United States 

Department 

of Agriculture 

Pacific Southwest 

Research Station 

General 

Technical Report 

PSW-GTR-129 

Proceedings of the Session 


on Tropical Forestry for People 


of the Pacific, XVII Pacific 

Science Congress 

May 27-28,1991, Honolulu, Hawaii 

Pacific Ocean 

0 Tahiti 
Conrad, Eugene C.; Newell, Leonard A., tech. coords. 1992. Proceedings of the session on tropical forestry for 

people of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress; May 27-28, 1991; Honolulu, Hawaii. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PSW-GTR-129. Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture; 88 p. 

The 17 papers in the Proceedings of the Session on Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific cover the topics 

of the USDA Forest Service's tropical forestry research, forestry research in Asia and the Pacific, management of 

tropical forests for products and energy; forest and wildlife management, the South Pacific Forestry Development 

Programme, tropical rainforests of northern Australia, forest resources in New Guinea, management factors affecting 

forests, forests of East Kalimantan, forest biological diversity, hydrologic effects on forest management, fire 

management in Central America, soil taxonomy and land evaluation, tropical termites and cuticular hydrocarbons, 

natural regeneration of Hawaiian forest species, mangrove stands in Micronesia, and introduced weeds of native 

Hawaiian forests. 

Retrieval Terms: tropical forestry, forestry research, resource management, biological diversity, natural regeneration, soil taxonomy, mangroves, tropical termites, weeds, wildlife management. Central America, East Kalimantan, 

Hawaii, Micronesia, northern Australia, New Guinea, South Pacific 

Technical Coordinators: 

C. Eugene Conrad is Director, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Pacific Southwest Research Station; Leonard A. 

Newell is Pacific Islands Forester, Pacific Southwest Region; both are with the Forest Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, 1151 Punchbowl Street, Room 323, Honolulu, HI 96813. 

Publisher: 

Pacific Southwest Research Station 

Albany, California 

(Mailing address: P.O.Box 245, Berkeley, California 94701-0245 

Telephone: 510-559-6300) 

January 1992 
Proceedings of the Session 


on Tropical Forestry for People 

of the Pacific, XVII Pacific 

Science Congress 

May 27-28,1991, Honolulu, Hawaii 

C. Eugene Conrad and Leonard A. Newell, Technical Coordinatois 

Contents 

... Preface ............................................................................................................................................
 m 


Tropical Forestry Research at the USDA Forest Service's Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry ......... 1 


C. Eugene Conrad, Jerry A. Sesco 

Forestry Research in Asia and Pacific ..............................................................................................4 


Jim Chamberlain, Erin Moore 

Management of Tropical Forests for Products and Energy .............................................................
 11 

John I. Zerbe 

Holistic Forest and Wildlife Management in Hawaii-Is It Possible? ............................................15 


Michael G. Buck 

The South Pacific Forestry Development Programme ....................................................................17 


Tang Hon Tat 

Polycyclic Selection System for the Tropical Rainforests of Northern Australia ............................ 21 


Glen T. Dale, Grab B. Applegate 

Management and Utilization of Forest Resources in Papua New Guinea ........................................26 


P.B.L. Srivastava 

Culture and Resource Management: Factors Affecting Forests ...................................................... 31 


Marjorie C. Falanruw 

People and Forests in East Kalimantan ...........................................................................................
 37 

Kuswata Kartawinata, Timothy C. Jessup, A.P. Vayda, S. Riswan, 

Cynthia Mackie, Nancy E. Peluso 
Contents 


Forest Biological Diversity Interactions with Resource Utilization ................................................
42 

ST.Mok 

Evaluating Long-Term Cumulative Hydrologic Effects of Forest Management: 

A Conceptual Approach .........................................................................................................47 


Robert R. Ziemer 

Fire Management in Central America ............................................................................................ 
 52

Andrea L. Koonce, Arrnando Gonzdez-Cabdn 

Soil Taxonomy and Land Evaluation for Forest Establishment ......................................................56 


Haruyoshi Ikawa 

Cuticular Hydrocarbons for Species Determination of Tropical Termites .......................................
 58 

Michael I. Haverty, Lori J. Nelson, Barbara L. Thorne, Margaret S. Collins, 

Johanna P.E.C. Darlington, Marion Page 

Role of Decaying Logs and Other Organic Seedbeds in Natural Regeneration of Hawaiian 

Forest Species on Abandoned Montane Pasture .....................................................................67 


Paul G. Scowcroft 

Use Classification of Mangrove Areas, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia ..........................74 


Nora N. Devoe 

Biological Control of Introduced Weeds of Native Hawaiian Forests .............................................84 


George P. Markin, Roddy F. Nagata, Donald E. Gardner 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Preface 

Tropical forestry for people of the Pacific is a major undertaking. The world's largest ocean is dotted with islands of all 

sizes, and all but the smallest are home to people. And most have 

forests of some kind. This Symposium offered a glimpse of the 

breadth of the values that the people in this huge expanse place 

on their forests and how they are addressing forest management 

issues. 

What should be the role of forestry research in resolving 

problems and in meeting the expectations of the region? Tropical forestry in the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, 

The Federated States of Micronesia, Kalimantan, and Central 

America was the principal topic of this Symposium. The importance and difficulties of communication in this vast area was a 

topic of major concern. 

On the day before the Symposium, a small group of participants met to discuss the needs of the forest environment and how 

to respond to those needs. A major concern was that various 

people and organizations coordinate with each other, to avoid 

duplication of work or possible destructive interference with 

each other or both. The organizers hoped that this group could 

identify some clear ideas for a resolution that could be supported 

by the participants of the symposium. The group agreed only 

that the difficulties in meeting the desires of people who live in 

the tropical Pacific are similar to those facing people everywhere. People everywhere want food, security, shelter, fresh 

water, and hope for the future of their children. 

Experiences everywhere~but especially from the Pacific 

basin-are the best base of knowledge to meet the forestry 

challenge in the area. This Symposium is one way to begin the 

process. The papers provide the kind of broad spectrum needed 

as a base for action. The first five papers present an overview of 

research and management issues. The next two papers address 

issues related to the silviculture of tropical and subtropical forest 

resources. The relationship of different cultures to forest management is the subject of the next three papers. The remaining 

papers touch on a broad array of research issues. These include 

hydrology, fire management, soil taxonomy, insect taxonomy, 

forest species regeneration, classifying mangroves, and biological control of forest weeds. 

C. Eugene Conrad 

Leonard A. Newell 

Technical Coordinators 

. . . USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. Ill 
Tropical Forestry Research at the USDA Forest Service's 

Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry1 

C. Eugene Conrad Jerry A. Sesco2 

Abstract: Deforestation during the last decade has grown at an alarming rate, 

giving rise to concern for its potential adverse effects on global climate. The 

impetus for focusing greater emphasis on tropical forestry management and 

research was provided by the International Forestry Cooperation Act enacted 

into law in 1990. The Act enables the Forest Service to intensify its efforts to 

develop sustainable uses of forest lands, and to provide greater emphasis to 

managing tropical forests for non-woody, and non-consumptive products. 

Field centers for this research are the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry in 

Hawaii, the Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico, and the US. Forest 

Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisc. The Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry is responsible for carrying out the Pacific Southwest Research Station's 

tropical forestry research program in the tropical Pacific. The Institute is also 

responsible for carrying out the Pacific Southwest Region's State and Private 

Forestry support program for tropical forestry in the Pacific basin. 

The subject of this symposium session-Tropical Forestryis particularly timely. People all over the world have become 

alerted to the array of issues associated with forestry and the 

environment. During the 1980's, as tropical deforestation increased at an alarming rate, concern for the future of tropical 

forests grew to unparalleled worldwide proportions. 

Wholesale deforestation is widely recognized as having 

global repercussion, including potentially injurious effects on 

global climate. When a forest is cut and not properly regenerated, a valuable ecosystem is changed. A little bit less oxygen is 

produced. Where the forest was, the daily range of temperature 

is changed. The exposed soil is more subject to erosion from 

direct impact of rain and often infiltration of rainwater is slowed. 

When the rains come, flooding below the former forest will 

probably increase. 

When the forest does not regenerate, non-forest plants with 

fewer deep roots may become dominant. Often the plants that 

replace forest species store less carbon, live shorter lives, and 

more rapidly release their stored carbon back into the atmosphere. Different micro-organisms, insects, birds, and animals 

take over the land. When large areas of forest are converted to 

short-lived ground cover, the effects can cause changes in the 

world ecosystem. 

We know that the world's environment is changing. We do 

not know how fast the change is occurring, but in the extreme it 

could threaten our very existence. Even now large areas of 

tropical forests are being affected by rapid deforestation. About 

18 million hectares a year are being converted from forests to 

other uses, and only about 1 to 2 million are being satisfactorily 

reforested. Many hectares of forest land are being turned into 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

TOrector, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Pacific Southwest Research 

Station, Honolulu, Hawaii; and Deputy Chief-Research, Washington, D.C.- 

both with the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

farms and then abandoned because the land soon becomes degraded and unproductive. 

Most people understand that the deforestation problem is 

not going to go away and that it will not be easily solved. 

Tropical forests are renewable, but often only with great difficulty. When former forest land is used for grazing and for 

growing vegetable crops, the soil can become degraded quickly. 

After the soil is degraded or lost, the land may not be capable of 

growing the forest that was once there. 

In appraising tropical forestry management and research 

needs, managers face a full spectrum of questions: What specific 

research and management actions are needed? If forest ecosystem structure and functions are in balance, how can they be 

managed to provide for the needs of people and still maintain an 

acceptable balance? How can forests be managed to maintain 

their essential attributes? When forests are destroyed, how 

severe are the local and global effects? When forests are perturbed, what is their potential for restoration-to what degree of 

the pristine forest and at what costs? 

This paper describes the roles of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture's Forest Service and of its Pacific Southwest Research Station's program at the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry for addressing the major questions and issues pertaining to 

tropical forestry research in the Pacific basin. 

The Role of the Forest Service 

For more than 70 years, the Forest Service has had a strong, 

active interest in tropical forestry. During the last dozen years, it 

has participated in studies that have lead to a series of widely 

distributed reports on tropical forestry: 

In 1980, the U.S. Interagency Task Force recommended to 

the President of the United States that the nation should "seek to 

protect and manage U.S. tropical forests in exemplary fashion" 

and "conduct a strong domestic research program.. .to 

help.. .protect, and manage tropical forests" (U.S. Interagency 

Task Force 1980). 

In 1984, the U.S. Congress' Office of Technology Assessment discussed various technologies to manage, protect, and 

sustain tropical forests and related resources (U.S. Congress, 

Office of Technology Assessment 1984). 

In 1985, the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) outlined steps to conserve and develop tropical 

forest resources on a long-term sustainable basis (United Nations Food and Agric. Orgn. 1985). 

In 1989, the Forest Service demonstrated its commitment to 

the FA0 plan by proposing an expanded and strengthened tropical forestry research and development program (U.S. Dep. Agric., 

Forest Serv. 1989). 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
Perhaps what might be termed the capstone of these efforts 

was the enactment into law of the International Forestry Cooperation Act of 1990, which provides for a greater role for the 

Forest Service in international forest conservation-a program 

especially targeted at tropical forestry. The Act.. . 

Allows the Forest Service to respond more fully to requests 

for technical expertise in sustainable tropical forest development. Although the Forest Service has for many years 

participated in forestry projects of the U.S. Agency for 

International Development and the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture's Office of International Cooperation and Development, the law now authorizes the agency to provide 

direct forestry assistance to countries not now receiving aid. 

Directs the Secretary of Agriculture to establish an Office of 

International Forestry in the Forest Service under a new 

official-the Deputy Chief-International Forestry-at 

agency headquarters in Washington, D.C. 

Specifies that funds to be spent on Forest Service international cooperation and assistance be identified in thePresident's 

budget submitted to the Congress of the United States. 

Directs the Secretary of Agriculture to establish an Institute 

of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico, and an Institute of 

Pacific Islands Forestry in Hawaii, to conduct research on 

tropical forestry management. This provision statutorily 

designates the Institute in Hawaii that had been established 

by the Secretary's order in 1967. 

The Forest Service's field centers for research on tropical 

forestry are, therefore, the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 

the Institute of Tropical Forestry, and the national U.S. Forest 

Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisc. The International Forestry Cooperation Act of 1990 enables the three field units to 

intensify their efforts to develop technology for sustainable uses 

of tropical forest lands. More emphasis will be given to managing tropical forests for non-woody and non-consumptive products. Such products include extractive reserves of natural rubber, 

oils, fruits, and nuts. Non-consumptive uses include environmental amenities that may not be compatible with intensive 

timber management and hardwood extraction. Particular attention will be given to avoiding land degradation and promoting 

sustainable development patterns that relieve pressure on remaining natural forests. 

Role of the Institute of Pacific Islands 

Forestry 

The Pacific Southwest Research Station research program 

at the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry in Honolulu is carried 

out by two research work units. One is "Restoration of Tropical 

Island Forest Ecosystems" and the other is "American/Pacific 

Island Forestry Research." The two work units are headquartered in Honolulu but have personnel stationed in Hilo, Hawaii 

and on Yap island in the Federated States of Micronesia. 

Direction for the Institute's tropical forestry research efforts 

is provided by the Forest Service's Tropical Forestry National 

Research Program and by the Station's long-range Strategic 

Plan that focuses on tropical forestry as one of the six major 

areas of research in the 1990's and beyond. 

The Institute's research program uses a multi-disciplinary 

approach and calls upon the specialized skills of universities, 

cooperating agencies, and other organizations. Station scientists 

have become known for conducting research in Central and 

South America as well as in the tropical Pacific islands. Among 

the scientific disciplines needed are entomology, fire science, 

forest ecology, genetics, mensuration, meteorology, plant and 

insect pathology, range science, silviculture, social sciences, soil 

science, wildlife biology, and wood technology. 

Cooperative Research 

Experience in doing cooperative research provides the Pacific Southwest Station with the background needed to coordinate work among scientists. Within the agency, the Station links 

its work on tropical forestry with the Southern Station's Institute 

of Tropical Forestry and with the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory. The Institute's major land management cooperator in Hawaii is the Division of Forestry and Wildlife. The Division 

provides office and laboratory space as well as much of the 

forest land for carrying out research. Hawaii is the only State that 

is responsible for managing tropical forests. 

National Programs 

The national strategic plan for Forest Service Research calls 

for using our organizational strength to develop partnership 

teams. Universities, Federal and State agencies, private companies, and public organizations will be important members of 

these teams. The Plan directs more research toward problems 

related to environmental changes, multiple resource uses, and 

human valuation of natural resources. These are issues that are 

of paramount importance in dealing with the multiple aspects of 

tropical forestry. 

Another national program-the Resources Program Assessment also highlights a global concern for the environment. 

The need is for greater attention to be directed toward conserving resource values for global benefit. The RPA focuses on 

National Forests and also recognizes a major Forest Service role 

in supporting the tropical forestry needs of our neighbors. 

Agencies and Private Organizations 

Private sector organizations as well as Federal and State 

agencies are important cooperators and supporters. Land owners 

such as farmers, ranchers, and foresters provide places to do 

critical research. The U.S. Department of the Interior's Fish and 

Wildlife Service is one of the important cooperators in Hawaii 

and other U.S. affiliated island nations and territories in the 

Pacific basin. The Service identifies and proposes the listing of 

threatened species as endangered. The roles of the Institute of 

Pacific Islands Forestry are to do appropriate forestry research 

and assist with developing recovery plans. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
The Institute's project on biological control of forest weeds 

depends on the quarantine facility provided by the National Park 

Service at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Research on biological control of forest weeds has also received strong support 

from the States of Hawaii and Oregon. The new mangrove 

research in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, includes an 

Institute scientist and others from Oregon State University and 

the College of Micronesia. C. Brewer Co. Ltd., the U.S. Department of Energy, the State of Hawaii, and governments of other 

Pacific Islands have been cooperators with Forest Service scientists in research on growing biomass for fuel. The University of 

Hawaii, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, and 

the Weyerhaeuser Company have provided funds and other 

resources for research on field comparisons of tissue cultures of 

loblolly pine with seedling loblolly and Caribbean pine. This 

team has also done research comparing varieties of Hawaiian koa. 

Need for Cooperative Research 

Current and future research is based on interrelated components that have application in multiple ecosystems. Research on 

each of the components requires major effort by certain disciplines. If we are going to achieve success in providing the 

technical support needed to restore tropical forests, we must 

develop widespread commitments from the scientific community. Therefore, the need for cooperative research is urgent. 

Even with the commitment of all Forest Service scientists, 

the research that is needed would still require even more scientists. Outside the Forest Service are current research projects in 

all phases of tropical forest ecosystems. Pacific Southwest Research Station scientists need to take part in these cooperative 

research efforts. 

For the augmented program in tropical forestry research, 

many scientists at the Pacific Southwest and other Forest Service 

research stations will be needed. Most of them are interested, but 

other current and continuing research commitments limit the 

amount of time they can devote to tropical forestry. We need 

new scientists involved in the program. Science cooperators 

should come from universities, colleges, and government agencies everywhere. These science partnerships may be most important for achieving the best solutions to tropical forestry problems. Tropical forestry in the Pacific should receive special 

attention from scientists in the Pacific Basin. Scientists in developing countries, especially in those where tropical forests are 

found, should be key partners in the commitment for tropical 

forests. 

To get more scientists involved, perhaps we should consider a competitive cooperative grant program that would be 

open to the best scientists regardless of affiliation. For example, 

a Forest Service scientist could cooperate with an appropriate 

outside scientist and enhance the products of both. This approach would enlarge the scientific community's commitment 

to achieving problem solutions. The urgency to begin delivering 

the needed technology from new research should be recognized 

in developing each cooperative grant. Competitive cooperative 

grant research on specific projects would be done over a period 

of a few months to a few years. The research would continue to 

be focused on the highest priority projects. 

A strength of Forest Service research is our long-term work 

on forest ecosystems. Such research can sometimes cover decades and is crucial for testing and refining hypotheses that deal 

with organisms that live hundreds of years. We must build on 

our strengths as members of the scientific community. Forest 

Service scientists should provide long term continuity. Scientists 

from other organizations would provide critical knowledge when 

it is most needed. With these partnerships, solutions for the 

difficult problems in tropical forestry can be achieved in a 

timely manner. 

References 

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. 1985. The tropical forestry action plan. Rome, Italy. 159 p. 

US. Congress Office of Technology Assessment. 1984. Technologies to sustain tropical forest resources. OTA-F-214. Washington, DC. 344 p. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1989. Global neighbors growing together: a tropical forestry program. Washington, DC. 16 p. 

US. Intcragency Task Force on Tropical Forestry. 1980. The World's tropical 

forests: a policy, strategy, and program for the United States. Publication 

91 17. Washington, DC.: Department of State. 53 p. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
Forestry Research in Asia and Pacific1 


Jim Chamberlain Erin Moore2 

Abstract: Much research has been done in Asia and the Pacific that might 

help Pacific Island countries produce more biomass and better manage their 

natural resources. National forestry research institutes throughout the region 

have examined many important aspects of forestry. Not all research findings 

are directly transferable between countries, but research methods and results 

can help guide research and policy decisions. Trends in forestry research 

priorities over the previous decade are examined. National research findings 

are identified that may affect Pacific Island forestry. Research not affected by 

environmental conditions are included, and several mechanisms for accessing 

this information are examined. 

Over the last decade, a large amount of resources, financial 

and human, have been expended on identifying and setting 

priorities for forestry research needs. Many meetings, studies, 

and reports have espoused the need to increase support for 

forestry research and develop the infrastructure to communicate 

research findings between countries. To begin to understand the 

complexities of the organization of research in this vast and 

culturally diverse region, it is necessary to review the major 

events affecting research policy and the research priorities of 

professionals in the region. 

This paper reviews a sampling of major forestry research to 

illustrate the potential for research from continental and island 

Asia to address these research priorities, and suggests mechanisms to improve access to some forestry research. The examples given are only the "tip of the iceberg," but illustrate the 

infrastructure available to share information and improve national forestry research programs. 

Trends Affecting Forestry Research 

The major events affecting forestry research in Asia and the 

Pacific Islands during the decade of the 1980's were: 

198 1-World Bank and United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization issues their report on "Forestry 

Research Needs: Time for Appraisal." 

1982-Directors of Forestry Research hold their first meeting, at East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

1982-Australia establishes its Centre for International Agricultural Research. 

1983-International Union of Forestry Research Organizations sponsors regional workshop at Kandy, Sri Lanka. 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28. 1991. Honolulu. Hawaii. 

'Program Director, Asia & Pacific, Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association; and 

Director of Communications, Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, respectively, 

Wairnanalo, HI 96734. 

1985-International Task Force on Forestry Research, made 

up of private and public sector members, proposes a 

Tropical Forestry Action Plan. 

1986Ã‘Director of Forestry Research hold their second 

meeting, at East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

1987-World Bank, FAO, and other organizations meet at 

Bellagio, Italy and organize a task force on tropical 

forestry research. 

1988Ã‘Worl Bank, FAO, and other organizations meet 

again at Bellagio, and propose options to expand 

and coordinate forestry research. 

1989-Asia and Pacific Regional Office of FA0 convenes 

meetings of forestry research directors. 

1989Ã‘Consultativ Group of International Agricultural Research Board declares the need for a forestry institute. 

1990Ã‘Asia-Pacifi Forestry Commission holds its fourteenth meeting in Manila, Philippines. 

1991-Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, sponsors Forestry Research and Management Meeting 

in Honolulu, Hawaii. 

The 1981 World Bank and United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report asserted the need to examine 

the forestry research needs of developing countries and to refocus resources to address new and prominent issues. The study 

acknowledged a shift in forestry programs to meet the basic 

needs of rural populations and attack the decline of natural 

ecosystems. It concluded that more resources and consideration 

should focus on three issues: rural development forestry, maximizing biomass production to meet expanding energy demands, 

and conservation of natural ecosystems (World BankIFAO 1981). 

The East-West Center organized two meetings of Directors 

of Forestry Research (1982 and 1986). At the first, the conferees 

declared the need for stronger coordination among national 

research institutes in the region. During the second workshop, 

the Center presented the results of a regional survey that examined the allocation of resources to forestry research within national forestry institutions (Lundgren 1986, Lundgren and 

others 1986). 

The study concluded that over 50 percent of research efforts 

were directed to biological factors of forestry, including watershed management, forest hydrology and protection, wildlife, 

recreation and resource inventory. Twenty and 22 percent of the 

resources addressed forest products and plantation management 

research, respectively. Agroforestry and social forestry research 

accounted for less than 6 percent of the resources (Lundgren and 

others 1986). 

In 1984, the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) Special Programme for Developing Countries (SPDC) organized a regional workshop at Kandy, Sri Lanka. 

The workshop set priorities for forestry research and ranked 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
silviculture and management research as the greatest need. Other 

priorities included genetic improvement of multi-purpose trees, 

species selection, design of agroforestry systems, and pest management. Recommendations also included establishing 10 regional species research networks (Lundgren and others 1986). 

An International Task Force on forestry research proposed a 

global research strategy for tropical forestry (Anon. 1988b). It 

accorded high priority to agroforestry research and set priorities 

in three categories: treelcrop interactions, especially hedgerow 

intercropping and the effect of shade; nitrogen fixation; and the 

effect of green leaf manure on crop yields. Other priority 

research included shelterbelts and farm fuelwood production. 

The Bellagio I meeting (1987) acknowledged that the resources allocated to forestry research were severely deficient. 

Subsequent to the meeting, an international task force organized 

to examine tropical forestry research recommended increased 

research in five fields: agroforestry, natural forest management, 

tree improvement, wood utilization, and forest policy. It proposed seven institutional options to coordinate and expand forestry research that were deliberated during the Bellagio I1 (1988) 

meeting. That meeting endorsed the proposed option to expand 

the responsibilities of the Consultative Group for International 

Agricultural Research Board (CGIAR). At the 1989 meeting of 

the Board, this alternative was supported and a declaration to 

that effect was adopted. The governing body of CGIAR gave 

special importance to forest resources as essential to rural economies and energy (Anon. 1989). 

In August 1989, the Asia and Pacific Regional Office of the 

FAO, convened an expert consultation of directors of forestry 

research institutions. A primary objective of the meeting was to 

identify research appropriate to neighboring countries. The 

consensus of the group was that considerable research was 

available to improve national programs, but that access to the 

results was a serious obstacle. Several mechanisms to improve 

the flow of information were discussed. Two were endorsed and 

acted upon-INFORM and FORSPA. 

The fourteenth session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) met in March 1990 and endorsed the recommendations of the TFAP task force for increased forestry research in five fields. It urged the FA0 to take actions similar to 

the CGIAR to improve forestry research and recommended that 

FORSPA be made operational (Anon. 1990). 

Research Priorities in the Pacific Islands 

To understand the potential for sharing forestry research 

between countries, it is important to appreciate the needs identified by the professionals in the region. For the purpose of the 

XVII Pacific Science Congress, research needs are limited to 

Pacific Island countries. This vast region, though included in the 

rhetoric, has been seriously neglected in regional and international forestry research programs. The priority research needs in 

Pacific Island countries as expressed and determined in recent 

endeavors are as follows (H =high; M =medium; L =low): 

Heads of Forestry USDA Forest Service 

Plantation BenefiUCost Analysis Forest Policy and Legislation (H) 

Regeneration of Degraded Sites Erosion Control Methods (H) 

Non-Wood Forest Products Watershed Management &Protection(H) 

Utilization of Coconut Wood Natural Forest Management (H) 

Wood Properties of Timber Species Agroforestry Practices (H) 

Forest Plantation Techniques Forest Products Marketing (H) 

Species & Provenance Trials Pest Control (M) 

Nursery Techniques Nursery Management (M) 

Forest Policy and Legislation Tree Improvement (M) 

Forest Plantation Techniques Silviculture (rotation length) (M) 

Mensuration (growth and yield) (M) 

Mangrove Management (M) 

Stress Tolerance (wind, salt) (L) 

The Heads of Forestry of eight Pacific Island countries met 

in Suva, Fiji, in November 1990 to, among other business, 

establish priorities for national and regional forestry programs 

(Anon. 1990). The assembly recognized many problems and 

issues that spanned the region, including increasing population 

growth, low priority for forestry in national policies, and lack of 

information on many forestry aspects. It identified various 

research needs that would improve national and regional programs. For example, high priority was placed on developing 

benefittcost analysis of plantations as they relate to the preservation of natural forests. Regeneration techniques of logged and 

degraded sites were identified as the preferred research focus. 

The demand to identify and quantify the non-wood forest products used in each country has been strong. 

The members observed that "most countries in the region 

have substantial unused coconut resources" and that "...little is 

known about the physical properties of many common tree 

species." (Report of Heads of Forestry Meeting 1990, draft). 

They recommended that increased resources be focused on researching the uses of coconut wood. Resources also should be 

allocated to test the physical properties of commercial and potentially commercial species. In addition, basic forest plantation 

research, species and provenance trials, nursery techniques, and 

spacing trials were recognized as priorities. 

In 1990, The USDA Forest Service examined the forestry 

situation in Pacific Island countries. Their study's objectives 

included surveying forestry programs for the need to improve 

education, extension, and research facilities. The report identifled numerous activities to improve national and regional programs. For example, high priority was placed on developing 

effective erosion control measures and agroforestry and commnity forestry practices. Medium priority was given to such 

research topics as pest control, nursery management, tree improvement, silviculture (e.g., rotation length), mensuration (e.g., 

growth and yield), and mangrove management. The survey 

placed low priority on stress tolerance (e.g., wind, salt, etc.) 

research and forestry on degraded sites (Booser 1990). 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Forestry Research in the Pacific Islands 

Except for Fiji and Papua New Guinea, it is not apparent 

that other Pacific Island countries have national forestry research 

programs. As of 1989 the Cook Islands had no forestry research 

center. Research in the Cook Islands was mostly done as part of 

reforestation programs, and their Forestry Department has relied 

on research results from other Pacific basin countries, most 

notably Fiji, Vanuatu, and New Zealand. 

Forestry research conducted in other Pacific countries has 

not been coordinated by national programs. For example, a 

variety of research undertaken in Western Samoa and reported in 

the Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports was performed by 

Peace Corps and other nongovernmental organizations. Kidd 

and Taogaga (1985) examined the effect of "green manure" on 

upland taro. Cable and others (1983), with the University of 

South Pacific, analyzed intercropping NFTs with taro. Research 

at the University of South Pacific also has examined growth and 

yield of fuelwood for many nitrogen fixing trees (Cable and 

others 1984). 

In-depth case studies illustrate the social and ecological 

relationships of land use systems. They provide research managers basic information of the systems that research may affect. 

Kunzel (1988, 1989) described agroforestry in Tonga and the 

role of trees in traditional land use systems. The studies examined factors that support or inhibit agroforestry, and recommendations were made to improve the systems. Thaman (1989, 

1990) described the role of trees in Pacific Island countries, most 

notably Kiribati and Fiji. The Richardsons (1986) described the 

environment and major components of agriculture systems in 

the Pacific Islands. Surveys provide an important foundation to 

advance research on specific components of agroforestry. They 

are typical of the research initially undertaken to understand and 

improve land use systems. 

Research in Hawaii is an important resource for national 

and regional forestry research programs. The USDA Forest 

Service has been conducting forestry research for decades in 

Hawaii and much of this may be useful to other countries. In 

addition, the Forest Service's research program extends to Pacific Island countries, where it has direct benefits. The University of Hawaii is an important research facility and source of 

appropriate forestry information. For example, Raynor (1989) 

examined indigenous agroforestry systems in Pohnpei; Dudley 

(1990) analyzed the performance and management of fast-growing trees in a variety of ecological conditions; and MacDicken 

(1983) studied the growth rates of nitrogen fixing trees (NFTs). 

