SMITHSONIA N CONTRIBUTION S T O TH E MARINE SCIENCES • NUMBER 25 

Geomorphologic Trends in a 

Glaciated Coastal Bay: 

A Model for the Maine Coast 

R. Craig Shipp, Stephanie A. Staples, 

and Walter H. Adey 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 

City of Washington 

1985 
ABSTRAC T 

Shipp, R. Craig, Stephanie A. Staples, and Walter H. Adey. Geomorphologic 

Trends in a Glaciated Coastal Bay: A Model for the Maine Coast. Smithsonian 

Contributions to the Marine Sciences, number 25, 76 pages, 44 figures, 3 

tables, 1985.—A detailed geomorphic study was conducted along the glaciated shoreline of Gouldsboro Bay, Maine. The purpose of this study was to 

classify and map the geomorphic features as a preliminary step in the 

investigation of the late Quaternary evolution of the area. The distribution 

of geomorphic features was determined by the interpretation of vertical and 

oblique aerial photographs and ground-truth maps. 

For easier descrimination, the dominant coastal geomorphic features are 

separated into high- and /ow-intertidal regions. The high-intertidal features 

are defined by a distinct combination of sediment/bedrock type, geometry, 

and size. The major feature in this intertidal region are pocket beach, linear 

fringing beach, marsh, and exposed bedrock. The low-intertidal features are 

distinguished by differences in sediment type and grain size. Mud flat, mud/ 

rock flat, sand/rock flat, rock ledge, and mussel bar are the significant 

features in this intertidal region. 

The geomorphology of Gouldsboro Bay is a function of three components. 

First, the Paleozoic bedrock lithology and structure, modified by late Cenozoic dissection and erosion, is the major component determining the regional 

coastal geomorphology. Second, the distribution pattern of late Wisconsin 

glacial moraines controls the dispersion of sediment, which strongly influences the local shoreline geomorphology. Third, the physical factors of wave 

exposure and winter ice effects are important processes that modify shoreline 

geomorphology. In turn, the degree of influence by these two physical factors 

is a function of shoreline orientation and fetch. Based on the interaction of 

these three components, Gouldsboro Bay can be broken into three distinct 

geomorphic zones: an exposed, seaward zone, a semi-exposed, central zone, and 

a protected, landward zone. This geomorphic classification appears suitable 

for the remainder of coastal Maine, and may have a wide application in areas 

such as the interpretation of stratigraphic sequences and the distribution of 

biological communities. 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is 

recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Seascape 

along the Atlantic coast of eastern North America. 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Shipp, R. Craig. 

Geomorphologic trends in a glaciated coastal bay. 

(Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences ; no. 25) 

Bibliography: p. 

Supt. of Docs, no.: SI 1.41:25 

1. Glacial landforms—Maine—Gouldsboro Bay I. Staples, Stephanie A. II. Adey, Walter 

H. III. Title. IV. Series. 

GB585.M2S54 1985 551.4'57'09741 84-600278 
Contents 

Page 

Introduction 1 

Acknowledgments 2 

Physical Setting 2 

Geography 2 

Climate 2 

Bathymetry and Tides 3 

Wind and Wave Regime 6 

Major Geomorphic Divisions 6 

Bedrock and Quaternary Geology 9 

Methods 9 

Geomorphology of the High-intertidal Region 12 

Pocket Beach 12 

Gravel 15 

Mixed 15 

Sand 15 

Linear Fringing Beach 22 

Exposed Bedrock 22 

Low Slope 26 

Intermediate Slope 26 

Steep Slope 28 

Marsh 29 

Mature 29 

Brackish 29 

Fringing 37 

Geomorphology of the Low-intertidal Region 46 

Mud Flat 46 

Mud/Rock Flat 47 

Sand/Rock Flat 47 

Rock Ledge 47 

Mussel Bar 47 

Controls of Geomorphology 52 

Geologic Framework 52 

Distribution of Glacial Moraines 52 

Physical Factors 66 

Geomorphic Zones of Maine's Bays and Estuaries 68 

Conclusions 72 

Literature Cited 74 

in 
Geomorphologic Trends in a 

Glaciated Coastal Bay: 

A Model for the Maine Coast 

R. Craig Shipp, Stephanie A. Staples, and 

Walter H. Adey 

Introduction 

The Atlantic Coast of the United States is 

perhaps the most intensely investigated shoreline 

in the world. Hundreds of published works examining the geomorphology, dynamic processes, 

sedimentation, and stratigraphy exist for this expanse of coastline. Most of these studies focus on 

either the coarse-grained deposits of strandlines 

or barrier islands, or the fine-grained deposits of 

marsh, tidal flat, and lagoonal sediments found 

in the adjacent back-barrier areas. Both of these 

depositional environments are very common 

along the majority of the U.S. East Coast from 

central Florida north through the southern half 

of New England. 

Beginning on the south-facing shoreline from 

Connecticut to Cape Cod, a transition to a bedrock-controlled coastline occurs. This section of 

coast is characterized by evidence of glacial erosion, in contrast to those of glacial deposition 

found farther south from Long Island to Nantucket. The bedrock-controlled coast is further 

subdivided into two regions. The southern region, from Connecticut to Cape Elizabeth, 

R. Craig Shipp, Oceanography Program, and Stephanie A. Staples, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Maine, 

Orono, Maine, 04469. Walter H. Adey, Marine Systems Laboratory, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. 

Maine, is characterized by mixed glacial erosion 

and deposition dominated by drumlins and outwash features whereas the northern region, Cape 

Elizabeth to the Canadian border, is typified by 

a glacially-eroded terrain of bedrock generally 

covered with a thin ground moraine. It is this 

bedrock/moraine section of coastline that historically has received little attention from coastal 

geologists. 

Only a limited number of investigations have 

dealt with the coastal geology of Maine. These 

include early regional descriptions (e.g., Shaler, 

1875, 1886, 1889; Johnson, 1925), documentation of sea-level fluctuations (e.g., Shaler, 1874; 

Davis, 1915, 1916; Meserve, 1919; Marmer, 

1925; Goldthwait, 1935; Hussey, 1959; Bloom, 

1960), chronology of late glacial and post-glacial 

events (e.g., Bloom, 1963; Borns, 1973; Schnitker, 1974; Stuiver and Borns, 1975), and recent 

work on the substantiation and effects of crustal 

downwarping (Thompson, 1980, 1981; Thompson and Kelley, 1983). In addition, several studies have addressed specific coastal environments 

such as marshes (e.g., Penhallow, 1903; Johnson, 

1925; Anderson and Race, 1980, 1981; Anderson and Borns, 1983), tidal flats (e.g., Stackpole, 

1950; Kyte, 1955; Bradley, 1957; Anderson, 

Black, Mayer etal., 1981; Anderson, Black, Watling et al., 1981), beaches (e.g., Hussey, 1970; 

1 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

Novak, 1971; Nelson and Fink, 1980), and the 

subtidal inshore bay bottom (Ostericher, 1965; 

Folgeretal., 1972; Schnitker, 1972). 

Only one investigator to date has attempted to 

systemically survey the geomorphology of the 

entire Maine Coast (Timson, 1977). The coastal 

region from the shallow subtidal to the low supratidal region was mapped and subdivided into 

53 geomorphic classes. This survey included all 

of the 111 topographic quadrangles of the U.S. 

Geological Survey that cover coastal Maine. Due 

to the lack of ground-truth verification and the 

overlap of closely related classes, these maps are 

difficult to apply to a large-scale study that requires detailed geomorphic information. Using 

the maps provided by Timson, Kelley (in press) 

applied cluster and Q-mode factor analysis to 

1670 shore-normal traverses selected from the 

entire Maine Coast. Results of these analyses 

show that three cross-sectional end members 

(mudflat, marsh, and rock ledge) account for 

82.8% of the coastal variation and are the principal elements comprising the shorelines of 

Maine's bays and estuaries. 

The purpose of this study was to examine the 

coastal geomorphology of Gouldsboro Bay as a 

preliminary step in the investigation of the late 

Quaternary evolution of the area. Using a simplified classification scheme, a series of maps 

were constructed to display the distribution of 

each type of geomorphic feature. The factors 

influencing the geomorphic distribution were 

then assessed. Finally, a model explaining this 

distribution is proposed and its applicability to 

the rest of the Maine Coast is suggested. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.—Support for this study 

was provided by Grant NA81AA-D-CZ076 from 

the Marine Sanctuary Program of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The 

authors wish to thank Larry G. Ward, Patricia 

Gaston, and Santoria Mendoza for assistance in 

the initial phases of the field study. Joseph T. 

Kelley and Daniel F. Belknap were particularly 

helpful in contributing their ideas to the geomorphic classification and its applicability to the 

rest of the Maine Coast. Gary A. Zarillo provided 

most of the physical oceanographic information 

for the study area. Finally, special appreciation is 

extended to Charlotte H.Johnson, who painstakingly drafted all of the figures. 

Physical Setting 

GEOGRAPHY.—The study site is located on the 

boundary line between Hancock and Washington Counties, Maine, along the north-central 

border of the Gulf of Maine (Figure 1). The 

Gouldsboro Bay complex is oriented roughly on 

a north-south axis. The main bay is approximately 13 km long and two km wide. In addition 

to the main bay, the complex also consists of 

three peripheral tributary bays. To the north of 

Gouldsboro Bay is Joy Bay, which is connected 

by a narrow, but deep, channel, and to the west 

are Grand Marsh Bay and West Bay, which are 

connected to Gouldsboro Bay by a channel one 

km wide (Figure 2). Corea, a small fishing village, 

lies just off the southwestern corner of the bay, 

and Steuben, a slightly larger village, lies on the 

northeastern corner of Joy Bay. Small homes are 

scattered along much of the shoreline in the bay 

complex. Compared to other coastal bays in the 

region, the population density is low in the 

Gouldsboro area; thus, the shoreline is largely 

undeveloped and pristine. 

CLIMATE.—The climate of the Maine Coast, 

due to its shoreline lying at moderately high 

latitudes in the westerlies and positioned on the 

western side of an ocean, is strongly continental 

rather than oceanic. However, the strongly macrotidal nature of eastern Maine provides a climate that is more boreal than arctic in character. 

The net result is that the immediate coast has a 

near-maritime climate. The temperature is characterized by a wide range and the weather by a 

succession of bi- or tri-weekly lows and fronts 

moving off the continent (Lautzenheiser, 1972). 

The weather tends to change rapidly on a oneto four-day cycle. Except along the immediate 

coast, summers tend to be warm with temperatures generally between 20° and 30 °C. Yearly 

rainfall is moderate, ranging between 100 and 

125 cm. On the immediate coast autumn usually 

begins in early September, although it is moderate and long-lived. An occasional intense storm 

of wind and rain, which can strongly influence 

the shoreline, can be expected in the winter. 

Significant snow and low temperatures usually 
NUMBER 25 

N.H. 

100 Kilometers 

FIGURE 1.—Location of Gouldsboro Bay study area in Gulf of Maine. (Frenchman Bay, referred 

to several times in text, is located 20 km west of Gouldsboro Bay.) 

do not develop until the end of December. January and February can be quite cold with temperature often below — 15°C; also, March is generally considered a winter month. Low water 

temperatures and considerable fog persist 

through June and July, and commonly into August. 

