GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 101 

February 1951 

SURVEYING AND MAPPING IN ALASKA 

by 

Gerald FitzGerald 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

OSCAR L. CHAPMAN, SECRETARY 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. E. Wrather, Director 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Free on application to the Geologic~l Survey, Washington 25, D. C. 
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . 

Russian occupation (1728-1867) . 

American occupation (1867-95) .. 

Systematic mapping and charting 

in Alaska (~895-1940). . . . . . 

Work of the Geological Survey 

(1895-1940) . 

1895-1902 .. 

1902-1910 ... 

1911-1920. . . . . . . .. . 

1921-1930. . . ... . 

1931-1940 · ........ . 

Work of the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey (1895-1940). . . . . . 

International boundary survey • 

CONTENTS 

Page Page 

1 Systematic mapping and charting 

4 in Alaska--Continued 

6 Generai Land Office (1897-1940). 18 

Other contributions (1895-1940) 19 

8 Recent mapping (1940-50) . 19 

Work of Coast and Geodetic 

8 Survey (1940-50) . 20 

8 Work of Corps of Engineers 

12 (1940-50). 21 

12 Work of the Aeronautical Chart 

13 Service of the Air Force 

13 (1941-50). 21 

Mapping activities of the 

14 Geological Survey (1940-50) . 22 

16 Selected bibliography 24 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Figure 1. Unexplored areas in 1895. • . . . . . . • ·. • . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . 2 

2. Unexplored areas in 1905. . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 2 

3. Exploratory and reconnaissance mapping completed by 1940 . . . . . . . . . • 3 

4. The plane-table method was employed by the Geological Survey for many years 

for Alaskan mapping, both reconnaissance and large scale . . . . . . . . . . 11 

5. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Patterson, Seattle, Wash., 1915. . 15 

i 

SURVEYING AND MAPPING IN ALASKA 

by 

Gerald FitzGerald 

INTRODUCTION 

As the story of surveying and mapping in 

Alaska has never been written before, the following account is based on .fragmentary published 

and unpublished material, principally from the 

files of the various Federal departments. Alfred H. Brooks, Chief Alaskan Geologist of the 

U. S. Geological Survey, in Professional Paper 

No. 45, published in 1906, summarized the 

early exploration of Alaska and described the 

first systematic topographic mapping undertaken 

by the Survey between 1895 and 1902. Other 

publications on the subject are for the most part 

confined to reports of the Federal Government 

or to popular magazine articles. 

Hydrographic, geodetic, and topographic surveying in Alaska has been carried on chiefly by 

three or four Federal agencies since the turn of 

the century. The writer has abstracted and 

compiled information from various official reports for the preparation of this sketch for the 

period from 1900 to the present time. It would 

be impossible in a single article· to describe 

completely even the major surveying and mapping ex_Peditions conducted by the Federal Government. An attempt has been made, therefore, 

to select only those considered of outstanding 

importance or those which have made some real 

and lasting contribution to the geographic knowledge of the Territory. 

Partly because of its remoteness and partly 

because of the unusually difficult conditions encountered in conducting surveying operations in 

Alaska, the Territory has been the proving ground 

for many important developments in the art of 

1This paper was -original)¥ prepared for the 

Enc,yclopedia Arctica. 

1 

surveying and mapping. Terrestrial photogrammetry was used successfully as early as 1893 

by the Canadian Government and the U. S. Coast 

and Geodetic Survey on the International BoundarY Surveys in southeastern Alaska. A panoramic camera was developed by members of 

the Geological Survey in 1905 and used successfully for many years on topographic mapping of 

Alaska. The first American trilens aerial 

mapping camera and transforming printer were 

developed before World War I by J. W. Bagley 

and F. H. Moffit, members of the Geological 

Survey engaged in Alaskan work. The Navy 

Department, at the request of the Geological 

Survey, completed aerial photographic coverage 

of more than 20, 000 square miles in southeastern Alaska during the period between the first 

and second world wars. 

During World War II "trimetrogon" mapping 

was developed, largely by Geological Survey 

personnel engaged in Alaskan mapping and by 

members of the Army Air Forces, to meet the 

urgent need for aeronautical charts of· this vast 

area. Naval photographic squadrons returned 

to Alaska after the war and rephotographed the 

area of southeastern Alaska with new precisionmapping cameras. Still more recently the Department of the Air Force accomplished a successful photographic coverage of the principal 

transportation routes leading into the interior 

of Alaska. This photography was controlled by 

"shoran", an electronic method used to determine geographic positions within the area photographed. The airplane, helicopter, truck, and 

tractor have, to a considerable extent, replaced 

the canoe, dog team, and pack train, and solved 

the transportation problems connected with surveying in Alaska. Because of the Territory's 

recognized strategic position in the modern 
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Figure 1. --Unexplored areas in 1895. 

Figure 2. --Unexplored areas in 1905. 
Figure 3. --Exploratory and reconnaissance mapping completed by 1940. 

defense plans of the Nation, surveying and mapping activities have greatly increased since 

World War II. 

In order to achieve simplicity of arrangement 

and to avoid overlapping of narrative, this sketch 

has been arbitrarily divided into four periods 

between 1728 and 1950. Each of these divisions 

represents a significant phase in the history of 

the exploration, surveying, and mapping of 

Alaska. (See figs. 1, 2, and 3. ) 

The Russian occupation was mainly a period 

of maritime exploration of Alaskan coastal areas 

by expeditions sent out by the principal nations 

of the world. Stimulated by the fabulously rich 

fur trade developed and controlled by the Russians for more than 100 years, expeditions from 

England, France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal explored and charted in some manner most of 

Alaska's 26,000-mile coast line before the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867. 

The second period covers the American occupation from the date of transfer in 1867 to 

1895, and was marked by considerable activity 

in coastal charting and further exploration. The 

3 

U. S. Army sent several parties into the new 

territory to explore the great river basi:q.s and 

to determine at least an approximate position 

for the international boundary between Canada 

and Alaska. The Navy Department and the 

Coast Guard conducted several important exploratory expeditions along the coast of Alaska 

and into the Arctic. The Coast and Geodetic 

Survey began coastal surveying and charting 

operations immediately after the purchase of 

Alaska and undertook triangulation and the 

establishment of astronomical positions for the 

International Boundary Commission. 

The third period marks the beginning of organized and systematic mapping and charting 

in the vast unfamiliar interior of the new Territory, and for the purpose of this report, includes the 45 years between 1895 and 1940. 

The increased activity in surveying and mapping 

during this period was due principally to the 

"gold rush" of 1898, which focused national attention on the almost-neglected Territory, and 

resulted in increased Congressional appropriations for Alaskan work. 
With this renewed interest and with additional 

funds, the Coast and Geodetic Survey expanded 

its triangulation arcs and its charting operations 

of hydrographic conditions along the coast. The 

Geological Survey was able to send geologic and 

topographic field parties into ·many of the remote 

areas of Alaska. The survey of the International 

Boundary Commission was completed from Dixon 

Entrance to Demarcation Point. The General 

Land Office began field work in Alaska in 1899 

to establish a rectangular network of surveys 

necessary for the administration and disposal 

of public lands. Many private organizations and 

Federal agencies contributed materially to the 

geographic knowledge of the Territory. In this 

category shol.Ud be included the work of the 

National Geographic Society, the Harriman Expedition; the Alaska Road Commission, the Army 

Air Corps, the Coast Guard, the Biological Survey, the Bureau of Fisheries, and many others. 

The fourth period, while embracing only ten 

years, from 1940 to 1950, has been the most 

important in the history of surveying and mapping in Alaska. Defense plans for Alaska and 

the Pacific coast required modern maps and 

charts. In order to provide a more accurate 

framework for detailed surveying and mapping, 

the Coast and Geodetic Survey greatly increased 

its geodetic survey operations, as well as its 

coastal charting program. During World War II 

the Aeronautical Chart Service of the Air Force 

prepared small scale aeronautical charts of the 

entire Territory. The Corps of Engineers 

mapped, by modern methods, a number of quadrangles in the vicinity of Anchorage, and part 

of Unalaska Island. 

Postwar work involved the preparation of 

military maps of strategic areas in western 

Alaska. During this ten-year period the Geological Survey compiled trimetrogon photographs 

into maps and charts for the Aeronautical Chart 

Service, covering 80 percent of the area of the 

Territory, and expanded its own standard quadrangle-mapping program to include extensive 

areas in southeastern, central, and northern 

Alaska. To further the latter program the Department of the Navy cooperated by photographing all of southeastern Alaska, extensive areas 

in northern Alaska, Seward Peninsula, and 

4 

Kodiak Island. Photographic .units of the Air 

Force, in addition to providing trimetrogon 

coverage of nearly all of Alaska, completed 

shoran-controlled photography for nearly 

30, 000 square miles in central Alaska. The 

Bureau of Land Management and the Forest 

Service each made some contribution to the 

surveying and mapping of Alaska's 589,870 

square miles. 

The following account of these four periods, 

outlined briefly in the preeeding pages, presents 

a fairly comprehensive picture of the major 

surveying and mapping activities in Alaska for 

the past 200 years. 

RUSSIAN OCCUPATION (1728-1867) 

Although little information was available 

with which to compile a map of Alaska at the 

time the United States purchased the Territory 

from Russia in 1867, a brief review of early 

explorations is necessary to evaluate properly 

the slow progress made in surveyirig and mapping following the American acquisition. 

Beginning with the voyages of Vitus Bering 

in 1728 and 1729, Russian exploration of Alaska 

was principally from the west, across Siberia 

and the Bering Sea. Navigators and explorers 

of several nations approached Alaska from the 

south, across the Gulf of Alaska or through the 

meandering fiords of southeastern Alaska. 

These early navigators included the English, 

who also entered Alaska from the east through 

the Mackenzie River Valley. 

Vitus Bering, a captain in the Russian Navy, 

was sent by Peter the Oreat to determine the 

extent of land east of Siberia. His voyages were 

made in the period between 1728 and 1741, and, 

while not greatly productive, they established 

beyond any doubt that a great land mass existed 

east of Siberia, connected or nearly connected 

with Russia by a long chain of islands. The 

reports of Bering's voyages stimulated the development of the fur trade on the Aleutian Islands. As the supply there became depleted, 

the fur trade sp:read gradually to the mainland 

of Alaska. One of .the principal headquarters 

for this trade was established at Kodiak in 1783 
under Alexander Baranof, general' manager of 

the Russian-American Company. A grant from 

the Russian Government placed Alaska in the 

hands of this company for a period of 60 years. 

