Water-Supply and· Irrigation Paper No. 140 Sems 0, Underground Waters, 43 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR 

FIELD lVIEASUREMENTS 

OF 

r-rHE RA_TE OF MOVEMENT OF 

UNDERGROUND WATERS 

BY 

CHARLES S. SLICHTER 

"\V ASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1905 

Page 

Letter of transmittal. ___ . _____ ....... _ . _ ............ ____ . __ . _____ . . . . . . . . . 7 

Introduction _. __ . _ ... ___ .. ___ ... __ ... __ ...... __________ . ____________ . ___ . 9 

Chapter I. The capacity of a sand to transmit water . _____ . ________ .. __ . . . . . 10 

Factors influencing flow ___ . ~. _ .. __________ .. _______ . . . _ . _________ . _. 10 

Transmission constant __ .. _ ... _ . _ .. _ . __ . _ . _ . __ . _____ . _ . __ .. __ . ___ .. __ . 10 

Chapter II. Underflow meter used in measuring velocity and direction of 

movement of underground water _. ___ .. _ .. ___ . ____ . ________ .- ...... - 16 

Types of apparatus ______ .. ____ .. _________ ...... ____ . _ . ___ .. __ ... ____ . 16 

Test wells ... ___ ~ _. _ . _ . __ . __ ... ____ . _ . _ . _ . ___ .. _ . __ . __ ~ . __ . _ . _ . _____ . 16 

Direct-reading instruments .. _ .... _____ ... __ .. _. __ .... _ .. _._ ....... _... 19 

Recording instruments_ .... _ .. ~ ... _ .. _ ......... _ ... _ ............... _ . . 25 

Chapter III. Laboratory experiments on the flow of water through sands an<i 

gravels ............................ _. _ .... _ ..... ___ .. ___ ... _.. . . . . . 29 

Objects of the experiments ......... _ . ___ .... __ . __ .. _ .. _ ..... _ ..... _ . _. 29 

Experiments in the horizontal tank .. __ . ______ ._. __ .. __ . __ .. _ .•....... - 29 

Experiments in the vertical tank_ .. __ ._ .. ___ .. ___ . __ . ______ .. __ ... ___ . 41 

Accuracy of the electric method of determining the velocity of groun<i 

waters _____ .... _____ . __ . ____ .. _ . _ . __ ... _ . _ ... _ .. _ .... ___ . _ . __ . _ . __ . 49 

Chapt~r IV. Measurements of the underflow at the narrows of Rio Hondo and 

San Gabriel River, California _ .. _ ... _ ... __ . _ .. _ ...... _ .... ___ . _......... 50 

Chapter V. Measurements of the underflow at the narrows of Mohave River 

near Victorville, CaL ..... _ ..... _._ ... _ ...... _._. __ ._ .. __ .:._........ 55 

Conditions at the station .. __ . __ . _. _. _ .. __ . ___ .. _. _. _ .. _ .. __ . ___ . _ ... _. 55 

Description of experiments._. __ .. __ .. _ ... _ .. _ .......... ___ .. _......... 57 

Quality of water .. _ .. _ .... ___ ...... _ .. _ . __ ..... _ .......... __ ..... _ . ___ . 63 

Chapter VI. . Measurements of the rate of the underflow on Long Island, 

New Y 01 k . __ . _ .. _ . _ ......... _ . __ . _ . _ .. ____ . _______________ . _ . . . . . . 65 

Conditions existing at the stations _____ .... _________ . _ .. _ - _ ..... -.. -. . . 65 

Influence of the rainfall upon the rate of motion of ground. waters ...... - 69 

Seepage waters from ponds and reservoirs _____ . _. _ . _ . __ . __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 

Influence of pumping upon the rate of motion of ground waters near sorre 

of the Brooklyn driven-well stations_ ... _____ . ____ .................. - 81 

Conclusion .. _. __ . __ .. _ . ___ . ______ . _____ . ____ .. _. __ . _ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 

Chapter VII. Specific capacity of wells . ____ . ______ . _________ ~ _____ ........ 86 

General principles. _ . ______ .. _____ .. ___ . ____ •.. _______ .............. -. 86 

Tests ... ___ : . ___ . _____ . ____ . _______ . _______________ ~ . ____ . . . . . . . . . . . • 91 

Test I ___ . __________ .... ________ . _ . ____________ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

Seepage and evaporation . ____ . _____ ... ____________ .... -- . --------- 92 

Testii ---------------------------------------------------------- 92 3 -
4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Chapter VIII. The California "stovepipe" method of well construction for 

water supply _____ . ________________ • ________ . ______ . _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 98 

Mode of construction _______ . _ . ______ . _______________________ . __ . _ _ _ _ _ 98 

Advantages of stovepipe construction ______ . ___ ._. ______ .. __ ... __ ._____ 101 

Cost of construction . __ .. ___ . __________________________ • _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 101 

We 11 rigs . ________ . _________________ . _________ . _______________ . _ _ _ _ _ _ 102 

Yield of wells _____________________________ . ____________________ . _ _ _ _ _ 103 

Chapter IX. Tests of typical pumping plants. ______ .. ______________________ 104 

Test of pumping plant of Felix Martinez, near El Paso, Tex _____ ..•.. _ _ _ 104 

Pumping plants of J. A. Smith, near El Paso, Tex. ____ . ______ . ___ ._____ 106 

Test of Roualt's pumping plant, near Las Cruces, N. Mex. __ .... _. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 109 

Test of Horaco Ranch Company's well No. l, Berino, N. MeY _. __ . _____ . 111 

Summary of results of tests at pumping plants in valley of the Rio Grande, 

New Mexico and Texas ________ . ___ . ____ . ____________ . ___ .. _____ ... _ 112 

Determination of vacuum .. __ . ___ . __ . __ . _ .. _ . ______ . ____ . ___ . ____ . 113 

Specific capacity _____ . __________ .. _____ . ___ . ______ .. ____ . __ . _ _ _ _ _ 113 

Cost and operating expenses. _____ ._. ___________________ . ___ .______ 114 

Fuel cost . ____ • _____ .. _________ .. ___ . _____ . ___ . _______ . ____ . _ _ _ _ _ 114 

Comments on the Rio Cirande pmnping plants _____ ._._. ____ .... _ _ _ _ 117 

Index _ ..... __ ... __ ... _ . _ ..... _ .. _ . ______ ... _ . __ ...... ____ ... ___ . . . . . . . . . 121 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

PLATE I. First underflow stations near Garden, Kans.: A, Station 1, near 

''Point of Rock;'' B, Station 2, south of island. ____ .. __ . __ ._._. 10 

II. Scale for graphic estimation of transmission constant of a sand. __ .. 14 

III. A, Ram for driving wells; B, Pulling casing with railroad jacks._.. 18 

IV. Electrode and perforated brass buckets used in charging wells. . . • • . 18 

V. A, Underflow meter; B, Commutator clock_______________________ 20 

VI. A, Small well jetting rig; B, Recording instruments in field boY .. - 26 

VII. Ch~rts made by recording ammeter __ . _ . ___ . __ .. __ . _. -. __ . _ . -. --. 26 

VIII. Vertical tank used in laboratory experiments. __ ._ . ___ . _____ .. _ . . . 42 

IX. Narrows of Mohave River, Califomia _______________________ . __ .. 56 

X. Driving well at' underflow station at narrows of Mohave River._... 58 

XI. Driving test wells in the gorge of Mohave River_. _________ . __ r _ _ _ _ 58 

XII. A, 12-inch "stovepipe" starter; B, Two lengths of stovepipe cas:ng. 98 

XIII. A, Side view of California well rig; B, Front view ____ .. __ . _ .. _ .. _ 100 

XIV. A, Casing perforator; B, Rear view of well rig. __ .... _ ... __ . __ ..... 102 

XV. California well rig and artesian well flowing 5,250,000 gallons per 'f" twenty-four hours: ________ . __________ .. _______ ... _. __ . __ .... -. 102 

FIG. 1. Pipe joint made '''ith hydraulic coupling ____ . ______ .... __ . __ .. _... 17 

2. Plan of arrangement of test wells. ____ .. ___ ._. ___ . __ .. _. ____ ._... . . 18 

3. Diagram illustrating manner of working of electric un1lerflow meter. 20 

-±. Ampere curves at ~tation 5, Satl Gabriel River, California ______ .. ___ . 22 

5. Am pen>. curves at station 1, Long Island, New York. __ ... ___ ._..... 24 

6. Ampere curves at station 10, Garden, Kans .... __ ._ .... -.... _...... 27 

7. Plan of horizo11tal tank_ . ____ .. _ . ____ . __ .... __ . __ . _ . _ ... __ ... __ .. _ 31 

8. Experiment 4, horizontal tank. _________ . __ ._ .. ___ ... __ . _____ .. _.. 33 

9. Experiment 6, horizontal tank. ____________________ ._ .... ___ .. _... 3;3 

10. Experiment 8, horizontal tank .. __ ._ ... _. ___ . ______ . __ . _______ .. __ . 34 

11. Experiment 9, horizontal tank. ___ ... _. __ . __ .. __ ... ___ . ____ . ____ ._ 34 

12. Experiment 10, horizontal tank. ___ . ________ .. ___ .. __ .. ________ .. _ 35 -

13. Experiment 11, horizontal. tank __ .. __ . _ . ___ .. ___ . . _ ...... _ .. _.... 36 

14. Experiment 12, horizontal tank _____ .. __ . ______ . _____ .. ____ . ____ .. 37 

15. Experiment 13, horizontal tank _____________ . _ .. ______ . __ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 38 

16. Experiment 14, horizontal tank _ . ______________ . _. ____ ~ _ . _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 38 

17. Experiment 15, horizontal tank_ . ______ . ___ . ___ . __ .. _. _. _. __ ...... 39 

18. Experiment 16, horizontal tank ______ . _, ________ .. _ •... _ ...... _.... 39 

19. Experiment 17, horizontal tank . _____ ... ___ . __ .. _. __ . ____ .• ___ . _. _ 40 

20. Experiment 18, horizontal tank_. ____ . _. ______ • _ .. ___ .. _ ....•. ___ . 40 

21. Vertical tank _ . _ . _______ . ________ .. __ .... __ . __ .. __ ..•. _ . _ . __ . _ .. _ . 43 

22. Experiment No. 1 in vertical tank; contours for 12.10 p. m ______ .. _ 43 

23. Experiment No. 1 in vertical tank; contours for 12.40 p. m .. __ . __ .. 44 

24. Experiment No. 1 in vertical tank; contours for lAO p. m _. _______ . 44 

25. Experiment No. 1 in vertical tank; contoms for 2.40 p. m . . . . . . . . . . 45 

26. Experiment No. 1 in vertical tank; contours for 3.40 p. m .. _ ... __ .• 45 

5 
6 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. 27. Experiment No.1 in vertical tank; contours for 4.40 p. m ----------

28. Experiment No. 2 in vertical tank; contours for 2.55 p. m .......... . 

29. Experiment No. 2 in vertical tank; contours for 7.25 p.m .........•. 

30. Variation in rate- of flow of ground water with variation in head .. __ 

31. Ampere curves at stations Nos. 1 and 2, Rio Hondo, California ..... . 

32. Ampere curve at station No. 3, San Gabriel River, California ....... . 

33. Map of gorge of Mohave River, Victorville, CaL .. _ ............ _ .. . 

34. Cross section of g_orge of Mohave River, Victorville, CaL ........ _. _ 

35. Plan of underflow station, gorge of Moh~ve River ___ •.. _ ........ _ .• 

36. Ampere curve at station A, Mohave River ................. _ ...... . 

37. Ampere curve at station E, Mohave River, for depth of 8 feet ...... . 

38. Ampere curve at station E, Mohave River, for depth of H feet .. __ .. 

39. Ampere curve at station E, Mohave River, for depth of 20 feet ..... . 

40. Ampere curve at station G, Mohave River, for depth of 25 feet" .... . 

41. Ampere curve at station G, Mohave River, for depth of 30 feet. .... . 

42. Ampere curve at station I, Mohave River, for depth of 2ct feet ... _ .. 

43. Ampere curve at station 2 X, Long Island .............•........... 

44. Ampere curves at station 5, Long Island ........... __ .•......... __ . 

45. Ampere curve at station 6, Long Island ........ _ ........ _ ......... . 

46. Ampere curve at station 7, Long Island ........ _ .. · ................ . 

47. Ampere curve at station 8, Long Island .......................... _. 

48. Ampere curve at station 10, Long Island .......................... . 

49. Ampere curve at station 12, Long Island ... _ ......... _ ...........•. 

50. Ampere curve at station 14, Long Island .......................... _ 

51. Ampere curve at station 15, Long Island .......................... . 

52. Ampere curve at station 15 X, Long Island ....................... . 

53. Ampere curve at station 13, Long Island .............•• _ ... __ ... _ .. 

54. Ampere curve at station 16 X, Long Island ............... _ ....... . 

55. Ampere curve at station 17, Long Island .... _ ..... _ ............... _ 

56. Ampere curve at station 21, Long Island .......................... . 

57. Map showing underflow stations, Long Island ........ _ ............ . 

58. Map showing stations 5 and 6, Long Island ..•............ _ ........ . 

59. Map showing stations 2, 13, 16, 17, and Wantagh Pond, Long Island. 

60. Apparatus for measuring rate of rise of water in wells ............•. 

61. Curves of rise of water in wells .. _ ......• _ .•....................... 

62. Roller perforator for stovepipe wells .•.......................... _ .. 

63. Plan and elevation of California well-rig derrick .................. . 

64. Conditions at pumping plant of Felix Martinez, near El PaHo, Tex .. 

65. Conditions at pumping plant of J. A. Smith, near El Paso, Tex ..•.. 

66. Conditions at pumping plant of Theodore Roualt, near Las Cruces, 

N. Mex ....................................................... . 

67. Conditions at Horaco Ranch Company's well No. 1, at Berino, N. 

Page. 

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Mex........................................................... 111 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR~ 

uNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 

HYDROGRAPHIC BRANc~r, 

Wctshi-n,gton, IJ. 0., Altgust 10~ 1904. 

SIR: I transmit herewith, for publication, a manuscript entitled 

"Field Measurements of the Rate of ~Iovement of ·Underground 

Waters," prepared by Prof. Charles S. Slichter, professor of mathematics, University of Wisconsin. . 

The paper presents an amplified exposition of the method of measuring the movement of underground waters which was devisec1 by Professor Slichter in 1901 while working for the hydi·ographic branch of 

the U niteu States Geological Survey and which has been already 

briefly described in Water-Supply Pape.r No. 67, 1902. Descriptions of 

the apparatus invented by him for the laboratory study of -vTells eontrolling horizontal and vertical movements of underground waters and 

the results of these studies are also presented. The laborator:r studies 

are also supplemented by detailed accounts of several investigations 

made in the field. 

This paper should be interesting and valuable to engineers and geologists, and the direct application of the results to the study of problems 

of vital interest to the users of artesian waters should be of great 

practical value to the general public. A veTy suggestive and interesting description of the California method of sinking ''stovepipe" wells 

deserves the attention of drillers in unconsolidated deposits throughout our country, while the cleseription of the carefully made tests on 

typical pumping plants in Texas and New 1\IIexico should appeal to 

engineers and others who are interested in the problem of raising 

water for irrigation or other purposes. 

Very respectfully, 

Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, 

F. H. NEWELL, 

Ohief Engineer. 

1Ji1·ect0'r Un,ited States Geologica,l S7.tTIJey. 

7 

FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF THE RATE OF MOYEMENT 

OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

By CHARLES s. SLICHTER. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The following paper describes the method and apparatus used in 

measuring the velocity of underground waters and gives the results of 

field work done with the apparatus in various parts of the United 

State's, under authority of the hydrographic branch of the United 

States Geological Survey. The method used in making the measurements was devised by the writer after preliminary tests along the 

Arkansas River in western Kansas during the summer of 1911. This 

preliminary work indicated that it was practicable to measur'j the rate 

of flow of ground waters by the u~e of very simple apparatus. Several 

determinations of the rate of movmnent of the underflow of the 

Arkansas were made during that summer. These measnrem~nts, it is 

believed, constituted the first direct determinations of the rate of flow 

of ground water that had been made in this country. This pr'jliminary 

work was done in the neighborhood of Dodge, Kans., and at one or 

two points near Garden, Kans. The photographs reproduced in Pl. I 

show the locations of the first successful stations, which were established near Garden, I{ans. A brief description of the electrical 

method of measuring the velocities of underground waters resulting 

from this preliminary investigation was printed in the Engineering 

News of February 20, 1902, and in paper No. 67 of the Water-Supply 

and Irrigation series of the United States Geological Survey. Since 

then, as the result of work carried on in the field and in the laboratory, 

the apparatus has been gradually improved, and its present form is 

described in these pages. 

The paper will also include some determinations of the m~·,nner and 

rate of flow of water into tubular wells, and descriptions of methodg 

and simple apparatus designed to aecurately estimate the er-.pacity of 

such wells. 

9 
CHAPTER I. 

THE CAPACITY OF A SAND TO TRANSMIT WATER. 

FACTORS INFLUENCING FLOW. 

The general laws governing the flow of water through a mass of 

sand or gravel have been described hy the writer in another paper,n 

and will not be repeated in this place.. It is sufficient to state that 

experiments show that the flow of water in a given diren,tion through 

a column of sand is proportional to the differenee in pressure at theends of the column, and inversely proporti9nal to the length of the 

column, and is also dependent upon another factor, ealled the transmission constant of the sand. 

TRANSMISSION CONSTANT. 

The resistance offered by sand or gravel to the flow of water which 

is percolating through it is very great. The water is obliged to pass 

through very small pores, usually capillary in character; indeed, they 

are much smaller in cross section than the soil particles between which 

they pass. If the partieles of sand or gravel which make up the waterbearing medium are well rounded in form the pores are somewhat 

triangular in cross section and the diameter of the individual pores 

is only one-fourth to one-seventh the diameter of the soil particles 

themselves. Thus if the individual grains of sand average 1 millimeter in diameter the pores through which the water must pass will 

average only one-fourth to one-seventh of a millimefer in diameter. If to a mass of nearly uniform sand particles larger particles be 

added the effect on the resistance to the flow of water will be one of 

two kinds, depending principally upon the ratio which the size of the 

particles added beat·s to the average size of grains in the original sand. 

If the particles added are only slightly larger than the original sand 

grains, the effect is to increase the capacity of the. sand to transmit 

water, and the more particles of this kind that are add'3d the greater 

will be the increase in the capacity of the sand to transn1it water. If, 

however, large particles are added, the effect is the reverse. If particles seven to ten times the diameter of the original sr.nd grains be 

added, each of the new particle~ tends to block the course of the 

a The motions of underground waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 67, U. a. Geol. Survey, 1902. 

10 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 Pl. I 

B 

LOCATION OF FI RST UN DERF LOW STATIONS, AUG UST, 1901, N EAR GARDEN, KANS. 

A' Station 1' near Pomt of Rock I n, Station 2, south of island. 
SLICHTER.] TRANSMISSION CONSTANT. 11 

water. Thus, for example, a large bowlder placed in a mass of fine 

sand will tend to block the passage of the water. As more and more 

of the large particles are added to a mass of uniform sand, the rate of 

flow of wate"r through it will be decreased until the amount of the 

large particles -equals about 30 per cent of the total mass. Fro:'ll this 

time on the adding of the large particles will ·increase the capacity of 

the whole to transmit water until, if a very large quantity of the large 

particles be added, so that the original mass of fine particles becomes 

relatively negligible, the capacity to transmit will approach that of the 

mass of the large particles alone. These facts have an important bear~ 

ing upon the capacity of gravels to furnish water to wells or to trans~ 

mit water in the underflow of a river. The presence of large particl~s 

is not necessarily to be interpreted as indicating a high transrrission 

capacity of the material, for this is indicated only when the larg·e particles constitute a large fractional per cent of the total mass, as would 

be 'the case where the large particles equal 40 or 50 per cent of the 

whole. 

The capacity of ~ny sand or gravel to transmit water can be expressed 

by means of a single number which is called the transmission constant of 

the soil. This constant is defined to he the amount of water transmitted 

in unit time through a cylinder of the soil of unit length an•l unit 

cross section under unit difference in head at the ends. For exrmple, 

if the foot and minute be the units of length and time, and if a c-:>lumn 

of sand 1 square foot in cross section and 1 foot in length will transmit 1 cubic foot of water a minute under a difference in head of 1 foot 

of water, the transmission constant is 1. The transmissiop. constant of 

a soil varies very greatly with the size of the individual grain" constituting the sand or gravel, and also depends in a marked degree 

upon the porosity or amount of open space in the soil. Table I~ herewith, gives the transmission constants for a variety of sizes of soil 

grain and for a series of porosities varying from 30 to 40 per cent. 

This table is cmnputed for a temperature of the water of 60° F. An 

auxiliary table, Table II, is one from which the transmission coiJstants 

corresponding to other temperatures can readily be found. 

Transmission constant x.~ is the quantity of water, measured in cubic 

feet, that is transmitted in one minute through a cylinder of the soil 

1 foot in length and 1 square foot in cross section, under difference 

in head at the ends of 1 foot of water. 

The tabulated numbers express the transmission ~onstant in cubic 

feet per minute. 
12 RATE 0]' MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND W .ATER~. [NO. 140. 

TABLE I.-Transmission constants from which the ·11elocity of 'Wafer in sa·nds of varir-ms 

e.ffectit•e sizes of grain ca·n be obtained. 

Table computed for temperature of 60° F.: results for other temperatures can be found by the use of 

Table II.] 

Diameter of 

soil 

grain 30 per cent. 32 per cent. inmm. 

0.01 0.000033 O.OOOQ.!O 

. 02 . 000131 . 000162 

.03 . 000296 . 000364 

'.04 . 000527 . 000648 

.051 . 000822 . 0010121 

.06 . 001182 .001458 

. 07 .001610 . 001983 

.08 . 002105 . 002590 

.09 . 002660 . 003280 

.10 . 003282 . 004050 

.12 . 004725 . 005830 

.14 . 006430 . 007940 

.15 . 007390 . 009120 

.16 . 008410 . 01036 

.18 . 01064 .01311 

. 20 . 01315 . 01620 

. 25 . 02050 . 02530 

. 30 . 02960 . 03640 

35 . 04025 . 04960 

.40 . 0.5270 . 06480 

. 45 . 06650 . 08200 

50 . 08220 .1012 

. 55 . 09940 .1225 

60 .1182 .1458 

. 65 .1390 .1710 

. 70 .1610 .1983 

. 75 .1850 . 2278 

.80 . 2105 . 2590 

. 85 . 2375 .2925 

.90 .2660 . 3280 

.95 .2965 . 3650 

1. 00 . 3282 .4050 

2.00 1. 315 1. 620 . 

3.00 2.960 3.6-!0 

4.00 5.270 6.480 

5.00 8.220 10. 12 

Porosity. 

34 per cent. 36 per cent. 

0.000050 0.000060 

. 000198 . 000239 

. 00044601 . 000533 

. 00079401 . 000958 

. 001240 : . 001495 

. 001784 . 0021.50 

. 002430 . 002930 

. 003175 . 003825 

. 004018 . 004845 

. 004960 . 005980 

. 007130 . 008620 

. 009720 . 0117~ 

. 01115 . 01345 

. 01268 . 01531 

. 01605 . 01940 

. 01983 . 02390 

. 03100 . 08740 

. 04460 . 0.5380 

. 06075 . 07330 

. 07940 . 09575 

.1005 .1211 

.1240 .1495 

.1500 .1810 

.1784 . 21.50 

. 2095 . 2530 

. 2430 . 2930 

. 2785 . 3365 

. 3175 . 382.5 

. 3580 . 432f) 

.4018 .4845 

. 4470 . 5400 

.4960 . 5980 

1. 983 2.390 

4.460 5.380 

7.940 9.575 

12.40 ll ~5 

----

38 per cent. 

0.000072 

. 000286 

. 000645 

. 001145 

. 001790 

. 002580 

. 003510 

. 00458.5 

. 005800 

. 007170 

. 01032 

. 01404 

. 01611 

. 01835 

. 02320 

. 02865 

. 04480 

. 064.50 

. 08790 

.114.5 

.1450 

.1780 

. 2165 

.2580 

. 3030 

. 3510 

.4030 

. 4585 

. 51/.5 

.5800 

.6460 

. 7170 

2.865 

6.450 

11.45 

17.90 

40 per cent. 

O.OC0085 

. 0(0339 

. 000763 

. 0035.5 

. Of2120 

. OC30f)0 

. 0(41.55 

. 0(5425 

. OC<J860 

. 0(1"{480 

. 01220 

. 01662 

. 01910 

. 0~170 

. 0~745 

. or390 

. Of300 

. O'i'630 

. 01039 

. 13.55 

.1'n8 

. 2120 

. 2f65 

. 3050 

. 3f80 

. 4155 

. 4770 

. 5':t25 

. 6125 

. 6f60 

I 

. 7Cf50 

. 8ct80 

,3.3~ 7.6.:0 

113.55 

121.20 

--

Kind of soil. 

Jsilt . 

! 

~~Very fine · sand . 

Fine sand . 

Medium 

sand . 

Coarse 

sand . 

!

Fine gravel. 
SLICHTER.] TRANSMISSION CONSTANT. 13 

TABLE II.-Yar·iation, with the temperature, of the flow of water of m.rimts temperatures 

th1·ough a sand, 60° F. be·ing taken as the standard temperature. 

Temperature. Relative Temperature. Relative 

flow. a fiow.n 

OF. Per cent. OF. Per cent. 

32 0.64 70 1. 15 

35 . 67· 75 1. 23 

40 . 73 80 1. 30 

45 .80 85 1. 39 

50 . 86 90 1. 47 

55 . 93 95 1. 55 

60 1. 00 100 1. 64 

65 

I 

1. 08 

a "Relative flow" means flow· at given temperature compared with flow at 60° F. It is expressed 

as a percentage. 

It should be borne well in mind that the rate of transmission varies 

very greatly with the temperature of the water. For example, a 

change from· 50° to 60° increases the capacity to transmit water under 

identical conditions by about 16 per. cent, while a change from the 

freezing temperature to a temperature of 75° will nearly double the 

power of a soil to transmit water. This difference, of cour~:~e, is not 

due to any change in the soil itself, but is due solely to the ircrea~ed 

ease with which water flows at high temperatures compared to the ease 

with which it flows at low temperatures. The transmission COil stant of 

a sand can also be obtained by use of the diagram given in Pl. II: 

Graduated vertical lines will be found in this diagram corresponding 

to the diameter of the soil grains (d), the amount of water transmitted (q), the hydraulic gradient (s), and the porosity of the roil (rn.). 

The graduated line marked lT is an auxiliary scale. The number dis 

expressed in millimeters, and q is expressed in cubic feet per minute. 

· The hydraulic gradient 8 is expressed as a percentage. A slo1= e of the 

ground water equal to 2 feet in 100 feet appears in the diagram as 

hydraulic gradient 0.02 and a slope of 528 feet per 1uile appears as 

0.10. The porosity, m., also appears in the diagram as a percentage. 

The porosity or amount of voids in a sand will usually lie between 25 

and 46 per cent of the total volume. 

The diagram is used as follows: Suppose that the amount C'f water 

transmitted by a sand per square foot of cross section is desired, if the 

effective size of soil grain 1s 0. 55 millimeter, the hydraulic gradient 

2 feet in 100 feet, and the po'rosity is 36 per cent. Apply a ruler or 

straight edge (the edge of a piece of letter paper will do) to- the diagram, passing through the mark 0.55 on d and the mark 0.02 on 8. 

The edge of the rule~ will locate a point 0.47 on lT, the exact location 
14 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.HO. 

of which should be noted. Then n1ove the ruler so that it will pass 

through this same point on l1 and through the mark 36 ~n 1n. The 

place where the ruler crosses the line q (0.0036), will give the discharge 

in cubic feet per minute. The diagram gives results brtsed upon tne 

assumed temperature of the water .of 60° F. a 

If any three of the four magnitudes d, q, s, m ar~ known, the 

remaining one can be found in a manner similar to the 8 hove. 

The removal of larger particles from a mixed sand may not only 

increase the transmission constant in the manner described above, but 

such removal may also increase the transmission capacity by permitting the remaining sand to pack in a more open manner, as would be 

shown by an increased porosity. Tables II and III give results which 

show that the removal of the larger grains from a sand does not necm~sarily decrease the transmission constant, but may even increase it. 

The results given in Table III were obtained by successiYely removing 

the larger particles from a mass of sand by means of standard sieves, 

and then determining the porosity, effective size, b and transmission 

constant for the finer material passing through the suceessive sieves. 

The gravel represented by·Table Ill consisted of a mixture of all sizes 

of grains, from very fine grains to bowlders 2 feet in diameter. All 

pieces larger than 1 inch in diameter were discarded before the results 

shown in Table III were obtained. It is interesting to note that the 

93.4 per cent of the total sand passing through sieve ~l (2 meshes to 

the inch) did not have as large an effective size as the 74.2 per cent 

which passed through sieve 20 (20 meshes to the inch). 

• Table Ill is derived from a beach sand. The 54.3 per cent of this 

sand which passed through sieve 10 has a sm~ller transmi~sion constant 

than the 36.8 per cent which passed through sieve 14. 

The following table shows the effect of removing, by means of 

standard sieves, the coarser portions of a natural Arizona gravel. 

The data in columns 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 apply to that porthn of original 

sample that passed ~he sieve named in column 1. 

a The diagram was computed and drawn for the writer by J. D. Suter, of the University of Wisconsin. 

b The effectit•e si::e of a sample of sand is such a number that if all grains were of that diameter 

the mnd would- have the same transmission capacity that it actually has. It is therefore, the true 

mean or average size of sand grain in that sample. 
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

DIAMETER OF SOIL GRAIN 

Millimeters 

.. 

.4 

.02 

70 

68 

88 

64 

62 

60 

58 

58 

54 

52 

50 

44 

42 

40 

88 

u se 

84 

82 

80 

28 

2tl 

24 

22 

20 

DISCHARGE 

cu. ft. cu. ft. per24 hrs, per min. 

10000 

8000 

6000 

1 

1000 ,8 

800 .8 

600 .4 

400 .a 800 .2 

200 .1 

100 .08 

80 ,08 60 .04 

40 ,08 

80 .02 

20 .01 

10 .008 

8 .008 q 6 .004 

4 .ooa a .002 2 .001 

1 ,0008 

,8 .0008 

.6 .0004 

.4 .0008 

.a .0002 .2 .0001 .1 .00008 ,08 .00008 

.08 .00004 ,04 ,00008 

,08 ,00002 

.02 

,008 

,01 .000008 ==8,008 ,000004 

.004 .000008 

,008 .000002 

,002 .000001 .001 

,0008- :== .0008 .0000004 

.0004 .0000003 

.0008 .0000002 

,0002 .0000001 

.0001 .00000008 

,00008 .00000008 

.00008 .00000004 

.00004 .oooooooa .ooooa .00000002 

.00002 .00000001 .00001 

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. U 

HYDRAULIC 

GRADIENT 

per cent 

1 

s 

POROSITY 

per cent 

m 

47 

48 

46 

44 

48 

42 

,06 41 

40 

89 

.04 88 

37 

36 

85 .08 84 

sa 

32 

81 ,02 30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

.01 

,008 

,006 

,007 

,008 

.006 

,004 

.ooa 

.002 

SCALE OR NOMOGRAPH FOR ESTIMATING GRAPHICALLY THE JRANSMISSION CONSTANT OF A SAND OR GRAVEL. 
SLIGHTER.] TRANSMISSION CONSTANT. 15 

TABLE HI.-E;tfect of 'rernwing coarser po·rtions of field gra·vel. 

1. 2. • I •. 5. 6. 

Quantity of Differences Porosity of Effective TransmisNo. of sieve. gravel of uumbers portion size. sion con- pasRing. in column 2. passing. stantat80°F. 

Meshes to Per cent of to- Per cent of to- Cubic feet pet ·inch. tal ·u•eight. tal weight. Per cent. Mm. minute. 

2 93.4 6.6 38.1 0.325 0.102 

8 No data. .... -- .. ---.... 40.0 . 320 .120 

10 83.7 9. 7 38.6 .282 .080 

12 82.6 1.1 40.3 .304 .108 

14 80.3 2.3 39.5 .282 .086 

16 78.0 2.3 39.7 .282 .088 

18 76.4 1.6 39.6 . 277 .085 

20 74. 2 2.2 40.6 .317 .119 

30 55.9 8.3 41.0 . 250 .076 

40 32.2 23. 7 40.6 . 187 .042 

The following table shows the effect of removing by means of standard sieves the coarser portions of a natural beach gravel. The data in 

columns 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 apply to that portion of original samp~e that 

passed sieve named in column 1. 

TABLE IV.-Effect of ?'WWI'·ing coarser portions of a beach gral'el. 

- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 

Quantity of Differences Porosity of Effective TransmisNo. of sieve. gravel of numbers portion size. sion con- passing. in column 2. passing. stan tat 72°F. 

Meshes to Pe1· cent of to: Per cent of to- Cubic feet per inch. tal 'Weight. taltoeight. Per cent. M1n. minute. 

