Revegetating Landfills and Waste 

Containment Areas Fact Sheet 

This Fact Sheet 

Discusses the Following: 

• It is possible to plant on 

landfill surfaces 

• Native plants are recommended 

when revegetating sites 

• Technical factors to consider when 

revegetating 

• References and additional 

resources 

Keys to Success when 

Revegetating Landfill 

Surfaces: 

• Ensure proper planning, 

design, and funding 

• Provide adequate soil quality 

and depth 

• Determine appropriate target 

habitat and native plant 

selection 

• Allow for appropriate 

planting and establishment 

• Conduct routine monitoring 

and management 

Introduction 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office 

of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation 

(OSRTI) is developing a series of fact sheets on ecological 

restoration and revegetation of contaminated sites. 

Former landfills, abandoned dumps, mines, and other 

contaminated sites throughout the U.S. - once thought 

to be of limited or no value - are being reclaimed for a 

variety of productive uses. These new uses include 

revegetation of land where plants and animals can once 

again flourish. For example, as of 2005, thousands of 

acres of land on Brownfields, Superfund, and Resource 

Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) sites have been 

assessed or cleaned up and revegetated. In particular, 

more than 50 Superfund sites have been cleaned up 

and returned to ecological use. Aesthetic and final land 

use considerations are becoming more common during 

cover design. Some increasingly common end uses 

include parks, hiking trails, wildlife habitat, sports fields, 

and golf courses. This fact sheet provides information 

on revegetation of landfill surfaces for EPA site managers, 

consultants, and others interested in the revegetation of 

landfill surfaces. 

Contaminated material may be left on the property in 

containment systems designed to protect people and 

the environment from exposure and prevent 

contaminant migration. In deciding how to support 

the revegetation of these sites, however, there are 

questions about whether it is appropriate to plant on 

the landfill surface. Grasses are typically used to 

help stabilize the landfill surface and prevent runoff, 

but shrubs and trees are selected less frequently 

because of concerns that the root systems could 

damage the surface. Based on the location of the 

containment area, site-specific approaches should be 

used and a general approach has been discussed in 

this fact sheet. Former landfills, abandoned dumps, 

mines, and other waste containment areas will be 

referred to as landfill surfaces throughout the fact sheet. 

1 
Is it Possible to Plant 

on Landfill Surfaces? 

Yes, it is possible to plant trees, shrubs, 

and other types of vegetation on the 

containment system at many sites without 

affecting its integrity and protectiveness. 

In fact, many sites have been 

revegetated with a variety of 

plants on a containment system. 

a result (Robinson and Handel 1995). The 

key factors that affect the feasibility of 

planting on a containment system include 

the characteristics of the landfill surface 

(such as soil depth and soil quality), the 

desired plant habitat, and the physical 

setting of the site (for example, topography 

and climate). 

For example, grains, wildflowers, and other carefully 

selected flora were planted at 

the Army Creek Landfill in 

Delaware to create a meadow 

to attract migrator y birds 

( http://www.epa.gov/ 

superfund/programs/recycle/ 

success/casestud/armycsi.htm). 

The primary concern in planting 

on landfill surfaces is ensuring 

the integrity of the containment system, 

particularly the potential for roots to 

penetrate and physically damage the cap, 

thereby creating entry points for water, or 

to open fissures in the protective barrier 

by excessive moisture reduction. However, 

ongoing research and a growing body of 

experience indicate that, if it is properly 

designed and implemented, the integrity 

of the landfill surface can be maintained 

while it supports a variety of plants. Root 

growth depends on the characteristics of 

the soil, and the presence of a clay liner 

or geomembrane influences its growth. 

Research at the Brookfield Sanitary Landfill 

in New York showed that roots, including 

taproots, grow laterally once they reach 

the clay cap. No significant damage to 

the clay cap was obser ved as 

Why Use Native Plants? 