While the Russians were developing the valuable fur trade of the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska 

Peninsula, and western Alaska, the Spanish sent 

several expeditions to explore southeastern 

Alaska. During this same period, Captain James 

Cook and Captain George Vancouver also sailed 

north to explore southern Alaska. Commander 

Jean Francois LaPerouse was sent by the French 

to explore southeastern Alaska in 1786, but he 

covered much of the area seen by earlier Spanish and English explorers. England, in search 

of the Northwest Passage, sent several wellequipped expeditions farther north. Captain Cook 

made his famous voyage• into the Ai"ctlc Ocean 

in 1778 and Captain F. W. Beechey charted the 

north coast of Alaska to Point Barrow in 1826. 

Vancouver, who had sailed with Cook in 1778, 

returned to Alaska in 1791 and spent much time 

preparing a chart of the complicated shorelines 

and fiords of southeastern Alaska. 

In the meantime, the Russians under Baranof 

had expanded in western, southern, and southeastern Alaska where, in addition to the earlier 

posts in the Aleutian Islands, the Russians established settlements an Cook Inlet, Sitka Sound, 

and Prince Will1am Sound. The·whole of known 

Alaska was now in the hands of the Russians. 

This was formally recognized by England in a 

treaty signed with Russia in 1825. After this 

time, exploratory expeditions of other nations to 

Alaska were limited. 

Baranof, who was not interested in exploration, 

was removed and Russian naval officers placed 

in charge of the Russian-American colony. Scientific work under the Navy was given more support and considerable progress was made in 

coastal exploration. Captain Michael Tebenkof 

of the _Russian Navy prepared an atlas of the 

northwestern coast of America in which he compiled the results of all previous explorations. 

This atlas is considered the most important 

contribution to the geography of Alaska made 

during the Russian occupation. 

Before 1826 the Russians had confined most 

of their activities to the coastal areas of Alaska, 

but as interest grew in the possibility of extending the fur trade into the interior' expeditions 

were authorized to continue surveys along the 

northern coasf and as far inland as possible. 

The Bristol Bay and Kuskokwim River regions 

were visited in 1818 and 1832, and the Susitna 

River Basin explored by a Russian group in 

1834. The Yukon River was reached from ~e 

portage of.St. Michael on Norton Bay by another small party, which then portaged to the 

Kuskokwim River. 

One of the most important of the Russian 

inland explorations was made by Lieutenant 

Zaqoskin of the Imperial Navy in 1842-1843. 

This party ascended the Yukon River as far as 

the mouth of the Tanana River, and also explored the lower stretches of the Koyukuk River. 

On his return Zagoskin traversed the Innoko 

River, a tributary of the lower Yukon, and then 

portaged east to the Kuskokwim River. 

While the Russian treaty of 1825 with England considerably curtailed foreign exploration, 

particularly of southeastern and southern Alaska, 

English navigators continued their explorations 

of the northwest coast. Alexander Mackenzie 

had explored the great river that now bears his 

name to the Arctic coast from the mouth of the 

Mackenzie westward. Captain Beechey, cooperating with Franklin, charted the southern coast 

of Seward Peninsula to Cape Prince of Wales 

and added much information to the earlier surveys of Kotzebue Sound. In 1834 the Hudson's 

Bay Company made several attempts to establish itself in southeastern Alaska, finally securing a 10-year lease from the Russians in 

1837. In the meantime, this company had established posts on the upper Yukon River and was 

rapidly controlling the fur trade of that area. 

In the period between 1843 and 1853, the 

British Government sent out several expeditions 

to bring relief to the ill-fated expedition of Sir 

John Franklin on the Arctic coast. These expeditions resulted in maps and charts of the 

Arctic that have been superseded only by aerial 

photography taken during World War II. 
The Western Union Telegraph Company in 

1863 undertook preliminary explorations toestablish a telegraph route from the west coast 

of the United States through British Columbia 

and Alaska to the Bering Strait, where a cable 

connection with a trans-Siberian line was planned 

to establish communications between America 

and Europe. The exploration work in connection 

with the establishment of this telegraph line contributed much to the knowledge of the interior of 

Alaska. William H. Dall, one of the leaders of 

the scientific corps of the expedition, continued 

his work after the telegraph-survey party was 

disbanded, and published the. results of his investigations in several of the best-known earlier 

reports on Alaska. 

AMERICAN OCCUPATION (1867-95) 

After several years of negotiations, Alaska 

was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. 

However; for the next 30 years exploration and 

surveying work were carried on in a small way 

with little coordination. 

During the Russian occupation much of the 

26, 000-mile coast line of Alaska had been explored and charted by expeditions of several nations. The most important work, however, was 

done by the English expeditions under Captain 

James Cook a'!'ld the relief expeditions sent to the 

aid of the Franklin party on the Arctic coast. 

The Coast and Geodetic Survey, soon after 

the transfer of Alaska, began the first system-· 

atic survey work in the new Territory, and, between 1867 and 1882, compiled and published 

numerous charts of Alaskan waters. As these 

charts were based principally on the earlier surveys by English, Russian, French, and Portugese explorers and by the U. S. Navy, much of 

the early field work was done to control and 

piece together the fragmentary material already 

available. The Revenue Service, the Fishing 

Commission, and the Navy assisted in this work 

and each contributed in part to the charts and 

Coast-Pilots published by the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey. 

In the summer of 1867, George Davidson and 

others made an extensive cruise of Alaskan 

waters in the Revenue Cutter Lincoln, and as a 

6 

result prepared. cruise ch~ of Sitka Harbor, 

Saint Paul Harbor, Kodiak Island, and Captain's 

Bay on Unalaska Island. The first two Coast 

Pilots of Alaska were published betweeri 1869 

and 1883, based on the work of George Davidson, William H. Dall, and Marcus Baker. A 

third was prepared by Lieutenant Commander 

H. E. Nichols, U.S.N. in 1891. 

The first continuous survey work by the 

Coast Survf!y was started in 1882 when the 

Steamer Hassler was sent north under the command of Lieutenant Commander H. E. Nichols, 

U.S.N. ·and later under Lieutenant Commander 

A. S. Snow in 1884. The Steamer Patterson 

was assigned to Alaskan waters in 1885 under 

the command of Lieutenant Commander Richard 

Clover, U. S. N. , and for the next 15 years field 

work consisted mainly of charting only those 

channels and harbors used by the Navy and for 

the very limited commercial shipping. 

One of the first inland explorations after the 

acquisition of Alaska was undertaken by a small . 

party under Captain V. W. Raymond, sent by 

the Army to Fort Yukon in 1869 to determine 

the position of the international boundary.between Canada and Alaska. As a result of Captain Raymond's astronomical observations at 

Fort Yukon, the Hudson's Bay: Company was 

forced to move its important Fort Yukon post 

to a point more than 50 miles up the Porcupine 

River, where it remained for 15 years. In 

1889 the post was relocated farther up the Porcupine, at Rampart House, which was located 

on the 141st meridian, or the Alaska-Canada 

boundary. 

About 1880 prospectors began to enter Alaska 

and the Yukon Territories. This activity renewed interest in the geography of southeastern 

Alaska and the territory between the coast and 

the headwaters of the. Yukon River. Glacier 

Bay, one of the outstanding scenic areas in 

Alaska, was explored by John Muir and the 

ReverendS. Hall Young in 1879. Ivan Petrof, 

a census agent, in 1880 stated in his report 

that Alaska needed "a gradual but systematic 

exploration of the interior, and an immediate 

survey of the coast and harbors of the region 

now constantly frequented by trading and fishinq 

vessels, in order to prevent the alarmingly 
frequent occurrences of wrecks upon unknown 

rocks and shoals." Petrof, a resident of Alaska, 

spent two years traveling along the southern 

coast of the Territory and on the lower Yukon 

and Kuskokwim Rivers. His map of Alaska, published with the Tenth Census report, was one of 

the best general maps of the Territory that had 

been compiled at that time. 

In 1883 Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, accompanied by Charles W. Homan, followed the 

prospectors' trail from the coast over Chilkoot 

Pass and descended the Lewes ~iver through 

Lake Laberge down the main Yukon River through 

Canada and Alaska to its mouth at Norton Sound. 

Homan mapped the entire route by sketch traverses and latitude observations. This was the 

first actual survey of the Yukon River. 

The U. S. Signal Service established a meteorological and magnetic station in 1881 at Point 

Barrow where observations were made for latitude and longitude. During this same year a 

German geographer, Dr. Arthur Krause visited 

southeastern Alaska and the headwaters of the 

Yukon River and prepared a map of the area. 

During the period between 1883 and 1886 sev ... 

eral exploratory expeditions of note were made 

in Alaska by officers of the Army and Navy. In 

1883 Lieutenant George M. Stoney of the Navy 

Department explored parts of Kotzebue Sound at 

the mouth of the Kobuk River. As a result of 

this work the Department became more interested 

in northern exploration, and Lieutenant ,stoney 

· was returned to Alaska the next year to explore 

the Kobuk River. In 1886 he established headquarters on the upper Kobuk River and from this 

base explored the headwaters of the Noatak and 

Koyukuk Rivers. One of his officers, Ensign 

W. L. Howard, led a party of four men from the 

Noatak River northward through what now is 

known as ·Howard Pass, down the Etivuluk River 

to the Colville River, and to a point near the 

present site of Umiat. From this spot he portaged to the headwaters of the Chipp River, and 

arrived at Point Barrow in rirldsummer. He 

thus became the first white man to cross Arctic 

Alaska. The results of the Stoney expedition 

were sketch maps and some instrumental surveys 

of·parts of the Kobuk Valley, Selawik Lake, the 

7 

Colville, the upper Noatak River; and the 

Alatna, a tributary of the Koyukuk River. 

