucky, as well as the Arkansas 

mountains; reach North Carolina only once per decade, on 

the average. Breed north of the region. Fall arrival- midNovember to early December; spring departure- late 

March to early May. 

BINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Favor spruce-fir fsrests, but also in pinewoods and olher 

conifers; ingequent in hzdwood trees. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Coniferous woods. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breed north of this region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Forage primaily in conifers where they pry seeds from 

cones; also glean other seeds. 

GUILD 

Tree foliage gleaning or probing granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:527; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:365; 

DeGraaf et al. 1980506; Ehrlich et al. 1988:638; Forbush 

and May 1939501; James and Neal 1986:365; Mengel 

1965:476; Monroe et al. 1988:61; Potter et al. 1980:374; 

Robbins et al. 1986: 11 1; Robinson 1990:233; Root 

1988:260,294; Stewart and Robbins 1958:347. 
Common Redpo i Carduelis flammea CORE 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Winter- These are Very Rare and irregular "winter 

finches'wat penetrate into the South only infrequently. 

They are more often seen in Kentucky and Tennessee, 

Virginia, and North Carolina (in the mountains of those 

states), than fartfier south or at lower elevations. 

ACCIDENTAL LOW Y KDIUY HIGH r E3 csxI WINTERING 

rZa !zza BREEDING 

PRllMARY HABITATS 

Winter- They inhabit open areas, old fields, early successional stages of upland types, and willow and alder thickets. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Winter- Their invasions are thought to be cornelated with 

collapse of the winter food supplies in boreal Canada, with 

heavy snow cover, or with both. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Recorded on a single census, 0.5 birdsl40 ha in shrublseedling mixed pine-hardwood vegetation. 

REPRODUCTION 

Do not breed in the region. 

FOOD HABITS 

Redpolls eat a great variety of small seeds, although they 

may show a preference for birch and alder catkins. Among 

their adaptations to a very northern existence is the ability 

to forage and roost in hollow pockets under snow cover. 

GUILD 

Gleaning granivore at variable heights 

REFERENCES 

Barbour et al. 1973:94; Bent and Austin 1968a:407,421; 

Burleigh 1958:701; DeGraaf et al. 1980:498; DeCraaf and 

Rudis 1986:366; Ehrlich et al. 1988:640; Forbush and May 

1939:495,496; Imhof 1976:398; James and Neal 1986:366; 

Mengel 1965:472; Monroe et al. 1988:62; Oberholser 1974 

(II):882; Potter et al. 1980:370; Robinson 1990:233; Root 

1988:260, 295; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:561, 633; 

Stewart and Robbins 1958:343; Sutton 1967:592. 
Pine Siskin 

Carduelis pinus 

PROTECTION STATUS 

Monitored by West Virginia Natural Heritage Program. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Breeding- U and erratic at high elevations in North 

Carolina and southwestern Virginia, but actual breeding is 

probably VR; most birds appear to be nun-breeders; juveniles have been reported but no nest has yet been found; 

mainly over 5000 feet (1500 m). Wintering- very erratic, 

with major influxes into the region tending to occur in 

alternate years; C to VC over most of the Southeast in some 

winters, but U to absent in others; always less numerous in 

the southern portion of the region than elsewhere. Fall 

arrival- mid-October to early November; spring departure- late April to mid-May. 

ACCIDENTAL LO1 MEDIUM HIGH 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Breeding- spruce-fir forests, especially where open, or 

along edges of this forest type. Wintering-ina wide variety 

of forests and thickets; found in hardwood farests (usually 

where moist), conifers, thickets (especial1 y in Alnus), residential areas, and even in weedy fields. 

Breeding--- spruce-fir forests. Wintering- variety of 

woods or thickets; few essential rquirements. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) saplindpoletimber longleaf pine-scrub oak, l(1) 

grasffbrb oak-hickosy ,4.5(2) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 19(1) shrubfseedling oak-hickory. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season possibly early April to late May, based 

on data from outside the region. Nests are almost always 

built in conifers, usually at heights of 10-20 feet (3-6 m). 

Clutch size 3-5. 

Glean food from branches, cones, foliage, at various 

heights in shrubs and trees. Winter diet is primarily seeds 

and other plant material, to which insects are added in 

summer. 

GUILD 

Tree nesting, tree or bush foliage gleaning omnivore-granivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:424; Burleigh 1958:624-628; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:368; DeGraaf et al. 1980500; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:634; Forbush and May 1939:497; Imhof 

1976:398; James and Neal 1986:366; Lowery 1974:565; 

Mengel 1965:472; Monroe et al. 1988:62; Oberholser 

1974(11):883; Potter et al. 1980:370; Robbins et al. 

1986: 1 11 ; Robinson 1990:234; Root 1988:260,295; Sprunt 

1954:460; Sprunt and Chmberlain 1970:518; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:344; Verner and Boss 1980:277. 
American Go 

Carduelis tris tis 

ABUNDANCE STATUS wood. Recorded on 263 of 888 BBS routes in the region, 

1966-1985; maximum route mean 35 birds, overall mean 

Breding-C over most of the range; FC in the Piedmont; 1.32 k 3.40 birds/route, total of route means 1 173 birds. 

U in the Coastnl Plain and Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Wintering- C to VC, at times A, over most of the Southeast; 

less numerous at higher elevations. SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

WINTERING I =- mezzam BREEDING 

0.5(1) saplinglpoletimber bay swamp-pocosin, 0.5(1) 

shrub/seedling Virginia pine-pitch pine, 15(3) saplindpoletimber pine savanna, 33(1) skrrub/szedling live oak 

maritime. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding season extends from mid-June to mid-September, peaking from late July to mid-August. This timing is 

apparently based upon the availability of thistle down, with 

which they line their nests. Nests are usually placed 3-15 

feet ( 1-5 m) up in shrubs or saplings in thickets or old fields. 

Clutch size 4-6, most often 5. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean primarily insects in summer and various seeds in 

winter, at all heights. 

PRIMARY HABITATS GUILD 

Breeding- generally in moist shrubby places; overgrown Bush nesting, gleaning insectivore-granivore at variable 

fields, shrubs along margins of ponds and streams, marsh heights. 

edges, and hedgerows. Wintering- very widespread; in 

weedy fields, thickets, hedgerows, and deciduous woods; REFERENCES 

generally scarce in pinewoods. Bent and Austin 1968a:447-469; Burleigh 1958:628; DeKEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS Graaf and Rudis 1986:369; DeGraaf et al. 1980:502; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:636; Forbush and May 1939:498; Imhof 

Breeding- shrubs or saplings, generally near water. Win- 1976:399; James and Neal 1986:367; Lowery 1974:565; 

tering- no essential requirements, but usually in weedy Mengel 1965:473; Monroe et al. 1988:62; Oberholser 

places, thickets, and open woods. 1974(11):884; Potter et al. 1980:371; Rappole et al. 

1983:234; Robbins et al. 1986: 108; Robinson 1990:234; 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

Root 1988:262; Sprunt 1954:461; Sprunt and Chamberlain 

1970:519; Stewart and Robbins 1958:345; Verner and Boss 

0.3(5) shrub/seedling efm-ash-cottonwood, 7.5(4) 1980:2'78. 

grassiforb oak-hickory, lO(2) grassiforb, mixed pine-hard- 
Evening Grosbeak 

Hes~eri~hona ves~ertina EVGR 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

Wintering- highly variable from winter to winter; typically migrate into the region in substantial numbers only in 

alternate winters. In "off-years" generally U to absent everywhere; in good years, C to occasionally VC in the Southern Appalachians, the Piedmont, and across northern 

Alabama, Mississippi, and middle and eastern Kentucky 

and Tennessee; FC to at times C in the Coastal Plain; usually 

more numerous in the northern portion of the region than in 

the southern and coastal areas. Breed to the north of the 

region. Fall arrival- late October to late November; spring 

departure- late April to mid-May. 

WINTERING 

BREEDING 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Generally in coniferous woods; mainly in pines, but also 

in spruce-fir; regularly seen in hardwoods feeding in the 

treetops. Commonly occur in residential areas, especially at 

feeders that provide sunflower seeds. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Woodlands of various types, where seeds or dry fruits are 

present; prefer conifers. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

1(1) sawtimber elm-ash-cottonwood, l(1) sawtimber 

mixed pine-hardwood, 1 l(8) grasslforb elm-ash-cottonwood. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breed north of this region. A few summer records suggest 

that this status may change in the future. 

FOOD HABITS 

Glean tree seeds and buds generally in tree canopies, often 

at treetops; occasionallly forage on the ground. Great 

strength of their mandibles enables them to eat even hard 

foods such as cherry, plum, occasionally peach seeds. Sunflower seeds are a favorite food at feeders. 

GUILD 

Tree foliage gleaning granivore or folivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent and Austin 1968a:206-256; Burleigh 1958:62 1 ; DeGraaf and Rudis 1986:370; DeGraaf et al. 1980:490; Ehrlich 

et al. 1988:646; Forbush and May 1939:489; Imhof 

1976:394; James and Neal 1986:368; Lowery 1974:563; 

Mengel 1965:470; Monroe et al. 1988:62; Oberholser 

1974(11):871; Potter et al. 1980:364; Robbins et al. 

1986: 108; Robinson 1990:235; Root 1988:260, 295; Stewart and Robbins 1958:340; Verner and Boss 1980:27 1. 
House Sparrow 

Passer domesticus HOSP 

ABUNDANCE STATUS 

All seasons- VC to A essentially throughout ; somewhat 

less numerous at higher elevations, but occur in all mountain 

towns; R over 4000 feet (1 200 m). Essentially non-migratory. 

PRIMARY HABITATS 

Seldom far from human settlements; widespread in cities, 

towns, open residential areas, and farms; scarce in wooded 

residential areas. 

KEY HABITAT REQUIREMENTS 

Areas of human habitation, principally in open places. 

SAMPLE BREEDING DENSITIES 

0.7(3) grasslforb elm-ash- cottonwood, 44(2) grasslforb 

mixed pine-hadwood. Recorded on 565 of 888 BBS routes 

in the region, 1966-1985; maximum route mean 709 birds, 

overall mean 25.1 It 52.2 birdslroute, total of route means 

22,292 birds. 

SAMPLE WINTER DENSITIES 

l(1) sawtimber mixed pine-hardwood, 48(9) saplinglpoletimber pine savanna, 70(2) sawtimber longleaf 

pine-slash pine. 

REPRODUCTION 

Breeding occurs from late March to mid-August, probably 

peaking in April and &fay. Nest sites varied, including 

woodpecker holes, bird boxes, on ledges or crannies in 

buildings, etc.; occasionally in trees. Very bulky and untidy 

nests. Clutch size 3-7, usually 4-6. 

FOOD HABITS 

Varied diet includes mainly vegetable matter, seed, grains, 

"tablescraps," as well as insects. Forage generally on the 

ground and low vegetation, usually by gleaning, occasionally other tactics employed. 

GUILD 

Cavity or ledge nesting, terrestrial gleaning omnivore. 

REFERENCES 

Bent 1958:l; Burleigh 1958573; DeGraaf and Rudis 

1986:371; DeGraaf et al. 1980:462; Ehrlich et al. 1988:632; 

Forbush and May 1939:456; Imhof 1976:369; James and 

Neal 1986:370; Kendeigh 1973; Lowery 1974;535; Mengel 

1965:436; Monroe et al. 1988:62; Oberholser 1974(11):799; 

Potter et al. 1980:337; Robbins et al. 1986:98; Robinson 

1990:236; Root 1988:263; Scott et al. 1977:90; Sprunt 

1954:428; Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970:488; Stewart and 

Robbins 1958:317; Verner and Boss 1980:259. 
GLOSSARY 

AERLAL- Foraging in sustained flight, 

AQUATIC- Foraging in a body of wager, 

AmOREAL- Inhabiting trees, especially in relation to 

foraging. 

BAYS and WET POCOSINS Large, low, wet forested land recesses along the Outer Coastal Plain, Peaty 

soils and boggy conditions characterize these sites. RRE 

physiographic class 36. 

