Pilots’ Estimation of Altitude of a

Small Unmanned Aircraft System 

Tracy Lennertz, Andrea L. Sparko, Kim Cardosi, 

Alan Yost, Andrew Kendra, Jason Lu, and Tom Sheridan 

June 2018 

DOT/FAA/TC-18/23 

DOT-VNTSC-FAA-18-03

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 Altitude estimation of sUAS 1

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Pilots’ Estimation of Altitude of a Small Unmanned Aircraft System 

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6. AUTHOR(S)

Tracy Lennertz, Andrea L. Sparko, Kim Cardosi, Alan Yost, Andrew Kendra, Jason Lu, and Tom Sheridan

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7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

US Department of Transportation

John A Volpe National Transportation Systems Center

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Cambridge, MA 02142-1093

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13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

Small unmanned aircraft system (sUAS) operations are growing at a rapid rate. Currently, the FAA permits both hobbyist and commercial 

operations; for commercial operations, the sUAS must generally be flown under 400 feet. We examined the ability of commercial and hobbyist 

sUAS pilots to estimate the altitude of their ownship during a realistic flying task. Participants were instructed to fly a DJI Phantom 4 Pro sUAS 

to three prescribed altitudes: 50 feet, 200 feet, and 350 feet from its starting point and take a photo of a target. Results indicated that 

participants’ altitude estimates were below the prescribed altitude of 50 feet 52% of the time, and they were below prescribed altitudes of 200 

feet and 350 feet 89% of the time. Performance did not differ between hobbyist and commercial pilots. Variability in absolute and barometric 

measurements of altitude was also observed. The results suggest that sUAS pilots are poor at judging the altitude of their ownship, especially 

at higher altitudes. The variability in performance and altitude measurements indicates that pilots need a reliable and standard way to 

measure the altitude of their ownship.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

Unmanned aircraft system, unmanned aerial vehicles, UAS, sUAS, altitude estimation, ground observer

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34

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LENGTH

in inches 25.4 millimeters mm

ft feet 0.305 meters m

yd yards 0.914 meters m

mi miles 1.61 kilometers km

AREA

in2square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2

ft2square feet 0.093 square meters m2

yd2square yard 0.836 square meters m2

ac acres 0.405 hectares ha

mi2square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2

VOLUME

fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL

gal gallons 3.785 Liters L

ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3

yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3

NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3

MASS

oz ounces 28.35 grams g

lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg

T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams (or "metric ton") Mg (or "t")

oz ounces 28.35 grams g

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)

oF Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9

or (F-32)/1.8

Celsius oC

ILLUMINATION

fc foot-candles 10.76 Lux lx

fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N

lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS

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LENGTH

mm millimeters 0.039 inches in

m meters 3.28 Feet ft

m meters 1.09 Yards yd

km kilometers 0.621 Miles mi

AREA

mm2square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2

m2square meters 10.764 square feet ft2

m2square meters 1.195 square yards yd2

ha hectares 2.47 acres ac

km2square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2

VOLUME

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz

L liters 0.264 gallons gal

m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3

m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz

MASS

g grams 0.035 ounces oz

kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb

Mg (or "t") megagrams (or "metric ton") 1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T

g grams 0.035 ounces oz

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)

oC Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit oF

ILLUMINATION

lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc

cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS

N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf

kPa Kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per square inch lbf/in2

*SI is the symbol for the International System of Units. Appropriate rounding should be made to comply with Section 4 of ASTM E380. (Revised March 2003)
 Altitude estimation of sUAS i

Contents 

Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................ iii

Preface ..................................................................................................................................iv

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................... 1

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 2

Purpose ................................................................................................................................................. 3

Method ................................................................................................................................. 4

Participants ........................................................................................................................................... 4

Facility, Equipment, and Materials ....................................................................................................... 5

Flying Field .................................................................................................................................. 5

Small UAS .................................................................................................................................... 6

Altitude Measurement Tools ...................................................................................................... 6

Forms and Questionnaires .......................................................................................................... 7

Logs and Checklists ..................................................................................................................... 7

Design ................................................................................................................................................... 7

Procedure ............................................................................................................................................. 8

Results .................................................................................................................................. 8

Altitude Measures ................................................................................................................................ 8

Estimation Accuracy.............................................................................................................................. 8

Absolute vs. Barometric Altitude ........................................................................................................ 10

Confidence Ratings ............................................................................................................................. 10

Strategies and Factors that Influenced Altitude Estimation ............................................................... 11

Strategies identified by participants ......................................................................................... 11

Factors identified by participants that influenced altitude estimation .................................... 11

Task Difficulty and Workload .............................................................................................................. 11

Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 12

Limitations of the Current Research ................................................................................................... 13

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 13

References .......................................................................................................................... 14
 Altitude estimation of sUAS ii

Appendices ......................................................................................................................... 15

Appendix A: Participant Forms ........................................................................................................... 15

Informed Consent Form ............................................................................................................ 16

Debriefing Form ........................................................................................................................ 18

Appendix B: Questionnaires ............................................................................................................... 19

Background Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 20

Post-Trial Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 21

Post-Experiment Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 22

Appendix C: Experiment Log Sheet ..................................................................................................... 23

Table of Figures 

Figure 1. Flying field. ..................................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Aerial image of target configuration (from 200 feet). ................................................................... 6

Figure 3. The DJI Phantom 4 Pro. .................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 4. Distribution of achieved altitudes. ................................................................................................. 9

Table of Tables 

Table 1. Make and model of sUAS owned by participants. .......................................................................... 4

Table 2. Participants' typical sUAS flight purpose. ....................................................................................... 4

Table 3. Absolute deviation (in feet) from prescribed altitude. ................................................................10
 Altitude estimation of sUAS iii

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

AGL Above Ground Level 

ANOVA Analysis of Variance 

ASRS Aviation Safety Reporting System 

ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service 

BED Lawrence G. Hanscom Field Airport 

C.I. Confidence Interval 

COA Certification of Authorization 

FAA Federal Aviation Administration 

FT or ft Feet 

lbs Pounds 

LSD Least Significant Difference 

UAS Unmanned Aircraft System 

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 

VLOS Visual Line of Sight 

VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS iv

Preface 

This report was prepared by the Aviation Human Factors Division of the Safety Management and Human 

Factors Technical Center at the U.S. Department of Transportation, John A. Volpe National 

Transportation Systems Center. It was completed with funding from the Federal Aviation 

Administration. Thank you to Maura Lohrenz and David Moore for comments on an earlier draft. 