In 1884 a U. S. Army expedition, under the 

command of Lieutenant W. R. Abercrombie, 

was ordered to make an exploration of the Copper River area. This expedition was not entirely successful, and was undertaken again the 

following year by Lieutenant Henry T. Allen, 

who landed near the mouth of the Copper River 

in March 1885, and ascended that stream for 

several hundred miles. A portage was made 

through Suslota Pass to the Tanana River where 

he obtained a boat and finally reached the mouth 

of the river near the end of June. Allen then 

portaged to the Koyukuk River and reached a 

point near the mouth of the Melozi River. He 

next explored the Koyukuk River from its headwaters to its confluence with the Yukon River. 

Continuing down tile Yukon River, he crossed 

the Kaltag portage to St. Michael on Norton 

Sound. Lieutenant Allen's journey is generally 

conceded to be one of the most outstanding exploratory trips ever made in the Territory of 

Alaska. Under extremely trying conditions, 

subsisting almost entirely on the country, he 

nevertheless made a careful record of his entire journey, and from his observations and 

sketches was able to compile an exploratory 

sketch map of the entire area traversed. 

During 1884 and 1885 Lieutenant John C. 

Cantwell and S. B. McLenigan of the U. S. Re.venue Cutter Service explored the headwaters of 

the Kobuk and the lower Noatak and made sketch 

maps of both these important northern rivers. 

Surveys to locate and mark the international 

boundary between Alaska and Canada were begun 

in 1888 by the Canadian Government, which 

started work in southeastern Alaska. In the 

years 1891 and 1895 the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey completed triangulation and astronomical 

work for the geodetic control, and Canadian surveyors introduced photo-topographic surveying 

for the preparation of boundary maps. During 

1889 J. H. Turner and J. E. McGrath had 

ascended the Yukon River to Fort Yukon where 

the party separated. Turner continued up the 

Porcupine to the Alaska-Canada boundary, 

where he established an astronomical observatory 
and then went north to the Arctic coast by dog 

team. McGrath, accompanied by Professor 

I. C . Russel of the Geological Survey, continued 

up the Yukon River to a point near Eagle, where 

he also established an astronomical position for 

the boundary. 

The discovery of gold was largely responsible 

for the greatly increased interest in Alaska and 

subsequent inauguration of the international 

boundary survey, and expansion of the Coast 

and Geodetic Survey's coastal charting program. 

In 1898 this increased interest resulted in appropriations to the Geolo<ji.c~ Survey that permitted the undertaking of a systematic program 

of geologic and topographic surveys of the interior of Alaska. Appropriations to the Geological Survey continued at a more or less uniform 

rate for the next 40 years. 

SYSTEMATIC MAPPING AND CHARTING 

IN ALASKA (1895-1940) 

The turn of the century was the beginning of 

a period in Alaska in which organized coastal 

surveys were continued at an accelerated pace 

to provide for water-borne navigation, and topographic maps of the interior at reconnaissance 

scales were made to keep pace with the development that followed the discovery of gold. Because of the climate and remoteness of Alaska, 

surveying and mapping were often carried on 

under extremely difficult conditions. Transportation aild supplies, of course, presented the 

major problems and, owing to the shortness of 

the field season, the great variation in topography, 

and other factors, the surveyor and mapper were 

called upon to devise and develop new and ingenious methods for accomplishing their work. 

Terrestrial photogramm~try was employed on 

Alaskan surveys as early as 1893. The necessity of mapping large areas rapidly on a reconnaissance scale stimulated interest which resulted in the designing of the first Americanmade mult_iple-lens camera by J. W. Bagley and 

his associates of the Geological Survey before 

World. War I. It was only natural, therefore, 

that the Navy Department, under cooperative 

agreement with the Geological Survey, photographed 20, 000 square miles in southeastern 

Alaska with the multiple-lens Bagley camera in 

1926 and 1929. 

8 

New and advanced methods and equipment 

were developed and used by the Coast and Geodetic Survey to prepare both general and detailed navigation charts of the coastal waters 

and the principal harbors of Alaska. The hand 

lead was superseded by the wire drag and the 

sonic depth finder. The Radio Acoustic Ranging, or "R. A. R." permitted more accurate 

positioning·of ships on deep-water offshore 

sounding, and permitted operations even wiijl 

land points obscured. Alaska became an ideal 

proving ground for the development of reconnaissance mapping by photogrammetric methods and it was here, in 1940, that "trimetrogon 

mapping" was first used. 

Work of the Geological Survey (1895-1940) 

1895-1902 

Annual appropriations by Congress for the 

work of the Geological Survey in Alaska, which 

included topographic mapping, fluctuated widely 

from $5,000 in 1895 to a peak of $100,000 during the years 1913 to 1917. The appropriation 

for 1940 was $60,000. This amount was for 

all of the Survey's operations in Alaska, and, 

consequently, less than .half of it was available 

for topographic mapping. 

The extent of areas mapped in Alaska by the 

Geological Survey to January 1940 is shown in 

the following table: 

Exploratory mapping on 

Contour 

interval 

Square 

miles 

scale of 1:500,000. . • . 200 feet 8, 952 

Reconnais-sance mapping 

on scale of 1:250,000.. • 200 feet 185, 586 

Planimetric mapping on 

reconnaissance scale . • None 10,894 

Detailed mapping, commonly on scale of 

1:62, 500. . • . • . • . . • . 50 feet 4, 552 

Total ............•....•... 209, 984 

Members of the Geological Survey were sent 

to Alaska prior to 1895 in connection with scientific expeditions. Professor I. C. Russel was 

assigned to a Coast and Geodetic Survey party 
in 1889 under J. E. McGrath who was ordered 

to the upper Yukon River to determine by astronomical observations the position of the ·boundary line between Alaska and Canada. In 1891, 

Dr. C. Willard Hayes of the Survey accompanied 

Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka to the headwaters 

of the Yukon River, via-Taku River and Teslin 

Lake. This party portaged from Fort Selkirk 

on the Yukon to the White River which they 

ascended to Skolai Pass and, by portaging again 

to the Nizina River, they finally descended the 

Copper River. Dr. Hayes prepared an excellent exploratory map of the trip from his notes 

and observations. · 

Prospectors for gold who entered Alaska 

through southeastern Alaska and from the Yukon 

Territory during the early 90's demanded information about the interior, and Congress in 1895 

appropriated$ 5, 000 to the Geological Survey for 

the "Investigation of the mineral resources of 

Alaska." Three Survey geologists, G. F. Becker, William H. Dall, and J. E. Spurr, were 

sent north to study the coal and gold deposits. 

Spurr returned to the Klondike in 1898 when 

gold was discovered there. New discoveries in 

the Yukon Territory and the great influx of prospectors to Alaska caused Congress to increase 

appropriations to the Geological Survey for work 

in Alaska in 1898. From this date organized 

and systematic topographic mapping became an 

integral part of the Geological Survey's Alaskan 

mineral resources program. 

An attempt was made during the first years 

of this survey work to explore the main river 

valleys of the interior of Alaska since these were 

then the principal routes of transportation. In 

planning the 1898 field season it was decided, 

therefore, to make exploratory surveys of the 

Kuskokwim, the Susitna, and the Copper Rivers. 

One of these expeditions, headed by J. E. Spurr, 

qeologist, with W. S. Post, topographer, arrived 

at the upper end of Cook Inlet in the spring of 

1898. The party ascended the Yentna River, a 

tributary of the Susitna River, portaged through 

the Alaska Range to the headwaters of the Kuskokwim River, and descended that great river to 

its mouth. They then turned eastward and, traveling inland parallel to the coast, finally reached 

Bristol Bay. Using native skin boats the party 

crossed the bay and reached Naknek on the Alaska 

Peninsula. Continuing overland they at last 

reached Shelikof Strait and Kodiak Island. This 

was a remarkable trip considering. the great 

distance traveled, the difficult portages, and 

the fact that almost the entire route was unexplored. Post prepared the map of the entire 

route which accompanied SpUrr's report. 

During this same year the Susitna River 

was mapped by George H. Eldredge and Robert 

Muldrow, who, with a small party traveling by 

boat and backpack, reached the Cantwell or 

Nenana River, a tributary of the Tanana River. 

They returned to the coast via the Susitna River. 

Exploratory topographic maps were made of 

the route of this expedition, which included the 

first determination of the position and height 

of the continent's highest mountain, Mt. McKinley, 20,300 feet above sea level. 

A third party in 1898 explored and mapped 

the Tanana and White Rivers, headwater tributaries .of the Yukon. This party was under the 

charge of Alfred H. Brooks and W. J. Peters. 

It made exploratory surveys of about 10, 000 

square miles. In addition, E. C. Barnard 

made a survey of about 2, 000 square miles of 

the Forty-Mile River basin, a tributary of the 

Tanana. 

The War Department sent two expeditions 

into Alaska during 1898. The first, under 

C aptaiJJ, Edwin F. Glenn, which left the coast 

at Cook Inlet, traversed the Matanuska Valley, 

crossed the Copper River Plateau, and drifted 

down the Delta River to the Tanana River. 

W. C. Mendenhall, of the Geological Survey, 

accompanied Captain Glenn and prepared an exploratory traverse map of the journey. 

The second expedition, under Captain W. R. 

Abercrombie, landed at Valdez and with the aid 

of pack horses traveled inland to the Copper 

River valley by the Valdez Glacier route. F. c. 

Schrader of the Geological Survey was attached 

to ~s expedition and conducted both geologic 

and exploratory surveys of the lower Copper 

River basin. The result of the work of 1898 was 

exploratory surveys of about 3, 000 square miles 

based on instrumental traverses and, in addi-

. tion, more accurate reconnaissance maps ·of approXimately 2,000 square miles. 
The experiences of the 1898 parties set a pattern that was to be followed for a great many 

years in the conducting of exploratory and recon.: 

naissance surveys in Alaska by the Geological 

Survey. In the interest of economy most expeditions of the Survey consisted of a combined 

topographic and geologic party, with the man 

senior in length of experience generally in command. Additional members of the party were 

recorders, boatmen, cooks, horse packers, 

and dog-mushers. 

For river work, Peterborough-type canoes 

were often used for t'ransportation. These light 

cedar-strip canoes could carry a load of onehalf ton and were, without much difficulty, portaged many miles by the parties. Pack horses 

used for cross-country work were usually purchased in the western United States and shipped 

north with the field parties in the spring. "Wintering" a pack train in Alaska was often attempted 

in the interest of economy, but was not always 

successful. Dog teams were purchased in 

Alaska. On many of the expeditions dogs were 

used to haul sleds in winter and for packing 

d~ing the summer months. 