The waters of the coastal Gulf of Maine are 

characterized by a wide summer temperature 

range (Apollonio, 1979). Bay surface waters typically reach temperatures over 15°C in the summer and below 0°C in the winter. The more 

protected part of Gouldsboro Bay usually develops and maintains 30 to 100 cm of ice from 

January to March (unpublished data). Mid-bay 

areas are often characterized by drifting ice 

packs. Most of the main bay develops a shorefast ice lip reaching 50-100 cm. This is rare 

outside the bay because water temperatures are 

generally 0°C or above. The basic water climate 

and the flora and fauna are subarctic in character, as is the adjacent coast from Cape Cod to 

Newfoundland. However, boreal elements can 

be important, especially along the outer coast 

(Adey and Steneck, Ms.). 

BATHYMETRY AND TIDES.—In plan view, 

Gouldsboro Bay proper is rectangular with a 

constant width along the axis (Figure 3). West, 

Joy, and Grand Marsh Bays are shallow irregular 

extensions that possess less than 10% of the total 

water volume of the system. The cross-section of 

Gouldsboro Bay is subrectangular along the 

lower half. Here, depth decreases headward in a 

gradual and regular manner. Along the upper 

half, the cross-section of the bay becomes more 

V-shaped, while the depth decreases abruptly 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

- 4 4° 30" 

GRAND 

MARSH 

BAY 

-44°25' 

68°00' 

% LITTLE 

MARSH 

WEST 

BAY 

TIMBER 

COVE 

GRAND 

MARSH 

kilometers 

Steuben 

JOY 

BAY 

Spring Low Water 

DEEP , 

COVE A 

4 Pt. 

'j Franc 

''••'A 

''['$&! 

}:•':- . 

s %£\ 

O %:• 

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O fe 

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7 TO 

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y °- -<. 

fe 

% CANES 

dCOVE 

M 

XLOBSTER . •& 

2 COVE ff 

il Dyer •% 

Pt.viiC 

"ci"'-v 

DYER 

BAY 

3&ii 

Corea-y 

££ 

Q, ^ 

s^vc* * * > 

ttf)S 

FIGURE 2.—Geography of Gouldsboro Bay complex. (Dyer Bay, referred to several times in 

text, is immediately east of Gouldsboro Bay.) 
NUMBER 25 

BATHYMETRY OF 

GOULDSBORO BAY 

FIGURE 3.—Bathymetry of Gouldsboro Bay (contoured from National Oceanographic Survey's 

original hydrographic survey no. H-1505, conducted in 1881). 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

from 11 to 7 m with the change in basin slope. 

The maximum depth in the bay is 29 m at the 

mouth in a channel between two of the Sally 

Islands. 

The mean tidal range at the entrance of the 

bay is 3.2 m and spring tides exceed 4.0 m. The 

regular geometry of Gouldsboro Bay is important in determining the characteristics of the tidal 

wave. Predicted and measured tidal range at the 

head of the bay corresponds closely with predicted range at the mouth (unpublished data). 

Amplification of the tidal wave, primarily due to 

geometrical effects, is minimal and approximately in balance. This is typical for deep and 

geometrically regular bays (Dyer, 1973) that are 

commonly found along the Maine Coast. Tidal 

phase relationships in Gouldsboro Bay indicate 

that the tidal wave is primarily a standing-wave 

type. High water at the headward end occurs 

only three minutes later than high water at the 

mouth (unpublished data). Maximum tidal currents are out of phase with tide-level fluctuations, 

occurring approximately at mid-tide. 

WIND AND WAVE REGIME.—The prevailing 

wind velocities vary little over the entire Maine 

Coast and generally blow out of the westerly 

quadrants. The dominant storm wind is from the 

northeast and is associated with occasional lows 

moving through the Gulf of Maine. A secondary 

dominance is caused by storms that move up the 

St. Lawrence River Valley, providing strong 

southeast winds that are of lower intensity but 

occur more frequently than the "northeasters." 

Distinct wind patterns exist on a seasonal basis 

(Lautzenheiser, 1972; Feferand Schettig, 1980). 

A northwest wind dominates in the winter and is 

associated with the movement of polar air masses 

from interior North America. These continental 

polar winds are frequent, strong, and usually 

very dry. During the winter, high winds are 

observed from every sector and are usually associated with storm activity. In the spring, winds 

from the western quadrants prevail, but an increase in the south winds is evident. Southwesterly winds prevail in the summer due to the 

consistent flow of warm, moist air from the 

southeastern United States. This warm, moist 

flow, in turn, gives rise to the dense fogs common 

in this area in June and July. By late summer, 

sea-breeze conditions (south to southwest in the 

afternoon, calm at night) become more prevalent. In the fall, the wind spectrum begins to 

resemble the annual average; west winds again 

prevail. Figure 4 shows annual average wind 

statistics and seasonal wind patterns for Old 

Town, Maine, located 80 km inland (northwest) 

of the study site (the closest full-time recording 

station). 

Due to the generally east-west orientation of 

the outer coast in the Gouldsboro area, the only 

wave approaches available are from the southerly 

quadrants. However, offshore of the vicinity of 

the Gouldsboro area, the importance of 

"northeasters" is reflected in the dominance of 

large waves from the east-northeast and east 

(Figure 5). The prevailing wave approach is also 

easterly, but for approximately a third of the 

year it comes from a southerly or southeasterly 

direction (Trigom, 1974) and therefore directly 

affecting the study area. The northeasterly waves 

occur primarily in the winter and are associated 

with "northeasters." However, less intense waves 

from the southerly quadrants prevail in the summer and are primarily driven by the southwesterly flow and the sea-breeze conditions. 

MAJOR GEOMORPHIC DIVISIONS.—Based on 

the early works of Jackson (1837, 1838) and later 

by Timson (1977), the coast of Maine has been 

divided into four distinct geomorphic compartments controlled chiefly by the dominant bedrock-type for each region (Figure 6). The four 

compartments are as follows: 

1. The barrier spit/arcuate bays in the south 

west (SW) compartment. 

2. The structurally controlled, indented embayments in the south-central (SC) compartment. 

3. The granitic, island-bay complex in the northcentral (NC) compartment. 

a. Large, batholithic islands in the center of 

large bays. 

b. Scattered, small, batholithic islands located near the mouths of small bays. 

4. The metavolcanic, high-cliffed shoreline in 

the northeast (NE) compartment. 
NUMBER 25 

OLD TOWN 1960 - 1964 

6 

GRID 

20 

15 o/ 

10

 /o 

5 

Dec-Jan-Feb 

w 

WIND SPEED 

knotsl 

Mar-Apr-May 

OLD TOWN 

Sept-Oct-Nov 

( calm J 

V J Iwind distribution 

Grid Values 

trit 

n percent] 

22 + 

17-21 

11-16 

7-10 

4 - 6 

0-3 

Wind Speed Class 

Iknotsl 

FIGURE 4.—Averages of hourly wind observations in Old Town, Maine, from 1960 to 1964: 

upper, yearly wind rose; lower, seasonal wind rose. 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

• >16 

| 14-16 

| 12-14 

10-12 

H 8-10 

L i

 6"8 

• 4-6 

\ , 2-4 

I °-5'

2 

Wave Height 

In Feet 

25% _^ ^ 

20% ~^^^^ \ 

' ^ \\ ^ 

°~^rni \ M M M —-

^n^wV #5$^/ 

FIGURE 5.—Summary of offshore wind observations taken 

south of Mt. Desert Island. Data is combination of measurements taken from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' wave 

station and hindcasts of synoptic weather charts (modified 

from Trigom, 1974). 

FIGURE 6.—Major geomorphic compartments of coast of 

Maine (modified from Doyle, 1967, in Fefer and Schettig, 

1980). 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

kilometers 

MAIN E 

Island- Bay 

Complex 

G U 1 
NUMBER 25 

The Gouldsboro area, located in the center of 

the granitic island-bay complex, exhibits some of 

the bedrock characteristics described for Mt. Desert Island and Schoodic Pt. (Chapman, 1962b, 

1970; Chapman and Rioux, 1958). Due to the 

small size, the regular geometry, and the diversity of the coastal settings, Gouldsboro Bay is a 

typical example of a small bay (type 3b) from the 

north-central compartment. 

BEDROCK AND QUATERNARY GEOLOGY.—In 

the area of Gouldsboro Bay, the bedrock geology 

consists primarily of mid-Paleozoic silicic and 

intermediate rocks whose relief has been 

smoothed by repeated Quaternary glaciation. 

The majority of the bedrock terrane surrounding the bay consists of granodiorities, particularly 

the central section of the main bay, whereas the 

extreme northern and southern ends of the bay 

complex are composed of two mica granites and 

quartz monzonites (Figure 7). The only significant terrane of intermediate to mafic rocks in 

the bay area is found on the neck between Joy 

and West Bays and consists primarily of diorites 

and gabbros (Chapman, 1962a; Doyle, 1967). 

Scattered mafic intrusives occur as dikes in the 

lower bay and become more abundant and larger 

in the upper reaches. The dikes do not seem to 

be a major factor in geomorphic control. Even 

though bedrock outcrops consist mostly of 

broadly rounded granitic rocks, processes of 

jointing, fracturing, and glacial quarrying have 

been significant and provide a rugged topographic relief of 2 to 6 m. The basic topography 

is that of north-south trending valleys enhanced 

by repeated stream erosion during the interglacials imposed on a north-northeast to southsouthwest trending structural pattern (Denny, 

1982). 

A late Pleistocene (Wisconsin) glacial till up to 

several tens of meters thick discontinuously blankets the entire area (Bloom, 1963; Borns, 1973; 

Stuiver and Borns, 1975). During Wisconsin 

deglaciation, from about 12,000 to 13,000 years 

BP, a rapid submergence of the present coastal 

area, caused by rising sea level following the 

retreating ice, resulted in the deposition of a 

blanket of marine sediment over the till. This 

sediment, composed primarily of stiff blue mud, 

is commonly found throughout coastal Maine 

and has been named the Presumpscot Formation 

(Bloom, 1960). With the ice removed, rapid upward rebound of the coastal area allegedly resulted in re-exposure and retreat of the shoreline 

to a position 10 to 20 km seaward of its presentday shoreline (Schnitker, 1974). Since that time, 

a possible slow depression of the crust, accompanied by eustatic sea-level rise, has resulted in a 

general submergence of the coast and a marked 

"drowned topography." 

Methods 

The technique used to characterize the geomorphology in the study area was a systematic 

survey of geomorphic features using the methods 

discussed by Hayes et al. (1973). These techniques were applied to Gouldsboro Bay in the 

following manner: 

1. Collection of vertical aerial photographs, 

maps and charts, and available literature for 

the area. 

2. Investigation of the study area by aerial reconnaissance, in which the entire area was 

documented with oblique aerial photography. 

3. Determination of the major geomorphic features in the study area. 

4. Selection for detailed study of one representative intertidal profile station from each geomorphic feature observed (Figure 8). 

The following tasks were performed at each 

one of the representative profile stations: 

1. Characterization of the station by establishing 

permanent intertidal profiles using a technique modified from Emery (1961). 

2. Illustration by a three-dimensional sketch of 

the station to identify all aspects of morphology and sediment distribution. This was done 

to assess controls of morphology and to determine sediment sources and sinks. 
10 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

kilometers 

FIGURE 7.—Surficial bedrock geology of Gouldsboro Bay area (modified from Chapman, 

1962a and Doyle, 1967). 
NUMBER 25 11 

INTERTIDAL 

PROFILES 

kilometers 

FIGURE 8.—Location of intertidal sites chosen as representative profile stations. Stations 

correspond with various locations discussed in text. 
12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

3. Documentation of the station with photography to record details of the geomorphic features and sediment characteristics. 