For questions or comments, please e-mail Tracy Lennertz, tracy.lennertz@dot.gov. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 1

Executive Summary 

Small unmanned aircraft system (sUAS) operations are growing at a rapid rate, with an increasing 

number of civilian operations. Currently, the FAA permits both hobbyist and commercial operations. The 

requirements for the operations differ; for commercial operations, the sUAS must generally be flown 

under an altitude of 400 feet or within 400 feet of a structure. Past data indicate that operators are poor 

at judging the altitude of sUAS, and there is variability in the altitude information that is presented to 

the operator. Here, we examined the ability of commercial and hobbyist sUAS pilots to estimate the 

altitude of their ownship during a realistic flying task. Participants flew a DJI Phantom 4 Pro to three 

prescribed altitudes: 50 feet, 200 feet, and 350 feet. In each trial, the participant flew the sUAS from its 

starting point, hovered at what he or she estimated to be the prescribed altitude, and took a photo of a 

target. Results indicated that participants’ altitude estimates were below the prescribed altitude of 50 

feet (i.e., they flew the sUAS at a lower altitude than instructed) 52% of the time and below prescribed 

altitudes of 200 feet and 350 feet 89% of the time. Despite differences in pilots’ backgrounds, 

performance did not differ between hobbyist and commercial pilots. Variability in absolute and 

barometric measurements of altitude was also observed. Taken together, the results suggest that sUAS 

pilots, regardless of their experience, are poor at judging the altitude of their ownship—especially at 

higher altitudes. The variability in performance and altitude measurements indicates that pilots need a 

reliable and standard way to measure the altitude of their ownship, especially given the increasingly 

complex environments in which sUAS intend to fly. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 2

Introduction 

Small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) are taking to the sky at a rapid rate. A recent study (U.S. 

Department of Transportation (DOT) Volpe National Transportation System Center, 2013) predicts that 

over 250,000 UAS will be in operation around 2035 and about 70% of these will be civilian operations. 

Currently, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) permits both hobbyist (i.e., “flying for fun”) and 

commercial (e.g., aerial photography, real estate, infrastructure repair, or emergency services) 

operations. The FAA requirements differ for the operator and aircraft, depending on the purpose of 

flight. For hobbyists, the sUAS must be flown within visual line of sight (VLOS) of the operator or an 

observer, must be under 55 pounds (lbs.), and must be flown at least five miles away from an airport 

unless prior authorization is received from Air Traffic Control. Hobbyists are also required to follow a 

community-based set of guidelines (i.e., the Academy of Model Aeronautics Safety Handbook, 2018). 

There are no specific pilot requirements for hobbyist operators. For commercial operations, under Title 

14 of the Code of Federal Regulation (14 CFR) Part 107 (cf. FAA Advisory Circular 107-2, 2016), the 

aircraft must also be under 55 lbs., the operator must be at least 16 years old and have a Remote Pilot 

Airman Certificate, and must follow several operating rules—the aircraft must be flown in uncontrolled 

(Class G) airspace and must be kept in VLOS. The sUAS must also be flown under 400 feet above ground 

level (AGL) or within 400 feet of a structure (e.g., up to 400 feet above a structure; see faa.gov/uas). 

Note that many of these restrictions can be waived with approval from the FAA. While these 

requirements are necessary to integrate sUAS into the National Airspace System, it is unclear whether 

operators can accurately perform such tasks. In particular, it is not clear that operators can accurately 

judge the altitude of their aircraft without technical assistance (such as an altimeter). 

Data indicate that people are poor at judging the altitude of their ownship. Crognale (2009) studied 

ground observers’ ability to judge distance and altitude and to determine whether or not the UAS was 

on a potential collision course with another aircraft. He found that the ability to judge distance and 

altitude varied by observer with “relatively low accuracy for altitude judgments and worse than that for 

distance judgments” (p. 44). Judgments of potential collision were also inconsistent between observers. 

While these results are useful, additional data are needed to address current sUAS operations, occurring 

under 400 feet, for three reasons. First, the UAS used in Crognale (2009) had six to nine foot wingspans, 

which are much larger than typical quadcopters. Second, the lowest altitude tested was 200 meters (656 

feet), which exceeds the altitudes that sUAS are currently permitted to fly. Finally, participants 

estimated altitude only and were not engaged in a realistic flying task. For these reasons, data are 

needed to assess sUAS pilots’ ability to estimate their own vehicle’s altitude. 

Moreover, research indicates that the human visual system may not be sufficient to comply with 

some of the requirements of Part 107 operations (Williams & Gildea, 2014; Woo, 2017). In particular, it 

is difficult for a pilot or visual observer to maintain visual contact with a sUAS, especially when carrying 

out other duties, such as scanning for traffic. Estimating the altitude of ownship may be even more 

difficult if one is required to momentarily take one’s eyes off the sUAS to complete concurrent tasks. 

sUAS vary widely, in both price and complexity. Some sUAS cannot track the altitude of the 

unmanned vehicle. Of sUAS that have an altitude tracking capability, the controls on sUAS may not allow 

the operator to monitor the altitude in real time. Currently, there is not a requirement for sUAS to have 

an altitude reporting capability under Part 107. When altitude is reported, there is no standard 

reference point from which to measure it (i.e., ground-based, pressure-based, or referenced from the 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 3

altitude of the “launch point”).