Camp equipment consisted of small, light 

mosquito-proof tents, sleeping bags, cooking 

utensils, axes, guns, and ammunition. The 

equipment and feed for a party of 6 men, for a 

period of 4 months, would generally weigh between 1, 800 and 2, 000 pounds. Great care was 

llBed in outfitting a survey party for work in 

Alaska, either for winter or summer work. In 

addition to food, tents, beds, and cooking gear, 

medical supplies and carefully selected personal 

clothing were of importance, since most of the 

parties were "on their own" during the field 

season. During recent years, however, the 

airplane, helicopter, and radio have greatly 

changed all this. 

Topographic work was carried on by standard 

Geological Survey plane-table methods. accepted 

for reconnaissance mapping. The equipment 

consisted of a plane table, telescopic alidade, 

and a light mountain-transit theodolite. A micrometer eyepiece attachment for the alidade was 

often used in determining traverse distances. 

Graphic plane-table triangulation, checked by 

latitude and azimuth observations, was generally 

10 

used in conducting reconnaissance plane-table 

surveys, which in most cases originated from 

bases measured at the starting point of field 

work. (See fig. 4.) Elevations at the initial 

point were sometimes determined by aneroid 

barometers and carried throughout the survey 

by vertical angles. Special insulation was used 

on instruments where work in sub-zero weather 

was required, and most of the plane-table work 

was done on sheets of celluloid or painted zinc 

to prevent_ damage by rain or snow. 

Each of the early topographic parties was 

issued the following instructions: "An attempt 

will be made to carry a continuous instrumental survey line over the whole route traversed, 

starting from a position in latitude and longitude at sea level as nearly as may be determined and closing in the same way. The routes 

traversed will be critically inspected with a 

view to ascertaining the most practicable location for trails, wagon roads, or railroads; 

the character and extent of the timber will be 

noted and the rivers or streams will be examined as to the possibilities of navigation and 

the height of falls or rapidf?; and the rise and 

fall of tides will be reported. " In general, the 

field scale for exploratory and reconnaissance 

surveys was 1:180,000 or about 3 miles to the 

tnch; with a 200-foot contour interval. 

In 1899 two major survey expeditions were 

outfitted for Alaska. Peters and Brooks continued their previous year's work by extending 

a survey westward from Lynn Canal along the 

northern base of the St. Elias Range to the 

headwaters of the White and Tanana Rivers and 

thence northward to the Yukon at the FortyMile River. This was a pack-tr8.in expedition. 

During the same year F. C. Schrader, geologist, and T. G. Gerdine, topographer, started 

work at Fort Yukon. They ascended the very 

swift Chandalar River, and from its headwaters, 

portaged about 15 miles to the headwaters of 

the Koyukuk River, which they followed and 

mapped to its mouth. Eight thousand five hundred square miles were mapped during 1899. 

In 1900, eleven thousand square miles were 

mapped on a reconnaissance scale in the Copper 

River basin and on Seward Peninsula by Gerdine, 

Barnard, and Peters. In 1901 Schrader and 
Figure 4. --The plane-table method was employed by the Geological Survey for 

many years for Alaskan mapping,. both reconnaissance and large scale. 

Peter~? left White Horse in the early spring and 

arrived at Alatna on the Koyukuk River with dog 

teams. After the break-up of the ice, they 

ascended John River, crossed the Anaktuvuk 

Pass, and descended Anaktuvuk River to the Colville River, which they traversed to its mouth. 

Here they obtained native skin boats for the 

coastal trip west to Point Barrow and then south 

to Cape Lisburne. Alfred H. Brooks considered 

this to be on~ of the most notable exploration 

trips by the Geological Survey to that date .. 

During this same year W. C. Mendenhall, 

geologist, and D. L. Rayburn, topographer, 

started work at the mouth of Dall River on the 

Yukon and, with the aid of canoes, ascended the 

Dall and portaged from its headwaters to a headwater tributary of the Koyukuk River. They descended the Koyukuk to the mouth of the Alatna 

River, which they ascended for nearly 100 miles, 

making another portage to the headwaters of the 

Kobuk River, which they followed to its mouth 

on Kotzebue Sound. Topographic mapping on 

this trip was started at Fort Yukon, where an 

11 

elevation of 500 feet was assumed for the river. 

(This elevation is still used. ) A continuous -

traverse was made down the Yukon River, up 

the Dall River, down a portion of the Koyukuk 

River, up the Alatna River, and down the Kobuk 

River to Kotzebue Sound . . During the 1901 season T. G. Gerdine- and D. C. Witherspoon 

made a topographic map of a large part of 

Seward Peninsula, which was then becoming of 

great importance because of the gold stampede 

to Nome, located on the southern side of the 

Peninsula. 

The field work for the season of 1902 included an exploratory trip, led by Brooks and Ray. 

burn, from Cook Inlet through the Alaska Range 

and along its northwest flank through what is 

now Mount McKinley National Park to the Nenana River, and from there across the Tanana 

River in a northwesterly direction to Rampart 

on the Yukon. During this same year Gerdine 

and Witherspoon continued topographic mapping 

1n the Copper River basin area, while Peters 

began a detailed topographic survey of the 

mining district near Juneau. 
1902-1910 

During this period there was a departure from 

exploratory surveys and a majority of the field 

parties were requested to prepare reconnaissance 

maps for publication at a scale of 1:250,000, 

with a contour interval of 200 feet. At this time 

a start was also made toward preparing more or 

less detailed topographic maps of the major 

mining districts. Although there was some refinement in the execution of field surveys for 

mapping during this period, the inf'truments 

used were not materially changed. J. W. Bagley began experimental work on a panoramic 

camera that was to be used successfully for many 

years in Alaska. 

From 1902 until 1907, T. G. Gerdine was in 

general charge of topographic surveys in Alaska, 

under Alfred H. Brooks, Chief Alaskan Geologist. Gerdine was succeeded by R. H. Sargent 

in 1907. In addition to Gerdine and Sargent the 

following topographers worked in Alaska between 1902 and 1910: J. W. Peters, D. L. Rayburn, D. C. Witherspoon, E. G. Hamilton, 

J. W. Bagley, C. E. Giffin, R. B. Oliver, 

G. C. Anderson, J. B. Leavitt, and W. R. Hill. 

An exploratory" survey covering more than 

10,000 square miles was made along the western 

front of the Alaska Range from Cook Inlet to the 

Yukon. Reconnaissance mapping was carried on 

in the Yukon-Tanana regions, Seward Peninsula, 

Kenai Peninsula, Cape Lisburne, Copper River, 

and the Susitna River Basin. Another party 

mapped the north flank of the Alaska Range between the Delta River and the Nenana valley. 

Reconnaissance mapping was also undertaken in 

the Innoko-Iditarod region, the Koyukuk-Kobuk 

River valley and the Yakutat-Alsek region. 

More than 100, 000 square miles were mapped 

for publication at a scale of 1:250,000 during 

this period. It is estimated that this work cost 

about $3 per square mile. 

The detailed mapping of mining districts included the Juneau district, the Kasaan Peninsula 

in southeastern Alaska, the Kotsina-C hitina on 

the Copper River, Seward Peninsula near Nome, 

the Matanuska Coal Fields, the Fairbanks special, and The Rampart quadrangle in the interior. 

These maps were prepared for publication at a 

12 

scale of 1:62, 500 with contour intervals of 25, 

50, or 100 feet, and cost about $30 per square 

mile. Between 1902 and 1910 nearly 3, 000 

square miles were mapped at this scale, which 

is approximately one mile to the inch. 

In 1910 Co:ngress appropriated $100,000 for 

the survey of ~public lands in Alaska. This subdivision work was carried on in the vicinity of 

Fairbanks during the field season of 1910 by the 

Geological Survey under the direction of R. H. 

Sargent, in cooperation with the General Land 

Office. 

1911-1920 

R. H. Sargent supervised the topographic 

mapping operations of the Geological Survey in 

Alaska during this 10-year period. Other topographers assigned to the work included D. C. 

Witherspoon, J. W. Bagley, C. E. Giffin, T. 

P. Pendleton, and C. P. McKinley. 

Exploratory surveys for 1:500, 000 scale 

publication were continued in northern Alaska 

on the Alatna and Noatak Rivers and on the 

Koyukuk River. They covered a total area of 

16,5 00 square miles. 

Reconnaissance maps were made on a scale 

. of 1:250,000 of areas in the Copper River valley, Kenai Peninsula, the south flank of the 

Alaska Range near Broad Pass, along the Richardson Highway from Valdez to Thompson Pass, 

from Lake Clark across the Kuskowim valley 

to Iditarod, Tanana valley-White River, the 

Susitna River, from Ruby on the Yukon south 

to Iditarod, Prince William Sound, Kantishna 

district, Goodnews Bay area, and Tuxedni Bay. 

Twenty different field parties, or an average 

of two parties a year, carried on this reconnaissance mapping program between 1911 and 

1920, covering a total of 51; 000 square miles. 

Detailed mapping at a scale of 1:62,500 was 

undertaken for the following areas: Kotsina, 

Matanuska Coal Field, Willow Creek, Juneau, 

and Prince William Sound. The total area surveyed on this detq.iled scale was 1, 275 square 

miles, which included 350 square miles in the 

vicinity of Juneau mapped for pubijcation on a 

scale of 1:24, 000. 
Between 1898 and 1920 the Geological Survey 

completed the following mapping in Alaska: exploratory surveys at 1:500,000 scale, 51,000 

square miles; reconnaissance mapping at 

1:250, 000 scale, 152,000 square miles; detailed 

mapping at 1:24,000 or 1:62, 500 scale, 3, 700 

square miles. Seventy-five permanent bench 

marks were established during 500 miles of 

spirit leveling. 

War activity during 1917 and 1918 sharply 

curtailed mapping operations in Alaska since a 

majority of the Geological Survey staff were 

either commissioned in the Army or assigned to 

more important war work outside of Alaska. 

1921-1930 

Alfred H. Brooks died in 1923 and Philip S. 

Smith became Chief Alaskan Geologist directing 

both geologic and topographic work in Alaska. 

R. H. Sargent continued to supervise the 

topographic mapping in Alaska. Other topographers assigned to the work were C. P. McKinley, 

Gerald FitzGerald, Richard K. Lynt, E. C. 