Using a simple, functional classification 

scheme derived from the field assessment of 

the major geomorphic features, a series of maps 

was constructed to illustrate the distribution of 

each feature. Geomorphic features that are distributed lineally were measured (in km) with 

straightedge and planimeter. Particularly in the 

lower intertidal region, features that are distributed areally were measured (in km2

) with a gridand-dot overlay card (Forestry Supplies, Inc.). 

Approximate grain size of sediment in the various environments was determined by hand sample inspection using the classification of Folk 

(1974); gravel was directly measured, sand size 

was determined with a "phi-finder," and the silt 

and clay content of muds assessed qualitatively 

by the "grittiness taste test." 

During the survey of Gouldsboro Bay, two 

major regions of geomorphic features were observed. The first region was characterized as a 

generally narrow, shore-parallel band along the 

mid-intertidal to supratidal shoreline. The diversity in this region is high because of the interaction of wave energy with the antecedent terrestrial topography. This high-ir\tertida\ region is 

measured in kilometers of shoreline due to its 

lineal extent. The second region was characterized by extensive surface coverage in the mid- to 

low-intertidal area. The diversity of this region 

is lower because it does not have as much sediment input from the adjacent terrestrial topography. This /otu-intertidal region is measured in 

hectare (ha) due to its areal extent (Figure 9). 

The cross-section in Figure 9 (upper) characterizes the majority of intertidal profiles in 

Gouldsboro Bay, hence the choice of the terms 

"high" and "low" to differentiate the two intertidal regions. The use of these terms becomes 

less meaningful along intertidal profiles exposed 

to either extreme high wave-energy conditions 

or very low wave-energy conditions. A characteristic profile across a high-energy exposed shoreline exhibits a steep slope of bedrock ledge in the 

upper and lower intertidal areas that continues 

well into the subtidal region. On the other hand, 

a characteristic profile along a low-energy, protected shoreline of marsh or tidal flat displays a 

low angle, areally expansive upper intertidal area 

marked by an abrupt change to a steep-sloped 

wall of a tidal channel in the lower intertidal area 

(Figure 9 lower). Because the departure from the 

"ideal profile" occurs only at the extremes of the 

wave-energy spectrum, the terms high and low in 

reference to intertidal regions is retained to denote the region where a vast majority of a particular geomorphic type can be found. Since it is 

sometimes difficult to determine where the division between these two regions occurs, some 

overlap does exist. Because of their fundamental 

difference is dimensional expression, these two 

regions are considered separately. 

Geomorphology of the High-intertidal Region 

In the Gouldsboro Bay complex, four highintertidal geomorphic features are present. 

These features are characterized by a distinct 

combination of sediments and/or bedrock, geometry, sediment source, and in some instances, 

sediment size. The geomorphic features found 

in the high-intertidal regions are pocket beach, 

linear fringing beach, exposed bedrock, and 

marsh. In turn, most of these geomorphic features are further subdivided based on several 

additional parameters. These parameters are exposure to wave energy as a function of shoreline 

orientation, shore-normal slope, grain size, and 

sediment dispersal patterns. 

POCKET BEACH.—The pocket beaches found 

in Gouldsboro Bay are similar to, but much 

smaller than, those first described by Bascom 

(1964) for the U.S. West Coast. Five characteristics that define this prominent geomorphic feature are as follows: (1) an arcuate strandline 

between adjoining bedrock headlands; (2) a 

shore-parallel width between adjacent headlands 

rarely exceeding several hundred meters; (3) 

rounded to subrounded beach material; (4) a 

sediment source derived primarily from weathering of adjacent rock headlands, and (5) a 
NUMBER 25 13 

IDEAL 

1 Supratidal 

INTERTIDAL PROFILE 

1 measured 1 

i

 i n

 i 1 kilometers 1 

(km) 

1 1 

| 1 

HIGH 

1

 Intertidal ' 

1 1 

.?;$V Approx. 

'.' . .'-':: •.'•':••; >*? •*Vj@frtj > ^ ^ 

r e ^ a C e 

measured 

in 

hectare 

(ha) 

LOW 

Intertidal 

Mean Sea Level (MSL) 

p

'atf 

Subtidal 

' Mean High Water (MHW) 

~r 

•^r>~^! Mean Low Water (MLW) 

EXPOSED 

BEDROCK 

PROTECTED 

MLW 

MHW 

MSL 

MLW 

FIGURE 9.—Difference between high- and low-intertidal regions for the purpose of geomorphic classification: upper, 

idealized intertidal profile; lower, contrast between profiles 

in exposed (high wave energy) versus protected (low wave 

energy) intertidal sites. 

strandline backed by exposed bedrock and/or a 

coarse-grained storm berm. 

In the study area, 8.8% of the high-intertidal 

shoreline consists of pocket beaches. The distribution of these features is more abundant in the 

more exposed lower half of the main bay decreasing toward the north (Figure 10). No pocket 

beaches are present in the protected areas of 

either Joy Bay or the Grand Marsh/West Bay 

complex. Three types of pocket beaches are differentiated by the size of the sediment comprising the beach. These three types are gravel, 

mixed sand and gravel (hereafter referred to as 

mixed), and sand. 
14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

POCKET BEACHES Sand 

Gravel 

Mixed 

kilometers 

FIGURE 10.—Distribution of pocket beaches in Gouldsboro Bay. 
NUMBER 25 15 

Gravel: Gravel pocket beaches account for 

43.8% of all pocket beaches and 3.9% of the total 

high-intertidal shoreline of the study area. They 

are found predominantly near the mouth of the 

bay (Figure 10), suggesting the importance of 

higher wave-energy in their genesis and maintenance. To be classified as a gravel pocket beach, 

at least 75% of the beach material must be gravel 

size (>2 mm). 

An example of a gravel pocket beach is found 

at the southern end of Dyer Pt. (GBP-4 on Figure 

8). This south-facing beach, protected only 

slightly by the more seaward Sally Islands, is 

exposed to near open-ocean conditions. Because 

of this exposure to high wave-energy conditions, 

beach slope is steep (Kemp, 1961) and the sediment on the beach is composed of very wellrounded material of cobble to boulder size (>64 

mm). The profile station for this beach exhibits 

a large, steep, storm berm that decreases in gradient and grain size downslope (Figure 11). Several secondary berms are located just below the 

primary storm berm. Moving seaward, the gradient continues to decrease across a mixed gravel 

ramp. The grain size of this ramp decreases from 

boulders on the right to pebbles on the left 

(Figure 11, field sketch). This sediment dispersal 

pattern suggests greater wave exposure to the 

right of the beach which, in turn, correlates well 

with the lower bedrock outcrops seaward of the 

ramp on the right side of the beach. The slope 

continues to decrease until the appearance of 

boulders covered with the rockweeds, Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus spp. This change occurs 

between the lower quarter and the halfway level 

of the intertidal zones. From this point well into 

the subtidal region, the boulders are covered 

with several distinct, shore-parallel, algal bands. 

Mixed: Mixed pocket beaches account for 

44.9% of all pocket beaches and 3.9% of the total 

high-intertidal shoreline. These features are concentrated in either the lower or upper third of 

the main bay (Figure 10), wherever a moderately 

long fetch is attainable and sediment cover is 

thin. The mixed beaches in the lower main bay 

receive the same amount of wave energy as the 

gravel pocket beaches, but are slightly more protected by either a bedrock outcrop on the lowtide terrace or a shoreline orientation that is less 

exposed to wave attack. The beaches in the upper 

main bay are active when the wind blows from 

the southerly quadrants, thereby producing 

swells large enough to reach this south-facing 

shoreline. A contributing factor to the scarcity 

of mixed pocket beaches in the central third of 

the bay may be the short fetch from the easterly 

or westerly quadrants. To be classified as a mixed 

pocket beach at least 25% of the beach sediment 

must be one size class (either sand or gravel). 

The mixed pocket beach at Canes Cove (GBP7 on Figure 8) consists of a moderately-steep 

upper beach predominantly composed of gravel. 

The beach makes an abrupt transition at the midtide level to a low-lying mixed mud and sand flat 

strewn with rockweed-covered boulders (Figure 

12). The lowest band on the high beach (X on 

Figure 12, field sketch) shows a decrease from 

gravel to sand from left to right. This again is 

caused by the greater wave exposure on the left 

side due to less bedrock protection on the more 

seaward low-tide terrace. 

Sand: Sand pocket beaches account for 

11.3% of all pocket beaches and only 1.0% of 

the total Gouldsboro high-intertidal shoreline. 

They are found scattered throughout the lower 

half of the main bay (Figure 10), occurring at 

locations with substantial protection from wave 

attack and with an adequate sand supply. To be 

classified as a sand beach at least 75% of the 

sediment must be sand size (0.062 to 2 mm). 

The small sand pocket beach at Lobster Cove 

(GBP-5 on Figure 8) consists of a moderately 

steep upper beach decreasing in gradient seaward to a gentle-sloping sand flat (Figure 13). 

The concentration of gravel on the mid-tide 

beach (Figure 13, field sketch) is an indication 

that wave energy seems insufficient to move this 

material up the steeper, high-beach slope. The 

beach is open to the west and is punctuated with 

large bedrock outcrops on the low-tide terrace. 

Only a limited amount of wave energy reaches 

this beach because of the restricted fetch and 
16 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 17 

M H W 

GBP-4 

10 20 30 40 

DISTANCE IN 

50 60 

METERS 

70 80 90 100 

FIGURE 11.—Profile station GBP-4 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes gravel pocket 

beaches: facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, topographic profile. 
18 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 19 

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FIGURE 12.—Profile station GBP-7 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes mixed sand and 

gravel pocket beaches: facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, topographic 

profile. 
20 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 21 

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FIGURE 13.—Profile station GBP-5 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes sand pocket 

beaches: facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, topographic profile. 
22 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

baffling effects of the more seaward bedrock 

outcrops on the low-tide terrace. 

LINEAR FRINGING BEACH.—Another common 

geomorphic feature in Gouldsboro Bay is the 

linear fringing beach. This feature, less striking 

than a pocket beach, is easily mistaken for a 

rubbly bedrock shoreline. Linear fringing 

beaches are similar to the "continuous linear 

beaches' described by Ward et al. (1980) for the 

outer Kenai Peninsula of Alaska. The characteristics that distinguish linear fringing beaches are 

(1) an extensive, uninterrupted, linear strandline; 

(2) a shore-parallel width varying from several 

hundred meters to over a kilometer; (3) generally 

subrounded to subangular beach material; (4) a 

sediment source predominantly derived from the 

unconsolidated bluff located immediately behind 

the beach, and (5) an eroding, unconsolidated 

bluff backing the entire beach length. 

In the study area 14.1% of the high-intertidal 

shoreline consists of linear fringing beaches. The 

occurrence of fringing beaches is high in the 

central and upper sections of the main bay and 

decreasing toward the lower end (Figure 14). In 

Joy Bay and upper West Bay fringing beaches 

are common and are almost always found in 

conjunction with till bluffs. Though numerous 

bluffs exist in Grand Marsh Bay, sufficient waveenergy is not generated to rework the bluffs into 

fringing beaches. 

An example of a linear fringing beach is found 

on the western shore south of Pt. Francis (GBP2 in Figure 8). This profile station is characterized by a wide, intertidal beach backed by a high 

bluff (four m) composed of glacial till (Figure 

15). The moderately sloping upper beach consists of subangular to angular granules to boulders arranged into two shore-parallel bands. The 

lower two-thirds of the beach has a more gentle 

slope and is made up of a flattened pavement of 

sand and gravel. This pavement, which is most 

striking in the mid-intertidal area, has the appearance of a "cobblestone street" (Figure 15). 