A 2016 report from the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) from a pilot highlights the 

inconsistency in altitude reporting during a small UAS operation: 

“I hold two FAA ratings: Part 61 Private Pilot ... and Part 107 Remote Pilot, small Unmanned 

Aircraft System... it is believed the altitudes indicated during flight were not accurate even after 

the UAS was properly calibrated over a grass surface. Some of the recorded altitudes indicate 

higher than 400 Above Ground Level [AGL] and ... this may be a composite measurement of the 

launch point altitude [and the terrain the sUAS was flown over].”

Another ASRS report indicates that the controls put in place to prevent the sUAS from flying higher than 

intended do not always work: 

“The application has an altitude limitation option which was on by default to ... on or about 9 

meters ...The aircraft was outside and went into an uncontrolled straight vertical climb. 

The...range is about 20 meters, which it rapidly exceeded and lost connectivity with the 

controller. The UAS, being so small (approximately 5 inches in length, 5 inches in width, and 2 

inches height) continued to climb until we lost visual contact. The device had approximately 80% 

battery life remaining, and can fly up to 5-10 minutes at full charge. I do not know how high the 

UAS climbed out of control before it began a descent. The UAS has not been found. There were 

no other aircraft in the immediate vicinity” (2014, as reported in Cardosi & Lennertz, 2017).

Given the requirements for sUAS flight, the lack of operational data, and the current limitations on 

sUAS flight control, data are needed to understand pilots’ ability to estimate the altitude of their 

unmanned vehicle.

Purpose 

The current study examined the ability of commercial and hobbyist sUAS pilots to estimate the 

altitude of a sUAS. Pilots were instructed to fly a small quadcopter UAS (a DJI Phantom 4 Pro) to three 

prescribed altitudes: 50 feet, 200 feet, and 350 feet. In each trial, the pilot flew the UAS to a specified 

location, hovered at one of three prescribed altitudes, and took a photo of a target on the ground (a 

configuration of cones). Pilots used their own judgement in determining their altitude. Each pilot flew to 

all three altitudes, three times (9 trials); trial order was randomized. 

Pilots varied in their level of experience: one-half of the participants were Part 107 (commercial 

sUAS) pilots; the other half were hobbyist pilots. All flights occurred on a model aeronautics airfield, in 

Class G airspace, and in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). The “absolute” altitude of the sUAS 

was measured using a range finder, an inclinometer (measuring the angle of the UAS by an observer at a 

known distance), and an image analysis of the photos taken from the sUAS (calculating altitude from the 

image based on the known geometry of the target). Pilots’ judgments of ownship altitude were 

compared with the absolute altitude measurements. 

Given that current FAA Part 107 regulations permit flight under 400 feet, the chosen altitudes 

examined pilot behavior at allowable altitudes. The DJI Phantom 4, a popular sUAS typically flown by 

both commercial and hobbyist pilots (Gettinger & Michel, 2017), was used. Pilots took a photo to 

replicate a typical task that a sUAS is used for during flight. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 4

Method 

Participants 

Eighteen sUAS pilots (9 commercial, 9 hobbyist) participated. Nine of the participants were 

commercial pilots who held a Remote Pilot Airman Certificate under Part 107 (n=8) or had a Certificate 

of Waiver or Authorization (COA) from the FAA to operate UAS (n=1). The other nine participants were 

hobbyist pilots who were employed by the U.S. DOT Volpe Center. Commercial pilots were compensated 

for their participation with $200 in Amazon.com purchase cards. Volpe Center employees were paid for 

their time as part of their normal work day and their travel expenses were reimbursed. 

All participants owned a small quadcopter UAS or operated one on a regular basis. Table 1 provides 

a list of the make/model of sUAS owned, along with how many participants owned it (several 

participants owned more than one). A background questionnaire gathered additional information about 

participants’ sUAS use. When asked how many times they had flown their sUAS in total and in the past 

year, most participants only listed one number; commercial pilots had flown between 15 to 700 times 

and hobbyist pilots had flown between five and 20 times. Three commercial pilots specified their total 

flights in the past year, which ranged from 15 to 60 times, and one hobbyist pilot reported flying 12 

times in the past year. 

Table 1. Make and model of sUAS owned by participants. 

Make/Model Commercial Hobbyist Total

DJI Phantom 1/2/3/4 [Pro/Advanced] 5 3 8

DJI Mavic [Pro] 6 1 7

DJI Inspire [1 Pro] 2 0 2

Toy, make/model unknown 0 2 2

PS3 1 0 1

DJI Spark 1 0 1

Parrot AR drone 0 1 1

Typhoon 0 1 1

Protocol Neo-Drone Mini 0 1 1

DX-4 by Sharper Image 0 1 1

None 0 1 1

Participants were also asked to describe their typical sUAS flight. Their responses were placed into 

categorizes by flight purpose, and are listed in Table 2. 

Table 2. Participants' typical sUAS flight purpose. 

Purpose Commercial Hobbyist Total

Aerial photography/videography 8 2 10

Fun, leisure 0 7 7

Aerial surveying 1 1 2

Research, measurements 0 2 2

Skill building, practice 1 1 2
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 5

Facility, Equipment, and Materials 

Flying Field 

The study was conducted in a field located in Acton, Massachusetts, with permission from the 

town. The field was chosen because it was flat and there were minimal visual references to altitude 

within close proximity of the field (trees, telephone poles, and a highway were visible several hundred 

yards away, but participants were not given their distances or height). The field was located about five 

and a half miles from Lawrence G. Hanscom Field Airport (BED), which was used as a reference point for 

obtaining weather information via the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). 