BAY SWAMP-POCOSIN- Forests of bmggy, poorly 

drained soils in which various species of broadleaf evergreen "bay" trees, singly or in combination, make up a 

plurality of the stocking. The primary species are blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica var. btpora), red bay CPersea borbonia), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), loblolly bay 

(Gordonia lasianthus), fetterbush (Lyonia Eucrida), gallberry (Ilex sp.), and the semi-evergeen titi(Cyri11a 

racemifiora). RRE forest type 60 in physio~aphiclasses 

36 and 33, and possibly 32 and 34. 

BIRD-HABITAT MATRIX- A table showing the preferential usage of habitats by bird species, 

BBC- Breeding Bird Census, a program originally sponsored by the National Audubon Society, cumently supported by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology and 

Association of Field Ornithologists. In this context, a spot 

census of the territories of breeding birds on a fixed plot. 

The results of these studies were formerly published in 

Audubon Field Notes and its successor American Birds; 

currently published in the Journal Of Field Ornithology. 

Full instructions for conducting a BBC are available form 

the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 159 Sapsucker 

Woods Rd., Ithaca, NY 14850 607-254-2414. 

BBS- Breeding Bird Survey, a program initiated in 1986 

and carried on by the Migratory Bird Populations Station of 

the US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, &ID 20708 302-498-0205. A BBS route is a 

fixed roadside route, 24.5 miles long, surveyed by a single 

observer during the first 3 hours of daylight on a morning in 

June. The observer stops at the same points 0.5 mi apart each 

year and counts all birds seen or heard during a 3-min period 

ae each stop. Results are summarized into reports and form 

a major data base. 

BLUFF& High, steep, broad-faced bds or cliEs 

along the margins of streas. These ares are nomally 

quite fertile but the terrain is usually rugged. 

physiographic class 23. 

BROAD STmAM MARGWS Broad, moist boaoms 

of land foming the margins of Iarge streams. These bottoms are nomally well-drained but might experience 

flooding during short periods of excessive rainfall. These 

sites are rich in alluvial deposits. RRE physiographic 

class 29, 

BURROW- A nest cavity in soil, either in a bank or underground. 

BUSH- A shrub or a sapling, generally less than 5 m 

tall. 

CARNIVORIE-- An animal that feeds on meat, especially on animals larger than 5 em in length. 

CAVITY- A nest cavity inside a plant or a man-made 

structure, especially in a dead tree or stub. 

CHAWCTERISVC SPECIES A species that is 

characteristic of a given habitat is usually present in good 

numbers, and is generally present in most large stands of 

that habitat. 

COVE HARIIWOODS- Forests in which many species of hardwood constitute a plurality and which occur 

on moist, fertile, protected sites in deep hollows extending back into mountain ranges. Characteristic tree species 

are yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipgera), basswood 

(Tilia heterophylla), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), buckeye (Aesculus octandra), and white oak (Quercus alba). 

RW forest types 50 or 80 in physiographic classes 24 or 

27. 

CYPRESS PONDS- Small depressions scattered 

throughout the flatwoods and pocosins of the Outer 

Coastal Plain. These mas are filled willh water during 

wet seasons. RRE;; physiographic class 34. 

CYPRESS S'IPUNDS Strands of forest land along the 

deep drainage features of the Outer Costal Plain. There 

IS a severe species limitation in these areas because of the 

presence of water. RRE physiogrslphlc class 32. 

DBH-- Diameter of a tree measured at breast height, 4.5 

feet (1.35 rn). 
DEEP SWAMPS--- Large, low, wet, flat forested areas 

which are flooded for long periods of time, Most of the 

large, poorly drained sbream margins fall into this class. 

Soil and moisture conditions on these sites are generally 

quite favorable for forest growth of restricted species. 

RE33 physiographic class 3 1. 

Foraging on underwater food items by tipping from the sudace of the water or by diving from the 

sudace. Also includes "dabbling." 

ELL~~ASH-CO~ONWOC)D- Bottomland forests in 

which elm (Ulmus sp.), ash (Frminus sp.), cottonwood 

(Populus deltoides or P. heterophylla), singly or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. RW forest 

type 70. 

EmANGERED SPECIES- A species that is in danger of extinction rougho out all or significant parts of its 

range. Federally endangered species are designated in the 

Federal Register by the appropriate Secretary. 

EVERGLADES- Extensive treeless freshwater 

marshes of Horida south of Lake Okeechobee, and often 

covered by water. Saw-grass (Cladium jamaicense) and a 

variety of grasses dominate the vegetation. No RRE forest 

type. RREi ground land use class 68. 

FLATWOODS AND DRY POCOSINS Flat or fairly 

level areas, ordinarily with sandy soil, which are somewhat dry throughout much of the year. RRE phy siographic class 21. 

FOLWGE- The leaves of a woody plant, including 

twigs but including large branches and trunks. 

FOLTVORE- An animal that feeds on the vegetative 

parts of plants, such as leaves, roots, or buds; flowers also 

included. 

FOlREST TYPE- A classification of forest land based 

on the species that form a plurality of live-tree stocking. 

FRETGIVORG An animal that eats fruits, in particular, 

fleshy hits such as berries. 

GLEANING- Picking of a food item (usually non-moving or slow-moving) from a substrate. Includes "hovering." 

A animal that feeds on dry fruits, especially seeds or nuts. 

GROUND (NEST+ A nest on the ground or in herbaceous vegetation. 

GUILD- A manner or mode of habitat utilization by animals, usually expressed in terms of foraging and/or nesting. 

HABITAT PROFILG A listing, in coded form, of 

habitats and habitat features (such as age of vegetation 

and topography) for each species in the breeding andlor 

wintering seclsons. 

HAWKI[NG- Foraging in the air by making short 

flights from a perch; also called ""sllying" or '"flycatching." 

HERB (HERBACEOUS VEGETATION+ Nonwoody vascular plants, especially grasses, sedges, rushes, 

and composites. 

HIGH MOUNTAIN TOPS AND SLOPES- Elevations in the Southern Appalachians above 5000 feet (1500 

m). These sites are chxacterized by steep slopes, rock outcrops, natural balds, exposure to severe climatic conditions, and short growing seasons. RRE physiographic 

class 11. 

INSECTNORE- An animal that feeds on insects or 

other small animals, generally less than 5 cm in length. 

Larvae and eggs of these animals are included in the diets 

of insectivores. 

LEDGE (NEST)- A nest on a rather horizontal surface 

above the ground, especially on a cliff or a man-made 

structure. 

LIVE OAK MARITIME- Forests in which live oak 

(Quercus virginiana) composes at least 50 percent of the 

stocking. This type has no precise RRE forest type equivalent. Probably such stands would be classified as RRE forest 50 in RRE physiographic class 12. 

LOBLOLLY PINE-SHORTLEAF PINE- Forests in 

which loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) or shortleaf pine (P. 

echinata), singly or in combination, constitute a plurality 

of the stocking. Hardwoods make up less than 25 percent 

of the stocking. RRE forest types 31 and 32. 

LONGLEAF PINE-SCRUB OAK- Forests of sandy, 

upland topography in which longleaf pine and any of several scrub oaks (Quercus sp.) each composes at least 25 

percent of the stocking. RRE forest type 21 in physiographic class 14. 

LONGLEAF PINE-SLASH PINE- Forests of moist, flat 

topography in which a plurality of the stocking is longleaf 

pine (Pinus palustris) or slash pine (P. elliattii), singly or in 

combination. RRE forest types 21 and 22. 
LOW MOUNTAIN TOPS AND DRY SLOPES-- 

Ridge tops and steep slopes below 5000 feet (1504) rn) in 

elevation. These sites are characterized by dryness, thin 

soil, rock outcrops, and normally have southern or western exposures. RRE physiographic class 13. 

MANGROVE& Forests in which red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia nitida), or 

white mangrove (hguncularia racemosa). singly or in 

combination, make up a plurality of the stocking. RE 

forest type 93. 

MAPLE-BEECH-BIRCH- Forests in which sugar maple, beech (-us grandqolia), or yellow birch (Betula 

lutea), singly or in combination, compose a plurality of 

the stocking. RRE forest type 80. 

MARL FLATS AND FORESTED PMIRIESBroad expanses of low site conditions marking the transition zones along the glades and marshes of the Southeast. 

RRE physiographic class 37. 

MIXED PINE-HARDWOOD- Forests in which hardwoods (usually oaks) and pines each constitute at least 25 

percent of the stocking. Occurs in several RRE forest 

types, as 31, 32,50, and 60. Listed as oak-pine on page I)- 

2 of RRE Field Instruction for Florida. 

MOUNTAIN COVES- Moist, fertile, protected sites 

found in deep hollows extending back into the low rnountain ranges. These sites receive very little direct exposure 

to sun and wind. RRE physiographic class 27. 

MOUNTAIN FOOTHILLS- Low hills at or near the 

base of mountain ranges. These sites are characterized by 

dryness, thin soil, and more gentle terrain than that associated with the mountain ranges. RRE physiographic class 

15. 

MOUNTAIN SADDLES AND MOIST MOUNTAIN 

SLOPES- Broad gaps in mountain ranges below 5000 

feet (1500 m) in elevation and moist slopes with northern 

or eastern exposure. These sites are characterized by adequate moisture, relatively deep soil, and rugged terrain. 

RRE physiographic class 24. 

NARROW STREAM MARGINS- Low, moist, fertile 

areas along small streams. These sites are normally well 

drained but might experience flooding during short periods of excessive rainfall. RRE physiographic class 28. 

NATUML STREAM LEVEES- Embankments 

formed along the edges of larger streams by periodic 

Roodlng and receding waters. These sites are normally 

h~gher and drier than the general level of the stream margin. RRE physiographic class 25. 

NECTARIVORE- An animal that feeds on nectar. 

NFS-- National Forest Systems, the forest management 

division of the U. S. Forest Service. 

NONSTOCKIED- Land less than 16.7 percent stocked 

with growing-stoek trees. 

OAK-GUM-CYPRESS-- Bottomland or swamp forests 

in which tupelo (Nyssa aquatics), blackgum, sweetgum 

(Liquidambar styraciflua), oaks, or cypress (Tmodium 

sp.), singly or in combination, compose a plurality of the 

stocking. RRE forest type 60. 

OAK-HICKORY- Forests in which a plurality of the 

stocking is upland oaks or hickories (Carya sp.), singly or 

in combination, and where pines make up less than 25 percent of the stocking. RE forest types 50 and 52. 

OMNWORE- An. animal that feeds on both animals 

and plants. 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC CLASS--- A measure of a forest 

plot based on topography, aspect, soil, moisture, and 

drainage. 

PINE SAVANNA- "Forest" of scattered trees with no 

crown closure in which longleaf pine or slash pine, singly 

or in combination, constitute a plurality of the stocking. 

RRE forest types 21 and 22 in physiographic class 37, in 

which basal areas are low (ca. 10-20 square feet per acre, 

2.5-5 square meters per hectare). Typically occurs in central Florida. 

PIRACY- Foraging by attacking other animals, causing 

them to drop their prey, and taking the prey. The technique is also known as kleptoparasitism. 

POLETIMBER TREES- Growing-stock trees of commercial species 5-9 inches (12-22 cm) DBH for coniferous trees and 5-1 1 inches (12-28 cm) DBH for hardwood 

trees. 

POND PINE POCOSIN- Forests of boggy, poorlydrained soils in which pond pine (Pinus serotina) composes a majority of the stocking. RREi forest type 36. 

POUNCING- Dropping onto a prey item (on the 

ground or in water) from a perch or from the air. 

PROBING- Inserting the bill into a substrate, such as 

bark or mud, for a food item. 

RESTRICTED SPECIES A species that occurs primarily in just one to several habitats in the Southeast. 

ROLLING UPLANDS- Well-drained terraln wlth level 

areas broken by gentle slopes and numerous small drains. 

(Excludes deep sands.) RRE physiographic class 22. 
Renewable Resources Evaluation Project, an activjty of the U. S. Forest Service Experiment Stations; formerly called Forest Survey. 

SAF- Society of American Foresters. 