Such an imbricated pattern, commonly observed 

in fringing beaches where an abundant supply of 

angular to subangular cobbles to boulders are 

found, is similar to what Hansom (1983) found 

at several sub-antarctic sites. It is apparent that 

the upper portion of this profile is erosional 

because of the number of uprooted and tilted 

trees found on the bluff crest and slope (Figure 

15). The undercutting and slumping at the base 

of the bluff indicates that substantial erosion is 

occurring. This process is most active at spring 

high tides during periods of strong onshore 

winds (personal observations). 

EXPOSED BEDROCK.—The exposed bedrock 

shoreline in the study area is quite abundant, as 

it is along much of the coast of Maine. Because 

of its location in the eastern section of the islandbay igneous complex, the existing bedrock is 

uniform in composition (silicic and intermediate) 

and form (massive) (Chapman, 1962a). This uniformity is in direct contrast to the bays that are 

more complicated structurally and compositionally, such as Frenchman Bay, located west of the 

study area (Figure 1). As noted previously, some 

mafic intrusions occur as partially weathered 

dikes, but appear to exercise little geomorphic 

control. The locations of pocket beaches are 

found along stretches of bedrock shoreline having no obvious structural or compositional variation, although the formation of coves may be in 

sites of greater fracturing (Kelley, pers. comm., 

1983). The exact mechanisms that shape a rockbound, cliffed shoreline have been investigated, 

but little quantitative work that actually documents the overall cliff-forming processes is available (Davies, 1980; Bird, 1976). However, several studies on the evolution of cliff profiles have 

stressed the interaction of marine verses subaerial erosional forces (e.g., Sunamura, 1977; 

Emery and Kuhn, 1982). In the Gouldsboro area, 

the role of wave energy, quarrying, jointing, and 

sheeting in modification of bedrock shorelines 

has been discussed for Mt. Desert Island and the 

Schoodic Peninsula (e.g., Chapman, 1958, 

1962b; Chapman and Wingard, 1958). Except 

for the outer Sally Islands and the lower bay 

headlands, the control of the shoreline geometry 

by bedrock structure and composition is minimal 

in the Gouldsboro Bay area. 
NUMBER 25 23 

FRINGING BEACHES 

kilometers 

FIGURE 14.—Distribution of linear fringing beaches in Gouldsboro Bay. 
24 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 25 

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26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

In the study area, 38.5% of the high-intertidal 

shoreline consists of exposed bedrock coast. Bedrock shoreline is evenly distributed throughout 

the entire complex except for several distinct 

gaps (Figure 16). These gaps can be divided into 

two general groups. The first, represented by 

two areas in West Bay—the area immediately 

south and west of Pt. Francis, and the northern 

portion of Joy Bay—are all backed by a large 

eroding bluff of mud or till. The second type is 

found in marshes along the upper reaches of 

West Bay, Little Marsh, and Grand Marsh (see 

Figure 2 for geographic locations). In both cases 

the bedrock along the shoreline is present, but is 

buried by the abundant late Quaternary sediments in the immediate local area. The only 

other trend observable along the bedrock shoreline is the transition from smooth, debris-free 

outcrops in the lower end of the main bay to a 

more ragged, debris-covered area in the peripheral tributary bays. This phenomenon correlates 

well with the decrease in wave energy from south 

to north within the bay complex due to shoreline 

orientation, fetch, and shoaling of the subtidal 

basin. 

The exposed bedrock shoreline of Gouldsboro 

Bay is subdivided into three types. These subdivisions are differentiated by variability in the 

shore-normal gradient, amount of vertical relief, 

and width of the low-intertidal region. The types 

described for the study area include low slope, 

intermediate slope, and steep slope (Figure 16). 

Low Slope: Low-slope shoreline accounts for 

42.9% of all exposed bedrock and 16.5% of the 

total high-intertidal shoreline of the study area. 

The distribution of low slope generally seems 

random throughout the bay and does not correspond well with the slight changes in bedrock 

lithology. To be classified as a low-slope shoreline, the high-intertidal relief does not exceed 

two meters, the overall dip of the bedrock along 

the profile is less than five degrees, and the lowtide terrace is wide (often several hundred meters). 

An example of a low-slope shoreline is located 

on the central-western shore, two kilometers 

south of the tip of Pt. Francis (A on Figure 8). 

Although no permanent profile was established, 

this station illustrates all the characteristics of the 

low-slope type (Figure 18). The area is flat and 

wide, sloping at an estimated one degree or less 

over an entire shore platform of several hundred 

meters. Since this station is in the central portion 

of the main bay, and slightly protected by a 

headland, the exposure to wave attack is moderate. This is well substantiated by the abundance 

of loose rubble found on the upper "beach." 

Intermediate Slope: Intermediate-slope shoreline contributes 31.1% of all exposed bedrock 

and 12.0% of the total high-intertidal shoreline 

of the Gouldsboro area. The only correlation of 

the distribution of intermediate slope with lithology occurs at the entrance to the main bay. 

There is a great abundance of intermediate-slope 

shoreline at the mouth of the bay (Figure 16) 

that corresponds to a terrane of biotite and biotite-muscovite granite (Figure 7). Intermediateslope shoreline is found commonly throughout 

the rest of the Gouldsboro area, especially in the 

West/Grand Marsh Bay complex, but its distribution does not correspond with gross lithology. 

To be classified an intermediate-slope shoreline, 

the high-intertidal relief is greater than two meters, the overall dip of the bedrock along the 

profile is between 5° and 15°, and the lowintertidal shore platform is moderately wide (up 

to 100 m). 

Two variations of intermediate slope are 

found in the study area. An example of the first 

variation is found near the bay mouth on the 

eastern shore (GBP-8 on Figure 8). This profile 

station is characterized by a reasonably smooth 

surface that changes to a mixed sand and mudflat 

on the low-tide terrace (Figure 17). The smooth, 

debris-free, upper "beach," in conjunction with 

the rubbly, mid-tide "beach," indicates moderate 

wave exposure. The ambient wave-energy conditions are sufficiently competent to remove debris from the upper "beach," but are not able to 

deposit this debris in the supratidal region as a 

storm berm. Instead, the debris is concentrated 

at the mid-tide level as a rubble pavement. This 
NUMBER 25 27 

DISTRIBUTION OF BEDROCK TYPES 

ALONG THE SHORELINE 

kilometers 

FIGURE 16.—Distribution of exposed bedrock shoreline in Gouldsboro Bay. 
28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 29 

MHW (?) 

GBP-8 

10 20 30 40 

DISTANCE IN 

50 60 70 

METERS 

80 90 100 

FIGURE 17.—Profile station GBP-8 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes smooth, intermediate-slope shorelines of bedrock: facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, 

topographic profile. 
30 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

FIGURE 18.—Perspective view of low-slope exposed bedrock shoreline (Figure 8, location A). 

is in contrast to the second variation, which is 

differentiated by a blocky "stair-step" profile in 

the high-intertidal region (GBP-3 on Figure 8). 

Because of the higher wave-energy conditions at 

this profile station, bedrock rubble is commonly 

found scattered throughout the supratidal region 

(Figure 19). Only a small amount of debris is 

found below the upper "beach." This is clearly 

illustrated by the thick cover of the rockweed, A. 

nodosum, which most successfully colonizes on in 

place bedrock rather than loose debris. Both 

stations have a high-intertidal slope of 10°-12° , 

and a low-tide terrace of similar widths. The 

difference in profile smoothness is attributed primarily to slight variations in lithology and structure, being subjected to different exposures to 

wave attack. 

Steep Slope: Steep slope accounts for 26.0% 

of all exposed-bedrock shoreline and 10.0% of 

the total high-intertidal shoreline of the study 

area. Similar to low-slope shoreline, no apparent 

trends exist for the bay-wide distribution of steep 

slope. To be classified as a steep slope shoreline 

the high-intertidal relief exceeds three meters, 

the dip of the bedrock is greater than 15°, and 

the low-intertidal shore platform is generally narrow (<50 m). The selection of a 15° slope for 

the separation between intermediate and steep 

slope is based on the width of the low-tide terrace. In the study area at approximately 15°, the 

low-intertidal shore platform begins to narrow 

substantially. In high wave-energy (exposed) 

areas, particularly near the bay mouth, no perceivable change in slope and geomorphic character occurs within the regions of the intertidal 

zone (Figure 9, lower). In these cases, the break 

between the high- and low-intertidal regions is 

arbitrarily placed at the mid-tide level. 

The profile station illustrating steep-slope 

shoreline is located near the mouth of the lower 

main bay on the western shore (GBP-9 on Figure 

8). The overall slope of the high-intertidal region 

averages 17°, but along the upper part of the 

profile the slope is much steeper due to the 

blocky structural nature of the bedrock (Figure 

20). This steep upper slope appears heavily 

weathered. The larger quarried blocks collect at 

the base of the scarp in a manner similar to that 

described by Davies (1980). The thick cover of 

A. nodosum persists to mid-tide level, typical of 
NUMBER 25 31 

those areas in the bay that display exposed bedrock and debris. 

MARSH.—Stands of tidal salt marsh are commonly found in the many protected areas along 

most of eastern coastal Maine. To date, only a 

few detailed investigations of New England salt 

marshes have been conducted far to the south. 

Two examples of these detailed studies are near 

New London, Connecticut (Miller and Egler, 

1950) and in Barnstable, Massachusetts (Redfield, 1972). In coastal Maine only a few broad 

physiographic surveys (e.g., Penhallow, 1903; 

Johnson, 1925; Nixon, 1982) and general classifications of the marsh types (e.g., Anderson and 

Race, 1980) have been undertaken. An exhaustive study of the ecology and evolution of a 

northern New England marsh has not been initiated to compare its characteristics to the southern counterparts. A comparison between Gouldsboro Bay and the southern New England marshes 

illustrates two distinct differences. First, the overall profile in Gouldsboro is steeper, which is due 

to the increased tidal range in Maine. Second, 

the zonation of marsh vegetation appears more 

complex than that reported for the southern 

New England marshes. 

In the study area, 38.6% of high-intertidal 

shoreline possesses some form of marsh development. The occurrence of marsh is ubiquitous 

throughout the entire bay area, but it is most 

abundantly found in the tributary bays (Figure 

21). Because of distinct differences in size, location, and degree of vegetation zonation, three 

distinct marsh types have been identified in the 

Gouldsboro area. These three types are mature, 

brackish, and fringing. In addition, fringing 

marsh can be further subdivided into primary 

and secondary growth, depending on the degree 

of dominance of marsh colonization at a specific 

site. 

Mature: Due to its large areal extent, mature 

marsh is measured in both surface area coverage 

and linear distance of high-intertidal shoreline. 

Mature marsh covers 80 ha of high-intertidal 

(and low-supratidal) region. This accounts for 

13.2% of all marsh deposits and 6.9% of the 

high-intertidal shoreline when both are measured as a linear distance. The area of coverage 

includes all of Grand Marsh and Little Marsh 

Bays (Figure 2). The characteristics that distinguish a mature marsh are as follows: (1) existence 

in large funnel-shaped embayments; (2) frequent 

meandering tidal channels and tributaries with 

little freshwater input; (3) distinct zonation of 

vegetation; (4) numerous salt pans and "rotten 

spots" (Chapman, 1960) on the high marsh surface; and (5) a narrow tidal channel compared to 

the overall width of the marsh surface. 