Eleven orange traffic cones were placed in the field in a “+” shape, approximately 200 feet from the 

participant. The cones served as a target for participants to fly out to and hover when establishing 

altitude. The cones were placed at specified distances from each other so that they could be used by the 

experimenters to calculate altitudes from the sUAS photographs. A picture of the flying field is provided 

in Figure 1. An aerial image of the target configuration is shown in Figure 2. 

Figure 1. Flying field. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 6

Figure 2. Aerial image of target configuration (from 200 feet). 

Small UAS 

The sUAS used in this study was a DJI Phantom 4 Pro with a small tablet display. This sUAS, shown 

in Figure 3, has a diagonal rotor span of about 14 inches and weighs about 3 pounds. The display’s 

altitude readout was concealed by a piece of tape so that participants could not use it for their altitude 

estimates. Six extra batteries were kept charged in the case of a battery change. 

Figure 3. The DJI Phantom 4 Pro.

Altitude Measurement Tools 

Altitude was measured when the sUAS was hovered over the center cone to take the aerial 

photograph. Four methods of altitude measurement were used: 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 7

1. sUAS—The barometric AGL altitude of the sUAS, above the takeoff point, was captured and 

included in the Exchangeable Image File Format in the aerial photos taken by the participant. 

2. Range Finder—An experimenter positioned at the center cone used a range finder to measure the 

vertical distance from the ground to the sUAS. The range finder has an accuracy of +/- 1.5 feet. 

The range finder typically measured the altitude from the body of the sUAS, which falls about one 

foot below the rotors, however this may have been less accurate at higher altitudes. Given these 

parameters, the accuracy of the range finder was about +/- 3 feet. 

3. Inclinometer—Experimenters used an inclinometer to measure the angle between the ground 

and the sUAS. The inclinometer has an accuracy of +/- 0.25 degrees. Note, the accuracy of the 

inclinometer declines as its angle increases. 

4. Image analysis—Using the camera resolution and distance between cones, altitude was calculated 

by counting the number of pixels between the cones in the aerial photograph taken from the 

sUAS. 

Forms and Questionnaires 

Each participant was required to read and sign an Informed Consent Form when they first arrived at 

the field; this form provided an overview of the study and explained the participant’s assurances and 

rights. Participants also completed three types of questionnaires. The background questionnaire was 

completed before flying the sUAS; it asked about the participants’ past experience with sUAS. The posttrial questionnaire was completed after each of the nine trials; it asked participants to rate how 

confident they were that the sUAS flew to the correctly prescribed altitude, and for additional 

comments if they had them. The post-experiment questionnaire was completed after all trials were 

completed; it asked pilots about their experience participating in the study (strategies, task difficulty, 

and workload). All forms and questionnaires were filled out on paper with clipboards. When the study 

was complete, participants were given a debriefing sheet that provided a brief study summary and 

contact information. The forms and questionnaires are provided in Appendices A and B. 

Logs and Checklists 

Experimenters used a paper log sheet to record the pre- and post-experiment weather, altitude 

measurements, and the times that each aerial photograph was taken. The log sheets also had a checklist 

for giving the sUAS operation instructions and directing the practice flight. A separate log sheet was 

used to keep track of the Amazon purchase cards distributed. The experiment log sheet is provided in 

Appendix C. 

Design 

The experimental design included two independent variables: 1) prescribed altitude (three levels: 

50 feet, 200 feet, 350 feet) and 2) experience (two levels: commercial, hobbyist). Each participant flew 

the sUAS to all three prescribed altitudes three times, for a total of nine trials. The trials were separated 

into three blocks, each containing the three prescribed altitudes in a random order. The order was 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 8

randomized for each block for each participant to counteract potential order effects. 

Procedure 

Participants completed the study individually. Three experimenters were present to take altitude 

measurements and administer the questionnaires and instructions. The study was conducted in VMC 

during the day. 

After obtaining Informed Consent, the participant completed a background questionnaire. Next, an 

experimenter demonstrated the sUAS controls to the participant. The participant then flew a practice 

trial to familiarize him or herself with the field and the sUAS controls, including how to take a photo. 

After the practice trial, the participant flew the nine trials in three blocks. For each trial, the participant 

flew the sUAS from its starting point near the participant to the cones, hovered over the center cone at 

what he or she estimated to be the prescribed altitude, and took a photo. The participant was not 

instructed on how to reach altitude. The sUAS remained in hover while the experimenters took rangefinder and inclinometer measurements. When the experimenters were done taking measurements, the 

participant was instructed to return the sUAS to its starting point and turn the engines off to recalibrate 

the barometer. No feedback was given to the participants as to the actual altitude of the sUAS during 

the experiment. Following each trial, an experimenter administered a short questionnaire that asked the 

participant to rate his or her confidence that the sUAS flew to the correctly prescribed altitude. After all 

nine trials were completed, the participant completed a post-experiment questionnaire. The participant 

was then given the debriefing sheet. The entire study took approximately one hour to complete per 

participant. 

Results 

Altitude Measures 

Two types of altitudes were measured in this study: barometric and absolute. Barometric altitude is 

the height AGL of the sUAS as measured by differences in barometric pressure between the takeoff 

point and the barometric pressure at the current altitude; this is the altitude that pilots would typically 

use on a sUAS display. Absolute altitude, as measured by the range finder, inclinometer, and image 

analysis, was the actual distance between the sUAS and the ground. For assessing participants’ accuracy 

in estimating altitude, absolute altitude was used as the dependent variable because pilots would be 

expected to use height-off-the-ground as a basis for their estimates when using a sUAS without 

telemetry. The three measures of absolute altitude were highly correlated (all r > .99, p < .001), so the 

average of all three measures was used in the statistical analyses. 