• Native plants provide a beautiful, 

hardy, low maintenance, and drought 

resistant landscape 

• Native plants can develop into a selfsustaining ecosystem, eliminating the 

need for fertilizers, pesticides, and water 

Can Native Plants be 

Used on a Landfill 

Surface? 

Although a variety of plant species can be 

used on a landfill surface, native plants are 

recommended when possible. While each 

project is site-specific, plants are typically 

selected based on the design of the landfill 

surface, the role of the vegetative cover, 

the depth of plant roots, irrigation and 

drainage requirements, geographic and 

atmospheric conditions, long-term 

maintenance requirements, and costs to 

acquire and install materials and plants. 

A single species of grass has commonly 

been planted as a monoculture to control 

erosion of landfill surfaces, but the species 

For more information on the design of landfill caps, please visit the following Web sites: 

• http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/pubs/600r02099/600R02099.pdf 

• http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/landfill/techman/subpartf.txt 

2

3 

For more information on plant types, please visit the following Web site: 

http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/Closure/Revegetate/. 

To identify the type of general land use in your area, please visit the following 

Web site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/land/cover_use.html. 

For examples of natural habitat restoration on landfills, please see page 63 of the 

following Web site: http://www.epa.gov/tio/tsp/download/dctechnical.pdf. 

may or may not be indigenous to the 

surrounding habitat and are more 

vulnerable to disturbance (Harper 1987). 

However, planting native species that have 

been selected over thousands of years in 

that area are best adapted to disturbances 

and climate change (Waugh 1994). 

Species diversity helps reduce disease 

dispersal or blights and encourages wider 

biological diversity in the restored habitat, 

making it more like a natural ecosystem, in 

turn reducing long-term operation and 

maintenance (O&M) and promoting a selfsustaining ecosystem (Handel et al 1994). 

Even sites that currently support monocultures 

can be converted to diverse native plant 

communities through careful planning and 

monitoring. The site can be prepared for 

native seeding or planting by prescribed 

burning, using herbicide, or removing a thin 

layer of soil along with the monoculture 

vegetation. Native plants can even be 

seeded through existing cover with a no-till 

drill; periodic burning would also be 

beneficial in controlling the monoculture 

vegetation. For example, the Christian 

County Landfill was converted from a sparse 

monoculture with eroding areas to a thriving 

native prairie (http://www.epa.state.il.us/ 

environmental-progress/v25/n1/ 

abandoned-landfill.html). 

A major consideration when selecting plants 

for a site is Executive Order (EO) 13148, 

which promotes use of native species on 

revegetated sites. EPA defines native plants 

as plants that have evolved over thousands of 

years in a specific region and that have 

Native Plants – Ecological Values 

• Native plants do not require fertilizers 

• Native plants do not require pesticides 

• Native plants require less water 

(no watering once established) 

than turf grass (lawns) 

• Native plants provide shelter and food 

for wildlife 

• Native plants are critical to a diverse 

number of pollinators 

• Native plants reduce air pollution 

• Native plants provide biodiversity and 

stewardship of our natural heritage 

• Native plants save money 

• Native plants can offer economic values 

(medicinal, herbals, landscaping 

and food) 

adapted to the geography, hydrology, and 

climate (see http://www.epa.gov/ 

greenacres/). Native plants found in the 

surrounding natural areas will have the most 

chance of success, require the least 

maintenance, and are the most cost-effective 

in the long term. Ideally, revegetation of a 

site will create natural conditions that 

encourage re-population by native animal 
The species that are appropriate for local 

habitat conditions can be selected with support 

from EPA's regional Biological Technical 

Assistance Groups, EPA's Environmental 

Response Team (http://www.ert.org), the 

Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(NRCS) (http://www.nrcs.usda.gov), and 

local native plant societies, such as the 

following: http://michbotclub.org/links/ 

native_plant_society.htm. 

What Types of Plants 

Can be Used on a 

Landfill Surface? 

Each project has site-specific considerations, 

and the plant types listed below are not 

applicable to every site. 