The profile station illustrating a mature marsh 

is located at the northwest corner of Grand 

Marsh (GMB-2 on Figure 8). The profile begins 

in the mixed forest and extends across the marsh 

surface down to a slumping tidal channel (Figure 

22). The high-marsh surface is a mixture of 

shrubs (at the higher end only) and several 

grasses includingywncw^ gerardi and Spartina patens. Near the center of the transect, the profile 

traverses a salt pan that displays the typical major 

vegetation zones described for other New England salt marshes (Miller and Egler, 1950). The 

lower half of the high-marsh surface has two 

distinct vegetation zones. The first, and largest, 

is almost exclusively "cowlicked" S. patens, 

whereas the second, immediately adjacent to the 

bank, is a mixed zone of 5. patens and Triglochin 

maritima (?). The bank edge is marked by a near 

vertical drop caused by the slumping of large 

blocks of marsh that are colonized by S. alterniflora (Figure 22, field sketch). The profile ends 

near the thalweg of the tidal creek channel. 

Brackish: Brackish marsh accounts for 20.7% 

of all lineally distributed marsh and 10.9% of the 

total high-intertidal shoreline in the Gouldsboro 

area. Similar in distribution to the mature-type, 

brackish marsh is only found in the protected 

areas of the intertidal tributary bays. The distinguishing characteristics of a brackish marsh are 

as follows: (1) a location along narrow channels 

that connect freshwater streams with the tributary bays; (2) straight tidal channels with few 

tributaries; (3) a weak zonation of vegetation; (4) 

no salt pans or "rotten" spots on the marsh surface; and (5) a wide tidal channel compared to 

the overall width of the marsh surface (as much 
32 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 33 

2 _ 

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GBP-3 

10 20 30 40 50 60 

DISTANCE IN METERS 

70 80 90 100 

FIGURE 19.—Profile station GBP-3 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes blocky, intermediate-slope shorelines of bedrock: facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, 

topographic profile. 
34 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
NUMBER 25 35 

GBP-9 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 

DISTANCE IN METERS 

H 1 1 

80 90 100 

FIGURE 20.—Profile station GBP-9 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes steep-slope shorelines of bedrock: facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, topographic profile. 
36 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

MARSHES 

Mature 

Brackish 

Fringing 

Primary 

Secondary 

kilometers 

FIGURE 21.—Distribution of marshes in Gouldsboro Bay. 
NUMBER 25 37 

as one half of the total marsh width at its seaward 

edge). Brackish marsh is most easily distinguished 

from mature marsh because it tends to occupy 

the banks of small narrow channels with a high 

freshwater discharge, whereas mature marsh favors larger, funnel-shaped basins with strong 

tidal circulation. The brackish marshes of 

Gouldsboro Bay strongly resemble eastern Connecticut marshes that contain small, finger-like 

projections of marsh area with significant freshwater input. Because these marshes grow in estuarine conditions, they have been described as 

being under the influence of "estuary effects' 

(Miller and Egler, 1950). The differences between these marshes are as follows: (1) the zonation in the Gouldsboro area is similar to a typical 

mature marsh and, (2) the natural levees characterizing the Connecticut marshes are weaklydeveloped in Gouldsboro. 

The profile station characterizing brackish 

marsh is located in Timber Cove between West 

Bay and the main bay (WBP-2 on Figure 8). 

Starting in the mixed forest, the profile then 

traverses two narrow bands, one of Scirpus spp. 

and the other of "cowlicked" S. patens (Figure 

23). The profile then crosses a small levee and 

continues down the bank through a stand of tall 

S. alterniflora. Finally, the profile ends on a mud 

flat along the side of a tidal creek channel that 

also drains a small freshwater stream. 

Fringing: Fringing marsh accounts for 66.1 % 

of all marsh deposits and 34.6 of the total highintertidal shoreline in the study area. Fringing 

marsh is the dominant shoreline type in all three 

of the tributary bays, but is present in the main 

bay, particularly on the eastern shore in the apex 

of protected coves (Figure 21). Characteristically, 

a fringing marsh (1) exists as a narrow shoreparallel band, rarely exceeding a five meter 

width; (2) has little or no zonation of vegetation; 

and (3) lacks salt pans, "rotten spots," tidal creeks, 

and tributaries due to its small size. Fringing 

marshes are further subdivided into primary and 

secondary forms based on the percentage of surface cover for a specific site. 

Primary fringing marsh includes 39.7% of all 

marsh deposits and 20.8% of the high-intertidal 

shoreline. Because it colonizes only highly protected areas, primary marsh is the dominant 

cover for a specific site. This type of marsh 

deposit, affected little by wave attack and ice 

scouring, persists year to year. An example of 

primary fringing marsh is found in the apex of a 

deeply-incised cove on the northeastern shore of 

the main bay (GBP-6 on Figure 8). This profile 

station exhibits a small but lush deposit of marsh 

in the high-intertidal region (Figure 24). The 

vegetation zonation at this station is perhaps less 

organized than the majority of primary fringing 

marshes. This may be caused by the greater 

exposure to wave attack than other primary 

fringing deposits. This greater exposure is well 

documented by the numerous, well-organized 

wrack lines found on the upper strandline. Reduced exposure to wave attack results in a 

stronger zonation of vegetation and a discontinuous or often missing wrack line. The low-tide 

terrace of this station consists of a sand/rock flat 

covered with the rockweed, A. nodosum. 

Secondary fringing marsh consists of 26.4% of 

all marsh deposits. Secondary fringing marsh 

colonizes sections of shorelines that are already 

established as another geomorphic feature, particularly pocket and fringing beaches. Unlike 

primary marshes, this marsh-type is highly exposed and is therefore subject to continual reworking by wave attack and ice scouring. This 

produces a seasonal cycle of "dying back" of 

marsh grasses during the winter and growth during the lower-energy summer months. In most 

secondary marshes only the rooting system remains at the beginning of spring (Figure 26). 

The profile station illustrating secondary marsh 

is located on the central-western shore of West 

Bay (WBP-1 on Figure 8). A narrow band of 

secondary marsh, rooted with "stunted" 5. alterniflora, colonizes the area at the base of the clay 

bluff. Because of the easterly exposure to the 

"northeaster" storm, these clumps have barely 

maintained a "foothold" on the high intertidal 

beach (Figure 25). Further seaward, the slope 

decreases and the area becomes a mudflat colonized with the seagrass, Zostera marina. 
38 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 
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FIGURE 25.—Profile station WBP-1 (location on Figure 8) that characterizes secondary fringing 

marshes; facing page, field sketch; upper, perspective view; lower, topographic profile. 
46 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

FIGURE 26.—Example of winter erosion that occurs in secondary fringing marshes, causing exposure of grass rhizomes; without further erosion, grass will sprout again in 

summer. (Scale in foreground is 15 cm long.) 

Geomorphology of the Low-intertidal Region 

The low-intertidal region, the area approximately between the mid-tide level and low water, 

is generally differentiated from the high-intertidal region by a low-lying, expansive area of 

flats. The two exceptions to this general trend 

are located at extreme opposite ends of the waveenergy spectrum. Mature marsh, located at sites 

of very low wave-energy conditions, is characterized by an extensive areal coverage in the highintertidal to supratidal regions. In contrast, 

steep- and intermediate-slope bedrock shorelines 

usually located in sites of very high wave-energy 

conditions, particularly near the bay's mouth, 

have little or no low-intertidal area. In the study 

area, about one-third of the surface area of the 

entire bay complex is composed of geomorphic 

features from the low-intertidal region. Except 

for the small areal coverage of the high-intertidal 

region, the remainder of the bay is predominantly subtidal in nature (marshes being of secondary importance). The flats that comprise the 

extensive shore platform (low-tide terrace) are 

well developed in areas such as Gouldsboro because of a terrane dominated by homogeneous 

bedrock with little structural or lithological variation (Bird, 1976). In the low-intertidal region 

of Gouldsboro Bay, five major geomorphic features occur: mud flat, mud/rock flat, sand/rock 

flat, rock ledge, and mussel bar. These types are 

distinguished primarily on the basis of the combinations of sediment type and grain size. Photographs of the different features are presented, 

but no station profiles were established (except 

mussel bars). 

MUD FLAT.—Mud flats comprise 54.8% of the 

surface area in the low-intertidal region of the 

Gouldsboro Bay complex. The distribution of 

mud flats is confined entirely to tributary bays 

(Figure 27), because of the greater protection 

from wave attack. Mud flats in these peripheral 

bays are characterized by the following: (1) an 

extensive surface coverage beginning approximately at the mid-tide level; (2) a silty texture 

generally fining toward the shoreline; and (3) a 

low diversity and high abundance of infaunal 

macrobenthos, particularly the molluscan communities (D. Packer, unpublished data). A typical, expansive, mud flat is located at the southern 

end of Grand Marsh Bay (B on Figure 8; Figure 

28). 

The mud flats of the tributary bays of Gouldsboro are economically important because of the 

great abundance of the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria. These flats support between 100 and 200 

clam diggers on a seasonal basis with an estimated 

annual yield of 19,500 bushels (Adey, 1982). 

Other species of commercial significance are the 

bloodworm, Glycera dibronchita, and the sand 

worm, Nereis spp. Due to extensive harvesting of 

these three infaunal species, the mud flats are 
NUMBER 25 47 

the environment that is most heavily modified by 

man's activities. This is well illustrated in the 

Grand Marsh Bay flat by the myriad of unarticulated M. arenaria shells left by clam diggers 

and the numerous gouges caused by diggers 

dragging small boats across the flats (Figure 28, 

ground view). Significant superficial disturbance 

to the flat is also caused by people walking on 

the surface and holes left by clam raking. 

MUD/ROCK FLAT.—In the study area, mixed 

mud and rock flats occupy 35.1% of the surface 

area in the low-intertidal region. The concentration of mud/rock flat is primarily in the tributary 

bays and the central to upper sections of the 

main bay (Figure 27). This distribution is controlled by antecedent topography (usually the 

irregular till surface) to some degree, but it can 

also be correlated with reduced wave energy. 

The mud/rock flats in Gouldsboro are characterized by the following: (1) surface coverage generally in long and narrow shore-parallel bands; 

(2) unconsolidated sediment on the flat consisting 

of poorly sorted, silty sandy mud; and (3) diversity and abundance of infaunal macrobenthos 

being similar to that of mud flats (D. Packer, 

unpublished data). 

Two different types of mud/rock flats, found 

in the study area, are differentiated by the origin 

of the rock on the flat. The most widely distributed type consists of mud and exposed bedrock 

(e.g., C on Figure 8). Frequently, the rockweedcovered bedrock is the dominant constituent on 

this flat. The upper section of the entire eastern 

shore of the main bay is a good example of this 

type of flat (Figure 29). The second, less widely 

distributed type is characterized by mud interspersed with abundant rock debris that sits on 

top of the flats. This debris is predominantly 

glacial erratics that are remnants of eroded till 

deposits. The eastern half of Deep Cove (D on 

Figure 8) is a good example of a mud/rock flat 

strewn with all sizes of glacial erratics (Figure 30, 

aerial view), some measuring several meters in 

diameter (Figure 30, ground view). Unlike the 

mud/bedrock flats, the mud/rock-debris type is 

chiefly mud flat with only a small percentage of 

cover contributed by rock debris. 