In the 1930's the Department of Forestry in Fiji tested over 

200 species for potential in reforestation. Swietenia macrophylla 

was selected as the "best" species, and until the mid 1970's was 

the species of choice. After a devastating attack by the Ambrosia Beetle, five other species were added to the forestry programs. The Ministry now uses seven species: Swietenia 

macrophylla,. Pinus caribaea, Anthocephalus chinensis, Maesopsis 

erninii, Cordia alilodora, Agathis vitiensis, and Endospermurn 

nzacrophyllum (Jiko 1989). The recent publication by the Tiber Utilization Research Division, "A Guide to the Specifications of Local Timbers for Building Applications," has perhaps, 

the greatest potential benefit for neighboring countries to increase utilization of timber resources, especially that of lessor 

known species. 

Forestry research institutes in Papua New Guinea (PNG) 

have much to offer neighboring countries. For example, a 

variety of species have been identified that are suitable for 

reforestation of logged areas. Forestry research institutes have 

also developed nursery and plantations techniques for other 

species. Over 40,000 forest insects have been identified, collected and stored in a national insectorium. The Papua New 

Guinea Forestry Research Institute (PNGFRI) recently published a book on micro-identification of all commercial timbers 

and has published more than 10 volumes on wood preservation 

and utilization of minor forest products. 

Forestry Research in Asia 

Most if not all Asian countries have national forestry research programs. Some, like the Philippines, India, and Thailand, are more developed and their results are easily accessible. 

Others, like Malaysia, may be well developed, but their research 

results are not readily available. Yet other countries have modest research programs (Myanmar and Bhutan) or their programs 

concentrate on supporting other countries. Japan's main priority 

is to promote international research and contribute to world forestry. 

We summarize here only the major research programs in each 

country, providing examples of the primary research (table I). The 

lack of inclusion of other countries should not suggest that they 

are unimportant, or have nothing to offer. Rather, they are not 

included for lack of space or information on them. 

All research programs have results, experience, and expertise to share, and research from all countries should be considered for its potential benefit to other programs. For example, the 

primary focus of Bhutan's forestry research program is fodder 

species. Perhaps the forestry research from China most appropriate to share with other countries focuses on management 

techniques for shelterbelts and intercropping to improve traditional farming systems. China also has performed comprehensive economic analysis of the effects of shelterbelts and intercropping on traditional systems. 

Southeast Asia 

The focus of research in Myanmar (Burma) may be relative 

to other national forestry research efforts. Tree improvement 

research on Tectona grandis and Pterocarpus macrocarpus might 

help improve the use of these species. Research on Pterocarpus 

has focused on clonal propagation and development of seed 

orchards. The national research program is examining growth 

performance and the control of pests of Acacia auriculiformis 

(Norbu 1989). 

Other forestry research that may be applicable includes 

fuelwood production, social forestry planning, and agroforestry 

for erosion control. With the over dependence throughout the 

region on a few species for pulp production, the results of 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Table 1-Examples of primary forestry research in Asia 

Species Selection for Reforestation 

Economics of Agroforestry 

Species Performance for Erosion Control 

Soil & Water conservation Techniques 

Agroforestry Cropping Systems 

Traditional & Non-Traditional Uses of Mangroves 

Production of Mychorrhizal Tablets 

Silviculture of MPTS 

Propagation by Tissue Culture 

Artificial Regeneration -Assisted Natural Regeneration 

Species & Provenance Trials 

Wood Properties and Use of Coconut Lumber 

Species Selection for Livestock Systems & Erosion Control 

Soil Fertility Rehabilitation with Green Leaf Manure 

Socio-economic Studies of Agroforestry 

Economics of Agroforestry 

Biomass Production 

Nutrient Cycling in Agroforestry Systems 

BenefiKost of Fuelwood Production 

Silviculture of Agroforestry Systems 

research in Myanmar on species for pulpwood could greatly 

enhance planting programs. Like other countries, Myanmar is 

pursuing research on production and management of bamboo. 

Nine Indonesian institutes and universities are active in 

forestry research, yet the primary institute is the Agency for 

Forestry Research and Development (AFRD). For many years, 

AFRD focused on the "genetic improvement" of Pinus merkusii, 

the main reforestation species. Increased research from AFRD 

and other institutions has resulted in the establishment of seed 

orchards of Pinus merkusii, Eucalyptus urophylla, E. deglupta, 

Acacia mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria, and Leucaena sp. 

(Agency for Forestry Research and Development 1989). AFRD 

also has important findings in establishment techniques of many 

of these species for industrial plantations. The institute is studying the silviculture of rattan species. 

India 

Indonesia 

Myanmar 

Nepal 

Pakistan 

Philippines 

Agroforestry Marketing 

Spacing Trials in Social Forestry 

Species Selection for Agroforestry & Degraded Sites 

Volume and Yield Tables for Social Forestry Species 

Tree Improvement 

Seed Orchards 

Plantation Establishment Techniques 

Silviculture of Rattan Species 

Tree Improvement 

Clonal Propagation & Seed Orchards 

Fuelwood Production 

Agroforestry for Erosion Control 

Growth, Yield & Pest Management of Acacia auriculiformis 

Fodder Trials 

Vegetative Propagation of Fodder Species 

Spacing Trials; Protection of Fodder Trees 

Coppice Management in Short Rotations 

Stress Tolerance Trials -Waterlogged and Saline Conditions 

No less than 34 institutes are engaged in forestry research in 

the Philippines. Many have important and potentially pertinent 

research that is appropriate for neighboring countries. The 

Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) has 

identified eight multi-purpose tree species for reforestation: 

Paraserianthes falcataria, Anthocephulus chinensis, Eucalyptus 

deglupta, Gmelina arborea, Endospermum peltatum, Ochrona 

phyamidale, Xylopia ferrugeni and Leucuenu leucocephala 

(Polisco and Natividad 1989). The ERDB also examines important aspects of agroforestry, including the economics of perennials under plantations, species performance for erosion control, 

soil and water conservation techniques, agroforestry cropping 

schemes, and extension strategies to enhance adoption of 

agroforestry. Recently, the ERDB analyzed traditional and nontraditional uses of mangroves. 

The University of the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB) has 

been doing forestry research for many decades. An example of 

important research here is the development of mychorrhizal 

tablets to increase pine and eucalyptus seedling performance in 

nurseries. UPLB has found that P. falcataria coppices profusely 

even when its stumps are over 30 cm in diameter. UPLB scientists found no substantial loss in survival when paraserianthes 

stems were cut flush with the ground, or at 15 cm or 30 cm 

above the ground (Polisco and Natividad 1989). 

Other institutes are examining propagation by tissue culture, artificial regeneration and species and provenance trials. 

Using tissue cultures, researchers have developed plantlets of 

Calamus omatus 25 days after placing the embryos in a planting 

medium. Philippine institutes have been able to decrease germination period from 120 to 2 days with almost 100 percent 

success (Polisco & Natividad 1989). They also are finding ways 

to regenerate Dipterocarpus species. Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR), a promising form of wasteland reclamation, was 

developed and tested in the Philippines. Philippine institutions 

arc also testing a variety of multi-purpose trees (mpts) for fuelwood 

production;Leucaenu leucocephala and Paraserianthes falcataria 

had the highest survival rates in provenance trials of mpts. 

The Philippines conducts forest products research that is 

important to neighboring countries. Examples include cocolumber 

processing, handmade rice paper, low-cost housing materials 

from wood excelsior, and small-scale charcoal production 

(Tesoro 1989). 

The forestry research center in northeast Thailand has examined the effects of intercropping on biomass production of 

four fast growing species-Acacia auriculiformis, Leucaena 

leucocephala, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Peltophorum 

dasyrachis-and several agricultural crops (Personal observation 1989). Similar experiments examined annual rates of nutrient cycling by tree crops in agroforestry systems. The costbenefit analysis of fuelwood production in agroforestry has been 

examined. Other research includes studies of the optimal combination of trees and crops. Thinning and pruning studies are 

determining management practices to optimize crop and tree 

yields. On-station research is examining multi-storied mixed 

planting systems and coppicing ability of selected tree species. 

Sri Lanka 

Thailand 

USDA Forest Service Gcn. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
south Asia 

India has a long history of forestry research, the results of 

which may help improve forestry programs in other countries. 

National forestry research has focused on several important 

species: Acacia catechu, Ailanthus excelsa, Anthocephalus 

chinensis, bamboo species, Bombay, ceiba, Lagerstroemia 

parviflora, Melia ~~.edarach, and Tetrameles nudiflora (Singh 

1989). Results from Indian studies on agroforestry marketing, 

development of volume and yield tables for social forestry species, species selection for degraded sites, and silvicultural treatments could help other national forest programs. The effect of 

trees on crop production and spacing trials in a social forestry 

context are research topics examined extensively by Indian research institutes. 

Research in Nepal, especially that which focuses on the 

Terai, may be useful to other countries. Extensive fodder research has included species trials, intercropping multi-purpose 

trees with fodder grasses, methods of protecting fodder trees 

from grazing animals, and vegetative propagation of fodder 

species. Agroforestry/social forestry research includes methods 

to gain people's participation in forestry programs, propagation 

methods suitable for farmers, and on- farm mulch demonstrations. Coppice management on short rotations is another example of research that may prove useful. Bamboo propagation, 

cutting trials, and seed collection and storage studies might help 

improve bamboo production in other countries. 

Important research findings from Pakistan include species 

for water-logged and saline areas, treelcrop relationships, sericulture, and agroforestry. Some of the species identified for 

water-logged and saline conditions are Eucalyptus carnaldulensis, 

Albizia procera, and Pithecellobium duke (Sheikh 1989). Results from agroforestry trials indicate a decrease in crop yields 

along shelterbelts but an overall increase in income from the sale 

of trees. Researchers in Pakistan have developed a disease-free 

Fl hybrid of mulberry and have found that one hectare of 

mulberry (planted 1 x 1) can yield 23 metric tons of utility 

leaves. Adding five bags of urea per ha. can increase yields 100 

percent (Sheikh 1989). Agroforestry research in Pakistan has 

looked at the effects of single trees and boundary planting on 

crop yields, and the design of appropriate systems to meet social 

needs and biological (e.g., saline) conditions. 

Forestry research in Sri Lanka has examined the effects of 

trees on crop yields, the performance of different combinations 

of species on biomass production, and species selection in tree/ 

livestock systems. Research to improve productivity of systems 

includes the effect of leaf manure on soil fertility, and methods 

of using trees for erosion control; species selection for intercropping and improvement of pasture grasses. Socio-economic 

research in Sri Lanka includes the economics of hedgerow intercropping, development of models for mixed cropping systems, 

and economics of home gardens. 

Mechanisms to Access Forestry Research 

Much of the forestry research done in Asian and Pacific 

Island countries could benefit national programs in neighboring 

countries. But, access to these findings varies greatly with the 

subject and development of information networks. Published 

research results are obtainable only if national libraries can 

purchase or exchange documents and many lack basic current 

literature. 

Research projects supported by international agencies such 

as work on rattan, bamboo and multi-purpose trees have well 

developed networks, and their documentation may be circulated 

throughout the region. For example, experts in rattan may know 

about similar research in other countries. Further, a member of 

the MPTS research network will know about colleagues' research in participating countries. Unfortunately, results of less 

popular or more recent research are difficult to obtain. For 

example, much work has been done throughout the region on 

growth and yield of agroforestry species, yet this information is 

not widely distributed. Though growth and yield varies between 

sites, this information could provide decision-makers general 

guidelines of expected yields and advance research efforts. 

Mechanisms are needed to share basic research results. 

There are networks for specific research (e.g., multi-purpose 

trees, rattan, bamboo), but until recently no networks focused on 

collecting and sharing information on forestry in general. The 

FAO, with the Directors of national forestry research institutes 

initiated, two networks to enhance the flow of forestry information. 

At the 1989 FA0 consultation on forestry research for Asia 

and the Pacific, an Informal Network of Forestry Research 

Managers - Asia-Pacific Region (INFORM) was created. Its 

objectives are to promote: 1) regional cooperation and foster 

closer working relationships among the forestry research institutes (FRI's) of the region; 2) information-sharing and exchange 

of experiences among the FRI's for mutual benefit and collective self-reliance; 3) traditional IUFRO activities in the region. 

Periodic meetings are planned to increase the flow of materials. 

The Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia-Pacific (FORSPA) was started in 1989, also during the consultation of Directors of Forestry Research Institutes (Anon. 1989~). 

Its primary objective is to improve forestry research capabilities 

in the region to respond more efficiently to the needs of participating countries. These include Bhutan, China, Fiji, India, 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New 

Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. 

Recognizing a need to coordinate agroforestry research and 

share results of this research, the FA0 initiated a third mechanism in May 1991 to address this concern. The approach is to set 

up a participatory network of national forestry institutes for 

increased training, research, and extension of agroforestry activities and information. The project will set up demonstrations 

of successful agroforestry systems and provide a source of documentation of agroforestry information. Based in Jakarta, Indonesia, the geographic focus of the network are nine South and 

Southeast Asian countries. No reference is made in the operation plan to include Pacific Island countries. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Other international agencies are coordinating research on 

specific aspects of forestry. Examples of some are included below. 

The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, established in 1982, encourages research aimed at identifying and finding solutions to agricultural problems in developing countries. ACIAR commissions research and communicate 

research results to individuals and institutions. The Centre 

works on a variety of issues common through the region, including smallholder agriculture development, tree improvement, forage crops, as well as marine problems. Its forestry research 

works to promote the use of Australian trees in developing 

countries. Participating institutes have established adaptability 

trials of about 50 species of eucalyptus, acacia and casuarina. 

The International Development Research Center (IDRC) 

recognized the importance of bamboo and rattan and developed 

a network to support research on these species. The research 

seeks to find efficient ways to solve the problems of insufficient 

supplies of raw materials and other obstacles to provide greater 

employment opportunities for rural populations. 

The ForestryIFuelwood Research and Development (FI 

FRED) project, funded by USAID, responded to the fuelwood 

needs in the region. Its aim is to advance the research and 

research capabilities on multi-purpose trees in participating countries. After its initial funding cycle, the network includes over 30 

institutions in 12 South and Southeast Asian countries. These 

institutes are examining the performance of select multi-purpose 

trees in three ecozones: humid, arid, and semi-arid. The project 

also supports three trials representing 25 provenances of Acacia 

auriculiformis. Other experiments supported by F/FRED are 

Leucaena psyllid trials, alley cropping, and feeding trials. 

The Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA) provides 

scientists a way to evaluate a variety of nitrogen fixing trees 

(NFTs) and select the most appropriate species for given conditions. The Cooperative Planting Program (CPP) is used by 

scientists throughout Asia and the Pacific to test NFTs. NFTA 

has over 240 trials with scientists at locales, throughout the 

region, including Fiji, Guam, Yap, American and Western Samoa, Tonga, and Papua New Guinea. 

Conclusions 

The dumped research each 

year is having little, if any, effect on arresting the monumental 

degradation of our natural resources. An astronomical amount 

of monies support research that will provide little benefit to 

society. Until most recently, societal issues had little, if any 

priority in national forestry research programs. Over the last 

decade the focus of forestry research is shifting toward these 

issues. Most, if not all, national programs include social forestry 

in the rhetoric. Some even have research programs that address 

this critical issue. But, few allocate sufficient resources to 

understanding the diverse cultural factors of managing or growing a forest. 

More attention and consideration must be given to the 

societal characteristics that complicate the technical aspects of 

forestry. The forestry community knows how to grow trees. We 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

can calculate growth and yield and determine the "best" species 

for a particular climates. But, without a genuine understanding 

of different cultures and how their people view trees, technical 

"fixes" are ineffective at stopping deforestation. 

A concerted effort is needed to collect and share the results 

of forestry research throughout the eastern hemisphere. This 

information must be readily available to forestry professionals in 

every country in the region. 

The Pacific Island countries must be included in all phases 

of the evolution of international and regional forestry research 

programs. It is essential to the health of the region that the island 

countries no longer be viewed as " . . . and the Pacific." 

Research networks based outside the Pacific region are ineffective at coordinating the flow of information among the islands. 

The forestry research community in the Pacific Islands 

would greatly benefit from a coordinated effort to gather and 

share research results. This must include information from 

continental as well as island countries. But, the coordinating 

body and the central repository for the information must be 

located within the Pacific Island countries. The information 

center must serve the needs of the people of the region, and their 

participation in the network is essential to its health. To gain this 

participation, it is critical that the network managers come from 

local communities, for they can better serve the needs of their 

people. But, we all have a vital role to play in sustaining the 

health of our global ecosystem. 

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Management of Tropical Forests for Products and Energy1 


John I. Zerbe2 

Abstract: Tropical forests have always been sources for prized timbers, 

rubber, tannin, and other forest products for use worldwide. However, with the 

recent concern regarding global change, the importance of effective forest 

products management and utilization has increased significantly. The USDA 

Forest Service's Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, has embarked on a new program on the utilization and identification of and research 

on tropical tree species. This new work will be centered at the Laboratory and 

at the Forest Service's Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico. 

The USDA Forest Service's Forest Products Laboratory, at 

Madison, Wisconsin, has started a new program in tropical 

forestry. This utilization program emphasizes the identification 

of wood decay fungi in the tropics, improved drying processes 

for tropical species, and improved sawing of difficult to process 

tropical species. We are also investigating new panel and molded 

products capable of being manufactured with tropical species 

and recycled wood and plastics. We have strengthened our 

research effort in identification of extractives from tropical species. In an effort to permit construction of affordable houses 

with local materials, we are studying construction techniques for 

the tropics. 

Other important work that can lead to improved economic 

opportunities in the tropics includes determination of properties 

and uses of native species and modification of production processes for mixtures of tropical species, utilization of plantation 

species such as eucalyptus for products and energy, and protection of wood under severe exposure conditions such as extreme 

moisture and the Formosan termite. 

This paper describes the new work in tropical forestry 

planned for the Forest Products Laboratory, and in the Forest 

Service's Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico. 

Forest Products for Energy 

That the tropical forests are being destroyed at an alarming 

rate is widely known and accepted. This prompted President 

Bush and the other world leaders at the recent Economic Summit 

in Houston, Texas, to call for a global forest convention or 

agreement to curb deforestation in their July 11,1990,communique. 

The motivation behind tropical forest deforestation is not 

widely understood. Most studies estimate that less than 

20 percent of the deforestation is due to logging for timber. 

Most of the deforestation occurs because of land clearing operations for conversion to other uses such as grazing or agriculture, 

commonly slash and bum agriculture which leads to short-term 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Program Manager-Energy Research, Development and Application, 

Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Madison, WI 53705-2398. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

use followed by desertification. Perhaps some trees are removed 

and utilized, but most are felled and burned to clear the site. 

Although the importance of tropical deforestation is widely 

recognized, the basic reasons behind it are more subtle. The root 

causes of deforestation are primarily social ones: abject poverty, 

population pressure, overwhelmed institutions, and uncontrolled 

development. As a result of these factors, the tropical forests are 

under pressure by indigenous peoples who are forced to resort to 

slash and bum agriculture, by developers who want to convert 

the forests to other uses such as ranching, and by loggers who 

remove but a few commercial species per acre and leave the bulk 

of the trees that are unmarketable to be felled and burned. It is 

important to the world economy that industry, infrastructure, 

and domestic markets be established in developing countries so 

that the wood currently being wasted may be used, and so that 

the productivity of forest lands be sustained. 

Tropical forests can contribute to economic development 

only if they are.used. Furthermore, it is important that these 

forests be used in an efficient and sustainable way, thus providing an economic incentive for their continued management. 

This is where the need for utilization research enters in. 

Tropical forests have always been sources for prized timbers, rubber, tannin, and other forest products for use worldwide. 

However, with the recent concern regarding global change, the 

importance of effective forest products management and utilization has increased significantly. Generally, commodity products 

are the highest value use of the sustainable resource worldwide, 

but industrial usage for energy is becoming more important. 

Traditionally, energy from wood in the form of solid wood or 

charcoal has been the principal source of cooking fuel in the 

tropics, but this use was, and still is, extremely inefficient. 

The reasons why this material is unused are primarily because of the problems associated with utilization. For many 

species, the wood and its properties and suitable methods for 

processing are unknown; consequently it has no value. Improved utilization through research, therefore, can play a key 

role in enhancing the value of the forest and improve its prospects for sustainable management. 

Forest health, productivity, and diminishing fuel wood supplies are becoming issues of international concern in light of the 

perceived impacts of tropical deforestation on global climate 

change. To reverse these deforestation trends, forest resources 

need to be improved, managed, and used. Atmospheric carbon 

dioxide increase may be as much as 3.0 gigatonnes per year as a 

result of deforestation. This compares with 6.6 to 7.0 gigatonnes 

per year from consumption of fossil fuels. Sustainability of 

forests and increases in forest production instead of wasteful 

incineration could reduce carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere through reducing both fossil fuel use and land conversion. Developed countries such as the United States should 

assist in sharing expertise and experience in managing forests 
for sustainability and profitable use of production. As developing countries increase living standards and consume more raw 

materials and manufactured goods, the United States will face 

greater competition in supplying more goods on the world market. This condition requires more knowledge of demand, pricing, international markets and trade, and natural resource policies. 

Needed Research 

Most of the trees are left behind after commercial logging 

because of the many species found on the typical tropical site. 

The common practice is to harvest only the highest value material suitable for traditional products. The properties of wood 

from the remaining trees vary widely and in most cases are not 

known. Research is needed to determine the properties of these 

lesser-known species so that ones with similar properties and 

processing characteristics can be grouped to optimize their processing and use. 

Most of the exported tropical timber is in log form or with 

very low levels of primary processing. This minimizes the 

favorable employment effect that would occur with additional 

domestic processing. Domestic processing and use within the 

originating country is limited because of the low recovery rates 

that are common in tropical areas; wastage is unacceptably high. 

Property and processing research are needed to improve recovery and lower degrade. Research can also lead to the processing 

of woods that are presently unused because of their high density 

and silica content. 

Some tropical species such as rubberwood, coconut, eucalyptus, and teak are currently grown in plantations. These 

plantation-grown trees either do not have a long history of 

utilization for wood products, or have altered properties because 

of their plantation origins. Research is needed to determine the 

properties and optimize the processing and end use of these 

plantation species, thus helping to relieve some of the pressure 

on the natural tropical forests. 

Adequate shelter is a critical need in the tropics, particularly 

after natural disasters. Tropical timbers could play a much more 

active role in providing this shelter if appropriate structural 

designs were available and if grades and standards were available to guide the appropriate use of these timbers. Also needed 

are ways of protecting these structures from biological deterioration, possibly by natural preservatives extracted from naturally 

durable tropical woods. The tropics furnish a fruitful field for 

insect and disease pests to operate. If some species of pests are 

destructive in the temperate zones, they are usually even more so 

in the tropics. And some species, such as the Formosan termite, 

are of concern only in the tropics and sub-tropics. 

Finally, there is the question of domestic energy from wood 

and energy used in processing wood products. Fully a thud of 

the world's population relies on wood for domestic fuel, and in 

some areas, such as Africa, this is a critical need. More efficient 

and appropriate cook stove designs and charcoaling techniques 

can help ease the demand if householders and colliers can be 

convinced of their effectiveness. As more lumber is processed at 

the points of origin, seasoning before shipment will also assume 

more importance. Seasoning of wood consumes considerable 

energy in lumber processing, and more efficient drying processes and alternative forms of energy are needed. 

Planned Action 

The Forest Products Laboratory is proceeding with plans to 

create a Tropical Woods Research Team at the Laboratory with 

some of the scientists located at the Forest Service's Institute of 

Tropical Forestry, in Puerto Rico. The unit is to be given a 

mission to conduct research on the utilization of tropical woods 

and the implementation of this research. The mission will 

extend beyond the utilization problems of the American tropics 

to include all tropical regions. However, initial emphasis will be 

given to the Caribbean and lowland landscapes of Latin America, 

particularly the Amazon basin. 

The research team will focus on tropical wood utilization 

questions and provide vivid evidence of the Forest Service's 

commitment to the broader issues of tropical forest deforestation 

and economic development. It will be highly practical and 

applied and heavily slanted toward training and demonstration, 

possibly with support from the International Tropical Timber 

Organization Fellowships and Small Grants Program (fig. 1).It 

will enable us to offer technical assistance, when needed, and 

will offer the advantage of a fast response, particularly in the 

case of responding to natural disasters. The team will also 

enhance opportunities for research monitoring within the Forest 

Health Monitoring ProgramIFIDR Initiative. Forest Health Monitoring is a focused Forest Service research effort with broad 

participation nationwide. The mycology work in the tropics 

could provide early indication of changing forest health that 

heretofore have been missed. 

Areas of Emphasis 

Research pertinent to tropical forest utilization includes the 

following areas which are anticipated to receive special 

attention. 

Mycology 

Initial efforts will survey the fungi present on the various 

sites. For the first time, we will have an organized study of the 

fungi found in the various tropical ecologies. This will provide 

background information for the selection and enhancement of 

fungi for site rehabilitation and for screening for biotechnological purposes. The expanded Center for Forest Mycology Research collection of wood rotting fungi, which will result, will 

serve as a resource for other scientists and industry who are 

attempting to employ fungi for biotechnological purposes. 

Processing 

Processing research would focus on methods of handling 

the large number of species that are difficult to process because 

of such characteristics as high density and the presence of silica 

(fig. 2). Embodied in this work would be research on metallurgy 

and sawblade design. This would complement our ongoing 

efforts on sawtooth design and the effect of vibration on surface 

quality so it would be of interest to the domestic industry as well. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Figure 1-Training is critically needed in tropical institutes. At the USDA Forest Service's Forest Products Laboratory, a 

scientist from China learns how to use a universal testing machine from a Laboratory specialist. 

Figure 2-Timber is being readied for strength testing at an institute in Brazil. To optimize the processing and intended 

use of lesser-known tree species, research is needed on their properties. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Drying 

Drying research will evaluate the utility of a variety of 

lumber dry kiln types and will develop proper kiln schedules and 

procedures. Species groupings will be evaluated as a presorting 

procedure to cope with the large number of species to be handled. 

Composites 

In the composites area, research will evaluate the feasibility 

of mixtures of tropical hardwoods as furnish for a variety of 

panel products and shaped sections for furniture and other local 

uses. Board investigations will include the feasibility of using 

mineral binders for producing a naturally durable panel for use 

in tropical applications. Also included here are evaluations of 

chemical modification of the fibers or particles so as to optimize 

the properties of the finished board or shaped product. 

Wood Properties 

Research will evaluate the anatomical and mechanical properties of the lesser known species to aid in their utilization. 

Additional research will evaluate other characteristics such as 

shrinkage, density, silica content, grain characteristics, appearance, and possible extractives from naturally durable trees that 

might be synthesized to produce protective compounds such as 

for sapstain control. 

Grading 

Alternative visual and automated grading systems will be 

developed to introduce species-independent grading. Such systems are necessary to handle the large numbers of species that 

will be handled at the typical small sawmill in the tropics. The 

development of alternative grading technology that is more suitable 

for a small sawmill would have domestic application as well. 

Construction 

Research here will focus on expanding the use of native 

species for much needed housing through the development of 

construction guidelines and design. Wood has natural advantages for such uses as in roof systems when we develop the 

appropriate truss designs. Also included here are designs and 

treatments to protect the structure. 

Strength values are not critical for housing. But as strength 

values are determined for the various species or groups of species we can anticipate expanded use of these species in more 

engineered systems such as light industrial and commercial 

construction and timber bridges. Greater acceptance of wood in 

construction could expand the demand for domestic woods as well. 

Economics 

Overlaying all of this work is the need for economic feasibility analyses of new and emerging products and processes. 

Economic assistance is also needed to evaluate the domestic 

supply implications and international trade prospects as more of 

the lesser known species achieve commercial importance. We 

foresee a basis for effective trade and use of American wood 

products and processing equipment in tropical forest development and utilization. 

Approach 

We will start this new program through problem analysis or 

an integrated array of problem analyses on tropical wood utilization problems. As the work progresses it will probably involve 

outside researchers, especially those in the tropics. Tropical 

research institutions would undoubtedly have much to contribute. 

The new unit for work on the problem at the Forest Products 

Laboratory will require the addition of three staff. Two of the 

positions will be located at the Institute of Tropical Forestry. 

They will probably consist of a Forest Mycologist and a Forest 

Products Technologist with a broad general background. The 

third position is that of the Tropical Forestry Manager, who will 

supervise the two positions located in Puerto Rico and provide 

day-to-day management of the entire team. 

In all of this work, the need to respond to severe deforestation of lands throughout the tropics, and reverse serious adverse 

environmental impacts is the driving force. This is a long 

overdue step in the right direction. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Holistic Forest and Wildlife Management in 


Hawaii-Is It P~ssible?~ 

Michael G. Buck2 

Abstract: Land management agencies face a highly introspective period. 

"New perspectives," "new forestry," and "holistic management" are all terms 

being used to "define" a different way of managing natural resources-a 

recognition that people are not satisfied with the status quo. As the population 

of Hawaii grows, the expectations of forest and wildlife resources are increasing. Along with this increase comes the management complexity generated by 

competing and often conflicting uses. What is holistic natural resource management? Is it possible in Hawaii? And how can we do it? 

Holism is the principle that a part is understandable only in 

relationship to the whole. It is a very simple concept, but how 

can it be used to help better manage our forest and wildlife 

resources in Hawaii? Let us consider this opportunity in a series 

of four questions: (1) What is holistic management? (2) Is it 

possible to do in Hawaii? (3) Are we doing it now? and (4) What 

needs to happen? This paper seeks to answer these questions. 

What Is It? 

Land management agencies face a highly introspective period. "New perspectives," "new forestry," "holistic management" are all terms being used to "define" a different way of 

managing natural resources-a recognition that people are not 

satisfied with the status quo. The management of forest and 

wildlife resources has become a controversial subject, with much 

emotional and, at times, polarized debate. Special interest groups 

are numerous and vocal. Litigation has become a commonly 

used tool to influence government programs. Shifts in social 

values are calling for more responsive and aggressive natural 

resource management programs. 