Estimation Accuracy 

Participants’ accuracy in estimating altitude was examined two ways. First, the overall accuracy was 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 9

assessed by looking at the distribution of participants’ achieved altitudes (i.e., their estimates) at each 

prescribed altitude (50, 200, and 350 feet). One-sample t-tests compared the average achieved altitude 

to the prescribed altitude to see if participants’ estimates were significantly different from prescribed. 

Second, achieved altitudes were converted into absolute deviations from prescribed altitude, i.e., the 

difference between participants’ achieved altitude and prescribed altitude, regardless of whether the 

estimate was higher or lower than prescribed. Absolute deviation was used as the dependent variable in 

a factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) that tested for potential effects of three variables: prescribed 

altitude (50, 200, 350 feet), practice (trials 1, 2, and 3), and pilot experience (commercial, hobbyist). 

Altitude and trial were compared within participants and experience was compared between 

participants. 

Figure 4 shows the distribution of achieved altitudes. The lower, middle, and upper lines that form 

the box represent the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles, respectively. The average achieved altitude, 

calculated across all participants and trials, is represented by the red “X”. The error bars are the 

minimum and maximum. The majority of participants’ estimates were below the prescribed altitude 

(i.e., they flew the sUAS at a lower altitude than instructed): 52% of trials were below the prescribed 

altitude of 50 feet, and 89% of trials were below prescribed altitudes of 200 feet and 350 feet. Eleven 

percent of trials were above prescribed altitudes of 200 feet and 350 feet. At the prescribed altitude of 

200 feet, the 11% consisted of trials from three participants: one participant was above 200 feet for all 

three trials, one participant was above for two trials, and one participant was above for one trial. The 

11% of trials that were above the prescribed altitude of 350 feet were flown by two participants; both 

were above 350 feet for all three trials (one participant was the same pilot who flew above 200 feet for 

all three trials, and the other was the participant who flew above 200 feet once). All of the trials that 

were flown above the prescribed altitude of 350 feet exceeded 400 feet. One participant flew as high as 

520.5 feet and the other flew as high as 611.5 feet. 

 

Figure 4. Distribution of achieved altitudes. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 10

Results of the t-tests revealed that participants’ estimates of 50 feet were relatively close to 50 feet 

(no statistically significant difference between prescribed and achieved altitude; M(achieved)=52.5, 

SD=17.1). However, when estimating 200 feet, participants’ achieved altitudes were significantly low at 

an average of 148.4 feet (SD=53.8), t(53) = -7.05, p < .001. They were also significantly low when 

estimating 350 feet, with an average achieved altitude of 247.4 feet (SD=111.7), t(53) = -6.57, p < .001. 

In the ANOVA results, there was a significant main effect of altitude, indicating that participants’ 

estimation error was significantly different depending on prescribed altitude, F(1.19, 18.99) = 72.96, p < 

.001 (due to a violation of sphericity, the degrees of freedom were adjusted using the GreenhouseGeisser correction). Pairwise comparisons using Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test revealed

that the average deviation from prescribed altitude got larger as prescribed altitude increased (all p < 

.001). Table 3 shows the mean, SD, 95% confidence interval (C.I.), and range of the absolute deviation 

from each prescribed altitude. 

Table 3. Absolute deviation (in feet) from prescribed altitude. 

Prescribed Altitude Mean SD 95% C.I. Range

50 ft 13.4 7.5 9.5-17.2 1.0-46.6

200 ft 63.0 37.2 44.9-81.1 1.5-151.9

350 ft 137.9 61.7 108.1-167.8 11.0-269.5

There were no significant effects of pilot experience or trial and there were no interactions. That is, 

commercial pilots were no better at estimating altitudes than hobbyist pilots. Estimation error did not 

improve with practice (as expected, since participants were not given feedback on their estimates). For 

most participants, the direction of their estimation error was consistent across trials (i.e., always above 

or always below prescribed altitude), but the magnitude of the error varied across trials for most 

participants. 

Absolute vs. Barometric Altitude 

The above results suggest that pilots are poor at estimating sUAS absolute altitude at the higher 

altitudes used in this study. In some sUAS operations, pilots may have a barometric altitude readout 

available on their sUAS display. Barometric altitude is determined based on a standard day temperature 

of 15oC, and any variation from that temperature will cause inaccuracies. To demonstrate the 

inaccuracies, a paired t-test compared participants’ absolute altitude (averaged across the three 

measurements) to barometric altitude for each trial. On average, barometric altitudes were 7.5 feet 

greater than absolute altitudes, and this difference was statistically significant, t(158) = 14.26, p < .001. 

Thus, even with a sUAS altitude readout, pilots’ achieved altitudes may only be an approximation of 

absolute altitude. 

Confidence Ratings 

Participants’ post-trial confidence ratings were provided by choosing one of three options: not at all 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 11

confident, somewhat confident, and very confident. Numeric scores were assigned to each answer 

choice, with 1 = not at all confident and 3 = very confident. The median score was 2, “somewhat 

confident,” for all prescribed altitudes. There were no significant differences in participants’ confidence 

by pilot experience and confidence did not improve with subsequent trials. 

Strategies and Factors that Influenced Altitude Estimation 

On the post-experiment questionnaire, participants were asked to describe any strategies they 

used to estimate the altitude of the sUAS and what factors influenced their altitude estimation. 

Participants’ responses are summarized below (with n=number of participants). There were no 

differences in responses based on pilot experience. 