Guerin, H. A. Whitaker, 0. Lee Wix, K. W. 

Trimble, J. 0. Kilmartin, and R. M. Wilson. 

In this decade 4, 000 square miles of exploratory 

surveys were made in Arctic Alaska. Reconnaissance mapping of more than 60, 000 square 

miles was completed for such areas as Naval 

Petrole~m Reserve No. 4; in northwestern Alaska, 

the Alaska Peninsula, Nixon Fork of the Kuskokwim, the Skwentna River, the Porcupine River, 

the Mount Spurr region of the Alaska Range, 

Lake Clark-Mulchatna, Goodnews Bay, and 

southeastern Alaska. 

Two hundred and seventy miles of detailed 

mapping were completed for several widely-separated areas, including Juneau, Wrangell Narrows, the Hyder district, Iniskin Peninsula, and 

the lower Matanuska valley. 

Mapping of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 

was started in 1923 in cooperation with the Navy 

Department and continued through the 1926 field 

season. Because of the remoteness of the area 

and the short summer, field parties were outfitted at Nenana on the Alaska Railroad during 

13 

the winter months and used dog teams to transport food and equipment across the Brooks 

Range to the Colville River drainage on the Arctic slope. From 1924 to 1926 a considerable 

amount of geologic and topographic mapping 

was done during the winter and early spring 

months using dog team transportation. After 

the "break-up" about the first of June, Peterborough canoes were used on the principal 

rivers of the region and along the Arctic Coast. 

In 1928 an airplane was used for the first 

time by Geological Survey parties in Alaska to 

transport personnel and equipment to remote 

field assignments, thus better utilizing the 

short field season. 

In 1926 the Navy Department, in cooperation 

with and at the request of the Interior Department (Geological Survey), started aerial photographic work in southeastern Alaska. A detail of three amphibian planes, an airplane tender, a h<>used-over 110-foot barge, photographic personnel and equipment, and five photographic pilots under the command of Lieutenant Ben H. Wyatt were assigned to the project. 

The results of this expedition were so successful that the work was continued in 1929 with a 

second outfit, under thE:! command of Lieutenant Commander A. W. Radford. 

This project is considered an important 

milestone since it marked the first attempt to 

use aerial photography in Alaska as an aid to 

mapping. Approximately 20,000 square miles 

were photographed with multiple-lens cameras, 

covering most of southeastern Alaska. The 

photographs were used by the Geological Survey 

to compile planimetric maps of the area. They 

were also used by the Forest Service, Coast 

Guard, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and other 

Federal agencies for special studies and reconnaissance work. 

1931-1940 

R. H. Sargent continued in charge of Alaskan mapping until 1935 when he became editor 

of topographic maps for the Geological Survey. 

Responsibility for the Alaskan work was turned 

over to Gerald FitzGerald. John ~ollins, 
Philip Erickson, C. F. Fuechsel, J. Mark Holmes, George Jensen, R. H. Lyddan, J. E. Mundine, T. W. Ranta, and Vernon Seward were assigned to Alaskan mapping during this 10-year 

period. 

Reconnaissance mapping was continued in 

southeastern Alaska, and included areas on Admiralty, Chichagof, Baranof, Kupreanof, Kuiu, 

Prince of Wales, and Revillagigedo Islands. 

New projects were undertaken in the Copper 

River valley near the Nabesna district, Slana, 

Mentasta Pass, and Copper Center, using pack 

trains for transportation. River boats were 

used by survey parties in mapping the Goodnews 

Bay area, Nushagak River, Porcupine River, 

and the Holitna River. A pack train was used 

by a party mapping the north base of the Alaska 

Range east of the Richardson Highway to the 

Tok River. 

Detailed surveys were made of Adak Island in 

the Aleutians, Chichagof, and Annette Islands 

in southeastern Alaska, the area near Yakutat 

on the Gulf of Alaska, and the Goodnews Mining 

District in western Alaska. Most of this largescale mapping was done by the Geological Survey for the War and Navy Departments, for use 

in locating sites for possible air bases. 

In addition, trilens aerial photography was 

obtained for the area between Nenana, Lake 

Minchumina, and a section of the upper Tanana 

valley in the Tetlin Lake area. 

After completion of the 1940 field season the 

Geological Survey had mapped a total of 210,000 

square miles, or about 46 percent of the total 

area of Alaska. Most of this work was published 

at a scale of 1:250,000 since much of the exploratory mapping, as well as all of the reconnaissance mapping, was published at this scale. 

The older exploratory surveys were published 

at a scale of 1:500,000 in Survey bulletins with 

the exceptions of the Seward Peninsula sheet 

and the northwestern Alaska map, which were 

published as separate maps at the scale of 

1:500,000. 

The detai~ed_ maps were at scales of 1:12,000, 

1:24,000, and 1:31,680 for special mining maps 

and 1:62, 500 for coverage of most of the important mining districts. By 1940, about 50 separate 

14 

maps at the above scales had been published 

by the Geological Survey for general distribution, in addition to several small scale maps 

which had been compiled of the entire Territory. The best known and most popular of 

these general-purpose maps are Map A, at 

1:5,000,000; Map E, at 1:250,000; and Map B 

(in 2 sheets) at 1:500,000. 

Work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey 

(1895-1940) 

As outlined in a preceding section, the work 

of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for the first 

twenty-odd years of the American occupation 

consisted chiefly of revising and completing 

much earlier surveys of Alaska in order to provide coa.Stal charts so urgently needed during 

this period of development. However, with the 

preliminary work on the international boundary 

undertaken in cooperation with Canada, and with 

increased charting and geodetic control activity 

as a result of the discovery of gold, the work 

of the Coast Survey was greatly accelerated 

during the nineties. From that time on, increased congressional appropriations made 

possible a continued program of new charting 

and refinement of earlier charts and Coast 

Pilots, as well as the expansion of a control 

network. 

Among the early vessels used to perform 

this new work was the Steamer Patterson which 

saw service in Alaska from Dixon's Entrance 

to Norton Sound between 1885 and 1904, and 

was commanded by Lieutenant Commanders 

H. E. Nichols, C. M. Thomas, W. S. Moore, 

E. K. Moore, and Mr. J. F. Pr.att. Under the 

command of Pratt, the Patterson (see fig. 5) 

was used in making surveys between 1899 and 

1904, in Norton Sound off Nunivak and St. Lawrence Islands, and at other points in the Bering 

Sea and in the Aleutian Islands. During this 

period, Pratt also conducted triangulation and 

hydrographic and topographic surveys in southeastern Alaska and along the north shore of the 

Gulf of Alaska. 

In 1897, triangulation and topographic and 

astronomical surveys were made of the Pribilof Islands by W. W. Diffield. As a result of 

these detailed surveys, the Coast 'survey published charts at a scale of 1:20,000, with a 
contour interval of 20 feet, and at a scale of 

1:2,000, with a contour interval of 10 feet. 

The Survey Ship Pathfinder was built in 1898 

far Alaskan duty and was assigned to survey work 

in western Alaska during 1900 and 1901 under 

the command of J . J. Gilbert. In 1940, the 

name of this vessel was changed to the Research 

and should not be confused with the new Pathfinder. 

Hydrographic surveys of Prince William 

Sound, areas in the Aleutian Islands, and southeastern Alaska were made by Ferdinand Wesdahl, 

in command of the Coast Survey Steamer 

McArthur ' during the field seasons of 1900, 1901 , 

and 1902. 

H. P. Ritter was in charge of a triangulation 

and hydrographic survey party which worked in 

the Copper River delta area and in the eastern 

portion of Prince William Sound during the field 

seasons from 1898 to 1903. 

From 1899 to 1905 the Steamer Gedney, under 

the command of E. F. Dickins, was engaged in 

various surveying operations in southeastern 

Alaskan waters. This work included triangulation, hydrography, and topography. 

The discovery of gold in Alaska and the 

rush to the Klondike region in 1897 created 

new interest in the long-neglected Territory of 

Alaska, and the Coast Survey, like the Geological Survey, was given increased appropriations with which to carry on and expand its 

Alaskan work. 

From 1900 until 1940 the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey continued operations in Alaska to provide navigation charts of the Territory's 

26,000 miles of coastline. The survey fleet 

operating during the early part of t,his period 

usually numbered six or more vessels, including the Taku, commanded by R. B. Derickson, 

and later G. T. Rude, operating in Prince 

William Sound; the Yukon, commanded by C. G. 

Quillian, and later F. H. Hardy, operating in 

the vicinity of Kodiak and in Cook Inlet; the old 

Explorer, commanded by W. C. Dibrell and 

others, operating in Bristol Bay; and the vessels previously mentioned. 

Figure 5. --United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Patterson, 

Seattle, Wash. 1915. 

15 
General small scale charts were prepared 

for practically all of Alaska's coast line, with 

special attention given to the complicated channels and small bays of southeastern Alaska from 

Dixon Entrance to Cape Fairweather. Nautical 

charts were produced from the surveys of Prince 

William Sound, Cook Inlet, Bristol Bay, and 

Norton Sound. Both triangulation and hydrographic surveying were _undertaken on Kodiak 

Island and on the south shore of the Alaska 

Peninsula. 

As travel to Alaska increas~d, surveys by 

wire drag were made of the main waterways of 

southeastern Alaska, and of the principal harbors used by ocean-bor~e shipping. From these 

surveys, large scale nautical charts were prepared and published for the rapidly expanding 

maritime traffic in Alaskan waters. Triangulation was extended in a continuous, unbroken line 

from Dixon Entrance through southeastern 

Alaska around the north shore of the Gulf of 

Alaska into Cook Inlet, Shelikof Strait, and 

around the south shore of the Alaska Peninsula 

to Unimak. 

Modern survey ships were specially designed 

and built for the Coast and Geodetic Survey fleet. 

The new ships included the Surveyor, Explorer, 

and Pathfinder. Echo-sounding equipment, developed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, revolutionized hydrographic surveying, and became 

standarsi equipment for all survey ships and 

launches. To facilitate position fixing of survey 

ships engaged in offshore hydrography, Radio 

Acoustic Ranging was developed for use beyond 

the limit of visibility of shore objects, and for 

work where the use of buoys for three-point fix 

control was impracticable or unwarranted. 