Total 

sample. 100.0 .. -- ...... -.. -.. 37.8 0.810 0.529 

10 _______ 54.3 45. 7 40.0 . 634 .390 

12.------ 47.6 6.7 41. 7 .640 . 457 

14 ....... 36.8 10.8 41.7 .603 . 406 

16 .. ----- 31.4 5.4 42.6 .539 . 348 

18 .. ----- No data. .. --. -- .. -.. - 43.5 .520 . 348 

I 

20 ·------ 25.6 5.8 43.5 .494 . 314 
CHAPTER II. 

UNDERFLOW METER USED IN MEASURING VET~OCITY AND 

DIRECTION 01!-, MOVEMENT OF UND~JRGROUND WATERS. 

TYPES OF APPARATUS. 

The apparatus used i~ of two types: (1) Direct res.ding, or hand 

apparatus, requiring the personal pre~ence of the operator every hour 

for reading of instruments, and (2) recording app",ratus, which 

requires attention but once in a day. Both forms are deqeribed in this 

chapter. The arrangement of the test wells and manner of wiring 

the wells is essentially the same for both. 

TEST WELLS. 

The test wells suitable for use with the underflow ~1eter in determining the velocity of ground waters may be common lt-inch or 2-inch 

drive wells if the soil is easily penetrated and if the depths to be 

reached do not exceed 50 to 7 5 feet. For greater dep~hs and harder 

soil wells of heavy construction should be used. Tbe lt-inch drive 

wells are much preferable to the 1-;f-inch wells because of the fact 

that H--inch pipe is lap welded, while the 1-;f-inch i~ butt welded, 

and less capable of standing severe pounding. Tbe dr~ve point used 

with the well may be 1-!-ineh standard brass jacket well points, 42 to 

4:8 inches long, with No. 60 brass gauze strainer. ~e well points 

should be threaded with 1-! inches of standard thread, somewhat more 

than is usually found on the trade g·oods. The pipe should be full 

weight strictly wrought-iron standard pipe, cut in lengths of 6 or 7 

feet, and threaded 1 t inches at each end. The couplings should be 

wrought-iron hydraulic recessed couplings, and the thread on the pipe _ 

should be cut in such a way that when properly screwe'"l up the ends 

of the pipe will abut. The recessed couplings protect the pipe at its 

weakest point, while an ordinary coupling will leave exposed a thread 

or two of the pipe so that severe_ driving is liable to swell and ultimately rupture the pipe just above the coupling. Fig. 1 represents a 

hydraulic coupling, showing a properly made joint. 

The driving head should be made of rolled steel shaft:ng and should 

be about 4: inches long, carrying 1-!-inches standard thr,'jad and an air 

hole to permit the free escape of air from the well while the driving 

16 
SLICHTER.] TEST WELLS. 17 

is in progress. A driving ram ·for putting down the drive wells 

should be about 5t feet long by 5! inches in diameter, made of heavy 

oak or otheJ· tough wood, with iron bands shrunk on the ends, and 

bearing two handles of hard wood at each end in order to facilitate 

the handling of the ram by two men. It is convenient to have these 

. handles placed one about 1 foot from one end, and the other about 2 

feet from the other end. By reversing the ram the handles are 

brought in a more convenient position for driving as the well goes 

down. 

Pl. III, A illustrates the method o:f putting down drive pointg. If 

the test wells are to be sunk to a depth exceeding that to which drive 

points can be readily driven, open-end 2-inch pipe should be used. 

These wells should be made with full weight strictly wrought-iron 

2-inch pipe with long threads and recessed hydraulic couplings, as 

described above. The pipe can either be put down without a sr~reen, 

in which case a l!-inch well point with turned coupling may be in~erted 

through a drive shoe at the bottom of the casing after the pipe is 

. . FIG. 1,-Pipe joint made with hydraulic coupling. This joint will stand hard drivinr. 

driven into place, or an open-end brass jacket well point, 48 inches 

long, may be put down with the pipe. The pipe should be driven into 

place with a cast-iron ram varying in weight frmn 150 to 250 pounds, 

simultaneously hydraulicking a passage for pipe with water jet in 

three-fourths-inch wash pipe. There are many hand rigs on the market 

suitable for this work, or a rig can be readily constructed by any good 

mechanic. Such a rig is shown in Pl. VI, .A. A suitable pump for 

the hydraulic jet is a double-acting horizontal force pump yrith a 

4- by 4t-inch cylinder. If the material in which the well is to be 

drilled is not too hard nor too full of bowlders, the writer recommends 

that an open-end well point be put down with the casing. This is 

apt to bause some difficulty in the proper working of the hydraulic 

jet, by the escape of water through the screen of the well point. This 

difficulty can be obviated and a more powerful wash secured by rifmitting a considerable quantity of air along with the water at the s·wtion 

end of the force pump. The exact amount of air to be admittrd can 

IRR 140-05-2 

• 
18 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

be readily determined with a little experience. The effect of the air 

entering the well under high pressure is to form a powerful air lift 

which will throw the water and gravel out of the top of the well casing 

with great force. It has been the writer's experienc~~ that the best 

hydraulic samples are obtained with the combination hydraulic pneu--

matic jet. If the hydraulic jet alone is used the coarser particles have 

a tendency to remain at the bottom of the well. 

After a test is completed the well casing can readily be pulled by a 

No.2 cast-iron pipe puller and two 5-ton railroad jacks. Sets of dies for 

the pipe puller to fit both lt- and 2-inch pipe can be ol::tained at small 

cost. Pl. III, B, shows the operation of the pipe pulhr and railroad 

jacks. 

FIG. 2.-Plan of arrangement of test wells used in determining the velocity an'i direction of motion 

of ground water; A, B, C, D are the test wells. The direction A -C is the directi<'n of probable motion 

of the ground water. The dimensions given in plan ct are suitable for depths up to 'about 25 or 30 

feet, those in plan b for depths up to about 75 feet. For greater depths th?. distances A-B, A-C, 

A-D should be increased to 9 or 10 feet, and the distances B-C and C-D to 4 feet. The well A is the 

"salt well" or well into which the electrolyte is placed. 

The test wells are driven in groups, as shown in fig. 2, each group 

of wells constituting a single station for the measurement of the direction and rate of flow of the ground water. In ease the wells are not 

driven deeper than 25 feet, the •' upstream" or ''salt well" A is located, 

~nd three other wells, B, C, and D, are driven at a dietance of 4: feet 

from A, the distance between B and C and C and D being about 2 

feet. The well C is located so that the line from A to C will coincide 

with the probable direction of the expected ground-wr.ter movement. 

This direction should coincide, of course, with the locarl slope of the 

water plane, and if this is not accurately known, it should be deter- · 

mined by means of leveling with a level. For deeper work the wells 

should be located farther apart, as shown in the right portion of 

fig. 2. For depths exceeding 75 feet, a radius of 8 or 9 feet and 

chords of 4 feet should be used, the. general requirenent being that 

the wells should be ae close together as possible, so as to cut down to 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER·SUPPL V PAPER NO. 140 PL. Ill 

A . RAM USED FOR DRIVING SMALL WELLS BY HAND, 

B. PULLING WELL CASING WITH RAILROAD JACK AND NO.2 PIPE PULLER. 
U. S. GEOLOGICA L SURVEY WATER -SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. IV 

E.LECTR OD E AND PERF ORATED BRASS BUCK ETS USED I N CHARGING 

WEL LS. 
SLICHTER.] DIRECT·READING INSTRUMENTS. 19 

a minimum the time required for a single measurement, but not so 

close that important errors are liable .to be introduced by the in3 hilipy 

to drive the wells perfectly straight and plumb. On this account the 

deeper the wells the farther apart they should be placed. The r.ngles 

B A C and C A D should not exceed 30°. 

DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS. 

Electrical connection is made with the casing of each test well by 

means of a drilled coupling carrying a binding post. Each of the 

downstream wells (B, C, D) contains within the well point or f~reen 

section an electrode consisting of a nickeled brass· rod three-ejghths 

inch in diameter by 4 feet long, insulated from the casing by wooden 

spools. The end of rod receives a No. 14 rubber-covered wire, to 

which good contact is made by a chuck clutch. An electrode is rb.own 

in Pl. IV. This electrode communicates with the surface by me1.ns of 

a rubber-covered copper wire. Pl. IV also shows two buckets of perforated brass used in charging wells with granulat'ed sal amm')niac; 

each is 1! by 30 inches. 

Fig. 3 illustrates the arrangement of electric circuits betwern the 

upstream well and one of the downstream wells. Each of the downstream wells is connected to the upstream well in the manner shown 

in this figure. 

A view of the direct-reading underflow meter is shown in Pl. V, A. 

Six standard dry cells are contained in the bottom of the box, their 

poles being connected to the six switches shown at the rear of the 

case. By means of these switches any number of the six cells may 

be thrown into the circuit in se1·ies. One side of the circuit -terminates in eight press keys, shown at the left end of the box:. The 

other side of the circuit passes through an ammeter, shown in the 

center of the box, to two three-way switches at right end of the box. 

Four of the binding posts at the left end of the box are conn3cted, 

respectively, to the casing of well A, and to the three electrodes of 

wells B, C, and D, in the order named. The binding posts at the 

right end of the box are connected to the casings of wells B, C, and D. 

There are enough binding posts to eonnect two different groups of 

wells to the same instrument. When the three-way switch oc,~upies 

the position shown in the photograph, pressing the first key at left end 

of the box will c.ause the ammeter to show the amount of eurrent 

passing between casing of well A and casing of well B. When the 

next key is pressed the ammeter will indicate the eurrent betwe·~n the 

casing of well B and the .electrode contained within it. In one in~tance 

the current is conducted between the two well casings by me~ms of 

the ground water in the soil; in the second case the electric cir··mit is 

completed by means of the water within well B. By putting the 

three-way switch in second position and pressing the first and third 
20 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND W l TERe. [No.140. 

keys in turn, similar Teadings can be had for current between casings 

A and C and between casing C and its internal electrode. Similarly 

with switch in third position, rea~ings are taken by pressing first and 

fourth keys. The results may be entered in a notebook, as shown in 

Table V. 

UPSTREAM WELL DOWNSTREAM WELL 

-~ 

. :~:~·.: 0 • ~ ~-~ 0 : ·____:__ 

-=-== ~.: 0 0 • 0 • ---~ • -----:-

-·~. ····-

: _.··-... _.- .... _._·>r~·--. =. -0~_. .::~ 

~-P-' .. ... 

-~ 

~~-. tr-

~-:-:··-~~--

b-·.·-.· ·0-:~ ~-- ·. 

-~~: .·~ 

~--· o:__ ~· 0-'----''-&Sl'll ~·..:___;•:__o _oc__:___::___:____: --~-=--___:· _· 0 < i :_· ·--',__-_ ~--~ -_ --'-_::==j-·'=1 ~-:-co-~---=-=-----;---=--'--~_:__:~::,_ __ :____::_~-~----'-- 0 • ~ ,.--

~E.-~ .. =~~o=-~-2-=-~o·~-~-~~~~~-~-~---~=o~==~==~~o=·~-~>~-~~~~~·~=3._ I ~ -~~ ~-~:_.·:_-_:._- __ ·._~~--=--. ·~. ~_: 0 

::::::::::~~~====:.=::::::::::::::~~~-~ ,:=_.·=_.=.·=.=·_- ... ~. 0 _· 

•. 

0 

. 

0 

-~ • _: : • 0 -~-- -. • 

0 

• 

~ ~- ~-· .... 0 • 00_. ~ :___,__. -:-. _:____..:..._:..__..:..___,'--1 

- .,:_ ___ ..:_ _ __:_ _ __::...___:_ _ _:__,.::_.:,_j• I ~~-~-:--1 ---:-·~ ~ --=--·· : 0 ...::._0 _ ___::___.:__ ------"---

-

---=---.0 .0 0 _---:---1 !__.. . ·. . .0- I ~__:__· -·-·-·-~ . • . I t. ·- .--'---'--- ~ ~-

\-;'::: •• 00 

.~, 

•• •• •• - 0 • 

·~~ ,------'-__:.___-~ :: _:_ • • • ·_ 0 : 0 0- - --~ ~ .....:':.___-'------'----1 

• 0 • • 0 :--"- __ _,___,___:____:_ ----,-'-------,----'----'--- --=--..:..· _jl .---:- • _,_. --''-----'---! 

_ _,___..,.:_ 4':%;:1--'--'-- • ~ !~ 0 00 . '----7---

• • • • ' • 0 • • ~§'::&-. ·_·_ ---=-=---- --=---=--- ~___::...__::____:___ ~ ;-:-.-· 0 00 • • 0 ] J:. ~ : ·, : ; • • . · o • • I 1 

_,._o_:_·_, ':__0_·=--------=:c~~.....:.___:. __ ..::____---:-_,___ __ ____..!,_.:___..:....· -_--.-:-:.~~ .. :~ 

t-:,_._0 '-'-' --' .._·..:.___·_.,__._'--\' \ 7_ • - - • : • ~ ~~ - 0 ·. ~ 

~:-~· :-'--' -'--': _.:.._·.- -·_-<=--· .-·.-_ ...:. '_:_: ~·;\/::!_ -0-. ,. -.-• .....:...._____:~_ --~V.: ·. .===f 

FIG. 3.-Diagram illustrating electrical method of determining the velocity of flow of ground water. 

The ground water is supposed to be moving in the direction of the arrow. The upstream well is 

charged with an electrolyte. The gradual motion of the ground water tow1.rd the lower wen and 

its final arrival at that well are registered by the ammeter A B is the batt€:ry and C a commutator 

clock which is used when A is a recording ammeter. 

The principles involved in the working of the apparatus are very 

simple. The upstream weil A is charged with a strong eleetrolyte, 

such as sal ammoniac, which passes down stream with the moving 

ground water; rendering the ground water a good electrolytic conductor of electricity. If the ground water moves in the direction of 

one of the lower wells, B, C, D, etc., the electric current between 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY. PAPER NO. 140 PL. V 

A U ND ERFLOW M ETER, SHOW ING CONN ECTIONS WH E N USED AS 

D I RECT-READING APPA RATU S. 

When used with rP.cording ammeter, only two connect10r1S are made, one to each 

side of battery cncuit; but the ammet er !S left i n Circuit with the recording in -

strument to ind11..:ate whethe r the latter is working properly. 

B . COMMUTATOR CLOCK, FOR USE WI TH RECORD ING AMM ETER. 

The clock makes electncal contact at any five-mmute interval. 
SLICHTER.) DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS. 21 

A and B, A and C, or A and D will gradually rise; mounting rapidly 

when the electrolyte begins to touch one of the lower wells. When 

the electrolyte finally reaches· and enters inside of one of the wells B, 

C, D,. it forms a short circuit between the casing of the well and the 

internal electrode-, causing an abrupt rise in the electric current. The 

result can be easily understood by consulting Table V and fig. 4, in 

which the current is depicted graphically. 

TABLE V.-Field record of electt--ic current durin,q underjlow measurements at stat-ion 5, R-io 

Hondo and San Gabriel Ri-ver, Cal·~fo·rnia, August 5 and 6, 1902. 

[Readings in amperes and decimals of an ampere.] 

I 

Well B. Well C. ! Well D. 

Time. Remarktt.a ¥.. ! 

Casing. t~~. Casing. t~~~. Casing. {;~~~. I 

---~--/--~ --------------- ----~--;-----

8 a. m . . . . . . . . 0. HO 0. 360 

8.15 a. nL..... Salt. 

8.30 a.m...... . 160 ...... . 

• 9 a. m . . . . . . . . . 168 ...... . 

10 a. m . . . . . . . . 180 · . 360 

11.40 a.m ..... 

1 p: m ••...... 

2 p. m ....... . 

3 p. m ....... . 

4 p. m ....... . 

5 p. m ....... . 

6 p. m ...•.... 

7 p. Ill. - - - - - - - -

8 p. m .... _ ... 

9 p. m . _ .•.... 

10.30 p. m •• _. 

12 p. m ... _ ~ .. 

1 a. m b • •••••• 

.192 

. 202 

.205 

.208 

. 210 

. 218 

. 225 

. 230 

. 240 

.250 

.275 

.350 

.420 

. 345 

.340 

. 345 

.342 

. 350 

.330 

.330 

. 330 

.330 

.330 

. 340 

.600 

.850 

2.30 a.m .... ·.. . 510 1. 550 

4.15 a. m. . . . . . . 560 2. 000 

5. 30 a. m. . . . . . . 550 2. 200 

7.45a.m ...•... 520 2.250 

8.15 a. m. . . . . . . • . . . . . 2. 250 

9 a. m • . . . • • . . . .•. _ . . 2. 200 

0.142 

Salt. 

.163 

.170 

.182 

.195 

. 202 

.204 

. 205 

. 205 

.210 

. 210 

. 218 

. 222 

. 222 

. 225 

. 230 

.240 

.240 

.240 

.230 

.230 

.................. 

-------

0.332 0.150 

Salt. 

.170 

.180 

. 330 .192 

. 325 

! 

. 202 

. 320 . 210 

.340 . 210 

. 320 . 210 

. 320 . 210 

. 310 . 212 

. 310 . 218 

.310 . 220 

. 310 . 223 

. 320 . 225 

. 315 .225 

. 310 . 230 

. 310 .230 

. 310 .230 

. 310 .230 

. 310 . 230 

. 310 .225 

------- -- .. --- .. 

-----· ... ... ----...... 

0.390 . -- ...... ---- .. -- ... -- ... -.... - 1 NaCl 2 NH4Cl 

.. .. -..... -... ........................... 1 NB4Cl 

1 NaCl -----·---- .390 ..... -- ----..... 1 NH4Cl 

. 380 -.. -... -... -.. -... ---------- .370 ----------- 1 NH4Cl 

. 370 ...... ------.... ---------- . 360 1 NaCl ---------- . 370 ---------· ---------- .360 ---------- 1 NH4Cl 

. 360 ---------- ---------- .360 ................... ·--------- . 350 1 NaCl -------·-- . 352 -.... -.... -- ...... -- ---------· .360 ---------- ----·----- .340 ---------- 1 NH4Cl 

.340 ---------- ---------- .340 ---------- ...... -- ..... --- .340 ---------- .. -... -- ............. 

.330 ......................... 

----------- .330 ---------- ---------- ...... -... -... ---------- ........................... 

------- ---------- ----------

a The electrolyte was lowered into well A by means of a perforated brass bucket, lt by 3(' inches in 

size. The formula "2 NH4Cl" means that two of these buckets, full of ammonium chlo~ide, were introduced into well A at the time indicated. Each of these buckets held 2 pounds of the salt. 

bAugust6. · 

The time that elapses from the charging of the well A to the arrival 

of the electrolyte at the lower well gives the time necessary for the 

ground water to cover the distance between these two wells. . Hence, 
22 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

if the distance between the wells be divided by this lap~e of time, the 

result will be the velocity of the ground water. The electi·olyte does 

not appear at one of the downstream wells with very great abruptness; 

its appearance there is somewhat gradual, as shown in the curves in 

I 

,1 A ' ,.,..,. / / , ~-,,,'" ;' { be .,.., I 

,,"' I ,, I 

,./"" t:,i ,, b'-1 !;:: .l 

D.- /1 v ~' .~::?( 

~~ I 

I "';,"'Jit"!~ I 

/ G~,,ffl~ 

c • <F"r. ,~. B 

wit ~ 

Y( 

~ 

0.90 AMPE~E CURVE WELL "B ' , ...... -- ·~ 

/ 

I 

I 

0.80 !<t' 

8! 

1:1 

O.'i'O 1 

e;/' 

1 t;jl 

k----f-----1------ VEL.=~=5.3 FT PER DAY--- ---- -----~ I 

I 18 /iRs. ' I : I 

0.60 1 

I 

i M~/ -~~ 

0.50 1 

1 If 1 

I . 0.40 : 

1 VI I 

/ I I / 0.30 I 

I v I I 

~ I I 

I I 

0.20 I 

- k 1-----..... / 

1---- ---- , ---1----1----

_ ... 

0.10 

1\ 10 1~ 2 4 6 8 10 1~ 2 4 6 8 ro A.M. M. P.M. P.M. --...(,- A.M. A'JG. 6 ' A.M. 

AUG 5' 

FIG. 4.-Diagram showing ampere curves at station 5 in the narrows of thE' San 'Gabriel River, 

California. The heavy curve represents the strength of electric current bE'tween the cnsing of 

well A and casing of well B. The dotted curve represents the strength of current between the 

electrode in well B and the casing of well B. These curves illustrate resul's obtained with the 

direct-reading form of apparatus. 

figs. 4 and 5. The t1me required for the electrolyte to reach its maximum strength in one of the downstream wells (and hence, for the current to reach its maximum value) may vary from a few minutes in a 

case of high ground-water velocity to several hours in a case of low 

velocity. The writer formerly supposed that the gradual appearance 
BL1Cll'I'ER.) DIRECT· READING INSTRUMENTS. 23 

of the electrolyte at the downstream well was largely due to the diffusion of the dissolved salt, but it is now evident that diffusion pl~.ys but 

a siuall part in the result. The principal cause of the phenomena is 

now known to be due to the fact that the central thread of water in 

each capillary pore of the soil moves faster than the water at tb~ walls 

of the capillary pore, just as the water near the central line of a river 

channel usually flows faster than the water near the banks. For this 

reason, if the. water of a river suddenly be made muddy at a certain 

upstrean1 point the muddy character of the water at a downstream 

point will appear somewhat gradually, being first brought down by 

the rapidly moving water in the center of the channel, and later by 

the more slowly moving- water near the banks. The effect of the 

analogous gradual rise in the electrolyte in the downstream well 

requires us to select the "point of inflection" of the curve of electric 

current as the proper point to determine the true time at which the 

arrival of the eleetrolyte should be counted. This point is designated 

by the letter M in figs. 4 and 5. 

Owing to the repeated branching and subdivision of the capillary 

pores around the grains of the sand or g-ravel, the stream of electrolyte 

issuing from the well will gradually broaden as it passes dowm:t.ream. 

The actual width of this charged water varies somewhat w~th the 

veloeity of the ground water, but in no case is the rate of the divergence very great. The manner in which the electrolyte spreads has 

been carefully investigated and will be described in a later page. 

It is possible to dispense with the circuit between the casing of well 

A and the casing of each of the other wells, as the short circuit b3tween 

the well and electrode forms the best possible indication of the arrival 

of the electrolyte at the downstream well. For cases in which the 

velocity of ground water is high, the eircuit to well_A is practically of 

no value; but for slow motions this circuit shows a rising current before 

the arrival of the electrolyte at the lower well, often giving indi~ations 

of much value to the observer. 

The method can be used successfully even though nothing but common pipe be used for the wells. · In this case, however, the s.bsence 

of screen or perforations in the wells renders the internal electrodes 

useless, and one must depend upon the circuit from well casing of 

the upstream well to well rasing of downstream well. 

The results shown in fig. 5 present such a case. In this case the 

wells were not provided with well points, but merely possessed f, 4~foot 

length of pipe, provided with four ol' five holes on opposite ~ides of 

the pipe containing small t-inch washer screens. These few openings 

are not sufficient to permit the electrolyte to enter the well freely, 

so that i·eadings between casings were relied upon for results. As a 

matter of fact, enough of the eleetrolyte did get into the well to give 

small increased readings, but in order to obtain the electrode readings 
24 R.A.TE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND· W .ATERS. [No.140. 

shown in the diagram water was removed from the do1Vnstream wells 

by a small bucket holding about 6 ounces, so as to force a quantity of 

the water surrounding the well into the perforated sections. In eases 

where good well points are used the ground water charged with the 

electrolyte finds its way gradually and naturally into the well. The 

well point should be clear enough to allow as fre.e pr,ssage into the 

well as through the soil itself. Tnis is easily accomplished by pumping water from each test well with a common pitcher pump for a few 

minutes or until the water is fairly clear. 

II 

.:: l.I.R.R. 

~II o "'II,.. 