Native Plants - Ecosystem Integrity 

• Native plants support a complex web of 

life, and provide a critical component to 

ensure balance in our ecosystems 

• Only native plants can provide long-term 

sustainability of the landscape 

Yet: 

• more than 200 plants have become 

extinct since the early 1800's 

• nearly 5,000 native plants 

are "at risk" 

• one in ten plants face extinction 

species and that are consistent with the 

surrounding land. Furthermore, using nonnative plants located close to native plant 

environments could displace the native plants; 

therefore, it is important to check the invasive 

nature of the proposed plants (EO 13112). 

Plant succession may occur; for example, the 

original species planted may not survive due 

to predation or drought. However, local 

wildlife, such as birds, may aid in the 

dispersion of appropriate plant species and 

in the overall revegetation of the site (Robinson 

and Handel 1993). 

Landfills in arid environments pose additional 

challenges because soil must be stabilized with 

sparse vegetation. A variety of options are 

available, however, to increase the likelihood 

of successful restoration in these areas, 

including adding compost blankets or other 

organic amendments to the soil to increase 

water-holding capacity and fertility, shaping 

the ground to collect and retain water, and 

using locally collected seeds of native species. 

•	 Grasses and Wildflowers are 

generally herbaceous and are limited to 

prairie-like habitats or appearances, with 

wildflowers providing a broad selection 

of plant heights, root depths, and aesthetic 

choices. Considerations when selecting 

these plants include the seeding cycle and 

whether they require re-seeding, as well 

as life span, resistance to invasive species, 

and root depth. 

•	 Shrubs are woody perennials that range 

from several inches to several feet high. 

Considerations in selecting shrubs include 

their size when fully grown (and the 

resulting potential to obstruct gas vents, 

wells, or cap maintenance), root depths, 

irrigation requirements, and competition 

with other desired plants (such as saplings). 

•	 Trees are the longest-lived plant group 

and can have the greatest influence on 

overall design of the vegetation. 

Considerations for selecting trees include 

root depths, size, irrigation requirements, 

competition with other vegetation, 

and debris. 

4

What are the Key 

Considerations When 

Planting on Landfill 

Surfaces? 

Each project is site-specific and depends on 

a variety of factors based on its individual 

requirements,including its location. 

There are eight distinct Level I eco-regions 

in the U.S., including Eastern Temperate 

Forests, Great Plains, and North American 

Deserts (http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ 

ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level%20I). 

Specific approaches for planting on landfill 

surfaces should be based on the particular 

eco-region. Information on planting in arid 

areas such as California can be found at 

http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/ 

closure/revegetate/. However, in general, 

the final cover (erosion or vegetative layer) 

should provide adequate soil depth to 

support the desired plant habitat to properly 

implement the revegetation of a site and help 

ensure survival. In addition, soil conditions 

and topographic features may be created 

that closely duplicate the surrounding soil 

types and geography. A revegetated site 

should duplicate the local native plant profile 

in terms of species selected and distribution 

of these species across the site. General 

factors to consider include: 

•	 Soil and Root Depth. Soil and root 

depth are key determinants for whether 

and how a landfill surface can be 

revegetated. In general, the high density, 

low permeability, and poor aeration of 

the landfill surface provide an effective 

The following link provides additional 

information on tree planting and soil depth 

at the Fresh Kills Landfill in New York: 