SAND/ROCK FLAT.—Mixed sand and rock flats 

make up only 3.6% of the surface area in the 

low-intertidal region of the study area. This geomorphic type is particularly limited to flats adjacent to onshore till bluffs located in areas exposed to at least a moderate amount of wave 

energy (Figure 27). Sand/rock flats are characterized by the following: (1) a small and patchy 

distribution dictated by the interaction between 

wave energy and proximity to a bluff sediment 

source; (2) a muddy sand composition of the 

unconsolidated sediment; and (3) a low diversity 

and abundance of infaunal macrobenthic organisms (D. Packer, unpublished data). The linear 

fringing beach south of Pt. Francis is an example 

of a sand/rock flat fronting a large till bluff (E 

on Figure 8). The low intertidal region of this 

area is a mixture of loose debris and bedrock 

covered with the rockweed, A. nodosum, and 

poorly-sorted, shelly sand (Figure 31). 

ROCK LEDGE.—In the study area, bedrock 

ledge accounts for 5.2% of the surface cover in 

the low-intertidal region. Generally, low-intertidal bedrock is found only near the mouth of 

the main bay, in locations subject to high waveenergy conditions (Figure 27). This category is 

defined by the following: (1) an occurrence in 

narrow bands near the bay mouth; (2) a composition primarily of bedrock and some loose debris 

covered with A. nodosum and Fucus spp.; and (3) 

an area covered by hard-bottom benthic invertebrates, such as several species of periwinkles, 

Littorina spp.; the northern rock barnacle, Balanus balanoides; the dogwinkle, Nucella lapillus; 

the green crab, Carcinus maenas; and the tortoise-shell limpet, Acmaea testudinalis. The bedrock rimming the low-intertidal region of Dyer 

Pt. is a typical example of this geomorphic type 

(F on Figure 8). The rockweed-covered bedrock 

and debris is highly variable at this site due to 

extensive exposure and reworking by high waveenergy conditions (Figure 32). 

MUSSEL BAR.—Mussel bars account for only 

1.3% of the surface area in the low-intertidal 

region of the study area. This geomorphic feature is predominantly found in the center of the 

more-protected tributary bays (Figure 27). Mus-
LOW INTERTIDAL 

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES 

SYMBOLS 

Shoreline (Spring high water) 

Spring Low Tide Line 

Small Channel 

Artificial Dike 

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES 

^&% P Mussel Bars 

••?-v.--iy::v Mud Flat 

*x%*x Mud/Rock Flat 

°cpo0o Sand/Rock Flat 

'//MXl Rock Ledge 

"'#% 

kilometers 

FIGURE 27.—Distribution of geomorphic features in low 

intertidal region of Gouldsboro Bay. 
NUMBER 25 49 

FIGURE 28.—Typical mud flat in Grand Marsh Bay (Figure 8, location B): upper, aerial view 

(arrow = location of ground view); lower, ground view (white dots = Mya arenaria shells left by 

claim diggers; linear gully on flat (arrow) caused by dragging boats across flat at low tide). 
50 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

f.r-r 

FIGURE 29.—Typical mud/bedrock flat along the eastern shore of Gouldsboro Bay (Figure 8, 

location C): left, aerial view (arrow = location of ground view); right, ground view. 

sel bars are distinguished by the following: (1) 

small, circular or linear patches generally clustered around the edge of the subtidal channels; 

(2) a surface composed of highly reduced mud 

and clumps of the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis; 

and (3) a very low diversity and abundance of 

other infaunal macrobenthos. 

One of these long, narrow features in Joy Bay 

illustrates the morphology and composition of a 

typical mussel bar (JBP-1 on Figure 8). The profile station was established across the long axis of 

the mussel bar and is characterized by distinct 

windward and leeward slopes (Figure 33). The 

profile begins to the left in a mud tidal flat and 

runs up the leeward (east) slope, which is composed of clumps of blue mussels covered with B. 

balanoides. The density of the mussels increases 

toward the apex of the bar. The profile continues 

down the windward (west) slope to the edge of 

the subtidal channel. The windward slope is dramatically different from the leeward, composed 

primarily of unarticulated M. edulis and shellhash sediment (Figure 33, close-up ground view). 

Also, along the long axis of the bar, a distinct 

crescentic topography (bay and horn) is visible 

on the bar apex. This well-defined windward and 

leeward morphology characterizes most of the 

mussel bars in the intertidal tributary bays and 
NUMBER 25 51 

FIGURE 30.—Typical mud/rock-debris flat in Deep Cove (Figure 8, location D): upper, aerial 

view (arrow = location of ground view); lower, ground view. 
52 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

• 

FIGURE 31.—Typical sand/rock flat south of Pt. Francis (Marsys Beach); 

Figure 8, location E): left, aerial view (arrow = location of ground view); 

right, ground view. 

may be a response to the prevailing winds out of 

the westerly quadrants. 

Tables 1 and 2 summarize the important characteristics of geomorphic features from the highand low-intertidal regions, respectively. A listing 

of linear distances and percentages of the highintertidal geomorphic features, as well as surface 

areas and percentages of the low-intertidal geomorphic features, is presented in Table 3. A map 

depicting all the major geomorphic categories in 

Gouldsboro Bay is illustrated in Figure 34. 

Controls of Geomorphology 

GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK.—The most important geologic control of geomorphology in the 

Gouldsboro study area seems to be the massive 

granitic nature of the bedrock geology. Bedrock 

control is equally important along the rest of the 

Maine Coast, as well as most of New England 

(Denny, 1982). On a regional scale, the major 

coastal geomorphic divisions of the state are primarily based on the lithology and structure of 

the Paleozoic bedrock (Figure 6). On a larger 

scale, the structural fabric of the bedrock terrane 

in each of the major divisions contributes greatly 

to the Holocene geometry of the coastal bays in 

Maine. 

A second geologic control influencing geomorphology is a more recent drainage pattern 

imposed on the Paleozoic bedrock terrane. During the Pleistocene, repeated episodes of glaciation have further downcut a distinct drainage 

pattern by glacial scour and stream detrition. 

This repeated scour and detrition have left behind deeply incised basins that are expressed 

offshore on the shelf as ancestral valleys and 

inshore as thalwegs of many of the coastal bays. 

Several studies have downplayed the role of late 

Cenozoic erosion as a major modifying agent in 

New England (e.g., Denny, 1982). They stress 

that, in particular, Pleistocene glaciation has produced only minor changes in drainage and topography. Recent investigation of the shelf off 

the Maine Coast suggests a greater importance 

of late Cenozoic erosion based primarily on the 

study of bathymetry on the shelf and its relationship to present bay geometries and fluvial inputs 

(unpublished data). 

DISTRIBUTION OF GLACIAL MORAINES.—The 
NUMBER 25 53 

~*2~^-***t0&jL 

**- * •- • 

FIGURE 32.—Typical rock ledge in low-intertidal region off Dyer Pt. (Figure 8, location F): 

upper, aerial view (arrow = location of ground view); lower, ground view. 
54 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

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NUMBER 25 55 

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56 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

TABLE 1.—Distinguishing characteristics of geomorphic features in high-intertidal region. 

Geomorphic 

POCKET BEACH 

Gravel 

Mixed 

Sand 

features 

LINEAR FRINGING BEACH 

EXPOSED BEDROCK 

Low slope 

Intermediate 

Steep slope 

MARSH 

Mature 

Brackish 

Fringing 

Primary 

Secondary 

slope 

Characteristics 

arcuate strandline 

beach length <200 m 

sediment rounded to subrounded 

sediment derived from adjacent headlands 

backed by storm berm or bedrock 

gravel >75% of sediment 

>25% sand or gravel 

sand >75% of sediment 

linear strandline 

beach length >200 m 

sediment subrounded to subangular 

sediment derived from unconsolidated bluffs in supratidal 

region 

relief <2 m 

dip<5 ° 

low-tide terrace >100 m 

relief >2 m 

dip5°-15 ° 

low-tide terrace <100 m 

relief >3 m 

dip>15 ° 

low-tide terrace <50 m 

occupies funnel-shaped embayments 

meandering tidal channels with numerous tributaries 

little freshwater input 

distinct vegetation zonation 

numerous salt pans and rotten spots 

narrow tidal channel 

occupies sides of channels 

straight tidal channel with few tributaries 

high freshwater input 

weak vegetation zonation 

few salt pans and rotten spots 

wide tidal channel 

shore-parallel width < 5 m 

little or no vegetation zonation 

lacks salt pans, tidal creeks, and tributaries 

persists year to year (perennial) 

recolonizes every year (annual) 
NUMBER 25 57 

TABLE 2.—Distinguishing characteristics of geomorphic features in low-intertidal region. 

Geomorphic 

features 

M UD FLAT 

MUD/ROCK FLAT 

Bedrock 

Rock debris 

SAND/ROCK FLAT 

ROCK LEDGE 

MUSSEL BAR 

Characteristics 

extensive surface coverage 

composed of silty mud fining toward the shoreline 

low diversity and high abundance of infaunal macrobenthos 

narrow shore-parallel bands 

composed of poorly-sorted silty to sandy mud 

low diversity and high abundance of infaunal microbenthos 

exposed bedrock outcrops 

glacial erratics sitting on mud flat 

in association with linear fringing beaches 

small and patchy distribution 

composed of muddy sand 

low diversity and abundance of macrobenthos 

narrow shore-parallel bands 

mixture of bedrock and loose debris 

high diversity and moderate abundance of attached macrobenthos 

small patches in tributary bays near tidal channels 

composed of silty mud and blue mussels 

low diversity and abundance of other macrobenthos 

second important control of geomorphology in 

the study area is the availability of sediment, 

which is determined primarily by presence or 

absence of eroding morainal bluffs along the 

shoreline. Examination of aerial photographs 

and ground-truth maps around the perimeter of 

Gouldsboro Bay reveals a significant trend along 

the longitudinal axis of the bay. It is apparent 

that there is much less ground moraine (till) in 

the southern part of the bay complex than in the 

northern part (unpublished data). This trend is 

attributed to early Holocene erosion caused by 

wave exposure during falling sea level. Whereas 

the cover of till generally decreases from north 

to south, near the center of the main bay a sharp 

transition from pocket beaches to linear fringing 

beaches occurs in the high-intertidal region (Figures 10 and 14 summarized on Figure 34). In 

the low-intertidal region change is not as evident, 

although there is an increase in the degree of 

mud cover on the mud/rock flats. Overall, these 

data shown an increase in unconsolidated-sediment cover from the southern (lower) bay to the 

northern and western (upper) reaches of the 

tributary bays. This significant trend was not 

apparent until the coastal geomorphology in 

Gouldsboro Bay was mapped in detail. 

The reason for this abrupt change along the 

bay axis is attributed to the distribution of recessional moraines in conjunction with early Holocene erosion due to wave exposure. This morainal pattern is described as a series of numerous, small, washboard moraines interspersed 

with larger, less abundant end moraines (Smith, 

1982a; 1982b). These washboard moraines imply formation by glacial calving along a grounded 

subtidal ice front that outline periodic glacial 

retreat. Measurement of the orientation of glacial striations on high-intertidal bedrock indicates that the most recent glacial movement was 

along a northwest to southeast trend in the 

Gouldsboro area (Figure 35). 
58 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

TABLE 3.—Summary of total shoreline distance for high-intertidal (HI) geomorphic features 

and total area for low-intertidal (LI) features and for subtidal area. 