«11 

&:~ 

~~~~ \ 00 11 W ~~~ !)Ol 

::011 '. :1"' r-~ 

"S"QU,ARTS WATER 

TAKEN FROM WELL 

.32 ~ 2 QUARTS WATER 'TAKEN FROM WELL 

.28 

.:.!4 I ----...._ 

I 

.20 / 

.16 / - ~M 

.12 I 

/ 

.08 / 2 QUARTS WATER TAKEN FROM WELL 

.04: CASING 

_ _....v J 

;-- ELECTRODE _v 

.o I I 

9 10 12 2 4 (l 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 lU 12 A.M. JUNE 21 & 22, 1903 VELOCITY 5.5 FEET PER DAY 

2.40 

1 

2.20 • 

2.00 

.80 

1.60 

1.40 C/) 

w 

1.20 ffi 

1.00 

.80 

.60 

.40 

.20 

.o 

Q_ 

::!: 

<C 

FIG. 5.-Ampere curves at station 1, Long Island, N. Y., showing possibility of use of direct-reading 

apparatus when well points are not used. The casing in this instance consis~ed ot common black 

2-inch pipe, with a few small holes in bottom section. The" casing" curve must be relied upon for 

determining velocity. The "electrode" curve was obtained by drawing \''ater from well C, as 

shown on diagram, the charged water bemg drawn into the well through the small holes and the 

open end of well. 

Granulated sal ainmoniac is used to dose well A. A single charge 

may vary from 4 to 10 pounds. If common pipe without points or 

screen is used for the wells, so that internal electrodE,s must be dispensed with, doses of about 2 pounds each should be repeated about 

every hour .. The dry salt should not be poured directly into the well, 

but should be lowered in perforated buckets, a photograph of one_ 

being sho~n in Pl. IV. These buckets are 1i by 30 inches and hold 

about 2 pounds of the salt. Two of these buckets may be tied one 

above the other for the initial charge, and followed by two more in 

ten or twenty minute::;. 
SLICHTER.] RECORDING INSTRUMENTS. 25 

I£ the wells are not too deep, the sal ammoniac may be intr')duced 

into the well in the form of a solution. A common bucket full of 

saturated solution i~ sufficient. There is an uncertainty in intrcducing 

the sal ammoniac in solution in deep wells, as the time required for 

the solution to sink to the bottom of the well may he considerable. 

The direct-reading ammeter URed in the work has two scahs, one 

reading from 0 to 1. 5 amperes and the other from 0 to 5 aF~peres. 

vVith a -given number of cells, the amount of current between the 

upstream and a downstream well will depend, of course, upon severnl 

factors, such as the depth and distance apart of the wells, but more 

especially upon the amount of dissolved mineral matter in the ground 

water. The initial strength of the current can be rtltdily adjusted, 

however, after the wells have been connected with the instruments, 

by turning on or off some of the battery cells by means of the switches 

at the rear of the box. It is a good plan to use enough cells to give 

an initial current between one-tenth and two-tenths of an amp£re. 

RECORDING INSTRUMENTS. 

In the second form of underflow meter a self-recording instrument 

is used in place of the direct-reading ammeter, thus doing awr.y with 

the tedious work of taking· the frequent observations day and night, 

which are required when direct-reading instruments are usee\ The 

. arrangement of the apparatus is not materially different from that 

described above. In the place of the direct-reading ammeter a special 

recording ammeter is used, of range 0 to 2 amperes. It hr.s been 

found practicable, although it is a matter of some difficulty, to construct an "instrument of this low rang·e that is sufficiently port~·.ble for 

field use and not too delicate for the purpose for which it is intended. 

The ammeter has a resistance of about 1. 6 ohms and is provided with 

oil dash pot to dampen swing of arm carrying the recording pen. The 

instruments were manufactured by the Bristol Company. They have 

gone through hard usage in the field without serious breakage or mishap. The portability of the instruments will be materially in~reased 

by changes in design which are now being made. 

The method of wiring the well~:; when the recording instruments 

are- used is slightly ehanged. In this case one side of the battery 

circuit is connected to casing of well· A and to all of the electrodes of 

well~:; B, C, and D. The other side of the battery is run through the 

recording ammeter to a commutator clock, which once every hour 

makes a contact and completes the circuit, one after the oth~r, to a 

series of binding posts. One of these binding posts is connected to 

the casing of well B, one to the casing of well C, and one to the casing 

of well D. The period of contact is ten seconds, which gives an abundance of time for th~ pen to reach its proper position and to properly 

ink its record. 
26 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UN'D~RGROUND WATERS. [No.Ho. 

Pl. V, B shows a commutator clock made for this purpose by the 

instrument maker of the College of Engineering, U nhTersity of Wisconsin. The clock nwvement is a standard movement of fair grade~ 

costing less than $5. It can readily be taken from the c~.se for cleaning 

or oiling and quickly replaced. A good movement with powerful 

springs is best for this purpose. 

It will be seen from the method of wiring the wells that the record 

will show the sum of the current between well A and vrell B added to 

the current between the casing of well B and its electrode. The 

removal of the connection to well A would permit the record to show 

the current between the casing of a downstream well and its electrode, 

but the connection to the upstream well involves uo additional trouble 

and occasionally its indications are of much service, especially if the 

velocities are low. 

One of the instruments above mentioned can be placed in a common 

box, 16 by 22 by 36 inches, covered with tar paper and locked up. 

Pl. VI, B, is a view of the instruments thus arranged. The shelf contains the recording ammeter (shown at left of cut) and the commutator 

clock (shown at right of cut). 

The contacts on the commutator clock are arranged 2 bout five minutes apart, so that the record made for the wells will appear on the 

chart as a group of lines, one for euch downstream well, of leng-th 

corresponding to the strength of the current. The increasing current 

corresponding to one of the wells will finally be in':licated by the · 

lengthening- of the record linm; for that well. This can be seen by 

eonsulting the records shown in Pl. VII. The rec-:>rd charts are 

printed in lig·ht-green ink and red ink is used in the recording pen, 

so that record lines ean be distinguished when supm·imposed upon 

the lines of the ehart. A speeial ehart has been designed for this 

work and is furnished by the Bristol Company ·as ehart 458. 

Pl. VII shows two charts made by recording ammeter. In the 

upper the electrical current for wells B, C, and D, at st,ation 14, Long 

Island, is reeorded, in the order named, at 2.10, 2.15, rmd 2.20 p. m., 

and hourly thereafter, the current remaining nearly constant at .22 to 

.24 ampere until 1'0.15 p. m., when the current for 1'""ell C rises as 

indicated in the chart. In the lower chart the electrin.al current for 

wells B, C, and D is recorded, in the order named, at 6.30, 6.35, and 

6.40 p. m., and hourly thereafter. The current for wells B and D 

remains constant at . 25 ampere, hut the current for well C rises as 

shown. 

The recording instruments in use have given perfect satisfaction 

and the method is a great improvement in accuracy and convenience 

ovet· the direct-reading method. The highest as well as the lowest 

ground-water velocities yet found have been successfully measured 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. VI 

A . SIMP LE FORM Or SMALL WELL-JETT I NG RIG. 

T he men drivrng wrth 1 50-pound werght stand on p;atform attached to dnvepipe. 

B. RECORDING AMM ETER , COMMUTAT OR CLOCK, AND BATTE RY BOX IN USE IN 

THE FIELD , AR RANGED IN A ROUGH BOX, 16 BY 22 BY 36 INCHES IN SIZ E. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. VII 

CHARTS MADE BY RECORD ING AMMETER. 
SLICHTER.) RECORDING INSTRUMENTS. 27 

by the TeCOrding instruments. By using one or two addition~] dry 

cells the instrnmeat .may be made quite as sensitive as the directreading type. In using tbe ~z·ding instrun1ents but a singh dose 

of salt need be placed in the upstream '\1retl. lf the wells are d~ep, it 

is important to use enough salt solution to make sure ·t.Ua.t the salt 

reaches as deep as the screen of the well point immediately afGer the 

solution is poured into the well. A gallon of solution will fill about 

6 feet of full-weight wrought-iron pipe, so that 10 gallons of solution 

should be used if well is 60 feet deep. If the proper amount of solution be not used, it will take an appreciable time for the solution to 

reach the bottom of the well by convection currents, and the results 

::::.-,__-_ -P.-l_s_t~.-~~f-1-:,....e-lls-.--1---.---~-o;..--. -~.---.--1---.---.-----.---.--/--.----.c-----,----,,..--,---, 

t.lM-Garden~Kans. • \i \D -1----t----11----f-V--1,--t-----l--t-----1---i 

1.o5r- k'~> ~i --l--+-+/-+---l--+--1---+--1-----t 

Well i I 4s" IC E t 1.oo r-- A f ---+ as 1--t-J/r--t--t--t--1--t--1---i 

I :::- I~ . -t---t--1/+---1;·-,/<-+-/-t-----11----+---t----t 

~ o.ssi----+-LI----+-I----t----11----t-----,f---t----,1---f-t------,.11---t-----f--t---1--t----i 

; o.sof--=~=t=E!:::!l;:.!J~tr:9;od~:ie-~t-=•C::::f::;:;o;-r-=-t'll- _ _::-_:"t~--ft----tt-_:-_-r_rv_tf/--t-r---t-t---t-!--j0,80 "' / ,+ Brtweyn C nd [ ~ 0·75t---t--+---+-+---+-t---+--t---t--t-----+--l--:;,--"-.,..q.---_ s=-el-tw-e-,e1--n "B:-al--n--;-~-:cJ- C--1 

~ 0. 701--t--t--t--t----t--t---t--t---t--1---:3--'1--" :/ ... '-. _ ..l----t--l----t---l---t----i0.20 

++ +-l- +++++++_+_:!:: ... _t_:-++-1- ++~_:!-_-:_ __:!-_~·~,, 

0~ I 0. 60t---t--t---t--t---t--t----l--t---+--v--+--t---+--I---+--I---+---IO. 10 

E.\ec'tiO~jB:::_-1---t---r----t--/ 0.55b===l==f--+--==t==-t--t--+-t--+-t--+-t--+-t--t--J---t---J 

O.S~ 'o-A.:-:-M.-----!:--7 --1::---8 -. 9±-----::1-1::---0 --:1~1 -1-2L,-M.-Lt -2l;:-----!:--!--~-l;:---,7:---:8::-::P'-:-.Mc-. -l--'---_J_-.J 

JULY 3, 1904 

FIG. 6.-Ampere curves at station 10, Garden, Kans. The heavy ctuves represent the el~tric current between the casings of wells B and C and the electrodes inside of them. The dott4~d curves 

represent the electric current between wells B and C and between C and D. The electric current 

for the electrode of well Brose earlier than for well C, and the electric current between wells Band 

C rose earlier and more abruptly than for wells C and D, indicating that the principal stream of 

electrolyte passed between wells B and C and nearer to well B than to well G. 

will be vitiated to that extent. As before stated, it is preferable to 

introduce into the well granulated sal ammoniac contained in a suitable bucket in case the depth of the well renders the use of a solution 

uncertain. 

In order to properly interpret results obtained in the field with the 

apparatus, it becomes necessary to investigate the behavior of the dissolved electrolyte as it moves onward with the ground water after 

leaving the salted well. This matter could be investigated only in the 

laboratory, and it was sought to reproduce a~::; nearly as possible the 

conditions found in the field. 
28 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGR.OUND WATERS. [No.140. 

Before salting the upstream welJ of any set of test vrells the electric 

circuit should be closed between each adjacent pair of downstream 

wells, and the current should be measured with the direct-reading 

ammeter and recorded in the notebook. An occasional reading of 

these same circuits wiJl prevent the electrolyte from passing between 

two of the downstream wells without tlie knowledge of the observer. 

This i~ clearly shown by the results obtained with the set of wells 

represented in fig. 6. At the location of this station the direction of 

the flow was at first not correctly estimated on account of its nearness 

to a river whose height was fluctuating. For that re~.son the downstream wells were redriven at distances of but 20 inches from one 

another. The diagram gives the ampere curves for wells B and C, 

both of which were reached by the electrolyte~ and aho the curves of 

current between wells Band C and wells C and D. The actual direction of flow can be seen from these curves to lie betwH~n B and C, and 

probably nearer B than C, since the curve forB rises somewhat earlier 

and the percentage· increase in current is greater. T',~ same fact is 

shown by the eurves representing the current between B and C and 

between C and D. The main stream of electrolyte must have passed 

between B and C, as is shown by the n1ore abrupt and earlier use in 

the current between B and C as compared to that between C a~d D. 
CHAPTER III. 

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLOW OF ~rATER 

rrHROUGH SANDS AND GRAVELS. 

OBJECTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.-

During the winte:rs of 1902-3 and 1903--± experiments were carried 

on in the laboratory upon the flow of water through sands a:nd gravelA _ 

contained in tanks. The objects of these experiments were: (1) To 

verify the law of flow of water through sands and gravels under gradients similar to those found in the field; (2) to ascertain the law of 

distribution in a horizontal plane of the electrolyte used in the electrical method of determining the rate of flow of underground water; 

{3) to determine the influence of varying velocities upon this distribution; (4) to determine, if possible, by means of apparatus approximating actual field conditions, the relation betwee.n the distribution of 

the electrolyte and the current curv~ obtained by the electrical method 

of measuring ground-water velocities, thereby checking the accuracy 

of the method and furnishing data indicating n1ore definitely tre point 

on the eurrent curve which should be seleeted in order to find the 

velocity of flow. 

For the laboratory work of 1902-3 the writer had the assistanee of 

Mr. Henry U. "r olff, and the work of 1903-4 was done by Mr. Ray 

Owen and H. L. McDonald. 

EXPERIMENTS IN THE HORIZONTAL TANK. 

The apparatus used in the first experiments consisted of a horizontal 

wooden tank of inside dimensions 4feet 6 inches long, 4 feet wide, and 

8 inches deep. A chamber of perforated sheet brass 3 incho,s wide 

was inserted in each end of the tank, so that the dimensions of the 

compartment left for the gravel was 4 by 4 feet in horizontal extent. 

The area 4 by 4 feet was divided into E~quares 6 inches on a side, at the 

corner of each of which a small well of slotted sheet brass, one-half 

inch in diameter, was fixed in position. A larger well, 2 inches in 

diameter, of the same material was placed in position as shown in the 

plan, fig. 7. For the first experiments the tank was filled with about 

7 inches of gravel, which we have designated as Picnic Point gravel. 

The effective size of this gravel, as determined by King's aspirators, 

was 0. 93 mm. Meehanical analysis of the Pienic Point gravel~ wil1 be 

found in Table.VI. 

29 
30 •RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.l40. 

TABLE VI.-Jiechanical analyS'i.s by .standard .siere.s (!f .'leveml g1·m•elN 1·e.ferred to in the 

te.d. 

No. of sereen- me>~hesto 

inch. 

100 

80 

60 

40 

30 

20 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

HE-ld by 8 

[ ! Percentoftotalweightofsandps.>~sing [ Hieve. 

~;:t?~~eci£-1-------------c ----1 

Rereen in 

1

1 

millimeters. ~~h:f 

gravel. 

-----I 

0.18 00.6 

. 2:3 1.0 

. 32 1.6 

. 46 4.2 

. 70 14.3 

. 93 25.6 

1.:30 :n...J. 

1.40 

I 

:36.8 

1. 70 47.6 

2.0J 54.3 

2.48 67 .. 5 

...... -- ... -- ...... - 32.5 

Madi~on 

glacial 

gravel. 

00.8 

1.4 

6.~ 

38.6 

83.9 

98.1 

99.6 

100 

100 

100 

100 

----------

Victorville 

gravel. 

00.1 

0 ') 

1 ' 0 . v 

4. 7 

13. 1 

27.8 

37.2 

46.3 

63.9 

71.0 

82.7 

17.3 

TABLE VII.-Effect of formalin ·in prevent·ing clogging of .sand filter. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Average Mean hy- flow of Flow per 

Duration of experiment. Average water per unit Tempera- draulic 

head. one-fourth head. ture. gmdient 

hour. per mile. 

First experiment, Dec. 8: Inches. Poztnds. oc. Feet. 

First 10/4 hours ____ ·- ____ 0.230 6.57 28.56 14.4 25.3 

Second llL;i hours __ . ____ .227 6.48 28.54 ..... - ... --- ... -- ...... ---- Second experiment, Dec. 9: 

First 11/4 hours _________ .188 6.13 30.96 14.0 20.5 

Second 11/4 hours _______ .185 6.01 30.90 .................... ...... -............. 

Third experiment, Dec. 11: 

First 5/4 hours . _________ .170 5.75 29.22 14.0 18.9 

Second 5/4 hours ______ . _ .174 5.89 29.24 ...... -.. ---- --------

7 

Velocity 

of water 

ver 

diem. 

Feet. 

15.4 

--------

14.2 

--------

13.7 

... ----..... -

NoTE.-This table shows the influence of a small amount of formalin in preventing 

the clogging of a sand filter when water is run through it contiruously. Compare 

the flow per unit head during first portion of each experiment with the flow during the 

second period, as given in column 4. The experimental error is greater than the 

small differences in these numbers. The low gradients and the low velocities used 

can be seen in columns 6 and 7. 

The tank of gravel was securely mounted in a hor~zontal position 

and gages of ghtss tubing communicating with the chambers at the 
SLICHTER.) EXPERIMENTS IN THE HORIZONTAL T .ANK. 31 

ends of the tank were adjusted to show the level of water at eP~h end 

of the tank. By means of these gages it was easily possible to measure 

the height of the water in the end compartments within one two-hundredths of an inch. Water was permitted to flow into one of the end 

compartments from galvanized tubs placed on a platform scale. 

F1:om the tubs the water passed through 3 or± feet of rubber tubing 

Upper chamber 

_ ------------ _ ------------ !'~rf':l!~~E _b__r~s~- ------------------------- A 8 C D E F G 

0 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 0 

w 

@ Salt well 

'l 

I 

I 

::~ 

1 

* 

I 

I 

::~ 

i 

I 

~ I 

I 

==~ 

·I 

t 

~t I 

t 

~ I 

I 

".l. 

i 

=l * 

i 

I 

i 

I 

=J, 

I 

I 

~ 

-------------------- _____ .!'!"!O_t:_a:!_ej_~~s:! ___ ------ __ -------. --------

Lower chamber 

. 

oMiet 

FIG. 7.-Plan of the horizontal tank used in the determination of the spread of an electrolyte when flowing with the water through a sand or gravel. The tank was 4 feet 6inches long, 4 feet wide, and 8 

inches deep. Two perforated brass screens 3 inches from each end left a compartment for gravel 

4 by 4feet in area. A 2-inch well of perforated brass was set at the point marked W, in which 

·the electrolyte was :Placed. The small circles represent the location of the test wells, fr')m which 

samples of water could be taken as desned. 

to a conically ground needle valve operated by a float placed in the 

upper compartment or chamber of the tank. It was found posrible so 

to adjust this valve that the level of the water in the upper compartment was maintained constant during an experiment extendirg over 

several hours. The water was permitted to escape from the }Qw~:r: 
32 R.ATE OF MOVEMENT OF (TNDERGROUND W .ATERS. fNo.140. 

compartment in the tank by means of a t-inch pipe, the height of the 

overflow being adjustable. 

TABLE VIII.-Data obtained during experiments on .tiow of watet ·in horizontal tank. 

Dat' of ex-IHyd,.ullel A wage I Veloelty Velocity Tempera-/ No. penment, gradient.~ depth of of ground per unft ture of Salt used in experiment. 1902-3. water. water. head. water. 

I --- ---

Ft. per I I Ft. in 24 Ft. in 24 

mile. Inches. hrs. hrs. oc. 

1 ____ Dec. 8 25.30 I 5.84 I 15.4 0.61 14.4 None used. 

2_--- Dec. 9 20.50 5. 83 I 14.2 . 69 14.0 Do. 

3.--- Dec. 11 .18. 90 1 5.82 13. 7 . 63 14.0 Do. 

4.--. Dec. 20 18. 70 5.88 13.2 . 70 20.5 D7 NH4Cl. 

5.--- Jan. 3 17.60 5. 12 12.9 . 73 20.0 Do. 

6_--- Jan. 7 21.45 5. 10 12.1 . 56 18.8 D7 NaOl. 

7 .... 1 Jan. 14 22.00 5. 12 13.8 . 63 17.8 c~·n. NH10H. 

I 

8 .... 1 Jan. 17 18.54 5.09 9.3 .50 18.8 Do. 

9_--- Jan. 30 18.92 5. 18 11.6 . 61 17.8 Dry -fo H4Cl. 1 To 

NaOH. 

10_--- Feb. !) 19.03 5.17 11.25 . 59 20.0 D7 8 NH4Cl. 2 TO To 

. 54 I 

NaOH . 

11.--- Feb. 18 21.45 5.15 11.68 18.8 Sol. NH"Cl. 

12 ___ -~ E"eb. 23 42.35 5.28 21.70 . 51 19. 1 Do. 

13 ____ Mar. 3 . 64.90 5.21 36.00 . 55 20. 1 Do. 

14 ____ Mar. 9 64.24 5. 21 I 35.5 .55 20.3 Sol. 9 NH4Cl. 1 To To 

NaOH. 

15.--- Mar. 16 66.55 5.25 36.4 . 55 21. 7 D-:-y 9 NH4Cl. 1 To To 

NaOH. 

16.--- May 4 103.2 6.68 11.47 .11 22.0 :NH401. 

17 ____ May 14 105.6 6.70 11.60 .11 18.2 -/0 NH4Cl. T1o NaOH. 

18 ____ 1 May 23 107.8 6. 69 I 11.90 .11 NaOH. 

NoTE.-In experiments 1-15 "Picnic Point gravel" was used, t'nd in experiments 

16, 17, 18 Madison glacial sal!d was used. 

The water used in the experiment was obtained from Lake Mendota, 

Madison, Wis., and before use was freed from suspended material by 

passing through a filter of charcoal and sand. Before pas~ing through 

the gravel in the tank, one part in 500 of 40 per cent solution of formalin was added to the water so as to inhibit the growth of organisms. 

Previous experimenters on the flow of water through sands and 

gravels experienced much di:fficu,lty on account of the progi·essive 

reduction in flow of water through the sand when an experiment 

extended over a considerable length of time. No r~eans had been 

found ,for·avoiding this difficulty; even the use of distilled water was 

not entirely effective. It was difficult to explain this phenomenon 

except on the basis of the growth of organisms in the pores of the 
SLICHTER.) EXPERIMENTS IN THE HORIZONTAL TANK. 

:@ 

·\GJ 

i 

[ 

0 00 

0 oo 

OEC.20, 1 902 

0 

WELL SAL TED AT 9.30 A.M. 

0 

NH4 Cl. 

0 

0 

33 

FIG. 8.-Diagram showing the manner in which the electrolyte spread in passing downstr('am with 

the ground water, in experiment 4, in the horizontal tank. The dot at W shows the lo~ation of 

the salted well, and samples were taken from the sand from the 11mall teAt wells repres~nted by 

dots in the diagram. The areas of the circles are proportional to the strength of the ehctrolyte 

found at their centers. The area covered by the charged water at the time specified is shown by a 

roughly sketched outline. The velocity of the ground water in the direction of the ar'fJWS was 

13.2 feet for twenty-four hours. Electrolyte used was sal ammoniac. 

0 

0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

WELL SAL TED AI 2.00 P.M. 

0 0 0 0 0 

NaCI. 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 

FIG. 9.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 6. Representation of wells and other f('atures as 

in fig. 8. The velocity of the gr()q:qg Wf.\t~r was 12.1 feet for twenty-four hours. The el;:ctrolyte 

used was common salt. -
34 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND ""-ATERS. LNO

WELL SAL TED AT 8.30 A.M. 

FIG. 10.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 8. Representation of wells and other feat

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 9.3 feet for twenty-four hours. The electro

used was concentrat(:'d ammonia water. 

1'1.00 M, ·t]· 0 0 

0 0 

s:oo P.)-.i. 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 

1:oo P.M. 

JAN.30, 1903 

WELL SALTED AT 11 .00 A.M. 

0 

0 

0 

t{oNaOH 9/.oNH4 Cl. 

5:ooP.M. 

0 0 0 

0 00 

oQo 

·o 0 0 

0 

0 

Fm. 11.-Di.'lgram showing the results of experiment 9. Representati')n of wells and other feat

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 11.6 feet for twenty-(\)U,r l1QllfS. Tbe elec 

Jyte ~s~q was one-tenth caustic soda and nine-tenths sal ammoniac.. -
SLICHTER.] EXPERIMENTS lN THE HORIZONTAL TANK. 35 

sand used in the experimPnts. For this reason the formalin was added 

to the water in the hope that if this were the eorrect explanation the 

di:ffieulty would vanish. Several experiments ·were made for the 

especial purpose of determining the effect of the formalin in inhibiting the organic growth in the filter. Table VII gives the result of 

three such experiments. The duration of each experiment was divided 

into two nearly equal periods, and the average head of water as shown 

by the gages and the average flow of water, as determined. by weighing both the water admitted to the tank and the water leaving it r.t the 

FEB.9, 1903 4.30 P.M. 

WELL SAL TED AT 2.30 P.M. 

~1oNAOH '},o NH4 Cl. 

8.30 P.M. 

0 oQO 0 

oOQO 0 0 

0 oQo 0 0 

0 ooo 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 0 

----------------------------~-------

FIG. 12.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 10. RepreRentation of wells and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was lll feet for twenty-four hours. The electrolyte was two-tenths caustic soda and eight-tenths sal ammoniac. 

lower end, were -determined for each of the two periods into 1"'hich 

each experin1ent was divided. It will be seen by consulting column 

± of the table that the flow of water per unit head during the, first 

portion of each experiment was essentially identical per unit hE.ad to 

the second portion of eaeh experiment. The slight differences in the 

numbers is much smaller than the unavoidable experimental error. It 

was coneluded, therefore, that the progressive clogging of a sand 

filter is due to the growth of organisms, and that the formalin r.dded 

cow;;titutecl an effective remecl~. 
3() RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

Altogether 18 experiments were carried out in thi!Ol tank. In the 

first 15 tests Picnic Point gravel was used in the tank; during the last 

3 fine glacial sand replaced the Picnib Point gravel. The glacial sand 

had effective size of grain, as determined by King,s aspirator, of 

0.40 mm. A mechanical analysis of the sand is given In Table VI, 

WELL SAL TED AT 2:00 P.M, 

0 0 

0 0 

4 P.M. 

5 P.M. 

f ! 

'' ·',,~ 

WELL ~ 

' ® " 

·,'00~,. 

0 c 

0 c~ 

0 0 c 0 

'0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 6 P.M. 8 P.M. 

·. 

FIG. 13.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 11. Representation of wells and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 11.7 feet for twenty-four hours. The electrolyte was sal ammoniac in concentrated solution. 

(p. 30), and a summary of the data obtained during the experiments 

is placed in Table VIII_. 

No difficulty was experienced in maintaining very low gradients to 

the water plane in the tank, a slope of water of 18 feet to the mile 

being easily brought about by proper adjustment in the apparatus. 

ln this way actqal field cQyditions of the flow of water were very 
!!LICHTER.) EXPERIMENTS IN THE HORIZONTAL TANK. 37 

closely approximated, and velocities less than 10 feet a day co•-..ld be 

maintained by the use of the low gradients. The large well marked "T 

was designed to receive various electrolytes while the water was moving through the gravel under the selected uniform head. The small 

one-half inch wells placed at the corners of the 6 inch squareQ were 

designed to serve as test wells from which samples of the wate1· could 

be taken at stated intervals, and the exact area spread· over by the 

electrolyte could be ascertained by chemical analyses. A series of 

pipettes were coupled together in such a way as to permit the taking 

of a sample from each row of test wells at the same time. By the use 

10:15 A.M. 

·11:15 A.M. 

WELL SALTED AT 8:45A.M. . . . . . 

FIG. 14.-Diagram showing the results of-experiment 12. Representation of wells and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 21.7 feet for twenty-four hours. The etectrolyte was sal ammoniac in concentrated solution. 

of this deviee a complete set of samples could be taken from rll the 

test wells in the tank in a very few minutes. 

The results of the experiments are best shown by the series C'f diagrams figs. 8 to 20, in which the strength of the electrolyte found at 

each test well is shown by a circle of appropriate size. 

Among the various electrolytes tested were ammonium chloride (sal 

ammoniac), sodium chloride (common salt), concentrated ammonia 

water, and mixtures of ammonium chloride and eaustic soda, or lye. 

One of the most remarkable conclusions from the experiments wu.s that 

diffusion plays but a very small part in the spread of the electrolyte 

through the ground water. In none of the experiments was it found 
38 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERR. 

7.30 P.M. 

MARCH 3, 1 903 

WELL SAL TED AT 

8.30 P.M. NH4 Cl. 

0 

000 

oQo 

OQo 

ooo 

ooo 

ooo 

ooo 

Qoo 

0 0 

(No. 140. 

FIG. 15.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 13. Representation of wells and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 31i feet for twenty-four h ·mrs: The electrolyte 

was sal ammoniac in concentrated solution. Note the narrow Rtream of elect-'llyte due to the high 

velocity. 

MARCH 9, 1903 

@

i.ooP.M. 

-

. 

S.OOP.M. a·.3o P.M. 

ooo 

:1 ooo oQo 

0 0 0 oOo ooo 

0 0 0 ooo ooo 

0 0 0 

WELL SAL TED AT 6.30 P.M. 

FIG. 16.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 14. Representation of wells and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water waH 35~ feet for twenty-four hours. The electrolyt~ 

wai'l one-tenth caustic soda and nine-tenthA sal ammonia(• in solntion. 
SLICHTER.) EXPERIMENTS IW 'l'HE HORIZONTAL TANK. 

MARCH 161 1903 

6.00 P.M 

WELL 

~ SAL TED AT 5.30 P.M. 

9

/roNH4 Cl. '/•oNaOH 

00 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 

~----------------------------------------------

FIG. 17.-Diagram showing the results of experiment l.'i. Representation of wells an\i other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water w~s 36.4 feef. for twenty-four hours. : Th~ electrolyte 

was one-tenth caustic soda and nine-tenths sal ammoniac in dry crystals. 1 

a.oo P.~.MAY 4, 19o34'.oo,P ~-

®

. }. . y. 

0 

0 

• 0 • 

WELL SAL TED AT 2.00 P.M. 

NH4 Cl. 

.I 

" .I 

I 

I· 

I 

'• 

~ 

FIG. 18.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 16. Representation of wells and othe:- features· 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 11.5 feet for twenty-four hours. The electrolyte 

was sal ammoniac. 
40 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUN.D WATERS. fNo.140. 

WELL SAL TED AT 3.00 P.M. 

'll,oNH4 Cl. Y,oNaOH 

Fro. 19.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 17. Representation of wells and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 11.6 feet for twenty-four hours. The electrolyte 

was one-tenth caustic soda and nine-tenths sal ammoniac. 

MAY 23, 1903. e WELL SAL TED AT 12.00 M. 

NaOH 

FIG. 20.-Diagram showing the results of experiment 18. Representation of w~lls and other features 

as in fig. 8. The velocity of the ground water was 11.9 feet for twenty-four lours. The electrolyte . 

was caustic soda. 
SLICHTER.) EXPERIMENTS IN THE VERTICAL TANK. 41 

that the electrolyte extended more than about 3 inches upstrean· from 

the larg·e well ,V. This fact can be seen },y consulting the sr,~·ies of 

diagran1s illustrating the distribution of electrolyte. In gen<Jral, it 

can be seen that the electrolyte moves downstream in a pear-shaped 

mass, the width of the stream varying somewhat with the nature 

of the electrolyte used. The high velocities always gave a stream 

of electrolyte which was quite. narrow and the low velocitiE.s gave 

bi:·oader streams. The solution of concentrated ammonia water gave 

the broadest stream. This was probably due not so much to the diffusion of the ammonia gas in the water as to the low coeffic~~emt of 

viscosity of the ammonia water. Experiments in the field had indicated that the mixture of sal ammoniac and caustic soda would spread 

in a broader l:!h·eam than sal am:riwniac alone. By· comparing the 

results of experiments 14 and 15 with that of experime.Q.t 13, it will 

be seen that this assumption could not be verified to any considerable 

extent. In a similar way, experiments 9 and 10 may be compared 

with experiment 8, and experiments 17 and 18 may be compared with 

experiment 16. 

It seems to be conclusively shown by these experiments, as has been 

already stated (pp. 22-23), that the diffusion of the dissolved sa)~ plays 

a very small part in the way in which the electrolyte is distrib·1ted. in 

the moving current of ground water, but, as already stated, that the 

central thread of water in each capillary pore of the soil moves faster 

than the water in contact with the walls of the capillary pore. Likewise the spread of the electrolyte, as shown by these experim~nts, is 

not to be explained by the diffusion of the salt, but must be ex:'Jlained 

by the continued branching and subdivision of the capillary pores 

around the individual grains of the sand. The stream of electrolyte 

issuing from the salt well W will gradually broaden as it passe~? downstream, because each thread of it must divide and divide again and 

again as it meets with each succeeding grain of soil. If diffusion had 

much to do with its rate of spread, it would also make itself apparent 

by causing an ups'tream motion to the electrolyte against the current 

of gTound water. As before stated; in no case did the electrolyte 

succeed in moving upstream a distance as great as 3 inches. 

EXPERIMENTS. IN THE VERTICAL TANK. 

The experiments carried on in the winter of 1903-4 had r.s their 

object, in addition to those of the previous year, the determiml'tion of 

the law of distribution of the electrolyte in a vertical plane. For this 

purpose a tank was constructed of wood, as shown in fig. 21 P.nd Pl. 

VIII. The inside dimensions of this tank were 4 feet high, 4 feet 6 

inches long, and 8 inches wide. At each end of the tank chanbers 3 

inches wide were constructed of perforated brass, similar to those 
42 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. (No.140. 

used in the horizontal tank, leaving a total length of 4 feet available 

for graveL Horizontal tubes of slotted brass one-half ineh in diameter 

extended through the side of the tank at the corner2 of squares 6 

inehes on a side, as shown by the small circles in the side elevation, 

fig. 21. These tubes of horizontal test wells were stuck through holes 

bored in the side of the tank and were supported at one end by a 

thumb taek soldered to the end of the tube and at the other end by 

the side of the tank, the tube being slightly longer than the inside 

width of the tank. A perforated rubber stopper containing a glass 

tube was placed in the hole~ one end of the glass tub3 extending to 

the middle of the tank, the other end of the tube projecting outside of 

the rubber stopper to receive a small rubber tube, which was kept 

closed by means of a pincheoek. These tubes furnisher! ready means 

of drawing out samples of water from different positions in the tank. 

On top of the tank, in the reproduction of the photograph of the 

apparatus, Pl. VIII, can be seen the scales carrying the tubs of galvanized iron from which the water was run to a regulating apparatus 

consisting of a needle valve and float at the upper left-hand corner of 

the box similar to that used in the horizontal tank. The head of water 

in the two end chambers of the tank was measured by two glass gages 

placed about one-half inch apart, eommunieating with the ehambers 

by large rubber tubes. The readings of the meniscus in the glass 

tubes of the gages could be readily estimated to one-half hundredth of 

an inch. 

The gravel used in the experiments in the vertical tank was Madison glacial sand, the same as that used in experiments 16, 17, and 18 

in the horizontn1 tank. Seven experiments were compl~ted with this 

appa1·atus, the general results of whieh are tabulated in Table IX. 

TABLE IX.-Data obtained during aperiments on flow of water thmtt:Jh Jfadis~n glacial 

sand in the I'C'I'iical tank. 

I Tempera- Area of Velocity 

Date. Hydraulic gradient. Discharge. cross sec· Velocity. per unit ture. tion. head. 

--- ----------

1904. 

oc. Per cent. Feel per Pounds Cubic feet per Square Feet pet Feel per mile. per hour. minute. }eel. diem. (tlem. 

1 Feb. 22 17.8 3. 10 164 36.25 0.00965 2.34 16.90 0.10 

2 Mar. 2 19.2 2.08 110 26.53 . 00706 2.54 11.42 . 10 

3_ Mar. 3 14.0 5.41 286 56.00 . 0149 2.50 24.50 . 09 

4: Mar. 5 18.4 1. 00 53 9.94 . 002645 2.56 4.28 .08 

5 Mar. 12 16.0 2.10 112 23.36 . 00622 2.54 10. 10 .09 

6 Apr. 18 1-!.9 11.91 630 129.66 .0346 

I 

2.42 58.80 .09 

7 I Apr. 19 17.0 5.58 295 51.68 .0138 2.50 22.70 .08 

I 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. VIII 

VERT ICAL TA NK USED I N LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS. 

The small test we lls from wh1ch samples were drawn are equipped w1th glass gauges containing colored water, indicat1ng d1stnbution of pressure while right chamber of tank IS kept empty. 
EXPERIMENTS lN 'l'tr:m VERTICA~ TANK. 43 

The electrolyte was introdueed into the well marked Vf, shown in 

fig. 21, and the samples from the various test wells were drawn out at 

stated intervals into test tubes and anal_yzed. The res~lts of the 

• ,....______ • II I i I 

I OA ! 

I 

I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I 

I 

i 

I 

I I 

I oB 0 0 0 0 0 0 ·0 I I 

1 

I 

I I 

~~~ 

I I oC 0 0 0 0 .J 0 0 I ~_,;;;iff 

ll I oD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I I I lc:l c:l I I <l>l oE <l>: I <l)l 0 0 0 0 0 0 o~: I I C;l Ul! I I Ull I 

I I oF 0 0 0 0 0 _.o 0 J ~- -=----~ I I OG 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I 

I 

I I I I I I I 

d ! I 

::::s OH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I 

~~ ~ u 

,_ ___ ..__ __ __,2 feet • 

FIG. 21.-Diagram showing construction and dimensions of vertical tank used in laboratO"Y experiments on the flow of ground water. Th~ small circles indicate the position of the test wells. 

experiments on the vertical distribution of the eleetrolyte are best 

sho~n by the diagrams, a series of whieh are given in figs. 22 to 29. 

A 0 0 0 0 

.'B 0 0 0 0 0 

c 0 0 0 0 0 

D 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

I 

t 

I 

I 

E I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 

• I 

I 

Fl I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

I 

I 

I 

al 0 0 0 0 Of, 0 0 0 I • ' I . I I 

I '- HI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I I 0 7 ' 

.13'IG. 22.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank experiment 1, February 22, 1904. Wf:\11 W was 

salted at 11.40 a.m. with sal ammoniac; velocity of the ground water was 17.06 feet a day, head, lk 

inches. The contours.sb.ow the distribution of salt at 12.10 p.m. 

In the series of six diagrams for experiment 1 the distribution of 

the electrolyte is shown by the contour curves for eaeh one-baH hour 
RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

period after the beginning of the experiment. A single dose of 2 

ounces of sal ammoniac wa:o~ introduced into the well W at 11.40 a.m., 

B 

c 0 

'() \ 0 

E 

F 

G 

I 

I 

I 

l 

Hl 

: 

I 

0 

0 

0 

a 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

4 • 5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7 

FIG. 23.-Dia.gram showing resultR of vertical-tank experiment 1, February 22, 1904. Well W was 

salted at 11.40 a.m. with sal ammoniac; velocity of the ground water was 17.0•> feet a day: head, 1! 

inches. The contours show the distribution of salt at 12.40 p. m. 

on February 22, 1904. As will be observed by consulting the diagrams, the dissolved salt entered ~he ground water and passed to the 

I 

:-

I 

I 

Al I 

I 

I 

I 81 I 

I 

I 

I 

C' I 

I 

I 

I 

Dl 

l 

I 

I 

El I 

I 

I 

I 

Fl I 

' I 

I 

al I 

I 

I 

I 

HI I 

I 

w J 

-- ------------------------------------ --~ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

6 7 

FIG. 24.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank. experiment 1, February 2"~. 1904. Well W was 

salted at 11.40 a. m. with sal ammoniac, velocity of the ground water was 17.01 feet a day; head, lk 

inches. The contours show the distributiOn ot salt at 1.40 p. m 

right with the moving stream, at the same time moving slightly downward, as shown by the contour curves. The velocity of water through 
SLICHTER.] EXPERIMENTS IN THE VERTIOAL TANK. 45 

the gravel during this experiment was about 17 feet for twenty-four 

hours. The elliptical outline of the contour curves is due to the two 

I W 

A r-:-u--:·--

1 

I 

B l 0 

I 

I 

I 

I 

c : 0 

! 

I 

0 I 0 

E 0 

F 0 

G 0 

H 0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

a 4 5 6 7 

FIG. 25.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank experiment 1, February 22, 1904. 'ven W was 

salted at 11.40 a.m. with sal ammoniac; velocity of the ground water was 17.06 feet a day; head,. 

1-k inches. The contours show the distribution of salt at 2.40 p. m. 

components of motion, one component being the velocity of ground 

water to the right, and the other being the downward motion, due to 

A r--:- u-:----~-C----:- ---~-----~- -- -~- ------1 I I I I s: o o o o o I I 1 

: l 

cl o o o o o I 

I 

I 

D: o I 

I 

I 

I 

El o I 

I 

I 

I F: o 

I 

I 

I Gl o 

I 

I 

I H: o 

0 

0 0 0 

_o 0 0 

0 0 0 

0 G 0 

0 0 0 

2 3 

0 0 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 

4 5 6 7 

FIG. 26.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank experiment 1, February 22, 1904. vren W was 

Ralted at 11.40 a.m. wnn sat ammoniac; velocity of the ground water was 17.06 feet a day; head1 

H inches. Tile contours show the distribution of salt at 3.40 p. m. 

the high density of the solution of sal ammoniac. It will be noticecl 

that th~ ~lliptical cQntQur lines h&v~ t4eir lqnge~t cUmeu~iQn !ihl.ping 
46 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

downward to the right, as they should if they represent the resultant 

of these two motions. It should also be noted (consult the diagrams) 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I 

I 

'I 

I 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 

1 

I 

I 

I 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 I . 0 2 3 4 5 6 1 

FIG. 27.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank experiment 1, February 22, 1904. Well Wwas 

salted at 11.40 a.m. with sal ammoniac; velocity of the ground water was 17.06 feet a day; head, 

1~ inches. The contours show the distribution of the salt at 4.40 p. m. A s~cond dose of salt was 

plactld in well W at 4 p.m., and the diagram represents the two masses of e'ectrolyte passing forward with the ground water. 