http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200511/tr2.asp 

the slow upward diffusion of landfill 

gases, which lowers the oxygen potential 

of the soil and can be toxic to plants 

(Flower et al 1981; Robinson and Handel 

1995). Nonetheless, sufficient soil depth 

(18 to 24 inches optimum) is 

recommended to support the habitat 

selected. Several approaches can be 

taken in considering trees and shrubs with 

substantial root systems, such as building 

up berms or hillocks as areas for large 

vegetation. Simply providing a thicker 

erosion layer, even in small areas on the 

landfill, will improve the options for 

"naturalizing" the vegetation selected 

and the location of plants on the final 

landfill surface. Engineered soil and/or 

organic soil amendments, such as 

biosolids, can be used if sufficient amount 

of suitable soil is not available. Some 

examples of Superfund sites that used 

biosolids during restoration include 

Bunker Hill in Idaho; California Gulch in 

Leadville, Colorado; the Jasper County 

site in Joplin, Missouri; Palmerton Zinc in 

Palmerton, Pennsylvania; and the Lead 

Remediation Project in East St. Louis, 

Illinois. Another approach to support 

planting saplings in relatively shallow soil 

layers involves trimming the taproot, 

which encourages lateral root 

development. The lateral roots, up to 

three times the tree's canopy width, will 

5 

barrier to penetration by tree roots. Roots 

might penetrate a small distance into the 

landfill surface, but penetration through 

the entire landfill surface is prevented by 

provide ample anchorage and nutrient 

absorption for the tree. Indigenous tree 

species that lack a taproot also 

can be selected. 

For additional information on land application of biosolids, please visit the 

following Web sites: 

• http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/land_application.pdf 

• http://faculty.washington.edu/clh/newwet/summary.pdf 
• Soil Quality and Treatment. The 

greatest cause of failure in revegetation, 

particularly with trees, is poor soil quality 

through factors such as soil compaction, 

water logging, drought, and insufficient 

rooting depth (Dobson and Moffat 1993; 

Watson and Hack 2000). Soil is an essential 

medium for plant growth, providing physical 

support for plants as well as access to water; 

soil also is the main source for nutrients that 

are necessary for plant growth. Soil needs 

to: (1) have a healthy layer near the surface, 

roughly equivalent to topsoil; (2) be tested 

as necessary for pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, 

conductivity, bulk density, organic matter, 

and other nutrients; and (3) be treated as 

necessary. (Soils with an acidic pH could 

be treated with lime before they are spread 

over the landfill surface.) Soils could be 

amended by incorporating lime or organic 

steep slopes. The compost retains 

water, aiding in revegetation and 

filters the water, improving water 

quality as it flows off-site. 

• Moisture and Irrigation. Water 

logging and drought stress are major 

factors that limit plant growth and 

revegetation on landfill sites and can 

occur on the same site at different times 

of the year in areas with low and erratic 

rainfall (Wong and Bradshaw 2002). 

Trees and shrubs can remove large 

quantities of water from soil quickly and 

efficiently, which can mitigate water 

logging (Robinson and Handel 1995). 

In addition, landfill surface material 

typically includes a geomembrane or 

clay layer that requires moisture in the 

material into the top 6 inches of soil from 

one to several weeks before planting. The 

final soil surface should be loosely distributed 

during landscaping and should not be 

compacted with heavy equipment (Wong 

and Bradshaw 2002). 

•	 Terrain and Slope. Although the landfill 

ideally could be contoured to match the 

topography of the surrounding area, it 

often is mound-shaped with steep slopes 

that can impair plant establishment. 

Biosolids with site-specific amendments 

can be used on steeper slopes to help 

prevent the surface soil from drying out 

and hold the seed until it germinates and 

establishes a vegetated surface. 

In addition, compost berms, blankets, and 

socks can be used to slow the rate of storm 

water as well as reduce erosion along 

soil to safeguard against desiccation. 

The need for moisture is seasonal and 

depends on annual precipitation and 

climate; moisture, however, also is 

beneficial to support vegetative surface. 

The moisture level must be monitored 

to avoid compromising the surface layer 

with saturated soils and must account 

for the season and volume of annual 

rainfall, the type of clay material used 

in the barrier, and the plant community 

to be grown. 

•	 Landfill Gas. Landfill gases can 

create a hostile environment where 

vegetation cannot survive because of 

the lack of oxygen in the root zone. 

Gas collection systems can both 

alleviate or aggravate this problem. 