The forestry profession especially has been held up to public scrutiny. The Society of American Foresters, in its May 1991 

issue, Journal of Forestry, introduced a "new" land ethic to deal 

with the changing times for its members to review. The new 

land ethic considered "entire forest ecosyÂ¥stemsrather than just 

forest land. It stressed "maintenance and enhancement of the 

productivity and integrityof forest land and associated resources 

over time" It also addressed "sustainable production of goods 

and other resource values." Well, all these warm, soft, and 

fuzzy buzzwords made me feel better about the concept of 

holistic management, but didn't exactly provide a road map for 

how to do it. 

Looking for insight, I moved to the next article in the 

Journal on sustainability. "Ah ha," I said, "here will be the 

An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congreiis, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

^Administrator, Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Hawaii Department of 

Land and Natural Resources, Honolulu, HI 96813. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

answer" -but lo and behold there were eight different types of 

sustainability. My heart dropped but I read on. The first four 

types were actually product mixes ranging from a dominant 

product to a global village concept with community and human 

benefit sustainability concepts sandwiched between. Following 

were four ecosystem sustainability concepts starting with self 

sufficient, then ecosystem type, and then ecosystem insurance. 

It ended at ecosystem-centered sustainability, which basically is 

a "live and let live but don't touch" concept. This all led to more 

confusion but brought clarity to the definition of what is holistic 

natural resource management? 

Idon't really know what holistic natural resource management is, but aren't we spending too much time trying to define it? 

I do know what it isn't and there are definitive symptoms that 

indicate when you are not on the right track. I also feel confident 

we'll know when we get there or at least moving in the right 

direction. 

Is It Possible to Do It? 

It is possible, and Hawaii has the potential to be a world 

leader. Hawaii, America's only tropical state, has the eighth 

largest State-owned forest and natural area reserve system in the 

United States. Within this system is a full range of tropical 

ecosystems, including lowland and montane rain forests, and 

some of the world's most unique examples of tropical biodiversity, 

much of it endangered. The State of Hawaii has historically 

recognized the importance of its tropical forest watersheds and is 

committed to managing them wisely. The Division of Forestry 

and Wildlife is one of the only integrated forest and wildlife 

agencies in the United States, bringing together managers of the 

species and the habitat. Cooperation and communication between Federal and State agencies has greatly improved, increasing effectiveness of limited resource management funds. 

Private agencies such as the Nature Conservancy and the 

National Tropical Botanical Gardens are making significant 

contributions and commitment to Hawaii. Vehicles have been 

established for increased management of private lands with the 

passage of the Forest Stewardship and Natural Areas Partnership 

legislation, providing cost-sharing monies to private landowners 

who enter into long-term management agreements with the State. 

Finally, Hawaii's people are concerned with the future of the 

state's forest watersheds, which is reflected in increasing natural 

resource management budgets. 
Are We Doing It Now? 

We have made an excellent start and are improving, but still 

have a way to go. I won't list all our recent successes, which are 

many, but focus on some very disturbing symptoms that still exist: 

Communication is poor to non-existent between many 

special interests groups. 

Litigation is a way of life, wasting valuable resources that 

could be better used on the ground, not in the courts. 

Endangered species are still being lost. Some cannot be 

helped, based on historic loss of habitat and small gene 

pools, but new management paradigms could stem this 

trend. 

Natural resource productivity is still being degraded as 

the silt-flooded reefs of Molokai and the conversion of 

valuable koa forest land in Kona demonstrate. 

Private landowners are distrustful and becoming alienated by the process of public involvement in natural 

resource management issues. 

A renewable resource and sustained yield ethic is lacking. 

Many citizens and political leaders do not understand that 

natural resources, if managed wisely, can and need to be 

harvested to provide essential benefits. 

What Needs to Happen? 

Although the road map to holistic forestry and wildlife 

management in Hawaii is not completed, we will continue to 

move in the right direction if the following needs are addressed: 

1. The battle for the budget dollar is the first major hurdle 

for any management agency. Holistic management would 

indicate that there should be a direct connection between 

the use of natural resources and the funds needed to 

manage and sustain those resources. Water has long 

been recognized as the most important resource of 

Hawaii's forest lands. Mountain watersheds are the 

source of water for the majority of the islands' developed 

urban, industrial, and agricultural areas. The monies 

available for watershed management dwarfs in relationship to the value of the product being used. Tourism is 

another example of where the use of and impact on forest 

and wildlife resources are not directly connected with 

the management of those resources. Beautiful landscapes, hiking, and other outdoor recreational opportunities attract many tourists who want to see the "real" Hawaii. 

2. Holistic management should recognize the difference 

between public and private land and exploit it. Public 

and private land owners have different clienteles, time 

perspectives, and accountability concerns. At times, 

benefits for the public good will outweigh short-term 

economic concerns. Yet, availability of carrots (e.g., tax 

incentives, cost sharing programs) will have a longer 

lasting effect than the judicious use or threat of the stick 

(e.g., condemnation, law suits). Coercing people to 

comply with laws with penalties for non-compliance is a 

poor motivator of action. People do better when pulled 

by incentives rather than pushed by regulations or penalties. The amount and distribution of private land in 

Hawaii offers potential to create effective buffer zones 

and habitat corridors for public lands managed for 

native ecosystems. 

3. More opportunities for Hawaii's people to participate in 

managing their own natural resources are needed. Meaningful volunteer programs need to be expanded. The 

University of Hawaii should develop a natural resource 

management curriculum so graduates can qualify for 

professional jobs in Hawaii. Holistic management recognizes that a sense of ownership is a powerful tool. 

4. Applied research that is directly applicable to forestry 

and wildlife management must be accelerated. We need 

to work on the full spectrum of land uses ranging from 

agroforestry to koa silviculture to conservation biology. 

Holistic management recognizes that a little knowledge 

can be dangerous but better than none at all. 

5. Holistic management recognizes that time and monies 

spent in court mean less time and money in the field. 

Better forums for communication, such as demonstration areas, town meetings, and newsletters, are needed to 

regain public trust and allow the professionals to get 

down to the business of managing land. 

If America hopes to inspire the world to greater efforts to 

manage its tropical forest and wildlife resources, it must surely 

set a good example. Hawaii, America's only tropical state, 

could be a model for demonstrations of sustainable tropical land 

use systems, ranging from conservation biology to agroforestry, 

and provide a valuable training and extension resource for tropical land managers. The accomplishments over the last 10 years 

indicate we are on the right road and heading in the right 

direction. Let's continue and have the holistic accomplishments 

guide the holistic rhetoric. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
The South Pacific Forestry Development Programme1 


Tang Hon Tat2 

Abstract; Only a few countries in the South Pacific are large enough for 

industrial forestry to be a key component of the national economy, but forests 

provide benefits to many people. The United Nations FA0 South PacificForestry 

Development Programme was established in April 1988, at Port Vila, Vanuatu, 

with a $385,000 budget, and 14 nations participating. The Programme's aim is 

to "upgrade the status of forestry in the participating countries." The Programme, 

which extended to December 1991 with a budget totaling $1,046,121, has 

carried out a variety of development activities, including training, documentation, resource assessments, and species trials. Extension of the Programme 

beyond 1991 has not yet been decided. A number of projects that it could 

support have been proposed. 

The countries in the South Pacific region vary considerably 

in land area, population, per capita income, and national and 

forestry development. Only a few countries, e.g., Papua New 

Guinea, Solomon Islands and Fiji, are large enough for industrial 

forestry to be an important component of their national economy. 

Most other countries are too small for industrial forestry to be 

practiced, and much of their timber requirements have to be 

imported. 

Nevertheless, forests and trees play an important and even 

critical role in the socio-economic well-being of the societies in 

all countries in the region. Among other benefits, they provide 

people with shelter, food, fuel, medicinal and other traditional 

by-products. Forests serve to reduce soil erosion; including 

coastal erosion, and regulate water flow and quality. In many 

places, forestry has been integrated into traditional agricultural 

practices. 

In most countries in the region, much of the natural vegetation has been or is being removed. In the larger countries, the 

motivation is usually to generate funds through the sale of logs 

or lumber, or to make way for commercial agriculture or food 

production. In the smaller countries, the motivation is usually 

simply to use the land for food production. In either case, the rate 

and methods of deforestation or devegetation have prompted 

concern over the long-term sustainability of forest resources and 

land for agriculture production, over the impacts on water 

resources, and ultimately, over, the quality of life of the people. 

Forestry is usually accorded relatively low priority in most of 

the countries of the South Pacific region, particularly vis-a-vis 

the allocation of manpower and funds by governments. Forestry 

is also outside the effective ambit of the existing regional 

agencies, i.e., the South Pacific Commission (SPC), which is 

involved in agriculture development in the region, Forum 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Project Coordinator, United Nations FA0 South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, Port Vila, Vanuatu. 

Secretariet, or the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program (SPREP). Further, the provision of proper forestry support 

is often hampered by the land tenure system, under which land 

tends to belong largely to communities rather than the State or 

individuals. Although the priority rating for forestry may be 

improved as the negative impacts of reduced forest and tree 

cover are felt, it is unlikely that the countries will be able to 

afford the additional funds and manpower required to reduce, if 

not reverse, these impacts. 

Despite these difficulties facing the "forests and trees sector," 

much can be done to improve the contribution of forests and 

trees to the general well-being of peoples in the region. One 

obvious way to do this is by harnessing the collective efforts, 

knowledge, and experience in the individual countries and 

sharing them among other countries in the region, and by 

regional collaboration in activities like training and research. 

This is particularly important because of the small size and wide 

geographical dispersion of the countries in the region, and of the 

many past, and on-going, bi-lateral aid programmes which 

would otherwise restrict their benefits to only a few countries. 

Attempts to achieve greater regional cooperation have been 

mainly in the form of occasional ad hoc training courses, 

meetings, and seminars (Yabaki and others 1983), which invariably reiterated the need for further such cooperation. New 

Zealand has tried to fill this need by appointing its own regional 

forester, and Australia has also been urged to appoint a regional 

forester for the Pacific (Cameron 1986). However, no one 

country is able or willing to bear the cost of providing the level 

of regional services required. 

In 1986, an Asia Pacific Forestry Research Directors' meeting in Honolulu recommended the formation of a Pacific Islands 

Forestry Council to "assist national forestry agencies and other 

forestry related organisations in the Pacific region obtain and 

share scientific and technical information needed for forest 

resource development, protection and management." But no 

further action on this recommendation was taken because of the 

proposal to establish a South Pacific Forestry Development 

Programme, which was designated as RASl861036. 

This paper describes the development and outlines the history of the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme. 

Formation of the Program 

Because of the growing need for assistance to the forestry 

sector in the region, a proposal to establish a South Pacific 

Forestry Development Programme was tabled by United Nations Development Program at the forum of National Aid 

Coordinators of Pacific Islands Developing Countries in Suva, 

Fiji, in February 1986. It was then included in the list of priority 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
projects identified by the meeting. The project proposal was 

later discussed at a South Pacific Heads of Agriculture meeting 

in September 1986 in Apia, which suggested that this development project should, as far as possible, serve the needs of small 

island countries, assist countries organize forest resources databases, and assist in encouraging the utilization of coconut wood. 

Other on-going or pipeline regional projects with related 

objects then were: 

RASl861032: for coconut wood utilization (pipeline) 

RASl861035: Development of Agricultural Statistics 

RASl861048: Asia Pacific Forest Industries Development 

Group based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

RASl861144, Improved Government Information Systems 

In December 1987, establishment of the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme was approved by United Nations Development Program and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) with an allocation of $385,000 for a 2-year 

duration. The Programme was based in Port Vila, Vanuatu, with 

14 participating countries: Cook Islands, Federated States of 

Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, 

Samoa (Western), Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, 

and Vanuatu. It was launched with the arrival of the project 

coordinator in April 1988. In April 1989, the Programme's 

budget was increased to over $500,000. The Programme's longterm objective is to "upgrade the status of forestry development 

in the participating countries, and thereby contribute to the 

socio-economic well-being of the peoples of the South Pacific." 

1988 - 90 The First Two Years 

Among the activities undertaken by the Programme during 

its first 2 years were: 

Preparation of formats for collection and assessment of 

forestry data by participating countries (Field Document 

No. I), and use of the formats for four selected project 

countries (in preparation) 

Study of use of forests in Vanuatu and Tonga (in preparation) 

Training courses in coconut wood utilization (3-13 April 

1989, Tonga, 15 participants from nine countries); and 

forest sector planning (3-21 July 1989, Vanuatu, 1 1 participants from eight countries. The latter was organized and 

funded jointly by the Programme and the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB)). 

Funding of participants from Programme countries to relevant training courses, study tours and meetings 

Publication and dissemination of Project News (two issues in 1990) 

1990 to 1991 (21 months) 

In view of the initial budget constraints and wide geographical dispersion of Programme countries, the implementation of 

Programme activities required considerable lead time. Subsequently, the Programme was extended for another 21 months to 

December 1991, i.e., the end of current UNDP 5-year budget 

cycle, with an additional budget of about $500,000, bringing the 

total budget to $1,046,121. 

Among the activities implemented during this period (to 

date) were: 

Training course on remote sensing (23-27 July 1990, Noumea; 

five participants from two countries) 

Convening of South Pacific Heads of Forestry (HoF) meeting (26-28 November 1990, Suva, Fiji; attended by 8 HoF 

and 6 to 10 forestry or related agencies); and a Tripartite 

Review (TPR) of the Programme by Heads of Forestry (the 

previous TPR had been carried out by Heads of Agriculture, 

because of financial constraints) 

Preliminary study of manpower and training needs in 

Programme countries (report in preparation) 

Assessment of use of forest products by village comrnunities in Vanuatu (report in preparation) 

Trial planting of commercially valuable rattans (Calamus 

caesius, C. manan, C. spp.) in six selected Programme 

countries (report in preparation); and 

Publication of a quarterly South Pacific forestry newsletter 

Among other activities planned for the rest of 1991 are: 

A review mission on the forestry staffing and training needs 

and facilities in the region. This review was identified as a 

high priority activity by the 1990 HoF meeting and is aimed 

at proposing a realistic forestry training strategy and 

programme for the countries in the region. It is being jointly 

funded by the USDA Forest Service, the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB) and the 

Programme. The review will take 2 to 3 months, starting in 

June 1991. 

A study tour of forestry (particularly community, agro, and 

social forestry, high quality timber plantations, and nonwood forest products) activities in Indonesia and Malaysia 

for senior forestry personnel from the region. This would 

be in August 1991, and participants will be funded by the 

Programme and various aid agencies in the region. 

A Heads of Forestry and TPR meeting in early October 

1991. The venue, actual dates, and agenda are being finalized. 

A training course on occupational health and safety in the 

logging and small/portable sawmill industries. This would 

be held over 2 weeks in September-October 1991 in Fiji in 

collaboration with the International Labour Organisation 

(LO) /Fiji Ministry of Forests Forestry Training School. 

Publications on various aspects of agro-forestry and tree 

planting in the region through the use of authors' contracts. 

Compilation of forest plantation data and experience in the 

region in collaboration with the USDA Forest Service. 

Further development of the South Pacific forestry newsletter. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Several other activities, e.g., training courses in negotiation 

and communication skills, and in agro-forestry (in collaboration 

with the (German Technical Assistance Program) GTZIFiji 

Forestry Extension Project); compilation of land use experiences vis-a-vis forestry development in the region, etc., identified by the 1990 HoF meeting for implementation may have to 

be kept in abeyance in view of financial constraints. 

Extension of the Programme 

The further extension of the Programme beyond 1991 has not 

yet been decided. On the basis of experience gained to date, the 

following considerations should be borne in mind for any future 

support or assistance to the forestry sector in the region: 

Direct involvement of participating agencies in determining 

Programme activities and priorities. 

One major drawback of the current Programme was the lack 

of funds to convene a Heads of Forestry meeting early in the 

Programme's life to discuss and determine the nature, scope, and 

priorities of activities. The usefulness and importance of such a 

meeting in fostering closer rapport, cooperation, collaboration 

and, perhaps even more important, a sense of involvement and 

participation among forestry agencies and foresters in the region, was clearly demonstrated by the 1990 HoF meeting in Suva. 

The need for and importance of such a meeting is accentuated 

by the large number of countries in the region, each with its own 

national forestry priorities, and the invariably limited financial 

and manpower resources of the Programme. The meeting would 

be the best forum to discuss and decide on the optimal allocation 

of these resources. 

As recommended by that meeting, another HoF meeting is 

scheduled for 1991, and every effort should be made to convene 

this meeting annually. These meetings should involve all 

interested countries in the region, and not only Programme 

countries. 

Provision of regular technical support services. 

The small size of most countries in the region makes it 

unrealistic for them to develop capability in the various forestry 

or related fields, e.g., natural forest management, plantation 

forest development, forest products utilization, agrolcommunity forestry, and research and development. However, there is 

an urgent need for such capability or expertise in all countries in 

order to develop and enhance the contribution of the forest and 

tree sectors to their respective economies. 

This expertise can be effectively provided by a core of 

suitably qualified and experienced persons, through a regional 

forestry project. As continuity and personal rapport with local 

counterparts is a critical element of such technical support, this 

should be provided by full-time project staff instead of by 

visiting consultants, who should be brought in to provide more 

specialized support when the need arises. 

Areas of Support 

Five main areas proposed for support by the program would be: 

1. Natural forests management, development, conservation, 

and policy: This includes providing advice or studies on 

the above subjects, especially vis-a-vis national development plans and priorities, and watershed and environmental considerations. 

2. Forest and tree resources development: This includes the 

establishment of species and provenance trials of multiple-purpose and high quality timber species for either 

local or industrial uses; development of rattans, bamboos 

and other non-wood forest products (e.g., honey, medicinal plants, essential oils, dyes, etc.) and of appropriate 

agro- and community-forestry systems; etc. Pilot trial 

plantings should be encouraged in selected countries, and 

used for training purposes, probably on sub-regional bases. 

3. Forest and tree resources utilization: This includes the 

adaptation of appropriate harvesting, processing, and marketing systems and technology for timber from natural 

forests, plantations, coconut stems, and other sources, as 

well as for non-wood forest or tree products, e.g., bamboo, 

rattan, etc. Particular emphasis is needed on proper logging and small sawmill practices, including basic training 

and technical support on selection, use, maintenance and 

repairs of equipment; processing (including treatment) of 

rattans, bamboo, and other similar materials into furniture, 

and handicrafts. 

4. Information processing, collection, and exchange: This 

activity has been initiated, but requires the active support 

of all countries in order to be usefully sustained. The 

regional forestry newsletter recently published by the 

Programme can and should promote closer comrnunication among foresters and forestry agencies in the region. 

Other means of achieving this object are through the 

Project Field Document series of publications, authors' 

contracts, and meetings of Heads of Forestry (already 

started), other operational staff and research personnel (to 

be started). 

5. Institutional development: The provision of adequate 

numbers of suitably trained and experienced staff in all 

countries is critical to the sustained and proper management, utilization, and development of the forest and tree 

resources in the region. In view of the small size of most 

countries in the region, this can be best provided through a 

realistic, long-term, and regional staff training and development strategy and programme. The three-person review mission mentioned above should lay the foundation 

for this object. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
No single agency can provide all the support needed in the 

Pacific Southwest region. Therefore, all aid-donor agencies 

must work closely, not only to ensure that their aid resources are 

not wasted on duplicative activities, but perhaps even more 

important, to try to achieve synergism through their coordinated 

collective efforts. The value of such coordination and collaboration has been demonstrated by the joint activities undertaken 

by the Programme and AIDAB, USDA Forest Service, International Labor Organization (ILO), and GTZ. But much much 

more can and must be achieved through further similar cooperation. 

References 

Cameron, D.M. 1986. Report on "Seeds of Australian Trees for Developing 

Countries" visit to Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, 

and the Solomon Islands, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research organization (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia. 

Yabaki, K.T.; Yauieb A.M.D.; Doliano, E.; Bennett, R.M. 1983. Development 

and management of forestry in the Pacific. Proposals for regional cooperation. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 

Suva, Fiji. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Management of Tropical Forests for Products and Energy1 


John I. Zerbe2 

Abstract: Tropical forests have always been sources for prized timbers, 

rubber, tannin, and other forest products for use worldwide. However, with the 

recent concern regarding global change, the importance of effective forest 

products management and utilization has increased significantly. The USDA 

Forest Service's Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, has embarked on a new program on the utilization and identification of and research 

on tropical tree species. This new work will be centered at the Laboratory and 

at the Forest Service's Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico. 

The USDA Forest Service's Forest Products Laboratory, at 

Madison, Wisconsin, has started a new program in tropical 

forestry. This utilization program emphasizes the identification 

of wood decay fungi in the tropics, improved drying processes 

for tropical species, and improved sawing of difficult to process 

tropical species. We are also investigating new panel and molded 

products capable of being manufactured with tropical species 

and recycled wood and plastics. We have strengthened our 

research effort in identification of extractives from tropical species. In an effort to permit construction of affordable houses 

with local materials, we are studying construction techniques for 

the tropics. 

Other important work that can lead to improved economic 

opportunities in the tropics includes determination of properties 

and uses of native species and modification of production processes for mixtures of tropical species, utilization of plantation 

species such as eucalyptus for products and energy, and protection of wood under severe exposure conditions such as extreme 

moisture and the Formosan termite. 

This paper describes the new work in tropical forestry 

planned for the Forest Products Laboratory, and in the Forest 

Service's Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico. 

Forest Products for Energy 

That the tropical forests are being destroyed at an alarming 

rate is widely known and accepted. This prompted President 

Bush and the other world leaders at the recent Economic Summit 

in Houston, Texas, to call for a global forest convention or 

agreement to curb deforestation in their July 11,1990,communique. 

The motivation behind tropical forest deforestation is not 

widely understood. Most studies estimate that less than 

20 percent of the deforestation is due to logging for timber. 

Most of the deforestation occurs because of land clearing operations for conversion to other uses such as grazing or agriculture, 

commonly slash and bum agriculture which leads to short-term 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Program Manager-Energy Research, Development and Application, 

Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Madison, WI 53705-2398. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

use followed by desertification. Perhaps some trees are removed 

and utilized, but most are felled and burned to clear the site. 

Although the importance of tropical deforestation is widely 

recognized, the basic reasons behind it are more subtle. The root 

causes of deforestation are primarily social ones: abject poverty, 

population pressure, overwhelmed institutions, and uncontrolled 

development. As a result of these factors, the tropical forests are 

under pressure by indigenous peoples who are forced to resort to 

slash and bum agriculture, by developers who want to convert 

the forests to other uses such as ranching, and by loggers who 

remove but a few commercial species per acre and leave the bulk 

of the trees that are unmarketable to be felled and burned. It is 

important to the world economy that industry, infrastructure, 

and domestic markets be established in developing countries so 

that the wood currently being wasted may be used, and so that 

the productivity of forest lands be sustained. 

Tropical forests can contribute to economic development 

only if they are.used. Furthermore, it is important that these 

forests be used in an efficient and sustainable way, thus providing an economic incentive for their continued management. 

This is where the need for utilization research enters in. 

Tropical forests have always been sources for prized timbers, rubber, tannin, and other forest products for use worldwide. 

However, with the recent concern regarding global change, the 

importance of effective forest products management and utilization has increased significantly. Generally, commodity products 

are the highest value use of the sustainable resource worldwide, 

but industrial usage for energy is becoming more important. 

Traditionally, energy from wood in the form of solid wood or 

charcoal has been the principal source of cooking fuel in the 

tropics, but this use was, and still is, extremely inefficient. 

The reasons why this material is unused are primarily because of the problems associated with utilization. For many 

species, the wood and its properties and suitable methods for 

processing are unknown; consequently it has no value. Improved utilization through research, therefore, can play a key 

role in enhancing the value of the forest and improve its prospects for sustainable management. 

Forest health, productivity, and diminishing fuel wood supplies are becoming issues of international concern in light of the 

perceived impacts of tropical deforestation on global climate 

change. To reverse these deforestation trends, forest resources 

need to be improved, managed, and used. Atmospheric carbon 

dioxide increase may be as much as 3.0 gigatonnes per year as a 

result of deforestation. This compares with 6.6 to 7.0 gigatonnes 

per year from consumption of fossil fuels. Sustainability of 

forests and increases in forest production instead of wasteful 

incineration could reduce carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere through reducing both fossil fuel use and land conversion. Developed countries such as the United States should 

assist in sharing expertise and experience in managing forests 
for sustainability and profitable use of production. As developing countries increase living standards and consume more raw 

materials and manufactured goods, the United States will face 

greater competition in supplying more goods on the world market. This condition requires more knowledge of demand, pricing, international markets and trade, and natural resource policies. 

Needed Research 

Most of the trees are left behind after commercial logging 

because of the many species found on the typical tropical site. 

The common practice is to harvest only the highest value material suitable for traditional products. The properties of wood 

from the remaining trees vary widely and in most cases are not 

known. Research is needed to determine the properties of these 

lesser-known species so that ones with similar properties and 

processing characteristics can be grouped to optimize their processing and use. 

Most of the exported tropical timber is in log form or with 

very low levels of primary processing. This minimizes the 

favorable employment effect that would occur with additional 

domestic processing. Domestic processing and use within the 

originating country is limited because of the low recovery rates 

that are common in tropical areas; wastage is unacceptably high. 

Property and processing research are needed to improve recovery and lower degrade. Research can also lead to the processing 

of woods that are presently unused because of their high density 

and silica content. 

Some tropical species such as rubberwood, coconut, eucalyptus, and teak are currently grown in plantations. These 

plantation-grown trees either do not have a long history of 

utilization for wood products, or have altered properties because 

of their plantation origins. Research is needed to determine the 

properties and optimize the processing and end use of these 

plantation species, thus helping to relieve some of the pressure 

on the natural tropical forests. 

Adequate shelter is a critical need in the tropics, particularly 

after natural disasters. Tropical timbers could play a much more 

active role in providing this shelter if appropriate structural 

designs were available and if grades and standards were available to guide the appropriate use of these timbers. Also needed 

are ways of protecting these structures from biological deterioration, possibly by natural preservatives extracted from naturally 

durable tropical woods. The tropics furnish a fruitful field for 

insect and disease pests to operate. If some species of pests are 

destructive in the temperate zones, they are usually even more so 

in the tropics. And some species, such as the Formosan termite, 

are of concern only in the tropics and sub-tropics. 

Finally, there is the question of domestic energy from wood 

and energy used in processing wood products. Fully a thud of 

the world's population relies on wood for domestic fuel, and in 

some areas, such as Africa, this is a critical need. More efficient 

and appropriate cook stove designs and charcoaling techniques 

can help ease the demand if householders and colliers can be 

convinced of their effectiveness. As more lumber is processed at 

the points of origin, seasoning before shipment will also assume 

more importance. Seasoning of wood consumes considerable 

energy in lumber processing, and more efficient drying processes and alternative forms of energy are needed. 

Planned Action 

The Forest Products Laboratory is proceeding with plans to 

create a Tropical Woods Research Team at the Laboratory with 

some of the scientists located at the Forest Service's Institute of 

Tropical Forestry, in Puerto Rico. The unit is to be given a 

mission to conduct research on the utilization of tropical woods 

and the implementation of this research. The mission will 

extend beyond the utilization problems of the American tropics 

to include all tropical regions. However, initial emphasis will be 

given to the Caribbean and lowland landscapes of Latin America, 

particularly the Amazon basin. 

The research team will focus on tropical wood utilization 

questions and provide vivid evidence of the Forest Service's 

commitment to the broader issues of tropical forest deforestation 

and economic development. It will be highly practical and 

applied and heavily slanted toward training and demonstration, 

possibly with support from the International Tropical Timber 

Organization Fellowships and Small Grants Program (fig. 1).It 

will enable us to offer technical assistance, when needed, and 

will offer the advantage of a fast response, particularly in the 

case of responding to natural disasters. The team will also 

enhance opportunities for research monitoring within the Forest 

Health Monitoring ProgramIFIDR Initiative. Forest Health Monitoring is a focused Forest Service research effort with broad 

participation nationwide. The mycology work in the tropics 

could provide early indication of changing forest health that 

heretofore have been missed. 

Areas of Emphasis 

Research pertinent to tropical forest utilization includes the 

following areas which are anticipated to receive special 

attention. 

Mycology 

Initial efforts will survey the fungi present on the various 

sites. For the first time, we will have an organized study of the 

fungi found in the various tropical ecologies. This will provide 

background information for the selection and enhancement of 

fungi for site rehabilitation and for screening for biotechnological purposes. The expanded Center for Forest Mycology Research collection of wood rotting fungi, which will result, will 

serve as a resource for other scientists and industry who are 

attempting to employ fungi for biotechnological purposes. 

Processing 

Processing research would focus on methods of handling 

the large number of species that are difficult to process because 

of such characteristics as high density and the presence of silica 

(fig. 2). Embodied in this work would be research on metallurgy 

and sawblade design. This would complement our ongoing 

efforts on sawtooth design and the effect of vibration on surface 

quality so it would be of interest to the domestic industry as well. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Figure 1-Training is critically needed in tropical institutes. At the USDA Forest Service's Forest Products Laboratory, a 

scientist from China learns how to use a universal testing machine from a Laboratory specialist. 

Figure 2-Timber is being readied for strength testing at an institute in Brazil. To optimize the processing and intended 

use of lesser-known tree species, research is needed on their properties. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Drying 

Drying research will evaluate the utility of a variety of 

lumber dry kiln types and will develop proper kiln schedules and 

procedures. Species groupings will be evaluated as a presorting 

procedure to cope with the large number of species to be handled. 

Composites 

In the composites area, research will evaluate the feasibility 

of mixtures of tropical hardwoods as furnish for a variety of 

panel products and shaped sections for furniture and other local 

uses. Board investigations will include the feasibility of using 

mineral binders for producing a naturally durable panel for use 

in tropical applications. Also included here are evaluations of 

chemical modification of the fibers or particles so as to optimize 

the properties of the finished board or shaped product. 

Wood Properties 

Research will evaluate the anatomical and mechanical properties of the lesser known species to aid in their utilization. 

Additional research will evaluate other characteristics such as 

shrinkage, density, silica content, grain characteristics, appearance, and possible extractives from naturally durable trees that 

might be synthesized to produce protective compounds such as 

for sapstain control. 