Strategies identified by participants 

 Guessed the height of visual references that were either present (trees, telephone pole, own 

height) or imagined (house, football field) (n=14), sometimes multiplying those guesses to reach 

the desired altitude (n=7) 

 Referenced the size of sUAS in the sky or on the screen (n=5) 

 Used the rate of ascent to help estimate altitude (n=3) 

 Guessed height with no references (n=2) 

 Other: Noted viewing angle at an estimated altitude (e.g., 10 feet) and increased angle in 

increments to achieve prescribed altitude (n=1); Flew sUAS closer to self when estimating lower 

altitudes, before flying to target (n=1) 

Factors identified by participants that influenced altitude estimation 

 Pilot’s distance from the sUAS/cones (n=5) 

 Lack of visual references (n=2) 

 Caution/desire not to exceed prescribed altitude (n=2) 

 Other: Limited experience (n=1); Small size of the DJI Phantom 4 Pro made it appear farther 

away than it actually was (n=1) 

Task Difficulty and Workload 

Participants were asked on the post-experiment questionnaire to rate the difficulty of the task of 

hovering at the specified altitude and taking a photo. They were also asked to describe any factors that 

impacted their workload. All 18 participants rated the difficulty of the task as “easy.” The factors that 

participants listed as impacting their workload varied, but factors that were mentioned by more than 

one participant included wind (n=5), cold (n=3), presence of the experimenters (n=3), and the ease and 

functionality of the DJI Phantom 4 Pro (e.g., auto-hover; n=2). Three participants said that the task was 

easy and no factors influenced their workload. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 12

Discussion 

Given the lack of operational data, the requirements for sUAS flight, and the limitations on sUAS 

flight control, the current research examined the ability of pilots to estimate the altitude of their small 

unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Due to pilot requirements for Part 107 operations, we were further 

interested in differences in performance between commercial and hobbyist pilots. We also examined 

the effect of practice during the experiment itself. 

Despite differences in background, performance did not differ between hobbyist and commercial 

pilots: there was no effect of experience. Pilots in both groups performed similarly in estimating the 

three different altitudes. We also did not observe any effect of practice without feedback; participants 

did not improve their ability to estimate altitude throughout the course of the study. Our main finding is 

that participants are generally poor at estimating the altitude of a small unmanned vehicle and 

estimation performance is worse at higher altitudes. Participants were generally conservative in their 

flight altitudes, such that their altitude estimates were below the prescribed altitude of 50 feet 52% of 

the time, and they were below prescribed altitudes of 200 feet and 350 feet 89% of the time. Thus, the 

majority of participants overestimated the altitude of their sUAS at higher altitudes, and so flew lower 

than were instructed; few participants actually reached the prescribed altitudes of 200 or 350 feet. 

These errors were ‘fail safe’ in that pilots thought they were flying higher than their actual altitude. 

Without an observer monitoring their altitude, however, errors in which pilots thought they were flying 

lower than their actual altitude would be expected to occur more frequently. 

Participants’ confidence in performance did not vary by altitude; participants generally reported 

they were “somewhat confident” in their ability to fly the sUAS to the prescribed altitude. It is not 

surprising that this did not differ by experimental trial, as no effect of experience was observed. It is 

surprising, however, that this did not vary by altitude, given that altitude estimation performance 

actually declined at higher altitudes. Participants mentioned several strategies used to estimate the 

altitude of the sUAS. Most often, participants indicated that they used the height of nearby references, 

such as a tree or telephone pole. The site of the study, however, a relatively flat field, had few visual 

references. It is possible that performance at estimating higher altitudes may improve with the presence 

of reliable visual references, and/or accurate feedback. Participants also indicated the task was “easy”, 

in some cases, this was attributed to ease and functionality of the DJI Phantom 4 Pro. 

These results suggest that sUAS pilots are generally cautious and would likely fly their ownship 

below 400 feet in real-world operations. Even though participants were engaged in a real-world task 

(operating a sUAS and taking a photo), it is important to note that their behavior may have been 

tempered since it was being observed (in fact, two participants mentioned that a desire not to exceed 

the prescribed altitude influenced their estimation). Operators are likely to be less conservative in actual 

operations. In a minority of cases, as observed in the current study, pilots may exceed the 400 feet 

threshold. Given these cases, it is imperative that error mitigation strategies are in place (such as a 

means for the pilot to view the absolute altitude of the sUAS in real time or controls that prevent the 

sUAS from flying above a prescribed altitude). 

Finally, our field data demonstrates the variability in measuring the altitude of the sUAS. There was 

a significant difference between the absolute altitude (as measured by the range finder, inclinometer, 

and the image analysis) and the barometric altitude (as measured onboard the sUAS). The FAA currently 

does not require a standard way to measure or indicate ownship altitude to sUAS operators. Given the 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 13

responsibility of operators to fly the sUAS below 400 feet (or within 400 feet of a structure), it is 

imperative that operators have accurate tools to determine their altitude. It would also be prudent to 

offer basic training to operators on how to estimate altitude. In particular, it is possible to estimate the 

altitude of the UAV if one roughly knows both the ground distance from the target, and viewing angle of 

the UAV (e.g., the UAV is about 100 feet away and at an incline of about 45 degrees). While this method 

would only generate an estimate, it may be helpful for operators to be aware of this heuristic, especially 

in the absence of an altitude indicator. This method could be covered in training for Part 107 pilots. 

Training could also include the heights of common objects that could be used as reference when 

estimating altitude (e.g., telephone poles are about 40 feet, a one-story buildings is about 10 feet). A 

review of the FAA’s Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide (2016) indicates that 

these heuristics to estimate altitude are not included. 

Limitations of the Current Research 

Despite the real-world applicability of the results, the current study has some limitations. In 

particular, we examined operator performance against a single background: an unobstructed sky view 

with a horizon of trees. In general, this background was not complex and it was easy to maintain visual 

contact with the UAV at all times. As previously mentioned, performance may actually improve with a 

background that allows the operator to compare the altitude of the UAV with a nearby structure (e.g., a 

tall tree or a building). It may also, however, be more difficult to maintain visual contact with the UAV in 

a more complex environment with a partially obstructed view (e.g., nearby trees, mountains, or 

buildings; cf. Crognale, 2009, Loffi, Wallace, Jacob, & Dunlap, 2016). 