Exposure of vegetation to high gas 

concentrations can lead to stunted 

For additional information about planting on steep slopes, please visit the 

following Web sites: 

• http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/grndcovsl.html 

• http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/idex.cfm 

Search by keywords: Compost blanket, compost filter sock, and compost filter berm. 

6

tree. Still, the risk of windthrow should 

be no greater than for conventional 

forested sites if there is an adequate 

depth (14 to 18 inches) of rootable soil. 

Monitoring for windthrow damage is 

necessar y. However, the risk of 

windthrow can be reduced if trees are 

harvested before they reach a height 

where they might be more susceptible 

to windthrow or species are planted that 

remain relatively small (Dobson and 

Moffat 1995). In addition, planting 

shorter trees at the perimeter of a grove 

around taller varieties or adult trees can 

provide a windbreak by slowing the 

wind and directing airflow over or 

around the taller canopy layer. Singleline, hedgerow-like plantings or isolated 

individuals, especially at the edges of 

top decks and maintenance roads, 

leave adult trees vulnerable to strong 

winds, encouraging windthrow. 

How Do I Establish 

Plants on a 

Landfill Surface? 

While it may be difficult to establish native 

plants in almost all areas in the U.S., sitespecific considerations will increase the 

chances of success. A proper site-specific 

planting plan is necessar y in the 

revegetation of a landfill or waste 

containment area. It is most cost efficient 

to combine the application of the nursery 

crop and the native seed planting. In 

addition, the success of the native seeding 

is much higher and the reseeding potential 

of the nursery crop lower. Once the site is 

stable, appropriate species can be 

introduced by hand. Planting clusters of 

site, including: 

7 

habitat can promote seed dispersal, such 

as by birds and insects, and they will assist 

in introducing local native species. In 

general, options exist for restoring a 

growth, defoliation, or death, so that 

the existing plant community requires 

removal and replanting (Flower et al 

1981). Methanotrophic bacteria in soil 

may consume landfill gas; these 

bacteria thrive symbiotically with plant 

roots, existing in concentrations 10 to 

100 times higher than in unplanted 

soils. A well-established root zone can 

consume vast quantities of landfill gas, 

even when the plants are dormant. 

•	 Pests and Invasive Species. The 

federal government promotes 

management of invasive plant species 

during revegetation, as detailed in EO 

13112. This order states that, to the 

extent possible, federal agencies must 

prevent the introduction of invasive 

species, monitor and control existing 

populations, and restore native species 

and habitat of ecosystems in invaded 

areas. Invasive plant species can quickly 

disperse and invade disturbed land. 

Close monitoring of the habitat during 

establishment and control of invasive 

species will be required. A variety of 

methods can be used to control invasive 

species, including prescribed burning, 

chemical (herbicides) or biological (such 

as the purple loosestrife beetle) methods, 

and hand pulling. Careful plant selection 

can reduce the potential for disease from 

insects, molds, and fungi, as well as from 

burrowing animals such as gophers, 

moles, and other rodents. Judgment may 

be exercised in cleanup on a containment 

system because removal of too much 

material can jeopardize the nutritive 

regeneration qualities of ground litter and 

can remove an added means of soil 

protection and moisture retention in the 

natural soil surface. 

•	 Windthrow and surface integrity. 

Windthrow (blowdown) of trees is a 

potential problem on landfill sites 

because it may jeopardize the integrity 

of the landfill surface should the roots 

peel away the soil layer with the toppled 
• Planned planting of all plant

types, such as grasses, shrubs,

and trees, at the very outset of 

restoration. This approach may

require the most advanced planning but

should provide the greatest element of

control in the design and outcome of the

overall plant community. The final plant 

a foothold and establish themselves. In 

time, legumes, herbaceous perennials, 

and woody perennials begin the larger 

plant occupation as soil quality and 

nutrient content continues to improve. 

Eventually, shrubs and the larger trees 

assume the mature level on the location. 

community would be established and • Combining planned planting 

maturing early in the revegetation and with volunteering by adjacent 

post-closure maintenance program. native species to create the final 

Some invasive volunteerism by outside 

plants could occur if the operator does 

not exercise aggressive control efforts. 