Grading 

Alternative visual and automated grading systems will be 

developed to introduce species-independent grading. Such systems are necessary to handle the large numbers of species that 

will be handled at the typical small sawmill in the tropics. The 

development of alternative grading technology that is more suitable 

for a small sawmill would have domestic application as well. 

Construction 

Research here will focus on expanding the use of native 

species for much needed housing through the development of 

construction guidelines and design. Wood has natural advantages for such uses as in roof systems when we develop the 

appropriate truss designs. Also included here are designs and 

treatments to protect the structure. 

Strength values are not critical for housing. But as strength 

values are determined for the various species or groups of species we can anticipate expanded use of these species in more 

engineered systems such as light industrial and commercial 

construction and timber bridges. Greater acceptance of wood in 

construction could expand the demand for domestic woods as well. 

Economics 

Overlaying all of this work is the need for economic feasibility analyses of new and emerging products and processes. 

Economic assistance is also needed to evaluate the domestic 

supply implications and international trade prospects as more of 

the lesser known species achieve commercial importance. We 

foresee a basis for effective trade and use of American wood 

products and processing equipment in tropical forest development and utilization. 

Approach 

We will start this new program through problem analysis or 

an integrated array of problem analyses on tropical wood utilization problems. As the work progresses it will probably involve 

outside researchers, especially those in the tropics. Tropical 

research institutions would undoubtedly have much to contribute. 

The new unit for work on the problem at the Forest Products 

Laboratory will require the addition of three staff. Two of the 

positions will be located at the Institute of Tropical Forestry. 

They will probably consist of a Forest Mycologist and a Forest 

Products Technologist with a broad general background. The 

third position is that of the Tropical Forestry Manager, who will 

supervise the two positions located in Puerto Rico and provide 

day-to-day management of the entire team. 

In all of this work, the need to respond to severe deforestation of lands throughout the tropics, and reverse serious adverse 

environmental impacts is the driving force. This is a long 

overdue step in the right direction. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Holistic Forest and Wildlife Management in 


Hawaii-Is It P~ssible?~ 

Michael G. Buck2 

Abstract: Land management agencies face a highly introspective period. 

"New perspectives," "new forestry," and "holistic management" are all terms 

being used to "define" a different way of managing natural resources-a 

recognition that people are not satisfied with the status quo. As the population 

of Hawaii grows, the expectations of forest and wildlife resources are increasing. Along with this increase comes the management complexity generated by 

competing and often conflicting uses. What is holistic natural resource management? Is it possible in Hawaii? And how can we do it? 

Holism is the principle that a part is understandable only in 

relationship to the whole. It is a very simple concept, but how 

can it be used to help better manage our forest and wildlife 

resources in Hawaii? Let us consider this opportunity in a series 

of four questions: (1) What is holistic management? (2) Is it 

possible to do in Hawaii? (3) Are we doing it now? and (4) What 

needs to happen? This paper seeks to answer these questions. 

What Is It? 

Land management agencies face a highly introspective period. "New perspectives," "new forestry," "holistic management" are all terms being used to "define" a different way of 

managing natural resources-a recognition that people are not 

satisfied with the status quo. The management of forest and 

wildlife resources has become a controversial subject, with much 

emotional and, at times, polarized debate. Special interest groups 

are numerous and vocal. Litigation has become a commonly 

used tool to influence government programs. Shifts in social 

values are calling for more responsive and aggressive natural 

resource management programs. 

The forestry profession especially has been held up to public scrutiny. The Society of American Foresters, in its May 1991 

issue, Journal of Forestry, introduced a "new" land ethic to deal 

with the changing times for its members to review. The new 

land ethic considered "entire forest ecosyÂ¥stemsrather than just 

forest land. It stressed "maintenance and enhancement of the 

productivity and integrityof forest land and associated resources 

over time" It also addressed "sustainable production of goods 

and other resource values." Well, all these warm, soft, and 

fuzzy buzzwords made me feel better about the concept of 

holistic management, but didn't exactly provide a road map for 

how to do it. 

Looking for insight, I moved to the next article in the 

Journal on sustainability. "Ah ha," I said, "here will be the 

An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congreiis, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

^Administrator, Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Hawaii Department of 

Land and Natural Resources, Honolulu, HI 96813. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

answer" -but lo and behold there were eight different types of 

sustainability. My heart dropped but I read on. The first four 

types were actually product mixes ranging from a dominant 

product to a global village concept with community and human 

benefit sustainability concepts sandwiched between. Following 

were four ecosystem sustainability concepts starting with self 

sufficient, then ecosystem type, and then ecosystem insurance. 

It ended at ecosystem-centered sustainability, which basically is 

a "live and let live but don't touch" concept. This all led to more 

confusion but brought clarity to the definition of what is holistic 

natural resource management? 

Idon't really know what holistic natural resource management is, but aren't we spending too much time trying to define it? 

I do know what it isn't and there are definitive symptoms that 

indicate when you are not on the right track. I also feel confident 

we'll know when we get there or at least moving in the right 

direction. 

Is It Possible to Do It? 

It is possible, and Hawaii has the potential to be a world 

leader. Hawaii, America's only tropical state, has the eighth 

largest State-owned forest and natural area reserve system in the 

United States. Within this system is a full range of tropical 

ecosystems, including lowland and montane rain forests, and 

some of the world's most unique examples of tropical biodiversity, 

much of it endangered. The State of Hawaii has historically 

recognized the importance of its tropical forest watersheds and is 

committed to managing them wisely. The Division of Forestry 

and Wildlife is one of the only integrated forest and wildlife 

agencies in the United States, bringing together managers of the 

species and the habitat. Cooperation and communication between Federal and State agencies has greatly improved, increasing effectiveness of limited resource management funds. 

Private agencies such as the Nature Conservancy and the 

National Tropical Botanical Gardens are making significant 

contributions and commitment to Hawaii. Vehicles have been 

established for increased management of private lands with the 

passage of the Forest Stewardship and Natural Areas Partnership 

legislation, providing cost-sharing monies to private landowners 

who enter into long-term management agreements with the State. 

Finally, Hawaii's people are concerned with the future of the 

state's forest watersheds, which is reflected in increasing natural 

resource management budgets. 
Are We Doing It Now? 

We have made an excellent start and are improving, but still 

have a way to go. I won't list all our recent successes, which are 

many, but focus on some very disturbing symptoms that still exist: 

Communication is poor to non-existent between many 

special interests groups. 

Litigation is a way of life, wasting valuable resources that 

could be better used on the ground, not in the courts. 

Endangered species are still being lost. Some cannot be 

helped, based on historic loss of habitat and small gene 

pools, but new management paradigms could stem this 

trend. 

Natural resource productivity is still being degraded as 

the silt-flooded reefs of Molokai and the conversion of 

valuable koa forest land in Kona demonstrate. 

Private landowners are distrustful and becoming alienated by the process of public involvement in natural 

resource management issues. 

A renewable resource and sustained yield ethic is lacking. 

Many citizens and political leaders do not understand that 

natural resources, if managed wisely, can and need to be 

harvested to provide essential benefits. 

What Needs to Happen? 

Although the road map to holistic forestry and wildlife 

management in Hawaii is not completed, we will continue to 

move in the right direction if the following needs are addressed: 

1. The battle for the budget dollar is the first major hurdle 

for any management agency. Holistic management would 

indicate that there should be a direct connection between 

the use of natural resources and the funds needed to 

manage and sustain those resources. Water has long 

been recognized as the most important resource of 

Hawaii's forest lands. Mountain watersheds are the 

source of water for the majority of the islands' developed 

urban, industrial, and agricultural areas. The monies 

available for watershed management dwarfs in relationship to the value of the product being used. Tourism is 

another example of where the use of and impact on forest 

and wildlife resources are not directly connected with 

the management of those resources. Beautiful landscapes, hiking, and other outdoor recreational opportunities attract many tourists who want to see the "real" Hawaii. 

2. Holistic management should recognize the difference 

between public and private land and exploit it. Public 

and private land owners have different clienteles, time 

perspectives, and accountability concerns. At times, 

benefits for the public good will outweigh short-term 

economic concerns. Yet, availability of carrots (e.g., tax 

incentives, cost sharing programs) will have a longer 

lasting effect than the judicious use or threat of the stick 

(e.g., condemnation, law suits). Coercing people to 

comply with laws with penalties for non-compliance is a 

poor motivator of action. People do better when pulled 

by incentives rather than pushed by regulations or penalties. The amount and distribution of private land in 

Hawaii offers potential to create effective buffer zones 

and habitat corridors for public lands managed for 

native ecosystems. 

3. More opportunities for Hawaii's people to participate in 

managing their own natural resources are needed. Meaningful volunteer programs need to be expanded. The 

University of Hawaii should develop a natural resource 

management curriculum so graduates can qualify for 

professional jobs in Hawaii. Holistic management recognizes that a sense of ownership is a powerful tool. 

4. Applied research that is directly applicable to forestry 

and wildlife management must be accelerated. We need 

to work on the full spectrum of land uses ranging from 

agroforestry to koa silviculture to conservation biology. 

Holistic management recognizes that a little knowledge 

can be dangerous but better than none at all. 

5. Holistic management recognizes that time and monies 

spent in court mean less time and money in the field. 

Better forums for communication, such as demonstration areas, town meetings, and newsletters, are needed to 

regain public trust and allow the professionals to get 

down to the business of managing land. 

If America hopes to inspire the world to greater efforts to 

manage its tropical forest and wildlife resources, it must surely 

set a good example. Hawaii, America's only tropical state, 

could be a model for demonstrations of sustainable tropical land 

use systems, ranging from conservation biology to agroforestry, 

and provide a valuable training and extension resource for tropical land managers. The accomplishments over the last 10 years 

indicate we are on the right road and heading in the right 

direction. Let's continue and have the holistic accomplishments 

guide the holistic rhetoric. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
The South Pacific Forestry Development Programme1 


Tang Hon Tat2 

Abstract; Only a few countries in the South Pacific are large enough for 

industrial forestry to be a key component of the national economy, but forests 

provide benefits to many people. The United Nations FA0 South PacificForestry 

Development Programme was established in April 1988, at Port Vila, Vanuatu, 

with a $385,000 budget, and 14 nations participating. The Programme's aim is 

to "upgrade the status of forestry in the participating countries." The Programme, 

which extended to December 1991 with a budget totaling $1,046,121, has 

carried out a variety of development activities, including training, documentation, resource assessments, and species trials. Extension of the Programme 

beyond 1991 has not yet been decided. A number of projects that it could 

support have been proposed. 

The countries in the South Pacific region vary considerably 

in land area, population, per capita income, and national and 

forestry development. Only a few countries, e.g., Papua New 

Guinea, Solomon Islands and Fiji, are large enough for industrial 

forestry to be an important component of their national economy. 

Most other countries are too small for industrial forestry to be 

practiced, and much of their timber requirements have to be 

imported. 

Nevertheless, forests and trees play an important and even 

critical role in the socio-economic well-being of the societies in 

all countries in the region. Among other benefits, they provide 

people with shelter, food, fuel, medicinal and other traditional 

by-products. Forests serve to reduce soil erosion; including 

coastal erosion, and regulate water flow and quality. In many 

places, forestry has been integrated into traditional agricultural 

practices. 

In most countries in the region, much of the natural vegetation has been or is being removed. In the larger countries, the 

motivation is usually to generate funds through the sale of logs 

or lumber, or to make way for commercial agriculture or food 

production. In the smaller countries, the motivation is usually 

simply to use the land for food production. In either case, the rate 

and methods of deforestation or devegetation have prompted 

concern over the long-term sustainability of forest resources and 

land for agriculture production, over the impacts on water 

resources, and ultimately, over, the quality of life of the people. 

Forestry is usually accorded relatively low priority in most of 

the countries of the South Pacific region, particularly vis-a-vis 

the allocation of manpower and funds by governments. Forestry 

is also outside the effective ambit of the existing regional 

agencies, i.e., the South Pacific Commission (SPC), which is 

involved in agriculture development in the region, Forum 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Project Coordinator, United Nations FA0 South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, Port Vila, Vanuatu. 

Secretariet, or the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program (SPREP). Further, the provision of proper forestry support 

is often hampered by the land tenure system, under which land 

tends to belong largely to communities rather than the State or 

individuals. Although the priority rating for forestry may be 

improved as the negative impacts of reduced forest and tree 

cover are felt, it is unlikely that the countries will be able to 

afford the additional funds and manpower required to reduce, if 

not reverse, these impacts. 

Despite these difficulties facing the "forests and trees sector," 

much can be done to improve the contribution of forests and 

trees to the general well-being of peoples in the region. One 

obvious way to do this is by harnessing the collective efforts, 

knowledge, and experience in the individual countries and 

sharing them among other countries in the region, and by 

regional collaboration in activities like training and research. 

This is particularly important because of the small size and wide 

geographical dispersion of the countries in the region, and of the 

many past, and on-going, bi-lateral aid programmes which 

would otherwise restrict their benefits to only a few countries. 

Attempts to achieve greater regional cooperation have been 

mainly in the form of occasional ad hoc training courses, 

meetings, and seminars (Yabaki and others 1983), which invariably reiterated the need for further such cooperation. New 

Zealand has tried to fill this need by appointing its own regional 

forester, and Australia has also been urged to appoint a regional 

forester for the Pacific (Cameron 1986). However, no one 

country is able or willing to bear the cost of providing the level 

of regional services required. 

In 1986, an Asia Pacific Forestry Research Directors' meeting in Honolulu recommended the formation of a Pacific Islands 

Forestry Council to "assist national forestry agencies and other 

forestry related organisations in the Pacific region obtain and 

share scientific and technical information needed for forest 

resource development, protection and management." But no 

further action on this recommendation was taken because of the 

proposal to establish a South Pacific Forestry Development 

Programme, which was designated as RASl861036. 

This paper describes the development and outlines the history of the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme. 

Formation of the Program 

Because of the growing need for assistance to the forestry 

sector in the region, a proposal to establish a South Pacific 

Forestry Development Programme was tabled by United Nations Development Program at the forum of National Aid 

Coordinators of Pacific Islands Developing Countries in Suva, 

Fiji, in February 1986. It was then included in the list of priority 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
projects identified by the meeting. The project proposal was 

later discussed at a South Pacific Heads of Agriculture meeting 

in September 1986 in Apia, which suggested that this development project should, as far as possible, serve the needs of small 

island countries, assist countries organize forest resources databases, and assist in encouraging the utilization of coconut wood. 

Other on-going or pipeline regional projects with related 

objects then were: 

RASl861032: for coconut wood utilization (pipeline) 

RASl861035: Development of Agricultural Statistics 

RASl861048: Asia Pacific Forest Industries Development 

Group based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

RASl861144, Improved Government Information Systems 

In December 1987, establishment of the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme was approved by United Nations Development Program and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) with an allocation of $385,000 for a 2-year 

duration. The Programme was based in Port Vila, Vanuatu, with 

14 participating countries: Cook Islands, Federated States of 

Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, 

Samoa (Western), Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, 

and Vanuatu. It was launched with the arrival of the project 

coordinator in April 1988. In April 1989, the Programme's 

budget was increased to over $500,000. The Programme's longterm objective is to "upgrade the status of forestry development 

in the participating countries, and thereby contribute to the 

socio-economic well-being of the peoples of the South Pacific." 

1988 - 90 The First Two Years 

Among the activities undertaken by the Programme during 

its first 2 years were: 

Preparation of formats for collection and assessment of 

forestry data by participating countries (Field Document 

No. I), and use of the formats for four selected project 

countries (in preparation) 

Study of use of forests in Vanuatu and Tonga (in preparation) 

Training courses in coconut wood utilization (3-13 April 

1989, Tonga, 15 participants from nine countries); and 

forest sector planning (3-21 July 1989, Vanuatu, 1 1 participants from eight countries. The latter was organized and 

funded jointly by the Programme and the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB)). 

Funding of participants from Programme countries to relevant training courses, study tours and meetings 

Publication and dissemination of Project News (two issues in 1990) 

1990 to 1991 (21 months) 

In view of the initial budget constraints and wide geographical dispersion of Programme countries, the implementation of 

Programme activities required considerable lead time. Subsequently, the Programme was extended for another 21 months to 

December 1991, i.e., the end of current UNDP 5-year budget 

cycle, with an additional budget of about $500,000, bringing the 

total budget to $1,046,121. 

Among the activities implemented during this period (to 

date) were: 

Training course on remote sensing (23-27 July 1990, Noumea; 

five participants from two countries) 

Convening of South Pacific Heads of Forestry (HoF) meeting (26-28 November 1990, Suva, Fiji; attended by 8 HoF 

and 6 to 10 forestry or related agencies); and a Tripartite 

Review (TPR) of the Programme by Heads of Forestry (the 

previous TPR had been carried out by Heads of Agriculture, 

because of financial constraints) 

Preliminary study of manpower and training needs in 

Programme countries (report in preparation) 

Assessment of use of forest products by village comrnunities in Vanuatu (report in preparation) 

Trial planting of commercially valuable rattans (Calamus 

caesius, C. manan, C. spp.) in six selected Programme 

countries (report in preparation); and 

Publication of a quarterly South Pacific forestry newsletter 

Among other activities planned for the rest of 1991 are: 

A review mission on the forestry staffing and training needs 

and facilities in the region. This review was identified as a 

high priority activity by the 1990 HoF meeting and is aimed 

at proposing a realistic forestry training strategy and 

programme for the countries in the region. It is being jointly 

funded by the USDA Forest Service, the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB) and the 

Programme. The review will take 2 to 3 months, starting in 

June 1991. 

A study tour of forestry (particularly community, agro, and 

social forestry, high quality timber plantations, and nonwood forest products) activities in Indonesia and Malaysia 

for senior forestry personnel from the region. This would 

be in August 1991, and participants will be funded by the 

Programme and various aid agencies in the region. 

A Heads of Forestry and TPR meeting in early October 

1991. The venue, actual dates, and agenda are being finalized. 

A training course on occupational health and safety in the 

logging and small/portable sawmill industries. This would 

be held over 2 weeks in September-October 1991 in Fiji in 

collaboration with the International Labour Organisation 

(LO) /Fiji Ministry of Forests Forestry Training School. 

Publications on various aspects of agro-forestry and tree 

planting in the region through the use of authors' contracts. 

Compilation of forest plantation data and experience in the 

region in collaboration with the USDA Forest Service. 

Further development of the South Pacific forestry newsletter. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Several other activities, e.g., training courses in negotiation 

and communication skills, and in agro-forestry (in collaboration 

with the (German Technical Assistance Program) GTZIFiji 

Forestry Extension Project); compilation of land use experiences vis-a-vis forestry development in the region, etc., identified by the 1990 HoF meeting for implementation may have to 

be kept in abeyance in view of financial constraints. 

Extension of the Programme 

The further extension of the Programme beyond 1991 has not 

yet been decided. On the basis of experience gained to date, the 

following considerations should be borne in mind for any future 

support or assistance to the forestry sector in the region: 

Direct involvement of participating agencies in determining 

Programme activities and priorities. 

One major drawback of the current Programme was the lack 

of funds to convene a Heads of Forestry meeting early in the 

Programme's life to discuss and determine the nature, scope, and 

priorities of activities. The usefulness and importance of such a 

meeting in fostering closer rapport, cooperation, collaboration 

and, perhaps even more important, a sense of involvement and 

participation among forestry agencies and foresters in the region, was clearly demonstrated by the 1990 HoF meeting in Suva. 

The need for and importance of such a meeting is accentuated 

by the large number of countries in the region, each with its own 

national forestry priorities, and the invariably limited financial 

and manpower resources of the Programme. The meeting would 

be the best forum to discuss and decide on the optimal allocation 

of these resources. 

As recommended by that meeting, another HoF meeting is 

scheduled for 1991, and every effort should be made to convene 

this meeting annually. These meetings should involve all 

interested countries in the region, and not only Programme 

countries. 

Provision of regular technical support services. 

The small size of most countries in the region makes it 

unrealistic for them to develop capability in the various forestry 

or related fields, e.g., natural forest management, plantation 

forest development, forest products utilization, agrolcommunity forestry, and research and development. However, there is 

an urgent need for such capability or expertise in all countries in 

order to develop and enhance the contribution of the forest and 

tree sectors to their respective economies. 

This expertise can be effectively provided by a core of 

suitably qualified and experienced persons, through a regional 

forestry project. As continuity and personal rapport with local 

counterparts is a critical element of such technical support, this 

should be provided by full-time project staff instead of by 

visiting consultants, who should be brought in to provide more 

specialized support when the need arises. 

Areas of Support 

Five main areas proposed for support by the program would be: 

1. Natural forests management, development, conservation, 

and policy: This includes providing advice or studies on 

the above subjects, especially vis-a-vis national development plans and priorities, and watershed and environmental considerations. 

2. Forest and tree resources development: This includes the 

establishment of species and provenance trials of multiple-purpose and high quality timber species for either 

local or industrial uses; development of rattans, bamboos 

and other non-wood forest products (e.g., honey, medicinal plants, essential oils, dyes, etc.) and of appropriate 

agro- and community-forestry systems; etc. Pilot trial 

plantings should be encouraged in selected countries, and 

used for training purposes, probably on sub-regional bases. 

3. Forest and tree resources utilization: This includes the 

adaptation of appropriate harvesting, processing, and marketing systems and technology for timber from natural 

forests, plantations, coconut stems, and other sources, as 

well as for non-wood forest or tree products, e.g., bamboo, 

rattan, etc. Particular emphasis is needed on proper logging and small sawmill practices, including basic training 

and technical support on selection, use, maintenance and 

repairs of equipment; processing (including treatment) of 

rattans, bamboo, and other similar materials into furniture, 

and handicrafts. 

4. Information processing, collection, and exchange: This 

activity has been initiated, but requires the active support 

of all countries in order to be usefully sustained. The 

regional forestry newsletter recently published by the 

Programme can and should promote closer comrnunication among foresters and forestry agencies in the region. 

Other means of achieving this object are through the 

Project Field Document series of publications, authors' 

contracts, and meetings of Heads of Forestry (already 

started), other operational staff and research personnel (to 

be started). 

5. Institutional development: The provision of adequate 

numbers of suitably trained and experienced staff in all 

countries is critical to the sustained and proper management, utilization, and development of the forest and tree 

resources in the region. In view of the small size of most 

countries in the region, this can be best provided through a 

realistic, long-term, and regional staff training and development strategy and programme. The three-person review mission mentioned above should lay the foundation 

for this object. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
No single agency can provide all the support needed in the 

Pacific Southwest region. Therefore, all aid-donor agencies 

must work closely, not only to ensure that their aid resources are 

not wasted on duplicative activities, but perhaps even more 

important, to try to achieve synergism through their coordinated 

collective efforts. The value of such coordination and collaboration has been demonstrated by the joint activities undertaken 

by the Programme and AIDAB, USDA Forest Service, International Labor Organization (ILO), and GTZ. But much much 

more can and must be achieved through further similar cooperation. 

References 

Cameron, D.M. 1986. Report on "Seeds of Australian Trees for Developing 

Countries" visit to Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, 

and the Solomon Islands, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research organization (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia. 

Yabaki, K.T.; Yauieb A.M.D.; Doliano, E.; Bennett, R.M. 1983. Development 

and management of forestry in the Pacific. Proposals for regional cooperation. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 

Suva, Fiji. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Polycyclic Selection System for the Tropical Rainforests 


of Northern Australia1 

Glen T. Dale Grahame B. Applegate2 

Abstract: The polycyclic selection logging system developed and practiced 

for many years in the tropical rainforests of north Queensland has been 

successful in integrating timber production with the protection of conservation 

values. The system hasbeen used by the Queensland Forest Service to manage 

north Queensland rainforests. The Queensland system has considerable potential as a model for developing appropriate management systems in other 

trooical countries in the Pacific region where - maintenance of forest integrity -. is 

an important aspect in the integration of timber production with more traditional uses of the forest. 

For many years, a system of polycyclic selection logging 

has been successfully employed within the tropical rainforests of 

north Queensland. This system is based on the philosophy of 

minimizing damage to the forest, and has the overriding objective of applying multiple use principles to achieve sustainable 

timber production within a balanced conservation program. 

Many similarities exist between the management of tropical 

moist forests in north Queensland for timber production and 

conservation values, and the management of other tropical moist 

forests throughout the Pacific Islands region where timber production must be integrated with the harvesting of traditional 

forest products essential to the daily existence of the region's 

inhabitants. Both require that timber production does not affect 

the basic integrity of the forest such that its other values 

remain intact. 

This paper describes the system and procedures developed 

by the Queensland Forest Service for managing north Queensland 

rainforests. It suggests many relevant aspects that could be 

incorporated in guidelines for managing other rainforests throughout the Pacific Islands countries. 

The North Queensland System 

Land Use Zoning 

Land use zoning is the necessary first step to achieving a 

satisfactory balance between forest utilization, preservation and 

other land uses. It also ensures that land is allocated to its most 

appropriate use. 

In north Queensland, a two-tiered zoning system has been 

applied. The first tier provides strategic zoning of all Crown 

Lands (State Forest, Timber Reserve, National Park, Leasehold). 

Undertaken at a scale of 1:500,000, this zoning level ensures 

coordinated management of Crown rainforest lands held under a 

variety of tenures. 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Resource Forester, Atherton; Officer in Charge, Research Center, Atherton, 

respectively, Queensland Forest Service, Australia. 

Four zones are defined at the strategic zoning level: Principal Preservation Zone, Restricted Use Zone, Multiple Use Zone 

and Transition Zone. 

Within the Crown tenures of State Forest and Timber Reserve, a tactical zoning tier known as Management Priority Area 

(MPA) zoning is employed. This is generally undertaken at a 

scale of between 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. 

MPA zoning identifies a priority use for a given area and 

specifies compatible secondary land uses (Prineas 1987). It 

defines specific areas within which timber harvesting is perrnitted, and thus provides the basis from which gross productive 

area can be determined. 

Area Estimation 

Accurate estimates of loggable forest area are an essential 

component in yield prediction, since any errors in area estimates 

are directly proportional to errors in final yield estimates. 

Loggable area is determined by deducting unloggable and 

unproductive fragments of forest from the area identified in 

zoning plans for logging. This process provides an estimate of 

the actual "on ground" area from which trees are harvested. The 

actual loggable area will vary between logging cycles as the 

volume of timber standing on any given area varies. 

Yield Calculation 

Within the area identified for sustained timber harvesting, it 

is necessary to obtain information on the forest stand, its species 

composition, size class distribution, rate of diameter increment, 

standing commercial timber volume, standing potential timber 

volume and rate of volume increment in order to be able to 

calculate the level of sustainable yield. 

This calculation consists of six basic components: 

Temporary inventory plots are established throughout 

the net productive rainforest area on a stratified random 

sampling basis to provide a detailed picture of the existing forest condition and the likely post-logging condition. 

Permanent detailed yield plots maintained on a number 

of sites, some for up to 40 years, provide data forming 

the basis for development of the various increment functions used to simulate the future growth of different 

species and different forest types. 

A computer-based growth model incorporating functions for diameter increment, mortality, and recruitment 

is applied to the temporary inventory plot data to predict 

the future condition of the forest. This model recognizes 

two site quality types and six soil parent material types. 

Because of the large number of species in the rainforest, 

the model "grows" trees not as individual species, but as 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
groups with similar growth habits. Species within a 

growth group also display similar ecological characteristics (Preston and Vanclay 1988). 

4. At selected intervals, a timber harvesting model simulates future logging operations within the forest stands 

projected forward in time by the growth simulation model. 

The harvesting model simulates logging under standard 

tree-marking rules and allows for the proportion of defects in logged stems and mortality arising from felling 

and snigging damage to the residual stand. 

5. One-way volume equations are used to convert projected 

stem diameters to log volumes. This step is undertaken 

since it is unnecessarily complex and inaccurate to project 

information other than stem diameter (Preston and Vanclay 

1988). Volume equations used recognized site and spe- 

. cies group differences. 

6. Yield calculations undertaken to date have used a modified version of the Cutting Cycle Analysis procedure 

(McGrath and Can-on 1966, Preston and Vanclay 1988). 

The analysis simulates the growth and harvesting of each 

inventory plot through three cutting cycles. This procedure ensures continuity of future harvests and provides 

an estimate of the yield that can be sustained under a 

given management regime and set of economic conditions. 

A more sophisticated system, however, has been developed. This system, known as Yield Scheduling, simulates the 

growth of defined units of forest. When the total available yield 

from a given unit exceeds a specified minimum, that particular 

unit is highlighted as being available for logging (Vanclay and 

Preston 1989). 

Scheduling of Logging Operations 

Cutting Cycle Analysis provides an estimate of the overall 

quantity of timber that may be harvested each year. However, it 

does not provide an indication from where this timber may be 

obtained (yield scheduling does indicate a time sequence of 

areas available for logging). 

A series of detailed logging history maps are maintained for 

scheduling logging operations. These maps illustrate the time 

(in 5-year periods) that each section of the area zoned for logging 

was last logged. They also indicate unlogged areas intended for 

future harvesting. Areas so identified from map records are then 

subjected to intensive field inventory to determine, first, if a 

viable yield could be obtained, and, second, what the likely longterm effect of logging under an assumed set of conditions will 

be. This procedure helps ensure that the logging practices 

employed on any specific area do not lead to a long-term downgrading of the stand structure and integrity. 

Pre-operational Logging Planning 

The preparation of detailed pre-operational logging plans 

are an integral and important component of timber harvesting 

practices in north Queensland. 

Guidelines for the preparation of logging plans have been 

formalized in the Queensland Forest Service's "Environmental 

Guidelines for the Selective Logging of North Queensland 

Rainforests" (Queensland Forest Service 1982). 

The primary task involves deliniating a suitable harvesting 

unit or "sale area." During this process, Special Management 

Areas are taken into consideration. These include areas of 

scientific, recreational or landscape significance, erosion prone 

sites, or particularly steep sites that are either required to be 

excluded from logging, or logged under special restrictions 

or conditions. 

The actual preparation of a logging plan is undertaken as a 

joint task between the Forest Service and the proposed timber 

purchaser. The initial step involves both parties gaining a field 

knowledge of the terrain, including the location and relative 

concentration of available log resources. 