I -----------------------------1 I I I o\ 

AI 0 0 0 0 0 

-1 I 

I 

I 

I 

sl I 0 0 0 0 0 

I 

I 

I 

cl 0 0 0 0 0 

I 

I 

I 

ol 0 0 0 0 0 

I 

I 

I 

I 

E 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

F -0 0 0 0 0 -o 0 0 

G 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 

FIG. 28.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank experiment 2, March 2, 1904. Well W was salted 

at 2.25 p. m. The velocity of ground water was 11.42 feet a day; head, 1 inch. The salt used was 

sal ammoniac. Contours show the distribution of salt at 2.55 p.m. 

that after an interval of an hour nearly all.of the electrolyte had left 

well W, and the water in the well had become fresh agr.in. At 4 p. m. 
SLICHTER.l EXPERIMENTS IN THE VERTICAL TANK. 47 

an additional dose of sal ammoniac was placed in well W, the eirect of 

which is clearly shown in the contour curves for 4.40 p. m. Here 

two InPSSeS of dissolved electrolytes can be observed traveling simultaneously through the sand. It should also be noted in these diagrams 

that the electrolyte does not pass upstream, or against the current of 

ground water more than 1 or 2 inches. 

Two sets of contour curves are also given for the second experjment, 

that of March 2, 1904, in which the same electrolyte was used, b·tt the 

velocity of the gTound water was reduced to 11.42 feet for twent?-four 

hours. The well W was salted at 2. 25 p. m., contours being given for 

2.25 and 7.25 p.m. It will be observed that for the lower velocity of 

ground water the electrolyte sinks to a greatei· depth than in the case 

A 0 

8 0 

c 0 0 0 

D 0 0 0 0 

I 

I 

EJ 0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I I 

I I I I I 

F I 0 0 0 

I 0 0 I 

I 

I 

I I I 

I 

Gl 0 0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

HI 0 0 0 0 0 I 

I 

I 0 0 0 I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

0 0 0 I 

I 

I 0 2 8 4 5 6 7 I 

FIG. 29.-Diagram showing results of vertical-tank experiment 2, March 2, 1904. Well W was salted 

at 2.25 p. m. The velocity of ground water was 11.42 feet a day; head, 1 inch. The salt used was 

sal ammoniac. The contours show the distribution of salt at 7.25 p.m. A comparison of figs. 28 

and 29 with 22 to 27 shows the larger vertical motion of the electrolyte, in the case of t'le lower 

velocity of experiment 2, as compared with the higher velocity prevailing during experiment 1. 

of the higher velocities of the first experiment. Experiments were 

also carried out with common lye as electrolyte. This salt is very 

much heavier than sal ammoniac, and it was noted that it sank much 

ff;Lster than the solution of sal ammoniac for similar velocities of 

ground water. 

One of the most interesting experiments with the vertical tark was 

made for the purpose of determining the amount of diffusion of the 

electrolyte. For this purpose the electrolyte was introduced into the 

well W and the ground water was permitted to remain stationary, no 

water being run into or out of the tank during the eight hours covered 

by the experiment. The well "' is pla9~d ~xactly mid way bEtween 
48 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

columns 0 and 1 of the small test wells, as can be seen from the diagram. For the purpose of the ""still" experiment the uppermost test 

well of column 2 was removed and well W was placed directly over . 

column 2. A charg.e of salt was introduced into the well W at 9 a.m.~ 

and samples were taken at the end of one-half hour and at the end of 

each hour thereafter until 5 p. m. The salt was found to drop vertically with a rapidity equal to the vertical component of motion noted 

in the experiments in which flow took place. In the eight hours of 

the test no portion of the charge could be detected in the test wells of 

columns 1 or 3. This experiment showed that the elec~rolyte had not 

(/) 

Ul 

J: 

0 

z 

~ 

0 

<( 

Ul 

J: 

1 

--

v 

~ 

v 

v /v 62.6 v 57.2~ 

v 

/ 

v 

Le4 

v Lee.s 

/ eo.s 

65.1-

.005 .01 ,015 .02 .025 

DISCHARGE IN CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE 

/ )58,9 

/v 

.oa .035 

Fm. 30.-Diagram illustrating the variation in the rate of flow of ground water with the variation in 

head or hydraulic gradient, as observed in the experiments in the vertical tank. The figures 

attached to the small circles in the diagram designate the temperature, Fahrenheit, of the ground 

water during the experiment. The straight line represents the theoretical law of flow if the rate 

of flow varies directly as the head. 

diffused sufficiently to reach the wells of columns 1 and 3, while dropping a vertical distance of about 3 feet. 

The law of direct variation of the flow of ground ,....,aters with the 

head under which the flow takes plaee are verified by the experiments 

in .the tank. The results are represented graphically in fig. 30. Exact 

agreement -with this law would require all of the plotted points in this 

diagram to lie upon the straight line, provided the terroeratures were 

·the same. The larger departures from the straig·ht line are not due to 

temperature differenees, but to the high vis<W8ity of the lye solutions 

used in those particular exl?eriments. 
SLICHTER.j LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS. 49 

INVESTIGATION OF THE ACCURACY OF THE ELECTRIC METHOD OF 

DETERMINING THE VELOCITY OF THE FLOW OF GROUND WATE'RS. 

The vertical tank offered a ready means of checking the accurr.cy of 

the method of measuring the velocity of ground waters with the 

electric underflow meter. For this purpose the chambers of perforated brass at the upper and lower ends of the tank served ~.s the 

upstream and downstream wells, respectively, and an electrode was 

sunk in the sand 2 inches from the lower partition, which ans-rvered 

the purpose of the electrode usually placed inside the downstream well. 

The apparatus was then conneeted in accordance with the method used 

in actual field work. A solution of sal ammoniac was placed in the 

upper chamber. The water running through the tank was weighed 

before it entered and after it left the apparatus, and observations 

were made of the electric current every fifteen minutes and sometimes 

oftener. Two experiments were made, one with a head of water of 

2.68 inches and one with a head -of 5. 75 inches. Fron1 the weight of 

water diseharged the computed velocity during the former was 23.15 

feet a day, and during the latter the velocity was 58 feet a day. 

From the points of inflection of the two electrode curves the vekeities 

were computed to be, respectively, 23.25 and 6±.10 feet a day. This 

shows agreement in the case of the lower velocity within a very small 

fraction of 1 per cent, and in the case of the higher velocity vrithin 

10! per cent of the actual rates. These results show that the elo.ctric 

method is sufficiently accurate for the purposes for which it is intended. 

It is very likely that if the tank in which these experiments were 

carried out had been wider the percentage agreement for the high 

. velocity would be even closer than 10 per cent, fot it must be rwnembered that the narrowne~s of the tank tended to bring the concentrated 

portion of the stream of electl'olyte to a given downstream point more 

rapidly than if the tank had been wide enough to permit the electrolyte to spread in its natural way. 

IRR 140-05--4 
CHAPTER IV. 

MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFT_jOW AT T~IE NARROWS 

OF THE RIO HONDO AND SAN GABRIEL RIVER, CALIFORNIA. 

The following underflow measure~nents were made during the summer of 1902 at the narrows of the Rio Hondo and the San Gabriel 

River, about 10 miles east of Los Angeles, Cal. The ultimate source 

of the streams referred to is found in the San Gabriel Mountains, a 

range which runs nearly east and west about 40 or 5(1 miles from _!.he 

southern coast line of California. The main portion of the mountain 

drainage which supplies this particular stream is co11ected into one of 

the large canyons of the rai1ge, known as the San Gabriel Canyon. 

Like that of other streams that originate in these mountains, the 

water is not carried above ground 1nuch farther tb an the mouth of 

the canyon, except in times of extreme flood. The ordinary flow of 

the river sinks into an enormous alluvial delta cone of gravel and 

mountain debris, and passes underground in a broad, gently sloping 

valley until it is interrupted by a line of shale hills about 10 miles 

sou.th of the mountain range. This line of hills act~ as a dam to the 

underground waters, except for a break about 2 mile~ in width, where 

the drainage of the valley escapes to the sea. This break constitutes 

the so-called ''Narrows" of the river. In consequence of the narrow 

outlet a large quantity of the ground water is brougl't to the surface, 

first showing itself about 2 miles above the narrows, r.nd increasing in 

volume as it enters the contracted part of the pass. At the present 

time the surface waters appear as two distinct streamr. the Rio Hondo 

on the west side and the San Gabriel River on the east side of the 

narrows. 

In August, 1900, the flow of the Hondo at Old Mi"sion bridge was 

23 second-feet. The flow of the San Gabriel was S')mewhat larger. 

The Whitney electrolytic bridge indicates that the ground water and 

surface waters are substantially identical in character, containing 15 to 

25 parts per 100,000 total solids. 

The measurements of the rate of underflow were made by the electrical method as previously described in this paper. At the time of 

making these measurements the recording instri1ments had not been 

perfected for field use, so that all of the work was do'le with the hand 

apparatus. The test wells used were 2-inch drive wf'lls, with 42-inch 

50 
SLICHTER.] NARROWS OF HONDO AND SAN GABRIEL, CALIFORNIA. 51 

points add 48-inch well-point extensions. The wells were anunged 

as usual, one upstream, designed to receive the electrolyte, and the 

others downstream, 2 feet apart on an arc of a circle of 4-foot 

radius. In most instances the electrolyte moving with the ground 

water would show itself at but one of the downstream wells, hut in 

one or two cases it reached two of the downstream wells, and in a 

few cases the first setting of the wells did not correspond to the actual 

direction of the motion, so that the lower wells were not touched at all 

by the dh;solved electrolyte. 

Measurements were made at four stations located within the narrows 

of the rivers named. The first and second stations were located under 

a wagon bridge over Rio Hondo near the Old Mission. Two groups 

of wells were driven, and the location and direction of these wells 

with reference to the bridge are shown in fig. 31. The electrimrl current was observed separately for a circuit between the casing of the 

upstream well and the casing of each of the downstream welh, and 

also for the circuit between the casing of each downstream well and 

the brass rod electrode contained within it, a direct-reading ammeter 

being used. The velocity at the first station was 3.8 feet per diem. 

The direction of flow depal'ted slightly from the direction of _tho, surface river, being 10 degrees west of south. 

At the second. station the electrolyte showed itself at both of the 

downstream wells, being stronger, however, in well F. The velocity 

here was 6. 6 feet a day. Points of special interest are the s~vera,l 

steps in whi~h the ampere curves rise, as shown on the electroce circuits for both wells E and F. These indicate different velocities of 

ground water in the different strata penetrated by the wells. Tho, well 

points and well-point extensions being covered with new bright brass 

gauze in these first tests, the different porous strata reg·istered themselves on the brass gauze by blackened bands caused by the corroding 

influence of the electrol:yte. In the present case there were three distinct zones marked off on the wells, of about 24, 20, and 8 inches each. 

The velocities in these strata undoubtedly differed from one another, 

and hence caused the steps in the ampere curve. At both st,"tions 

1 and 2 the ground water was artesian in character, rising in the wells 

about an inch for each additional foot increase in depth. The wells 

were 16 fe.et deep and showed about 15 inches of artesian head above 

the water in the flowing stream. 

The third station was established on the San Gabriel River just 

below the wagon . bridge on the Whittier road. A special point of 

interest at this location is the fact that the river totally disappe!l.rs in 

its gravel bed a few rods below this bridge. We hoped to ~ecure 

some faets concerning the direction n.nd velocity of the disappEaring 

water. A double row of wells was driven across the river bed in three 
RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140-

groups about 33 feet apart, as shown in fig. 32. All of the wells, 

except a group near the left bank, pumped very poorly and were 

evidently in very tight material. The group of well~ near the left 

• 

• 

13ft. A 

;::;1,;. Station N ., ,, 0,7 

B ~c 

~ o;; 

1,401-r--,---,--.---,_l--.--l-r----r---r--.---.:...,----,---.--,---,---.-~ 

1, 80 t--r-----t--j---j-__:_:A'iM..:....P:.E.:..:.Rf-E...:C:..::U:..::J~V-=E_J+=E.=L=.L -fB:._"---jf--+-+--1--4--~'.+-t-------!----.j --, 

1.20t--r---t--r--t--+--+--t---+-4---\--+---1---~--1--\---l---~\ ' --1 

1.tot--r---t--J---t--+--+--I--+-4---\--+---1----J.-1LI---l----t--1 

.,, 

1.oor--r---t--J---t--+--+--I--+--+----I--+---I----J.~-g~:-l---l----41\.L..-I "'gl \ 

o. eot---lt--t--+--t--+--+---I--+--+----I--+---1----J.:::;jjj/--1-l---l----l--'-l ,' 

I 

o.sot--r-----t--t---t--+-+--f---l---+-+---l--t---J--l---l---1---1 I 

I 

~ o. 70f----!t--t--+--+-+--+---l--+--+----l--+--.f.-.,;....' -1--+--l--+--1 « I 

W I 

~ 0.60!----jl-~--+-+-+-+--f---+-+-+-+--J---:-..' -1---l--=+=--1---1 

<C o.

50

jE----- ---- ---- Vel. F~~-=3.8 Ft. Per Day,------- ---- ---- -f: ;,-$:'-~~+v_--l-....... -"""--+--1 

•1c..'V 

o.4or----t---+-+-+--il--+-+-+--f--1---l----!l1-J;/L-1---1---l---1---l 

/:v o. 8ot--r-----t--t---t--+-+--t---t--t-+--l-~'1----1--l---l---l---1 _......v/ 0.20 ____ -

0.10 1.....--+--- --· -~~-~----- .... " 

5A.M. 9A.M, 11 A.M.1 P.M. 8 5 7 9 11 P.M. 1 A.M. 8 5 7 9 11 A.M.1 P.M. S . 

«------------JULY 20------ ---'X-----·JULY 21---------

FIG. 31.-Diagrams showing the velocity and direction of flow of the 

bank consisted of one upstream well, E, and two downstream wells, 

F and G. These wells evidently penetrated two dif'erent strata of 

water, as a velocity of 48 feet a day was observed be*:.ween E nnd F, 
sLicHTER.] NARROWS OF HONDO AND SAN GABRIEL, CALIFORNIA. 53 

while a second result was strongly developed, indicating a velocity 

between E and G of 4.8 feet a day. This latter rate was due to the 

lower stratum of water, whose direction of motion crossed at an angle 

of 35° that of the upper current of disappearing river water. Further observations at this point were rendered impos8ible by the lTeaking of a datp some distance above the station, which complP.tely 

flooded the wells after the above observations had bemi made. 

The fo-i1rth station was established in a walnut grove on Temple's 

ranch, near the main road from El -:\'Ionte to Downey. This location 

is about half- way between the two bluffs of the narrows. The group 

consisted of four wells, and a velocity was found to be rather low, 14 

inches a day. The direction of flow was due south. 

The fifth station was on the bank of the San Gabriel River, just 

o. 70 

0,60 

0.50 

~ 0.40 

a: 

UJ 

0. 

:!: o.ao < 

0.2 0 

0,10 

I r---

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

i 

v 

----Vel.= 4 ~t. = 14.5 Hrs. 

- ---- ---- --- ----

I 

AMPlRE CL lELL l. ,-- .I , RVE _ .... .. ~, 

, 

000, 

06; 

':il,' 

I 

6.6 Ft. Per Day---- -~ II 

, Casing 

""" ....- ;...-

-~ ~ 

, 

---- ,, ,' 

~ 

o.4of----+---+---+---+--J.-----li----+--~--+---l---1----1---

Cl) 

w / 5 0,301---+---+---t---f-----+----1---l---1--+---1-----f----1----l----1 

o. ,~-- -~' Casing 

::i: :.--~-" 

< o.2of--+...~:t:==l===t:==t=::4=~L-L--L-J---L_J _ _J 7fC----- ---·- ---- ----

0.10 l---+---+---t---f----l----f---1---+---1----+---1----1----1 

4 P.M." 6 10 P.M. 12 2 A,M, 4 6 8 10 A,M, 1~ Mo 2 P,M. 4 6 P.M. 

-·----JUL.Y 22---·-------JULY 23----·-.-·-----·-·7 

underground water at the narrows of the Rio Hondo, stations land 2. 

above the head works of the Ranchita and Los Nietos ditches. The 

velocity determined was 5.3 feet a day, in a direction due south, making an angle, however, of about ±5° with the direction of the surface 
54 ·RATE Off MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

stream at the same point. The direction of flow and ampere curve 

are shown in fig. 4:. 

The cross section of the alluvial deposits at the narrows of the Hondo 

and the San Gabriel is about 10,000 feet wide and probably does not 

exceed 600 feet in depth. If we assume that the porosity of the underflow gravel is 33 per cent and that the average velocity of the ground 

water is 10 feet a day~ the resulting estimate of the amount of water 

which passes underground through the narrows is 230 second-feet, or 

nearly four times the flow of the surface streams. This is undoubtedly 

a maximum estimate, as there is no indication that the a,verage velocity 

is as high as 10 feet a day. Four feet a day may be aE·sumecl as a fair 

minimum value of the average velocity. This would correspond to a 

total underflow ot 92 second-feet. 

1.oo...---.----.-....,,.....-.....---.J.-....,.---,-~---.-.---, 

AMPkRE C RVE WELLS 'F & G' 

0.90 1---l----l--l----1-+----t-+--+--t--l:l..f-7--l I 

I 

I 

Cl.101----+--l----+--f----+--f----+---f--+---f--; 

12M. 2P.M, 4 6 8 10P.M. 12 2A,M, 4 6 8 10A.M, 

<~<-- ---.. JULY-29·-----X'----·-JULY 80-·-·-

FIG. 32.-Diagram of velocity and direction of flow of underground water r.t the narrows of the 

San Gabriel River; station 3. 

The measurements established the existence of a distinct underflow 

of moderate velocity through the alluvial deposits of the narrows. In 

. low stages of the surface streams the underflow probal'.'Y represents a 

drainage from the upper valley in excess of that discharged by the 

surface streams. The substantial identity of the water of the underflow and the water of the surface streams is proved b~r tests with the 

Whitney bridge, so that we may Lonelude that the or~g·inalmountain 

stream appears at the narrows as a composite river, consisting of surface streams bordering both the east and the west bluffs of the narrows, 

together with a very wide and deep but slowly moving underflow 

occupying the entire major trough of the valley. 
CHAPTER V. 

MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW .AT THE N.ARHOWS 

OF THE MOHAVE RIVER NEAR VICTORVILLE, CAL. 

CONDITIONS AT THE STATION. 

The Mohave River rises on the slope of the Sierra Madre Mountains in San Bernardino County, Cal., its headwaters flowing from 

elevations of 5,000 to 8,000 feet. After following a gene~al northerly course the stream disappears in the Mohave Desert a short distance below Barstow, Cal. After leaving its mountainous canyon the 

stream gradually loses water, and for a large portion of the summer 

its bed is dry for a greater part of its course on the plains. At a 

point about 16 miles north of its source the river passes through a 

narrow gorge called the "Narrows" of the river. The granite uplift 

which forms this gorge con~titutes a dam that raises the underf·<>W to 

the surface, so that within an area that extends from a point .. r. mile 

and a half above the gorge to a point a considerably greater distance below the gorge the stream is of perennial flow. A view 

of the narrows of the river is shown in Pl. IX. This gorge js just. 

south of the village of Victorville, .Cal_., a station on the Sarta Fe 

Railway. The place had been- under in,restigation as a possib1B site 

for a dam by the United States Geological Survey during the season 

of 1899 and previously. Reports on this subject will be found in the 

Eighteenth Annual Report, United States Geological Survey, Part IV, 

page 708, and the Twenty-first Annual Report, United States Geological 

Survey, Part IV, page 471. The permanent dry-season flow of the 

river at the gorge varies from abol).t 30 to 60 second-feet. On August 

15,1902, the discharge, as measured by J. B. Lippincott, was 33 secondfeet. Soundings have been made to bed rock at three different lines 

across the narrow part of the gorge by the United States Geological 

Survey. The positions of these cross sections are shown in fig. 33. 

The river-gage rod of the United States Geological Survey is located 

on the right bank of the river at the end of line B. This lire was 

selected as the location for the underflow tneasurements. The maximum depth to bed rock at this point is 46 feet, as is shown in the 

approximate cross· section given in fig. 34. The material filling the 

gorge and constituting the bed of it is a coarse angular granite debris 

of a size somewhat larger than buckwheat. Mechanical analysis of the 

gravel filling the gorge is given in Table VI (p. 30). Determinations of 

5'} 

_. 
s-oo 

1-'• ~ r::s ~ 

"'1 

o..;o 

~ (';! 

"d (l)' ,.,..·s 

t:Tpo 

00 ~ 

1-'•(l) 

r::s "'1 0.. 1-'• 1-'• ;o (';! 

~ . -

~ 

~~ wcrq· 

,.,..t:r' 

~~ 

(l) ~ .., 0 

(l) 8. ~ 0: 

""= (l) CD a;. 

00 0 0 1-t-. 

8 ~ CD t:r' \fl (l) 

~~ 

~ !:l ~ 0.. ~(l) 

U1 "': 

0 ~ ~0 

(';! $j 

0 ;:::l.. ~ (l) 

00 ~ CD -- CD ""= 1'1 s ~ ..... ~ ~ s-o.. 

1'1 ~ 

~· ~ 

:-~ 

7-

SURFACE E1., 2709.20/, ~ BEDROCK El.. 2664.751 :_, 

~z C' 2709.271 0 ~ 2668.05 .. "' z 

2700.27 "':2: 9 2671.55~ ~ Cl) 

~~ .. 

75 1 

~ 

:Z 

~m:~:~::. 

1001 

Foot 

:8. 

"'· 

~- 2708,761 ~ 

2670.11jotll~ r 

~~gt6~ ~ ~ ~~z 2708.77 :z 9 2664.87 ? 1\) 

·:~ 

125' 

of 

0 

~ 

:8. 

R. -~· 

Bank 

MOHAVE 

"' "'· 

»~ 

160 1 

RIVER 

Low Ground 

O!I.!J' 

150 1 

5_ 

~ 

FIG. 33.-Map of the narrows of the 'Mohave River above Victorville, Cal., showing three lines of test borings made to bed rock by the United States Geological Survey in 1900. Line 3 of these borings coincides with the cross section at which the underflow measurements were made. 

a: a: 01 ~ (l) ~ 

s (l) 

(l) 

~~ (l) .., g. 

0 ..... ~ 1-b ~ > 

(l) ~ 

'?rr. ~ 

-:t ~· ~CD 0 

s 0 ~ s ~ t:C . ~ 0 

t:r' ~ 

~(l) tzj 

t:r' ()q t:C (t) 1'1 tl:j 

00 ~ ~ po (t) ~ 

8 - "d 0"' 0 ;-~ ~ 

U1 ~ c::j 

0 ..... ~ 1-b!:l t;j 

(Jq(fq tzj 

1'1 00.. ~ ~ Ci:l ~ ~ ~ (t) 00 0 

-~. 0 ~ ::; ~ (t) ~ t;j 1'1 0 (t) 1'1 ~ 

st ~ > rJ"O ~ 0 ~ (l) ~ 00 ~ ;:::l.. • 

1'1· 0 ~ 

s s z ~ CD 9 t:r'~ '"" (t) !:l ~ 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. IX 

NARROWS OF MOHAVE RIVER. 

At time of the und e rflow investigation; instruments are located in te nt at side. 
sLicHTER.) NARROWS OF THE l\IOHAVE NEAR VICTORVILLE, CAL. 57 

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTS. 

The site selected for the measurement of the underflow at the upper 

narrows of the river was in a line ex~ending across the river at right 

angles to its main course, as shown in the plan given in fig. 33. The 

water in the river at this point hardly exceeded a foot in depth, but 

the water spread over the greater portion of the space bet,.veen the 

banks, necessitating the construction of a smali foot bridge, shown in 

FIG. 34.-Cross section of the narrows of the Mohave River at which the underflow wa,~ measured. 

This line of cross section corresponds to line 3 in the preceding diagram. The rectangles inclosing 

the"figures represent the position and depth at which the underflow was measured. The figures 

inclosed in the rectangles represent the velocity in feet per day at that point in the c."'lss section. 

Pl. X. Another view, Pl. XI, illustrates the method used in putting 

down the test wells. The double row of test wells, A, B, C, D, E, F, 

G, II, I,· were driven across the river at this point as located on the 

plan shown h1 fig. 35. The gorge at this place is only 120 feet wide, 

and it was at first thought unnecessary to dri 're more than a single 

d.:>wnstream well for each measurement, as it was believed that the 

o:l'" 

.. ~ 

~ 9 "'"" 

G. 

FIG. 35.-This plan shows the position of the various test wells used in the underflow investigation. 

The principal line of test wells corresponds to line 3 of fig. 33. 

underflow must move through the gorge in a very direct course. It 

was determined, however, after first salting the upstrerun wells, that 

the ground waters must be moving through the gorge at this point at 

a slightly different direction from that of the surface waters, a~ absolutely no results could be obtained from the wells as first arranged. 

Accordingly, directional 'veils 1\1, X, Y, Z, U, K were driven as 
58 RATE OF MOVEMENT 0~' UNDERGROUND WATERS. (NO. 140. 

1.0 Or--r~ 

.90 

• so 

.7 0 

en 

~.eo 

UJ 

0.. 

:!: 

<,50 

.4 0 

,".20 

I . I 

I 

IM 

1--- / 

7 8 9 10 11 12 2 8 4 5 6 

-----A.M AUG-UST 18TH----------P.M. AUGUST 18TH- ------7 

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL B. DEPTH 12 FEET, VELOCITY: r.5 FEET 

PER 24 HOURS 

FIG. 36.-Diagram showing the velocity of underflow at narrows of Mohave River, Station A. • 

• 90 

.80 

.70 

.60 

.50 en 

11.1 

0: 

UJ 

ll. 

:E .40 

<C 

.ao 

.10 

/ 

~ 

- ~ 

/ ~ 

I ~ 

I ~ 

~~- ·~ ' 

I 

0 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 8 

~--·-A.M. AUGUST 16TH.--·--*-·P.M. AUGUST 16TH. --~ 

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL V. DEPTH 8 FEET. 

VELOCITY: 52.4 FEET PER 24 HOURS 

36.0 

FIG. 37.-Diagram showing velocity of underflow at narrows of Mohave R'ver, station E. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. X 

DRIVING WELL GAT UNDERFLOW STATION AT NARROWS OF MOHAVE RIVER. 

Showing shallow character of river at this place durmg dry season. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

DRIVING TEST WELLS AT UNDERFLOW STATION AT NARROWS OF MOHAVE RIVER. 

The wooden ram ~o~sed weigr,e<d about 6C pounds. 
SLICHTER.) NARROWS OF THE MOH.AVE NEAR ViCTORVILLE, CAL. 59 

shown in fig. 35. In order to determine whether a variation in the 

direction was the cause of the failure to measure the underflo"V'", some 

preliminary experiments were carried out at the position lette,red E, 

test wells X and .Y being driven 18 inches from the well F. After 

these wells were put in place, the well E was salted. This test turned 

out to be unsatisfactory also, but a slight rise in the electric current 

in well Y was noticed, which encouraged the belief that the direction 

1.40 

1.3 0 

t.t 0 

Cl) 

Ul 

a: 

Ul 

.90 

~·8 0 

<( 

.70 

.eo 

.50 

.40 

.so 

I 

I 

M 

) ~ / 

~ 

I ~ 

I ~ 

I \ 

\ 

ll 

~ ' 

10 11 12 4 

- A.M. AUGUST 17TH ~-P.M. AUGUST 17TH-__,. 

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL Y. DEPTH 14 FEET. 

VELOCITY: 55 FEET PER 24 HOURS. 

FIG. 38.-Diagram showing the velocity of underflow at narrows of Mohave River, sw.tion E. 

of flow had been missed in the first test. It was surmised that the 

ground water might be moving so rapidly as not to give time for the 

electrolyte to spread sufficiently, and hence was able to pass hetween 

two downstream wells 18 inches apart. It was also possible that the 

direction of the flow was to the left of the new well Y. In order to 

provide for this contingency, the well X was pulled and redriven in 

the position indicated by the letter Z, 18 inches from Y. 
()() RATE OF MOVEMENT OF tlNDERGROUND Wl--.TERS. [No.HO. 

If it were true that the motion of the ground water of the underflow 

might be so great that the electrolyte used· in well E would not have 

time to spread sufficiently so as to be certain of coming in contact with 

one of two downstream wells 18 inches apart, it would be necessary to 

modify the method of salting E so as to cause, if possible, a wider 

path to be traversed by the electrolyte. This was finally accomplished 

by introducing into the well E, along with the dry sal ammoniac, 

about 10 per cent caustic soda, or common soda lye. ~his, of course, 

brought about a reaction between the two salts in solution, ammonia 

2.00 

1.80 

1.6 0 

1.40 

1.20 

C/) 

UJ ~ 0: 1,00 

UJ 

a.. 

::?! 

<( 

.so 

,60 

,40 

,20 

0 

~ 

J ~ / 

/ 

1/ 

I 

I 

/M 

I -; 

r--L.l 

9 10 11 12 3 5 6 

~A.M. AUGUST 18TH-;-¥-----·P.M. AUGUST 18TH;----_ __,.. 

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL F. DEPTH 20 FEET. 

VELOCITY: 24 FEET PER 24 HOURS 

FIG. 39.-Diagram showmg the velocity of underflow at narrows of Mohav·~ River, station E. 

gas being liberated. It was believed that the liberation of the gas 

would eause the mixed chemicals to spread more rapidly in the ground 

waters. This later seemed to be the ease, for, carrying out the experiment in this way, it was found that the electrolyte r.qached well Y, 

where it showed itself very strongly and just grazeC' well F. The 

electrode curve for well Y 1s shown in fig. 40, which indicated a 

velocity of ground water of about 52.4 feet for twerty-four hours. 

This velocity was several times greater than any previously determined, which accounted fo1 the difficulties encountered in interpreting 

the first failure and in getting the direction of flow. After this expe-
SLICHTER.l NARROWS OF THE MOHAVE NEAR VICTORVILLE, OAL. 61 

rience all of the upstream wells were salted with the same mixture of 

sal ammoniac and caustic soda, and no further difficulties were experienced in getting the velocity and direction of flow. At the variom; 

stations, A, E, G, I, determinations of velocity were made at various 

depths, as is shown by numbers inclosed in rectangular lines at appropt•iate points in the cross section, fig. 3±. The pipe casing of well D 

en 

UJ 

0:: 

:2.8 0 

:2,6 0 

2,4 0 

:2,:20 

2.00 

1,8 0 

1.6 0 

~ 1.4 0 

::!! 

< 

1,:2 0 

1,0 0 

.eo 

.e 0 

.40 

.:20 

.o 

I \ ~ ll \ rJ 

I 

M 

- ~ 

8 10 11 12 1 

<f-- A.M. AUGUST 17TH--.P.M---~ 

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL U, DEPTH 25 FT. 

VELOCITY: 96 FEET PER 24 HOURS 

FIG. 40.-Dia~am showing velocity of underflow at narrows of Mohave River, station G. 

was found to be broken below the ground, and station C was-on that 

account not used. 

At depths below the surface not exceeding 25 or 30 feet the gravel 

of the gorge is completely silted with tine material deposited by the 

river and is, of course, impervious. At stations E, G, and I, after 
62 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

the well points were driven a few feet below the point at which the 

deepest measurements were made the points were completely embedded 

1.20 

1.10 

1.00 

Cl) 

Ill 

a: 

Ill 

~-90 

<( 

.so 

-

) "" 

v 

/ VM .....,. 

•

70 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 . 8 7 

'~A.M. AUGUST 18TH.~--------P.M.-AUGUST 18TH-.---:-----

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL H. DEPTH 30 F-EEVELOCITY: 11.7 FEET PER 24 HOURS 

FIG. 41.-Diagram showing the velocity of underflow at the narrows of Mol ".ve River, station G. 

in the silted gravel and no water could be drawn fror'l the wells with 

an ordinary pump~ It was therefore very plain that_ the underflow of 

Cl) 

Ill 

0: 

.s 

.e 

Ul 

ll. 

::E 

<( 

0 

0 

0 

,1!)0 

.ao 

-r---...... r---

8 9 10 II 12 

I 

I 

7 

IM 

7 

l---r-.... IJ ........ ,,~__., 

1 8 ·:. 5 

. ~--A.M •. AUGUST 18TH:----*----P.M. AUGUST 18THo-----~ 

AMPERE CURVE FOR WELL K. DEPTH 24 FI!ET. 

VELOCITY: 9.1 FEET PER 24 HOURS 

Fm. 42.-Diagram showing the velocity of underflow at the narrows of Mohave River, station I. 

the gorge was confined to a depth not exceeding abc•1t 30 feet. All 

of the velocities determined in the clear gravel of the gorge ran very 
SLJCHTER.] NARROWS OF THE MOHAVE NEAR VICTORVILLE, CAL. 63 

high, three of them exceeding a velocity of 50 .feet for twenty-four 

hours. Taking Schuyler's figures for the area of the cross section of 

the gorge, 4,160 square feet, and assuming a mean velocity of ground 

water in the entire section of 50 feet for twenty-four hours, and 

estimating the porosity of the gravel at 33-! per cent, the total underflow in the gorge will be found to be less than 1 second-foot. This 

must be understood to be a maximum estimate. The underflow 

probably does not exceed 300,000 gallons for twenty-four hours. 

The gradient of the water plane at and above the gorge is almost 

exactly 20 feet to the mile. 

The reproductions of photographs shown herewith illustr,1.te the 

method of driving the wells used and Rhow the small footbridge and 

the test wells that were put in place during· the investigatior. The 

tent appearing at the left of the cut contained the inRtruments from 

which wires were led to the various test wells (Pl. IX). 