•	 Providing the proper environment 

and soil conditions to encourage 

plant growth volunteering by 

local native plants. This approach 

provides the lowest element of control 

on the types of plants that may be 

introduced to the site because it 

depends on the unpredictable 

phenomenon of natural plant 

establishment and succession. Some 

sort of initial soil stabilization by 

planting with a rapid-growing annual 

and perennial grass or ground cover 

will still be required to prevent erosion 

of the landfill surface. The plant 

succession process occurs as the 

selected area matures. Pioneer plants 

(typically low-growing or prostrate 

weeds and grasses with deep taproots, 

most adapted to the harsh conditions of 

bare, usually poor-quality soils) establish 

first in the ruderal environment and begin 

the process of soil nutrient construction 

and softening. Taller grasses then gain 

vegetation cover. This approach 

has a high potential for erosion and 

the cost of controlling invasive species 

is also high. Invasive species typically 

thrive in early successional habitat and 

once established will be difficult and 

expensive to combat. Efforts may still 

be required to control undesired 

invasive species. An effective and costefficient method to revegetation in the 

woodland and shrubland habitat 

includes planting islands of habitat to 

attract wildlife, such as birds, that can 

disperse seeds to expand the habitat. 

What Maintenance and 

Repair Should be 

Expected? 

Planting on landfill surfaces will require some 

maintenance, but the use of native plants 

should create a self-sustaining habitat that 

minimizes the requirements. The following 

maintenance and repair should be expected 

to support revegetation of the landfill surface: 

The following Web site provides information on management of invasive species: 

http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/council/actiond.shtml 

The following Web site describes many monitoring and management techniques: 

http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/Closure/Revegetate/Part6.htm 

The following Web site provides additional information on performance criteria: 

http://www.ser.org/content/ecological_restoration_primer.asp#8 

8

•	 Monitoring and Management of 

Habitat at Initial Planting. When 

plants are first established on the site, 

monitoring and management could 

consist primarily of re-seeding and 

irrigating, if necessary, to ensure the 

health of the plants and control of 

invasive species. A program may be 

needed to safeguard against disease, 

insect pests, drought, windthrow, and 

wildlife damage. Various control 

methods can be used to control 

invasive species on landfill surfaces, 

including hand pulling, prescribed 

burning, or use of herbicides; the most 

appropriate method depends on the 

final use of the site. This type of 

program may be required only during 

the first 5 years, may diminish over 

time, and will cease as the plants 

mature. In addition, guidelines on 

mowing may need to be developed 

and followed, particularly as forbs and 

young trees will be effectively removed 

if they are inadvertently mowed. 

•	 Maintaining Site Access. 

Maintaining access to the site and 

other components of the remedy is 

necessary and includes pruning or 

removing plants that could interfere 

with access roads and trails that lead 

to vents and other features of the 

landfill surface. Signage may be used 

to designate newly planted areas and 

to restrict mowing. 

•	 Long-Term Monitoring and 

Management of Habitat. 

Mechanical methods such as prescribed 

burning, light disking, mowing, grazing, 

chemical application, or a combination 

of methods may be required during the 

first five years to maintain early 

successional habitat. Once native plants 

are established, the habitat will require 

minimal maintenance. Periodic removal 

of plant affected by windthrow, disease, 

drought, and frost also may be required. 

After plant roots are established, the 

frequency of maintenance can be 

reduced, and natural processes will take 

over. Highly invasive species may 

continue to pose a problem after five 

years and should be periodically 

monitored. In addition, data on the 

quantity and composition of leachate 

generated within a landfill can be an 

indicator of the integrity of the cover 

system. While leachate generation 

should be minimal with a properly 

designed cover, leachate control should 

be considered during the design phase 

and monitored as necessary. 

What are the Important 

Things to be Aware of? 