The major infrastructure components required for harvesting of the sale unit are then physically marked out in the field by 

a combination of brushing undergrowth and paint marking trees. 

These components include haulage roads, ramp sites, and 

stream crossings. 

The sale area boundary and the boundary of selected special 

management areas are also identified on the ground. These 

features are then transferred from the field onto a logging plan 

map which becomes an integral and binding part of the 

sale agreement between the purchaser and the Queensland 

Forest Service. 

The basic philosophy inherent in the specifications and 

requirements of logging plans is to minimize damage to the 

rainforest canopy and the potential for soil erosion. The obvious 

benefits are more rapid recovery of the forest canopy, faster 

stabilization of the soil, and reduced harvesting costs through 

minimization of earthworks. Considerations in this regard include: 

Retention of buffer strips along streams within which 

logging or machine disturbance is not permitted (fig. 1) 

Identification of suitable stream crossing sites where necessary and construction of appropriate crossings to minimize soil erosion 

Restriction of lorry roads and snig tracks to within maximum permissible widths and grades 

Restriction of ramp sizes to less than a maximum area and 

ramp locations to sites below a maximum slope 

Location of lorry roads, snig tracks, and ramp sites on 

ridge tops or moderate side slopes for ease of drainage 

and minimization of earthworks 

Design of uphill logging systems feeding onto ridgetop 

ramps to disperse rather than concentrate runoff 

Provision of adequate drainage structures on roads and 

snig tracks, both during use and following completion of 

logging (fig. 2) 

Treemarking 

The Queensland Forest Service's "Treemarking Guidelines 

for North Queensland Rainforests" (Queensland Forest Service 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Figure 1-After logging, cross drains are provided on snig tracks to 

control runoff and prevent erosion on exposed soil surfaces. 

Figure 2-Before logging in a North Queensland rainforest, stream 

bank buffer zones are marked within which no logging is allowed. 

1986) provide the silvicultural control on which the polycyclic 

selection system is based. 

Consistent and accurate implementation of these guidelines 

is paramount to achieving sustainable timber production. 

The treemarking guidelines provide for the removal of mature and defective trees, and the retention of advanced growth, 

vigorous mature trees and seed trees. These retained trees 

provide for regeneration, and are critical to ensure the availability and continuity of timber yields throughout future cutting 

cycles. Hence it is a necessary objective of treemarking for a 

polycyclic selection system to retain a scattering of trees after 

logging throughout the full range of commercial size classes to 

provide for future timber yields. 

The treemarking guidelines used in north Queensland grouped 

the commercial species into five categories, each of which reflects both the relative timber desirability and the mature tree 

size attained. These groups are assigned an upper and lower 

cutting diameter. The lower diameter defines the minimum size 

a healthy tree may be cut under normal circumstances, and the 

upper limit defines the maximum size to which a tree carrying a 

USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

commercial log may be retained. For example, group A species 

have a lower cutting limit of 80 cm d.b.h. and an upper limit of 

100 cm d.b.h. 

Defective trees below their normal minimum cutting diameter and above the absolute minimum cutting limit of 40 cm 

d.b.h. may be removed if they are defective or damaged in such 

manner that their likelihood of contributing to the yield of future 

cutting cycles is low, and if such trees may produce a log of at 

least minimum standard in the present cutting cycle. 

Other considerations taken into account by the treemarker 

in addition to cutting limits include seed trees, outstanding trees, 

defective trees, canopy maintenance, and species preferences. 

Notwithstanding guidelines for retention of seed and outstanding trees, the maximum canopy removal permitted by any 

harvesting operation is limited to a maximum of 50 percent. In 

practice, this level of removal is never reached. Typical logging 

operations remove around 8 to 12 stems per ha, generally comprising 20 percent of canopy, and approximately 9 percent of the 

ground area is cleared for snig tracks, lorry roads, and landing 

ramps. Therefore, the average overall mechanical ground disturbance in a normal harvesting operation is in the order of 24 

percent, and the average removal of foliage cover is 20 percent. 

In the treemarking operation, Forest Officers paint-mark 

trees for harvesting with a cross on the bole at eye height. They 

also mark direction of fall to ensure minimization of damage to 

retained growing stock. The falling direction is indicated by an 

axe bench in the tree butt, and may be highlighted with a vertical 

paint stripe. Each tree is assigned a number, which is written 

onto the axe bench or the base of the tree. 

The axe bench is then embossed with the treemarker's own 

identifying brand. Species, estimated d.b.h. and treemarking 

number are recorded into a field notebook, as well as any specific 

reasons for removal of the tree (fungal rot, crown dieback, etc.). 

This allows the Forest Officer to check trees marked against 

those cut, hence ensuring that all trees marked are cut and that 

unmarked trees are not cut. In addition to trees marked for 

removal, advanced growth of commercial species that is to be 

retained for its potential to contribute to timber yield in future 

cutting cycles is also paint marked by a ring around the circumference of the tree. The intention of marking such trees is to 

draw them to the attention of the logging contractors in order to 

avoid any damage to this valuable component of the retained stand. 

Operational Control of Timber 

Harvesting Operations 

Tracking Requirements 

Prior to removing any logs from stump, it is necessary, in 

addition to roads and landings shown on the logging plan, for the 

minor extraction system to be planned. This system serves the 

purpose of "feeding" logs from stump, along winch lines, minor 

snig tracks, and major snig tracks, onto loading ramps. 

The timber cutter can best identify the most efficient extraction route for logs from stump to ramp. The cutter is responsible 

for locating and marking the extraction route for each log to 

minimize disturbance to the forest. The cutter should also 
identify the end of snig tracks where machines are to stop and 

turn around, and from this point on, must also mark winch line 

paths to logs. 

This practice eliminates the necessity for the extraction 

machine to drive right up to every log, thereby reducing overall 

clearing and damage to the stand. For this purpose, all snigging 

machines are required to carry a winch with not less than 30 m of 

wire rope. 

Snigging machine operators are encouraged wherever possible not to blade off soil and vegetation from snig tracks, but to 

"walk" their machinery over the vegetation. This precaution 

retains the binding mat of surface roots and organic matter, and, 

therefore, considerably reduces the possibility of erosion, hastens the recovery of the forest, and reduces the visual impact of 

the operation. The logging operator is not required to carry out 

drainage works where an adequate mat of surface roots remains intact. 

Harvesting Equipment 

The type of equipment to be used in each logging operation 

is specified in the logging plan. General specifications applicable to all areas require the blade of any snigging equipment not 

to exceed 4 m (consistent with maximum snig track width), and 

all snigging machines to carry a winch with not less than 30 m of 

wire rope (consistent with extraction requirements). 

Equipment capable of raising the front end of logs during 

snigging is favored. The benefits of such equipment, however, 

include reduced horse power requirement and reduced soil disturbance caused by the ploughing effect of the front of logs 

during snigging. This can often be achieved by winding the wire 

on to the winch such that the leading end comes from the top of 

the winch and not from the base. 

Fork lift type loaders are the preferred equipment for the 

loading operation as they enable landing sizes to be minimized. 

Drainage Requirements 

After the felling operations and final extraction of logs are 

completed, the purchaser is required to "put the area to bed." 

This involves constructing diversion drains across all snig tracks 

and sections of haulage roads. Construction of diversion drains 

is carried out according to the specifications in the logging plan 

for the particular soil type and track grade involved. 

Landing sites must also be drained to ensure surface runoff 

is dispersed into undisturbed vegetation or silt traps, and ponding 

does not occur. 

Each year, the same drainage requirements as above must 

be carried out throughout each current sale area prior to the start 

of the wet season, and must remain in place throughout this 

period. All trees cut are also required to be removed from the 

sale area before the wet season. 

Post Operational Control and Review 

After the harvesting operations are completed and the satisfactory drainage within the area serviced by each landing ramp 

in the sale area is fulfilled, the Forest Officer must inspect and 

assess the purchaser's compliance with the logging plan. 

All trees over 20 cm d.b.h. that have been unnecessarily 

damaged incur a fine which is charged to the purchaser. To 

avoid possible disputes, the damage is clearly defined as bark 

removal in excess of an area 10 cm x 20 cm, tom wood fibre on 

either the bole, roots, or complete removal of the tree. 

Recording of Logging History 

After the timber sale is completed, it is necessary to record 

the actual area that was logged over, the time period during 

which it was logged, and the reason particular areas may have 

been bypassed in logging (inaccessible, unproductive, etc.). 

The compilation and maintenance of such information over 

the entire area zoned for logging is indispensable for effective 

management of the north Queensland rainforest for many reasons, including: 

Maintaining continuity of the current logging face 

Scheduling of logging operations, particularly in previously logged areas 

Accurately identifying the productive rainforest area for 

resource calculations 

Developing resource stratification for yield calculation 

purposes 

Referencing specific details for any particular area 

Readily identifying special management areas, and 

Passing on information concerning the specific details of 

forest management from one generation of managers to 

the next 

The time period and extent of past logging is recorded on 

two sets of maps, known as Logging History and Logging 

Management maps. Logging History maps record information 

from the first cutting cycle, and Logging Management maps 

record information in the current cutting cycle. The Logging 

History maps are essentially an archive for information on logging, while the Logging Management maps provide a means for 

coordinating and scheduling logging operations throughout the 

current cutting cycle. 

A completion report is prepared, and includes a map showing actual areas logged within the sale, the 5-year time period 

within which each section of the sale was logged is specified by 

a colour code. Inaccessible areas too steep to log, unproductive 

areas too poor to log, other areas not logged for special management reasons, and the location of lorry roads and loading ramps 

within the sale area are also included on the map. The data 

contained in the completion report is transferred onto the master 

Logging Management map. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Conclusions 

The north Queensland polycyclic selection logging system 

is the result of a gradual evolution in techniques and practices 

over a period of around 40 years. Its success lies in the considerable amount of background data and research effort on which it 

is based, the rigorous application of the guidelines embodied in 

this system by dedicated Forest Service staff, and the acceptance 

and adherance to these guidelines by logging contractors. 

The result of this system is the commercial harvesting of 

timber without damaging the basic integrity of the forest environment and thus the opportunity for harvesting of non tangible 

products. Under this system of forest utilization, the economic 

and social value of tropical forest is increased and the argument 

for retention of land under forest cover as opposed to conversion 

to alternative land use is strengthened. 

While the specific data behind the north Queensland system 

may not be directly transferable to other tropical countries, the 

methodology behind the development of this system and its 

basic principles and philosophies provide a universally valuable 

model that may help solve at least the technical aspects of 

managing these forests. This is the first major obstacle which 

must be hurdled if the social problems inherent in tropical forest 

management are ever to be adequately addressed. 

Acknowledgments 

We thank the officers of the Queensland Forest Service, past 

and present, who have contributed to the development of the 

North Queensland selection silvicultural system and its rigorous 

implementation, and to the Queensland Forest Service for use of 

unpublished records. 

References 

McGrath, K.P.; Carron, L.I. 1966. Prescribed yield from previously unmanaged 

indigenous forests. Paper to 6th World Forestry Congress, Madrid, Spain. 

Preston, R.A.; Vanclay, J.K. 1988. Calculation of timber yields from north 

Queensland rainforests. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Department of 

Forestry, 38p. 

Prineas, T. 1987. Management priority area zoning for Queensland State 

Forests. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Department of Forestry. 

Queensland Forest Service, 1982. Environmental guidelines for the selective 

logging of north Queensland rainforests. Unpublished draft. 

Queensland Forest Service, 1986. Treemarking guidelines for north Queensland 

rainforests. In: Harvesting and marketing manual. Sect. 9.02.01. North 

Queensland: Queensland Forest Service; 24p. 

Vanclay, J.; Preston, R. 1989. Sustainable harvesting in the rainforests of 

north Queensland. In: Proceedings, Institute of Foresters of Australia, 13th 

Biennial Conference; 18-22 September 1989; Leura: New South Wales. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
I 

Management and Utilization of Forest Resources in Papua 

New Guinea1 

P.B.L. Srivastava2 

Abstract: Papua New Guinea, with an area of about 46.7 million ha and a hinterlands, then the vital question before foresters is whether population of 3.7 million, is blessed with a large natural forest resource. Over 

80 percent of the land is covered with forests of various types, ranging from the resource can be managed on sustainable basis. Conservationswamp and lowland rain forests in coastal plains to alpine vegetation and moss ists and environmentalists, on the other hand, worry about irreforests in the highlands, most of which are owned by the people. About 15 versible ecological changes in these fragile ecosystems if the million ha are considered commercial, with about 400-500 million cubic forest cannot be regenerated. meters of high value timber. Current logging concessions are spread over 3.1 

million ha. All the projects except one are based on selective cutting with a 

minimum cutting limit of 50 cm d.b.h. The current system of resources 

acquisition and allocation, extraction of timber, and its effect on the environ- ResourceAcquisition 

ment, including biodiversity is described. Possibilities of management options 

of these heterogenous forests on a sustainable basis are discussed. The land and all the resources with it-whether forests, 

minerals or oil-are the most valuable possessions of a Papua 

New Guinea clan. Apart from town sites and a few other larger 

During the last 5,000 years, people of Papau New Guinea areas, the government owns only about 3 percent of total land. 

have lived within numerous tribes and clans with diverse cus- The rest of the land ownership and land rights are vested in 700 

toms and languages that shared one invaluable friend-the natu- ethnic groups. Individuals have rights of usufruct, but guardianral forest. Despite centuries of subsistence gardening, today ship is vested in patrilineage. When land is under such a closely 

about 80 percent of 467,500 sq km is covered by forests, varying interlocking system of rights and obligations, transfer of land to 

in types from the swamps and lowland forests of coastal plains individuals or groups outside these relationships is difficult and 

to alpine vegetation and moss forests in the highlands. The rare. It also makes it difficult to obtain general agreement for a 

forests have provided the basic needs of the people and are still long-term land use, which may have no immediate benefits, e.g., 

an integral part of their social and cultural heritage. It is esti- reforestation. 

mated that 15 million hectares can be developed into log exports The current Forestry Act. (Anon. 1976)provides for exploiand onshore processing. These forests contain about 400 wood tation and development of forest resources mainly through Timspecies of varying properties, of which about 40 are cornmer- ber Right Purchase (TRP) Agreements. Under this Agreement, 

cially accepted. The forestry sector has contributed significantly the government acquires rights of felling, removing and disposto the development of the country in terms of employment ing of timber from customary landowners. Normally, a down 

(about 11,000) and foreign exchange earnings (table 1). payment is made on the basis of volume of timber which is 

However, management of forest resources in Papua New recouped when royalty starts flowing. 

Guinea is at a crossroads today. If, on the one hand, politicians The two other ways to develop timber projects, Local Forest 

and planners view this renewable resource as a major means of Area (LFA) under Private Dealing Act and through Timber 

export earnings and income to landowners, generations of em- Authority (TA), are generally used for smaller operations. Curployment opportunities, and infrastructure development in the rently, 3.1 million ha are covered by TRPs and LFAs (Anon. 1990b). 

Table 1-Exports of forest products ('000cubic meters and millions of kina') 

Logs 743 1063 1019 1284 1158 1314 1442 1361 1279 1084 

Sawntimber 24 2 1 20 18 15 7 4 3 3 4.5 

Plywood 8 6 6 5 1 .2 .02 0 0 0 

Woodchips2 103 148 100 103 82 61 66 67 53 68 

Value 45 53 56 82 67 77 113 100 91 83 

'1 kina = 1.04 U.S.$ 

'Woodchips in '000 bone dry units. 

Submitted for publication in the Proceedings of the Session on Tropical 

Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 27-28, 

1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Acting Director, Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, Department of Forests, Papua New Guinea. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rev. PSW-129. 1992. 
Resource Allocation 

Following a TRP Agreement, a Timber Permit (TP) is 

issued to a registered timber company by tendering on agreed 

terms and conditions, including payment of royalties, (the major 

portion of which-75 percent-goes to the resource owners and 

the remainder-25 percent-goes to the respective Provincial 

Government), and other levies, such as reforestation levy, agriculture development levy, Forest Industries Council (FIC) levy, 

etc. The main conditions of a Timber Permit are: 

Log harvest and export at a pre-determined rate, processing and follow-up land use; 

Construction of roads and bridges and their maintenance 

during the life of the project; 

Infrastructure development, which may include construction of airstrips, school buildings, community hall, health 

posts, houses, new townships, churches, etc.; 

Environmental protection measures; an approved Environmental Plan is a prerequisite for starting the project; 

Submission of a Forest Working Plan which includes 

details of forest surveys, roads and bridges, production 

schedule, reforestation, environmental protection measures, fire control and preventive measures, control of 

insects and pests; and 

Listing of species which are not allowed to be cut, removed, or damaged. Normally this includes trees with 

edible fruit or of economic use other than timber. 

Environmental Safeguards 

Considerable efforts are made to minimize the deleterious 

effects of logging operations on forest ecosystems. Under the 

Environment Planning Act Chapter 370, each Permit Holder 

(Timber Company) is to submit an Environmental Plan for the 

project area. It is a comprehensive document which includes 

information on the purpose of development, socio-economic 

benefits to the resource owners, viability of the project, infrastructure development, resource harvesting and replacement practices, climate-edaphic environment, flora and fauna, and environmental impact safeguards, including existing and proposed 

conservation areas which include preservation of cultural and 

historic sites. The Environmental Plan is approved by the Minister in charge of the Department of Environment and Conservation after it has been evaluated by a number of experts and 

presented to the people of the project area. 

The Timber Permit includes the following conditions to 

minimize adverse environmental impacts of logging operations: 

1. No clearfelling is allowed on slopes up to 20 degrees. 

2. Selective logging is allowed on slopes up to 30 degrees. 

3. No logging is allowed on slopes greater than 30 degrees. 

4. A 50 m buffer must be observed along rivers, streams, 

and creeks. 

5. No logging is allowed (a) within 100 m of any garden 

(field), burial ground or area of cultural importance, or 

(b) within 500 m of any inhabited village. 

6. Measures to minimize soil erosion must be taken. 

7. Precautions must be taken to ensure that banks of any 

river or stream are not damaged, and that the course of 

any river or stream is not altered by logging operations. 

8. No hauling or snigging of logs, timber or other forest 

produce through any flowing river or stream is allowed. 

9. No obstruction of rivers or streams by logs, timber, 

other forest produce, debris, or other materials from its 

operations is allowed. 

10. No pollution of rivers or streams by sawdust, oil, waste, 

debris, or other materials is allowed. 

11. Should logging activities adversely affect community 

or domestic water quality or quantity or both, the permit holder shall provide an alternative water supply. 

A number of the above conditions are flouted by timber 

companies due to poor control. The Department of Environment 

and conservation does not have resources to monitor the situation. Generally it is the forest inspectors who report matters 

concerning adverse environmental impacts. In the majority of 

cases, loggers do not maintain 50 m buffers along rivers, often 

log above 30 degree slopes, damage river and creek banks, and 

block and pollute rivers and creeks with debris. Cases have been 

reported where companies have hauled logs through flowing rivers. 

Resource Management 

Logging Operations 

Out of the three major phases in timber harvesting-felling 

and bucking, minor transportation, and major transportation-it 

is the second phases which causes the highest damage to the 

forest and site and determines the success or failure of selective 

logging. There is no clear cut provision in the Permit with regard 

to area control. Although submission of a 5-year Forest Working 

Plan (FWP) within 60 days of the issue of the Permit is a 

prerequisite for starting logging operations, very few timber 

companies follow it. Generally, the annual coupe is altered and 

no pre-planning is carried out for reading, snig tracks, and bush 

ramps. Very few companies conduct pre- and post-logging inventories. Even those who do so do not have any follow-up plan 

to use post-logging data to manage the residual stands. The 

standard of forest roads is generally poor, usually evidencing 

excessive clearing from 40 m to as much as 70 m wide. Crawler 

tractors and wheeled tracked skidders are the common types of 

equipment used in skidding. Some loggers occasionally use 

huge tractors for skidding, which not only have a high cost of 

operation but also cause much more damage to the forest cover. 

An articulated wheeled or tracked front-end loader is the common type of equipment used in loading. For hauling logs, two 

types of trucks are used in PNG: long chassis truck, and logging 

trucks with trailer orjinker, the latter being more common. Table 

2 shows an estimate of logging cost in PNG. Safety standards in 

logging in PNG are very low compared with those of other 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Table 2Ã‘A estimate of logging costs in Papua New Guinea 

Managed by company Managed by individual 

or contractor contractor 

cost/cu.m. cost/cu.m. 

(Kina) Percent (Kina) Percent 

1. Forest planning 

and engineering 1.40 3.49 0.80 3.29 

2. Road construction 

and maintenance 8.35 20.80 4.40 18.11 

3. Felling and 

bucking 5.20 12.95 3.30 13.58 

4. Bunching and 

skidding 11.65 29.01 7.60 31.27 

5. Loading, hauling 

and unloading 9.05 22.54 3.70 15.23 

6. Royalty 4.50 11.21 4.50 18.52 

Total: 40.50 100.00 24.30 100.00 

countries. It is evident that the present system of log harvesting 

in PNG is not compatible with sound forest management practices. Improvement of the system is imperative for sustained 

management of the resource (Buenaflor 1988a,b). 

Yield 

The minimum cutting limit, irrespective of stand composition and size class distribution, is 50 cm d.b.h. Adhering to this 

limit is known as selective cutting. Except in one project (Japan 

and New Guinea Timbers in Madang), which is based on 

clearfelling (using hardwood mixture for pulpwood chips), the 

rest of the projects in the country to-date are based on selective 

cutting. So far, however, it has not been obligatory for timber 

companies to mark trees, to conduct pre- and post-logging inventories and to follow directional felling to minimize damage 

to the residuals. There are no penalties in the Forestry Act for 

excessive damage to the residual crop or for cutting under size 

trees. In particular, yield regulations based on stand characteristics and sustained yield principles are not observed, and virtually 

no attention has been paid to manage the logged-over forests. As 

a result, there are no predictions for the next cut. Information on 

growth and yield is almost completely lacking. In certain situations, where the majority of the trees of a commercial species are 

above 50 cm d.b.h., almost a clearfelling situation may prevail 

though the company may have followed selective logging within 

the TP conditions. 

Because of the very selective nature of logging, a so-called 

"creaming" of the forest, yield may vary from as low as 12 m3/ha 

in a highly mixed forest to over 100m3/ha in areas where a single 

or a couple of commercially important species (Calophyllum, 

Intsia, Nothofagus, Anisoptera) become dominant. The average 

yield is estimated to be about 30 m3/ha. 

The important commercial species being harvested currently are: Eucalyptus deglupta, Intsia bijuga, Araucaria spp., 

Terminalia spp., Calophyllum spp., Pometia spp., Syzygium 

spp.,Endospermum spp., Celtis spp., Vitex cafessus, Pterocarpus 

indicus, Anthocephulus chinensis, Palaqui spp., Castanopsis 

spp., Lithocarpus spp., Nothofagus spp., Podocarpus spp., 

Homalium spp., Diospyrus spp., Anisoptera thruifera , Hopea 

spp., etc. For export purposes, a MEP (Minimum Export Price) 

system is in operation. The MEP is revised periodically on the 

basis of international price. Certain species are banned from 

export in log form. 

Biodiversity 

Earlier studies on heterogeneity of flora in PNG were confined to commercial species. Paijmans (1970) recorded 122, 

147,145, and 116 species of trees above 10 cm d.b.h. in four 0.8- 

ha plots. However, in a recent study of total species count, as 

many as 363 species were recorded in a 0.64 ha plot in a lowland 

tropical rainforest. The species comprised of trees (49 percent), 

shrubs (18 percent), vines and climbers (15 percent), herbs (9 

percent), vegetative clumps (8 percent), epiphytes (7 percent) 

and palms (3 percent). More studies are planned, especially to 

study the effect of logging operations on biodiversity in both 

lowland and hill forests (Kiapranis 1990). 

Constraints for Sustained Yield 

Management of Natural Forests 

There are a number of constraints, socio-political and economic on the one hand, and technical and logistical on the other, 

which have not allowed the management of forest resources on 

sustained yield principle so far in PNG. These include: 

Policies: The 1979 Forest Policy (Anon. 1979) did not 

have strong emphasis on the management of natural 

forests for sustained yield in spite of the fact that it 

allowed increased log harvest and export to generate 

revenue. 

Landownership:SinceTRP Agreement allows removal 

of only the standing crop, it is not possible to manage 

the logged over forests unless the TRP and TP conditions are revised. 

Limited resources: Inadequate financial resources and 

trained staff, both at the national and provincial levels, 

have resulted in poor control of harvesting operations 

resulting in excessive damage to the site and potential 

tree crops (PTC), overcutting, and wastage. 

Attitudes of Timber Companies: There has been, in 

general, a lack of interest and commitment in proper 

management by timber companies, the majority of which 

are transnational either as Permit Holder or as logging 

and marketing contractor to the landowners companies, for proper management. This is partly due to the 

short periodof the contract (normally a TPis issued for 

10 years), weak conditions of the TP, landownership 

problems, and the absence of proper guidelines and 

suitable penalties in the Forestry Act for undersize 

cutting, excessive damage to residuals, and wastage. 

Inadequate knowledge of silvics of even the prime 

timber species. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
6. A belief that plantation forestry (reforestation) could 

meet the demands of timber more economically and 

efficiently. Hence every TP has a clause on reforestation which was not fulfilled by the majority of timber 

companies. Even companies that carried out reforestation planted areas that fell far short of the volume of the 

timber harvested or area logged. According to Gane 

(1985), there was an imbalance of 8:l between harvesting and resource replacement. Besides, there are other 

problems such as availability of land, (landownership), 

sub-optional growth of planted species, high initial 

investment, insect pests and fire risks, quality of wood 

of planted species vis-a-vis high value timber species 

(choice of species), end-use, marketability and postplanting management practices which have to be considered in order to make reforestation an economically 

viable post-logging land-use in the country. 

7. Shifting Cultivation: The majority of the rural population in PNG depends on subsistence agriculture. It has 

been frequently observed, especially in comparatively 

highly populated areas, that people immediately establish "gardens" in logged areas which are made accessible by logging roads. This results in the destruction of 

natural regeneration and advance growth by slash 

and burn. 

8. A post-logging land-use pattern for concession area is 

not worked out before issuing the timber permits. 

Factors Favoring SustainedYield 

Management 

The following factors would, however, favor sustained yield 

management of natural forests in PNG so as to perpetuate highvalue timber species over large areas of TRPs: 

Selective Logging 

The majority of the timber products are (and will continue 

to be) based on selective logging. This would mean that if timber 

companies follow carefully planned harvesting techniques, leaving behind adequate number of undamaged residuals in the 

range of 20-50 cm d.b.h., it would be possible to have next 

economic cuts after a predetermined period following a polycyclic felling system. It would also ensure a heterogenous character of forest with comparatively less damage to the site and loss 

of gene pool. 

Presence of Natural Regeneration 

It has been observed that a number of commercial timber 

species such as Anisoptera, Hopea, Pometia, Calophyllum, 

Anthocephalus flower and fmit regularly and regenerate profusely on certain sites presumably because of regular climatic 

pattern and seasonal changes. Other species such as Pterocarpus, 

Nothofagus, Intsia regenerate by coppice and root suckers (Saulei 

1985). Howcroft and Nir (1986) recorded an average of over 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

7,000 plants between 50 cm height and 45 cm d.b.h ofAnisoptera 

in 4 one-hectare plots in a logged-over forest in Morobe Province. Anther study from the same area (Kingston and Nir 1988) 

showed 6 treedha of leading desirables over 50 cm d.b.h. with an 

estimated volume of 20 m3/ha and 19 treedha over 30 cm d.b.h. 

In Calophyllum dominated forests in Manus, over 11,000 seedlings below 1 meter ht were recorded under the canopy of 

unlogged forests. However, there were very few trees between 

20-50 cm d.b.h. Other observations of interest from the management viewpoint were that: (a) Calophyllum spp. flower and fmit 

regularly; (b) dispersal of seeds of both the species of Calophyllum 

was poor as indicated by a large number of seedlings under the 

mother trees; (c) seedlings remain suppressed under heavy canopy 

shade, most of which perish with time, and (d) with disturbance 

and opening, Calophyllum seedlings respond to light (Srivastava 

and others 1986). 

Ecological Status of Forests 

Observations indicate that in PNG, the forest over large 

tracts is "young" at a pre-climax stage. Due to frequent activities 

of volcanoes, earthquakes, fires, and the movement of riverbeds, 

the forest is "rolled-over" periodically. From an ecological view 

point, it is easier to regenerate a forest at a pre-climax stage 

dominated by light demanders than the one at climax stage, 

which is in equilibrium with site conditions. 

Reforestation 

Plantation forestry due to problems mentioned earlier has 

yet to develop its full potential in PNG. 

Marketability 

Native high value species such as Kwila, Rosewood, Taun, 

Mersawa, Pencil Cedar, and Planchonella will not lose their 

importance in the export oriented market in future. There will be 

no problem in selling these timbers either as primary products 

(logs) or as value-added secondary and tertiary products (sawn 

timber, furniture, etc.), even in a highly competitive and volatile 

international market. 

Future Trends 

During the last 3 to 4 years, especially after the Forest 

Inquiry Commission Report, a number of developments have 

taken place which, if successful, will ensure management of 

forest resources on a sustainable basis. 

Forest Inquiry Commission 

The Commission of Inquiry in forestry matters, which was 

set up in 1985, submitted its final report in 1988. It identified a 

number of weaknesses in the present system of management and 

utilization of forest resources in the country such as a weak 
Forestry Act and other policies, inadequate knowledge of the 

resource base, poor monitoring of timber projects, prevalence of 

transfer pricing, and a lack of trained staff and other resources 

(financial, transportion, etc.) (Anon. 1988). All efforts are being 

made by the Government to implement the recommendations of 

the Commission. 

Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) 

In order to solve some of the problems highlighted by the 

Inquiry Commission, the government requested the UNDPlWorld 

Bank in 1989 to launch the Tropical Forestry Action Plan. The 

World Bank took the role of lead agency and fielded a team of 

experts, which submitted its final report in February 1990. The 

report came up with 14 priority projects covering wide areas 

such as resources appraisal, monitoring, agroforestry, human 

resource development, strengthening State Purchase Option, forest 

industry development, landowner awareness, rehabilitation of 

existing National Parks, and declaration of World Heritage 

Areas (Anon. 19%). It sought cooperation of non-government 

organizations (NGOs) in forest resource management. In subsequent reviews, the project on rapid resource survey, revenue 

studies, and some aspects of research on forest management 

have been given priority. 

New Forest Policy and Legislation 

A new Forest Policy has been in place since April 1990. 

Some of the most important ingredients of this policy are (i) 

sustained yield management as the guiding principle for production forests, including non-timber products; (ii) management 

practices compatible with the environment, (iii) increase in onshore processing to add value to the product to generate more 

employment opportunities and increase in investment, (iv) resource acquisition in the form of Forest Management Agreement 

(FMA) instead of TRP, which would include post-logging management of the area (Anon. 1990a). Currently, the Forest Act is 

being revised to implement the new policy. 

Institutional Changes 

In line with the new policy, institutional changes are being 

made. A PNG Forest Authority will be established (replacing the 

present Department of Forests) as a statutory corporation for the 

management of forestry sub-sector. The Authority will be made 

of a National Forestry Board and a unified National Forest Service. 

Research and Development 

In 1989 the PNG Forest Research Institute was established 

in Lae with generous funds from the Japanese government. The 

institute is well equipped with laboratory facilities, including a 

scanning electron microscope, National Herbarium, a botanic 

garden, National Insect Collection, National Seed Centre, and 

two field stations at Bulolo and Madang. Four main areas of 

research are covered: forest botany, forest management, forest 

protection, and forest products. It has over 60 professional and 

supporting staff with an allocation of K1.2 million in 1991. 

Some of the priority areas in research are (i) productivity and 

silviculture of residual stands; (ii) genetics and tree improvement of reforestation species; (iii) biodiversity; (iv) flora exploration for completing flora of PNG; (v) agroforestry; (vi) environmental impact assessment; (vii) utilization of timber species, 

especially the lessor known with suitable techniques of processing, seasoning, grading, and preservation; (viii) minor forest 

products (rattan, orchids); and (ix) insect and pest diseases of 

timber trees. 

References 

Anonymous. 1976. Forestry Act, Chapter No. 216 Forestry, Chapter 217, 

Forestry Private Dealing Act, No. 49 of Forest Industry Council Act 1979. 

Dept. of Forest Pub. 

Anonymous. 1979. Revised Forest Policy - White Paper: Dept. of Forest, 

Papua New Guinea Pub. 

Anonymous. 1988. Forest Inquiry Commission Report. Independent State 

of PNG Pub. 

Anonymous. 1990a. White Paper: National Forest Policy. Ministry of Forests, 

Independent State of Papua New Guinea Pub. 

Anonymous. 1990b. Country Report, Papua New Guinea. Dept. of Forests, 

PNG, Pub. 

Anonymous. 1990~. Papua New Guinea, The Forestry Sector. A Tropical 

Forestry Action Plan. World Bank Report. 

Buenaflor, V. 1988a. Logging operations in Papua New Guinea. FAO: 

DP/PNG/84/003. Working Document No. 8. 

Buenaflor, V. 1988b. Appropriate logging practices in the natural forests of 

Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at workshop on "Sustained Yield 

Forest Management and National Forest Dev. Plan in PNG." Lae 6-9 

December 1988. 

Gane, M. 1985. Report on forest policy for Papua New Guinea (unpublished) 

Dept. of Forests, PNG. 

Howcroft, N.H.S.; Nir, E. 1986. Commencement Report on Anisoplera natural 

regeneration management trial. Dept. of Forests, PNG. 

Kiapranis, R. 1990. Total plant species count from the benchmark lowland 

rainforest Reserve, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. Paper presented 

at MPTS workshop in Los Banos, Philippines, 12-19 November 1990. 

Kingston, B.; Nir, E. 1988. A report on diagnostic sampling conducted in 

Oomis forest, Morobe Province. FAO: DP/PNG/84/003. Working Document No. 9. 

Paijmans, K. 1970. An analysis of four tropical rainforest sites in New Guinea. 

Jour. Ecol, 58: 77-101. 

Saulei, S. 1985, The recovery of tropical lowland forests after clearfell logging 

in the Gogol Valley, Papua New Guinea. Ph.D Thesis, University of 

Aberdeen. 

Srivastava, P.B.L.; Cones, F.; Tiki, T. 1986. Report on West Coast Manus 

Timber Area. Dept. of Forests, PNG. 

USDA Forest Scrvicc Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Culture and Resource Management: Factors Affecting Forests1 


MarjorieC. Falanruw2 

Abstract: Efforts to manage Pacific Island forest resources are more likely to 

succeed if they are based on an understanding of the cultural framework of 

land use activities. This paper explores the relationship between agricultural 

systems, population density, culture, and use of forest resources on the islands 

of Yap. Agricultural intensification is related to population increases in the 

past. It appears that resources were, to some extent, managed via a highly 

organized stratified social system. Today, changes have resulted in a loss of 

insularity, and controls over resource exploitation are fading. Agricultural 

technology has become more extensive and forest resources are being expended rapidly. Participatory research is suggested as a means of focusing 

local attention on systems of food production which incorporate more sustainable use of forest resources. 

This symposium deals with tropical forestryfor people of 

the Pacific and we are concerned with the management of forest 

resources. We cannot assume that people with different cultural 

backgrounds perceive their environment the same way we do, or 

that we all share the same scientific values and attitudes (Chase 

and Sutton 1981, Smith 1987). This paper deals with someof the 

cultural factors affecting use of forests on the island of Yap in 

the Federated States of Micronesia. It is based on the author's 

observations over the last 15 years, a study of vegetation patterns, and data collected in an ongoing Forest Service study. 

The Setting 

Yap is a close cluster of four high islands lying within a 

broad fringing reef at lat. 933' N. and long. 13899' E. in the 

Western Caroline Islands. The combined area of the four main 

islands is about 100 krn2(39 mi2), and the highest point is 174 m 

(571 ft). The climate is warm and humid. Mean annual temperature is 27 OC (81 OF). Mean annual rainfall is-about 3000 rnm 

(120 in). The driest months are February to April with an average of fewer than 180 mm (7 in) precipitation each month. 

Wettest months are July through October, with an average monthly 

rainfall of 330 mm (13 in). 

Estimates of Yap's population prior to written history 

range from 25,000 (Hunter-Anderson 1983) to 40,000(Underwood 

1969). After contact, there was a drastic drop in population due 

to epidemics of introduced diseases. Population decline continued through 1946 when the population was estimated at 2,400 

(Useem 1946). Since 1946, the island's population has been 

rising rapidly. 

An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, 

May 27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Research Biologist, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 490, Yap, Federated States of 

Micronesia 96943. 

USDA Forest Se.wice Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

Results of the agricultural system employed to feed the 

large population of the past can be seen today in the island's 

anthropocentric vegetation pattern. Vegetation maps based on 

1976 aerial photographs (Falanruw and others 1987) show that 

some 26 percent of the island had been developed into a system 

of tree gardens with taro patches. About 34 percent of the 

vegetation consisted of a mosaic of native forest, secondary 

forest, secondary vegetation and active garden plots. Another 22 

percent of the interior was savanna grassland. Mangroves made 

up some 12 percent of the vegetation. Other types together made 

up less than 6 percent of the land area. 

The Traditional Agricultural System 

The agricultural system which produced this vegetation 

pattern has been described elsewhere (Falanruw 1985). Briefly, 

the system consists of tree gardens with taro patches associated 

with villages located mainly along the coast. Intermittent mixed 

gardens generally occur inland of villages. Here trees are burngirdled to admit light and remove root competition. The clearing 

and burning practices observed today vary from the practices 

generally described for "slash and bum agriculture" (FA0 1957, 

National Research Council 1982) in that trees are not felled and 

burning is generally confined to the base of trees difficult to kill 

by girdling. Crops are planted before, along with, or after burning activities depending on the crop, site conditions, and weather. 

Gardens are cleared in the dry season and planted as rains begin. 

By the time the rainy season sets in, crops generally cover much 

of the ground. The most important crop is yams (Dioscorea 

spp.), but a variety of other crops may also be planted. Today's 

gardens often yield a succession of up to 15 crops as well as a 

number of useful materials and byproducts during and after the 

term of the garden per se. After one to three years, the garden is 

allowed to go fallow. 

The intermittent gardens are the most dynamic component 

of the agricultural system. If the gardener settles in the area, it 

may progress toward a tree garden "agroforest" as useful trees 

are planted and taro patches are developed. Otherwise, succession may proceed towards forest, or savanna grassland, depending upon the subsequent history of the plot. The extent to which 

regenerated forest may differ from native forest is influenced by 

many factors such as the severity of the bum, the frequency of 

subsequent bums (Manner 1981, Gourou 1958), size of the 

clearing, selective weeding, and other activities of the gardener. 

Other factors are availability of seed sources, displacement by 

introduced species, and availability of seeding agents, which on 

Yap include fruit bats as well as birds. Land crabs and rodents 

may also modify regrowth. Mueller-Dombois (1981) suggests 

that species having wide spatial separation are likely to be lost. 

Studies of the species composition of plots on Yap before, 

during, and after gardens and of plots for which the fallow period 

is known are ongoing. 
The Impact of Population 

Population pressure would necessitate the conversion of 

forest land to food production. It is postulated that lands under 

shifting cultivation have traditionally supported a population of 

fewer than 20 people per square mile (Nye and Greenland 1960). 

With a pre-Western contact population density estimated as high 

as 625 to 1000 people per square mile (Hunter-Anderson 1983, 

Underwood 1%9), fallow periods could not have been long 

enough to allow for the regeneration of the forest canopy. 

A census of garden plots and house platforms in one municipality on Yap gives some evidence of this process: Mahoney 

(1958) reports 2,127 garden plots and 485 stone dwelling platforms. This would give a ratio of 4.3 garden plots per household. 

If garden plots were developed each year and maintained for two 

years, the fallowing period could be only about two years. This 

would not allow enough time for the development of a mature 

forest canopy with primary forest species. 

The inhibition of the formation of a forest canopy would 

result in decreased transpiration and the equivalent of an increase in precipitation (Sanchez 1976). The clearing and cropping practices are likely to result in a decrease in infiltration rate 

(Laland and others 1975, Sanchez 1976). Daubenmire (1972) 

compared filtration rates under forest and savanna and found a 

45: 1relationship. If, with frequent burning and a nearby source 

of grassland species, forest areas are converted to grasslands, the 

evaporation rate rises and the overall effect is "too much water in 

the wet season and too little in the dry season" (Kornkris 1978). 

The lack of a canopy would result in a decrease in biomass on 

the site and lowered rate of nutrient cycling. The reduction in 

soil fertility would support fewer trees (Budowski 1956). As a 

result, the area would be "stalled" as a savanna grassland sere. 

There is a great deal of discussion in the literature on the 

relationship between swidden agriculture and the origin of grasslands (for example: Budowski 1956, De Schlippe 1956, Fosberg 

1960, Manner 198 1, Mueller-Dombois 198 1, Nunn 199 1, Ruddle 

1974, Scott 1978, Spenser 1966, Whitmore 1975). The matter is 

complex and affected by a set of factors unique to each setting. 

There is general agreement, however, that frequent burning 

activities have contributed to the expansion of areas devoid of a 

tree canopy. Burning is not confined to swidden agriculture, but 

also occurs as accidental or intentionally started wildfires. 

When asked about the origin of the savanna grassland, 

Yapese elders reply that it has always been thus. Indeed, the 

type is mentioned in the legendary history of Yap as early as the 

period when people interacted with spirits. Legends tell that it 

was in the savanna of old that a spirit taught people how to make 

and use fire for cooking. 

Agricultural Intensification: Ditched-Bed 

Technology 

Intensive methods for managing water, weeds, and soil 

fertility would be required if savanna grasslands were to be used 

agriculturally. These methods exist in the technology of ditched 

garden beds. Throughout Yap one can see garden beds surrounded by ditches, and the inverse, taro patches surrounded by 

raised areas. In open canopy gardens, the ditches provide drainage and the soil excavated from the ditches is mounded on top of 

the slashed vegetation on the beds to inhibit weeds and to 

provide fertile soil. The process is very labor intensive, especially prior to the general availability of metal tools, when a 

spade made from a split trunk of an Areca palm was used to 

loosen the soil and a flat basket woven from coconut leaves was 

used to transport the soil from the ditch to the garden bed. The 

ditches then served to demarcate the garden bed and secure the 

investment of energy of those who created it. Heavy rains would 

result in some erosion, especially if they came before plantings 

covered the site. Hurni (1982) suggests that drainage ditches 

can reduce erosion from swiddens by about half. Some of the 

topsoil which is washed into the ditches is returned to the garden 

plot the next time it is used. Silt which accumulates downstream 

of series of ditches collects in pits used for taro patches. In lowlying areas, ditches are made within taro patches to improve 

water circulation. 

Given the intensive labor required, the ditches must have 

been made during periods of dense population when resources 

were at a premium. When today's gardeners are asked who 

made them, the answer has been that the original beds were 

made by the ancient people. The technology continues to be 

employed in the open canopy production of sweet potatoes and 

to a lesser extent in gardens made in less fertile sites covered 

with secondary vegetation. 

Today ditched garden beds are clearly visible on aerial 

photographs on at least 33 percent of savanna grasslands. In the 

field they can also be seen below secondary vegetation and even 

forests. When gardens are made in well-developed forests it is 

not necessary to re-excavate the ditches around garden beds. To 

do so would, in fact, be quite difficult because of the presence of 

tree roots. Given these practices, it would appear that the existence of ditched beds indicates that much of Yap was once 

gardened so intensively that the forest canopy was, for a time, 

absent. The period of depopulation which continued through 

World War I1 resulted in the natural reforestation of many of 

these areas. Other areas appear to be stabilized disclimaxes of 

secondary vegetation and savanna grass and fernlands. 

Clarke (1966) compared the agricultural systems of four 

New Guinea communities whose methods might be considered 

as "stages along a hypothetical chain of development from a 

simple extensive forest-fallow rotation to a more elaborate and 

intensive grass fallow cultivation" (Clarke 1966:347). With increased population density and a shortened fallow period, forest 

lands may be degraded to savanna grasslands and more intensive 

methods would be required to produce sufficient food. The 

systems on Yap show a similar intensification in the ditched-bed 

technology. When depopulation reduced the ratio of people to 

resources, however, forests regenerated. This has enabled people 

to return to the use of extensive methods which produce adequate returns for minimal efforts. Much of today's production 

is obtained via the expenditure of forest reserves. If this trend 

continues unabated, a loss in biodiversity and eventual environmental degradation can be expected. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Traditional Management of Land 

Resources 

It has been suggested that island cultures are adaptive to the 

island ecosystem (Fosberg 1978, Rappaport 1963). If this is the 

case, we might expect to find some mechanisms within island 

cultures that would counteract the human tendency to overexploit resources to the point of environmental degradation. The 

practice of ecosystem conservation per se is not described in 

literature on Yap, nor has it been brought up by any elder 

interviewed in this project. Some conservation measures appear 

to have been inherent in the traditional religion, however, and 

the social system did have a number of features that limited 

opportunities for "the tragedy of the commons." Resources 

were managed via a highly organized stratified social system. 

This system might be illustrated by considering the controls on 

the activities of an individual gardener (fig. 1). 

When a woman (A) marries into an estate, she and her 

children gain access to appropriate lands of that estate subject to 

T 

SPIRITUAL REALM A 


ESTATE LANDS 

Figure 1-"Cultural constraints on use of land resources. When a 

woman (A) marries into an estate (oval unit), she and her children have 

access to appropriate lands of that estate subject to the approval of 

estate elders (B). The resources of these lands are also subject to 

Â¥trustees (C) from the sister's side of the family of the estate head. A 

number of estates exist within a village (square unit), which is directed 

by chiefs. Villages are organized in hierarchical relationships with three 

paramount villages (D), each linked with a village in another alliance 

(E). Each set of villages has a network of ranked villages in their 

respective alliance. The networks of ranked villages (F),combined with 

relationships of kinship, trustees and alliances, create a complex system of checks and balances on resource use. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

the approval of estate elders (B). The resources of these lands 

are also subject to "trustees" from the sister's side of the family 

of the estate head, for although kinship inheritance is generally 

patrilineal, sisters and their children retain trustee rights. Trustees (C) may declare offensive behavior and take punitive action. 

They may also request resources for their needs and to fulfill 

obligations within their own respective groups. 

A number of estates exist within a village, which is the basic 

community unit. Within villages there were three chiefs who 

directed the use of the village taro patch and garden lands and 

had some jurisdiction over other resources as well. Thus our 

gardener's activities are also governed partly by the chiefs of 

her village. 

Villages are organized in hierarchical relationships with 

three paramount villages (D), each linked with a village in 

another alliance (E). Each set of villages in turn has a network of 

ranked villages in their respective alliance. About five social 

levels existed in an apparently dynamic ranking process. The 

networks of ranked villages (F), combined with relationships of 

kinship, trustees and alliances, create a complex system of checks 

and balances, and no one chief was capable of exerting total 

power or influence over his locale (Labby 1,976, Lingenfelter 

1975). 

In addition to the social relationships governing land use, 

many areas were designated for specific uses. Some were sacred 

and should not be trespassed, others were prohibited to women. 

Thus even the physical area of the gardener's movement was 

prescribed. The social system had provisions for denying use of 

lands for a period of time. In addition, if one's land contained a 

limited resource, such as a big tree or bamboo patch needed for a 

community project, that resource should not be destroyed, and 

could be expropriated for community use. Effective physical, 

social, and spiritual sanctions existed in the past to support and 

enforce the system of controls (Falanruw 1982). The system was 

adapted to managing the resource-use activities of a dense population. Individual freedom was curtailed and funneled into 

group achievement. These achievements include major public 

works such as large men's houses, community houses, an extensive system of stone paths, and voyages for stone money. 

The effectiveness of the control system in terms of sustainable resource management would depend on the wisdom of 

leadership as well as the degree of population pressure. It has 

been suggested that shifting agriculture in the Pacific was selflimiting (Alkire 1960, Labby 1976). and that the decreasing 

viability of shifting agriculture led to a predominance of taro 

cultivation in the South Pacific (Barrau 1961). In Southeast 

Asia, shifting agriculture has been supplanted by rice cultivation 

in many areas (Peters and Neuenschwander 1988). In the case of 

Yap, today's agricultural system consists of a mix of shifting 

agriculture, and site stable agriculture in the form of taro patches 

and mixed tree gardens. The combination has a greater potential 

for sustainability, and the systems in fact complement each 

other; the production of the intermittent gardens being counterpoint to that of breadfruit in the tree gardens with taro patches 

providing food throughout the year. Production from mixed 

gardens and tree crops is locally viewed as "giving the taro 

patches a rest," as well as providing a more varied diet. 
The System at Work Today: an Example 

In the past, the fruits and coconuts grown on the property of 

a deceased person were not harvested for about a year after the 

death in an observance called "lieu." The accumulated produce 

of the land was then gathered and presented to the appropriate 

relative of the deceased (Mueller 1917). Today lands of the 

deceased are no longer left fallow, and another type of "lieu" is 

practiced. The social purpose of the practice remains the same: 

the recognition of the relationship between the trustees of the 

land, and those living on the estate. The latter present generous 

amounts of yams to secure their residence on the land. The 

trustees in turnpresent valuables including stone and shell money, 

woven "begi," cases of soda and beer, hard liquor, and money. 

In a recent "lieu," some 710 baskets of yams totalling more than 

11 tons were collected. This involved the contributions of at 

least 70 households, with many of the households in turn collecting contributions from within their own network. 

Data on garden production now being collected will help 

estimate the amount of forested land converted to yam gardens 

for such an occasion. Today's technology for gardening includes metal tools, matches, and two new techniques for bumgirdling trees. The first is to bum old tires at the base of trees. 

The burning tires are moved about and enable a gardener to kill 

trees more efficiently. The second innovation, coming but two 

years after the establishment of a garment factory on Yap, is the 

use of the large volume of discarded cloth scraps for burning 

thickets of bamboo. The cloth is placed between the stalks of 

bamboo to use as tinder. These new techniques expedite the 

conversion of forest to gardens. 

Influence of Change on Resource Use 

Goodenough (197 1)refers to culture as a reservoir of all the 

knowledge, skills, ideas, beliefs, values, recipes, and traditions 

that are known to one or more members of that society. He 

defines a society's "culture pool" as the sum of the contents of 

the propriospects of all the society's members (Goodenough 

1971). A propriospect is each individual's private, subjective 

view of the world and its contents derived from personal experience. It embraces individuals' cognitive and affective ordering 

of their experience. The public culture is the modal point of the 

mix of the individual propriospects. The change with time of the 

modal point around which variance clusters shift has been described as "cultural drift" (Goodenough 1971, Smith 1987). 

This produces change without discontinuity. 

Figure 2 shows the impact of new factors on the culture 

pool. The impact of these factors takes various forms. DepopuFigure 2-Influences of changes on resource use. The cultural pool consists of the propriospects of all of a 

society's members (Goodenough 1971). On Yap, inputs and impacts such as those listed have influenced 

propriospects resulting in a new modal point and cultural drift. The result has included a loss of traditional 

sanctions and a decrease in cultural adaptation to the island ecosystem. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
lation left many "positions" in the highly organized and stratified society unfilled (Mahoney 1958), greatly weakening lines 

of support for the system itself. Christianity was introduced 

shortly thereafter, and traders began selling distilled alcohol. 

The Japanese occupation of the island and World War I1 followed. After the war, Americans introduced a democratic form 

of Government and directed aid through this system rather than 

through the system that supported the traditional hierarchy. In 

spite of all these changes, many aspects of the social system, 

such as kinship patterns and obligations, persist. 

In the matter of controls over the use of natural resources, 

however, there seems to have been considerable change. Depopulation resulted in a lower ratio of people to resources, and 

the need for intensive methods decreased. Neither the new 

religion nor the new government placed controls on resource 

use. At the same time, Yapese culture was given a demonstration 

of the power of modem technology: nonbiodegradable materials, chemicals, fossil fueled machinery, electricity, and a dollar 

economy. These things are very impressive, and gradually the 

insular consciousness has changed to one which is not referenced to island resources alone. Sanctions have faded. When an 

old man tending an important shrine died, his successor on the 

land burned the area to make a garden and then built his house 

there. Within the context of the traditional religion, some misfortune should have befallen him as a result of his burning a sacred 

place. He suffered no such misfortune. Christianity taught people 

to share, and, as outside resources flowed in, there was much to 

share and use in traditional social exchanges. It is hard for a 

cognitive model in which resources are limited to persist under 

such conditions. The criterion of adequacy for a cognitive model 

is that it functions, not that it is accurate (Ellen 1982). Though 

Yap's natural resource base has not increased, outside inputs 

have made it possible for people to trespass the basic rules of 

caloric self-sufficiency without feeling the consequences. The 

culture has drifted away from one which was referenced and 

adaptive to the island environment to one which is much more 

reliant on outside support (Yap State Government 1980). 

Implications for Forestry 

It appears that although Yapese culture today retains its 

focus on social obligations, it has lost many of the controls over 

resource exploitation. This comes at an inopportune time. The 

combination of decreasing aid funds under the Compact of Free 

Association with the United States and a rapidly expanding 

population and more consumptive lifestyle will bring about 

greater exploitation of natural resources. There is definite need 

for sustainable resource management. If we are to assist people 

in managing their resources on a sustainable basis, we must help 

them to evaluate their use of resources and build appropriate 

experience in rational resource utilization. One way to do this is 

via participatory research projects. Sometimes "facts" are not as 

important as the context in which the "facts" are gathered (Ellen 

1982). If a participatory approach is used in research and projects, 

the information and experience gathered will influence individual propiospects that make up the culture pool, and allow 

culture to readapt to ecological realities of the island ecosystem. 

Hopefully this change will occur before useful traditional technologies are forgotten. 

Given traditional patterns of resource use, an important area 

of focus for participatory research projects lies in the area of 

food production systems involving a forest canopy. Although 

"slash and bum agriculture" as practiced by displaced peoples 

contributes to tropical deforestation (FA0 1957), its practice by 

generations of people confined to a small island may provide 

insight into the incorporation of natural processes of succession 

in agricultural systems. Site stable agriculture requires large 

inputs in order to suppress natural succession to "weeds," and to 

manage soil fertility and moisture. These inputs are expensive 

and often have undesirable impacts on the natural ecosystem. 

Traditional "nature intensive" systems utilize the ecological services of trees for these functions, and minimize human input. 

They allow for a succession of crops and secondary species and 

the maintenance of some wild species in the system. The impact 

on soil flora and fauna and important natural processes involved 

in nutrient recycling is less than that of chemical and mechanized agriculture. Land resources on islands are limited. If forestry does not address the matter of swidden agriculture, it will 

come into conflict with it at some point. It would be more 

effective to work with the practitioners of swidden agriculture, 

to enhance the system in a way which would make use of the 

services of trees while taking pressure off native forest resources. 

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9 p. + 4 maps. 

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BenjaminICummings Publishing Co; ix-134. 

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Hunter-Anderson, Roslind L.1983. Yapese settlement patterns: an 

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Hurni, H. 1982. Soil erosion in Huai Thung Choa - northern Thailand: 

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
People and Forests in East Kalimantanl 

Kuswata Kartawinata Timothy C. Jessup A. P. Vayda S. Riswan Cynthia Mackie Nancy E. Peluso2 

Abstract: Two major Indonesian-MAB (Man and the Biosphere) projects 

were carried out in the province of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, in the 1980s. 

Investigators found that farmers vary in their reason for practicing shifting 

cultivation of logging and agriculture, in their intensity of farming, and in the 

amount of damage they caused forests in their practices. Shifting cultivation 

includes a variety of practices that under some circumstances, however, can 

benefit people and protect their environment. In more recent times in East 

Kalimantan, commercial logging in lowlands has continued at a quicker pace, 

and the practice has shifted from the export of raw logs to plantation timber 

and local wood processing. 

Research conducted under the UNESCOs' MAB (Man and 

the Biosphere) Programme began in East Kalimantan in 1979 

with a joint Indonesian-U.S. project on "Interactions between 

People and Forests" (Kartawinata and Vayda 1984). The project 

brought together American and Indonesian scientists to investigate various forest-related activities throughout the province and 

some of their biological effects. East Kalimantan had been 

selected as the location for the Indonesian MAB Programme on 

"Project 1 :Ecological effects of increasing human activities on 

tropical and subtropical forest ecosystems" (UNESCO 1974). 

The initial project on "Interactions" was followed, from 

1982 to 1984, by a second Indonesian-U.S. MAB project called 

"Shifting Cultivation and Patch Dynamics in an Upland Forest 

in East Kalimantan" (Mackie and others 1986). The "Patch 

Dynamics" project was more narrowly focused than its predecessor, but it continued the theme of studying people's forestrelated activities and their effects on forest organisms, cornmunities, and ecosystems. A number of smaller MAB projects also 

were conducted in East Kalimantan around the same time as 

these two, many focused on people-forest interactions but others 

on the basic ecology of intact or less heavily exploited forests 

(Kartawinata 1984, Kartawinata and others 1983). 

The activities studied under the "Interactions" and "Patch 

Dynamics" projects were those known or believed to have clear 

and significant effects on forest organisms, communities, or 

ecosystems. These included large- and small-scale commercial 

logging, non-commercial timber-cutting, migrant pepper farming, the collection of non-timber forest products, and shifting 

cultivation. Among the biological effects of these activities, 

some that were studied were the removal of individual plants 

and animals, conversion of primary and secondary forests to 

An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28. 1991. Honolulu. Hawaii. 

'Programme Specialist in Ecological Sciences, UNESCO Regional Office 

for Science and Technology for Southeast Asia, Jakarta, Indonesia; Project 

Leader, Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve, World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia Program, Jakarta, Indonesia; Professor of Anthropology and Ecology, 

Rutgers University, New Jersey; Head, Botany Division, Centre for Research and 

Development in Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Indonesia; 

Program Manager, Indonesia Program, Conservation International, Washington, 

D.C.; University of California, Berkeley, California. 

other vegetation types and successional changes that followed, 

and changes in environmental conditions and nutrient flows 

following the removal of trees or forest conversion. These basic 

ecological studies helped to provide data on the "natural background" against which to interpret the biological effects of 

human activities. 

In addition to identifying activities with a clear and significant impact on forests and studying some of the biological 

effects of those activities, the projects on ."Interactions" and 

"Patch Dynamics" had another purpose. This was to develop a 

better understanding of who engaged in these activities, in what 

circumstances, and how and why the practice of those activities 

and their effects might vary. The methodology used in the 

research was called at first "situational analysis" (Vayda and 

others 1980) and later "progressive contextualization" (Vayda 

1983). Human actions, the consequences of those actions (whether 

biological, environmental, or otherwise), and-variations in both 

actions and consequences can be explained by placing them in a 

context of interconnected causes, constraints, and other influences affecting the actors. These include not only physical 

factors but also what a person knows and believes-at least 

those found to be relevant to the performance (or non- performance) of the actions under investigation. Some of these contextual factors are discovered in the particular cases studied in 

the field. Others can be deduced through comparison with other 

cases previously studied and perhaps already understood. A 

contextual explanation of any particular case or generalization 

from more than one case can be made progressively denser or 

more extensive by considering more factors in greater detail over 

a longer period of time, a greater number of actors, and so on. 

In the "Interactions" project, in which a variety of forestrelated activities were studied at several widely separated sites, 

the contexts built up by this method were in most cases not very 

dense. Our sample sizes were necessarily small and many 

potential factors that might possibly affect actions and or their 

consequences could not be investigated in detail or with great 

rigor. However, the contexts we developed were broad. They 

included, for example, linkages between people and places involving long distance migrations (from the remote interior of 

East Kalimantan to the lowlands and from other islands such as 

Sulawesi) and trade (for example, of forest products from upriver 

areas, through coastal ports, to cities such as Surabaya, Singapore, 

and Hong Kong). 