Following World War I, combined operations 

were accelerated ih Alaska with the survey fleet 

consisting of the following vessels: the Surveyor, 

commanded by F. H. Hardy; the Explorer, com ... 

manded by N. H. Heck; the Wenonah,. command~d 

by T. J. Maher and J. H. Hawley; the Lydonia, 

commanded by E. H. Pagenhart; the Discoverer, 

commanded by H. A. Seran; and the Pioneer, 

commanded by R. R. Lukens. Surveys were ex .. 

tended along the southeast coast, supplementary 

examinations were made in various parts of the 

1£ 

main ship channels, and, in 1926, the preliminary reconnaissance of the Alaska Peninsula 

was completed. 

Before World War II there was little opportunity for the Coast and Geodetic Survey to extend its geodetic operations into the interior of 

Alaska. Precise levels were now run from the 

coast to Fairbanks along the Alaska Railroad 

and the Richardson Highway. An arc of secondorder triaugulation was carried from the head 

of Cook Inlet along the Alaska Railroad to the 

vicinity of Broad Pass. Although reconnaissance work was completed to tie this line to 

Fairbanks, and eventu~lly to the international 

boundary, work was not undertaken until after 

World War II. 

The new Explorer and the motor vessel 

Lester Jones were commissioned in the spring 

of ·1 940 and assigned to Aleutian Island surveys. 

Surveys in the Aleutians by the ships Guide, 

Dis coveTer, and Pioneer were interrupted when 

the vessels were transferred to the Navy early 

in World War II. 

The early published charts of the Coast and 

Geodetic Survey, like the topographic maps of 

the Geological Survey, were rapidly compiled 

to meet urgent demands for maps and charts 

required in the development of the new Territory. Most of these exploratory reconnaissance 

charts either have been replaced or are to be 

replaced by modern up-to-date charts based on 

more accurate survey work. The strategic 

position of Alaska during the last war strongly 

emphasized the need for better maps and charts. 

The International Boundary Survey 

The generalized boundary definitions used 

in the Convention of 1825 between Great Britain and Russia had resulted in much confusion, 

and finally caused a s·erious controversy between Great Britain and the United States after 

the purchase of the Territory from Russia. At 

the time of the "gold rush" the location of the 

boundary line between southeastern Alaska and 

Canada became th~ subject of an international 

dispute that was finally settled by a Tribunal 

in London in 1903. In accordance with the 
decision of this Tribunal the boundary was to be 

surveyed and monumented between Dixon Entrance and Mount St. Elias. A large amount of 

preliminary work had been accomplished along 

this portion of the boundary in the years 1891 to 

1895. by both the Canadian and the United States 

Governments. Field parties of the Coast and 

Geodetic Survey did triangulation and astronomical work along the inlets and up the rivers, and 

the Canadian Survey used terrestrial photogrammetry in the preparation of preliminary maps of 

the area between the coast and the vicinity of the 

boundary. 

The demarcation of this part of the boundary 

called for by the Tribunal of 1903 was undertaken during the years from 1904 to 1914, and 

was under the direction of two commissioners, 

Dr. 0. H. Tittmann, Superintendent of the 

Coast and Geodetic Survey, for the United States, 

and Dr. W. H. King, Chief Astronomer of Canada, for the Canadian Government. 

During the period of actual survey each 

country had an average of two field parties working independently to determine the geographic 

positions of principal peaks along the boundary, 

and to complete topographic maps along the 

boundary line. A 20-foot vista was cleared 

through all timber across the river valleys and 

on the mountain sides; this slash is still visible 

along the greater part of the line. Permanent 

monuments were established to mark the line 

in the valleys and on those mountain tops that 

were accessible. The total length of the boundary line was approximately 900 miles, of which 

about 700 miles was surveyed on land and approximately 200 miles across the water. 

The Boundary Commission published 11 topographic maps, Nos. 3 to 13, covering the section of the boundary from Portland Canal to 

Mount St. Elias. Sheets Nos. 1 and 2, which 

cover the area of Dixon Entrance and most of 

Portland Canal, have finally been completed, 

and are ready for printing. All the topographic 

maps are on a scale of 1:250,000, with a contour interval of 250 feet. 

The engineers in charge of field work on the 

southeastern Alaska boundary were: for the 

17 

United States, J. A. Flemer and Fremont 

Morse of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and 

0. M. Leland, formerly of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and later Dean of Engineering 

of the University of Minnesota; for Canada, 

C. A. Bigger, D.L.S., andN. J. Ogilvie, 

D. L. S., later Director of the Geodetic Survey 

of Canada, and Boundary Commissioner. 

The boundary line from Mount St. Elias to 

the Arctic Ocean, along the 141st meridian, 

became the subject of considerable interest 

after the Klondike gold rush in 1898, although 

positions had been established for the l ine at 

the Yukon River crossing and on the Porcupine 

River ten years earlier. In 1887 William Ogilvie of the Canadian Survey carried a micrometer traverse from the head of Lynn Canal in 

southeastern Alaska down the Yukon to the 

vicinity of the boundary. There he built an observatory and made astronomical observations 

for a determination of the 141st meridian. 

This work was started in September 1887 and 

completed in March 1888, and the line was 

marked across the river. 

In 1889, J. H. Turner and J. E. McGrath, 

of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, arrived at Fort Yukon from St. Michael. Turner 

ascended the Porcupine to Rampart House on 

the boundary and established an astronomical 

station to determine the position of the boundary 

at that point. During the winter he made a dogteam trip from the Porcupine River to the 

Arctic Ocean along the 141st meridian. McGrath 

went to the boundary crossing of the Yukon River and made astronomical observations for 

the determination of the location of the boundary. The final location of the 141st meridian 

at the Yukon River was made in 1906 by the 

use of telegraphic time determination for the 

differences of longitude, and this reS1~lt differed 

but little from those previously made. The 

observers participating in this work were Edwin Smith and J. E. McGrath of the U. S. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Dr. Otto J. 

Klotz and F. A. McDiarmid of the Dominion of 

Canada Observatory. 

In 1907 field parties started work on the 

actual surveying and monumenting of the boundary 
along the 141st meridian. During this survey 

the United States and Canada conducted joint survey operations and, in the six years between 

1907 and 1913, the combined parties accomplished 

750 linear miles of triangulation covering an area 

of nearly 8, 000 square miles. The parties also 

ran 500 miles of leveling and mapped topographically, on a scale of approximately 1 mile to the 

inch, 3, 700 square miles along the boundary 

limits. In addition, 2, 500 square miles of rugged, mountainous terrain was mapped by phototopographic methods. Two hundred permanent 

monuments were on the boundary line between 

Mount St. Elias and Demarcation Point on the 

Arctic Ocean. Topographic maps of this part 

of the boundary were published in atlas form, on 

sheets 1 to 38, at a scale of 1:62, 500, with a 

contour interval of 100 feet. 

The engineers in charge of the work on the 

141st meridian were Thomas Riggs, later Governor of Alaska and Boundary Commissioner, for 

the United States; and J. D. Craig, D. L. S., who 

was later Surveyor General of Canada and 

Boundary Commissioner. 

The General Land--Gffice in Alaska 

(1899-1940) 

The office of Surveyor General for the District of Alaska was created by the Act of July 24, 

1897. The first man appointed to this post was 

Wm. L. Distin. His office was first located at 

Sitka, but was moved to Juneau in 1907. 

An Act of March 3, 1899, made provision for 

the beginning of a rectangular ·system of surveys 

in Alaska. The first contract, for the survey of 

the Copper River base line and meridian, was 

dated March 22, 1904, but not executed until 

1905. On August 11, 1914 John P. Walker was 

appointed to take charge of surveys in Alaska 

and directed this work until1924, except for 

military service during the first World War. He 

was succeeded by George A. Parks who remained 

in charge until his retirement in 1948, except 

for his period of service as Governor of Alaska 

from June 15, 1925 to April 19, 1933. 

In 1910 Conqress appropriated $100,000 for 

subdivision surveys of public lands in Alaska, 

1-8 

and the Geological Survey was requested to 

cooperate in carrying out the program called 

for under this special appropriation. Work was 

started on subdivision surveys in the vicinity 

of Fair banks during the field season of 1910 by 

four parties, under the direction o"f R. H. Sargent of the Geological Survey. Precise astronomical observations for latitude, longitude, 

and azimuth were made by a member of the 

Coast and Geodetic Survey at Fairbanks, Tanana, and Copper Center. 

Following the passage of the Act of October 

20, 1914, to provide for the leasing of coal 

lands in Alaska, the extension of the rectangtilar system of cadastral surveys to the Bering 

River, Matanuska and Nenana coal fields was 

undertaken. Fifteen field parties were organized for these surveys in 1915. The Bering 

River surveys near Katalla were based on the 

Copper River meridian; the Matanuska fields 

near Knik Arm were surveyed under the Seward 

base li:ae and meridian; and the Nenana surveys 

were surveyed under the Fai:.."banks base line 

and meridian. 

In 1916 and subsequent years, the rectangular surveys were extended to include agricultural lands in the Cook Inlet district, the SusUna valley, and other areas adjacent to the 

Alaska Railroad, Kachemak Bay on the Kenai 

Peninsula, and the Chilkat va~ley near Haines. 

In this period the townsites of Haines, Douglas, Fairbanks, Eska, and Sitka, as well as 

additions to the townsites of Seward, Nenana, 

Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Juneau were surveyed. 

By 1922, 1, 550,000 acres had been surveyed 

under the rectangular system. In 1923 and subsequent years these surveys were extended to 

additional areas on the Kenai Peninsula, the 

Chulitna coal fields, and the Chignik oil fields 

on the Alaska Peninsula. During this period, 

the survey of Mount McKinley National Park 

was also completed. In all, nearly two and 

one-half million acres have been surveyed in 

Alaska by the General Land Office (Bureau·of 

Land Management). 
Other Contributions (1895-1940) 

Although most of the mapping, charting, and 

surveying in Alaska during the period 1895-1940 

was accomplished by the U. S. Geological Survey, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the International Boundary Commission, and the General 

Land Office, important contributions were made 

to geographic knowledge of the Territory by other 

organizations, both governmental and private. 