•	 The grass is not always greener ­

especially during the first couple of 

years. For the first couple of years, 

native, warm-weather bunch grasses 

spend their energy growing roots and 

establishing themselves below ground. 

9 

Site-Specific Examples/Case Studies 

Bower's Landfill, Ohio: 

http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/recycle/success/casestud/bowercsi.htm 

Walsh Landfill, Pennsylvania 

http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/super/sites/PAD980829527/index.htm 

Woodlawn County Landfill, Maryland 

http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/npl/MDD980504344.htm 
Therefore, it may initially appear as if 

the seeding wasn't successful - as only 

a little plant material will be visible 

above ground. But most of the growth 

is occurring below the surface. 

A trained restoration ecologist familiar 

with native plants can tell you if the 

planting was successful and will 

become more manifest with time. 

Technical performance measures used 

for turf grasses (for example, 50 percent 

growth within a measurement hoop) are 

not appropriate. Unfortunately, 

sometimes a planting will fail and will 

need to be repeated. 

• To maximize success - or minimize 

failure - note that native plant seeds 

may be difficult to sow. They 

require specialized equipment, such as 

reliable sources and the need to plant at 

the most opportune time. The U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA)/NRCS 

maintains Plant Material Centers that can 

augment commercial nurseries, but these 

centers need advanced notice. Many 

native plants suppliers can provide healthy 

material at a reasonable cost if awarded 

a contract in advance for a specified 

delivery time. The more time they have, 

the better, especially for harvesting local 

genotypes for planting in nearby 

restoration projects. The seed must be 

collected and then grown for planting, 

which is time intensive. In addition, you 

should assume you will have to save 10 

percent of your budget to reseed or 

replant. 

drill seeders, available from groups 

familiar with native plant restoration 

(such as the Fish and Wildlife Service; 

state agencies; Park Service; local 

native plant societies; and native plants 

restoration ecologists). The keys are 

timing (the time of year, which varies 

by species and geographic location) 

and maintaining soil contact (use of a 

drill seeder is essential in this regard). 

Do not expect to be able to measure 

significant success in the first growing 

season. 

•	 If the soil used as a borrow source for 

the cover originally supported 

vegetation, it can be expected to do so 

after being moved to the site. If the 

borrow source supported weeds, weed 

seed will be present on the cover system 

and weed growth will likely require 

control methods. 

•	 Native plant materials - either seed or 

growing stock - are best obtained with 

as much lead time as possible. 

Do not wait till the last minute to try to 

purchase the plant materials. This long 

lead time is dictated by both the limited 

availability of the plant material from 

•	 Do not forget to post DO NOT MOW 

signs after the planting. Some sites have 

ongoing contracts with landscaping firms 

- some with other agencies. Many a first 

flush of growth was killed or severely 

damaged by well-intended maintenance 

workers. This caution also applies to 

spraying herbicides. 

•	 Managing wildlife is often overlooked and 

can be a problem. The biggest culprits 

are deer. They can overbrowse a newly 

planted site and leave it vulnerable to 

invasive non-native species. In addition, 

small mammals can debark trees causing 

significant damage or killing the trees. 

Wildlife control is difficult, however. 

Options include repellents such as putrefied 

egg solids and home-made soap. 

Providing alternative food sources can 

work, although they should not be located 

near the new growth. Other options can 

include constructing physical barriers (such 

as tall fencing, cages, or nets), providing 

access to hunters, and planting at a higher 

density to compensate for expected loss. 

The over planting approach applies to 

seeding rates as well as stocking rates for 

plants. Options should be explored with 

the local community to ensure that they 

are acceptable. 

10

Additional Information 

Resources 

References used to prepare this fact 

sheet include the following: 

Dobson, M.C. and A. J. Moffat. 1993. 

"Woodland Establishment on Landfill Sites: 

Site Monitoring."; 

http://www.odpm.gov.uk/ 

index.asp?id=1145641 

Dobson, M.C. and A. J. Moffat. 1995. "A 

Re-Evaluation of Objections to Tree Planting 

on Containment Landfills." 