Another limitation of the current work is that only one sUAS was a tested, albeit a readily available 

and popular model—the DJI Phantom 4 Pro. Many sUAS, however, are smaller in size and lack the 

sophisticated and easy-to-use controls of the Phantom 4 Pro. With a smaller and less sophisticated 

sUAS, it would likely be even more difficult to judge the altitude of the UAV. It is also easier to estimate 

the altitude of a stationary object compared to a moving one (cf. Williams & Gildea, 2014), in our case, 

the UAV as it hovered over the target to take a photo. Unmanned aircraft are often not stationary in 

real-life operations, for example, with emergency response, or real-estate photography. 

Conclusion 

Taken together, the results suggest that sUAS pilots, regardless of their experience, are poor at 

judging the altitude of their ownship. Though participants were “somewhat confident” in their 

performance regardless of altitude, participants overestimated their achieved altitude, flying lower than 

instructed, especially at higher altitudes. The presence of additional visual cues, such as buildings or 

trees, may provide a point of reference and assist pilots in judging their own altitude. 

Future integration seeks to enable operations over people and in extended or beyond visual line of 

sight (FAA, 2012; 2013; 2016). The variability in performance and altitude measurements indicates that 

pilots need a reliable and standard way to determine the altitude of their ownship, especially given the 

increasingly complex environments in which sUAS intend to fly. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 14

References 

Academy of Model Aeronautics (2018). Safety Handbook. Muncie: IN. 

Cardosi, K., & Lennertz, T. (2017). Human Factors Considerations for the Integration of Unmanned Aerial 

Vehicles in the National Airspace System: An Analysis of Reports Submitted to the Aviation Safety 

Reporting System (ASRS). DOT VNTSC-FAA-17-11. 

Crognale, M. A. (2009). UAS Ground Observer Performance: Field Measurements. DOT/FAA/AR-10/1. 

Federal Aviation Administration. (September 2012). Integration of Unmanned Aircraft Systems into the 

National Airspace System, Concept of Operations (v2.0).

Federal Aviation Administration. (2013). Integration of Civil Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in the 

National Airspace System (NAS) Roadmap, First Edition. 

Federal Aviation Administration. (February 2016). Low Altitude Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) 

Operating Concepts (v1.0). 

Federal Aviation Administration. (August 2016). Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study 

Guide. FAA-G-8082-22. 

Federal Aviation Administration. (2016). Advisory Circular 107-2, Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems 

(sUAS). 

Loffi, J. M., Wallace, R. J., Jacod, J. D., & Dunlap, J. C. (2016). Seeing the threat: Pilot visual detection of 

small unmanned aircraft systems in visual meteorological conditions. International Journal of 

Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace, 3. 

Gettinger, D. & Michel, A. H. (2017). Drone Registration, a Preliminary Analysis. Annandale-on-Hudson, 

NY: Bard College, Center for Study of the Drone. 

Volpe National Transportation System Center (2013). Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Service Demand 

2015 – 2035. DOT-VNTSC-DoD-13-01.

Williams, K. W., & Gildea, K. M. (2014). A Review of Research Related to Unmanned Aircraft System 

Visual Observers. DOT/FAA/AM-14/9. 

Woo, G. S. (2017). Visual Detection of Small Unmanned Aircraft: Modeling the Limits of Human Pilots. 

Dissertations and Theses. 350. 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 15

Appendices 

Appendix A: Participant Forms 

Appendix A contains the: 

 Informed Consent Form 

 Debriefing Form 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 16

Informed Consent Form 

Individual's Consent to Voluntary Participation in a Research Project 

Small UAS (sUAS) Pilot Altitude Estimation Study 

US Department of Transportation (DOT) Volpe Center 

This study is being conducted by the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, United States 

Department of Transportation (USDOT), and is being led by Dr. Kim Cardosi. This study is funded by the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA), Emerging Technologies Division. 

Purpose of Study. Currently, the FAA requires that small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (sUAS) are flown below 400 

feet and within visual line of sight. The current field measurements will examine the ability of pilots to estimate the 

altitude of a sUAS. This work will inform the criteria for conducting quantitative assessments of preapproved 

altitudes for sUAS and inform analyses of risk. This study hs been reviewed and approved by an Institutional 

Review Board. 

Procedure. The entire experiment is expected to take about one hour. You will fly a DJI Phantom 4 sUAS to a predetermined altitude, briefly hover at that altitude and take a photo of a target object. You will use your judgement 

to estimate the altitude of the vehicle. You will not physically handle the sUAS, all set-up will be carried out the by 

experimenter. When you are done with each trial and the experiment as a whole, you will be asked to fill out a 

brief questionnaire about the experience. 

Discomfort and Risks. Overall risk involved with participating in this study is low. The sUAS will be flown in 

accordance with all FAA rules and regulations. You acknowledge and assume all risk of injury ordinarily associated 

with UAS operations. 

Benefits to You. Participation provides you with the opportunity to aid in the development of 

recommendations/requirements for the integration of sUAS into the National Airspace System. We also hope that 

you will enjoy having a chance to fly the sUAS. 

Assurances and Rights of the Participant. Your participation in this experiment is completely voluntary. The data 

you provide and that is collected by Volpe will be kept confidential within the research team. Your data shall 

remain anonymous. You will not be identifiable by name or description in any reports or publications about this 

study. You understand that no Personally Identifiable Information [PII] will be disclosed or released, except as 

required to carry out this study or as required by law or by DOT policy. You may withdraw from this study at any 

time without penalty. Data provided until the point of termination will be stored and could potentially be used in 

the analysis. If you determine that you do not want your data used, you may inform the experimenter and your 

data will not be used for this study. 