QUALITY OF THE WATER. 

The quality of the water in the surface stream and in the un<lerflow 

of the Mohave River at the narrows was determined by tests with the 

Whitney electrolytic bridge, and the amount of chlorine in the water 

was determined by titration. The water is remarkable as a desert 

water for its unusual softness, being very much softer than the usual 

water found in. southern California, as at Los Angeles and neigl' boring 

points. This softness is undoubtedly due to the insoluble charflcter of 

the granitic deposit through which the water flows after leaving its 

- mountain source. It should be rem em be red that both the surface 

water in the stream and the underground waters at the locatior of the 

narrows of the Mohave River has been flowing in a ground-water 

stream for 10 or 12 miles of its course. As all of this water reaches 

the narrows by passing underground for a considerable distar~e, the 

results of the few tests made, given herewith in Table X, are of considerable interest. 
64 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNIJER.GROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

TABLE X.-Qzwlity of the water in the ril~er and in ie8l wells at the narrows of the 

J[olwt•e Rit•er. 

[Total solids were determined with the Whitney electrolytic- bridge.l 

Well. Date (Au- Depth in Tempera- ! Resistance in Chlorine, pts. Total solids, 

gust, 1902). feet. ture, ° F. 

I 

ohms. per 10),000. pts. per 100,000. 

A ________ 10 8 72 1,125 14 ------------- B -------- 19 12 67 1,150 2.51 15 

c -------- 10 16 71 1,275 ------------ 12 

F -------- 10 7 72 1,150 1. 77 13 

G -------- 10 20 70 1,300 ------------ 12 

H ........ 10 20 70 1,300 1. 25 12 

H ________ 15 25 67 1,460 ----·------- 11 

J -------· 10 14 72 1,250 1.77 12 

z -------- 15 8 72 1,200 ------------ 12.5 

Riverwa- ter _____ (a) ---------- 67 1,200 2.01 13.5 

a Aug. 10, 7 a. m. 

It will be noticed that the temperature of the water from the deeper 

wells was somewhat lower than that near the surface, and the deeper 

water also appeared to be somewhat softer. The temperature of the 

ground waters remained nearly constant at the variom' depths, but the 

stream water showed very marked fluctuations in temperature, as 

would be expected in a shallow desert stream. The temperature of 

the stream water taken in the morning was always low. The temperature at 7 a. m. August 10 was 67'~ F., which was the usual morning 

temperature. During the day the temperature would rise, the extent 

of the rise depending upon the character of the day, temperatures as 

high as 82° being not uncommon. On cloudy clays the temperature 

remained low. It will be noted from the table that the temperature 

of the surface stream was lower than the temperature of the upper 

underflow waters at night, and warmer than these Wf.ters during the 

daytime. This is already accounted for by the fact that the surface 

waters rise from the underflow. but a mile or so a.bov·e the narrows, 

the surface stream, of course, representing merely the surplus of 

underflow waters as the ground water approaches the narrows. 
CHAPTER VI. 

MEASUREJUENTS OF THE RATE OF UNDERFLOW ON :rJONG 

ISLAND, NEW YORK. 

CONDITIONS EXISTING AT THE STATIONS. 

The following determinations of ground- water velocities were made 

along the south side of Long Island, between the villages of Freeport 

and Massapequa. These places are located about 6 miles apart, on the 

Montauk division of the Long Island Railroad, which betweer these 

points runs nearly east and west and is about lmile north of th~ edge 

of the extensive salt marshes which border the Atlantic Ocean. 

Freeport is about 24 miles from Brooklyn Bridge, and Massa-.;>equa, 

6 miles east of Freeport, is within 2 miles of the western line of 

Suffolk County. 

Within the 6-mile stretch above mentioned the city of Brooklyn has 

five pumping stations, drawing water frmn extensive batteries of driven 

wells. The names of these stations, from the west, are: Agawam, 

Merrick, Matowa, Wan tagh, and Massapequa. There is a brick conduit on the north side of the right of way of the Long Island Railroad, 

into which the water from the pumping station is discharged, carrying 

the water by grnvity to a pumping station at Milburn, just vrest of 

Freeport, where an additional lift sends the water into the city of 

Brooklyn. The five driven:-well plants above mentioned are uf'ed for 

auxiliary supply in the sunuuer months, the period of use extending 

usually from July to December, but varying with the rainfall and 

other climatic conditions. 

Within the 6 miles from Freeport to Massapequa the conduit crosses 

several small surface streams, four of which have been ponded and 

their waters gated into the conduit. These surface waters flow into the 

conduit the year round, the driven wells constituting the auxiliary 

supply. 

The particular district under discussion 'vas selected as the object 

of study because, in the first place, the region seemed typical of con-

.ditions on the southern side of the island, and, secondly, because the 

ground water was substantially in normal condition, owing to· the fact 

that the driven-well plants had not been operated since the previous 

December. The purpose of this work was to determine the principal 

facts concerning the underground drainage of the island, so that a preliminary basis could be secured for an estimate of the amount of 

ground water available for municipal supply. 

IRR 140--05-5 
66 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.HO. 

The determination of ground-water velocities was made at certain 

selected stations or localities, following, in general, an east-west line. 

These stations were confined, for the most part~ to the highways or 

other public lands. This restriction did not interfere materially with 

the selection of the best sites for the work. One set of stations was 

placed south of the railroad and just north of the line of wells of the 

driven-well stations, it being considered of importance to measure 

velocities in the immediate neighborhood of the pumping plants both 

before and after pumping had commenced. Other stations were 

located north of the railroad and eonduit, out of range of an extensive 

influence of the pumping plants. 

The 6-mile line from Freeport to Massapeqn:J. is, as has heen 1-'tated, 

about 1 mile distant from the edge of the tidal marshes bordering the 

Atlantic Ocean. North of this 1ine for a distanee of 9 or 10 miles the 

natural surface drainage of the land is toward the south, the slope for 

nearly 8 miles of the distance being very uniform and in amount almost 

exactly 15 feet to the mile. This drainage plain is n<Jt only very flat 

and unbroken, but the surface conditions are exceedingly favorable for 

the absorption of a large percentage of the rainfall. The soil for the 

most part is coarse and sandy and very porous. The slope of the water 

plain is somewhat less than that of the surface of the land, being 

approximately 10 or 12 feet to the mile. The under;rround drainage 

is in general toward the south, the main east-west undo,rground watershed probably coinciding within a mile or two with the surface watershed. The average rainfall is about 44 inches, a very large portion 

of which enters the ground. 

In the localities where the test wells wel'e bored the material was, 

for the first 30 to 40 feet, yellow sand and gravel, quite clean and 

unlform, but growing finer with the depth. The first 20 feet below 

the water plane seemed in every case to be of high transmission capaeity, and the material below this lev-el was usually of increasing fineness, 

finally changing into a fine, dark-colored, micaceous sr.ncl. At a depth 

of 40 to 60 feet a compact layer of clayey and bog-like material was 

often met, and in driving the test wells into and through this layer 

the water rose continuously in the wells until a marked artesian head 

was developed. Immedi~1tely below this. compact lr.yer good sands 

were again encountered. 

In the report on New York\; water supply made by John R. Freeman in the year 1900. it is ~tated as probable that this layer of clayey 

material referred to aboye is distributed as a wide and practically 

unbroken sheet lying 40 to 60 feet beneath the surface of the southsloping drainage plain of the island. 

One of the objects of the measurement for ground-water velocities 

was to determine whether or not there was a considerable southerly 

movement to this water in the sands and gravels above the supposed 
SLICHTER.] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 67 

clay sheet, and to determine the order of magnitude of such r. movement if it existed. Whenever there exists in any drainage area a 

body of ground water which does not escape into the beds of surface 

streams as seepage water, but continues a seaward course thro•1gh the 

sands and gravels quite independent of the surface streams, this moving sheet of water is known as the "underflow." One of th'3 prob- __ • 

lems was, therefore, to determine whether or not a true un<lerflow 

existed in this part of Long Island, and to learn something of its 

magnitude jf it was found to exist. Another problem was to discover, 

if practicable, if any part of the underground drainage existed below 

the bed of clay; in other words, it was sought to determine 1Vhether 

the underground drainage consisted only of a surface zone of flow, or 

whether a deeper zone, or possibly several deeper zones of flow, were 

also present. 

In respect to the first problem above mentioned-the existen~e of an 

underflow-there can be no question that a true underflow of considerable importance exists within a depth below the surfac~ of 40 to 50 

feet. In practically all of the stations established a good mcvement 

was found to exist, having a strong southerly coltlponent, and surprisingly free, in many cases, from the influence of neighboring surface 

streams. The velocity near t_he surface, 16 to 24 feet below the 

water plane, ran as high as 5 to 12 feet per day. At greater depths 

of 30 and 42 feet, respectively, the'velocities were in each caE'e about 

15 inches per day. At station 9 the sand was so fine at a dept,h of 45 

feet that it could not be prevented from running into the bottom of 

the well above the top of the well strainer so that the wells could not 

be used. 

The existence of a deep zone of flow was also established. At station . 

15 clay was encountered at a depth of about 44 feet. These wells were 

driven to a depth of about 62 feet, when an artesian head of about 30 

inches developed. A measurement was then made, the screens on the 

wells being just below the impervious layer. A velocity of 6 feet a 

day was found to exist in a direction about 10° west of south. The 

rate of flow at the same point just above the clay was only 18 i~ches a 

day, so that a true "deep zone of flow" undoubtedly exists at this 

point. This result, although very important, was not surpri~ing, as 

it had already been well established by the work of Mr. A. C. Veatch 

and others, of the United States Geological Survey, that the clay 

layer, formerly supposed to be of wide expanse and quite unbroken, 

is, as a matter of fact, absent over considerable areas of the island, so 

that no reason exists why a part of the underground drainage should 

not exist below this impervious bed. It is strongly urged t]·.,.,t further measurements below the clay be made. Measurements made 

some distance to the east of the present work, say, in Suffolk County., 

would he of especial value in indicating the areal extent of tHs deep 

zone of flow. 
68 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.HO. 

The surface zone of flow of the underground wat£l'S is probably 

divided into a number of drainage areas, although it is exceedingly 

doubtful if the underground drainage basins coincide very closely 

with the drainage areas of the surface streams. In general, the velocities seemed to increase from west to east, the lowest velocities, however, corresponding to a middle area, where the yellow gravels 

. contained a quantity of fine, clay-like silt. The "'T antagh area 

seemed to have the largest underflow. It would he exceedingly 

interesting to have series of mea,-,urements extending eastward into 

Suffolk County. By increasing somewhat the number of stations in 

1.20 

1.00 

.80 

cri 

IJJ 

0::.60 

IJJ 

0.. 

::!: 

<( .40 

.20 

L./. R.R. 

r 

I 

I 

v 

/ 

\~M_·_s __ ~-~--1uG. ~1--~--s ___ lo __ ~ VELOCITY 6 FEET PER DA V. 

FIG. 43.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of the flow of underground water at Wantagh 

pumping station (station 2 X). Velocity, 6 feet a day, S. 40°E. This velocity was determined while 

pumps were drawing water from the wells of the driven well plant at a rate of 4,366,000 gallons per 

twenty-four hours. No velocity deteetecl when not pumping. 

the area already covered and comparing with results from drainage 

areas in Suffolk County, a comparative study of underground drainage systems would result which ought to have much value in planning 

sources of supply for Brooklyn. 

The details of the measurements are given in the reports o"n individual stations contained in Table XI. The locations of the stations 

are shown in fig 5.7, and the curves of electrical current for the various stations are given in figs. 5 and 43 to 56. 
SLICHTER.] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 69 

TABLE XI.-Underflow m.easurem.ents on Long Island. 

Velocity Depth of No. of Number of ground 

of station. water; Direction. Date, 1903. wells in Kind of point. text 

feet a day. feet. figure. 

1 ______ 5.5 S. 10° E ... June 21. ... 22 Perforated pipe. 5 

2 _____ .. 2 .. ----- -.. ---- June 24 ____ 22 Do. -------- 2 X ___ 6 S. 40° E ___ Aug. 21. ... 22 Do. 43 

3 ______ 2 ------------ June 26 ____ 22 Do. -------- 4 ______ 2 ------------ June 27 ..•. 22 Do. ................... 5 ______ 6.4 S. go W ... June 29 .... 22 Common point. 

} 5 X--- 5.4 S. go W ... July 3, 4.-- 22 Do. 44 

5 y --- g_o S. 22° E ... Aug. 19 ____ 22 Do. 

6 ______ 5.0 S. go W. -- July 1, 2.-- 34 Do. 45 

7 ______ 2.6 s --------- July 5, 6.-- 20 Do. 46 

g_----- 0.0 s --------- July9,10,1L 21.6 Open-end point. -------- g ______ 3.1 N. 34° W __ Julv 14, 15, 21.6 Do. 47 

16, 17. 

10 ______ 2.6 S. 37° E ___ July 17, 1g, 2g Common point. 48 

19, 20. 

u ______ 0.0 ------------ July 27- 22 Do. -------- Aug. g. 

12 ______ 1. 07 S. 3° E __ .. July 27- 27 Open-end point. 49 

Aug.l. 

13.----- 96. s --------- Aug. 3, 4 .. - 16 Common point. } 53 

13------ 6.9 s ________ , Aug. 3, 4.-. 16 Do. 

14 ______ 9.3 s --------- Aug. 5, 6.-. 17 Do. 50 

15 ______ 1. 53 s -- ....... ---.. Aug. 6, 7, 8, 42 Open-end point. 51 

9, 10. 

15 X ... 6.00 s. 15° w -- Aug. 17, 18, 62.5 Do. 52 

19. 

16 ______ 0. S. 30° E ... Aug. 10, 11. 16 qommon point. -------- 16 X ... 77 S. 60° E ... Aug .. 13, 14. 16 Do. } 54 16 X __ . 11.6 S. 60° E _ .. Aug. 13, 14. 16 Do. 

17 ______ 10.6 S. 30° W .. Aug. 12, 13. 20 Do. 55 

1g_.- ... 1 s - .. ------ .. Aug. 15-21. 62 Open-end point. -------- 21.-.--- 21.3 S. 50° E ... Aug. 18, 19. 16.5 Common point. 56 

22 ...••. 5. 6(?) S. 30° E _ .. Aug. 20, 21. 16 Do. --------

INFLUENCE OF THE RAINFALL UPON THE RATE OF MOTION OF GROUND 

WA'.fERS. 

An excellent opportunity was pre:::~ented at one of the stathns for 

noting the influence of a heavy rain upon the velocity of ground 

waters. 

At station 5, Agawam pumping station (see figs. 58 and 44), the 

.upstream well, A, was salted at 9.45 a. m., J nne 29, 1903. Between 
70 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

9 a. m. and 1 p. m. nearly 3 inches of rain fell, so that the heavy 

precipitation coincided with the early part- of the ground-water measurements. The velocity found was 6.4 feet a day. On July 3 the 

experiment was repeated, there being no rain in the intervening time. 

The velocity found in the second trial was 5.3 feet a day. The change 

in velocity was undoubtedly due to the enormous rainfall during the 

first experiment. Part of the high velocity during the rain storm may 

be attributed to the low barometer accompanying the etorm, but part 

2.60 

2.40 

2.20 

2.00 

1.80 

1.60 

~ 1.40 

~ 

UJ 

~ 1.20 

< 

1.00 

.so 

.60 

.40 

.20 

.00 

,....------- II ~ ,,0 

B''"' ,, w 

!---- c 

JULY 3 

AUG.I9 

JUNE 2

1

9 

L. f. R. R. 

,Oo 

(<\ 

D 

~ ELOCIT:v" 6.4 F 

VEL CITY FT. PER DAY 

/ 

/ I--' 

/ 

/ v 

/ ./ v 

v--...... / 

/ 

I 

I 

• PER ~AY./ / v /-~ 

1/ / v 

Alj/ 1/ ~; ~VELO ITY 54 FT. PER DAY. 

I I 

I 

JUNE29 10A.M.12 10 12 4 8 10 12 2 

JULY3 12M. 2 8 10 12 6 10 12 4 

AUG.19 4 P.M. 6 10 12 10 12 2 

FIG. 44.-Diagram showing three determinations of velocity and direction of flow of underground 

water at Agawam pumping station (station 5). Normal velocity of ground water, 5.4 feet a day, 

S. 8° W. Velocity during heavy rain, 6.4 feet a day, S. 22° E. Velocity while pumping from the 

lines of driven wells, 8 feet a day, S. 2ZO E. 

of it should be assigned to the increased head of ground-water pressure 

and to increased load carried by the soil, caused by the heavy rainfall 

upon the receiving area. 

As is ~;hown in another placea ground waters move very much as 

electricity is conducted in a good conductor, the most striking quality 

being an almost complete absence of true inertia in gro~nd-water 

motions. The motion of a mass of ground water, even for the highest 

aNineteenth Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1899, p. 331 .. 
SLICHTER.) LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 71 

velocities, is so slow that the resistance to an accelerating ~orce represented by the inertia of the ground water is almost nothing when 

compared with the component of the retarding force due t.o the 

ca.pillary resistance in the small pores of the sand or gravel. .A.etual 

computation will show that in a uniform sand of diameter of grain cf 

one-half niillimeter, the ground water will reach within 1 per cent of 

its final maximum velocity due to a sudden application of pr£oqsure, 

or head, in approximately thirty- seconds of tinie. -This surprising 

result of the theory of ground-water motions receives a very striking 

verification in the increase in velocity noted during the rainstc~m as 

described above. 

II L. I. R. R. 

"' a. 

·a. ... "' I 1s: 5 0 

A [\ 1.60 

/-

I 1.40 

1.20 

(1)1.0 

LLl 

0 I 

f 0:: 

~ .8 

:2: 

0 

<( 

.60 

• 40 

.20 

0 -- --

Electrode 

-------- C se r-- --

-I 

1/ ,. ... 

A 

l-t/ '/ 

,., ---- ------- 11 A.M. 1 3 5 7 9 11 1 A.M. 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 II 

+-·-----JULY 1--·---_,.....----------JULY 2-----------4- VELOCITY 5 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 45.-Diagram Rhowing velocity and direction of fl. ow of underground water at Agawam pumping 

station (station 6 ). This station is located near station 5, but wells were 12 feet deep~r. 

These results have important bearings on our knowledge of groundwater phenomena in the neighborhood of a well. They indicate that 

the velocity of the gro-und waters in the neighborhood of a well r~aches 

n. maximum value soon after pumping is commenced. The gradual 

formation of the cone of depression near the well shows that there 

1nust be a progre.ssive augmentation of the initial velocity of the 

ground waters toward the well. Nevertheless, the rate of depression 

of the water table is so slow that the ground-water motion established 

soon after the pumping has begun is substantially the same as its 

value after· prolonged pumping. These -remarks have their most 
72 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

important bearing upon the phenomena of the mutual interference of 

wells. The interference of one well with the supply of a neighboring 

well is thus seen to come into existence almost instantaneously and 

need not wait for the establishment of a cone of depression of large 

area. The phenomenon of the cone of depression has mueh to do with 

the permanent supply of the well~ but has slight beat·ing upon the 

proper spaeing of the wells or the pereentage of interferenee of one 

well with another. 

1.4 0 

1.2 

1.0 0 

~ ,8 0 

a: 

UJ 

a. ::i!: .6 

<( 

0 

.4 0 

.2 0 

0 

.c 

+-' 

-:;) 

0 

([) 

Center line of road . 

I 

v 

/ 

~ / 

v 

I 

v -- -

1 P.M. 5 9 1 5 9 1 5 9 1 5 9 1 5 9 1 

.---;JULY 5--·--·-JULY 6-·---....;.._·--·-JULY 7-----· 

VELOCITY 2.6 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 46.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of flow of underground water at East Meadow 

Brook and Babylon Road (station 7). This station is a short distanee aboye Agawam Pond, and 

the velocity is reduced by the flat >vater plane due to the preRence of the pord. Velocity, 2.6 feet a 

day, south. · 

SEEPAGE WATERS FROM PONDS AND RESERVOIRA. 

The work on Long Island afforded some unusually good opportunities of determining the rate of seepage below the impounding dams of 

smue of the storage ponds whieh the Brooklyn W rter "T orks has 

established north of the .eonduit line referred to in the opening pages 

of this chapter. The hatteries of driven wells, whieh h:co,ve been placed 

a few hundred feet south of nearly all of these ponds, were not used 

during the summer of 1H0:3, as the heavy rains furnished a sufficient 

quantity of surface water, and the auxiliary supply from the wells was 

not drawn upon, as usual, during July and .August. Station 5 is below 

the .Agawam Pond and sommv hat within the line of seepage from the 

pond, as ean be seen hy consulting fig. 58. The normal velocity of 
!>LICHTER.] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 73 

ground water at thil:l station is 5. 3 feet a day. At station 7, jm't north 

of the pond, the ~~elocity was 2.6 feet a day. It seems clear that the 

natural velocity at these points, if the influence of the clam and pond 

were removed, would _be about 4 feet a day. The velocity at station 6, 

located but a few feet from station 5, was 5 feet a day at a depth of 34 

feet, as compared with 5. 3 feet a day at a depth of 22 feet. The dam 

has the effect of making the wnter table nearly level in the immediate 

neighborhood of the pond, and also of greatly augmenting the slope of 

the water table for a short distance below the pond. The lower 'relocity 

above the pond and the higher velocity below the pond correspond 

'1.00 

.80 

~.60 

a: 

w 

~.40 

4: 

.20 

0 

I/' V'--, 

1/ 

/ 

4 P.M. 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 .S 12 

_.JULY 14--------.JULY 15-------~---.JULY 16------4 

VELOCITY 3.1 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 47.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of flow of underground water near Merick pumping station (station 8). The ground water at this point slopes in a northerly direction toward the 

brick conduit north of the Long Islanrl Railroad. The velocity found was 3.1 feet a day, N. 34° W. 

The northerly flow at this point is undoubtedly due to seepage into the conduit. 

with these facts. When there was no flow over the waste weir of the 

flt=tm, the flow of the small stream which dses below the dam Wf8 measured at the bridge 1narkecl A in fig. 58. On .July 10 this flow was 1.2 

second-feet. prac.tically all of which represented seepage water from 

the reservoir. 

A flow of 1.2 second-feet or 103,000 cubic feet a day represents an 

amount of water flowing through a bed of sand 30 feet deep and 

1,000 feet wide, at a velocity of 1 foot a day, the porosity of the 
7 4 RATE OF MOVEMENT Oll' UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.Ho. 

sand supposedly being equal to one-third. The normal -velocity of 

the ground water is augmented, as shown by the measurement quoted 

above. by somewhat more than 1 foot a day. The width of the lower 

end of this pond, or the length of the earthen daml is a bout 1,±00 feet, 

so, basing the estimate on this minimum length and on a minimum 

depth of 30 feet, au augmented velocity of 1 foot a d'C'.y would give a 

minimum estimate of the seepage from the dam of 1.6 second-feet. 

Since 1.2 second-feet are known to actually come to the surface to 

feed the stream below the dam, it is evident that this estimate of seepage is a minimum. It seems evident that a considerable volume of 

~:r~~· < 

~~;.. 

~~ 

0 o.;;,\: 

~\·~i :. 

110' 

~\Ill 

ROAD. I ·~~>, '" 0 \~ 

J 

.70 

v--:-- .60 

/ 

/v .50 

.40 

.3 0 I 

1 

/"" .20 

.10 

0 5 P. M, 9 1 5 1 1 1 1 

"i'JULY 17------JULY 18----------. -----JULY 19------~ 

VELOCITY 2.6 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 48.-Diagram Rhowing velocity and direction of flow of underground wa:e~ at Cedar Brook 

(station 10). This station is above Cedar Brook Pond. The velocity is 2.6 feet a day, S. 37° E. 

seepage water could be recovered by extending the Hne of driven 

wells of the Agawam pumping station to the east of th'3 present terminus, a distance of 600 or 700 feet, without serious lowering of the 

water plane. 

A test well was driven in the lower south end of Agawam Pond to 

a depth of 10 feet to determine the pressure gradient of ground water 

beneath the surface of the pond. The water in this test well stood 

about 1 foot lower than the water in the pond itself, showing a slope 

of the water plane or a hydraulic gradient of 7 feet to a mile. 
SLICltTER.) LONG ISLAND, NEW ~ORK. 75 

The gradient of the water plane below the dam-that is, bet""een the 

dam ancl station 5-was 17 feet to the mile, so that the velocitiefl to be 

compared are: 

Station 7 above pond; gradient, 7 feet per mile; velocity, 2.6 feet a day. 

Station 5 below pond; gradient, 17 feet per mile; velocity, 5 feet a day. 

These results check very favorably, especial~y when it be conEjdered 

that the gradient above or north of station 7 was probably 10 or 12 

feet per mile, which would make the effective gradient at this station 

somewhat g1·eater than 7 feet per mile. 

u) 

Ul 

2.0 0 

1.8 0 

1.8 0 

1.4 0 

1.2 0 

f:i 1.00 

0.. 

~ 

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.so 

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.• 20 

0 

I 

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. 

........-I--"" 

I 1\ 

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Grand Avenue 

-

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12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 

JULY 27.:x -·-28--~-~~31--~AU0.1-·-2--~--3~ 

VELOCITY 1.07 FEET PER DAV. 

FIG. 49.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of the flow of underground water at Grani Avenue 

and Newbridge Brook (station 12). Velocity, 1.07 feet a day, S. 3° E. This is the lowest. velocity 

determined on Long Island. 

Very striking results were obtained below the dam at the Wan tagh 

Pond, where measurements were undertaken to determine the rate of 

seepage. The dam of Wan tagh Pond runs parallel to the right of way 

of the Long Island Railroad, about 75 feet north of the road, and has 

an extreme length of 500 or 600 feet. About 150 feet ~outh of the 

railroad, downstream from the reser;voir, the city of Brooklyn began 

in 1903 the construction of an infiltration gallery, consisting of a 

line of 36-inch double-strength tile, laid at a depth of 16 feet below the 
76 R.AT.E OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND VT ATERS. 

1.60 

1.40 

1.20 

1.00 

~.so 

a: 

uJ 

D.. ::?: .60 

<( 

.40 

48' Center line of road. 

v I--1---

I 

1/ 

Mt 

I 

I 

./ 

"

01 P.M. 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 

~-------AUG.-5---------------AUG.-6-----

VELOCITY 8.6 FEET PER DAY. 

(No. 140. 

FIG. 50.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of flow of underground water at Bellevue road 

(Rtation H). Velocity, S.ti feet a day, Routh. 

1.4 0 

1.20 

-a.oo 

a) 

uJ .so a: 

Ul 

0.. 

::!!: .60 <( 

.40 

.20 

0 

Center line of road. 

v -- I 

I 

l -7 

---

12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 12M. 

+-AUG.IH<.--- AuG. 7-----AuG. 8-- ~--AuG. 9---><-----AuG. 1 o--*-

VELOCITY 1.53 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 51.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of the flow of unrlerground water at Bellevue 

road (station lo). Velocity, 1.53 feet a day, south. 
SLICHTER.] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 77 

water plane. It is proposed to extend this gallery for a mile ea.st and 

west from the Wantagh pumping station. Stations 13, 16, and 17 were 

established for the purpose of measuring the normal ground-water 

velocities at the depth (1f3 feet) of the proposed gallery. Two of these 

stations are immediately south of the pond and in the apparent direct 

line of seepage, while station 17 is located slightly east of the eige of 

the pond and, as seems evident from fig. 59, just on the edge of the 

main influence of seepage from the ponds. The seepage velocities at 

stations 13 and 16 turned out to be enormous, the velocity at station 

13 being 9f3 feet a clay, south, while at station 16 the velocity was 77 

feet a day, the direction being about 30~' east of south, the deflection 

being toward the neighboring stream, as shown in fig. 59. These 

,50 

.40 

~ .30 

a: 

UJ 

~ .2 0 

<( 

.1 0 

-']IIH1 

J)lilll-20, 

~v -- / v 

/ 

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0 

'2 P, M. 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 

~AUG.17---,.__ ____ AUG.18--------:-----AUG.19------><-"' 

VELOCITY 6 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. /)2.-Diagram showing velocih and direction of the flow of underground water at Bellevue 

road (station 15 X). Velocity, 6 feet a day, S. 15° W. This station is the same as statkn 15, but 

measurement of velocity was made below a stratum of cla~- or bog material at a depth of 62.5 feet, 

!!0 feet deeper than the measurement shown in fig. 51. 

velocities are the highest the writer has determined. They ray he 

regarded as record-making rates for the horizontal motion of ground 

waters. Both measurements were made with the recording instruments, and by consulting the curves in figs. 53 and 54 it will be, noted 

that each cunre has two maximum points, which must correspond 

to the velocities in two distinct layers of gravel. The secondary velocity for station 13 was 7.± feet u day and for station 16, 11.3 feet a day. 

A very striking verification of the fac.t that the high movements here 

found were due to the ~scape of water from the pond will be noted 

when the temperatures of the waters in the wells of these stations are 

compared with the temperatures of the water in the pond and the water 
78 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND 1"" ATERS. [No.140. 

in wells outside of the influence of seepage from the p"Jnd. Practically 

all well water taken {rom wells on Long Island have temperatures 

lying between 58° F. and 60° F. In the present case the te1nperature 

of water drawn from H. A. Russell's well, 22 feet c~ep, just west of 

"Tan tagh Pond, was 59° F. on August 8, 1903. Thq temperature of 

water from well D of sta,tion 17, just east and slightly below the pond, 

was 61.2° F. on August 11, 1903. This well was 20 feet deep, the 

bottom being at the same depth as the wells of statior~s13 and 16. The 

2.00 

1.80 

1.60 

1.40 

1.20 

u) 

w 

0:: 1.00 

w 

0.. 

~ .80 

.60 

.40 

.20 

( 

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/ I 

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Gate house Gate house 

~====~c~on~d~ui~t=======~ 

~~L, I, R. R. 

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- ...... 

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·~ P.M. 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 \0 12 2 4 6 

+---AUG,S---:x---------·AUG.-4----------+ 

VELOCITY:(f) 96 FEET PER DAY ;(2) 6.9 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 53.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of the flow of underground water south of Wantagh Pond (station 13). Two velocities are shown, two different depths. The high velocity, 96 feet 

a day, is the highest yet determined. Seepage from the pond accounts fJr the high velocities, 96 

and 6.9 feet a day, south. Ammeter chart for thts station is shown in fig. 12. 

temperature of water in the pond varies more or less, especially the 

temperature of the surface layer. The temperature of the pond water 

on August 8, a cloudy day, was 72.5° F., and on July 30, a sunny day, 

it was 80° F. Tne temperature of water from the vrells of station 13 

was 65,8c ~"". on July 30, and from the wells of station 16 on August 

8 was 69.5° .F. These high temperatures at stations 13 and 16 show 

that a large portion of the moving ground water must come directly 

from the pond, and the rate of motion is so great that the ground 
SLICHTER.] LONG- ISLAND, NEW YORK. 79 

water ha~ not time to be reduced to the normal temperature of the 

ground. 

The velocity at station 17 was 10.15 feet a day in a direetion W) 0 west 

of south. The temperature. of the water was 61.5° F. The ground 

water at this point is probably not entirely free from the reepage 

water from the pond. The direetion of flow, the veloeity, r.nd the 

temperature of the water all indicate, however, that a considerable 

1.8 0 

1.60 

1.40 

1.20 

Cl)1.00 

Ul 

a: 

Ul 

0.. .80 

::2: 

c( 

.60 

WANTAGH POND 

/r\ 

( \ 

I 

f2 

1/ 

.40 /~ ) l/1 r-:-v 

.20 

0 

4 P.M. G 10 12 

1\ 

\ 

\ 

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............. t--

10 

VELOCITY: (1) 77 FEET PER DAY; (2) 11.6 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 54.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of flow of underground water at Wantagh Pond 

(station 16 X). This station is near stati-Jr. 1:3, and the curve shows two distinct velocities in different strata. Velocities, 77 <tad 11.6 feet"'' Jay, 8. 60° E. The stream jnst east of the station seems 

to deflect the direction of flow toward 1tself. 

part of the watPr i:-; the natural underflow, \vhich at this point is 

diverted toward the lowland occupied by the streams below the pond. 

There can be no doubt but that the proposed infiltration gallery will 

intercept a large amount of seepage water from the pond, which at 

the present time runs entirely to waste. The amount of seepage in 

the first 16 feet in depth is probably somewhat less than 3 second-feet 

per 1,000 feet of length of cross section, or about 2,000,000 gallons per 

twenty-four hours. 
80 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

At station 21, located just above \Vantagh Pond, the velocity at a 

depth of 1'7 feet was 21.3 feet a day in a direc.tion 6~f> east of south. 

This station is near the west bank of the main brook that feeds the 

· pond, and the greater portion of the ground-water at this point 

percolates into the bed of the stream. The true underflow at this 

point can be found bJT taking the flontherly component of this velocity, 

which g·ives 10.6 feet a day. The temperature of the gTound water at 

this point was 58° F. 

2.20 

2.00 

1.80 

1.60 

1.40 

C/) 

~ 1.20 

UJ 

Q. 