SAND DWES AND SAND RIDGES- Formed by 

wind along the beech and shores of large bodies of water. 

RRE physiographic class 12. 

SAND HILLS- Rolling uplands of deep sand with level, 

areas broken by gentle slopes and small drains. RRE 

physiographic class 14. 

SAmHILLS LONGLEAF PINE- Forests of sandy, 

upland topography in which longleaf pine constitutes a 

majority of the stocking, and where less than 25 percent 

of the stocking is hardwoocfs. RW forest type 21 in 

physiographic class 14. 

SAND PINE-SOUTHEW SCRUB OAK- Forests of 

sandy, upland topography in which sand pine (Pinus 

clausa) and several species of scrub oaks (Quercus sp.) 

each compose at least 25 percent of the stocking. RRE forest type 34. 

SAPLINGS- Live trees 1.0 to 5.0 inches (2.5-12 cm) 

DBH. 

SAWTIMBER TREES- Live trees of commercial species at least 9.0 inches (22 cm) DBH for coniferous trees 

and 11.0 inches (28 cm) DBH for hardwood trees. 

SCAVENGER- An animal that feeds on non-living organic matter, especially dead animals (carrion) or garbage. 

SEEDLINGS- Live trees less than 1.0 inch (2.5 cm) in 

diameter that are expected to survive and develop. 

SENSITIVE SPECIES- A species with special requirements or vulnerabilities, such that any small change or distllrbance to its habitat may greatly affect the viability of 

its population. Forest Service sensitive species are designated by a Regional Forester. 

SMALL DRAINS- Narrow, wet strands without a well 

defined stream. Although these areas serve as drains for 

the surrounding areas, they are usually poorly drained 

themselves. RE physiographic class 33. 

SNAG- A dead tree. We prefer this broad definition 

from forestry to one limiting ""sag" to mean dead parts of 

otherwise live trees. 

SOAIRING Foraging by sewhing for terrestrial or 

aquatic prey from high in the air. 

SOUTHEW MIXED MESIC HARDWOODS- Forests along stream banks or bluffs in southern Georgia and 

northern Florida where beech or southern magnolia (Magnolia grarzdiflora), singly or in combination, constitute a 

plurality of the stwking. This has no precise RE forest 

type equivalent. Probably it would be classified as RRE 

forest type 50 in physiographic classes 22 or 23. 

SOUTHEM SCRUB OAK- Forests of sandy, upland 

topography in which various species of scrub oaks (Quer- 

@us sp.) compose at least 75 percent of the stoeking. RRE 

forest type 57. 

SPRUCE-FIR- Forests in which a plurality of the stocking is red spruce (Picea rubens) or Fraser fir (Abies 

hseri), singly or in combination. RRE forest type 10. 

STALWNG- Foraging on the ground or in shallow 

water, in a stealthy manner, for active prey items. 

STAND SIZE- A measure of the average size of the 

dominant trees in a forest patch, in terms of their DBH. 

STATUS- The relative abundance of a species in the region during the breeding andlor wintering seasons. Abundance codes- A = abundant, VC = very common, C = 

common, FC = fairly common, U = uncommon, R = rare, 

VR = very rare. 

TERRqSTRIAL Pertaining to the ground, including 

bare ground, short grass, and mud. 

THREATENED SPECIES- Any species that is likely 

to become endangered throughout all or a significant part 

of its range. Federally Threatened species are designated 

in the Federal Register by the appropriate Secretary. 

TREE- A woody plant over 5 m in height. 

TROPICAL HARDWOODS- Forests of central and 

southern Florida in which various species of mostly tropical broadleaf evergreen trees, singly or in combination, 

compose a plurality of the stocking. These forests are 

rarely if ever flooded. RE forest type 95. 

TRUNK- The main axis and large branches of a tree or 

bush. 

VALLEY BOTTOMS-- Well-drained stretches of level 

land nestled between mountain ranges or foothills. These 

areas are normally characterized by deep soil and one or 

more fast-flowing streams. RRE physiographic class 26. 

VEGETATION TYPE- A classification of vegetation 

based on major plant associations, with topography and 

geography taken into consideration. 
VIRGINIA PmE-PITCH PINE- Forests in which Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana) or pitch pine (P. rigida), singly 

or in combination, compose a plurality of the stocking. 

Hardwods constitute less than 25 percent of the stocking, 

RRE forest typs 33 and 38. 

WPBS Winter Bird Population Study, a program originally sponsored by the National Audubon Society, cumently 

supported by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology and 

Association of Field Ornithologists. A WBPS in this context 

is a summw of repeated surveys of the nurnber of winter 

birds on a fixed plot. Fomerly, the results of these studies 

were published in Audubon Field Notes and its successor 

American Birds; currently published in the Journal ofField 

Ornithology. Full instructions for conducting a WBPS are 

available form the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 159 

Sapsucker Woods Rd, Ithaca, NY 145850 607-254-24 14. 

-HEMLOCK- Forests in which a plurality of the stocking is hemlock (primarily Tsuga canadensis and rarely T, caroliniam) or white pine (Pinus 

strobus), singly or in combination. RE forest type 04. 

S- Smali areas: in 

the early stages of succession to forest found around deep 

ponds and strands of pemanent water. RW physiographic class 35. 
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Repart SE-14. Asheville, N. C. 
Each of the following 14 appendices either summarizes 

data in the matrices (Chapter 111) and in narrative species 

accounts (Chapter IV), or presents data not conveniently 

handled in those locations. 

Appendix A summarizes published census literature from 

the Southeast 1947-1979 by state, vegetation type, and 

successional stage. Areas in which more censusing needs to 

be done are immediately obvious from inspection of the 

tables in Appendix A. 

Appendix B identifies all vegetation types and seasons of 

occurrence of the 269 species treated in this manual. Readers can go from the narrative account for a species to this 

appendix to find the habitat distribution in the South for the 

species. 

Appendix C is a tabular summary of the quantitative 

census information published for the Southeast 1947- 1979. 

Here alone are listed sample sizes, mean recorded densities, 

and standard errors for the censuses in which each species 

was found. This appendix also lists the low average density 

from a single habitat in the South, the high average density 

from a single habitat in the South, and sample sizes associated with those average densities. The reader can get a brief 

overview of the frequencies and abundances of the species 

on published censuses in the South from this appendix. 

Appendix I) summarizes the information listed in the 

guild section of the species's narrative accounts, as well as 

some of that listed in the substrate utilization columns in the 

matrices. Here are the lists of species likely to be affected 

when management practices enhance or remove certain 

habitat elements. 

Appendices E-J are summaries of information in selected 

columns of the specific requirements section of the matrices. 

Appendix E identifies snag and cavity dependent species. 

Appendix F identifies species dependent on large sawtimber 

trees. Appendix G identifies species dependent on forest 

interior conditions or areas of extensive forest. Appendix H 

identifies species requiring slash piles or windrows. Appendix I identifies species requiring rock outcrops, caves, crevices, or earthen banks. Appendix J identifies species requiring aquatic habitats. 

Appendices EL and L cross-reference the vegetation types 

in this work with the standard types of the Society of 

American Foresters (SAF; Eyre 1980; Appendix K) and of 

the U. S. Forest Service Southern Region (USFS; U. S. 

Department of Agriculture 1979; Appendix L). 

Species listed in Appendix M are those treated in this work 

for which the most recent A.O.U. Checklist (1983) lists 

separate breeding and winter ranges, and for which at least 

part of the winter range is to the south of the Tropic of 

Cancer. Where the Checklist deals separately with different 

populations, the ranges pertinent to the population that 

occurs in the South were the ones used to make the determination. In a few cases, marked with "?' it was not clear 

whether the winter range reached the Tropic of Cancer or 

whether the population in the South actually included individuals that migrated to the Tropics. In a number of other 

cases as well, the status of the species as a whole may not 

mean that individuals that occur in the South actually migrate to the Tropics. 

Species marked with "*" are those considered Neotropical 

Migrants by the Southeastern Working Group of the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Program. Species 

marked with () are those on the second draft list of Neotropical Migratory Birds prepared by the Research Working 

Group of the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Program, as follows: (A) winter generally south of the United 

States, (B) winter usually in the United States, sometimes 

south of the United States, and (C) are primarily tropical 

species, that reach the United States primarily as peripheral 

breeding species. 

Appendix N lists the official 4-letter codes used by the 

USFWS Bird Banding Laboratory. In a few cases, asterisks 

indicate non-standard codes, primarily for species such as 

resident game birds for which no official code was designated. 
Appendix A. 

Summaries of Pubilished Bird Censuses. 

Table A-1 . Summary of published Breeding Bird Censuses made in the Southeast in 1947 - 1979. 

Vegetation type and 

successional stage 

Longleaf pine-scrub oak 

Grasslforb or Shrub/seedling 
Vegetation type and 

successional stage 

Entries are listed as "Plots (Years censused)." 
Table A-2. Summary of published Winter Bird Population Studies made in the Southeast in 1947 - 1979. 

Pine savanna 

Sapl./poletimber 

Elm-ash-cottonwood 

Grassiforb or Shrubiseedling 

Sapl./poletimber 
Vegelalion type and 

successional stage 

a Entries are listed as ""Fots (Years censused)." 
Appendix B. 

Species Occurrence by Vegetation Type, Habitat Quality, and Season. 

Highest Habitat Quality By Vegetation Type For Any Successional Stageb 

Common Name 

------- 

American Bittern 

---- 

Little Blue Heron 

(a) B - Breeding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - Longleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pins-slash pine MPHW - Mixed pine-hardvvood M - Marginal W - Wintering TROP - Trropical Hardwoods SHLL - Sandhills longleaf pine OGCY - Oak-gum-cypress OKHK - Oak-hickwy S - Suit&le 

MANG - Mmgroves SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Lie oak-maritime WPHM - White pine-bmlock O - Optimal 

(b) Cover Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-ashsoBonwood COVE - Cove hardwoods 

SOSO - Sarthem scrub oak BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Lobldly pina-shortleaf pine MABB - Maple-bh-birch 
Common Name 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Northern Harrier 

(a) B - Breeding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - Longleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine MPHW - Mixed pine-harchrPood M - Marginal 

W - Wintering TROP - Tropical Hardwoods SHLL - Sandhills longleaf pine OGCY - Oak-gum-cypress OKHK - Oak-hickory S - Suitable 

MANG - Mangroves SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Live oak-mahtirne WPHM - White pina-hemlock O - Optimal 

(b) Cover Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-ash-co#onwood COVE - Cove hardwoods 

SOSO - Southern scrub oak BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Loblolly pine-shortleaf pine MABB - Maplebeech-birch z SPSO - Sand pine-southern scrub oak PPPO - Pond pine pocosin VPPT - Virginia pine-pitch pine SPFR - Spruce-fir 

Common Name 

merican Woodcock 

ommon Ground-Dove 

(a) B - Breeding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - Longleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine MPHW - Mixed pine-hardwood M - Marginal 

W - Wintering TROP - Tropical Hardwoods SHLL - Sandhills longleaf pine OGCY - Oak-gum-cypress OKHK - Oak-hickory S - Suitable 

MANG - Mangroves SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Live oak-maritime WPHM - White pine-hemlock 0 - Optimal 

(b) Cover Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-ash-cottonwood COVE - Cove hardwoods 

SOSO - Southern scrub oak BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Loblolly pine-shortleaf pine MABB - Maplebettch-birch 

r SPSO - Sand pine-swthern scrub oak PPPO - Pond pine pocosin VPPT - Virginia pine-pitch pine SPFR - Spruce-fir 
Common Name 

Great Horned Owl 

-- 

(a) B - Brding EVGL - Everglahs LLSO - Longleaf pine-scnrb oak . LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine MPHW - Mixed pim-hardwood M - Marginal 

W - Wintering TROP - Tropical Wardwoods SHLL - Sandhills kxlgleaf pine OGCY - Oak-gum-cypress OKHK - Oak-hiekw S - Suit&!@ 

MANG - Mmgraves SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Live oak-maitim WPHM - Mite pina-kml~k 0 - Oparnal 

PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwolxls COVE - Cove krhms 

&PO - Bay swamp-pocosin 

SPFR - $ras-lir 
(a) B-Brwding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - Longleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine MPW - Mixed pim-harchrvood M - Maginal 

W - Wintering TROP - Tropical Har&oods SHLL - Sandhills longleaf pine OGCY - Oak-gum-cyprw OKHK - Oak-hickory S - Sugkle 

MANG - Mangroves SMMH - Ssuthern mixed LOMA - Live oak-maame WPHM - White pirts-hemlock 0 - Opamal 

(b) Cover Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-ash-cofimwood COVE - Cove har&ds 

SOSO - Southsrn scrub oak BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Lobldly pine-sbrtltzaf pine MABB - Mapits-hch-birch 

SPSO - Sand pine-southsm scrub oak PPPO - Pond pine pocosin VPPT - Virginia pine-pitch pine SPFR - Spruce-fir 
(a) B - Breeding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - LMlgleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine M- wnal 

W - Wintering TROP - Tropical Hardwoods SHU - Sandhills longleaf pine OGCY - d?k-gum~cfss OKHK - OakWwy S - SWk 

MANG - Mangrwes SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Live oakmdme 0- 

(b) Cover Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-mmd 

BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Mlolly Nnescrub oak PPPO - Pond pine VPPT - Virginia pimpitch pine 

Common Name 

olden-winged Warbler 

(a) 0 - 0rdiw EVGL - Ev~rgades LLSO - MPW - Mixd pimkr&d M - Maginal 

W - Wiwi~ TWP - Trcpkal Mr&ds SHLL - 00CHK - C)ak-M&q S - SuM4e 

MWG - Mwrw~ SMMW WPWM - WiEs piwhernkk 0 - Q@rnat 

(bf Cwer Typ PSV - COVE - SOSO - BSPO - LPSW - Wdly pimt-Wkf WE% - h 

SPSO - scad PPPO- VPFT - Virginia Pm-pitch pine SPFR - 


Common Name 

(a) B - Breeding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - Longleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine MPHW - Mixed pine-hardwood M - Marginal 

W -Wintering TROP - Tropical Hardwoods SHLL - Sandhills longleaf pine OGCY - Oak-gumqpress OKHK - Oak-hickory S - Suitable 

MANG - Mangrwes SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Live oak-maritime WPHM - White piwhemlock 0 - Optimal 

(b) Cwer Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-ash-coQonwood COVE - Cove hardwoods 

[P 

SOSO - Southern scrub oak BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Lobldly pine-shortleaf pine MABB - Maple-beech-birch 

A SPSO - Sand pine-southern scrub oak PPPO - Pond pine pocosin VPPT - Virginia pine-pitch pine SPFR - Spruce-fir 

IU 
(a) B - Breeding EVGL - Everglades LLSO - Longleaf pine-scrub oak LLSL - Longleaf pine-slash pine MPHW - Mixed pine-hardwood M - Maginal 

W - Winteriq TROP - Tropical Hardwoods SHLL - Sandhills hgleaf pine OGCY - Oakgum-cypress OKHK - Oak-hickgr S - Suitable 

MANG - Mangrwes SMMH - Southern mixed LOMA - Live oak maritime WPHM - Shite pine-hemlock 0 - Optimal 

(b) Cover Type PSAV - Pine savanna mesic hardwoods EACO - Elm-ash-cottomwood COVE - Cove hadwoods 

BSPO - Bay swamp-pocosin LPSH - Lobldly pine-shofrtlsaf pine MABB - SPSO - Smd pine-sarthem scrub oak PPPO - Pond pine pocosin VPPT - Virginia pine-pitch pine SPFFI - Sprwfir 
23 

am 

s 

-8 

!?! 

fa. 
Sharp-shinned Hawk 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Ruffed Grouse 
Common Moorhen 

American Woodcock 

ommon Barn-Owl 
Ruby-thr. Hummingbird 

Red-headed Woodpecker 

ed-bellied Woodpecker 
Great Crested Flycatcher 

Black-capped Chickadee 

Carolina Chickadee 

*Brown Thrasher 
Prairie Warbler 

Black-and-white Warbler 

*Common Yellowthroat: 
Rufous-sided Towhee 

achmank Sparrow 

ed-winged Blackbird 

Boat-tailed Grackle 
Northern Oriole 

a Total Sample includes all censuse:-s made in forested habitats in Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, South 

Carolina, and Virginia 1947-1 979 - r that were published in Audubon Field Notes or in American Birds. 

Entries are listed as "Average dentr, gsity (No. of censuses)". Each entry indicates the mean and sample size of 

censuses recorded from a single M habitat (a vegetation type-successional stage combination) for a single bird 

species in a single season. 

* Species with asterisks: 

High density figure exaggerated bsa~ecause it was recorded on a small 2.5 ha (6.3 acre) plot of poletimber 

Elm-ash-cottonwood surrounded kd by agricultural fields near North Wilkesboro, N. C. 
Appendix Dm 

Species Associations (Guilds) by Nest Sites, by Foraging Substrates 

and Behavior, and by Diets. 

D-1. Species Associations by Nest Sites. 

Nest site category Category no' 

Behind loose bark 

Burrows 

Bushes (or shrubs) 

Cavities 

Ground or ground covering vegetation 

Ledges 

Trees 

Vertical surfaces 

D-I .l . Nests placed behind loose bark. 

Brown Creeper 

D-1.2. Nests placed in burrows. 

Burrowing Owl 

Belted Kingfisher 

D-1.3. Nests placed in bushes. 

Brown Pelican 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

Anhinga 

Magnificent Frigatebird 

Snowy Egret 

Little Blue Heron 

Tricolored Heron 

Reddish Egret 

Cattle Egret 

Green-backed Heron 

Black-crowned Night Heron 

Yetlow-crowned Night Heron 

White lbis 

Glossy lbis 

White-faced lbis 

Roseate Spoonbill 

Snail Kite 

Crested Caracara 

kimpkin 

White-crowned Pigeon 

W hite-winged Dove 

Mourning Dove 

Common Ground-Dove 

Black-billed Cuckoo 

D-1 .I ' 

D-I -2. 

0-1.3. 

0-1.4. 

D-1.5. 

0-1.6. 

0-1.7. 

D-1.8. 

Northern Rough-winged Swallow 

Bank Swallow 

Mangrove Cuckoo 

Greater Roadrunner 

Smooth-billed Ani 

Groove-billed Ani 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Alder Flycatcher 

Willow Flycatcher 

Gray Kingbird 

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher 

Scrub Jay 

Fish Crow 

Swainson's Thrush 

Wood Thrush 

American Robin 

Gray Catbird 

Northern Mockingbird 

Brown Thrasher 

Loggerhead Shrike 

White-eyed Vireo 

Bell's Vireo 

Solitary Vireo 

Black-whiskered Vireo 

Bachman's Warbler 

Yellow Warbler 
Chestnut-sided Warbler 

Magnolia Warbler 

Black-throated Blue Warbler 

Prairie Warbler 

Swainson" Warbler 

Common VettoWhroal 

Hooded Warbler 

Yellow-breasted Chat 

Northern Cardinal 

Rose-breasted Grosbeak 

Blue Grosbeak 

Indigo Bunting 

Painted Bunting 

D-1.4. Nests placed in cavities. 

Wood Duck 

Hooded Merganser 

Black Vulture 

Turkey Vulture 

American Kestrel 

Common Barn-Owl 

Eastern Screech-Owl 

Barred Owl 

Northern Saw-whet Owl 

Red-headed Woodpecker 

Red-bellied Woodpecker 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 

Downy Woodpecker 

Hairy Woodpecker 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

Northern (Yellow-shafted) Flicker 

Pileated Woodpecker 

Rufous-sided Towhee 

Chipping Sparrow 

Field Sparrow 

Lark Sparrow 

Song Sparrow 

Swamp Sparrow 

Red-winged Blackbird 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Boat-tailed Grackle 

Common Grackle 

Bronzed Cowbird 

B rown-headed Cowbird 

House Finch 

Great Crested Flycatcher 

Purple Martin 

Tree Swallow 

Black-capped Chickadee 

Carolina Chickadee 

Tufted Titmouse 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

White-breasted Nuthatch 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

Brown Creeper 

Carolina Wren 

Bewick's Wren 

House Wren 

Eastern Bluebird 

European Starling 

Prothonotary Warbler 

House Sparrow 

D-1.5. Nests placed on ground or in ground covering vegetation. 

Pied-billed Grebe 

Brown Pelican 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

Mallard 

Black Vulture 

Turkey Vulture 

Snail Kite 

Northern Harrier 

Black Francolin 

Ring-necked Pheasant 

Ruffed Grouse 

Wild Turkey 

Northern Bobwhite 

Black Rail 

Clapper Rail 

King Rail 

Virginia Rail 

Sora 

Purple Gallinule 

Common Moorhen 

American Coot 

Limpkin 

Sandhill Crane 

Killdeer 

Upland Sandpiper 

American Woodcock 

White-winged Dove 

Common Ground-Dove 

Greater Roadrunner 

Short-eared Owl 

Common Nighthawk 

Chuck-will's-widow 
b 

r"; 

KX 

b,' 

Mip-por-wllk 

Yellow-bllied Flycatcher 

Horned Lark 

Carolina Wren 

Winter Wren 

Sdge Wren 

March Wren 

Veery 

Hermit Thrush 

Blue-winged Wabler 

Golden-winged Warbler 

Nashville Warbler 

Black-and-white Warbler 

Worm-eating Warbler 

Ovenbird 

Northern Waterthrush 

Louisiana Waterthrush 

Kentucky Warbler 

Mourning Warbler 

Common Yellowthroat 

Canada Warbler 

D-1.6. Nests placed on ledges. 

Black Vulture 

Turkey Vulture 

Osprey 

Golden Eagle 

Peregrine Falcon 

Rock Dove 

Common Barn-Owl 

Common Nighthawk 

D-1.7. Nests placed in trees. 

Double-crested Cormorant 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

Anhinga 

Great Blue Heron 

Great Egret 

Snowy Egret 

Little Blue Heron 

Tricolored Heron 

Reddish Egret 

Cattle Egret 

G reen-backed Heron 

Black-crowned Night Heron 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron 

White lbis 

Glossy lbis 

White-faced lbis 

Roseate Spoonbill 

Wood Stork 

Dickcissel 

Rufous-sided Towhee 

Bachman's Sparrow 

Rufous-crowned Sparrow 

Field Sparrow 

Vesper Sparrow 

Lark Sparrow 

Savannah Sparrow 

Grasshopper Sparrow 

Henslow's Sparrow 

Sharp-tailed Sparrow 

Seaside Sparrow 

Song Sparrow 

Swamp Sparrow 

Dark-eyed Junco 

Bobolink 

Red-winged Blackbird 

Eastern Meadowlark 

Western Meadowlark 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Eastern Phoebe 

Barn Swallow 

Common Raven 

Carolina Wren 

Bewick's Wren 

European Starling 

House Sparrow 

Osprey 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Black-shouldered Kite 

Mississippi Kite 

Bald Eagle 

Sharp-shinned Hawk 

Cooper's Hawk 

Red-shouldered Hawk 

Broad-winged Hawk 

Short-tailed Hawk 

Red-tailed Hawk 

White-crowned Pigeon 

Mourning Dove 

Black-billed Cuckoo 

Yellow-billed Cuckoo 

Mangrove Cuckoo 

Smooth-billed Ani 

Groove-billed Ani 
Great Homed Owl 

Long-eared Owl 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Olive-sided Flycatcher 

Eastern Wood-Pewee 

Acadian Flycatcher 

Least Flycatcher 

Eastern Kingbird 

Gray Kingbird 

Scissor-tailed FIycatcher 

Blue Jay 

American Crow 

Fish Crow 

Golden-crowned Kinglet 

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher 

Cedar Waxwing 

Loggerhead Shrike 

Solitary Vireo 

Yellow-throated Vireo 

Warbling Vireo 

Red-eyed Vireo 

Black-whiskered Vireo 

Northern Parula 

Magnolia Warbler 

Black-throated Green Warbler 

Btackbumian Wahler 

Yellow-throated Warbler 

Pine Warbler 

Cerulean Warbler 

American Redstart 

Summer Tanager 

Scarlet Tanager 

Rose-breasted Grosbeak 

Chipping Sparrow 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Boat-tai led Grackle 

Common Grackle 

Bronzed Cowbird 

Brown-headed Cowbird 

Orchard Oriole 

Spot-breasted Oriole 

Northern (Baltimore) Oriole 

Purple Finch 

House Finch 

Red Crossbill 
D-2. Species Associations by Foraging Substrate and Behavior. 