The National Geographic Society sponsored a 

number of expeditions to Alaska. during the past 

40 years. Among the most important were the 

Alaska Glacier Investigations, carried out in 

1909, 1910, 1911, and 1913. Also, several 

parties were sent to the Alaska Peninsula to 

study volcanoes. Some mapping was accomplished on each of these expeditions. The Society 

also published the results of a number of expeditions to Alaska sponsored by various other organizations, as well as work prepared by individuals 

on the subjects of exploration, mountain climbing, archeology, botany, geology, and ethnology. 

During the early 1930's the Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department made systematic 

hydrographic surveys and carried on geodetic 

work ln. the Aleutian Islands. These expeditions 

were organized for the purpose of determining 

, the feasibility of establishing air bases on the 

various islands, and the locating of adequate 

ship anchorages at various points along the Aleutian chain. The resulting surveys, maps, and 

reports were of great value in preparing for the 

military occupation and defense of Alaska after 

Pearl Harbor. 

The Alaska Road Commission carried on 

many surveying activities in Alaska, principally in connection with road location. One of the 

largest expeditions of this kind undertaken by 

the Commission was a survey of a land route 

for: a mail and pack trail from Fairbanks to 

Council City and Seward Peninsula. Field work 

on this project was accomplished during the 

summer of 1906 by civil engineers working under 

direction of the president of the Alaska Road 

Commission, Major W. P. Richardson. Recon .. 

naissance surveys were prepared for' this routet 

and furnished valuable information for map 

em:ppilation. 

The Revenue Cutter Service and the Coast 

Guard each made contributions to geo91"aphic 

information of Alaska which were utili~ed by 

the Coast and Geodetic Survey in compiling 

nautical charts, and by the Geological Survey 

in preparing reconnaissance topographic maps. 

Numerous newspaper men, adventurers, 

e~lorers, and mountain climbers, have made 

trips into various parts of the Territory of 

Alaska. Many of these expeditions were widely 

publicized and conveyed the impression to the 

public that a large amount of mapping was accomplished in this manner. Actually, the combined result of most of these so-called exploring expeditions was insignificant as far as 

usable map information was concerned. 

One exception to the unimportance of individual exploration in Alaska was the work of 

Robert Marshall during the summers of 1929, 

1930, and 1931, in the headwaters of the Koyukuk Rive'!". He prepared drainage maps of the 

Koyukuk River basin north of the Arctic Circle, 

from 10,000 to 15, 000 square miles in area. 

Many geographic features were discovered and 

named on these expeditions. The results were 

published in report and map form by the Geological Survey in 1934. 

RECENT MAPPING (1940-50) 

From 1940 to 1950 more progress was made 

in surveying and mapping in Alaska than in any 

other period in the history of the Territory. 

Even before our entry into World War II it 

became increasingly apparent that the ~trategic 

position of Alaska would make the area important in a global war. Mapping and charting of 

the Territory, ther~fore, received attention by 

those responsible fcJr national defense as early 

as 1940. Both recormaissance and detailed surveys were necessary to determine suitable locations for military airports, as well as to determine problems connected with their construction. The Army Air Forces required navigation 

charts at different scales to facilitate air travel across the Territory. The Army, concerned 

with the defense of strategic areas in Alaska, 

particularly the land transportation routes, 

needed maps of both coastal and interior areas, 
and the Navy could not operate effectively in 

Alaskan waters without hydrographic charts. 

Surveying and mapping operations were continued by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the 

Geological Survey throughout the war, principally to assist the military services which were 

at that time rapidly expanding their own facilities for producing military maps and charts. 

Much was accomplished during this war-time 

period, particularly in control and mapping at 

reconnaissance scales. Post-war defense plans, 

combined with a large scale program designed 

to develop the economy of Alaska, called for 

continued surveying and mapping. This work has 

been continued in a coordinated effort by the 

U. S. Geological-Survey, the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, the Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of 

Land Management, and the Aeronautical Chart 

Service. 

Work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey 

(1940-50) 

Most of the normal operations of the Coast 

and Geodetic Survey in Alaska were sharply curtailed during the war. Survey ships were assigned to naval operations and personnel were 

either transferred to the armed. services or were 

used directly on war mapping and charting activities. 

One of the first postwar operations undertaken by the Coast and Geodetic Survey was the 

connection by triangulation of control surveys of 

the Pacific Coast with those of Alaska, thus establishing a coordinated network of continental 

triangulat~on based on the North American Datum 

for 1927. This work required continuous arcs 

of triangulation from Puget Sound through British Columbia and southeastern Alaska, and 

thence along the Alaska Highway through the 

Yukon Territory and the Tanana valley to Fairbanks. From there a connection was made with 

the earlier arc that extended from Cook Inlet to 

Broad Pass along the Alaska Railroad. A new 

arc was established along the Richardson Highway between Big Delta and Valdez, with a crosstie between Gulkana on the highway to Tok Junction on the Tanana River. Another major arc 

was run from Nenana down the Tanana and Yukon 

20 

Rivers to Norton Sound, via the Kaltag-Unalak ... 

leet portage. A tie was made to Little Diomede 

Island in Bering Strait by an arc along the 

south coast of Seward Peninsula. This ·work is 

now being extended north and east along the 

Arctic Coast to Demarcation Point, the north 

end of the Alaska-Canada boundary on the 141st 

meridian. 

In southern Alaska another major arc was 

extended along the south side of the Alaska Peninsula through the Aleutian Islands to Attu 

Island. This arc is, in turn, connected with 

the northern work by a network from Iliamna 

Bay across the base of the Alaska Peninsula to 

Bristol Bay, thence northward along the coast 

and up the Kuskokwim River, where a tie is 

made between Aniak and Holy Cross. 

Concurrent with the expanded postwar geodetic work, the Coast and Geodetic Survey also 

increased hydrographic survey operations, 

particu1a.rly in the Aleutian Islands, Prince 

William Sound, along the south shore of the 

Alaska Peninsula, in Bristol Bay, and in the 

Bering Sea. Modern survey ships assigned to 

the Alaskan work since the war include the 

Explorer, Pathfinder, Lester Jones, Pioneer, 

Patton, Derickson, and the We""S'tciaiil. Offshore hydrographic work has been greatly expedited by the use of the electronic position 

indicator, an adaptation of the war-developed 

shoran. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey operations include the maintenance of existing stations and 

the establishment of many new tidal stations in 

the coastal waters of Alaska. Magnetic surveys, 

which were begun by Professor Davidson in 

1867, are being expanded to provide isogonic 

information for use on aeronautical charts. 

Under a joint agreement among the Department of the Army, the Geological Survey, and 

the Coast and Geodetic Survey, topographic 

mapping of the Aleutian Islands west of 165 degrees, will be carried on by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in conjunction with nautical charting and geodetic work. These maps are required for military use, and will be published 

first by the Army Map Service at a scale of 
1:25,000, and later by the Geological Survey for 

civil use at a scale of 1:63, 360, as an integral 

part of the National Topographic Map Series. 

Work of the Corps of Engineers (1940-50) 

After the early explorations carried on by 

field parties under the sponsorship of the War 

Department between 1895 and 1902, little surveying or mapping was accomplished in Alaska 

by that Department before 1940. The Corps of 

Engineers requested the Geological Survey to 

make several detailed surveys in Alaska in connection with the location of proposed Army Air 

Bases. These included Annette and Yakutat. 

Early in World War II, the 29th Engineer Battalion, with headquarters in Portland, Oregon, 

dispatched field pa:Mies to Cook Inlet where control surveys were made as part of a training 

program. These covered several quadrangles 

which were later compiled by multiplex method 

from aerial photographs into maps published at 

a scale of 1: 50, 000. Several quadrangles were 

also compiled from photographs of part of Unalaska Island. Numerous other isolated surveying and mapping jobs were performed by the 

Corps of Engineers during the war, principally 

in training programs or to assist in construction 

work. 

After the cessation of hostilities plans were 

formulated for an expanded mapping program in 

conn·ection with hemispheric defense. Such a. 

program obviously called for greatly expanded 

activity in Alaska. Although the mapping of 

Alaska for more than 50 years had been primarily a civilian responsibility under the Geological 

Survey, priorities established by the General 

Staff under the postwar defense program required 

an expansion beyond the capabilities of the Geological Survey. Mapping of extensive areas in 

western Alaska, including Seward Peninsula, was 

assigned to the Army Map Service, and work was 

undertaken during the field season of 1949 to 

establish control in Seward Peninsula for. multiplex mapping of the area at relatively large 

scales. Upon completion of the Seward Peninsula 

work Army mapping will be extended to include 

coastal areas from NortOn Sound to Bristol Bay. 

When completed, this work will be published in 

a military edition by the Army Map Service, 

21 

and, as is required, in civilian edition by the 

Geological Survey at civilian scales. 

Work of the Aeronautical Chart Service 

of the Air Force (1941-50) 

The Aeronautical Chart Service, or the Map 

Chart Division as it was originally called, was 

organized in 1941 and almost immediately began the preparation of several series of charts 

for planning and operational use. These charts 

followed the general outline· and specifications 

recommended by the Federal Board of Surveys 

and Maps in 1929, when a special committee 

of the Board had studied the subject of aeronautical charting. However, the United States had 

declared war before the airlanes through the 

Northwest Territory of Canada and across 

Alaska were charted. In order to provide the 

minimum information necessary to compile 

aeronautical charts, the Aeronautical Chart 

Service, the First Photographic Group of the 

Army Air Forces, and the Alaskan Branch of 

the Geological Survey began work in 1941 on 

reconnaissance mapping. A new and then-untested method using aerial photographs was 

employed. This new method was destined to 

become one of the most important contributions 

to mapping and charting developed during World 

War II. Because of the ~gent need for pilotage 

charts covering northwest Canada and Alaska, 

it was natural that these vast unmapped areas 

should be the proving ground for the trimetrogon 

mapping system. The work carried on in Alaska 

by the Air Forces and the Geological Survey to 

develop trimetrogon mapping served not only 

to perfect a new technique in rapid mapping, 

but also to supply a vast amount of new geographic information covering the unmapped 

ar~as in the Territory. 

Between 1941, when the first experimental 

photographic flights were made in Alaska, and 

1946, most of Alaska was covered by trimetrogon photography, and charts had been compiled 

and published. The Aeronautical Chart Service 

prepared specifications and edited and published 

the final charts. The First Photographic Group 

and its successorr the 311th Wing, accomplished 

the photography and established astronomical 

positions for control in remote areas throughout 
the Territory. The Geological Survey compiled 

the base topographic information for the charts, 

using special techniques and instruments developed for mass production of trimetrogon mapping. Most of the charts of Alaska prepared 

and published by the Aeronautical Chart Service 

were at scales of 1: 500, 000 and 1: 1, 000, 000. 