Organization Responsible for this Study. This study is being conducted by the John A. Volpe National 

Transportation Systems Center, United States Department of Transportation (USDOT), and is being led by Dr. Kim 

Cardosi, whose contact information is below. This study is funded by the Federal Aviation Administration, 

Emerging Technologies Division. If you have any questions, please let us know. For further information about this 

study, please contact: 

Kim Cardosi 

US DOT Volpe Center, 55 Broadway, Cambridge, MA 02142 

Kim.Cardosi@dot.gov 617-494-2696

Statement of Consent. Please sign your name below so we have a record that you are voluntarily participating in 

this study and understand the information provided in this document. This document is stored separately from all 

other data you provide.

I have read this consent document. I understand its contents, and I freely consent to participate in this 

study under the conditions described. I have received a copy of this consent form. 

Signature of participant ___________________________________ Date __________ 

Signature of experimenter ___________________________________ Date __________ 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 17

Signature of witness ________________________________________ Date __________ 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 18

Debriefing Form 

Small UAS (sUAS) Pilot Altitude Estimation Study 

Summary 

Thank you for participating in the study! Your participation provides the opportunity to aid in the 

development of recommendations/requirements for the integration of small Unmanned Aircraft 

Systems (sUAS) into the National Airspace System. The results will help to inform where sUAS are able to 

fly, and help to inform analyses of risk. We also hope that you enjoyed flying the sUAS. 

Please keep in mind that confidentiality is important to the validity of this field experiment. Please do 

not discuss the details of this experiment with any other participants or your friends. 

This study is being conducted by the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, United 

States Department of Transportation (USDOT), and is being led by Dr. Kim Cardosi. The study is funded 

by the Federal Aviation Administration, Emerging Technologies Division. If you have any questions or 

comments, please let us know. 

For further information about this study, please feel free to contact: 

Dr. Kim Cardosi 

US DOT, Volpe Center 

55 Broadway, V-315 

Cambridge, MA 02142 

Kim.Cardosi@dot.gov 

617-494-2696 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 19

Appendix B: Questionnaires 

Appendix B contains the: 

 Demographics Questionnaire 

 Post-trial Questionnaire 

 Post-experiment Questionnaire 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 20

Background Questionnaire 

Participant number: _______ 

Date: ___________________ 

1. Age

2. Gender 

3. Do you own a small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (sUAS)? If yes, what make(s)/model(s)? How 

long have you owned the sUAS? 

4. Approximately how many times have you flown the sUAS? (Total and in the past year?) 

5. Please describe your typical sUAS flight. (Include typical purpose of flight, duration, and route). 

6. Do you have experience flying any other aircraft (including both manned and unmanned)? If yes, 

please describe aircraft and hours of flying experience. 

7. Do you hold a Remote Pilot Airman Certificate? If yes, when did you obtain it? 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 21

Post-Trial Questionnaire 

Participant Number: ____________ 

Date: ________________________ 

Trial Number: _________________ 

Experimenter ID:_______________ 

How confident are you that the UAV flew to the correctly prescribed altitude? 

o not at all confident 

o somewhat confident 

o very confident 

Any additional comments on this trial: 

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 22

Post-Experiment Questionnaire 

Participant Number: ____________ 

Date: ________________________ 

Trial Number: _________________ 

Experimenter ID:_______________ 

1. Please describe any strategies you used to estimate the altitude of the UAV. 

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________ 

2. What factors do you think would influence your altitude estimation? 

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________ 

3. Please rate how difficult it was for you to both hover at the specified altitude and take a photo. 

o Difficult 

o Moderate 

o Easy 

4. What factors do you think impacted your workload? 

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________ 

5. Please share any other comments you had about this experiment. 

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________ 
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 23

Appendix C: Experiment Log Sheet 

Subject #: ________ Date: ____________ Time: ___________

Commercial ______ Hobbyist _________

BEFORE 

Time: 

Wind: 

Sky: 

Altimeter Setting: 

Temperature:

AFTERs

Time:

Wind: 

Sky: 

Altimeter Setting: 

Temperature:

CHECKLIST COMPLETE

Take before photo

Practice UAV controls

1. Controls for take-off

2. Controls for maneuvering right/left

3. Controls for taking a photo

4. Controls returning to base

Practice Run 

1. Takeoff climb ~20 feet

2. Fly to target

3. Rotate drone 360 degrees

4. Take a photo

5. Climb ~ 20 feet

6. Fly Right 30 feet

7. Descend 20 feet

8. Fly left 30 feet back to target

9. Return to starting point

Post-test: Take after photo
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 24

Trial #1

Range Finder 

Altitude YDS

Time 

4 Digits

Inclinometer

(Deg)

1

Takeoff

350 Ft 

Photo

Return

2

Takeoff

50 Ft

Photo

Return

3

Takeoff

200 Ft

Photo

Return

Trial #2

Range Finder 

Altitude YDS

Time 

4 Digits

Inclinometer

(Deg)

1

Takeoff

200 Ft 

Photo

Return

2

Takeoff

50 Ft

Photo

Return

3

Takeoff

350 Ft

Photo

Return

Trial #3

Range Finder 

Altitude YDS

Time 

4 Digits

Inclinometer

(Deg)

1

Takeoff

200 Ft 

Photo

Return

2

Takeoff

350 Ft

Photo
 Altitude estimation of sUAS 25

Return

3

Takeoff

50 Ft

Photo

Return
U.S. Department of Transportation 

John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center 

55 Broadway 

Cambridge, MA 02142-1093 

617-494-2000 

www.volpe.dot.gov