Categories are listed alphabetically. In this introductory dictionary to the lists, categories are 

cross-referenced both by technique and by substrate, Numbers in the cross-references indicate 

where in the appendix a particular category can be found. 

Foraging substrate and behavioral category Category no. 

aerial piracy over marine habitats 

airborne prey, capturing during sustained flight. 

bushes, gleaning in. 

bushes, hawking from. 

bushes, probing in. 

canopies of trees, gleaning in. 

canopies of trees, probing in various substrates in. 

capturing airborne prey during sustained flight. 

crepuscular. 

diurnal. 

diving from the surface of water. 

filter-feeding in water. 

foliage of trees, gleaning from the. 

gleaning at various heights. 

gleaning from the water surface. 

gleaning in bushes. 

gleaning in foliage of trees. 

gleaning in herbaceous vegetation. 

gleaning in tree canopies. 

gleaning on the ground. 

gleaning on trunks of trees. 

ground, gleaning on the. 

ground, pouncing onto the. 

ground, probing into the. 

ground, stalking on the. 

habitats, SEE marine habitats, terrestrial habitats 

hawking at various heights. 

hawking from bushes. 

hawking from trees. 

herbaceous vegetation, gleaning in. 

herbaceous vegetation, pouncing into. 

herbaceous vegetation, probing into. 

herbaceous vegetation, soaring over. 

herbaceous vegetation, stalking in. 

hovering. 

marine habitats, aerial piracy over. 

nocturnal. 

piracy, aerial, over marine habitats. 

plunging or pouncing into water. 

pouncing into herbaceous vegetation. 

pouncing onto the ground. 

pouncing onto various substrates. 

pouncing or plunging into water. 

probing in bushes. 

probing in various substrates in tree canopies. 

probing in water. 

probing into herbaceous vegetation. 
probing into the ground. 

probing into trunks of trees. 

soaring over herbaceous vegetation. 

soaring over terrestrial habitats. 

soaring over various substrates. 

soaring over water. 

stalking in herbaceous vegetation. 

stalking in water. 

stalking on the ground. 

substrates, SEE various substrates 

sustained flight, capturing airborne prey during. 

terrestriai habitats, soaring over. 

trees, gleaning from the foliage of. 

trees, gleaning in canopies of. 

trees, gleaning on trunks of. 

trees, hawking from. 

trees, probing into trunks of. 

trees, probing in various substrates in canopies. 

trunks of trees, gleaning on. 

trunks of trees, probing into. 

various heights, gleaning at. 

various heights, hawking at. 

various substrates in tree canopies, probing in. 

various substrates, pouncing onto. 

various substrates, soaring over. 

water, diving from the surface of. 

water, filter-feeding in. 

water, probing in. 

water, soaring over. 

water, stalking in. 

water surface, diving from. 

water surface, gleaning from the. 

D-2.1. Foraging by aerial piracy over marine habitats. 

Magnificent Frigatebird 

D-2.2. Foraging by capturing airborne prey during sustained flight. 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Mississippi Kite 

Sharp-shinned Hawk 

Cooper's Hawk 

Whip-poor-will 

Chimney Swift 

Purple Martin 

Tree Swallow 

Northern Goshawk 

D-2.3. Crepuscular. 

American Woodcock 

Merlin 

Peregrine Falcon 

Common Nighthawk 

Chuck-will's-widow 

Northern Rough-winged Swallow 

Bank Swallow 

Cliff Swallow 

Barn Swallow 

Common Nighthawk 
D2.4, Diurnal. 

All species save those listed as "Crepuscular" or "Nocturnal," with the exception of Snowy Owl, 

which is active both by day and by night. 

D2.5. Foraging by diving from the surface of water. 

Pied-billed Grebe 

Double-crested Cormorant 

Otivaceous Cormorant 

American Anhinga 

D-2.6. Foraging by f ilter-feeding in water. 

Roseate Spoonbill 

D-2.7. Foraging by gleaning at various heights. 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

Yellow-rumped Warbler 

Western Tanager 

Wood Duck 

Hooded Merganser 

American Coot 

D-2.8. Foraging by gleaning from the water surface. 

American Goldfinch 

Common Redpoll 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

Glossy Ibis 

White-faced ibis 

Roseate Spoonbill 

Wood Stork 

Wood Duck 

Mallard 

Clapper Rail 

King Rail 

Virginia Rail 

D-2.9. Foraging by gleaning in bushes. 

Ruffed Grouse 

Groove-billed Ani 

Buff -bellied Hummingbird 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Vermilion Flycatcher 

Yellow-bellied Flycatcher 

Ash-throated Flycatcher 

Carolina Wren 

Bewick's Wren 

House Wren 

Ruby-crowned Kinglet 

Hermit Thrush 

American Robin 

Gray Catbird 

Northern Mockingbird 

Brown Thrasher 

Cedar Waxwing 

White-eyed Vireo 

Sora 

Purple Gallinule 

Common Moorhen 

American Coot 

Limpkin 

Sandhill Crane 

Northern Waterthrush 

Louisiana Waterthrush 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Boat-tailed Grackle 

Bell's Vireo 

Bachman's Warbler 

Blue-winged Warbler 

Golden-winged Warbler 

Orange-crowned Warbler 

Nashville Warbler 

Yellow Warbler 

Chestnut-sided Warbler 

Magnolia Warbler 

Cape May Warbler 

Black-throated Blue Warbler 

Black-throated Gray Warbler 

Prairie Warbler 

Palm Warbler 

Prothonotary Warbler 

Worm-eating Warbler 

Mourning Warbler 

Common Yellowthroat 
Hooded Warbler 

Wilson's Warbler 

Canada Warbler 

Yellow-breasted Chat 

Northern Cardinal 

Blue Grosbeak 

Indigo Bunting 

Painted Bunting 

D-2.10. Foraging by gleaning Tn foliage of trees. 

White-crowned Pigeon 

Black-billed Cuckoo 

Yellow-billed Cuckoo 

Mangrove Cuckoo 

Golden-crowned Kinglet 

Ruby-crowned Kinglet 

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher 

Cedar Waxwing 

Solitary Vireo 

Yellow-throated Vireo 

Warbling Vireo 

Red-eyed Vireo 

Black-whiskered Vireo 

Bachman's Warbler 

Northern Parula 

Magnolia Warbler 

Cape May Warbler 

Black-throated Blue Warbler 

Yellow-rumped (Myrtle) Warbler 

Black-throated Gray Warbler 

Green-tailed "Towhee 

Rufous-sided S"owhes 

Clay-colored Spanow 

White-throated Sparrow 

Harris-parrow 

House Finch 

Pine Siskin 

Black-throated Green Warbler 

Blackburnian Warbler 

Yellow-throated Warbler 

Pine Warbler 

Cerulean Warbler 

American Redstart 

Wilson's Warbler 

Summer Tanager 

Scarlet Tanager 

Rose-breasted Grosbeak 

Black-headed Grosbeak 

Orchard Oriole 

Spot-breasted Oriole 

Northern (Baltimom) Oriole 

Purple Finch 

Red Crossbill 

White-winged Crossbill 

Pine Siskin 

Evening Grosbeak 

D-2.11. Foraging by gleaning in herbaceous vegetation. 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

Black Francolin 

Ring-necked Pheasant 

Northern Bobwhite 

Yellow Rail 

Black Rail 

Clapper Rail 

King Rail 

Virginia Rail 

Sora 

Purple Gallinule 

Common Moorhen 

Upland Sandpiper 

Greater Roadrunner 

Groove-billed Ani 

Buff-bellied Hummingbird 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Vermilion Flycatcher 

Bewick's Wren 

Sedge Wren 

Marsh Wren 

Sprague's Pipit 

Bell's Vireo 

Orange-crowned Warbler 

Palm Warbler 

Mourning Warbler 

Common Yellowthroat 

Blue Grosbeak 

lndigo Bunting 

Painted Bunting 

Dickcissel 

G reen-tai led Towhee 

Bachman's Sparrow 

American Tree Sparrow 

Clay-colored Sparrow 

Field Sparrow 

Vesper Sparrow 

Lark Sparrow 

Lark Bunting 

Savannah Sparrow 

Grasshopper Sparrow 
Henslow's Sparrow 

Le Conte's Sparrow 

Shaw-tailed Sparrow 

Seaside Sparrow 

Song Sparrow 

Lincoln's Sparrow 

Swamp Sparrow 

White-crowned Sparrow 

Smith's Longspur 

D-2.12. Foraging by gleaning in tree canopies. 

Ash-throated Flycatcher 

Blue Jay 

Black-capped Chickadee 

Caroiina Chickadee 

Tufted Titmouse 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

D-2.13. Foraging by gleaning on the ground. 

Cattle Egret 

Mallard 

Black Francolin 

Ring-necked Pheasant 

Ruffed Grouse 

Wild Turkey 

Northern Bobwhite 

Sandhill Crane 

Killdeer 

Rock Dove 

White-winged Dove 

Mourning Dove 

Common Ground-Dove 

Greater Roadrunner 

Smooth-billed Ani 

Groove-billed Ani 

Horned Lark 

American Crow 

Fish Crow 

Common Raven 

Carolina Wren 

Winter Wren 

Veery 

Swainson" Thrush 

Hermit Thrush 

Wood Thrush 

American Robin 

Northern Mockingbird 

Brown Thrasher 

Water Pipit 

Sprague's Pipit 

European Starting 

Pine Warbler (W) 

Bobolink 

Chestnut-collared Longspur 

Red-winged Blackbird 

Eastern Meadowlark 

Western Meadowlark 

Yellow-headed Blackbird 

Bronzed Cowbird 

House Finch 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

American Robin 

Swainson's Thrush 

Hooded \Narb!er 

Harris' Sparrow 

Palm Warbler 

Worm-eating Warbler 

Swainson's Warbler 

Oven bird 

Northern Waterthrush 

Louisiana Waterthrush 

Kentucky Warbler 

Northern Cardinal 

Green-tailed Towhee 

Rufous-sided Towhee 

Rufous-crowned Sparrow 

Chipping Sparrow 

Clay-colored Sparrow 

Vesper Sparrow 

Lark Sparrow 

Lark Bunting 

Savannah Sparrow 

Sharp-tailed Sparrow 

Seaside Sparrow 

Fox Sparrow 

Song Sparrow 

White-throated Sparrow 

White-crowned Sparrow 

Harris' Sparrow 

Dark-eyed Junco 

Lapland Longspur 

Smith's Longspur 

Chestnut-collared Longspur 

Snow Bunting 

Red-winged Biackbird 

Eastern Meadowlark 

Western Meadowlark 

Yellow-headed Blackbird 
Rusty Blackbird 

Brewer's Blackbird 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Boat-tai fed Grackle 

D-2.14. Foraging by gleaning on trunks of trees. 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

White-breasted Nuthatch 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

0-2.15. Foraging by hawking at various heights. 

S harp-shinned Hawk 

Cooper" Hawk 

Northern Goshawk 

Eastern Phoebe 

Vermilion Flycatcher 

Ash-throated Flycatcher 

D-2.16. Foraging by hawking from bushes. 

Alder Flycatcher 

Willow Flycatcher 

Hooded Warbler 

D-2.17. Foraging by hawking from trees 

Olive-sided Flycatcher 

Eastern Wood-Pewee 

Acadian Flycatcher 

Least Flycatcher 

0-2.1 8. Foraging by hovering. 

Buff-bellied Hummingbird 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

D-2.19. Nocturnal. 