The second MAB project ("Patch Dynamics") was focused 

on a smaller range of forest-related activities (shifting cultivation and non-commercial timber cutting) primarily within a 

single research location (the Apo Kayan, in the far interior). The 

contexts for these activities and their consequences (biological 

disturbance and successional recovery) could therefore be made 

denser than those developed in the first project. In particular, we 

gathered more detailed information on a whole range of factors 

affecting the spatial distribution and temporal frequency of gapUSDA Forest Service Gen T-rh Pen. PSW-129. 1992. 
forming human activities, including histories of migration and 

forest use; we also conducted more thorough and rigorous biological studies of plant succession following anthropogenic (and 

some natural) disturbances. 

This paper summarizes results of the two principal Indonesian-U.S. MAE3 projects in East Kalimantan and the various 

smaller projects carded out during the 1980s, and considers the 

future of the MAB Programme in East Kalimantan. 

Results of the MAB Research 

Logging and Agriculture 

Kartawinata and Vayda (1984) reveal that integrated social 

and biological research at several tropical forest locations in the 

Indonesian province of East Kalimantan is indicating variation 

among farmers in their reasons for practicing shifting cultivation, the extensiveness of their farming, and the amount of forest 

damage they cause. It is among the most remotely located 

farmers that long-fallow, forest-maintaining practices are the 

norm. The subjects studied included migrant pepper farmers 

and unlicensed woodcutting teams in addition to shifting cultivators. All subjects were responsive to economic pressures and 

opportunities, but, with the possible exception of governmentsponsored transmigrants, they engaged in activities causing environmental damage, not because no other means of gaining 

subsistence for themselves and their families were available, but 

rather because the activities seemed more profitable than any 

perceived alternatives. None of the subjects, however, cause as 

much forest damage as do timber companies. Studies in areas 

mechanically logged by the companies show genetic erosion, 

reduction in species diversity, and very slow recovery of the 

forest. The less damaging methods of our subjects may provide 

foundations for appropriate technologies of forest use and 

management. -

During the explosion of general economic prosperity at the 

time of banjir kap (the name for practices which were.common 

at the beginning of the timber boom in the late 1960s and early 

1970s when trees were manually felled near rivers and then 

floated downstream), clever entrepreneurs built boats or shops 

which they retained after the general trade in logs was restricted 

to timber companies approved by the central government. Since 

that time, some of these relatively new entrepreneurs have limited their business activities to the sale of trade goods and 

foodstuffs; other have participated in the trade in minor forest 

products only when the prices for certain products have been 

particularly high; still others have taken on trade in minor forest 

products as a regular occupation. The competition at all stages 

of trade has thus increased sharply and is even more pronounced 

when the urban prices on forest products rise significantly. At 

such times, the number of part-time river middlemen looking for 

lucrative deals also increases. Collectors gain more bargaining 

power in that there are more potential buyers of their forest 

products, but they do not make the best of this situation by trying 

to improve the quality of their products. Rather, knowing that 

someone will buy, they offer large quantities instead of high 

38 

quality. Formerly, regular traders could enforce greater quality 

control over contractors with whom they had credit ties. In 

addition, there seemed to be more mutual respect among the 

traders in certain locales in regard to territorial rights - the rights 

to forest products collected by particular contractors and other 

debtors. However, control is becoming increasingly difficult as 

part-time or new entrepreneurs offer, for example, to pay cash 

for wet or dry rattan of any quality in order to break into the 

market. Regular traders subsequently accept low-quality forest 

products to protect their relationships with, and their investments in, their contractors. 

Here again, short-term economic considerations are apparently being put ahead of long-term ecological ones. Like the 

other investigators, Peluso (1983) found that her subjects typically acted in what they considered to be their best interests. The 

problem is not one of ignorance. Collectors, whose harvesting 

methods are destructive, know, for example, the regeneration 

cycles of the varieties of rattan growing in their locales and the 

reproductive cycles of the swiftlets whose nets are taken. The 

fact is that the people's resource-destroying behavior brings 

quick profit to them and, since traditional controls over these 

resources (such as the village chiefs rights to certain valuable 

forest produce) have been eliminated, policies of harvesting as 

much as one can from a resource before somebody else gets to it 

inevitably gain ground. An important but often ignored implication of such findings is that education and propaganda will be 

insufficient to change people's behavior. Some way will have to 

be found to institute effective new controls in place of the lapsed 

traditional ones, or some concrete and profitable alternative 

sources of income will have to be offered to those who are now 

acting destructively. 

Implications for Development: Comparison of Shifting 

Cultivation in Two Sites 

The approach advocated and used in the East Kalimantan 

MAB projects has produced some findings which are important 

for development planning in the province and which may be 

relevant to other tropical forest areas. In the remote Apo Kayan, 

the inhabitants, the Dayak people, are not reckless destroyers of 

the forest-the prevalent image of shifting cultivators. Rather, 

they maintain and re- use sites, farming almost entirely in secondary forest with a long history of land use. Their migrations 

are not, in most instances, caused by a shortage of land but are 

mainly responses to economic problems brought about by their 

geographic isolation. 

The more accessible Telen River lowland area, to which 

people have migrated from the Apo Kayan, is quite different. 

Despite the hopes of government planners that 'resettled' shifting cultivators could be induced to use more intensive agricultural methods, shifting cultivation there is more, not less, extensive than in the Apo Kayan, and it is being practiced mainly in 

primary rather than secondary forest. This is not due to any 

'backwardness' on the part of Dayak farmers but is a result of 

inappropriate methods. These include irrigated rice cultivation, 

which has been promoted by extension workers and brought 

USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech.Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
about by economic circumstances that, on the one hand, encourage extensive agricultural production (access to markets) and, on 

the other, make the clearing of large areas of primary forest 

relatively easy because of the ready availability of chain-saws, 

outboard motors, and fuel. A related factor is the low inherent 

fertility of soils in the area which precludes intensive sedentary agriculture. 

In the homegardens, Soedjito (1988a) found 91 species in 

Sungei Barang and 129 species in Long Segar, indicating that 

the two Dayak settlements have sufficient additional food and 

medicinal plant supply. The function of homegardens tends to 

decline as a result of "modernization" influences as indicated by 

the settlement in Long Segar, although it has higher number of 

species cultivated which are mostly ornamental species not present 

in Sungei Barang. 

Research to date suggests that development planners should 

pay close attention to circumstances which may vary from one 

locality to another and which can have important influences on 

people's actual behavior. Such circumstances are usually more 

important than generalities such as the "type" of agriculture 

practiced or a group's "level of development" or "culture." The 

generalization that "shifting cultivation is destructive and therefore should be eliminated" (or the reverse, that "shifting cultivation is not destructive") is bound to be wrong some of the time 

because "shifting cultivation" includes a great variety of actual 

practices in a diversity of environments. Under some circumstances, shifting cultivation can benefit people and protect 

their environment. 

Shifting Cultivation and Patch Dynamics in the Apo Kayan 

Shifting cultivation and tree-felling for timber in the remote 

Apo Kayan region of Indonesian Borneo are compared with 

natural disturbance events (tree-falls and landslides) generally 

known to affect tropical forests. The causes of spatial and 

temporal patters in human-caused disturbances are examined. 

Farmers in the Apo Kayan practice a traditional, forest-maintaining form of shifting cultivation, which over time has created 

a non-random mosaic of fields, old fields, secondary forests of 

varying age, and primary forest in' "relic" patches. 

Mackie (1987) found that tree species common in secondary forest appear early in old field succession. These species 

appear to be particularly well adapted to regenerate after shifting 

cultivation. Soedjito (1988b) found that roots of trees within 

secondary forests penetrate deeper into the soil, have longer 

lateral roots, and contain higher levels of nutrients and greater 

biomass than trees of primary forests. Field site selection is 

influenced by social interactions as well as by environmental 

factors and the local history of land use. 

On a broader scale, migration has repeatedly redistributed 

villages and village-centered patterns of shifting cultivation within 

the Apo Kayan. Recent emigration from the region has greatly 

reduced the human population and has led to contraction of the 

areas affected by shifting cultivation. Most shifting cultivation 

ias been in areas of secondary forest. Primary forest reserves 

ire maintained near villages in order to supply local needs for 

timber and other forest products. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

The gaps made by tree-felling for timber rather than for 

farming are similar to natural treefall gaps both in size and in the 

density of regenerating seedlings. Felling and extraction of 

timber cause little damage to the surrounding forest. Large 

landslides are similar in size to shifting cultivation fields. However, they disturb soil and vegetation more severely than any 

other natural or human-caused disturbance in the region. 

The biological diversity of the Apo Kayan and the opportunities for basic and applied research there make it an excellent 

site for an international biosphere reserve. Recommendations 

are made for a program of research, forest conservation, and environmentally appropriate development within a biosphere reserve. 

Studies on Primary and Secondary Lowland Forests 

A study of a primary lowland dipterocarp forest in Lempake 

near Samarinda shows that it has a high degree of species 

diversity (205 tree species of d.b.h. > 10 cm in a 1 &ha plot with 

a density of 445 treeha) (Riswan 1982,1987), although slightly 

lower than that at Wanariset, near Balikpapan (239 tree species 

in a 1 &ha plot with a density of 541 treesha) (Kartawinata and 

others 1981). The occurrence of secondary forest species at 

different proportions indicates regeneration within gaps caused 

by fallen trees. Naturally occurring gaps of different sizes were 

recorded also in the Wanariset forest (Partomihardjo and others 

1987). Regeneration observations on an experimentally established gap of one hectare within the Lempake primary forest 

with partial burning treatment for a period of 1.5 years reveal 

that in the early stage of succession, seedlings play a more 

important role than coppices (Riswan 1982; Riswan and 

Kartawinata 1989), which is just the reverse of the regeneration 

in kerangas (heath) forest on podsolized soil over white sands in 

Samboja (Riswan 1982; Riswan and Kartawinata 1988b). The 

number of species, percentage of cover and frequency of seedlings and coppices, as well as the number of primary forest 

species, were greater in the unburnt plots than those in the burnt 

ones. Recovery in the unburnt plot was attributed primarily to an 

undisturbed seedbank in the soil, while that in the unbumt one 

mainly to seed rain. 

In the Lempake Forest, a 35-year-old man-made gap of 

several hectares (i.e., a secondary forest developed from an 

abandoned pepper plantation) shows a relatively high species 

diversity (121 tree species of d.b.h.> 10 cm in a 0.8 ha plot with 

density of 578 treeha) (Riswan 1982; Riswan and Kartawinata 

1988a). Although 70 percent of them were primary forest species, the biggest tree, the emergents and the most common 

species were secondary forest species, particularly Macaranga 

spp. Only one species of Dipterocarpaceae was recorded, although the plot was surrounded by primary dipterocarp forest. 

By using a floristic similarity index, stem biomass, and girth 

measurement, it was estimated that it would take around 150 to 

500 years for the forest to reach the stage similar to the primary 

forest. Riswan and others (1985) compared the above data from 

primary, secondary, and experimentally cleared forest sites to 

estimate the minimum time required for various phases involved 

in the re-establishment of tropical rain forest after disturbance. 
A model they developed predicts a minimum period for the 

stabilization of secondary species numbers of 60-70 years and 

the replacement of primary species in 150 years, at which point 

-ip formation is initiated. After approximately 220-250, years 

nass stabilizes while individual trees exist for over 500 years. 

'uture of MAB Programme 

Many changes have occurred in East Kalimantan since the 

MAB research of the early 1980s. Despite the devastating 

drought and fires of 1982-83, commercial logging in the lowlands has continued at a rapid pace, although there has been an 

important shift from the export of raw logs into local wood 

processing and, more recently, development of planted timber 

"estates." The trade in rattan has also expanded, with a ban on 

the export of raw cane, development of Indonesia's rattan manufacturing industry, and attempts to establish rattan plantations. 

Transmigration and so-called "spontaneous" immigration 

into East Kalimantan from other provinces has continued, but 

there has been a decline in emigration from the Apo Kayan since 

the large migrations of the 1970s and early 1980s. Some resettlement communities in the lowlands (including those on the 

Telen River) were badly disrupted by the drought and fires of 

1982-83, and people from those communities have since moved 

to other locations within the lowlands. Population growth has 

been especially rapid around the coastal town of Bontang, where 

industrial and mining projects have attracted immigrants. This 

has contributed to accelerated encroachment into nearby Kutai 

National Park. On the other hand, there has been more attention 

paid in recent years to the Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve in 

the far interior of the province (including part of the Apo Kayan), 

where the human population is sparse and threats to natural 

forest are less than in the heavily exploited lowlands. 

We who have been involved in the MAB Programme in east 

Kalimantan will continue to work closely, as in the past, with the 

Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) and the Mulawarman 

University. We are also developing closer ties with the Directorate General for Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PI-IPA); 

the Office of Minister of State for Population and Environment 

(KLH); and such conservation organizations as the World Wide 

Fund for Nature (WWF), Indonesian Environmental Forum 

(WALHI), Conservation International, and others. We are in the 

process of planning conservation-oriented research and a training component in the Kayan Mentarang Reserve in collaboration 

with WWF, LIPI, and PHPA and with the possible participation 

of Wildlife Conservation International. We also continue to 

advocate the establishment of a biosphere reserve in the Apo 

Kayan, a goal supported by WALHI and Conservation Intemational. This new generation of MAB research, training and 

guidance for policy-makers will build on the experience gained 

in the earlier Indonesian-US MAB projects focusing on forest 

biology, human ecology, and the involvement of local communities in conservation management. 

Acknowledgments 

We thank our colleagues in the East Kalimantan MAE3 

projects, particularly R. Sambas Wirakusumah, and Carol Colfer, 

for their contributions to the work cited in this paper. The two 

principal MAB projects in East Kalimantan were supported by 

grants from the USDA Forest Service, administered through the 

East West Center and Rutgers University, as well as from the 

Indonesian Government, and were conducted under the auspices 

of the Indonesian National MAB Committee of the Indonesian 

Institute of Sciences with cooperation from the Mulawarman 

University. 

References 

Kartawinata, K. 1984. Environmental effects of different kinds of land use. 

Indonesian National MAB Committee, Document 39; 129 p. 

Kartawinata, K.: Vayda, A.P. 1984. Forest conversion in East Kalimantan, 

Indonesia: the activities and impact of timber companies, shifting cultivators, migrant pepper-farmers, and others. In: Di Castri, F.; Baker, F.W.G.; 

Hadley, M., eds. Ecology in Practice: Establishing a Scientific Basis for 

Land Management, Volume 2; Paris: UNESCO: 98-126. 

Kartawinata, K.; Abdulhadi, R.: Partomihardjo, T. 1981. Composition and 

structure of a lowland dipterocarp forest at Wanariset, East Kalimantan. 

Malaysian Forester 44: 397-406. 

Mackie, C. 1987. The landscape ecology of traditional shifting cultivation in 

an upland Bornean rainforest. In: Hadi, Y.: Awang, K.: Majid, N.M.; 

Mohamed, S., eds. Impact of man's activities on tropical uplands, forest 

ecosystems. Selangor: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia; 425-464. 

Mackie, C.; Jessup, T.C.; Vayda, A.P.; Kartawinata, K. 1986. Shifting cultivation and patch dynamics in an upland forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. 

In: Hadi, Y.; Awang, K.; Majid, N.M.; Mohamed, S., eds. Impact of man's 

activities on tropical uplands, forest ecosystems, Selangor: Universiti 

Pertanian Malaysia; 465-518. 

Partomihardjo, T.: Yusuf, R.: Sunarti, S.; Purwaningsih, Abdulhadi R.; 

Kartawinata, K. 1987. A preliminary note on gaps in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Wanariset, East Kalimantan. In: Kostermans, A.J.G.H., ed. 

Proceedings of the Third Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps. Jakarta: 

UNESCOROSTSEA; 241-255. 

Peluso, N.L. 1983. Markets and merchants: The forest products trade of East 

Kalimantan in historical perspective. Ithaca: Cornell University, Dissertation. 

Riswan, S. 1982. Ecological studies on primary, secondary and experimentally cleared mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest in East Kalimantan, 

Indonesia. Aberdeen: University of Aberdeen, Dissertation. 

Riswan, S. 1987. Structure and floristic composition of a mixed dipterocarp 

forest at Lempake, East Kalimantan. In: A.J.G.H. Kostermans, ed. Proceedings of the Third Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps. UNESCO1 

ROSTSEA. Jakarta; 435-457. 

Riswan, S.; Kartawinata, K. 1988a. A lowland dipterocarp forest 35 years 

after pepper plantation in East Kalimantan. In: Soemodihardjo, S., ed. 

Some ecological aspects of tropical forest of East Kalimantan: a collection 

of research reports. Indonesian National MAB Committee Contribution 

48: 39 p. 

Riswan, S.; Kartawinata, K. 1988b. Regeneration after disturbance in a 

kerangas (heath) forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Soemodihardjo, 

S., ed. Some ecological aspects of tropical forest of East Kalimantan: A 

collection of research reports. Indonesian National MAB Committee 

Contribution 48: 39 p. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Riswan, S.; Kartawinata, K. 1989. Regeneration after disturbance in a lowland 

dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Ekologi Indonesia 1: 9-28. 

Riswan, S.; Kentworthy, J.B.; Kartawinata, K. 1985. The estimation of 

temporal processes in tropical rain forest: a study of primary mixed dipterocarp forest in Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Ecology 1: 171-182. 

Soedjito, H. 1988a. Beberapa perbandingan tumbuhan pekarangan antara Long 

Sei Barang dan Long Segar, Kalimantan Timur (Some comparisons of 

plants in homegardens in Sei Barang and Long Segar, East Kalimantan). 

In: Soemodihardjo, S., ed.Dampak Kegiatan Manusia terhadap Komunitas 

Tumbuhan di Kalimantan Timur: Kumpulan Makalah Seminar dan Penelitian, 

Panitia Nasional Program MAB Indonesia, Kontribusi 49: 37-51. 

Soedjito, H. 1988b. Spatial patterns, biomass and nutrient concentrations of 

root systems in primary and secondary forest trees of tropical rainforest in 

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tropical forest of East Kalimantan: a collection of research reports. Indonesian National MAB Committee Contribution 48: 41- 59. 

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effects of increasing human activities on tropical and sub-tropical forest 

ecosystems. MAB Report Series 16, Paris: UNESCO; 96p. 

Vayda, A.P. 1983. Progressive contextualization: method for research in human ecology. Human Ecology 11: 265-281. 

Vayda, A.P.; Colfer, C.J.P.; Brotokusumo, M. 1980. Interaction between 

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30: 179-190. 

USDA Forest-Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Forest Biological Diversity Interactions 


with Resource Utilization1 

S.T. Mok2 

Abstract: The most important forest resources of the Asia-Pacific region are 

the highly diverse rain forests. Utilization of the resource is a natural and 

inevitable consequence of the region's socio-economic development. The 

sustainable management and development of forest resources in the region can 

be achieved by implementing conservational forestry, which is based on 

blending Eastern wisdom and philosophy with Western expertise and technology. The most urgently needed technology in the region are cost-effective, 

integrated forest inventory and monitoring systems, information management 

and decision-support systems, and non-wood forest resources assessment and 

valuation systems. The conservational approach to forest management can 

have major beneficial effects in conserving resources and maintaining biological diversity. 

Forests have served humankind beneficially since time immemorial. They are renewable natural resources. Natural forests are vital sources of food, fuel, medicine, and a host of other 

products essential for livelihood and welfare in all developing 

countries. They provide fertile land for agriculture and primary 

commodities for trade and industries which promote socio-economic progress. Besides producing tangible products, forests 

have heritage, socio-cultural, aesthetic, recreational, and other 

intrinsic values which enhance the quality of life. They play a 

critical role in the management of soil and water resources, 

maintenance of environmental quality, and conservation of biological diversity-all of which are essential for sustainable development. 

In the Asia-Pacific region, forests constitute an integral part 

of the people's diverse cultures, religions, and socio-economic 

activities. Living in harmony with nature is a way of life in the 

region. Prudent use of forests contributed significantly to the 

rapid progress of civilization and socio-economic development. 

The region is home to more than half of the world's population, 

and is projected to increase to nearly 3,200 million by the year 

2000 (Anon. 1987). It has a dynamic economy and is expected 

to become the economic growth center of the world in the 21st 

century. The growing population will inevitably increase pressure on the forests in the region, but socio-economic advancement will have a profound influence on the nature of these 

demands. 

With increasing demands from a growing population, both 

regionally and globally, it is inevitable that the forests will 

continue to decline. According to the World Resources Institute 

(Anon. 1990a), the world's forests have declined by one-fifth, 

from 5 to 4 billion hectares, since pre-agricultural times. Temperate forests have lost the highest percentage of their area (32 to 

35 percent), followed by subtropical woody savannas and deciduous forests (24 to 25 percent). Tropical evergreen forests 

An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, 

May 27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Former Director, ASEAN, Institute of Forest Management, Kuala Lumpur, 

Malaysia. 

have lost the least area (4 to 6 percent). However, the present 

highest rates of deforestation are in South America (1.3 percent) 

and Asia (0.9 percent). According to the Food and Agriculture 

Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the rate of deforestation of 0.6 percent in 1980 has doubled to 1.2 percent, or almost 

17 million hectares a year (Anon. 1990b). The rate of annual 

deforestation in the Asia-Pacific region during 1981-90 was 

close to 4.7 million hectares, compared with some 2 million 

hectares during 1976-80. 

The impacts of rapidly growing world and regional populations, changing socio-economic circumstances, and declining 

forest resources, particularly on biological diversity, present 

major challenges to forest managers. The increasing awareness 

of the vital non-wood values, especially of tropical forests, 

makes the social and environmental aspects of forestry particularly important and the conservation of forests in general and 

forest biological diversity, in particular, imperative. Before 

these challenges can be met realistically and effectively, however, forest managers must have (a) timely, relevant, and reliable 

information on forest resources and biological diversity, (b) 

pragmatic policies and strategies for sustainable forestry development, (c) effective managerial expertise and operational skills, 

and (d) appropriate forest resources assessment, management 

and development technologies. 

Forest Biological Diversity 

The Asia-Pacific region has been well endowed with rich 

natural forests containing great biological diversity. However, 

the precise extent of forest areas is debatable due to a lack of 

consensus in definition and the rapid changes brought about by 

shifting cultivation, commercial timber harvesting, and conversion to other uses. The extent of closed forests has been estimated by the Asian Development Bank at 407.9 million hectares 

(Anon. 1987) and by the World Resources Institute at 495.7 

million hectares (Anon. 1990a). According to the Asian Development Bank, broadleaved forests accounted for 376 million 

hectares or 92 percent of the natural closed forests in the region. 

More than half of the closed forests were found in insular 

Southeast Asia (144.4 million ha), continental Southeast Asia 

(95.9 million ha), and tropical Oceania (37.9 million ha). Closed 

forests covered more than 50 percent of the total land area of 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. Countries with the most extensive areas of closed forests 

are Indonesia (113.9 million ha), People's Republic of China (92 

million ha), India (51.8 million ha), Papua New Guinea (34.2 

million ha), Myanmar (31.9 million ha), and Malaysia (21 million ha). Substantial areas of non-forest land, especially in 

Southeast Asia, are actually under perennial tree crops such as 

rubber, oil palm, and cocoa. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
The most important forest resources of the Asia-Pacific 

region are the tropical rainlmoist forests of Southeast Asia and 

Oceania, which cover some 1,000,000 square kilometer (Anon. 

1989). The region has a great diversity of plant and animal 

species of economic importance and is one of the cradles of 

agriculture where many of the world's major crop plants originated or have their center of diversity. Many plants and animals 

from these forests are important sources of fruits, drugs, oils, 

beverages, gums, vegetables, spices, medicine, ornaments, fibres, and rattan. Nevertheless, the precise extent, location, and 

value of these forests' biological diversity is generally very 

poorly known. 

Indonesia, with forests spread over more than 13,000 islands encompassing three major vegetation regions from Asia to 

Oceania, probably has the highest biological diversity in the 

Asia-Pacific region. The country is estimated to have 25,000 to 

30,000 species of flowering seed-bearing plants (4,000 trees), 

750 species of mammals (100 endemic), 1,250 species of birds, 

and 12,000 species of arthropodshnsects. 

Malaysia's biologically rich tropical rain forests have some 

14,500 species of flowering plants (890 reaching 45-cm d.b.h.), 

over 800 species of non-flowering plants, around 1,000 species 

of vertebrates, and 20 to 80 thousand invertebrate species. A 

high degree of endemism ranging from 30 percent of all tree 

species to 80 to 90 percent of some families has been observed. 

The Philippines has a unique flora and fauna with high 

levels of endemism in both plants and animals. More than 950 

terrestrial vertebrate species and some 8,000 species of flowering plants have been recorded. The forests support at least 

12,000 species of plants, of which about 3,000 are endemic. The 

fauna is characterized by a high degree of endemism, with about 

96 species of non-volant land mammals, of which at least 70 are 

found nowhere else in the world. The avifauna and herpetofauna, 

with some 860 species, also show a remarkable degree of endemism. 

Thailand, which divides naturally into six geographical regions, has 10,000 to 15,000 species of plants, including 500 tree 

species and about- 1,000 species of orchids; over 900 species of 

birds; 270 species of mammals; and 100 species of amphibians. 

Papua New Guinea has an extraordinary diversity of ecosystems, ranging from mountain glaciers to humid rain forests, 

and some of the most remarkable wildlife on earth. The total 

number of vascular plants in the country is believed to be in the 

order of 11,000 species and about 2,000 species of ferns, with 

estimates of endemism ranging from 55 to 90 percent. The 

lowland forests are the richest with over 1,200 species of trees. 

The majority of the fauna is Indomalayan in origin, with a strong 

Australian influence in mammals, which have been estimated at 

almost 200 species. The avifauna is one of the richest and most 

varied in the world, as New Guinea is a major center of diversity 

for several species of birds. Approximately 740 species have 

been recognized (10 percent of them endemic), of which 445 

dwell in the rain forests. There are some 90 species of snakes, 

170 species of lizards, nearly 200 species of frogs, and 455 

species of butterflies, over 80 percent of which are endemic. 

Interactions with Resource Utilization 

Resource utilization is a natural and inevitable consequence 

of the socio-economic development process. Forest utilization 

has been ongoing since the dawn of civilization and is a worldwide phenomenon which escalated with the advent of the agricultural and industrial revolutions. It has been sustained at a 

high level to satisfy the basic and socio-economic needs of 

growing populations in developing countries and to meet the 

insatiable demands for primary commodities in the developed 

world. As a consequence, extensive areas of land have been 

deforested or degraded throughout the world, causing widespread and serious losses of forest biological diversity. 

In the Asia-Pacific region, which is environmentally, ecologically, and culturally very complex, forest biological diversity interactions with resource utilization are largely correlated 

with forest degradation and deforestation caused by a variety of 

traditional forestry and socio-economic development activities. 

The main activities which could degrade the forests, and, therefore, biological diversity, include hunting and gathering, shifting 

cultivation, fuelwood cutting, and commercial timber harvesting. Loss of forest biological diversity can result from burning 

and converting forests to continuous annual cropping, grazing, 

perennial food and primary commodity crops, and industrial 

forest plantations; and from construction of dams, settlements, 

highways, and infrastructures. 

Forestry has been practiced traditionally but informally in 

the Asia-Pacific region from the time when people began to use 

natural forests to satisfy their basic needs. The forest people's 

pattern of land use, exemplified by nomadic hunting, gathering 

and traditional shifting cultivation, has evolved over thousands 

of years to take advantage of the regenerative capacity of natural 

forest ecosystems-a way of life both rational and sustainable so 

long as their populations remain low and their territories extensive (Anon. 1989). Some of the most technologically advanced 

cultures in the world in the period 13,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C. 

flourished not in the Middle East or the adjacent Mediterranean, 

but in the northern reaches of mainland Southeast Asia, where 

cultures were based on traditional shifting cultivation (Anon. 

1989). The system is considered to be well adapted to tropical 

rain forest management as it helps to maintain the biological 

diversity of forests and often provides significant benefits to 

wildlife populations. 

However, shifting cultivation can become unsustainable, 

and thus impact adversely on forest biological diversity in at 

least three main ways: (a) by an increase in human population, 

which causes old plots to be recultivated too soon; (b) by inept 

agricultural practices such as prolonged cultivation of the land 

that allows persistent weeds to become established; and (c) by 

extension into an insufficiently humid environment such as 

deciduous forests, which have a much slower recovery rate 

(Anon. 1989). 

The problem has been exacerbated in recent years by "shifted 

cultivators" from the lowland who lack the knowledge which 

generations of traditional shifting cultivators have accumulated. 

"SDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
The rapid growth of populations in the Asia-Pacific region in 

recent decades has compounded the problem as the increased 

pressure on the forests resulted in unsuitable areas being cultivated. Even in Southeast Asia, shifting cultivation is often no 

longer a viable option as the density of population is such that 

the practice will almost invariably lead to long-term degradation 

of the agricultural and forestry potential of the land (Anon. 

1989). Non-traditional shifting cultivation or slash-and-bum 

farming by the landless and unemployed rural poor, who follow 

in the wake of logging, is a major cause of deforestation associated with commercial timber harvesting in most Asia-Pacific 

countries. 

Fuelwood is a major source of energy in the Asia-Pacific 

region and accounts for the largest share of consumer products 

from forests and other wooded areas. It is usually collected 

locally for rural households and from areas surrounding the 

population centers for cooking, heating, and small-scale industries. Although the extent of fuelwood collection is virtually 

impossible to ascertain precisely, it is estimated that annual 

production generally accounts for about 80 percent of total wood 

removals in the Asia-Pacific region. Consequently, uncontrolled exploitation for fuelwood and charcoal often degrades 

open tree formations and sometimes closed forests, causing 

adverse interactions with forest biological diversity. 