The millionth scale series was completed during 

the war and the half-million series is still being 

compiled for the lower priority areas. All existing information from earlier surveys by the 

Geological Survey, the Coast Survey, and others, 

supplemented by trimetrogon compilation, was 

used in the preparation of the aeronautical 

charts. A maintenance program provides for revision of individual charts as ner.u control and 

topographic information.become available. 

Much of the original information compiled 

from aerial photography for the aeronautical 

charts of Alaska has been used by the Geological 

Survey to prepare a revised 1:250,000 scale 

series covering the entire Territory, which will, 

when completed, become a part of the National 

Topographic Map Series. The joint cooperative 

effort of the Aeronautical Chart Service, photographic units of the Air Force, and the Geological Survey has produced the greatest contribution to the surveying and mapping of Alaska made 

during the 200 years ~overed by this report. 

Alaska's strategic position for the effective use 

of air power in national defense requires accurate maP-S and charts. It appears certain, therefore, that the Department of the Air Force will 

continue to take an active part in pho.tographing 

Alaska from the air, as an indispensable aid to 

tlle preparation of topographic maps and aeronautical charts. 

Mapping Activities of the Geological Survey 

(1940-50) 

For 45 years the work of the Geological Survey in Alaska has necessarily been connected 

with the development of the mining industry, and 

much of tlle topographic mapping has been undertaken in areas of potential mineral value. By 

1940, nearly one-half of the Territory had been 

mapped in some manner. A large part of tllis 

mapping could be classified as "exploratory reconnaissance", at scales ranging from 4 miles 

to the inch to 8 miles to the inch. Mapping at 

larger scales, prin:cipally 1:62,500, had been 

accomplished for more than twenty widely separated areas. Most of these surveys covered 

established mining districts. A considerable 

portion of the area north of the Brooks Range 

and east of the Colville River remained unexplored at the beginning of World War II. 

In 1941 the Alaskan Branch of the Survey 

was requested by the Army Air Forces to develop a method for rapid exploratory reconnaissance mapping, for use in compiling aeronautical charts. Alaska, therefore, became a 

testing laboratory for trimetrogon mapping and 

a program was started by the Geological Survey, 

under the-auspices of the Army Air Forces 

(Aeronautical Chart Service}, that was ultimately to have a far-reaching effect on the mapping 

of Alaska and many other unmapped or poorlymapped areas throughout the world. 

After~tlle war the Survey continued to use the 

trimetrogon photography of Alaska, with some 

reftnement of wartime methods, to produce 

reconnaissance maps of many areas, but because of a growing demand for maps at large 

scales, ways and means of obtaining singlelens mapping photography were studied. A relatively small amount of this type of photography 

had been obtained by units of the Air Force and 

the Navy in Alaska, and no program covering 

extensive areas was undertaken until 1948. At 

that tim.e the Navy Department in cooperation 

with the Geological Survey and other Federal 

bureaus returned to southeastern Alaska and, 

with war-trained photographic squadt-ons, usinq 

the most modern equipment available, photographed more than 20,000 square miles, obtaining high-quality aerial photographs suitable for 

large scale topographic mapping. Durlng the 

same summer other photographic units of the 

Navy covered large areas in the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 in northern Alaska. This 

coverage was required principally by geologists 

and geophysicists in the exploration for oil 

within the Reserve. 

One squadron, before returning to its California base in the fall, photographed an area 

covering the new highway between Anchorage and 

Tok Junction. 
During the war years the Geological Survey 

sent few topographic field parties to Alaska. 

Most of the available equipment and personnel 

were used to prepare maps and aeronautical 

charts from trimetrogon photography by officecompilation methods. Although this compilation 

eventually covered most of Alaska, the personnel of the Survey ordinarUy engaged in Alaskan 

mapping devoted much of their effort during the 

war to preparing c_harts of foreign areas. After 

the war the trimetrogon mapping of Alaska was 

used to compile for republication the standard 

base map of Alaska, known as "Map E". This 

map was published in 1947 at a scale of 

1:2, 500, 000 and a comparison with the edition. 

of 1939 reveals the great amount of work accomplished in Alaskan reconnaissance mapping during the war. 

For some areas in Alaska the "trimet" coverage is also used to compile and revise maps 

at a scale of 1:250,000. A program is planned 

to cover the entire Territory at that scale, with 

an estimated completion date for the entire series 

by the end of 1953. Immediately after the war, 

and before single-lens photography became 

available for photogrammetric mapping, field 

parties returned to Alaska and carried on mapping work for both civil and military use. Much 

of this new work was prepared for publication at 

a scale of 1:62,500, and photo-topographic 

methods and trimetrogon photography were used 

to supplement the plane-table surveys made in 

the field. The area between Anchorage and Fairbanks was given a high priority because it covered the Territory's principal transportation 

routes. Therefore, several parties were sent 

to this area to establish ·horizontal and vertical 

control for use in aerial photographic mapping. 

These parties used helicopters to speed up the 

neld work. This was the first time this unique 

aircraft had been used for surveying operations 

and its use by the Geological Survey in Alaska 

has demonstrated its usefulness in transporting 

surveyors and equipment to remote stations on 

high mountains. The rate of progress has bean 

increased to such an extent that a crew of six 

men and two helicopters can control one quadrangle per day (approximately 200 sqUare miles), 

and a single engineer has established as many 

as fifty supplemental control points in one day. 

23 

Prior to the use of helicopters it took an engineer an entir~ season to control a quadrangle 

for standard mile-to-the-inch mapping. Many 

other surveying organizations throughout the 

world have followed the Survey's lead and are 

now using helicopters to expedite survey operations. 

During the summer of 1949 photographic 

units of the Army Air Forces and the Navy continued photographic mapping operations in 

Alaska. Navy Squadron VP61, based at Nome, 

photographed additional areas in Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, as well as a large part of 

Seward Peninsula. Air Force Reconnaissance 

Group 55, of the 311th Air Division based at 

Fairbanks, in spite of adverse weather conditions during that summer, photographed more 

than 30,000 square miles, covering much of 

the area between Anchorage and Fairbanks, including the Richardson Highway and the Alaska 

Railroad. This coverage was accomplished to 

rigid mapping specifications and, in addition, 

was controlled by shoran, an electronic method 

of measuring distances accurately from fixed 

ground stations to the aircr~t in flight. Signals 

from ground stations are received in the plane 

and converted to distance measured in microseconds of time. They can be adjusted and 

synchronized with vertical mapping photography 

to compute a geographic position for the optical center of each aerial photograph. If final 

accuracy tests prove this method satisfactory, 

it will not only expedite mapping of many areas 

in Alaska, but will also eliminate the necessity 

of the very costly arcs of triangulation now 

being planned for mapping control in Alaska. 

The Geological Survey has requested the Department of the Air Force to continue this 

shoran-controlled photography of Alaska in 

order that standard quadrangle mapping of high 

priority areas may be completed. In response 

to this request photographic units of the !Ur 

Force covered an additional 20,000 square 

miles in south central Alaska during the summer 

season of 1950. A request has also been made 

for complete photographic coverage of all unmapped areas of Alaska at high altitudes (above 

35,000 feet), for use in the preparation and re• 

vision of the 1:250,000 scale map series. 

Iater1or-Dapl1oat1Ja& S.OUoa, luJilaltoa. D. c. 91't91 
In order to provide elevations for topographic 

mapping the Geological Survey has investigated 

several methods being developed by private companies and the military services to p!'Qvide airborne control. A contract was entered into with 

a Canadian company with specialized equipment 

to establish spot elevations over a large area 

during the summer of 1950. Radar altimetry 

has been used successfully in Canada to provide 

spot elevations for the control of aeronautical 

charts and it is believed if this method is successful it can be used effectively with shoran to 

provide both horizontal and vertical control for 

mapping at medium (1:63, 360) and small 

(1:250, 000) scales. This combination of airborne control methods should be ideal for reconnaissance mapping over large areas in Alaska, 

particularly north of the Arctic Circle. 

The contract radar altimetry project covering 

an area of approximately 60, 000 square miles in 

central Alaska was completed late in the summer 

Preliminary computations indicate that this experimental coverage will provide vertical control of sufficient accuracy for the compilation 

of medium scale maps with a contour interval 

of about 100 feet. 

Topographic mapping in Alaska accomplished 

prior to World War IT was published in sheets 

of varying sizes, generally to accomodate the 

work of one or two seasons or a specific mining 

area. More than 50 such sheets had been published without an attempt to provide a series 

of standard-sized quadrangles. After the war 

a new map-sheet layout was designed for 

Alaska, including scales of 1:24, 000, 1:63, 360, 

and 1:250, 000. Alaskan maps now being published are on standard format and are considered part of the National Topographic Map 

Series. Sheets originally prepared by the 

military services will later be published by 

the U. S. Geological Survey as part of this 

National Series. 

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abercrombie, W. R., Copper Ri~er Explo:ing Expedition: 56th Cong., 1st sess., S. Doc. 306, 1899. 

Baker, Marcus, Geographic Dictionary of Alaska (2d edition, prepared by James McCormick): U. S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 299, pp. 7-77, 1906. 

Bancroft, H. H., History of Alaska, 1730-1885, pp. 194-220, 510-530, San Francisco, 1886. 

Brooks, A. H., The Geography and Geology of Alaska: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 45, pp. 104--

132, 1906. 

Colbert, L. 0., Programming Field Operations in Alaska: Coast and Geodetic Survey Jour., vol. 2, 

pp. 3-7, 1949. 

General Land Office, Annual Reports of the Director. 

McPherson, J. L. , Reconnaissance and Survey for a Land Route from Fairbanks to Council City, 

Alaska: 59th Cong., 2d sess., S. Doc. 214, 1907. 

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Annual Reports of the Director. 

U. S. Geological Survey, Annual Reports of the Director, for 1Q05 to 1949. 

Wickersham, James, A Bibliography of Alaskan Literature 1724 to 1924,· Cordova Daily Times Print, 

pp. 1-37, Cordova, Alaska, 1927. 

24