Black-crowned Night Heron 

American Woodcock 

Common Barn-Owl 

Eastern Screech-Owl 

Great Horned Owl 

Snowy Owl 

Burrowing Owl 

Common Grackle 

Bronzed Cowbird 

Brown-headed Cowbird 

Yellow-throated Warbler 

Brown Creeper 

Black-and-white Warbler 

Brown-crested Flycatcher 

Western Kingbird 

Eastern Kingbird 

Gray Kingbird 

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher 

Wilson's Warbler 

Canada Warbter 

Great Crested Flycatcher 

American Redstart 

Hooded Warbler 

Wilson's Warbler 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Barred Owl 

Long-eared Owl 

Short-eared Owl 

Northern Saw-whet Owl 

Common Nighthawk 

Chuck-will's-widow 

Whip-poor-will 

D-2.20. Foraging by pouncing into herbaceous vegetation. 

Snail Kite 

Northern Harrier 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Ferruginous Hawk 

Rough-legged Hawk 

Common Barn-Owl 

Short-eared Owl 
0-2.21. Foraging by pouncing onto the ground. 

Notthem Harrier 

Swainson" Hawk 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Ferruginous Hawk 

Rough-legged Hawk 

Crested Caracara 

American Kestrel 

Eastern Screech-Owl 

Great Horned Owl 

Snowy Owl 

Long-eared Owl 

Northern Saw-whet Owl 

Vermilion Flycatcher 

Eastern Bluebird 

Loggerhead Shrike 

0-2.22. Foraging by pouncing onto various substrates. 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Black-shouldered Kite 

Noelthern Goshawk 

Red-shouldered Hawk 

Broad-winged Hawk 

Short-tailed Hawk 

Merlin 

Peregrine Falcon 

Barred Owl 

Eastern Phoebe 

Western Kingbird 

D-2.23. Foraging by pouncing or plunging into water. 

Brown Pelican 

Magnificent Frigatebird 

Osprey 

D-2.24. Foraging by probing in bushes. 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Downy Woodpecker 

Snail Kite 

Bald Eagle 

Belted Kingfisher 

0-2.25. Foraging by probing in various substrates in tree canopies. 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

Downy Woodpecker 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

D-2.26. Foraging by probing in water. 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

Glossy lbis 

White-faced lbis 

White lbis 

Wood Stork 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

Red Crossbill 

White-winged Crossbill 

Clapper Rail 

King Rail 

Virginia Rail 

Common Snipe 

D-2.27. Foraging by probing into herbaceous vegetation. 

Buff-bellied Hummingbird 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

Rufous Hummingbird 

European Starling 

Eastern Meadowlark 

Western Meadowlark 
D-2.28. Foraging by probing into the ground. 

Glossy lbis 

White lbis 

Clapper Rail 

King Rail 

Virginia Rail 

American Woodcock 

D-2.29. Foraging by probing into trunks of trees. 

Red-headed Woodpecker 

Red-bellied Woodpecker 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 

Downy Woodpecker 

Hairy Woodpecker 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

Common Snipe 

Northern Flicker 

European Starling 

Eastern Meadowlark 

Western Meadowlark 

Northern Flicker 

Pileated Woodpecker 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

White-breasted Nuthatch 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

D-2.30. Foraging by soaring over herbaceous vegetation. 

Red-tailed Hawk Ferruginous Hawk 

D-2.31. Foraging by soaring over terrestrial habitats. 

Black Vulture 

Turkey Vulture 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Golden Eagle 

D-2.32. Foraging by soaring over various substrates. 

Red-shouldered Hawk Short-tailed Hawk 

D-2.33. Foraging by soaring over water. 

Magnificent Frigatebird 

Osprey 

Bald Eagle 

D-2.34. Foraging by stalking in herbaceous vegetation. 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

D-2.35. Foraging by stalking in water. 

American Bittern 

Great Blue Heron 

Great Egret 

Snowy Egret 

Little Blue Heron 

Tricolored Heron 

D-2.36. Foraging by stalking on the ground. 

Crested Caracara 

Greater Roadrunner 

Greater Roadrunner 

Reddish Egret 

Green-backed Heron 

Black-crowned Night Heron 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron 

Wood Stork 

Burrowing Owl 
D-3. Species Associations by Diet. 

Diet categorya Category no. 

Carnivores 

Folivores 

Frugivores 

Granivores 

Insectivores 

Nectarivores 

Omnivores 

Scavengers 

a Birds whose diets change depending upon seasonal availability of food items are marked 

(S) - summer diet, and (W) - winter diet. 

0-3.1. Carnivores. 

Pied-billed Grebe 

Brown Pelican 

Double-crested Cormorant 

OIivaceous Cormorant 

Anhinga 

Magnificent Frigatebird 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

Great Blue Heron 

Great Egret 

Snowy Egret 

Little Blue Heron 

Tricolored Heron 

Reddish Egret 

Green-backed Heron 

Black-crowned Night Heron 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron 

White lbis 

Glossy lbis 

White-faced lbis 

Roseate Spoonbill 

Wood Stork 

Hooded Merganser 

Osprey 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Black-shouldered Kite 

Snail Kite 

Bald Eagle 

Northern Harrier 

Sharp-shinned Hawk 

D-3.2. Folivores. 

Ruffed Grouse 

Common Moorhen 

Cooper's Hawk 

Northern Goshawk 

Red-shouldered Hawk 

Broad-winged Hawk 

Short-tailed Hawk 

Swainson's Hawk 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Ferruginous Hawk 

Rough-legged Hawk 

Golden Eagle 

Crested Caracara 

American Kestrel (W) 

Merlin 

Peregrine Falcon 

Clapper Rail 

King Rail (S) 

Virginia Rail 

Limpkin 

Greater Roadrunner 

Common Barn-Owl 

Eastern Screech-Owl 

Great Horned Owl 

Snowy Owl 

Burrowing Owl 

Barred Owl 

Long-eared Owl 

Short-eared Owl 

Northern Saw-whet Owl 

Belted Kingfisher 

Loggerhead Shrike 

Harris' Sparrow 

Purple Finch (W) 
Evening Grosbeak 

Ruffed Grouse 

White-crowned Pigeon 

Gray Catbird (W) 

Cedar Waxwing (W) 

Ruffed Grouse 

Northern Bobwhite (W) 

Purple Gallinule (W) 

Common Moorhen 

Rock Dove 

White-winged Dove 

Mourning Dove 

Common Ground-Dove 

Horned Lark (W) 

Northern Cardinal (W) 

Indigo Bunting (W) 

Dickcissel (W) 

Bachman's Sparrow (W) 

Rufous-crowned Sparrow (W) 

American Tree Sparrow 

Chipping Sparrow (W) 

Field Sparrow (W) 

Vesper Sparrow (W) 

Lark Sparrow(W) 

Lark Bunting 

Savannah Sparrow (W) 

D-3.5. Insectivores. 

Pied-billed Grebe 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

Cattle Egret 

Glossy lbis 

White-faced lbis 

Roseate Spoonbill 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Mississippi Kite 

Swainson's Hawk 

American Kestrel (S) 

Virginia Rail 

Killdeer 

Upland Sandpiper 

Common Snipe 

American Woodcock 

Black-billed Cuckoo 

Yellow-billed Cuckoo 

Mangrove Cuckoo 

Greater Roadrunner 

Smooth-billed Ani 

Groove-billed Ani 

Fox Sparrow 

Spotted Oriole 

House Finch (W) 

Henslow3 Sparrow (W) 

Le Conte's Sparrow 

Fox Sparrow 

Lincoln's Sparrow 

White-throated Sparrow 

White-crowned Sparrow 

Harris' Sparrow 

Dark-eyed Junco(W) 

Lapland Longspur 

Chestnut-collared Longspur 

Snow Bunting 

Common Grackle (W) 

Purple Finch (W) 

House Finch (W) 

Red Crossbill (W) 

White-winged Crossbill 

Common Redpoll (W) 

Pine Siskin (W) 

American Goldfinch (W) 

Evening Grosbeak 

Burrowing Owl 

Common Nighthawk 

Chuck-will%-widow 

W hip-poor-will 

Chimney Swift 

Buff-bellied Hummingbird 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Belted Kingfisher 

Red-headed Woodpecker (S) 

Red-bellied Woodpecker (S) 

Downy Woodpecker 

Hairy Woodpecker 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

Northern (Yeilow-shafted) Flicker 

Pileated Woodpecker 

Olive-sided Flycatcher 

Eastern Wood-Pewee 

Acadian Flycatcher 

Alder Flycatcher 
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Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 

D-3.7. Omnivores. 

Wood Duck 

Mat lard 

Black Francolin 

Ring-necked Pheasant 

Wild Turkey 

Northern Bobwhite (S) 

Yellow Rail 

Black Rail 

King Rail (W) 

Sora 

Purple Gallinule (S) 

American Coot 

White-winged Dove 

Red-headed Woodpecker (W) 

Red-bellied Woodpecker (W) 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 

Northern (Yellow-shafted) Flicker 

Ash-throated Flycatcher 

Tree Swallow (W) 

Blue Jay 

Scrub Jay 

American Crow 

Fish Crow 

Common Raven 

Black-capped Chickadee (W) 

Carolina Chickadee (W) 

Tufted Titmouse (W) 

Red-breasted Nuthatch (W) 

Brown-headed Nuthatch (W) 

Eastern Bluebird (W) 

Hermit Thrush (S) 

American Robin (S) 

Northern Mockingbird (S) 

Brown Thrasher (S) 

Sprague's Pipit 

European Starling 

Orange-crowned Warbler 

Cape May Warbler 

Yellow-rumped (Myrtle) Warbler 

Yellow-breasted Chat (W) 

0-3.8. Scavengers. 

Black Vulture 

Turkey Vulture 

Bald Eagle 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Spotted Oriole 

Western Tanager 

Northern Cardinal (S) 

Rose-breasted Grosbeak 

Black-headed Grosbeak 

Blue Grosbeak 

Indigo Bunting (S) 

Painted Bunting 

Dickcissel (S) 

Green-tailed Towhee 

Rufous-sided Towhee 

Clay-colored Sparrow 

Field Sparrow (S) 

Lark Sparrow (S) 

Savannah Sparrow (S) 

Grasshopper Sparrow (W) 

Sharp-tailed Sparrow (W) 

Seaside Sparrow (W) 

Song Sparrow (W) 

Swamp Sparrow (W) 

Harris' Sparrow 

Dark-eyed Junco (S) 

Smith's Longspur 

Red-winged Blackbird (W) 

Eastern Meadowlark (W) 

Western Meadowlark (W) 

Yellow-headed Blackbird 

Rusty Blackbird 

Brewer's Blackbird 

Great-tai led Grackle 

Boat-tailed Grackle 

Bronzed Cowbird 

Brown-headed Cowbird 

Northern (Baltimore) Oriole (W) 

Purple Finch (S) 

House inch (S) 

Red Crossbill (S) 

Pine Siskin (S) 

House Sparrow 

Pine Warbler (W) 

Ferruginous Hawk 

Crested Caracara 
Appendix E. 

Species Requiring Snags, Cavities, or Both 

Species I 

Uses 

Barred Owl 1 1 * 

Red-bellied Woodpecker * * N,P 14(35) N,P 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker * N 1 O(25) F 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker ,, 

bOlive-sided Flycatcher F 1 lO(25) 

Purple Martin * N 1 lO(25) N il I I I I 

Tree Swallow 1 * N 6(15) ll I I I 

Black-capped Chickadee 1 * * N,P 6P5) 
Species 

F - foraging sites; *I - all activities. 

bExplanatory notes: 

Frequently nest in hollow logs and cavities at base of hollow trees 

Frequently nest in hollow logs and cavities at base of hollow trees 

Require perches with unobstructed view of water for foraging 

Olive-sided Flycatcher Require exposed perches above canopy for foraging and territory defense 

Eastern Wood-Pewee Require exposed perches for foraging 

Acadian Flycatcher Require exposed perches in rnidstory for foraging 

Western Kingbird Require exposed perches for foraging 

Require exposed perches for foraging and territory defense 

Require exposed perches for foraging and territory defense 

Loggerhead Shrike Require exposed perches for foraging 

Brown-headed Cowbird xposed perches as observation posts to locate hosts 
Appendix F. 