Geomorphic features 

HIGH INTERTIDAL (HI) 

Pocket beach 

Gravel 

Sand 

Mixed 

Fringing beach 

Exposed bedrock 

Low 

Intermediate 

Steep 

Marsh 

Mature 

Brackish 

Fringing 

Primary 

Secondary 

Low INTERTIDAL (LI) 

Mud flat 

Mud/rock flat 

Sand/rock flat 

Rock ledge 

Mussel bar 

SUBTIDAL 

Total HI distance (km) or 

LI and subtidal area (ha) 

*81.92 

7.23 

11.52 

31.55 

42.95 

3.17 

0.82 

3.24 

13.53 

9.83 

8.19 

**5.68 

1003 

550 

352 

36 

52 

13 

2008 

8.91 

28.36 

*** 

17.04 

11.32 

Percent of total HI shoreline 

length or LI and subtidal area 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

8.8 

3.9 

1.0 

3.9 

14.1 

38.5 

16.5 

12.0 

10.0 

*38.6 

6.9 

10.9 

34.6 

20.8 

13.8 

54.8 

35.1 

3.6 

5.2 

1.3 

*Does not include secondary fringing marsh. 

**Area of mature marsh = 80.0 ha. 

***Not included in total shoreline length due to its developme it over other primary 

features already included in total. 

Another indication of the mid-bay break is 

apparent in the distribution of bluffs (truncated 

moraines) that are contiguous with the bay shoreline (Figure 36). The onset of frequent bluffs, 

beginning in midbay, correlates well with the 

increase in ground moraine cover and the transition from pocket beaches to fringing beaches 

(compare Figure 36 with Figures 10 and 14). 

This is not surprising considering that the sediment supplying the fringing beaches is derived 

from the bluffs immediately landward. 

A preliminary mapping of the areal distribution of recessional moraines clearly distinguishes 

the upper main bay from the lower portion (Figure 37). A major component of this glaciated 

terrain is the Dyer Neck Moraine. It is visible on 

the northern end of Dyer Neck, cutting across 

the bay obliquely, and reappearing in the center 

of Deep Cove on a line just north of Pt. Francis. 

To the north and west of this large end moraine 

are groups of laterally discontinuous washboard 

moraines. These washboard moraines exist as 

small clusters, usually averaging four to five in a 

row. The abundance of these features in the 

upper portion of the main bay and in the tribuFIGURE 34.—Summary of intertidal geomorphic features in 

Gouldsboro Bay (major categories only). 
GEOMORPHIC FEATURES 

OF GOULDSBORO BAY 

SYMBOLS 

Shoreline (Spring high water) 

Spring Low Tide 

Small Channel 

Artificial Dike 

SSEmsp Bluff 

GEOMORPHIC FEATURES 

High Intertidal 

• ^ H Exposed Bedrock 

Pocket Beach 

Fringing Beach 

Marsh 

Mature 

Brackish 

Primary Fringing 

Secondary Fringing 

Low Intertidal 

L * Mussel Bars 

Mud Flat 

Mud/Rock Flat 

u.,.,5o| Sand/Rock Flat 

Rock Ledge 

% 

%7% 

• ~ / 
60 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

ORIENTATION OF GLACIAL 

STRIATIONS IN BEDROCK 

kilometers 

FIGURE 35.—Orientation of glacial striations in bedrock around perimeter of Gouldsboro Bay. 
NUMBER 25 61 

BLUFFS GREATER THAN ONE 

METER IN HEIGHT 

rrrm ciay BIUM 

• i Till Bluff 

% | 0 1 2 

kilometers 

FIGURE 36.—Distribution of bluffs greater than one meter around perimeter of Gouldsboro 

Bay. 
62 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

GLACIAL FEATURES 

Contour Intervals In Feet 

30,60,120,180,240,300 

J/lU Washboard Moraines 

^^TM Large End Moraine 

Subtidal Moraines 

FIGURE 37.—Distribution of glacial moraines in vicinity of Gouldsboro Bay (compiled from 

numerous sources; Line A-A' = location of seismic subbottom profile in Figure 40). 
NUMBER 25 63 

tary bays provides a very large source of sediment 

not available to the lower half of the main bay. 

Several other bay conditions are strongly affected by this distinct morainal pattern. These 

conditions are the bathymetry in the main bay, 

the characteristics of the subtidal bottom sediments, the benthic infaunal communties, and the 

subbottom bay structure. These conditions all 

have well-defined up-bay and down-bay components. 

The bathymetric relief in the main bay 

changes abruptly across the mid-bay break (Figure 3). Seaward of the break, the bay is shaped 

like a "bathtub," having steep walls and a fairly 

flat bottom. Landward of the break, where the 

depth decreases rapidly, is a shallow muddy shelf 

with a deep channel cutting across it that drains 

the tributary bays. This shallow plain above the 

break appears to be the subtidal expression of 

the Dyer Neck and other associated moraines 

that run across the bay. 

The texture of the subtidal bottom sediments 

also change abruptly across the mid-bay break 

(Figure 38). Immediately seaward of the break, 

the bottom sediments are a sandy, silty mud, 

moderately armored on the sediment surface 

with shell fragments and pebble- to cobble-size 

gravel. Landward of the break, the sediment 

texture is a silty mud, rarely covered with any 

type of surface debris. This transition appears to 

be a function of depth, changing abruptly from 

one bottom type to the other over just several 

hundreds of meters, with a depth change of only 

four meters. 

The variation in diversity and abundance of 

infaunal macrobenthos follows the same abrupt 

transition as the bottom sediments across the 

mid-bay break. Using distribution of mollusks as 

an example, diversity and abundance (particularly the protobranch bivalve Nucula proxima) 

are quite different for representative sample sites 

on either side of the break (Figure 39). In addition to the greater abundance of organisms 

found when comparing the lower bay with the 

entire bay complex, a total of 13 additional 

benthic species are found only in the lower bay 

to offshore. The more common organisms contributing to the greater lower bay diversity include the gastropods Alvania carinata, Retusa 

obtusa, and Lora spp. (?). The bivalve Arctica 

islandica is also found only in the lower bay (D. 

Packer, unpublished data). 

Finally, the most significant difference between the upper and lower portions of the main 

bay is the dramatic change in subbottom structure across the mid-bay break. A seismic subbottom profile down the longitudinal axis of the 

main bay discloses an abrupt change across the 

mid-bay break (Figure 40). The darkest subbottom reflector is interpreted as a glacial till surface 

(or possibly bedrock covered with till). The light 

irregular reflector above the till surface has been 

verified by coring as the top of the glaciomarine 

mud of the Presumpscot Formation (unpublished 

data). The till surface outcropping subsequently 

is interpreted as the subtidal expression of the 

Dyer Neck Moraine (Figure 40) that marks the 

beginning of the mid-bay shoaling (break). To 

the south of the moraine the till surface is irregular, but has smooth valley and ridge relief. To 

the north of the moraine the till surface has a 

smaller relief but a higher frequency of roughness consisting of numerous sharp pinnacles. 

The exact processes responsible for these differences is only speculative at this time, but variations in the till (bedrock?) surface relief suggest 

different histories for each subtidal region. Even 

though the entire bay was inundated with the 

marine mud of the Presumpscot Formation, the 

upper bay surface (north of the Dyer Neck Moraine) appears intact or at most slightly eroded 

by glaciofluvial or protected marine conditions. 

On the contrary, the lower bay surface (south of 

the Dyer Neck Moraine) exhibits relief suggesting wave reworking of the region when it was an 

exposed marginal marine environment. 

The implication of these differences across the 

mid-bay break may be a clue to understanding 

the controlling processes that affect the distribution of geomorphic features in the Gouldsboro 

area. From the direct evidence in this study, it is 

clear that an important controlling factor that 
64 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

SUBTIDAL BOTTOM 

SEDIMENTS 

BOTTOM TYPES 

Armored 

Sparse 

Dense 

Silty Mud 

Sandy Silty Mud 

Shelly Silty Sand 

Shell Hash 

Rock 

0»° \^ \ 

0 1 2 

Kilometers 

FIGURE 38.—Texture of subtidal bottom sediments in Gouldsboro Bay; map based on sand, 

silt, and clay analysis from 60 samples and hand identification of 310 samples (sparse cover = 

<50% surface cover, dense cover = >50%). 
NUMBER 25 65 

C 

3 

O 

co 

3 

T3 

"O 

C 

c 

o 

a> 

a. 

Nucula 

proxima 

Nucula 

delphinodonta 

Astarte 

undata 

100% -

75% -

50% -

25% -

0 -

0.5 

99.5 

• • I UDDer

 Do " 

CIA A 

80.2 

19.8 

1 5.6 

1 1 1 1 1 1 ower 

71 

Bay 

i.8 

21.2 

1 

Cyclocardia 

borealis 

FIGURE 39.—Comparison by percentages between upper and lower main bay of the four most 

abundant mollusk species (100% = total number of individuals from 20 stations; modified from 

D. Packer, unpublished data). 

^=B=WATE R SURFACE; 

BAY BOTTOM 

2 FATHOM S 

22TI 

5 KM 

Tip ' .**?'*. T^^fe ^ 

ET32S 

FIGURE 40.—Subbottom seismic profile from upper portion of main bay of Gouldsboro (line 

A-A' on Figure 37; seismic profile was taken with an Alden ORE 19T seismic profiler at 3.5 

kHz). 
66 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

governs shoreline geomorphology is the abundance and texture of sediment that, in turn, is a 

function of morainal-bluff distribution around 

the perimeter of the bay. The late Pleistocene 

events involving the glacial recession and its resultant surficial expression (i.e., end and washboard moraines) have influenced the distribution 

of morainal bluffs. Finally, as inferred from the 

subbottom seismic profile, two distinct processes 

have affected the upper and lower portions of 

the main bay, respectively. It seems possible that 

the up-bay area of Gouldsboro was never subjected to any significant marginal marine processes and, therefore, was not exposed to an extensive erosional episode. This may be due to 

variations in isostatic crustal rebound that isolated this area above sea level before any significant dissection could occur, or possibly because 

of simple protection from wave attack or the 

dispersion of swell by topographic highs around 

the mid-bay break. These present-day highs 

would have been islands at a higher sea-level 

stand. In contrast, the down-bay area below the 

mid-bay break was exposed to extensive wave 

reworking that stripped the lower end of the bay 

of any significant sediment cover that could be 

reworked by a subsequent rise in sea level later 

in the Holocene (i.e., the present). 

PHYSICAL FACTORS.—Two distinct physical 

factors appear to control the distribution of geomorphic features in Gouldsboro Bay. These two 

factor are the degree of exposure to wave attack 

and the effects of ice during the winter. In turn, 

the degree of influence by these physical factors 

on the configuration of the shoreline is a response to two physiographic parameters: shoreline orientation and fetch. Figure 4 displays the 

seasonal wind roses for a site near the Gouldsboro area. These data, reinterpreted as seasonal 

wind vectors, show that the strongest winds blow 

directly or obliquely across the narrow width of 

the bay (Figure 41). Only moderate summer sea 

breezes from the south and an occasional strong 

northerly blow are coincident with the longest 

fetch along the north-south axis of the bay. This 

interaction between the physical factors and physiographic parameters continuously modifies the 

present shoreline of the study area. 