Waste Management & Research. Volume 

13. Pages 579 through 600. 

Flower, F.B. et al. 1981. "Landfill Gas, What It 

Does to Trees and How It's Injurious Effects May 

Be Prevented." Journal of Agriculture. Volume 

7. Pages 43 through 52. 

Handel, S.N. et al. 1994. "Biodiversity 

Resources for Restoration Ecology." 

Restoration Ecology. Volume 2, Number 4. 

Pages 230 through 241. 

Harper, J.L. 1987. "The Heuristic Value of 

Ecological Restoration." Restoration Ecology: 

A Synthetic Approach to Ecological 

Research. Cambridge University Press. New 

Watson, D. and Valerie Hack. 2000. Wildlife


Management and Habitat Creation on Landfill


Sites - A Manual of Best Practice.


Ecoscope Applied Ecologists. UK.


Waugh, W.J. 1994. "Paleoclimatic Data


Application: Long-Term Performance of Uranium


Mill Tailings Repositories."


Workshop Proceedings: Climate Change in the


Four Corners and Adjacent Regions.


Grand Junction, CO. September 12-14.


Wong, M.H. and A.D. Bradshaw. 2002.


The Restoration and Management of Derelict


Land - Modern Approaches.


World Scientific Publishing Co. NJ.


Web sites to obtain additional information 

include the following: 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Land


Revitalization Offices and Programs


http://www.epa.gov/swerrims/


landrevitalization/index.htm


U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Green 

Landscaping 

http://www.epa.gov/greenacres 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Beltsville


Agricultural Research Center (BARC)


http://www.barc.usda.gov


11 

York, NY. Pages 35 through 45. 

Robinson, G.R., and S.N. Handel. 1993. 

"Forest Restoration on a Closed Landfill: Rapid 

Addition of New Species by Bird Dispersal." 

Conservation Biology. 

Volume 7, Number 2. Pages 271 through 

278. 

Robinson, G.R., and S.N. Handel. 1995. 

"Woody Plant Roots Fail to Penetrate a ClayLined Landfill: Management Implications." 

Environmental Management. 

Volume 19, Number 1. Pages 57 through 64. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture - PLANTS 

Database 

http://plants.usda.gov/index.html 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural 

Resource Conservation Service 

http://soils.usda.gov/survey/printed_surveys/ 

Center for Plant Conservation 

http://www.centerforplantconservation.org 
Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA) 

http://www.nps.gov/plants 

Society for Ecological Restoration 

International 

http://www.ser.org 

State of California Guide to 

Revegetation and Environmental 

Restoration on Closed Landfills 

http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/ 

Closure/Revegetate/ 

Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural 

Landscapes 

http://www.for-wild.org 

Wildlife Habitat Council 

http://www.wildlifehc.org/ 

Internet Seminars on Ecological 

Restoration 

http://www.clu-in.org/studio/ 

seminar.cfm 

Interstate Technology and Regulatory 

Council (ITRC): Ecological Enhancements. 

http://www.itrcweb.org/gd_EE.asp 

EPA 542-F-06-001 

October 2006 

www.epa.gov 

12 

Other Guidance, 

Policies, and Executive 

Orders 

EPA Municipal Solid Waste Landfill 

Regulations 

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/nonhw/muncpl/landfill/msw_regs.htm 

EO 13148 Greening the Government 

through Leadership in Environmental 

Management 

http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/ 

EO13148.pdf 

EO13112 Invasive Species 

http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/ 

laws/execorder.shtml 

Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations 

Parts 60, 62, 258, and 445 

http://www.epa.gov/docs/epacfr40/ 

chapt-I.info/ 

Contact Us 

If you have any questions or comments 

on this fact sheet, please contact: 

Ellen Rubin 

(703) 603-0141 

rubin.ellen@epa.gov 

Office of Superfund Remediation 

and Technology Innovation 

(5102P)