::IE 1.00 <( 

.80 

.60 

.40 

.20 

0 

WANTAGH POND . ~------------------------

=====~\\1 a:=-~-==-----

L./ R R. 

200' 

li!i''\ ~! 0 

,!111

11

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v 10 A.M. 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 

<;:-------AUG.-12--------')<C----- AUG.-13-------->-

VELOCITY 10.6 FEET PER DAY. 

Fw. 55.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of the fiow of underground water at Wantagh 

Pond (station 17). Velocity, 10.6 feet a day, 8. 30° W. 

The increase of underflow rate at the Wantagh Pond fr:om 10.6 feet a 

day above the pond to H6 and 77 feet a day b'jlow the pond, as compared with v-elocities above and below Agawam Pond, 2.6 and 5.3 feet 

a clay, respectively, is easily understood when the mf,terial constituting the bottom of the ponds is inspected. The material at Agawam 

is good, the soil being fine and compact, while at Wan tagh the bottom 

of the pond is very sandy, in sorne places havh1g a closer resemblance 

to a filter bed than to a puddled floor. 
SLICHTER.] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 81 

INFLUENCE OF PUMPING UPON THE RATE OF MOTION OF GROUND 

WATERS NEAR SOME OF THE BROOKLYN DRIVEN ·WELL STATIONS. 

Through the eourtesy of Mr. I. de V eromt an excellent opportunity 

was furnished the writer of making r;ome observations on the influence 

of pumping upon the normal rate of motion of ground water~ in the 

neighborhood of some of the Brooklyn driven-well stations. For this 

speeial purpose the pumping stations at Agawam and Wan tagh, whieh 

had be8n idle sinee Deeember, 1902, were started up for two days each 

in August, 1903. Agawam was operated continuously from 7 a. m., 

39 \ E?. l· Fifth telephone pole south of grist mill 

~ ~·~0 -~ 

2.40 

£\e trade 

2.20 I--"" 

2.00 I 

1/ 1.80 

1.60 I 

1.40 I 

u) 

~1.20 II u.J 

a.. 

~ 1.00 

.80 I 4 I //~Casing 

.60 I 30 

/ 

I / 

/ .40 

1/ / 

I r .20 r:l r -v ,.-

0 . 

M 2 4 . 6 8 10 12 2 

-<----·-AUG. 18-- --~·~· -~ 

VELOCITY 21.3 FEET PER DAY. 

FIG. 56.-Diagram showing velocity and direction of the flow of underground water (st-..tion 21). 

Velocity, 21.8 feet a day, 8. 50° E. 

August 19, to 7 a. m., August 20. At the Agawam station olwervations were made at station 5 by means of the recording instrument. 

Well A was charged at 4 p.m., August 19, or after nine hours of continuous pumping. After this length of time it was expected that the 

maximum rate of flow of ground water would be established, although, 

of course, the eone of depression near the wells would still be changing quite· rapidly. 

~tation 5 is 30 feet north of the intersection of the chief f'Iction 

mains communicating with the line of driven wells and 12 feet east of 

IRR 140-05--6 
82 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND W ATER8" !No.l40. 

the central diseharge main (see fig. 58). The depth of the test we~ls is 

22 feet, while the depth of the 30 wells of the Agawam station system 

varies from 30 to 105 feet. · 

The rate of pumping during the forty-eig·ht-hour test was very uniform, at an average rate of 2,250,000 gallons per twenty-four hours. 

The vacuum at the pump was maintained at 2± inehes, while that at 

the first well east of the engine-house was 23.2 inche:.:·. The charge 

of the centrifugal pump was dropped from ± p. m. to ±AO p, m. ~ 

H 

Sca"le e 

FIG. 57.-Map showing location of overflow stations, at which determinatiom of the rate of flow of 

underground water were made on Long Island. The Brooklyn driven-well pumping stations are 

located on the south side of the railroad and are named, from east to west, ]\tassapequa, Wantagh, 

Matowa, Merrick, and Agawam. 

August 19, during which time the vaeuum fell to 7 inches. This was 

the only interruption during the test. 

The velocity determined at station 5 during the test was 8 f8et a day 

in a direction S. 22° E. The normal velocitv at this station is 5.4: feet 

~clay, S. 8° W., so that the influence of the pumping was to increaf:e 

the velocity by 2.6 feet a day, or an inerease of about 50 per cent (fig. 

4±)~ The actual veloeity found and the percentage of increase ar~ both 

very moderate, and indicate that the pumping station is not making 

an unreasonable draft upon the ground-water supply at this point. 
SLICHTER.] LONG ISI,.AND, NEW YORK. 83 

The 30 wells of the Ag·awam supply station have screens each 10 feet 

long, or, altogether about 730 square feet of screen. The maximum 

velocity of the ground water as it enters these sereens must bo, 1,230 

feet a day, since the actual pnmpage was 2,250,000 gallons or 300,000 

cubie feet per twenty-four hours. The mean velocity in the area (10 

by 1,500 feet cross section) immediately drawn upon by the wdls was 

about 30 feet a day. The reduction of this rate to 2. 7 feet a day represents a ratio of reduction of 11, which could be taken care of by a 

depth of 110 feet in the water-bearing gravels, without going outside 

of the 1,500 foot east and west line of the driven wells. 

To put this in another way: the daily pumpage of 300,000 cubic feet 

of water could be supplied by the normal rate of motion of the ground 

N 

t 

FIG. 58.-Map showing location of stations 5 and 6 with reference to Agawam pumping st'ltion and 

East Meadow Brook Pond. The surface stream was gaged at the bridge marked A. Th~ normal 

direction of ground-water motion at station 5 was S. 8° W. During a heavy rain, and also when the 

pumps were drawing water from the lines of driven wells, the direction of flow changed t1 S. 220 E., 

as shown by the arrows drawn from station 5. -

water at this point (5.± -feet a day) through a cross section of 510,000 

square feet, or, say, 100 feet deep by 1 mile wide. To supply this 

amount of water, if removed from the ground on each of tho, three 

hundred and sixty-five days it~ a year would utilize 1 foot o~ rainfall on 12 square miles of catchment area. These amounts are not · 

exeessive. The rate of removal of ground water at the Agawam 

station Inust therefore be regarded as exceedingly moderate. · 

The observations at Wan tagh pumping station were made on August 

21 and 22. The pumping at this station began at 7 a. 111., August 21, 

and continued forty-eight hours at the uniform rate of 4,366,000 

gallons per twenty-four hours. The water at this station is drawn 
84 RATE OF MOVEMENT OJ!' UNDERGROUND WATERS. LNo. 140. 

frmn 48 driven wells, arranged on three lines of suction mains as l:!hown 

in fig. 59. The east and west expanse of the two chief lines of wells is 

about 1,500 feet. The wells of this station are of two different types, 

shallow wells of depth of about 24 feet and deeper yrells, extending 

below an impervious hed to depths of from 60 to .112 feet. These latter wells have an attesian head of 3 or 4 feet, and when the pumping 

plant is idle the water from the deep wells flows into the suction main 

and into the shallow wells, whence the water escapes into the sands and 

gravels of the upper zone of flow. An attempt was made on .June 24 

to measure the rate of motion of the ground water at station 2, situated 17 feet west of the chief discharge pipe and 300 feet north of the 

intersection of the main suction pipes from the driven wells, as shown 

in fig. 59. The attempted measurement was a failure, it not being 

FIG. 59.-Map showing location of stations 2, 13, 16, and 17 near Wantagh pumping station and Wantagh Pond. The arrows indicate the directfon of flow of ground water. The flow at station 2 

was observed while pumps were drawing water from the three lines of driven wells. 

known at that time that the discharge from the numero'lS artesian wells 

was entering the surface layers of gravels and hence interfering with 

the normal flow in these gravels. The gtound water at station 2 was, 

on account of this situation, either entirely stationary or moving slightly 

toward the north. On August 21 well A of station 2 was charged at 

6 p. m., or after eleven hours of continuous pumping from the driven 

wells. .The velocity of the g1~ound waters observed was at the rate of 

6 :feet a day in a direction 4fP east of seuth. As this f'tatiou is distant 

only 300 feet from the lines of driven wells, it is evident that the withdrawal of 4,366,000 gallons, or 582,000 cubic feet, per twenty-four 

hours has not an excessive influence on the normal rate of motion of 

the ground waters. The results at Wantagh compare very well with 
SLICHTER.] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK. 85 

the results at Agawam, and indieate that the driven-well plants have 

not exhausted the possibilities of ground-water developments. 

CONCLUSION. 

The very evident conclusion from ob~ervation:~f on Long Island is 

that large amounts of ground water can still be obtained along the 

south shore of the island, especially if deep wells of large diameter 

can be suceessfully bored. The writer has already ealled attertion to 

the possibility of eonstructing 12-inch wells of the California or 

"stovepipe" type in the unC'onsolidated m~terial which extends from 

the surface to considerable depths on Long Island. Such weHs, several hundred feet in depth, with perforations opposite the best waterbearing material; would utilize. a large part of the underflovr which 

now escapes to the sea. The praeticability and suecess of such wells 

in this locality seems very probable, but the only way to ar1+re at an 

enti.rely satisfactory conclusion is to actually construct a test vrell. , 
CHAPTER VII. 

THE SPECIFIC CAP A CITY OF WELLS. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

The amount of water discharged or obtained from r, tubular well is 

a quantity which is as rigidly dependent upon certain definite and 

measurable factors as the total horsepower of a steam engine is dependent upon the elements in its design and the pressure of steam furnished 

to the engine. Very few persons realize, however, the closeness and 

intimacy of the dependence of the yield of a well upon the various 

causes represented by the character of the'water-bearing material in 

which it is constructed and the size and shape of the well itself. In 

fa~t, the available published data containing the results of actual tests 

of the capacity of wells are usually incomplete in some important particular, so that no laws or general principles are discernible even where 

they exist. With every well, no matter what its size or method of 

construction, there can be associated a perfectly definite quantity which 

expresses the capacity of that well to furnish water. In order to add 

definiteness to well construction and well data, such a quantity should 

be applied to every well whose capacity is measured. It can conveniently be designated by the term "specific capacity." By "specific 

capacity" of a well is meant the amount of water furnished under a 

standard unit head, or the amount of water furnished under unit lower-

.ing of the stu·face of the water i.n the well by pumping. This number 

can be made definite by agreeing upon the unit of measure of quantity 

of water and on the unit in which the head is to be measured. If the 

unit of yield be the "' :::;eeond-foot, '' or cubic foot of water per second 

of time, and if the hydraulic head be measured in fet't, of water, then 

the specific capacity of any well is found by dividin~: the number of 

second-feet by the hydraulic head. For example, if an artesian well 

flows 2 second-feet, and if the static head in the well when the water 

is not permitted to flow is equivalent to a head of 2') feet of water, 

then the specific capacity of the well is 2 divided by 21, or 0.1 secondfoot. "r e describe the specific capacity by saying that the specific 

capacity of the well is 0.1 second-foot. Likewise, if we desire to speak 

of the specific capaeity of a common tubular well whieh is not artesian 

in character, we can proeeed in a similar way. For example, if the 

well yields 2 second-feet when the water in the well is lowered 20 

86 
SLICHTER.) SPEOIFIO OAP AOITY OF WELLS. 87 

feet below its normal position, the specific eapacity is found l1y dividing 2 second-feet by 20, giving a specific eapaeity of 0.1 second-foot. 

For the purpose of expressing the eapacity of wells, the second-foot 

will be found to ~e a large unit of eapacity, so that it will often be 

eonvenient to express the yield in gallons per minute, rather than in 

second-feet. One second-foot is equivalent to about 450 gallons per 

minute, so that the ~-;pe~ific capacity of the wells above 'givE,n might 

be stated as '" 45 gallons per minute.'' Another convenient unit of 

measure for the capacity of the well is the miner's inch, the c~.lifornia 

miner's inch being one-fiftieth of a second-foot, and hence cf a very 

convenient size for the measurement of well capacity. However, the 

different values of the miner's ineh prevalent in various sections of 

the count,ry make this unit of measure undesirable for general use. 

The importanee of accurate knowledge of the specific capacity of 

the weHs of a locality can not be overestimated. To the owner of a 

well it js v-ery important that jJe know whether or not his well is 

better or poorer than neighboring wells, and whether the difference 

is due to a diversity in pumping machinery or to a difference in the 

well itself. To one who eontemplates the eonstruetion of a "'ell it is 

of the first importanee that he know how much water he mary expect 

to obtain, and in what manner it ean best be obtained. In spite of 

striking examples of irregularity, it is usually true that the same 

water-bearing material is very uniform in a given loeality, and by 

properly designing a well one should be able to estimate in advance 

of construction the capacity of a well with a very small per cent of 

error. However~ tests on existing wells and all data concerning them 

will have to be obtained and recorded· with much greater accuracy and 

completeness than heretofore if this desirable result is to be realized. 

It does not count against the above statements concerning the ability 

to determine in advance the probable yield of a well~ to find that 

neighboring wells, similarly construeted, yield very different amounts 

of water, or that water c.an not be obtained a short distance from a 

good well. Such a diseovery always causes considerable comment, 

while the numerous cases in whieh ground water is found at very 

uniform depths and in nearly identical material call forth no comment 

whateyer. 

The a1~ount of .water yielded by a common open well or by a nonflowing tubular well is dependent first of all upon the degree of fineness 

of the material in the various strata from whieh the water is obtained. 

The size of the soil grains not only controls the rate at which water 

can be transmitted to the well under a given head, but it also determines 

the proportion of contained water whieh the soil will freely pt>.rt with. 

The fine-grained soils retain a considerable proportion of the water of 

saturation as capillary water even after free means of drainage are 

established, so that fine-grained material will not only deliver water 
88 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

slowly, hut will furnish only a small total amount. Some quicksand 

is so fine that the water can be pulled away from the fine grains with 

the greatest difficulty, while silt with a diameter of grain of about one 

one-thousandth of an inch (not at all an unusual size) w·ill part with its 

water very slowly even when it is placed on a piece of blotting paper. 

The above factor in the specific. eapacity of the well can be expressed 

by means of the transmission constant, k, of the material furnishing 

the water. Other things being equal, the yield of tl'o, well will vat·y 

direetly with the transmission constant. · 

Another eause effeeting the yield of the well is the thickness of the 

water-bearing stratmn. If the transmission constar ts of all waterbearing Htrata are the same, the amount of water a\'ailable is directly 

dependent upon the thickne:.;s of strata penetrated, provided, of eourse, 

that only such material is counted as is in eontaet with a suitable 

well screen or strainer. 

An important faetor in determinin~· the yield of a well is the cliameter of the well. By the diameter is meant the diameter of the well 

where it penetrates the water-bearing stratum. The diameter of the 

well is a factor which determines the rate at which the water must 

move in the water-bearing material as it enters the well. A well 

having a large easing will permit a given amount of water to enter 

under a low veloeity, and hence with little friction in the pores of the 

water-bearing medium. The dependenee of the yield upon the diameter of the well is not expressible in a very simple way. [n fine material, the dependence of the yield upon the diameter of the well is very 

much less than is eommonly supposed. Only in material that is very 

coarse is it usual that any great advantage is obtained by using casing 

as large ~s 16 to 24 inches in diameter. 

The friction of the water as it flows upward in the casing of a well, 

a factor which is often very large in the case of an artesian well, is 

usually small or negligible in common tubular wells from which the 

water is pumped with a suc.tion pipe much smaller than the diameter 

o£ the well itself. This statement must not be understood to imply 

that the amount of water discharged by the pump iR r,')t influenced by 

the size of the suction and discharge pipes. What is meant is that, 

with a given lowering of the water in the well the yield of water will 

not be dependent upon the friction in the casing to th€, upward-moving, 

water, while of eourse the amount of power applied to the pump 

will be greatly influenced by the size of the suction awl discharge pipe 

and upon the manner in which these pipes are installe1. 

Finally, the specific capacity, if the well be not too shallow, varies 

directly as the distanee the snrfaee of the water in the well is lowered 

by pumping. Thus, if the water in a well is lowered 2 feet below the 

natural level hy pumping from it at the rate of 20 gallons n minute, 

the same well may be expeeted to yield approximately 40 gallons a 
SLICHTER.) SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF WELLS. 89 

minute if the water is lowered 4 feet below the natural level. For 

shallow wells the yield will JlOt increase in this direc.t ratio, hut will 

be considerably less on account of the clecre.ase in percolating surface 

due to the lowering of the water plane. in the neighborhood of the well. 

Besidet~ the ad,Tantages just mentioned, tubular wells, owing to their 

greater depth, are nnwh more likely to strike a vein of coan_,~ material, a small stratum of which may be expected to furnish much more 

water than a considerable depth of fine material. This accounts for 

the well-known superiority of deep tubular wells over eommon dug 

wells. 

If a well be cased through the water-bearing medium, the c~aracter 

of the sereen or perforations in the easing will of eourse influenee 

the yield of the well. I£ a screen is clogged, or if the perforations 

are not ample, th!3 eapaeity of the well will be cut down he~ause of 

this imperfect casing. 

All of the factors named above influence the yield of a flowing artesian well, except that in place of the distance the water is lowered by 

pumping we must substitute the static head_at the point of discharge 

of the flowing water. By the static head is n1eant the pressure when 

the well is closed at the. point at whieh the flow is measu~·ed. This 

static head -is conveniently expressed in terms of feet of water. For 

exa1nple, instead of giving the static head in pounds per square inch 

we can state it in feet of water. The. flow of water from the porous 

medium into the well will vary direetly as the static head, but the total 

yield of the well will not vary in this simple way on account of the 

frictional resistance whieb the watee suffers in flowing thro•:tgh the 

casing and drill hole of the well. This last component of the specific 

capacity w bile usually small in a well that is pumped is oftell of the 

very first importance in the ease of a flowing well. To the fr~·~tion in 

the easing and discharge pipe should be added the influenee of n.Il turns 

and bends and reductions in size and the like. This factor is often a 

very large one in the determination of the amount of water yielded by 

an artesian well. The resistance due to friction inerease~ very greatly 

with a decrease in the size of pipe and also with an inereas~"~ in the 

length of the pipe, and is materially influenced by the curves and 

variations in size of the pipe and by the rivets and joints in the-- well 

easing or diseharge pipes. The friction in pipes does not vary direetly 

with the hydraulie head, but approximately as the square root of the 

head at which the flow takes place. 

As stated before, complete data eoncerning tubular wells r.re very 

difficult to obtain. Complete data concerning an artesian well should 

consist of the following: First, exaet-dimensions of all casing r.nd sizes 

of the bore hole, ineludiug~ of course, totnl depth; second, the statie 

head of the well measured at a point a known distance above the surface of the ground; third, an aceurate measurement of the amount of 
90 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. (No.HO. 

water yielded by the well when freely flowing under the measured 

static head; fourth, the thickness of the various wat8r-bearing strata 

furnishing water to the well. The data for common tubular wells 

sh<>;tlld include the following· facts: First, the diameter of the well casing; second, the depth to water; third, the depth of the well; fourth, 

the length of screen or perforations in the well; fifth, the character of 

the perforations~ sixth, the amount of water obtained from the well 

under continuous pumping; seventh, 

the amount that the water in the well 

is lowered below its normal level during such pumping. From these facts 

the specific capacity of the well can be 

computed and many important facts 

can be determined. Additional data 

of considerable importance would be 

the following: Eighth, the distance 

the water is raised by the pumps; 

ninth, the cost or exp:mse of pumping. 

Complete eHtimate of the specific 

capacity of a tubular well can be made 

if the following data can be obtained: 

First, the amount that the water in the 

well is lowered below the undisturbed 

water plane~ second, the rate at which 

the water rises in the well after pumping ceases; third, diameter of casing 

and of suction pipe. The determination of the rate at which the water 

rises in the well casing requires some 

special appliances, a stop watch being 

usually a necessity. Additional apparatus for this purpoc;:e has been construeted and is show"' in fig. HO. The 

'-._Wires to similar/ apparatus consists of a brass tube 1 

floats below • h . d" t t . . 

FIG. 60.-Apparatus for measuring the rate of lne In Iall1E' er eon Hlning SOlUe 

rise of water in wells. A number of floats, small floats placed at distances of 

as sho~n in .the figure, are placed a. f~ot about 1 foot apart. The apparatus 

apart In a l·mch brass tube. The nsmg 

water iL the well raises the several floats in is lowered into the well until its lower 

!~::.nd registers the time on an ammeter end reaches the level of water in the 

well when it is being pumped. When 

pumping eeases water in the well rises and raises in succession eaeh float 

from its seat, which in turn is indicated to the observer by the defleetion 

of a needle that is controlled by electric cireuit running to the several 

floats. By use of a stop watch the rate at whieh water rises in the 

well can be determined. The manner of using the apparatus. will be 

easily understood from the diagram~ 
SLICHTER.) SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF WELLS. 91 

The rate of rise of the water surface in the well after it has been 

depressed by pumping should furnish a very smooth and regular curve 

when plotted on cross-section paper. The law of this curve is such 

that·i:f at the end of a certain period of time (say fifteen minutes) the 

depression of the water surface in the well is half of the original 

amount of depression just before pumping ceased, then at tr"j end of 

twice that period of time (thirty 1ninutes) the depression will be onefourth of the original amount; at the end of thrice that period of time 

(forty-five 1ninutes) it will be one-eighth of the original amount, etc. 

Fonr curves of r~e of water in wel1s are given in fig. 61. Curves 3 

and 4 are from the same well, but during the rise shown by± a neighboring well 20 feet distant was tJeing prnnped. 

The theoretical law of rise of water in a well caR*also be e_-q>res.~ 

by a formula, as follows: 

17.25A 1 h 

t=--- og- c H 

In this formula A is the area in square feet of the cross section of 

the well casing, counting out the area of the pump rod, suction pipe, or 

other obstruction. H is the amount in feet that the surfac~~ of the 

water in the well was depressed below its natural le\rel jm't before 

pumping stopped; c ~s the specific capacity of the well-expressed in 

gallons per minute; h is the amount in feet of depression of the 

water surface l]elow the natural level at any time t (in minutes) after 

pumping ceased. By taking two corresponding values of hard t from 

the curve of rise of water surface, the specific capacity of the well (c) 

can easily be computed from the formula 

c = 17.25 *log ~gallons per minute. 

Examples of use of this formula will he given below (p. 93). The 

logarithm ind_icat~d by '"log'' is the common or Briggs logarithm. 

The following reports of tests on small wells used fol' irrigation 

illustrate the importance of accumte tests of this kind and indicate the 

sort of information that it is desirable to secure. The first te;;·t shows 

a well-constructed plant giving fair service. The second. plant shows 

a well-constructed plant, but indicates not only an inefficient _style of 

pump, but showed an expensive waste of gasoline through a hidden 

leak in the. feed pipe. 

TESTS. 

TEST I. ON WELL AND GASOLINE PUMPING PLANT OF D. H. LOGAN, GARDErr, KANS. 

This plant is located on the northeast corner of sec. 13, T. 24 S., 

R. 33 W., and is in the northwest corner of the city of Garden. The 

outfit consists of a 6-horsepower Fairbanks, Morse & Uo., horizontal 
92 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140 .. 

gasoline engh{e eomiected by a belt to a No.3 centrifugal pump. The 

well is constructed of a 20-inch galvanized-iron easing 32 feet long, 

perforated 10 feet up from the bottom, inside of which are two 4-inch 

feeders 28 feet long, perforated their entire length and extending 26 

feet below the bottom of the 20-inch casing. making a total depth of 38 

feet. The pump has been in operation since April, 1902, and the 

engine since April, 1903. The water was measured by the use of a 

fuJly contracted weir with a length of crest of 0. 66 feet. 

The engine was started at 9 o'clock, u.nd the weir was ready for 

water at about 10. 30. The water was turned on weir and the head 

read until it became constant at 1 p. m., then height was read every 

five minutes until 2.30 p. m. In order to cletermin~ the expense of 

pumping, all of the gasoline in the reservoir was used, then 1 gallon 

was poured in and the length of the i·un noted to be one hour and 

thirty-two minutes, or two-thirds gallon per hour. As the engine. is 

6 horsepower, this equals 0.111 gallon, or 0.445 quar~ of gasoline per 

horsepower hour. 

The average corrected head on the weir was found to be 0.440 feet. 

Using the weir formula 

. _ 2/3 /? b H3(2 q-c v..., g 

where b=.66, and c=.592, the discharge is found to be 

· q= 9.6045 sec<?nd-feet. 

272 gallons per minute. 

=16,320 gallons per hour. 

Feet. 

Average depth to water while pumping._ ... _ ..................... _ •... __ • _ 18. 6 

Elevation of well platform, 2,835.26 feet. 

Normal depth to water _ .. ___ . __ .. _ ... __ .. __ ....... _ ...... _ ............ ___ 11. 75 

Amount lowered by pumping .. _. _ ... _ .... _. _ ................ _ ... _.. 6. 85 

Distance water was raised above platform .. __ ....... _ .. _ .. __ .. ______ .. __ . _ _ 3. 5 

Total distance water was raised. ____ . ___ . __ ... _ . _ .. ______ . __ ... ___ . _ . _ .... _ 22. 1 

Cost of pumping was therefore 0. 9 cent per 1 ,000 gallon~, or 

0.0406 cent per 1,000 foot-gallons (1,000 gallons raised 1 foot). 

The engine ran at a rate of 350 revolutions per minute, exploding 

143 times per minute. The diameter of engine pulley is 16 inches 

and of pump pulley 10 inches. This gives a speed somewhat less than 

560 revolutions per minute to the nump. 

SEEPAGE AND EVAPORATION. 

The size of the pond was 40 by 60 feet, mostly covered with a green 

scum, which would decrease evaporation. As to seepage, the pond 

falls 8 inches in twelve hours at night. The pond bf'ng 2,400 square 

ft.et in area, the observed seepage represents a loss of 16.68 gallons 

per minute, which should be added to the capacity of pump and well, 

but not to the effective capacity for Mr. Logan. 
SLICHTER.] SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF WELLS. 93 

- There is a windmill 20 feet north of the well pumped by the engine, 

a 12-foot aermotor connected to a 10-inch pump of 12-inch stroke. 

After the weir measurements were eompleted the windmill was thi·own 

into gear. There was a hri~k wind from the south and the pump 

threw a good quantity of water, but no appreciable lowering of the 

water wa~-; detected in the well being tested 20 feet away. The rise of 

the water in the well was obtained twice. 

Below are the two sets of observations: 

!First trial; windmill not runnir~~ Second trial; windmill running. 

Minutes. Seconds. 

0 55 

1 05 

1 20 

1 37 

1 55 

2 8 

22 

33 

48 

Stopped 

pumping. 

18.60 

16.05 

14.55 

12.95 

12.50 

12.35 

12.35 

12.25 

12.15 

Minute8. Seconds. 

24 :30 

:35 

45 

48 

25 10 

-----·-- 26 

-.--.. -. 38 

--·--··· 48 

26 00 

23 

47 

58 

~7 15 

30 

Stopped 

pumping. 

--- ... -... ---... 

18.0 

16.5 

14.35 

13.10 

12.90 

12.55 

12.55 

12.45 

12.25 

12.25 

12.25 

12.25 

12.25 

The curves showing the rate of rise of water in the Logan well after 

pumping ceased are given by curves 3 and 4 in fig. 61. The curve 4 

is the one which was produeecl when the windmill was pumping frmn 

a well 20 feet from the one for which the curve is drawn. Th~ comparison of this curve with curve 3, which was produced wh-;n the 

neighboring well was not used, is very interesting, showing as it does 

a less rapid rise when the neighboring well was in use. To find the 

specific capacity for the Logan well from these curves we must substitute the values of the various constants in the formula 

c=17.25 ~ log. ~ gallons per minute. 

The value of A, the area of cross section of the well casing, is 2.17 

square feet, and of H, the amount the water is lowered by the pump, 

H. 85 feet. The amount of depression h of the water level behw the 
94 RATE OF MOVEMENT OE' UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

natural level at any time can then be selected from th~ curve and the 

specific capacity 1·eadily computed. If t be taken to be forty seconds, 

or two-thirds niinute, A will be found from the curve to equal 6.85-

5.5=1.35 feet, hence 

3 (6.85) 1 . c=17.25 X 2 X 2.17 X log 1.

35 ga Ions per mmrte. 

=39.5 gallons per minute. 

The yield of the well for the maximum depression, 6.85 feet, must 

then be 

6.85 X 39.5=270 gallons per minute. 

The curve of rise of water forms one of the best methods of determining the yield of a well. Such curves can readily be obtained. 

TIME IN SECONDS FOR LOGAN WELL 

10 20 so 40 50 60 70 eo 90 1 

--1-:": --- -- --- ------ ... ----

v ~-----

/ 5 

~ 

6, 

~"''b-.<::-

~ ------- /o¢0 

" - ------ ~--:?v ~~ -- -tie ;;,. ~----.;;ell 

~/S \1\a.\ 

'1\'l.el 

0 1b 'C'-0 ~- -\1\a.\ 

3 -:-..v '"~--se~ ~~ /fv ~ ,' v 

4.~ // 7/; v 2 

~/ I 

100 200 300 400 600 600 700 8~0 900 1000 

TIME IN SECONDS FOR RICHTER WELL 

FIG. 61. Curves showing the rate of rise of water in the Richter and Logan w~lls near Garden, Kans. 

Curve 1 (dotted), first trial of Richter well; curve 2 (solid), second trial of Richter well; curve 3 

(solid), first trial of Logan well; curve 4 (dotted), second t~ial of Logan well. 

"\\-r ell data should always include measurements· of the amount of 

lowering of the water surface by the pnmps, and it is only necessary 

to continue these measurements after the pumps h·we stopped to 

secure sufficient data to estimate the specific capacity and total yield 

of the well. This avoids the necessity of constructing a weir or other 

method of measuring the water discharged. The accuracy is sufficient 

for the purpose for which such data are used. 
8L[('HTER.] SPECIFIC CAP A CITY OF WELLS. 95 

TEST II. ON WELL AND GASOLINE PU~IPING PLANT OWNED BY MINNIE RICHTER. FINNEY 

COUNTY, KANS. 

This plant is located in the northwest corner of the SW. ! E'BC. 14:, 

T. 24: S., R. 33 W. The upper part of this well is cased with part of 

an old standpipe from the city of Garden. The casing is 10 feet in 

diameter and extends down 20 feet. In the bottom of this part of the 

well are placed four 8-inch galvanized-iron feeders, arranged symmetrically about the center. Each feeder is 25 feet long, perforated 

its entire length, and extends about 2t feet above the bottom of the 

large part of the well. 

The pump used operates on the principle of a screw propello,r of a 

steamship. It bores the water out and up a square wooden penstock 

or pump shaft. There are two of these propellers, mounted one above 

the other on a vertical iron shaft inside the penstock.. The top of the 

iron shaft carries the helt pulley and bas a shoulder bearing which 

takes the thrust of the pump. This pump (called the Menge) i-; made 

in New Orleans. The pump is run by a 10-horsepower Otto gasoline 

engine-, which runs at a speed of 300 revolutions per minute. The 

circumference of the drive pulley is 5.25. feet and of the driven pulley 

2.65 feet, making the pump run at 595 revolutiqns per minute. The 

screws are under water when the pump is not in operation. A small 

pond was constructed at the end of the discharge trough, and a fully 

contracted rectangular \veir of length of crest of 1. 2 feet was used to 

measure the discharge. The measurements for head were taken 6 feet 

away from the weir, and boards were interposed between the discharge trough and weir to cut down the velocity which might tend to 

give erroneous results. The average corrected head on the weir was 

0.371 feet. Using the weir formula 

q=d v2 g 11 H~, 

and, taking c from Meniman's tables as 0.60:3, 

q=0.876 second-feet, 

or using Francis formula 

=39-! gallons per minute, 

q=3.3:3 lb-0.2 H) H~, 

=3H gallons per minute. 

l1 sing a small Price acoustic water meter in the discharge h·ough, 

by measuring the velocity at difl'erent places, and also by integrating, 

the discharge was found to be 0. 76 second-feet=3±2 gallons per minute. By putting chips in the discharge trough and catching tl'~ time 

with a stop watch, the surface veloeity was found to be 1. 565 feet per 

second. This multiplied by 0.'8 gives an average velocity of 1.25 feet 

per second and a discharge of 0. 88± second-feet= 397 gallons per minute. 

An attempt was made to determine the amount of gasoline used. 

The reservoir was filled full and the engine run for one hour and thirtysix n1inutes, or 1.6 hours. All the gasoline we had, 9! quarts, did not 
96 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

then fill the tank. This was at noon, July 13. On the morning of July 

7, 9! quarts were required to completely fill the reservoir, a total of 

18-! quarts or 37! pints for the run of 1.6 hour:-; for a 10-horsepower 

engine. The makers claim that their engines use 1 pint per horsepower hour. This would require in this case 1H pints, or less than half 

of what was actually nleasurel\ if the engine developed its full horsepower. A leak in the tank or feed pipe is clearly indicated. This 

fact, while being of value to the owner of the plant, shows the record 

to be worthless as far as comparative cost of pumping is concerned. 

Two ob8ervations of the rising curve were obtained which agree 

very well. The lower part of the curve is not aecurate because the 

water in the penstock drops back into the well when pumping ceases. 

Feet. 