The degree of wave exposure for any point 

along the shoreline is directly related to shoreline 

orientation, fetch, and the amount bf bedrock 

outcropping in the low-intertidal region. Shoreline orientation and fetch determine the intensity 

of wave energy that reaches the intertidal regions. The height and areal coverage of bedrock 

in the low-intertidal region dictate the extent of 

protection to the high-intertidal region. Two 

examples in the study area illustrate this relationship. First, the distribution of pocket beaches 

shows a very distinct trend (Figure 10). Gravel 

beaches are found either near the mouth of the 

bay (open to oceanic swell) or on the western 

shore in the center of the main bay (open to 

storm waves from the "northeasters"). In both 

areas orientation and/or fetch favor high-energy 

wave conditions. In contrast, the few sand-pocket 

beaches existing in the study area are usually in 

the apex of deeply incised coves (protected by 

orientation and/or bedrock outcrops). Intermediate in relation to wave energy, mixed pocket 

beaches are located in some abundance in the 

lower half of the main bay (eastern and western 

shore) and on southeasterly trending coast on the 

upper main-bay shoreline. A second example is 

more site specific. Lobster Cove is one of the 

deeply incised coves located on the lower eastern 

shore (Figure 2). It consists of three arcuate lobes 

in the high-intertidal region and a sand/rock flat 

scattered with bedrock outcrops in the low-intertidal region (Figure 42). The two outer lobes are 

sand pocket beaches (open to just enough wave 

attack to rework the sediments), whereas the 

middle lobe is a small primary fringing marsh 

(protected by an extensive bedrock outcrop on 

the low-tide terrace). 

The effects of ice accumulation and movement 

during the winter have been documented for 

inshore lakes and ponds of Maine (e.g., Hanson 

and Caldwell, 1983). Evidence of ice effects 

along most of coastal Maine, including the 

Gouldsboro area, are hampered by the lack of 

winter observations, little official documentation 
NUMBER 25 67 

TYPICAL ANNUAL WIND PATTERNS 

FIGURE 41.—Schematic summary of typical annual wind patterns for Gouldsboro Bay area 

(compiled from Figure 4 and Lautzenheiser, 1972). 
68 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

FIGURE 42.—Aerial view of Lobster Cove. 

of ice cover, and the tremendous variation of ice 

formation from year to year (Fefer and Schettig, 

1980). Because the occurrence of ice in Gouldsboro Bay has been monitored for only one twoweek period (March, 1982), additional processes 

not yet observed may be important. 

Excluding the lowermost bay, shore ice generally exists throughout the bay during the winter. A nearly continuous ice sheet covers the flats 

in the tributary bays. Due to tidal movement, ice 

slabs break off from the sheets in the tributary 

bays and are driven into the main bay by wind 

and tidal currents. This shore-fast slab ice becomes grounded in the main bay and scours the 

intertidal surface with the rise and fall of each 

tidal cycle. Another trend of ice accumulation is 

the stacking up of shore ice on the eastern shore 

due to the prevailing northwesterly winds in the 

winter. This process (Figure 43) is most pronounced in the generally ice-free main bay, but 

the same conditions prevail in the more frequently ice-bound tributary bays. The consequence of this distribution of shore ice is to 

generally protect the eastern shore from erosional conditions of the prevailing northwest 

winds and to further expose the western shore 

to the infrequent, dominant, easterly storm 

winds capable of reworking the entire intertidal 

area. An example of this relationship is seen in 

the differences in distribution of fringing marsh 

between the eastern and western shores of the 

main bay (Figure 21). Fringing marshes are quite 

common on the eastern shore, where the shore 

ice protects them in the upper intertidal region, 

but are found only in extremely protected sites 

on the western shore. Small "footholds" of secondary fringing marsh are common along the 

entire western shore. These small patches flourish during the calm summer months, only to be 

severely eroded during the following winter season (Figure 25). This happens because no significant accumulation of shore ice occurs on the 

western shore to protect fringing marsh from 

wave erosion. 

Geomorphic Zones of Maine's Bays and 

Estuaries 

As a result of an extensive investigation of the 

geomorphology in Gouldsboro Bay, three geo-
NUMBER 25 69 

FIGURE 43.—Aerial views of winter ice cover in the Gouldsboro Bay Complex (3 Mar 1982): 

upper, main bay; lower, tributary Joy Bay. 
70 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

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NUMBER 25 71 

morphic zones are apparent: (1) an exposed, 

seaward zone in the lower main bay; (2) a semiexposed, central zone in the upper main bay; and 

(3) a protected, landward zone in the intertidal 

tributary bays (Figure 44). Detailed aerial mapping reveals that similar distinctions are present 

for Frenchman Bay and Dyer Bay (unpublished 

data). In addition, observations of several other 

bays along the Maine Coast display the same 

trend (Kelley and Belknap, unpublished report; 

Kelley, in press). 

The exposed zone is characterized by gravel 

and mixed pocket beaches and exposed bedrock 

in the high-intertidal region and rock ledge, 

mud/rock flat, and occasionally sand flats in the 

low-intertidal region. The sediment source for 

both the low- and high-intertidal regions is from 

either the protruding rock headlands or possibly 

the offshore area. Very few morainal bluffs are 

present in this zone, because most of the unconsolidated sediment, even on the adjacent land, 

has been removed. The primary distinguishing 

characteristic of this zone is the high degree of 

wave reworking evident in both intertidal regions. Because of the high wave-energy conditions, gravel is the predominant sediment-size 

class found along the shoreline. Occasionally, 

sand and mud deposits are present, but only in 

sites protected from direct wave attack. Very 

little vegetation is present behind the beaches 

and bedrock shoreline. Evidence of storm-wave 

activity (generally the presence of large storm 

berms) persists well into the supratidal region. 

Essentially, the exposed zone is characterized by 

severe episodic erosion, related to high waveenergy conditions, interspersed with occasional, 

short, depositional events during infrequent periods of calm. 

The semi-exposed zone is characterized by 

linear fringing beaches, pocket beaches, and primary fringing marshes in the high-intertidal region. Occasionally, a sand or mixed pocket beach 

is present when shoreline orientation provides 

greater wave exposure. The low-intertidal region 

is predominantly mud/rock flat, with an occasional sand/rock flat adjacent to a fringing beach. 

Rarely is a rock ledge in the low-intertidal region 

present in association with the infrequent pocket 

beaches. The sediment source for both intertidal 

regions of this zone is primarily eroding morainal 

bluffs, although a lower bay or even an offshore 

source is possible. The main distinguishing feature of this zone is the onset of numerous morainal bluffs lining the shoreline in the supratidal 

region. Additionally, the land area adjacent to 

the shoreline is covered with a discontinuous 

layer of unconsolidated material of variable 

thickness. The wave-energy conditions of this 

zone are generally of a moderate intensity, being 

somewhat variable because of changes in shoreline orientation. Shorelines open to southerly 

wave attack (i.e., the northern end of the main 

bay) tend to display high wave-energy features. 

Partial or full protection from wave attack is wellillustrated by the frequent occurrence of primary 

fringing marsh in the apices of small coves in the 

main bay. Due to high variability in wave exposure in this zone, all sediment-size classes (i.e., 

mud, sand, and gravel) are found along the 

shoreline. Moderate to heavy vegetation backs 

the intertidal regions. Rarely is evidence of 

storm-wave activity found in a supratidal region. 

Overall, the semi-exposed zone is characterized 

by highly variable rates of deposition, alternating 

with infrequent periods of erosion due to the 

variability of wave exposure. 

The protected zone is characterized in the 

high-intertidal region by all types of marsh deposits and linear fringing beaches. The low-intertidal region is overwhelmingly mud flat, with 

some large patches of mud/rock flat and a few 

mussel bars. Possible sources of sediment for this 

zone include eroding morainal bluffs, suspended 

material transported by tidal currents from the 

lower bay, and a negligible input from fluvial 

drainage. The major distinguishing characteristic of this zone is the wide expanse of intertidal 

mud flat backed by one of the marsh types. A 

secondary characteristic is the occurrence of 

well-developed clusters of mussel bars on the flats 

of the tributary bays. The numerous morainal 

bluffs provide a major source of sediment that is 
72 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MARINE SCIENCES 

predominantly in the mud-size class. Because of 

the apparent thickness of sediment, a lower bay 

or even an offshore source must be invoked to 

explain the immense volume of sediment in this 

zone. Heavy vegetation covers the entire area 

(even on the bluff slope) well onto the highintertidal region. Wave-energy conditions are 

low. Most of the zone is protected from direct 

wave attack by the small fetch distance and the 

limited time of wave exposure due to the large 

tidal range. Therefore, the protected zone is 

depicted as an area of rapid deposition, typified 

by marsh deposits prograding over mud flats. 

Implications of this geographic classification 

are far-reaching with respect to a systematic geological overview for coastal Maine. In a stratigraphic framework, a transgressive sequence can 

be suggested by a vertical stacking of subtidal 

sediments and intertidal geomorphic features. 

An idealized offshore section might consist of 

bedrock, overlain by till and/or outwash. This 

would be topped by glaciomarine mud overlain 

by mud flat deposits, followed by salt marsh 

peats. The entire section would then be capped 

by a fining upwards deposit of subtidal mud. 

A further implication, associated with the control of the geology along the coast, is the biological distribution of flora and fauna. The nature 

and distribution of biological communities is 

larely determined by the physical characteristics 

of the substrate. Therefore, the distribution of 

these communities is a function of the geomorphology and sedimentology of the shoreline. 

Conclusions 

1. The coastal geomorphic features in Gouldsboro Bay, Maine, are separated into high- and 

low-intertidal regions. The geomorphic features 

in the high-intertidal region are differentiated 

by sediment/bedrock type, geometry, size, and 

their linear nature. The four high-intertidal features are pocket beach, linear fringing beach, 

marsh, and exposed bedrock. Geomorphic features in the low-intertidal region are distinguished by changes in sediment type, variation 

in grain size, and their characteristically large 

areal coverage (predominantly flats). The five 

types of features in the low-intertidal region are 

mud flat, mud/rock flat, sand/rock flat, rock 

ledge, and mussel bar. 

2. Detailed mapping of the entire bay complex reveals several striking trends in the distribution of geomorphic features. The most notable 

trends are the transition from down-bay pocket 

beaches to up-bay linear fringing beaches and 

the variations in the distribution of marsh types. 

3. Bedrock lithology and structure, subsequently modified by late Cenozoic subaerial and 

marginal marine erosion, are the major geologic 

controls that determine the regional geomorphology of the coastline. 

4. The most important control of shoreline 

geomorphology is the distribution of glacial moraines. A sharp mid-bay transition in geomorphology occurs in the center of the main bay. 

The terrestrial area south of the mid-bay break 

is stripped of any significant sediment cover. In 

contrast, the terrestrial area north of the midbay break is dominated by a thick sediment 

cover, due to the presence of numerous moraines. 

5. Two distinct physical factors have a profound control on the distribution of geomorphic 

features. These factors are (1) the degree of 

exposure to wave attack; and (2) the effects of 

ice during the winter. In turn, the degree of 

influence exerted by these two physical factors 

on the geomorphic distribution is a function of 

two physiographic elements: shoreline orientation and fetch. 

6. The variations across the mid-bay break are 

not limited to geomorphology. This transition 

correlates well with changes in subtidal sediment 

texture, benthic infaunal communities, and subbottom structure. 

7. The bay can be partitioned into three discrete zones, partially as a response to wave exposure, but primarily as a function of sediment 

texture and abundance that, in turn, is controlled 

by the distribution of morainal bluffs. The exposed, seaward zone, the semi-exposed, central 
NUMBER 25 73 

zone, and the protected, landward zone are characterized by variations in dominant geomorphic 

features, the presence of morainal bluffs, sediment source and texture, and density of supratidal vegetation. This geomorphic classification 

appears applicable to the rest of the Maine Coast. 

8. The implications of this classification 

scheme are important with respect to a systematic 

overview of geology in coastal Maine. Such farreaching topics as an ideal stratigraphic sequence 

and controls of the distributional pattern of flora 

and fauna may be predictable using this model. 
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