Species Requiring Large Sawtimber Trees, at least 20" (50 cm) d.b.h. 

American Swallow-tailed Kite Nesting and perching 

Nesting and perching 

Nesting and perching 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Nesting and perching 

Pi f eated Woodpecker 

White-breasted Nuthatch 

Blackburnian Warbler 

Yellow-throated Warbler 
Appendix G. 

Species Requiring Forest Interior Conditions or Areas of Extensive Forest. 

Species 
Species 

a Information in this table reflects the important work of Robbins (1 979; cf. Whitcomb 19'77) or Robbins et at. 

(I 989) modified by the author's judgment. 
Appendix H. 

Species Using Slash Piles, Windrows, and Downed Logs. 

Belted Kingfisher Require perches with unobstructed view of water for 

Pileated Woodpecker Forage on downed logs 

Carolina Wren 

Bewick's Wren 
Appendix I. 

Species Using Rock Outcrops, Caves, Crevices, and Earthen Banks. 

est and roost on cliffs and rock outcrops 

Common Barn-Owl est and roost in caves and crevices 

est in burrows dug in sand by other animals 

Common Nighthawk est on gravel surfaces, such as roofs of buildings 

Belted Kingfisher Excavate nesting burrows in earthen banks near water 

Eastern Phoebe Nest on rock outcrops, buildings, bridges, and other 

Northern Rough-winged Swallow Excavate nesting burrows in earthen banks, or use 

existing cavities there 

Bank Swallow Excavate nesting burrows in earthen banks 

Build nests on vertical surfaces 

Build nests on buildings, bridges, or other sites 

Common Raven Nest and roost on cliffs and rock outcrops 

Carolina Wren Nest in a variety of crevices 

Bewick's Wren Nest in a variety of crevices 

European Starling Nest in a variety of crevices 
Appendix J. 

Species Utilizing Aquatic Habitats for Foraging or ~esting~. 

Pied-billed Grebe 

Least Bittern All I Fresh,Brackish 

I Great Blue Heron All All Fresh 

I 

Snowy Egret All All Fresh 

Little Blue Heron All 1 All 1 Fresh I I 

Tricolored Heron I All All I I! I I 

Reddish Earet /1 All I Salt,Brackish 1 

Cattle Egret i All Fresh I/ ! 

Green-backed Heron All I Fresh 

Black-crowned Night Heron AII All Fresh I I 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron 11 All All Fresh 

/j I I 

White Ibis I All 1 All 

White-faced lbis I 

I Alf Fresh,Brackish Fresh /I L 1 

Wood Stork All All 

1: All i Roseate Spoonbill ji I Salt,Brackish 1 

I 

Hooded Merganser Breeding Fresh 
Northern Waterthrus h 
a All - Any salinity 

Brackish - Brackish water 

Fresh - Fresh water 

Salt - Salt water 

For simplicity, the designation standing water includes all marshes whether they occur in headwater situations 

or in association with inland or tidewater rivers. Flowing water is defined to be only the unvegetated parts of 

freshwater rivers and creeks. 
Appendix K. 

SAF Forest Types Equivalent to Vegetation Types in this Work. 
73 Southern redcedar Live oak maritime 

Cabbage palmetto Live oak maritime (on the Coast), Bay swamp-pocosin /i (elsewhere) 

I 78 1 Virginia pine-oak 1 Mixed pine-hardwood 

93 Sugarberry-American el rn-green ash I Elm-ash-cottonwood 

94 Svcamore-sweetaum-Amepican elm / Elm-ash-cottonwood 

1 95 1 Black willow I Elm-ash-cottonwood 

1 98 1 Pond ~ine 1 Pond ~ine pocosin 

100 1 Pondcypress 1 Oak-gum-cypress 

108 1 Red maple 

I 

Bay swamp-pocosin (in the Coastal Plain), Cove hardwoods (rn Mountains), Elm-ash-cottonwood 

(elsewhere) 

I 1 110 1 Blackoak Oak-hickorv 

a SAF forest types from Eyre (1 980). 
Appendix L. 

USFS Forest Types Equivalent to Vegetation Types in this Work. 

USFS forest typea Vegetation type 
USFS / 

No, USFS forest typee Vegetation type 

43 1 Oak-eastern red cedar 1 Mixed pine-hardwood 

45 1 Chestnut oak-scarlet oak-yellow pine I Mixed pine-hardwood 

oods (in the Mountains), Elm-ash-cottonwood 

55 1 Northern red oak 1 Oak-hickory 

" USFS forest types f rorn the Compartment Prescription t-fandbook (USDA 1 979). 
Appendix M. 

Neotropical Migratory Birds Treated in this worka' 

P ied-billed G re be 

Double-crested Cormorant 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

Anhinga 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

Great Blue Heron 

Great Egret 

Snowy Egret 

Little Blue Heron 

Reddish Egret 

Cattle Egret 

G reen-backed Heron 

Slack-crowned Night Heron 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron 

Tricolored Heron 

Glossy lbis 

White-faced lbis 

Wood Duck 

Mallard 

Hooded Merganser 

Turkey Vulture (B) 

* Osprey 

* American Swallow-tailed Kite (A) 

* Mississippi Kite (A) 

Northern Harrier (B) 

Sharp-shinned Hawk (8) 

Coopefs Hawk (B) 

Northern Goshawk (6) 

Red-shouldered Hawk (B) 

* Broad-winged Hawk (A) 

* Short-tailed Hawk 

* Swainson" Hawk (A) 

Red-tailed Hawk (6) 

Ferruginous Hawk (6) 

American Kestrel (6) 

Merlin (A) 

* Peregrine Falcon (A) 

* White-crowned Pigeon (C) 

* White-winged Dove (C) 

Mourning Dove (B) 

* Black-billed Cuckoo (A) 

* Yellow-billed Cuckoo (A) 

* Mangrove Cuckoo (C) 

* Burrowing Owl (A) 

Long-eared Owl (B) 

Short-eared Owl (6) 

* Common Nighthawk (A) 

* Chuck-wilt"-widow (A) 

* Whip-poor-will (A) 

* Chimney Swift (A) 

* Buff-bellied Hummingbird (C) 

* Ruby-throated Hummingbird (A) 

* Black-chinned Hummingbird (A) 

* Rufous Hummingbird (A) 

Belted Kingfisher (6) 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (B) 

Northern Flicker (B) 

* Olive-sided Flycatcher (A) 

* Eastern Wood-Pewee (A) 

* Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (A) 

* Acadian Flycatcher (A) 

* Alder Flycatcher (A) 

* Willow Flycatcher (A) 

* Least Flycatcher (A) 

Eastern Phoebe (B) 

* Vermilion Flycatcher (C) 

* Ash-throated Flycatcher (A) 

* Great Crested Flycatcher (A) 

* Brown-crested Flycatcher (C) 

* Western Kingbird (A) 

* Eastern Kingbird (A) 

* Gray Kingbird (C) 

* Scissor-tailed Flycatcher (A) 

Horned Lark (6) 

* Purple Martin (A) 
Black Rail 

King Rail 

Virginia Rail 

Sora 

Purple Gallinule 

Common Moorhen 

American Coot 

Sand hill Crane 

Killdeer 

Upland Sandpiper (A) 

Common Snipe 

Eastern Sluebird (8) 

* Veery (A) 

* Swainson's Thrush (A) 

Hermit Thrush (A, B) 

* Wood Thrush (A) 

American Robin (B) 

Northern Mockingbird (B) 

* Gray Catbird (A) 

American Water Pipit (B) 

* Sprague's Pipit (B) 

Cedar Waxwing (B) 

Loggerhead Shrike (8) 

* White-eyed Vireo (A) 

* Bell's Vireo (A) 

* Solitary Vireo (A) 

* Yellow-throated Vireo (A) 

* Warbling Vireo (A) 

* Red-eyed Vireo (A) 

* Black-whiskered Vireo (C) 

* Bachrnan's Warbler (A) 

* Blue-winged Warbler (A) 

* Golden-winged Warbler (A) 

* Orange-crowned Warbler (A) 

* Nashville Warbler (A) 

* Northern Parula (A) 

* Yellow Warbler (A) 

* Chestnut-sided Warbler (A) 

* Magnolia Warbler (A) 

* Cape May Warbler (A) 

* Black-throated Blue Warbler (A) 

Yellow-rumped (Myrtle) Warbler (B) 

* Tree Swallow (A, B) 

* Northern Roug h-winged Swallow (A) 

* Bank Swaflow (A) 

* Cliff Swallow (A) 

* Barn Swallow (A) 

Brown Creeptlav (8) 

* House Wren (A, B) 

Sedge Wren (B) 

Marsh Wren (B) 

Rubycrowned Kinglet (A, B) 

* Blue-gray Gnatcatcher (A) 

* Kentucky Warbler (A) 

* Mourning Warbler (A) 

* Common Yellowthroat (A) 

* Hooded Warbler (A) 

* Wilson's Warbler (A) 

* Canada Warbler (A) 

* Yellow-breasted Chat (A) 

* Summer Tanager (A) 

* Scarlet Tanager (A) 

* Western Tanager (A) 

* Rose-breasted Grosbeak (A) 

* Black-headed Grosbeak (A) 

* Blue Grosbeak (A) 

* Indigo Bunting (A) 

* Painted Bunting (A) 

* Dickcissel (A) 

* Green-tailed Towhee (A) 

Rufous-sided Towhee (B) 

Rufous-crowned Sparrow 

* Chipping Sparrow (A) 

* Clay-colored Sparrow (A) 

Vesper Sparrow (B) 

* Lark Sparrow (A) 

* Lark Bunting (A) 

Savannah Sparrow (A, B) 

* Grasshopper Sparrow (A) 

Fox Sparrow (B) 

Song Sparrow (B) 

Lincoln's Sparrow (A) 

Swamp Sparrow (B) 

White-throated Sparrow (B) 
* Bfac k-throated Gray Warbler (A) 

* Black-throated Green Warbler (A) 

* Blackburnian Warbler (A) 

* Yellow-throated VVarbler (A) 

* Prairie Warbler (A) 

* Palm Warbler (A) 

* Cerulean Warbler (A) 

* Black-and-white Warbler (A) 

* American Redstart (A) 

* Prothonotary Warbler (A) 

* Warm-eating Warbler (A) 

* Swainson's Warbler (A) 

* Ovenbird (A) 

* Northern Waterthrush (A) 

" Louisiana Waterthrush (A) 

a~his appendix lists species treated in this work for 

which the most recent A.0.U. Checklist (1983) lists separate breeding and winter ranges, and for which at least part 

of the winter range is to the south of the Tropic of Cancer. 

Where the Checklist deals separatelywith difTerent populations, the ranges pertinent to the population that occurs 

in the South were the ones used to make the determination. In a few cases, marked with "?"it was not clear 

whether the winter range reached the Tropic of Cancer or 

whether the population in the South actually included 

individuals that migrated to the Tropics. In a number of 

ather cases as well, the status of the species as a whole may 

not mean that individuals that occur in the South actually 

migrate to the Tropics. Additional clarification of these 

White-crowned Sparrow (B) 

Dark-eyed Junco (8) 

Chestnut-collared Longspur (B) 

* Bobolink (A) 

Red-winged Blackbird (8) 

Eastern Meadowlark (8) 

Western Meadowlark (8) 

* Yellow-headed Blackbird (A) 

Brewer's Blackbird (A, 8) 

* Bronzed Cowbird (C) 

Brown-headed Cowbird (B) 

* Orchard Oriole (A) 

* Northern Oriole (A) 

Pine Siskin (8) 

American Goldfinch (B) 

statuses is possible through use of the marks explained 

below. 