The elevation of the ground at well is ............................ _ ...... _ 2, 846. 0 

Average elevation of water in welL._ .. _ . ____ . __ . ____ .. __ .. _ .... ~. ___ .. _ ~ 2, 8:36. 6 

Average elevation of water in well when pumping_. __ ._._ .. __ ._ .. _ ... _ .. _ ~. 8:)1. f) 

Elevation of discharge from penstock ____ . _______ . ______ ._. __ . __ . ________ 2, 847.0 

Lift ___ . _. : __ . _ .. _____ . _____ . __ .. _____ . _ . ____ . _ . _____ . _____ . _ _ _ _ _ 15. 5 

Average ~mount water is lowered .. _: _________ . __________ .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5. 3 

Number of explosions of engine, 126.5 per minute. 

The curves of rise for this well were obtained on two different occasions, and are shown as eur\'es 1 and 2 in fig. 61. They agree very 

well. To find the specific capacity of the weH from the curve, we 

note the following values of the constants in the formula for specific 

capacity: 

c = 17.25 ~ log ~ gallons per minute. 

The area, A, of cross seetion of the well casing- is 76.79 square feet. 

The amount, H, that the watet; is lowered by tne pump iH 5.3 feet. 

The amount of depression, ll, of the water surface below the natural 

level at any time can be selected from the curve. From the curve, at 

the close of ten minutes, h equals ?>.3- ± = 1.3 foot. Hence the specific 

capacity, 

76.79 5.3 . c=17.25 X ----y() log 1.3 = 81 gallons per mmute. 

Multiplying- by 5.1, the head under which pumping took lJiace, the 

total yield of the well is 81 X 5.3 = 429.3 gallons a minute .. 

The above determination of the specific capaeity is inaccurate, since 

the first portion of the rising curve does not show the true rate of rise 

of water in the well. The penstock of the propeller pump holds 37.7 

cubic feet of water, which immediately returns to tl''3 well when the 

pump is stopped. This amount of water is sufficient itself to raise the 

le,Tel in the well by 0.465 foot. For this reason only that portion of 

the rising curve should be used which is uninfluence1 by the return-
"'LICHTER.) SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF WELLS. 97 

:ng water from the penstock. Thus, if we use that part of the curve 

from t=lOO seconds to t=600 seconds, we will eliminate the inaccurate 

':lortion. By this modification the data are changed to H=3. 75 feet; 

h.=l.30 feet; t= l minute. Computing the specific capacity on this 

basis we obtain c=73 gallon:::~ per minute. This multiplied by 5.3 

gives the total estimated yield 388 gallons per minute, which checks 

more nearly with the 394: gallons per mi~ute previously obtained. 

The area of the surface of the strainers and the bottom of the well 

is 266.5 square feet. The above specific capacity divided by 266 .. 5 

gives .341 gallon per minute as the specific capacity per square foot 

of percolating stl.rface. 

The engine ran at a speed of 300 revolutions per minute and exploded 

125 times per minute. This would indicate that it was working at 

about 83 per cent of its rated capacity. Assuming that such was the 

case, -'S.nd that it would then use 83 per cent of the fuel neces.-;'1.ry to 

run it at is full rated power (10 horsepower), we have 8. 3 pints as the · 

probable amount of gasoline used per hour by the engine during the 

test. This, at 20 cents per gallon, would make a cost of 21 cents per 

hour. This assumption makes the cost of water 0.8g cent per 1,000 

gallons, $2 .. 90 per acre-foot, and one-seventeenth cent per 1,000 footgallons. 

lRR 140-05-7 
CHAPTER VIII. 

THE CAJ~I"E'ORNIA OR "'STOVEPIPE" 1\IETHOD OF WELT..J 

CONSTRUCTION FOR WATER SUPPLY. 

1\lODK OF CONSTRUCTION. 

The peculiar conditions of water supply existing in southern California have led to the development of a special type of well, which the 

writer believes to be admirably adapted to conditio11s found in many 

places in the various parts of the United States. It is hoped that the 

following account will call the attention of those interested in recovering ground water in large quantities to the many points of excellence 

of the California type of well and method of well co'lstruction. 

The valleys of southern California are filled with deposits of mountain debrh;, gravels; sands, bowlders, clays, etc., to a depth of several 

hundred feet, into which a considerable part of the run-off of the 

mountains sink. The development of irrigation upon these valleys 

soon became so extensive that it was necessary to supplement more 

and more the perennial flow of the canyon streams by ground water 

drawn from wells in the gravels. This necessity Pas greatly accentuated by a series of dry years, so that ground waters became a most 

valuable sourc-e of auxiliary supply for irrigation in the important citrus 

areas in southern California. The type of well that came to the front 

and developed under these eircumstances is locally known as the 

"stovepipe" well. It seems to suit admirably the conditions prevailing in southern California. In developing water supply for irrigation the item of cost is of course much more strongly emphasized 

than in developments for municipal supply. The c

1 rillers of wells in 

California were confronted not only with a materia 1 which is almost 

everywhere full of bowlders and like kinds of mo•mtain debds, but 

also with a high cost of labor and of well casings. It w~s undoubtedly 

these difficulties that led to the very general adoption in Cal_ifornia of 

the sto,7 epi pe well. 

The wells are put clown in the gravel and bowlder mountain outwash, or other unconsolidated material, to any of the depths common 

in other localities. One string of casing~ in a favorable location, has 

been put down over 1,300 feet. The usual sizes of casings are 8, 10, 

12, 14 inches, and even larger. A common size is 12 inches. The 

well casing consists of: First, a riveted sheet steel ""starter" 15 to 

98 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. XI I 

A . TW ELVE-INCH STOV EPI PE START E R. 

B. TWO LENGTHS OF STOVEPIPE CASING. 
SLICHTER.] STOVEPIPE METHOD OF WELL CONSTRUCTION. 99 

25 feet long, made of two or three thicknesses of No. 10 she~t steel, 

wi~h a forged steel shoe at the lower end. Pl. XII, A, shows a 

starter 21 feet long, made of double No. 10 sheet steel, with a i- by 8-

by 12-incb steel shoe riveted on the bottom. In ground where large 

bowlders are encountered the starters are made heavier, the shoe is 

1 inch thick and 12 inches long, and three-ply instead of two-ply No. 10 

sheet steel body is used. · 

Above the starter, the rest of the well casing consists of two thicknesses of No. 12 sheet steel made into riveted lengths, each 2 feet long. 

One set of sections is made just enough smaller than the other so that 

one length will telescope snugly inside of the other. Each outside 

section overlaps the inside section 1 foot, so that a smooth surface 

results both outside and inside of the well when the casing is in place, 

and so that the break in the joints is always opposite the middle of-a 

2-foot length. It is these short, overlapping sections which ar'3 popularly known as ''" stovepiping.'~ A pile of this casing ready for use is 

shown in Pl. XIII, A, and two lengths are shown on a larger scale in 

Pl. XII, B. The sheets of steel can be taken to the field fiat and the 

riveting done during the process of well construction. 

The casing is sunk by large steam machinery of the usual oil-well 

type, but with certain very important modifications. The well rig 

shown in Pl. XIII has a derrick with mast 40 feet high. WhEn ready 

to move, the mast swings backward on hinge~ with·the top resting on 

upright at the rear end of the rig, as shown in fig. 63. Jackscrews 

are placed under the sills and the whole lllachine is _raised surciently 

to allow wheels to be placed on two axles bolted to the sills. The 

photograph reproduced in Pl. XIII also shows a 25-horsepow€,r boiler 

mounted on sep_arate trucks. The 10-inch sand pump and jars are 

shown just as they have been pulled out of a 12-inch welL 

In ordinary material the '"sand pump" or H sand bucket" is relied 

upon to loosen and remove the material fron1 the inside of th£ casing. 

The casing· itself is forced down, length by length, by two or more 

hydraulic. jacks, buried in the ground and anchored to two timbers 

14 inches square and 16 feet long, planked over and buried in 9 or 10 

feet of soil. These jacks press upon the upper sections of the stovepiping by means of a suitable head. In Pl. XIII, B, the devises of the 

pistons of the hydraulic. jacks can be seen hooked over the earr-t of the 

well cap. The jacks, whose devises appear in the cuts, have 8·inch 

piston and 4t-foot stroke, and a combined pull of about 120 tor~. The 

driller, who stands at the front of the rig, has complete control of the 

engine, hydraulic pump, and valves by which-pistons are moved up or 

down, and also of the lever which controls two clutches which cause 

tools to work up and down -or to he hoisted. The hydrauli~ pump 

is mounted upon the main frame of derrick, as shown in Pl. Ji.,..IV, B. 

The one shown is a Marsh pump with a steam cylinder of 8-incl1 
100 RATE 01!' MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. (No.Ho. 

diameter;·and water cylinder of 1~-inch diameter with 12-inch stroke. 

It is coupled to the jacks with extra strong !-inch hydraulic. pipe and 

fittings. Smaller rigs use a pump with 6-k-inch steam by 1i-inch water 

cylinders, 10-inch stroke, and coupled to jacks with t-inch pipe. A 

boiler pressure of 100 pounds puts nearly a limiting stress on the 

!-inch pipe and it sometimes breaks. 

The sand pumps used are ui1usually large and heavy. For 12-inch 

0 

work they will vary in length from 12 to 16 . 

feet, 10l inches in diameter, and will weigh, 

with lower half of jars, from 1,100 to 1,400 

pounds. 

After the well has been forced to the required depth, a cutting knift: is lowered into 

the well and vertical slits are cut in the 

casing where desired. A record of material 

e~ountered in digging the 'veil is kept, and 

the perforations are made opposite such 

water-bearing strata as may he most advantageously dt·awn upon. A well 500 feet 

deep may possess 400 feet or more of screen 

if circumstances justify it. 

Pl. XIV, A shows the perforator for slitting stovepipe casing. It is handled with a 

3-inch s~ndard pipe with !-inch standard 

pipe on the iuside. The per~orator is shown 

in cutting position with l·nife extended. 

In going down or in coming out of the well 

the weight of !-inch line holds point of knife 

up. When ready to '"stick" the !-inch line 

is raised. B.r raising slowl? on 2-inch line 

with hydraulic jacks, cuts r.re made threeeighths inch to three-fourth-; inch wide and 

9 6 to 12 inches long, according to the material 

.1-Lc-<,...,----....--~ at that particular depth. 

Fw. 6:!.-Roller type of perforatms · Fig. 62 shows another type of perforatfor slitting stovepipe wells .. This ing knifP. The revolving cutter punches perforator was used for cuttmg 60 -

feet of s<>reen in the wells shown five holes at each revolution of the wheel. 

in PI. .Arv. This style of perforator is called a '"rolling 

knite. '' By means of this tool 60 feet of perforations were cut in the 

well shown in Pl. XV . 

. A great many different kinds of perforator~' are in use in California; 

in fact, the perforator is a favorite hobby of local invent01·s. The 

difi'erent patterns in use seem to work well. Thos~ shown in the 

illustrations are very good. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. XIII 

A 

B 

CALIFORNIA W ELL RIG. 

A, Side view; B, Front view, showing clevises of hydraul ic jacks hooked over ears of well gap. 
SLICHTER.] STOVEPIPE METHOD OF WEI~L CONSTRUCTION. 101 

ADVANTAGES OF ""STOVEPIPE'' CONSTRUCTION. 

The advantages of this method of well eonstruction are quite obvious. 

For wells in unconsolidated material the California type is undoubtedly the best yet devised. It is believed that wells of this type would 

be highly successful in the unconsolidated deposits in other localities. 

The absence of bowlders and very coarse gravels in some depo~its may 

possibly make it more advantageous to use the hydraulic jet irstead of 

the ponderous sand bueket in soft material, but this is the only modification that these conditions seem to suggest. a · 

Among the special advantages in the stovepipe construction may 

be enumerated the following: 

-1. The absence of screw joints liable to break and give out. 

2. The flush outer surface of the casing without couplings to catch 

on bowlders or hang in clay. 

3. The elastic character of the casing, permitting it to adjust itself 

in direction and otherwise to dangerous stresses, to obstacles, etc. 

4. The absence of screen or perforation in any part of thP, casing 

when first put down, permitting the easy use of sand pump and the 

penetration of quicksand, etc., without loss of well. 

5. The cheapness of large-size casings because made of riveted sheet 

· steel. 

6. The advantage of short sections, permitting use of hydraulic jacks 

in forcing casing into the ground. 

'7. The ability to perforate the casing at any level at pleasure is a 

decided advantage over other construction. Deep wells with much 

screen may thus he heavily drawn upon with little loss of suctic>n head. 

8. The character of the perforations made by the cutting l·nife are 

the best possible for the delivery of water and avoidance of clogging. 

The large side of the perforation is inwar~d, so that the casirg is not 

likely to clog with silt and debris 

9. The large size of casing possible in this system permits a well to 

be put down in bowlder wash where a common well could not possibly 

be driven. 

10. The uniform pressure exerted by the hydraulic jacks is a great 

advantage in safety and in convenience and speed over any system 

that relies upon the driving of-the casing by a weight or ram. 

11. The cost of construction is kept at a minimum by the limited 

amount of labor required to man the rig as well as by the g'lod rate 

of progress possible in what would be considered in many places 

impossible material to drive in, and by the cheap form of casing. 

COST OJ<' CONSTRUCTION. 

An idea of the cost of construction of these wells can best be given 

by quoting actual prices on _some recent construction in California. 

a A 12-inch stovepipe well was sunk to a depth of 2,800 feet on the Lanoria Mesa, 7 mil's northeast 

of El Paso, Tex. The last 2,000 feet was drilled m dry clay by use of a powerful hydram '<'!Jet. 
102 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

According to contracts recently let near Los Angeles the cost of 

12-inch wells was 50 cents per foot for the first 100 feet and 25 cents 

additional per foot for each succeeding 50 feet, casing to be furnished 

free. This makes the cost of a 500-foot well $700 in adtfition to casing. 

The usual type of 12-gage, double, stovepipe casing is about $1.05 a 

foot, with $40 for 12-foot starter with three-fourths by 8-inch steel 

ring or shoe. The pay of a good driller is $5 a day, of helpers $2.50 

a day. The cost of drilling will run higher than that given above in 

localities where large and numerous bowlders are encountered. 

WELL RIGS. 

Pls. XIII and XIV, B, show a new rig of very excellent type owned 

by Mr. E. W. Riggle, Los Angeles, Cal. The drillers build their own 

\,_,/ BOILER IS ON A SEPARATE WAGON ·'-.__) 

:o:t :~ FIG. 63.-Plan and elevation of derrick for California well rig. 

rigs according to their own ideas, so that no two rigs ar~~ exactly alike--

that is, the drillers pick out the castings and working pads and mount 

them according to ideas that experience has taught th~m are the best 

for the wash formations in which they must work. A scale drawing 

of derrick is shown in fig. 63. 

In Pl. XV is shown another excellent California rig owned by 

Mr. tl. B. Proctor, of Compton, Los Angeles County. As it appears 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WA T ER- SU PPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. XIV 

A. PERFORATOR FOR SLITTING STOVEPIPE CASING. 

B. REAR VIEW OF CA LIFORNIA WELL RIG. 

Showing engine and hydraulic pump. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SU RVEY WATER -S UPPLY PAPER NO. 140 PL. XV 

CALIFORNIA W ELL RIG AFTER COM PLETING 12-INCH WELL FLOWING 5,250,000 

GALLONS PER TW EN TY- FOUR HOURS. 
sttc:tiTEa.] eToVEPlP:E ME'tllOD OF WELL CONSTRUCTION. 103 

in the cut it has just finished a 12-inch well which flows 404 miner\; 

inches, or about 5,250,000 gallons per twenty-four hours. T',is well 

is 848 feet deep and has about 60 feet of perforations. Mr. Proc~or 

used four hydraulic jacks in sinking this well, developing a pressure 

of 160 to 200 tons. 

YIELD OF WELLS. 

It is not very profitable to name individual wells of this t:Tpe and 

give their yield, since conditions vary so much from place to place. 

From the method of construction it must be _evident that thiE· type of 

well is designed to give the very maximum yield, as every waterbearing stratum can be drawn upon. The yield ftom a nrmber of 

wells in California of average depth of about 250 feet, pumped by centrifugal pumps, varied from about 25 to 150 miner's inches, or from 

300,000 to 2,000,000 gallons a day. These are actual measUI"'~d yields 

of water used for irrigation. 

Among the very best flowing wells in southern California are those 

near Long Beach. The Boughton well, the Bixby wells, and the wells 

of the Sea Side Water Company are 12-inch wells varying from 500 to 

700 feet in depth and flowing about 250 miner's inches each, or over 

3,000,000 gallons per twenty-four hours. The well shown in Pl. XV 

is located about 4 miles northeast of Long Beach and its flow is the 

greatest yet reported. 

Among the records of dspth are those of 1,360 feet for 10-inch well 

and 915 feet for 12-inch well. Mr. Proctor has bored a 14-inch well 

1nore than 704 feet in depth. 
CHAPTER IX. 

TESTS OF TYPICAL PUJ\IPING PLAJ'-TTS. 

In connection with the general di~cussion of movement of underground waters it has been thought that a few descript.ions of eharacteristic tests of pumping plants would be of interest and value. With 

this idea in view a number of typical plants, including several different 

cla..o;;se~, have been selected from the large number examined and 

descriptions of the tests prepared. 

The Felix Martinez pumping plant is run by electric power and 

gives a good chance to see what can be done with combination of 

centrifugal pump and electric motor in the recovery of water for irrigation. The pumping plant of .J. A. Smith is of special interest on 

account of a very low cost of power, due to the use of petroleum gas 

generuted from crude oil. The test of Roualfs pumping plant is of 

great interest on account of the use of steam engine with wood as fuel. 

The wood was obtained at a very low price per cord, yet the showing 

in the cost per. acre-foot will not compare with the plants that use 

gasoline engines with gasoline at 17 cents a gallon. The last pumping 

plant reported upon, that of the Horaco Ranch Company's well No.1, 

is of special interest on account of the alJ-at·ound exc0llence and efficiency of the plant. The table that is inclosed summarizes the results 

at all <;>f the plants and gives items of eost. 

TEST OF PUMPING PLANT OF FELIX MARTINEZ NEAR EL PASO, TEX. 

The pumping plant on the ranch of Mr. Felix 1\!Iartinez, of which a 

test was made, is located near the main county road erst of El Paso, 

about 3 miles from the court-house. The plant constsh; of a No. 5 

Byron Jackson horizontal-shaft centrifugal pump, run by a General 

Electric 10-horsepower direct-current motor, type C.~., class 4. The 

pump is located in a pit, and is connected to a 6-inch well. The well 

is 68 feet deep, measured from the surface of the ground, and has 10 

feet of perforated or slotted galvanized-iron strainer at the bottom. 

The gravels were reached at a depth of 56 feet, and consisted of fairly 

large gravel, containing a large quantity of fine sand. The pump is 

connected with the well by a 5-inch suction pipe and discharges through 

a vertical and horizontal 5-inch dischnrge pipe into a rectangular 

flume. The discharge was measured by integrating with a Price acous104 
SLICHTER.] TESTS OB' TYPICAL PUMPING PLANTS. 105 

tic current meter in the rectangular flume. The average depth of 

water at the cross section of flume where measurements were taken 

was 0.475 foot. The average width of flume was 0.992 foot, giving an 

area of 0.470 foot. The mean velocity o~ the water at the selected 

/0 H. P electriC motor 

___ Water.£!<'!.!!~!._ ____ _ 

EleY. ..].6-1-3. I~ on Au!!. 29. 1904 

I 

! 

I 

~-~1 I 

~'t- + --1--------

i I ! 

i l I. 

~~ -L i 

~ ~ I() 

I I 

I 

I 

I i I __ L_L_i 

I 

FIG. 64.-Conditions at pumping plant of Felix .Martinez near El Paso, Tex. 

·cross section was 1. 78 feet per second, giving total discharge of 0.838 

cubic foot per second, or 378 gallons a minute. 

The vacuum gage was attached to the goose neck of the certrifugal 

pump. The vacuum shown after a few minutes pnmpin.g was 18 
106 RATE OF MOVEMENT 01!' UNDERGROUND WAT~RE;. tNo.14o. 

inches, but it gradually fell to 24t inches at the close of the first half 

hour, where it remained constant during the next hour. The vacuum, 

when corrected for altitude, is equivalent to 22.5 inches of mercury, 

or 25.5 feet of water. 

The elevation of the water plane on August 29, 1904, wa~ 3,643.13 

feet above sea level. The elevation of tap of vacuumg::J,ge was 3,646.47 

feet. The elevation of top of discharge pipe was 3,659.90 feet. The 

total lift is, therefore, 38.93 feet, and the amount the water level in 

the well was lowered by pumping was 22.16 feet. From this the specific capacity of the well can be determined to be 17.5 gallons a minute. The area of the well strainer is 14.4 square feet, from which we 

conclude that the specific capacity for each square foot of well screen 

was 1.21 gallons a minutP. 

The amount of electric current used during the pumping was determined by means of a Westinghouse watt meter. The current used in 

one hour's test (average speed of motor, 1,485 revolutions a minute) 

was 4,950 watts. The speed of the pump was 1,028 revolutions a 

minute. The pulley dimensions are as follows: Pulley on motor, 7t 

inches diameter; driven pulley on countershaft, 24 inches; driving· 

pulley on countershaft, 14 inches; pulley on pump shaft, 6 inches. 

The horsepower actually used at the plant is the equivalent of 4,950 

watts. or 6.64 horsepower. The power represented by the discharge 

of 0.838 second-foot of water lifted 38.93 feet, is equivalent to 2,030 

foot-pounds per second, which is equal to 3. 7 effective horsepower. 

Comparing the applied horsepower, 6.64, with the effective horsepower, 3.7~ the total efficiency of the plant is found to be 55.5 per 

cent. The duty of the plant can be found by comparing 4,950 watts, 

the electrical energy consumed in one hour, with 655,2')0 foot-gallons, 

the work done by the pump in one hour. The re:mlting duty is 

132,400 foot-gallons of water per kilowatt hour of electric current .. 

At 5 cents per kilowatt per hour, the cost of power for raising the 

water at the ~Iartinez plant was one twenty-seventh of a cent for each 

1,000 gallons of water raised 1 foot, or $3.43 for each acre-foot of 

water recovered. The labor cost being very small in an electr-ically 

driven plant, the total cost per aere-foot, including depreciation, 

interest, labor, etc., did not exceed $5.75 pet~ acre-foot. 

TEST OF PUMPING PLANTS OF J. A. SMITH, NEAR EL PASO, TEX. 

The pumping plants of J. A. Smith are located 8 miles east of El 

Paso, Tex., near the right of way of the Southern P".cific Raih\)ad. 

There are two plants on the same ranch. At the first or older plant 

there are three wells arranged in a row, 40 feet apart. The pump pit 

'is over the middle well, which is an 8-inch well, 62 feet deep, measured 

from the top of the ground. Fine sand and quicksand were encountered in sinking thh; well until a depth of 50 feet was reached, where 
SLICHTER.] TESTS OJ!' TYPICAL PUMPING PLANTS. 107 

coarse gravel containing n1uch fine material was encountered. There 

was only 12 feet of this coarse gravel. Ten feet of slotted galvanizediron strainer with hit-and-miss slits was placed at th~ bottom of this 

well. The east well is 6 inches in diameter and 73 feet deep. The 

gravel at this point was found to be .22 feet deep. A 16-foo~ slotted 

strainer was used in this well. The west well is also a 6-inch well and 

is 61 feet deep. The gravel was found to he 11 feet deep, and a 10-

foot slotted strainer was used in the well. All of the strainu,rs have 

-lrinch by lt-inch slots, or perforations. The horizontal 8-inch suction pipe, which extends from the central well to the east and west 

wells, is 14 feet below the top of the ground. 

FIG. 65.-Conditions of pumping plant of J. A. Smith, near El Paso, Tex. 

The water is pumped by a No. 6 Fairbanks-Morse horizontal-shaft 

centrifugal pump, connected with rope drive to a 28-horsepower gasoline engine, with crude oil gas generator attached. The fact that the 

engine is run by producer gas generated from Texas crude petroleum 

renders this plant of especial interest. The fuel cost relative to the 

amount of water recovered is the lowest that the writer has recorded 

for a small plant. The crude oil gas generator has been in 0'1eration 

several months, running continuously day and night, except for a cleaning each week or two. When the generator is kept clean ther<~ is little 

trouble from carbon passing from the generator into the cylinder of 

the engine and cutting out the cylinder and packing. The phmt must 

be pronounced a decided success, as the further account to l"j given 
108 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND w·ATERS. (No. 140. 

will show. The speed of the engine was 159, and of the pump 544 

revolutions a minute. 

The discharge was measured by integrating with a Price acoustic 

current meter in a rectangular flume. The average depth of the water 

at the selected cross section was 0.53 foot, and the average width was 

1.87 feet, giving an effective cross section of 0.992 square foot. The 

average velocity of the water at this crot'ls section Vl'as found to be 

2.085 feet per second, giving a discharge of 2.075 ~econd-feet or 934 

gallons a minute. This measurement of diseharge was n~ade after 

three months of continuous pumping day and night. The elevation of 

the vacuum-gage tap was 3,631.06, and it was located 1. 917 feet above 

the top of horizontal suction pipe. The elevation of the, water plane 

on Septemb(jr 8, 1904, was 3,624.60, and the elevation of the middle of 

the 8-inch opening in the tee in the side of vertical discharge pipe, 

from which the water enters a horizontal wooden flume, was 3,645.05. 

The ,·acuum read 22 inches, or 20 inches of mercury when corrected 

for altitude, which is equivalent to 22.7 feet of water. The total lift 

is therefore 36.7 feet. The water is lowered in the wells 16.24 feet 

by pumping, which gives a specific capacity for the three wells of 57.4 

gallons a minute. The total area of surface of the strainers in all of 

the wells is 56.7 square feet, from which we can dP,duce a :-~pecific 

capacity of 1.01 gallons a minute for each square foot of :-~trainer. 

Several accurate tests of the amount of fuel consumed at this plant 

have been made. One test was made by the manufacturers of the 

gas generator, and, consequently, the consumption of crude oil appears 

at a minimum in this test. This test lu.sted seventy-four hours and 

fifteen minutes. The amount of crude oil consumed 'vas 241 gallons, 

or 3.24 gallons per hour. At 3 cents a gallon this makes the cost for 

oil $2.34 per day of. twenty-four hours. The cost for each 1,000 gallons of ·water recovered was therefore 1! mills, or ten fifty-sevepths 

of a cent. This is at the rate of 57 cents per acre-foot of wate1·. The 

lift being 37 feet, this makel'l the cost of 1,000 gallo~1s lifted 1 foot 

(1,000 "foot-gallons") one two hundred and tenth of tl'> cent. 

Another experimental test of the plant was made when the engine 

was in charge of the regular help employed on the r::J ncb. No effort 

was made to save oil or make a record, everything being managed 

exaetly as it was during several months of pumping for irrigation. 

The test was for forty and one-half hours~ extending over four consecutive days of about ten working hours each. The r.mount of crude 

oil used was 163.5 gallons, or 97 gallons pe1: twent.r-four hours, or 

4.03 gallons per hour. This represents, therefore, the actual rate at 

which oil was consumed during the irrigation seas01l. The cost is 

$2.90 per twenty-four hours, or 12 cents per hour. The cost of fuel 

for each 1,000 gallons~ of water delivered w.as ten forty-sixths of a cent, 
SLIGHTER.] TESTS OF TYPICAL PUMPING PLANTS. 

and the cost of 1,000 foot-gallons was one one hundred and SENentyfirst of a eent. 

The cost of the water at the same plant, when pumped with gasoline, 

was also determined. A .test of eleven hours' run with same engine, 

using gasoline instead of crude oil gas, consumed 40 gailons of gasoline, or :3.64 gallons per hour. At 14 cents a gallon, the hourly cost 

for gasoline was $0.51, which makes the cost of each 1,000 gallons of 

water pumped $0.0092. The cost per 1,000 foot-gallons was $0.000236, 

or one forty -second of a cent. 

The above estimates do not represent, of course, the total cost of 

pumping, as no items have been included to cover interest, depreciation, labor, etc. 

The 926 gallons a minute furnished by the above plant amounts to a 

little over 2 second-feet, or 4 acre-feet per twenty-four hours. The 

cost of fuel per acre-foot of water was, therefore, 73 cents when using 

crude oil, and $2.99 an acre-foot when using gasoline at 14 cents a 

gallon. 

TEST OJ<~ ROUALT'S PUMPING PLANT NEAR LAS CRUCES, N. M:'!iX. 

A test was made at the pumping plant of Theodore Roualt, located 

on a ranch nbout 3 miles northwest of Las Cruces, N. Mex. Water 

is obtained from a 10-inch well, 48 feet deep, containing 10 feet of 

9-i-inch slotted _galvanized-iron strainer. Water is recovered by a No. 

3 Van ",..ie vertical-shaft centrifugal pump, driven. by a 10-horsepower 

Nagle steam engine, on 18-horsepo'}'er horizontal wood-burning boiler. 

The engine-is directly he.lted to pump shaft by means of 30-inch driving and 12-inch driven pulley. The water is discharged through an 

8-inch vertical discharge pipe into a rectangular flume. 

The speed of ~ngine was 205 revolutions per minute, and that of the 

pump was 525. The steam pressure varied between 81 and 83 pounds. 

The distance from vacuum-gage tap to the water plane was 3.6.t feet. 

The distance of vacuum-gage tap to top of bottom plank of flume was 

7.96 feet, and from tap to top of water jet the fiistance was 8.66 feet. 

The vacuum gage read 24.25 inches~ which is equivalent, when corrected for altitude, to 22.25 inches of mercury, or 25.5 feet of water, 

making the total lift 34.16 feet. The diseharge was measured by 

integrating with a Price acoustic current meter in the rectr.ngular 

flume. The width of flume was 1.19 feet and the average depth. of 

water at the selected cross section was 0. 35 foot. giving a cross section 

of 0.417 square foot. 

The average velocity. of the water at the selected cross seetjon was 

1.867 feet per second, which gives a discharge of 0. 78 second-foot, or· 

351 gallons a minut~. From this we deduce the specific capr~ity of 

the well to be 16.3 gallons a minute. and the specific eapacity for each 

square foot of well strainer is 0.627 gallon a minute. 
110 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

The cost of fuel used for pumping can be readily estimated from 

careful tests by 1\'lr. Roualt. For one irrigation of a 70-acre field of 

tomatoes, twenty-eight days of twenty-four hours were requh·ed, and 

___ _ Wi!_"t:.!!._r:...;:zla!.2f!._ ____ _ 

FIG. 66.-Conditions at pumping plant of Theodore Roualt near Las Cruces, N. Mex. 

75 cords of cottonw~od were consumed by the engine, costing $2 per 

cord. During the twenty-eight days of twenty-four working hours 

each, 14,150,000 gallons, or ±3.5 acre-feet, of water were pumped. 
SL!CHTER.] TESTS O..h' TYPICAL PUMPING PLANTS. .111 

The total cost of wood being $120, the fuel cost per 1,000 g".Uons of 

water recovered was $1. 06, or $3.45 per acre-foot. The fuel cost per 

1,000 foot-gallons wa..., $0.00031, or ahout one thirty-s~cond of a cent. 

12 H.P.gaso/lne engine 

Elev . .3, 756.1 reet: ~- ---=-=----~-=--=-= ==~-=---

Eiei/ . ..3. 7$6.0 " 

FIG. 67.-Conditions at Horaco Ranch Company's well No.1, at Berino, N.Mex. 

TEST OF HORACO RANCH COMPANY'S WELL NO.1, BERINO, N. :MEX. 

Well· No. 1 of the Horaco Ranch Company, at Berino, N.Mex., is 

75 feet deep, constructed with 9-i-inch casing, with 18 feet of Mott 

strainer. Water is delivered through a 7-i-inch vertical discharge-
] 12 RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No. 140. 

pipe opening into a. horizontal wood~n flume. Water is recovered by 

a. No. 5 Byron Jackson horizontal-shaft centrifugal pump, driven by 

a 12-horsepower Weber gasoline engine. The engine was run at a 

speed of 238 r"evolutions a minute, the number of eYplosions being 

106 a minute. The speed of the pump was 815 revolutions a. minute, 

it being belted directly to the engine from a 24-incr driving and a 

7-inch driven pulley. 

The distance from vacuum-gage tap to the water phne on September 11, 1904, was 0.43 foot. The distance of vacuum-gage tap to top 

of ground was 7.1 feet, and from tap to the end of vertical discharge 

.pipe was 8. 95 feet. To this may be added 0. 762 foot~ the height of 

water jet above the end of discharge pipe, to obtain the total lift 

above the vacuum-gage tap. The 'racuum gage read 14.5, which, 

when corrected for altitude, is equivalent .. to 12.5 incres of mercury, 

or 14.18 feet of water. The total lift of the pump was~ therefore, 

23.~9 feet. 

The discharge was measured by integr~iting with a Price acou~;tic 

current meter in the rectangular flume. At the selected cross section 

the average dept~ of the water was 0.278 foot, and the average width 

was 1.42 feet, giving an area. of cross section of 0.395 square foot. 

The average velocity of the water at the selected cross section was 

4. 707 feet per second, from which we conclude that the discharge was 

1.86 second-feet, or 837 gallons a minute. 

The water level in the well was lowered 13.75 feet during pumping, 

and therefore the specific capacity of the well is 60.8 gallons a minute, 

or 1.69 gallons a minute for each square foot of well strainer. 

Although the amount of water recovered at well No. 1 is very 

materially greater than at well No. 3, the cost for fuel is substantially 

the same. The amount of gasoline consumed is slightly less than ~.2 

gallons an hour, which at 17 cents a gallon makes the hourly cost 20 

cents. The amount of water recovered being 837 gP.llons a minute, 

or 50,220 gallons an hour, the fuel cost for each 1,000 g·allons of water 

was $0.004, or $1.30 per acre-foot of water recoverE.d. The lift at 

well No. 1 heing 23.89 feet, the cost of fuel for each 1,000 foot-gallons 

was $0.000167, or one-sixtieth of a cent. 

SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS IN THE ~ALLEY 

OF THE RIO GRANDE IN LOWER PART OF NEW MEXICO AND WESTERN END OF TEXAS. 

The accompanying table shows the results of tests of a number of 

pumping plants used for irrigation, and situated in th~ valley of the 

Rio Grande in the lower part of New Mexico and the western end of 

Texas.. Most of the entries on the table explain therrselves. Under 

the heading "'Location'' is given the nearest post-office to the ranch 

on which the pumping plants are located. The first three pumping 
SLICHTER.) TESTS OF TYPICAL PUMPING PLANTS. 113 

plants, those of Felix Martinez, W. N. French, and E. J. H11dlock, 

are loeated about 8 miles east of El Paso, Tex. The plants of J. A. 

Smith and rT. S. Porcher are located in the valley of the Rio Grande 

about 8 miles east ·of El Paso, Tex. The pumping plants of .Parker, 

Boyer, Burke, Carrera, Hager, Hines, Roualt, Totten, and the Agriculttwal Coll.ege are located in the valley of the Rio Grande in the 

neighborhood of Las Cruces, N. Mex. The pumping plants of the 

Horaco Ranch Company are located near the post-office of Berino, 

N. Mex., which is situated 24 miles north of El Paso and 17 miles 

south of Las Cruces. 

The fuel used in most of these pumping plants iR gasoline, which 

term as here used includes the '~distillate" manufactured from Texas 

crude oil, which is extensively used for fuel purposes. Its calorh value 

is somewhat less than that of the gasoline used in the Eastern States. 

DETERMINATION OF VACUUM. 

In all of the pumping plants exeept the one of E. J. Hadlock water 

was recovered by means of cei1trifugal pumps, which in ne~wly all 

cases were directly coupled to the top of the well casingR. In order 

to· determine the suction of the pumps, it was necessary to drill a hole 

in the goose neck of the centrifugal pumps and insert the vacuum 

gage. The measurements to determine the distance the pumps were 

required to lift the water were made from this vacuum-gage tap as 

datum in all cases. In eolumn 6 is given the distance the pump is 

required to lift the water above the vacuum-gage tap. In column 7 

the vacuum reading is given in feet of water. Therefore the total 

lift of the pump can be found in each case by adding tl·o, cor-

. responding numbers in columns 6 and 7. In column 8 is given the 

distance that the natural level of the water in the well is lowered during 

pumping. If the vacuum gage had been placed at the exact level of 

the undisturbed ground water, the readings in column 8 wcnld be 

identical with those in column 7. The numbers in column 8 2 re less 

than those in column 7, because in all cases the vacuum gag~ Atood 

some distance above the natural level of the water in the well. 

SPECIFIC CAPACITY. 

The numbers in column 11 express the readiness with which the 

well furnishes water to the pump. The numbers in each case were 

found by dividing the numbers in column 10 by the corresronding 

numbers in column 8. These numbers therefore express the amount. 

of water the well would furnish if the water level in the well was 

lowered but 1 foot. They constitute what is know!l as the "specific 

capacity" of the well, and are large in case of a good well and nnall in 

ease of a poor well. (See Chapter VII.) 

In column 12 there are given the same magnitudes as are expressed 

in column 11, reduced in each case to 1 square foot of well strainer. 

IRR 140-05-8 
Results of tests of pt~mping plants in the valley of the Rio Grande in New Me:rico and 'l'exas. !---" 

!---" 

1. '· I 3. 4. I '· 6. 7. s. 9. I 10. 

~ 

11. 

Horse- ri Lift Vacuum Amount Yield 

Name of plant. Location. [power. Fuel used. oY hi~ above in feet of water is Total lift. I g9:llons Specific ~ I · vacuum. water. lowered. I mmute. capacity. > 

1-- - --~-- ~-~-- ------~-- >-3 

t>:j 

F'"· F'"· Fffl. Gal. min. 

Felix Martinez ___ ....... El Paso, Tex __ . _ ............ _ . 10 Electricity __ . -I 0. 05 16. 77 25. 50 22. 16 38. 93 378 17.50 0 

l'%j 

W. N.French ................ do················------- 8 Gasoline ...... ! .14 12.65 18.0.5 13.35 30.70 t 269 20.20 ~ 

19.80 0 E. J. Hadlock ... ___ .......... do .......... _. _ .. _ .. _ .. _. 5~ ..... do . . . . . . . . 14 5. 20 22.60 13.03 27. 80 I 258 <1 

J. A. Smith No. 1 ...... T .... do ....................... 28 Crude oil ..... . 03 14.00 22. 70 16.24 36.70 938 57.40 ~ 

Is: 

J. A. Smith No.2 ....... ..... do ........................ 22 Gasoline ...... .14 15.45 26. 10 21.00 -!1.4.5 1, 32.5 63.20 ~ 

z 

J. S. Porcher ............ ..... do ........................ 15 ..... do ....... .14 12.80 23.07 20.59 35.87 658 32.00 >-3 

F. C. Barker ............ Las Crtwes, N.Mex ............. 5 ..... rlo ....... .17 20.18 25.40 22.48 4.5. 58 131 5.83 0 

l'%j 

E. M. Boyer ............ ..... do . _ ......... _. _ ... __ ... _. 12 ..... do ....... .17 17.60 22. 70 19.76 40.30 658 33.30 c::1 

F. Burke ............... Mesilla, N.Mex ................ 21 ..... do ....... .17 14.85 2.5. 60 22.85 40.45 725 31.75 z 

0 

J. C. Carrera ............ Mesilla Park, N.Mex ........... 8 ..... do ....... . 17 12.65 14.20 8.48 26.85 648 74.60 ~ 

~ 

W. N. Hager ............ ..... do ........................ 12 . .... do ....... . 17 17. 17 17.60 15.20 34. 77 32.5 22.30 Q 

~ 

A. L. Hines ............. Mesilla,· N. Mex ................ 8 ..... do ....... .17 19.05 17.00 14.08 36. 0.5 271 19.20 0 

r:: 

T. Roualt. .............. Las Cruces, N. Mex ............. 10 ·wood ........ 2.00 8.66 25.50 23.86 34 .. 16 351 16.00 z 

464 I 

0 G. H. Totten ............ ! Mesilla, N.Mex ................ 28 Gasoline ...... .17 16.95 26.40 22.50 43.35 20.60 

Agricultural College ..... Mesilla Park, N.Mex ........... 20 ·wood ...... _. 2.2n 17. 10 12.4n 11. H7 29.nf. 1, ooo I 88.00 ~ 

> 

Horaco Ranch Company Berino, N. Mex ................ 12 Gasoline ...... . 17 9. 71 14. 18 13. 75 23.89 837 60.80 H 

t>:j No. 1. ~ 

Horaco Ranch Company 

No.2. ..... do ....... . : ..... .......... 12 . .... do ....... . 17 10.36 'fl 

24.90 23.64 35.26 Hll ' 8.10 

Horaco Ranch Company I· .... do .................... -- .. 12 . .... do ....... . 17 11.56 20.80 18.55 32.36 750 40.40 z 

? No.3. >-

..... 

? 
-------- ----- ---~ - ---- Cll 

r 

1. 2. 12. 13. 14. 15. lti. li. 18. 19. ti 

Fuel co•t I Total eoot 

~ Specific >-l 

Interest and Fuel cost t<j 

Name of plant. Location. I capacity per Cost of deprecia- Labor and Fuel cost 1,000 foot-: per acre- per acre- 1:>;1 

square foot plant. other cost. per hour. .:... strainer. tio'n. gallons. foot. foot. 

______ , ____ ---! ---

Gal. min. Pe1·how·. Per hour. Cent~. 

Felix Martinez. __ ...... _ El Paso, Tex. _ . _ . __ ..... _ ...... 1. 21 $1,200 $0. 108 $0.050 $0.243 1 

:J7 $3.43 $5.75. ~ 

'V. N. French_ . _ . ____ ... ..... do------------------------ 1. 37 800 . 072 . 120 .112 _ _1_ 2.26 6.13 ~ 

!± 00 

~ E. J. Hadlock ........ _ .. ..... do ....... __ ............... . 792 800 .072 .140 . 074 1 1.58 6.02 00 "58 

J. A. SmithNo.1 ....... . .... do . _ ............. ___ ...... 1. 01 3,000 . 270 .150 .0975 1 . 70 2.96 0 T7T ~ 

J. A. Smith No.2 ....... ..... do ........................ 1. 37 2,200 .198 .150 . 35 1 1. 43 2. 79 \J:f t-3 

J. S. Porcher ............ ..... do .. :. ..................... 1. 28 1,500 .135 .150 . 21 1 1. 73 4. 10 1-1 67 ~ F. C. Barker ............ Las Cruces, N.Mex .......... _ .. . 337 1,200 .108 .120 . 09 1 3.73 13.20 :ru c 

E. M. Boyer ............ ..... do ... : ............. ~---··· .108 . 150 .163 _L 1. 34 3.47 I> 1. 969 1,200 \!8 t::"i 

1:". Burke ............... Mesilla, N.Mex .......... ______ .·734 2,100 .189 .150 . 34 1 

y,-:y 2.52 5.17 "'d 

c:: J. C. Carrera ..... __ ..... Me~::illa Park, N. Mex. ____ . _____ 3.530 900 . 081 .120 . 177 1 1)g 1. 48 3. 16 ~ 

W. N. Hager ____ ........ ..... do .......... _ .. _ .......... . 760 1,200 .108 .150 . 31 l 5.14 9.57 "'d 

~ 2:! z 

A. L. Hines ............. Mesilla, N.Mex ................ 1. 790 800 . 072 ,120 1 . 255 1 

23 5.10 8.95 ~ 

T. Ronalt ............... LasCruces, N.Mex ............. . 627 1,200 .108 .180 . 223 1 3.47 7.91 "'d 32 t::"i 

G. H. Totten ............ 

1 

Metlilla, N.Mex ................ . 760 2,500 . 225 .150 . 37 1 4.34 7.91 I> 33 z Agricultural College..... 1\,fe~illa Park, N. Mex. __ ........ 2.780 2,000 .180 . 200 . 52 1 3{ 2.83 .4. 88 ~ 

rp Horaco Ranch Company Bermo, N. Mex ........ __ .... _. 1. 690 992 . 090 o 090 I .16 1 1. 04 2.21 75 

No. 1. 

Horaco Ranch Company 1----·do ------------------------1 . 178 1 992 I .o9o 1 .o9o 1 . 204 1 5. 80 I 10.90 211 

No.2. 

Horaco Ranch Company 1-----do ---------- ·---------····1 . 8921 9921 .o9o I .o9o I .16 

I 

1 

89 1. 16 I 2.46 

No.3. ~ 

~ 

~ 
116- RATE OF MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.HO. 

The numbers in this column~ therefore, express the amount of water 

in gallons per minute furnished by 1 square foot cf well strainer 

under a head of 1 foot of water. They are a numerics.l expression of 

the degree of coarseness of the material in which the vrell is placed. 

COST AND OPERATING EXPENSES. 

In column 13 are given the costs of the various p1ants expressed 

in round numbers. These are in most cases an estimate at the rate of 

$100 per horsepower for the total cost of engine, pump, and wells. 

In a few special cases the cost is at a higher rate than the above. In 

estimating the expense of operating the various plants, the depreciation in the total value of the plant has been taken at 10 per cent, and 

the rate of interest at 8 per cent. It is difficult to mr,ke an accurate 

estimate of the amount of cost that should be charged up to the water 

recovered by an irrigation plant~ on account of the presence of several 

unknown factors. If the plants were in operation eyery day in the 

year it would be relatively easy to make an accurate estimate of these 

factors in the operating expense. As it is, the plants r.re in operation 

for a longer or shorter period, depending upon circunstances, which 

vary from year to year. Most of the plants are used merely as an 

auxiliary to the supply of ditch water. In making the estimate of the 

charge for interest and depreciation it has been assumec1

_ that the plants 

are in operation for two thousand hours each season. This corresponds to a continuous twenty-four hours' dl:_tily use for three months, 

or two hundred days of ten hours each, and probabl_y represents a 

fair average of the actual conditions. 

In column 15 there is given a charge for labor and other expenses, 

including oil, batteries, and such other incidental expenses as are not 

properly included under the head of depreciation. The operation of 

th~ gasoline plant:-3 can easily be put in charge of unsk~Ued labor, and 

for the smaller plants full time is not required of such labor. 

FUEL COST. 

That part of the operating expenses which is·properly chargeable to 

fuel cost can be accurately determined. Column16 expresses the cost 

for fuel per hour at the various plants. Column 18 expresses the cost 

per aere-foot of water recovered. In column 17 there is given the 

cost of fuel for lifting 1,000 gallons of water througl' a distance of 

1 foot. For the purpose of comparison the results are expressed in 

fractional parts of ~ cent. 

In column 5 is ghren the price of fuel. The price of ga..~oline is given 

in cents per gal1on in barrel lots. The price of electrbity is given in 

cents per kilowatt hour. Cost of wood at the ranch of T. Roualt is 

the cost of cottonwood per cord. The price of wood at the Agricultural College of $2.25 per cord is the rate for small Tornillo wood, 

which h~s a higher caloric value than the cottonwood used by Roualt. 
SLICHTER.) TESTS OF TYPICAL PUMPING PLANTS. 117 

COMMENTS ON THE RIO GRANDE PU.MPING PLANTS. 

The pumping plants of Martinez, French, Hadlock, Smith, and 

Porcher are all located 1n the bottom lands of the Rio Grande from 3 

to 8 miles east of El Paso, Tex. From column 12 of the tab14,) it will 

be seen that the specific-capacities of these wells per square foot of 

well strainer are nearly the same at the plants of Martinez, French, 

Smith No.2, and Porcher, varying only between 1.21 gallons a minute 

at Martinez's well to 1. 37 at French'l:l well. These numbers, it should 

be remembered, give the amount of water furnished by eac_\1 square 

foot of well strainer for 1 foot head of water. The numbers express, 

therefore, the degree of coarseness of the material in which the 

strainer is placed, provided, of course, that the well strainers themselves offer little or no resistance to the admission of water to the 

welL The specific capacity per square foot of strainer at tl'o, Smith 

plant No. 1 and the Hadlock plant is much smaller than the others. 

In the case of the Hadlock well there is no doubt but that this result 

is due to the fact that three of the Iladlock wells draw from surface 

water above a clay which overlies the sand and gravel ~rom which the 

fourth well and the neighboring wells of Martinez and French draw 

their supply. In addition to this the, strainers on these three wells of 

Hadlock consist of nothing but common pipe with drilled round 

holes. This poor form of strainer· is sufficient in itself to cut down 

very materially the specific capacity of the wells. 

The low specific capacity at Smith,s plant No. 1 is probably due 

chiefly to a local deposit of fine-sized water-bearing sand. There is 

no covering layer of clay over the water-bearing sands and gravels at 

the location of these wells. The sands contain so little coarse material 

that fine sand is constantly being drawn into the wells by the pumps. 

This dra:ft on the sand deposit at the east of tfie three wells at Smith's 

plant No. 1 is such that several wagon loads of gravel hr;ve been 

hauled from time to time and placed in the pit of the east well to 

replace the saud removed by the pumps. 

The tests of the nine wells in the Rio Grande Valley rA~r Las 

Cruces, N. Mex., form an interesting study. If we arran,5e them 

in order of their specific capacities per square foot of well strainer 

the list is as follows: 

Specific capacity, per square foot of stra·iner, of nine 'wells in Rio Grande Yalley near L.as 

Oruces, N. Me.r. 

Name of well. 

Carrera .. __ . _ .. __ . __ . __ .. _ 

Agricultriral college. ___ ._ .. 

Boyer . __ . __________ . __ .. -I 

Hines. _______ . ____________ , 

Burke ___ I . _________ .. ____ -~ 

Gals. per min. 

3.580 

2.320 

I. 969 

I. 790 

. 934 

Name of well. 

Hager ______ . _____ . ______ . 

Totten ___________ .. _. ___ _ 

Roualt ____ . __ .. _ . __ . _ . __ _ 

Barker _____ . _ . ___ . ______ . 

I 

Gr.ls. per min. 

0.760 

. 760 

.627 

. 337 
118 RATE Olf MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. [No.140. 

The first three wells are located near the eastern ecge of the river 

channel, and the high specific capacity of the wells is undoubtedly due 

to coarse mountain debris which has been deposited alongthe eroded 

edge of the mesa. The high specific capacity at Hinc•s's plant seems 

to be exceptional to the general lower average prevniling in the intermediate district lying between the border of the mesa anr:l the river channel, as is represented by the plants of Hager, Totten, Burke, n.nd Barker. 

The low specific capacity of the Barker well is due in part to its small 

diameter, and it is to be classed, therefore, with the Burke, Totten, 

and Hager wells rather than with the Roualt well. This last well is 

close to the river ehannel. Its low specific capaeity is an indication of 

the progressive fineness of the deposits as we approacl' the river from 

the mesa. 

It should be considered that the specific eapacities of the wells first 

named in above list are exceptionally high rather thau that the others 

in the list are exceptionally low. Even the speeific eapacity of the 

Roualt well, of over one-third of a gallon a minute per Rquare foot of 

well strainer, would he eonsidered high in many parts of the country'. 

The specifie capacity of the three wells on the Horaeo ranch, near 

Berino, N. lVIex., presents an interesting study. These plants are 

located but a few hundred feet apart and are identicd in all respects_ 

except in the depth of the wells. The wells are 9-§- inches in diameter, 

and each has 18 linear feet of well strainer at the bottom, formed by 

drilling 1!-ineh holes in the 9~-inch casing and wrapping the casing with 

No.8 galvanized-iron wire, leaving one-eighth inch spac~'~ between. The 

enormous di:fferenQe in the specific eapacities of these wells is entirely 

due to the fact that No. 1 is 75 feet deep, No. 2 is 53 feet deep, and 

No. 3 is 62 feet deep. The small expense necessary to sink well No.2 

from a depth of 53 feet to a depth of 75 feet will change the cost of 

the water recovered from $10.90 per acre-foot to $2.21 per acre-foot. 

The group of pumping plants near Las Cruces are for the most part 

very recently constructed, and changes will undoubteclly be made in 

many of the plants, based upon the experience of the present irrigation 

season. The wells at the Agriculttnal College were th~ first ones construeted in tl:tis part of the valley, and an excellent report of tests on 

these wells by Professors Vernon and Lester was issued in April, 1903. 

'rhe very high specific capacity of the college wells hr.f; had its influenee upon the construction of the other plants. With a few exceptions, 

we may say that the pumping plants in the Mesilla Valley have engines 

and pumps entirely too large for the wells, or, as may be preferably 

stated, the wells are too small for the pumps and engines. By comparing the high lifts reeorded in column 9 of the table with the amount 

of lowering of the water in the wells, which is recorded in column 8, 

it will be seen that the lift of many of the plants can be considerably 

decreased by increasing the amount of strainer surface in the wells., 
SLICHTER.] TESTS OF TYPICAl ... PUMPING PLANTS. 119 

In most cases this will mean the construction of additional wells, as 

the strainer surface can not he otherwise sufficiently increased. The 

necessity of _keeping the lift of the pump down to a minimum is greatly 

emphasized in irrigation plants, and large strainer surface is the first 

requisite. 

The efficiency of the smaller plants can also be increased by the conl'!truction of storage reservoirs or ponds for the aceumulation of water 

before it is used for irrigation. In this way the duty of the w~,ter can 

be considerably increased. Barker,s plant is the only one having such 

reservoirs. For plants that yield over a second-foot of water the reservoir is undoubtedly of little additional value. 

The determination of the i'!peeds of the centrifugal pump~· at the 

various plants showed that in many cases the speed had not been properly adjusted. In all cases the speeds were too high. This was 

undoubtedly due to the fact that the vacuum had never been determined, so that the total lift of the pump was unknown. 

INDEX. 

Page. 

Agawam Pond, Long Island, influence of, 

on underflow ................... 72-75 

Agawam pumping station, Long Island, influence of, on underflow ....... 81-83 

Ammeter, recording, character of.......... 26 

charts of, plate showing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

plate showing.......................... 26 

Artesian well, California, view of.......... 102 

Artesian wells, specific capacity of ......... • 86,89 

Berino, N. Mex., pumping plants at, figure 

showing .. :..................... 111 

pumping plants at, test of. ....... 111-112,118 

Brooklyn, N.Y., pumping stations o:L..... 65 

pumping stations of, ground water at .. 65-69 

ground water at, influence of pumping on ........................ 81-85 

influence of rainfall on ........ 69-72 

influence of seepage on . . . . . . . . 72-80 

underflow at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-67 

Buckets for charging wells, plate showing. 18 

California, southern, ground water conditions in ............... :. . . . . . . . . 98 

wells in, yield of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 

California stovepipe method of well construction. See Wells, construction of. 

Casing, well, perforator for, figures showing. 100 

view of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !}8 

Commutator clock, description of.......... 26 

plate showing ....................... -~. 20 

Coupling, hydraulic, figure showing....... 17 

El Paso, Tex., pumping plants near, figure 

showing ...................... 105, 107 

pumping plants near, test of .......... 10-!-109 

Electrical method of determining underflow, accuracy of ............... 49 

Electrode, plate showing................... 18 

Electrolytes, character of ............. 20-21, 24-25 

Flow, relative, definition of ........... .'.... 13 

Formalin, effect of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 

Friction in wells, influence of...... . . . . . . . . 88 

Garden, Kans., testwellsat,figureshowing. 10 

underflow at, measurements of, ampere 

curves of, figure showing....... 27 

well and plant at, specific capacity of.. 91-94 

Gravel. See Sand and gravel. 

Horaco Ranch Co., pumping plant of, figure 

showing........................ 111 

pumping plant of, test of. ............ 111-112 

Inertia, absence of, in ground water ....... 70-71 

Kansas, Finney Co., well and plant in, specific capacity of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-97 

Page. 

l"as Cruces, N. Mex., pumping plants at, 

figure showing................. 110 

pumping plants at, test of .... 109-111,118-119 

Logan, D. H., well and plant of, specific 

capacity of ..................... 91-94 

Long Beach, Cal., artesian well at, view of. 102 

Long !~;~land, N.Y., underflow on ........... 65-R5 

underflow on, influence of pumping on. 81-85 

influence of rainfall on .• -..... --- .. 69-72 

influence of seepage on . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-81 

measurements of, ampere curres of, 

figures showing . . . . . . . . . . 24, 68, 70-81 

underflow stations on, maps showing .. 82-84 

Martinez, Felix,. pumping_ plant of, figure 

showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 

pum~Jing plant of, test of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-106 

Meter, underflow, direct-reading type of, 

descr~ption of ................... 19-25 

direet-reading type of, plate showing.. 20 

recording type of, description of ....... 25-28 

types of, description of .............. 16, 19-28 

use of, figure showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

Mohave River, Cal., narrows of, cro!'s section at.......................... 57 

narrows of, driving test wells at, view 

of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 58 

map of.............................. 56 

underflow measurements at ........ 55-63 

ampere eurves of, figures showing ........................... 58-62 

underflow station at, plan of . . . . . . . 57 

view of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

water of, quality of. .................... 63-64 

temperature of..................... 64 

New Mexico, pumping plants in, fgures 

showing ...................... 110,111 

pumping plants in, tests of ........... 109-119 

Pond seepage, influence of, on ground water 

on Long Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-81 

Proctor, J. B., well rig of................... 102 

Pumping plants, tests of. ........... 91-97, 104-119 

Rainfall, influence of, on underflow on Long 

Island .......................... 69-72 

Reservoir seepage, influence of, on g~ound 

water on Long Island . . . . . . . . . . 72-81 

Richter, Minnie, well and plant of, specific 

capacity of.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-97 

Riggle, E. W., well rig of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 

Rio Grande, pumping"plants on, costs at... 116 

pumping plants on, specific capacities 

of ............................. 113-119 

teflts of ............................ 112-119 

121 
122 INDEX. 

Pag'>. 

Rio Hondo, Cal., underflow measurements 

of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50--54 

underflow measurements of, ampere 

curves of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 

record of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

Roualt, Theodore, pumping plant of, figure 

showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 

pumping plant of, test of ............. 109-111 

Sal ammoniac, use of.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

San Gabriel River, CaL, underflow measurements of. ....................... 50-54 

underflow measurements of, ampere 

curves of, figure showing ....... 22, 54 

record of............................ 21 

Sand and gravel, flow through, speed of, 

accuracy of electrical method 

of determination of. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

particles of, size of, influence of. 10-11, 15, 87--88 

transmiseion capacity of. ............... 10-15 

factors influencing .............. 10, 87--88 

laboratory experiments on ......... 29-49 

tran!lmission constants of. .............. 10-15 

diagram of.......................... 14 

table of ............................. 12, 15 

Smith, J. A., pumping plant of, figure showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 

pumping plant of, test of. ............ 106-109 

Specific capacity of wells ................... 86-97 

definition of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-87 

estimation 6f........................... 90 

factors influencing ..................... 87-~9 

Stovepipe method of well construction. 

See Wells, construction of. 

Tank, horizontal, experiments on flow 

in ...................................... 29-41 

experiments on flow in, figures showing ............................. 33-40 

figure showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

Tank, vertical, experiments on flow in ..... 41-48 

experiments on flow in, figures showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-47 

figures showin~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 43 

Temperature, effect of, on flow through 

sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

0 

Page. 

Test wells, arrangement of. ......•....... _ .. 16-19 

arrangement of, figure showing........ 18 

eharging of, apparatus fm, plate showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

driving of, apparatus for, plate showing ............................. 18,58 

Texas, pumping plants in, figures showing ....... ' .................... 105, 107 

pumping plants in, tests of ... 104-109, 112-119 

Underflow, electrical metl •Jd of determining accuracy of . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. 49 

velocity of, variation o:", figure illustrating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

Wantagh Pond, Long Island, influence of, 

· on underflow..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-80 

underflow station at, ll'ltp showing.... 84 

Wantagh pumping station, Long Island, influence of, on underflow ....... 83-85 

Water-bearing stratum, influenee of, on 

yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 

Well, artesian, view of..................... 102 

Well rig, jetting, description of............ 17 

plate showing.......................... 26 

Well rigs, California, types of. ............ 102-103 

views of .........•••.................. 100,102 

Wells, casing of. See Casing. 

construction of, California, stovepipe 

method of ..................... 98-103 

advantages of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 

cost of ............................ 101-102 

method of ......................... 98-100 

starter for, view of ........ ~......... 98 

diameter of, importanc·~ of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 

interference of ......................... 71-72 

specific capacity of. &-: Specific capacity of wells. 

water in, rate of rise of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

rate of rise of, curves of, figure showing ........................... 94 

measurement of, apparatus for, 

figure showing·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 

wiring of, methods of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-20, 26 

Wells, test. See Test wells. 

Wiring of wells, methods o~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-20, 26 
PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

[Water-Supply Paper No. 140.] 

The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual 

Reports, ( 2) Monographs, ( 3) Professional Papers, ( 4) Bulletins, ( 5) Mineral 

Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topogmphic Atlas of 

United States-folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of the United 

States-folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists nn,y be had 

on application. 

Most of the above publications may be obtained or consulted in the following ways: 

1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey1 from whom they 

may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application. 

2. A certain number are allotted to every member of Congress, from whom they 

may be obtained, free of charge, on application. 

3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, 

D. C., from whom they may be had at prices slightly above cost. 

4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the princioal public 

libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, wl;lere they mr,y be consulted by those interested. 

The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of 

subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified into 

the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, E1ystematic 

geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage; 

K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investigations; 

N, "\Vater power; 0, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress repcrts. This 

paper is the forty-third in Series 0, the complete list of which follows (P?=Professional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS=Water-Supply Paper): 

SERIES 0, UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

WS 4. A reconnaissance in southPastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pls. 

WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. 65 pp., 12 pls. 

WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 pls. 

WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N.H. Darton. 189$. 56 pp., 21 pls. 

WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pis. 

WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett. 1899. f4 pp. 

WS 30. Water resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 7 pls. 

WS 31. Lower llfichigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pls. 

WS 34. Geology and water resources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. 1900. 

34 pp., 19 pls. 

WS 53. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by I. C. Rlissell. 1901. 86 

pp., 10 pis. 

WS 54. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, pt. II, by I. C. Russell. 1901. 

87-141 pp. 

WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County, Wash., by G. 0. fmith. 1901. 

68 pp., 7 pls. 

WS 57. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. I, by N.H. Darton. 1912. 60 pp. 

WS 59. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 

95 pp., 11 pls. 

WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. II, by J. B. Lippincott. 

1902. 96-140 pp. 

WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. II, by N.H. Darton. 1f"2. 67 pp. 

WS · 67. The motions of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pis. 
II ADVERTISEMENT. 

B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russell. lj)0'2. 192 

pp., 25 pls. 

WS 77. Water resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by W. Lindgren. 1903. 62 pp., 4 pls. 

WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basins in southwestern Idaho and SO'ltheastern Oregon, by 

I. C. Russell. 1903. b3 pp., 2 pls. 

PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred 

and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pls. 

WS 90. Geology and water resources of a part of the lower James River Valley, South Dakota, by J. E. 

Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pls. 

WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris, with dis<:ussions of their uses 

for water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pls. 

WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 19M. 522 pp. 

WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 5 pls. 

WS 110. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States,l904; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 

1904. 211 pp., 5 pls. 

PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N.H. Darton. 1904. 

433 pp., 72 pls. 

WS 111. Preliminary report on underground waters of Washington, by Henry Landes. 1904. 85 pp., 

1 pl. 

WS 112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los AngeleR River, by Rorrer Hamlin. 1904. 55 

pp., 7 pis. 

WS 114. Underground waters of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1904. 285 

pp., 18 pis. 

WS 118. Geology and water resources of east-central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905. 96 pp., 

4 pls. 

B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. Russell. 

1905. 138 pp., 24 pis. 

WS 120. Bibliographic review and index of papers relating to underground w2.ters published by the 

United States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller. 1905. 128 pp. 

WS 122. Relation of the la\v to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. 1905. 55 pp. 

WS 123. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto New Mexico, by C. R. 

Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pls. • 

WS 136. Underground waters of the Salt River Valley, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 193 pp., 24 pis. 

B 264. Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, an'! A. C. Veatch. 1905. 

106 pp. 

PP 44. Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Ver.tch and others. 1905. 

WS 137. Development of underground waters in the eastern coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 140 pp., 7 pls. 

WS 138. Development of underground waters in the central eoastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 162 pp., 5 pls. 

WS 139. Development of underground waters in the western coastal plain re:~don of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 105 pp., 7 ph:. -

W.S 140. Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground water, by C. S. Slichter. 1905. 

122 pp., 15 pls. 

The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Ark2.nsas Valley in eastern 

Colorado, by G. K. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Preliminary report on artesian waters of a 

portion of the Dakotas, by N.H. Darton, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Wate:-- resources of Illinois, 

by Frank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank 

Leverett, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and irrigation in eastern 

South Dakota, by N. H. Darton, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock watert~ of Ohio, by Edward 

Orton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic coastal plain region, 

by N.H. Darton, Bulletin No. 138. 

Correspondence should be addressed to 

THE DIRECTOR, 

OcToBER, 1905. 

uNITED STATES GEOLOG'TCAL SURVEY, 

w .ASHINGTON, D. c. 
LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS. 

[Mount each slip upon a separate card, placing the subject at the top of the 

second slip. The name of the series should not be repeated on the series 

card, but the additional numbers should be added, as received, to tho. first 

.entry.] 

Stichter, Charles S[umner] 1864-

... Field measurements of the rate of 1novement of 

· underground waters, by Charles S. Slichter. Washing- ~ <!! = ton, Gov't print. off., 1905. 

122, iii p. illus., XV pl., diagrs. 23cm. (U. S. Geological snrvey. 

Water-supply and irrigation paper no. 140) 

Subject series: 0, Underground waters, 43. 

1. Water, Underground. 

Stichter, Charles S [ umner] 1864-

... Field measurements of the rate of n1ovement of 

i underground waters, by Charles S. Slichter. Washing-

:; . 

"' ton, Gov't print. off., 1905. 

oS 

j 

~ 

122, iii p. illus., XV pl., diagrs. 23cm. (U. S. Geological survey. 

Water-supply and irrigation paper no. 140) 

Subject series: 0, Underground waters, 43. 

1. Water, Underground. 

. u.s. Geological survey . 

Water-supply and irrigation papers. 

Slichter, C. S. Field n1easurements of the 

rate of movement of underground waters. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 

see also 

u.s. Geological survey. 

III 

-