Species marked with "*"are those considered Neotropical Migrants by the Southeastern Working Croup of the 

Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Program. Species marked with ( ) are those on the second drafl list of 

Neotropical Migratory Birds prepared by the Research 

Working Group of the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Program, as follows: (A) winter generally south 

of the United States, (B) winter usually in the United 

States, sometimes south of the United States, and (C) are 

primarily tropical species, that reach the United States 

primarily as peripheral breeding species. 
Appendix N 

Common Name Species 

Code 

Pied-billed Grebe 

Brown Pelican 

Double-crested Cormorant 

Olivaceous Cormorant 

Anhinga 

Magnificent Frigatebird 

American Bittern 

Least Bittern 

Great Blue Heron 

Great Egret 

Snowy Egret 

Little Blue Heron 

Tricolored Heron 

Reddish Egret 

Cattle Egret 

Green-backed Heron 

Black-crowned Night Heron 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron 

White lbis 

Glossy l bis 

White-faced lbis 

Roseate Spoonbill 

Wood Stork 

Wood Duck 

Mallard 

Hooded Merganser 

Black Vulture 

Turkey Vulture 

Osprey 

American Swallow-tailed Kite 

Black-shouldered Kite 

Snail Kite 

Mississippi Kite 

Bald Eagle 

Northern Harrier 

Sharp-shinned Hawk 

Coopets Hawk 

Northern Goshawk 

Red-shouldered Hawk 

Broad-winged Hawk 

Short-tailed Hawk 

Swainson's Hawk 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Ferruginous Hawk 

Rough-legged Hawk 

Golden Eagle 

Crested Caracara 

American Kestrel 

Merlin 

DGGO 

OtCO 

MAFR 

AMBI 

LEBl 

GT6H 

GREG 

SNEG 

LBHE 

TRHE 

REEG 

CAEG 

GNBH 

BCNH 

YCNH 

WMIB 

GLIB 

WFlB 

ROSP 

WOST 

WODU 

MALL 

HOME 

BLVU 

TUVU 

OSPR 

ASTK 

BSKl 

SNKI 

M lKl 

BAEA 

NOHA 

SSHA 

Black Francolin 

Ring-necked Pheasant 

Ruffed Grouse 

Northern Bobwhite 

Upland Sandpiper 

Short-eared Owl 

Northern Saw-whet Owl 

Common Nighthawk 

Chuck-will's-widow 

Buff-bellied Hummingbird 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Black-chinned Hummingbird 
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 

Downy Woodpecker 

Hairy Woodpecker 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

Northern (Yellow-shafted) Flicker 

Pifeated Wood peeker 

Olive-sided Flycatcher 

Eastern Wood-Pewee 

Acadian Flycatcher 

Yellow-bellied Flycatcher 

Willow Flycatcher 

Eastern Phoebe 

Vermilion Flycatcher 

Ash-throated Flycatcher 

Great Crested Flycatcher 

Brown-crested Flycatcher 

Northern Roug h-winged Swallow 

Bank Swallow 

American Crow 

Common Raven 

Blac k-cap ped Chickadee 

Carolina Chickadee 

Tufted Titmouse 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

White-breasted Nuthatch 

Brown-headed Nuthatch 

Carolina Wren 

Bewic k's Wren 

y-crowned Kinglet 

Blue-g ray Gnatcatc her 

Eastern Bluebird 

Hermit Thrush 

American Robin 

Brown Thrasher 

Loggerhead Shrike 

European Starling 

Yellow-t krsated Vireo 

Bachman's Warbler 

Blue-wing ed Warbler 

Golden-winged Warbler 

Orange-crowned Warbler 

Nashville Warbler 

Northern Parula 

Yellow Warbler 

Chestnut-sided Warbler 

Magnolia Warbler 

Cape May Warbler 

Blac k-throated Blue Warbler 

Yellow-rumped (Myrtle) Warbler 

Black-throated Gray Warbler 

Blac k-throated Green Warbler 

Blackburnian Warbier 

Yellow-throated Warbler 

Prairie Warbler 

Cerulean Warbler 

Black-and-white Warbler 

American Redstart 
Northern Waterthrush 

Louisiana Waterthrush 

Kentucky Warbler 

Mourning Warbler 

Common YelloWhroat 

Hooded Warbler 

Wilson's Warbler 

Canada Warbler 

YeiPow-b reasted Chat 

Summer Tanager 

Western Tanager 

Northern Cardinal 

Rose-b reasted Grosbeak 

Black-headed Grosbeak 

Blue Grosbeak 

Green-tailed Towhee 

Rufous-sided Towhee 

Bachman's Sparrow 

Rufous-crowned Sparrow 

American Tree Sparrow 

Chipping Sparrow 

Clay-colored Sparrow 

Savannah Sparrow 

Grasshopper Sparrow 

Henslow's Sparrow 

Le Conte's Sparrow 

* Non-standard code, see Chapter IV for explanation. 

Lincoln" Sparrow 

White-crowned Sparrow 

Chestnut-collared Longspur 

Red-winged Blackbird 

Eastern Meadowlark 

Western Meadowlark 

Yellow-headed Blackbird 

Brewer's Blackbird 

Great-tailed Grackle 

Boat-tailed Grackle 

Common Grackle 

Bronzed Cowbird 

Brown-headed Cowbird 

Orchard Oriole 

Spot-breasted Oriole 

Northern (Baltimore) Oriole 

White-winged Crossbill 

Common Redpoll 

American Goldfinch 

Evening Grosbeak 

Common Name SP Code Page 

Green-backed Heron GNBN 98 

Green- tailed Towhee GTTO 301 

Groove- billed Ani GBAN 163 

Hairy Woodpecker HAW0 186 

Harris' Sppanrow HASP 324 

Henslow3 Spanow HESP 3 14 

Hermit Thrush HETH 238 

Hooded Warbler HOWA 287 

Hooded Merganser HOME 108 

Horned Lark HOLA 207 

House Finch HOFI 346 

House Wren HOWR 228 

House Sparrow HOSP 353 

Indigo Bunting INB T_T 298 

Ivory-billed Woodpecker IBOW 188 

Kentucky Wabler mWA 284 

Killdeer KILL 149 

King Rail KIRA 141 

Lapland Longspur LALO 326 

Lark Bunting LARB 31 1 

Lark Sparrow LASP 3 10 

Le Conte's Sparrow LCSP 3 15 

Least Flycatcher LEFL 197 

Least Bittern LEBI 90 

Limpkin LIMP 147 

Lincoln's Sparrow LISP 320 

Little Blue Heron LBHE 94 

Loggerhead Shrike LOSH 247 

Long-eared Owl LEOW 170 

Louisiana Waterthrush LOWA 283 

Magnificent Frigatebird MAFR 88 

Magnolia Warbler MAWA 264 

Mallard MALL 107 

Mangrove Cuckoo MACU 160 

Marsh Wren MAWR 23 1 

Merlin MERL 13 1 

Mississippi Kite MIKI 115 

Mourning Warbler MOWA 285 

Mourning Dove MOD0 156 

Nashville Warbler NAWA 260 

Northern Mockingbird NOMO 242 

Northern Harrier NOHA f 17 

Northern Goshawk NOGO 1 20 

Northern (Yellow-shafted) Flicker YSFL* 189 

Northern Rough-winged Swallow NRWS 210 

Northern Bobwhite NOBO* 137 

Northern Cardinal NOCA 294 

Northern Waterthrush NOWA 282 

Northern (Baltimore) Oriole BAOR* 344 

Northern Parula NOPA 26 1 

Northern Saw-whet Owl NSWO 172 

Olivaceous Cormorant OLCO 86 

Olive-sided Flycatcher OSFX 191 

Orange-crowned Warbler OCWA 259 

Orchard Oriole OROR 342 

Index - 2 

Common Name 

Osprey 

Oven bird 

Painted Bunting 

Palm Wabler 

Peregrine Falcon 

Pied-billed Grebe 

PiIeated Woodpecker 

Pine Siskin 

Pine Warbler 

Prairie Warbler 

Prothonotary Warbler 

Purple Finch 

Purple Gallinule 

Purple Martin 

Red-s houldered Hawk 

Red-cockaded Woodpecker 

Red Crossbill 

Red-breasted Nuthatch 

Red-bellied Woodpecker 

Red-winged Blackbird 

Red-eyed Vireo 

Red-tailed Hawk 

Red- headed Woodpecker 

Reddish Egret 

Ring-necked Pheasant 

Rock Dove 

Rose- breasted Grosbeak 

Roseate Spoonbill 

Rough-legged Hawk 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird 

Ruby-crowned Kinglet 

Ruffed Grouse 

Rufous Hummingbird 

Rufous-sided Towhee 

Rufous-crowned Sparrow 

Rusty Blackbird 

Sandhill Crane 

Savannah Sparrow 

Scarlet Tanager 

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher 

Scrub Jay 

Seaside Sparrow 

Sedge Wren 

Sharp-shinned Hawk 

Sharp-tailed Sparrow 

Short-tailed Hawk 

Short-eared Owl 

Smith's Longspur 

Smooth-billed Ani 

Snail Kite 

Snow Bunting 

Snowy Owl 

Snowy Egret 

Solitary Vireo 

Song Spanow 

SP Code Page 

OSPR Ill 

OVEN 28 1 

PABU 299 

PAWA* 274 

PEFA 132 

PBGR 83 

PNO 190 

PIS1 350 

PWA 272 

PRAW 273 

PROW 278 

PUFl 345 

PUGA 144 

PLRVIA 208 

RSHA 121 

RCWO 187 

RECR 347 

RBNU 222 

RBWO 183 

RWBL 33 1 

EVI 254 

RTHA 125 

RWO 182 

WEG 96 

RNPH* 134 

RODO* 153 

RBGR 295 

ROSP 104 

RLHA 127 

RTHU 178 

RCKI 233 

RUGR* 135 

RUHU 180 

RSTO 302 

RCSP 304 

RUBL 335 

SACR 148 

SAVS 312 

SCTA 292 

STF'L 206 

SCJA 215 

SESP 3 17 

SEWR 230 

SSHA 118 

STSP 316 

STHA 123 

SEOW 17 1 

SMLO 327 

SBAN 162 

SNKI 114 

SNBU 329 

SNOW 167 

SNEG 93 

SOVI 25 1 

SOSP 3 19 
Sora 

Spot-breasted Oriole 

Sprague" Pipit 

Summer Tanager 

Swainson's Warbler 

Swainson" Hawk 

Swainson's Thrush 

Swmp Spmow 

Tree Swallow 

Tricolored Heron 

Tufted Titmouse 

Turkey Vulture 

Upland Sandpiper 

M=ry 

Vermilion Flycatcher 

Vesper Sparrow 

Virginia Rail 

Warbling Vireo 

Water Pipit 

Western Meadowlark 

Western Kingbird 

Western Tanager 

Whip-poor-will 

White-winged Dove 

White-crowned Pigeon 

White-breasted Nuthatch 

SP Code 

SORA 

SPOO 

SPPI 

SWA 

SWHA 

swm 

SWSP 

rnES 

TRHE 

UPSA 

VEER 

VEFX 

VESP 

VIRA 

WAVI 

WAPI 

WEME 

WEm 

rnTA 

WPWI 

WWDO 

WCPI 

WBNU 

Page 

White-faced Ibis WLB 

White Ibis WHB 

White-crowned Spmow WCSP 

White-throated Sparrow WTSP 

White-winged Crossbill CR 

White-eyed Vireo WVI 

Wild Turkey WIm* 

Willow Flycatcher WIFL, 

Wilson" Warbler WIWA 

Winter Wren WWR 

Wood Duck WODU 

Woocf Stork WOST 

Wood mrush WOTH 

Worm-eating Warbler WWA 

Yellow-billed Cuckoo YBCU 

Yellow-bellied Flycatcher YBFL, 

Yellow-breasted Chat YBCH 

Yellow Rail YERA 

Yellow-rumped (Myrtle) Warbler MWA 

Yellow Warbler WAR 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker YBSA 

Yellow-throated Warbfer YWA 

Yellow-crowned Night Heron YCNH 

Yellow-headed Blackbird YHBL 

Yellow-throated Vireo YWI 

Page 

103 

101 

323 

322 

348 

249 

136 

195 

288 

229 

106 

105 

239 

279 

159 

196 

290 

138 

267 

262 

184 

27 1 

1 00 

334 

252 

Index - 3