Commercial harvesting of permanent production forests in 

the Asia-Pacific region is not usually a direct cause of deforestation because it is mainly selective, and clear-cutting is rare 

(Anon. 1988). Selective logging usually removes 2 to 10 trees 

per hectare or 3 to 30 per cent of the total timber volume. The 

permanent forest estates in many countries of the Asia-Pacific 

region are legally constituted and protected by long-established 

forestry services. Most countries in the region have basically 

sound forestry policies and subscribe to the principles of sustained yield and sustainable development. However, few of 

them have adequate human, technical, and financial resources to 

ensure effective enforcement of forestry legislations and irnplementation of sustainable forest management and development, 

especially with respect to forest biological diversity. Consequently, commercial timber harvesting is often the precursor of 

serious degradation of forests in general and forest biological 

diversity in particular. 

The increasing degradation of forest biological diversity is 

caused largely by the inflexible and inappropriate application of 

eurocentric conventional forestry ideals, concepts, principles 

and practices. As logging became more profitable than the 

extraction of non-wood forest products usually associated with 

traditional forestry, large-scale mechanization and the removal 

of maximum volumes were advocated on the grounds of full and 

efficient utilization, economy of scale, and maximum socioeconomic benefits. Unlike temperate forests, however, intensive exploitation of tropical forests invariably brought about 

rapid resource depletion, excessive resource wastage, and, above 

all, adverse impacts on the forest resources, environment and 

biological diversity. The damage is often aggravated by the 

indiscriminate and systematic application of silviculture techniques, often without the necessary information on the residual 

stand or its ecological characteristics, to produce idealistic uniform and highly productive forests like those in Europe. Seemingly, there is a lack of realization that the highly complex forest 

ecosystems in the Asia-Pacific region, particularly those located 

in the tropical countries with intense population pressures, harsh 

climatic conditions, and fragile environments, are not amenable 

to such extreme treatments. Besides degrading the forests, 

conventional forestry has also been alleged to have contributed 

to inequitable distribution of the forest wealth and deprivation of 

indigenous people's rights to their forest resources. 

Conserving Biological Diversity 

The importance of forest biological diversity, especially the 

rich genetic resources in tropical moist/rain forests, has been 

gaining increased attention in recent years. Whatever the uncertainties of the economic value of tropical forests in terms of their 

included biodiversity, the certainty of irreversible loss of a significant quantity of existing genetic resources through current 

rates and patterns of deforestation and forest degradation is 

beyond question (Kemp 199 1). Consequently, action for the 

conservation of forest biological diversity has been initiated by 

various United Nations agencies, notably FAO, United Nations 

Environmental Program (UNEP), United Nations Education, 

Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and non-governmental organizations such as International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and World 

Wildlife Fund (WWF). However, the action has tended to be 

conceptual, intellectual and conventional, although field activities have increased in recent years. Given the wide spectrum of 

scientific information that must be urgently gathered to guide the 

location and management of conservation programs, international research organizations such as International Union of 

Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) also have an important role, in concert with national research centers (Kemp 1991). 

In the Asia-Pacific region, the people's awareness of forests' multiple functions and vital contributions to their welfare 

and quality of life prompted the countries to establish extensive 

reserves of protected areas for environmental protection and 

biological diversity conservation. According to IUCN (Anon. 

1990c), the region has 2,303 protected areas covering about 

139.2 million hectares of which 810 areas covering 66.2 million 

hectares are totally protected. Southeast Asia and Oceania 

account for about 74.5 million hectares or 53.5 percent of the 

protected areas. Protected tropical moisthain forests cover about 

28.1 million hectares in the Asia-Pacific region while approximately 23.3 million hectares have been proposed for protection. 

However, management of the protected areas ranges from nominal to non-existent, and knowledge of the extent, nature, and 

value of the forests' biological diversity is grossly inadequate. 

Given the complexity of the ecosystems and the lack of adequately trained taxonomists, ecologists, and other scientists in 

the countries concerned, the provision of technical cooperation 

as well as financial support is critically important (Kemp 1991). 

Most of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region have less 

than 10 percent of their land under protection for biological 

diversity conservation. With ever increasing demands on the 

rapidly declining forests from geometrically growing populaUSDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
tions, however, there seems to be very limited scope and extremely poor prospects for further expansion of the protected 

areas system in most of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region. 

Permanent production forests must be managed sustainably and 

conservationally to ensure that forest biological diversity interactions with resource utilization are minimized so that forest 

genetic resources can be protected objectively and effectively. 

Conservational Forest Management 

The principal measures required to achieve sustainable natural 

resources and biological diversity conservation in production 

forests must include pragmatic objectives and technically, socially, economically, ecologically, and environmentally sound 

forestry practices. Conservational forestry, based on integrated 

forest resources assessment, management with realistic forest 

resources and biological diversity conservation goals, and preventive or proactive rather than curative or reactive measures, 

offers the best practical prospects for both sustainable forest 

management and forest biological diversity conservation. 

A conservational approach to sustainable forest resources 

and biological diversity conservation must be supported by the 

following policy directions: 

(a) Manage and utilize the forest resources for maximum 

benefits based on the inherent capability of the forest 

and its optimal use 

(b) Manage the utilization of the forest resources based on 

comprehensive forest land use and management plans 

(c) Determine potential yield on the basis of systematic 

and in-depth appraisals of the forest resource base, its 

growth potential, and other relevant factors 

(d) Harvest forest resources conservationally by selective 

felling and retention of adequate natural regeneration, 

consistent with economical harvesting, to ensure the 

sustainability of the forest resource base; and 

(e) Apply optimal forest management regimes developed 

on the basis of information generated by systematic 

integrated forest management and operations research 

The development strategy for conservational forest management should accord priority to the following: 

(a) Conservational and sustainable use of natural forest 

resources and biological diversity 

(b) Afforestation and reforestation of deforested and degraded lands 

(c) Research to improve forest management and operations, optimal resource utilization, and conservation of 

forest biological diversity 

(d) Education to create awareness of multiple values of 

forests and promote forest conservation 

Conservational forestry, based on the proven concept of 

management by objectives, requires careful integrated pre-felling and post-felling assessments of the total forest resources and 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

the application of technically, socially, economically, ecologically and environmentally sound forest management and development practices. The conceptual outline sequence of operations is as follows: 

Year Operations 

F-2 to F-1 Pre-felling integrated forest inventory 

Determination of optimal forest management 

regime or option 

F Tree marking for felling or retention, if necessary 

Climber cutting, if necessary 

Directional felling of prescribed trees 

Post-felling integrated residual forest inventory 

Determination of optimal silvicultural regime 

or option 

Silvicultural treatment, enrichment or plantation, as 

appropriate 

The conservational approach to forest management recognizes social, political, economic, ecological, and environmental 

constraints and is based largely on technological, managerial, 

and operational considerations. It is expected to be practical and 

will have the following beneficial effects: 

(a) conserve forest resources and biological diversity; 

(b) ensure sustainable forest management and development; 

(c) minimize investments required for reforestation; 

(d) maintain environmental stability and quality; and 

(e) reduce damage to the ecosystem and loss of biological 

diversity. 

Conclusion 

The sustainable management and development of forest 

resources in the Asia-Pacific region can be achieved by the 

implementation of conservational forestry based on a blending 

of Eastern wisdom and philosophy with Western expertise and 

technologies. The necessary expertise, particularly in policy and 

economic analysis, must be acquired and appropriate facilities 

established within the Asia-Pacific region as a matter of priority 

to enable the countries in the region to formulate realistic strategies and options for sustainable forest management and biological diversity conservation. There is also an urgent need to 

upgrade essential technological, managerial, and operational 

skills. This is not only to intensify integrated studies in forest 

management and operations to develop appropriate tools and 

needed management information, but more importantly, to apply appropriate technologies, expertise, and skills for sustainable 

management of forest resources and the conservation of the 

biological diversity. The most urgently required technologies 

and skills in the Asia-Pacific region seem to be efficient and 

cost-effective integrated forest inventory systems, change detection and monitoring systems; information management systems; 

operations management and decision support systems; and nonwood forest resources, especially biological diversity, assessment and valuation systems. 

The formulation and implementation of realistic strategies 

and programs for sustainable forest management and development in general and for forest biological diversity conservation 
in particular can only be accomplished successfully after the 

evolution of a tropical forestry culture which is compatible with 

local social, cultural, political, economic, ecological and environmental conditions. The conservational and sustainable management and development of natural forests, especially tropical 

moisttrain forests, of the Asia-Pacific region require highly competent, innovative, and motivated forest managers and operators 

with the relevant expertise and skills; appropriate technologies 

and techniques; timely and reliable information; and adequate 

financial and human resources. Forestry specialists will need to 

acquire or upgrade their expertise and skills to conduct policy 

and economic analysis for optimizing sustainable management 

and biological diversity conservation; and to develop or adapt 

appropriate technologies and methodologies for environmentally-safe and ecologically-sound forest utilization and timber 

harvesting which ensure sustainable forest management and 

biological diversity conservation. In addition, they need to 

conduct cost effective integrated forest inventories to generate 

information for integrated forest management; to monitor changes 

in both natural and regenerating forests; to assess and evaluate 

non-wood forest and biological resources; and to conduct integrated studies in forest management and operations to evaluate 

the physical and economic impacts of alternative forest management, harvesting and silvicultural options on forest resources 

and biological diversity conservation. 

The evolution of a tropical forestry culture, the formulation 

of realistic strategies and program for sustainable forest management and forest biological diversity conservation, and the effective implementation of conservational and sustainable forest 

management and development activities will require immense 

technical and financial resources to acquire or upgrade local 

capabilities. As most countries in the Asia-Pacific region are 

unlikely to be able to mobilize these resources nationally, they 

should be encouraged to collaborate and support the establishment of the following with external technical assistance: 

(a) An Asia-Pacific Forestry Centrehstitute to conduct 

policy and economic studies necessary for the evolution of a tropical forestry culture; formulation and 

evaluation of strategic options for sustainable forest 

management and effective biological diversity conservation, and transfer of expertise and skills to national 

forestry personnel. 

(b) Regional and National Centres of Excellence for Sustainable Forest Management and Development to develop or adapt, package, and transfer appropriate technologies, methodologies and techniques for integrated 

forest inventory, resource assessment, evaluation and 

monitoring; timber harvesting and reforestation; information management; and integrated studies in forest 

management and operations. 

Regional forestry programs to provide technical advice, guidance, and support necessary to upgrade national managerial, technical, technological and operational expertise and skills to ensure sustainable forest 

management and biological diversity conservation. 

(d) An Asia-Pacific Forestry Information Centre to promote greater awareness and appreciation of the multiple values of forests and to provide technical advice, 

guidance, and support for upgrading national capacities and capabilities. 

(e) A Global Forest Convention which encompasses biological diversity to ensure sustainable forest management and development and effective conservation of 

biological diversity as an integral component of the 

forest ecosystem. 

References 

Anonymous. 1987. A review of forestry and forest industries in the Asia 

Pacific Region. Manila: Asian Development Bank. 

Anonymous. 1988. World resources 1988-1989. New York: Basic Books Inc. 

Anonymous. 1989. Tropical rain forests - an atlas for conservation. Volume 1: 

The Asia-Pacific Region. IUCN, Gland. 

Anonymous. 1990a. World resources 1990-91. Oxford: Oxford University 

Press. 

Anonymous. 1990b. Tigerpapcr Volume XVII; No. 3, Bangkok: FAO. 

Anonymous. 1990~. Global diversity 1992. Cambridge: World conservation 

Monitoring Centre. 

Kemp, Ronald H. 1991. ITTO and the conservation of biological diversity. In: 

Proceedings IUCN/ITTO workshop on conserving biological diversity in 

managed tropical forests. 

USDA Forest Service Gcn. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
- - - - 

Evaluating Long-Term Cumulative Hydrologic Effects of Forest 

Management: A Conceptual Approach1 

Robert R. Ziemer2 

Abstract: It is impractical to address experimentally many aspects of cumulative hydrologic effects, since to do so would require studying large watersheds 

for a century or more. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted using three 

hypothetical 10,000-ha fifth-order forested watersheds. Most of the physical 

processes expressed by the model are transferable from temperate to tropical 

watersheds, but data to define the parameters are generally lacking. 

Concerns that environmental quality is becoming increasingly degraded by the accumulation of multiple human activities 

have become worldwide. An example of such concerns is the 

degradation of air and water quality on a local as well as national 

scale. Perhaps the most far reaching of these concerns is the 

potential effect of human activities upon changes in the world's 

climate. Such concerns have become particularly thorny scientific, legal, and political issues. 

Pollutant discharges at point sources can first be identified and then regulated directly. However, when point sources 

are many and widely dispersed, such as factory discharges into 

a river, even when the level of individual discharge is reduced, 

the total pollutant discharge from many sources can produce a 

"cumulative effect" that degrades water quality below acceptable levels. 

To deal with non-point sources of pollution, such as stream 

sediment produced by erosion from agriculture or forest management operations, regulations are often developed that require 

land managers to reduce on-site erosion in order to keep the 

amount of sediment discharged from each project area within 

acceptable limits. The activities developed to meet these regulations are sometimes referred to as "Best Management Practices." 

As with the example of reduced factory discharges, Best Management Practices are designed to reduce pollutant discharge 

from a single project, but they may not solve the larger problem 

of the cumulative effect of multiple projects. Land managers 

and regulatory agencies are increasingly being required to address the cumulative effect of each proposed project within the 

context of all other projects within a specified area. At this time, 

however, managers and agencies have not yet clearly resolved 

what a cumulative effects analysis should contain, or even what 

constitutes a cumulative effect. 

Cumulative Effects 

The question of what a cumulative effect is has been argued 

at technical meetings and in the courts for many years. In 197 1, 

the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) issued its guideAn abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Principal Research Hydrologist, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Arcata, CA 95521-6098. 

lines for implementing the National Environmental Quality Act 

of 1969. The Council defined cumulative effects in a way that 

identified an approach to land management and impact mitigation that had not been employed in the past. This definition set 

the tone for subsequent legal decisions. 

'Cumulative impact' is the impact on the environment which results from the incremental impact of the 

action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency 

or person undertakes such other actions. Cumulative 

impacts can result from individually minor but collectively significant actions taking place over a period 

of time. 

(Office of the Federal Register 1989) 

Some key phrases in this definition continue to shape impact mitigation and stress the need for present and future research. First, in order for there to be a cumulative effect there 

must be an impact on the environment. Second, the action can be 

individually minor but collectively significant. Third, an evaluation of an action must account for past, present, and reasonably 

foreseeable future actions. And finally, the incremental effect of 

these minor actions can accumulate over aperiod of time. 

Out of this important definition emerge two critical issues, the 

spatial scale and temporal scale of the analysis. 

Spatial Scale 

Traditionally, impact analyses have concentrated upon the 

on-site effects of land management proposals. On-site effects 

generally have a scale that ranges from several square meters to 

several hectares. More recently, regulators and land managers 

have become increasingly concerned about off-site effects. Historically, off-site effects have been considered to extend a relatively short distance from the immediate project-such as individual pools or individual stream reaches draining small upland 

watersheds, usually smaller than 100 ha. Managers are beginning to be required to evaluate the effect of a proposed project 

within the context of a drainage basin up to perhaps 20,000 ha. 

The size of the appropriate area of concern continues to expand. 

In some cases, land managers are now being asked to evaluate 

the effects of proposed projects within the context of entire 

drainage systems. An example is the emerging concerns related 

to the influence of forestry operations, hydroelectric dams, agriculture, and other human activities on salmon production in the 

Columbia River Basin. To provide an answer to a question of 

such an enormous scale requires understanding the influence of 

land management on survival of these anadromous salmonids 

from hatching in the River's headwaters in Idaho and British 

Columbia, migrating downstream through its estuary, to the 

ocean, and finally, after several years in the ocean, migrating upUSDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
river to spawn. An analysis at this spatial scale is much more 

demanding and comprehensive than simply evaluating onsite effects. 

Temporal Scale 

Similarly, impact analyses traditionally consider only the 

short-term consequences of land management activities-usually several years at most. However, as with the issue of spatial 

scale, temporal effects have a wide range of appropriate scales 

that depend upon the question asked. For example, a domestic 

water user might be quite concerned about changes in turbidity 

during a single storm. Changes in insect production, that is in 

turn linked to fish growth, might be resolved at an annual scale. 

Changes that require a decade or more to become evident, are, 

for example, filling of pools with sediment or reduction in the 

supply of large woody debris, that, in turn, causes the stream bed 

to become unstable. Examples of changes requiring about a 

century are the failure of stream crossings designed to withstand 

a storm size that is expected to occur once in 50 years, the 

aggradation of alluvial downstream reaches, and increased frequency of streamside landslides. A specific example illustrates 

the long-term nature of some cumulative effects. Placer mining 

conducted in the Sierra Nevada of California in the 1840's 

placed a large quantity of coarse sediment in tributaries. Slugs 

of this material continue to enter the Sacramento River system, 

150 years later. 

Consequently, both environmental analyses and research 

programs must consider a larger area of concern and longer time 

period of concern related to land management. In addition, there 

must be an increased emphasis on dealing with complexity and 

interactions between issues. For example, it is important to 

integrate the physical and biological consequences of land management actions. It will no longer suffice to simply report the 

quantity of increased sediment output related to land management. The effect of that sediment on riparian ecosystems must 

be better understood. 

A serious problem is that long-term cumulative effects 

cannot be measured. Increased measurement and monitoring at 

some point downstream from a proposed project is not an adequate strategy to evaluate long-term cumulative effects, because by the time a change is detected, the projects that caused 

the change have often been completed-in some instances, several decades or perhaps even a century before. In such a case, no 

amount of on-site project mitigation could be effective. Consequently, it is necessary to be able to predict what the consequences of the proposed project might be. That is, the cumulative effects of the proposed project must be modeled. 

Cumulative Effects Model 

To illustrate an approach, Ziemer and others (1991a,b) 

conducted Monte Carlo simulations of the long-term effect of 

three forest management strategies on erosion, sedimentation, 

and salmon egg survival within hypothetical 10,000-ha fifthorder forested watersheds (fie. 1). One watershed was left 

undisturbed, one was completely clearcut and all roads constructed in 10 years, and another clearcut with roads constructed 

L 

Figure 1-Modeled hypothetical 10,000-ha fifth-order watershed 

at a rate of 1 percent each year. These cutting patterns were 

repeated in succeeding centuries, rebuilding one-third of the 

road network every 100 years. Each fifth-order watershed was 

composed of five 200-ha fourth-order tributaries. The model 

predicted changes to twelve 1 -km-long reaches of the fifthorder channel. 

Rainfall is one of the primary causes of erosion in forested 

steeplands. Caine (1980) presented a relationship between rainfall intensity and duration that seemed to describe a "threshold" 

of worldwide occurrence of landslides. Rice and others (1982) 

reasoned that a good index of storm severity, and hence the 

probability of a landslide occurring, might be the distance in the 

intensitylduration space of a storm from Caine's landslide threshold 

function (fie. 2). So, by knowing the amount and duration of 

rainfall expected for storms in particular watersheds, one could 

obtain the relative probability of landslides occurring during a 

specified time period. 

One of the most important parameters contributing to differences in erosion rate between forested and harvested watersheds is the contribution of roots to soil strength. The roots of 

the trees provide pickets that tie the weak or unstable soil mass to 

the stronger stable bedrock underlying the soil. Also, roots 

provide tensile binders that strengthen the weak soil mass itself. 

When trees are cut, root biomass and consequently root strength 

decline quickly (Ziemer 1981). In studies conducted in coastal 

Oregon (Ziemer 1976,unpublished data), root biomass approached 

zero approximately 20 years after cutting (fig. 3). Roots from the 

regenerating forest begin to grow soon after the area is cut, and 

root biomass recovers after some time to that found in the uncut 

forest. The net root strength of the watershed is related to the 

sum of the declining root biomass of the cut forest and increasing root biomass of the recovering forest. This U-shaped relationship reaches a minimum about 8 to 10 years after cutting. 

The inverse of this root biomass or root strength relationship can 

be expressed as the relative rate of landslide erosion from harvested areas (fig. 4). This rate is influenced by storm severity. 

USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
y 100 -s 

S=0.00(Caine'sThreshold) z 3 

10-2 10-1 lo0 lo1 102 103 lo4 


DURATION (hrs) 

Figure 2-Storm severity (S) as a function of the duration and 

intensity of rainfall. 

The rate of erosion from roads decreases rapidly after construction (fig. 5), based on data reported by Lewis and Rice 

(1990). Once a road is constructed, the erosion rate remains 

higher than that on hillslopes without roads. As with erosion of 

harvested areas, the rate of road erosion at any time after construction increases with storms of progressively greater severity. 

Once erosion occurs on the watershed, the sediment is 

routed in the model from the hillslope to and through progressively larger streams using a number of storage and routing 

equations. These equations were described in detail by Ziemer 

and others (1991a). Eventually, the sediment arrives at a modeled 1-krn stream reach in the main stem where it is deposited or 

transported from the reach. 

The model was run in an undisturbed watershed condition 

for 500 years to tune the algorithms for the tributary sediment 

delivery so that the parameters produced a watershed in an 

approximately steady state. Once a steady-state condition was 

attained, the logging strategies were applied. The effect of these 

logging strategies was calculated as the magnitude and frequency of changes in bed elevation in excess of those occurring 

in the undisturbed watershed (fig. 6). The values for each 

strategyare averages of all 12 reaches and 10 simulations during 

0 10 20 40 

TIME SINCE HARVEST (yrs) 

Figure +Relationship between erosion from harvested areas resulting 

from changes in soil reinforcement by roots following logging and time 

since harvest as affected by storm frequency (from Ziemerand others 1991 a). 

* -^ ^. 

0.0 ------ I I I I I 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

YEARS 

Figure 3Ã‘Chang in live, dead, and total root biomass as a function of 

time following logging (from Ziemer, 1976, unpublished data). 

each 100-year period. The frequency of bed elevation changes, 

or events, declined with magnitude. 

The importance of such changes in bed elevation depends 

upon the specific problem being addressed. For example, if one 

were concerned about survival of salmon eggs in redds, small 

changes in bed elevation might be of less concern than those 

greater than some magnitude, perhaps 0.10 m. 

The amounts of erosion, of sediment transport, and of 

change in bed elevation are dependent on the timing and 

severity of storms (fig. 7a). During a single 300-year simulation, the largest storm occurred during year 280. This storm 

caused the bed to aggrade by about 0.3 m in the uncut watershed, but more than 1 m of bed aggradation occurred in the 

logged watershed (fig. 7b). Over the 300 years, the bed 

elevation in the uncut watershed fluctuated between 1.0 and 

1.3 m. In the logged watersheds, the bed elevation increased 

from 1.0 to about 2.0 m during the first 100 years, and then 

established a new equilibrium bed elevation of about 2.2 mabout 1 m higher than that in the uncut watershed. In addition, 

the bed elevation in the logged watersheds became more responsive to severe storms than in the uncut watershed. 

0 10 20 3'0 40 

TIME SINCE CONSTRUCTION (yrs) 

Figure SRelationship between erosion from roads and time since 

construction as affected by storm frequency (from Ziernerand others 1991a). 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992, 
1st century , ;, ; (a) ( 8 , , , 

BED ELEVATION CHANGE (cm) 

BED ELEVATION CHANGE (cm) 

Figure &The distribution of the number of within-storm changes in bed 

elevation, in excess of that occurring in the uncut watershed, during (a) the 

first 100-year period and (b) the second 100-year period (Ziemer and 

others 1991a). 

A cumulative effects analysis might require translating 

physical changes in the stream bed into biological consequencesfor example, the loss of salmon eggs deposited in redds (Ziemer 

and others 1991b). During the first century, the 10 percent 

logging strategy produced a much greater egg loss for the first 

50 years than did the 1 percent strategy (fig. 8). But during the 

last half of the first century, there was little difference between 

the 10 percent and 1 percent strategies. The 10 percent strategy 

required the watershed to be completely logged in the first 10 

years of each century. The egg loss peaked about year 15, then 

declined as the watershed recovered from the logging. By year 

50, only half of the watershed had been logged following the 1 

percent strategy, while the watershed following the 10 percent 

strategy had been recovering from logging for 40 years. During the last 25 years of the first century, there was less egg loss 

using the 10 percent strategy than the 1 percent strategy (fig. 9). 

Both watersheds entered the second century having been completely logged and roaded. There was substantially less difference between the two strategies during the second century. 

During the first half of the second century, the 10 percent 

strategy produced more egg loss, whereas during the second 

half, the 1 percent strategy produced more egg loss. 

Conclusion 

Although logging began in the coniferous forests of northwestern North America in the mid- 1800's, intensive logging in 

much of the Pacific Northwest did not begin until the 1950's. 

Consequently, the present condition of most watersheds in 

northwestern North America represents only that of the firt 

century of the simulations. The simulations suggest that at 

least one century is required for the treated watersheds to attain 

a "steady-state" condition. With such long response times, it is 

difficult to collect contemporary field data to evaluate predictions by the model. However, without a long-term steady-state 

perspective, comparisons of the environmental costs among 

alternative land management strategies will be incorrect. 

Another problem making any long-term evaluation nearly 

impossible is that water discharge is measured only in the 

larger and more important rivers. Very few small upland 

streams are gauged. The length of record for rivers and streams 

in the western United States is usually less than 100years, and 

records less than 30 years long are most common. And, for 

those rivers having the good fortune to be gauged, the condition of none of the watersheds could be considered to be static 

over time-even those in National Parks where development is 

restricted. Even pristine forests change in density and compo0 50 100 150 200 250 300 

YEARS 

-l 1 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 

YEARS 

Figure 7-Distribution and magnitude of (a) severe storms and (b) bed 

elevation in the uncut, 1 percent cut, and 10 percent cut watersheds 

during a single 300-year simulation. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech.Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
, 1 PCTCUT I 

YEARS 

Figure &-Comparison of relative salmon egg loss between logging 

strategies. Relative egg loss for a logging strategy is the difference in egg 

survival in the uncut watershed minus that in the treated watershed 

divided by the survival in the uncut watershed (Ziemerand others 1991 b). 

sition as natural ecological processes, including insects, disease, 

wildfire, and old age, work their influence over time. 

In the tropics, these problems are compounded many fold. 

It is difficult to find good streamflow records of virtually any 

length, and the number of gauged streams is decreasing in many 

areas. For example, in the portion of the Caroline Islands that 

now comprise the Federated States of Micronesia, streamflow 

was monitored on at least a daily basis at 34 stations in 1970. 

This number had been reduced to 16 stations by 1989. And, by 

1991, nearly all of these stations had been discontinued. 

Consequently, the basic data necessary to measure any 

long-term change in streamflow or sediment transport are rnissing-whether the suggested change is the result of a cumulative 

effect of land management or a shift in the world's climate. 

Monte Carlo methods can be used effectively to identify 

critical gaps in knowledge that require additional research and 

data collection. For example, as a first approximation, data on 

rainfall threshold (Caine 1980) and storm severity (Rice and 

others 1982) can provide useful information when linked to 

other processes contributing to landslide occurrence, such as 

changes in root strength (Ziemer 1981). However, the nature 

of the interaction between rainfall, vegetation, and landslides 

needs to be tested under the local conditions for which the 

evaluation is intended. 

- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRATEGIES -

-

-

-

I 

I I I I I I 

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 

YEARS 

Figure %The difference in relative salmon egg loss between the 10 

percent and 1 percent logging strategies (Ziemer and others 1991b). 

References 

Caine, Nel. 1980. The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides 

and debris flows. Geografiska Annaler 62A (1-2): 23-27. 

Lewis, J.; Rice, R.M. 1990. Estimating erosion risk on forest lands using 

improved methods of discriminant analysis. Water Resources Research 26 

(8): 1721-1733. 

Office of the Federal Register. 1989. Council of Environmental Quality. In: 

Protection of the environment, 40. Part 70 to end. Revised as of July 1, 

1971. Washington, DC;p. 649. 

Rice, R.M.; Ziemer, R.R.; Hankin, S.C. 1982. Slope stability effects of fuel 

management strategies-inferences from Monte Carlo simulations. In: 

Conrad, C.E.; Oechel, W.C., eds. Proc. symp. on dynamics and management of Mediterranean-type ecosystems; 1981 June 22-26; San Diego, CA. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley. CA: Pacific Southwest Forest and 

Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; 365-371. 

Ziemer, R.R. 1981. Roots and the stability of forested slopes. In: Davies, 

T.R.H.; Pearce, A.J., eds. Erosion and sediment transport in Pacific Rim 

steeplands (Proc. Christchurch Symp.); 1981 January 25-31; Christchurch, 

N.Z. Publ. 132. Wallingford, UK: International Association of Hydrologic Sciences; 343-361. 

Ziemer, R.R.; Lewis, J.; Rice, R.M.;Lisle, T.E. 1991a. Modeling the cumulative effects of forest management strategies. Journal of Environmental 

Quality 20(1): 36-42. 

Ziemer, R.R.; Lewis, J.; Lisle, T.E.; Rice, R.M. 1991b. Long-term sedimentation effects of different patterns of timber harvesting. In: Peters, N.E.; 

Walling, D.E., eds. Sediment and stream water quality in a changing 

environment: trends and explanation (Proc. Vienna Symp.); 1991 August 

11-24. Vienna, Austria. Publ. 205. Wallingford, UK: International 

Association of Hydrologic Sciences; 143-150. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Fire Management in Central America1 


Andrea L. Koonce Armando Gonzalez-Caban2 

Abstract: Information on fire management operations in Central America is 

scant. To evaluate the known level of fire occurrence in seven countries in that 

area, fire management officers were asked to provide information on their fire 

control organizations and on any available fire statistics. The seven countries 

surveyed were Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa 

Rica, and Panama. Information from a survey of the literature was also 

collected. For each of the seven countries, results of these surveys of fire 

management and a description of the physical geography are reported. 

Statistics on firemanagement operations for Central America 

are generally unavailable. The statistics which are available 

include only those fires which are prescribed by managers, and 

those reported wildfires which may or may not be suppressed. In 

order to evaluate the known level of fire occurrence, a survey 

was sent to fire management officers in each Central American 

country. Information on their fire control organizations and the 

available fire statistics were requested. The results of the survey 

are presented, augmented by information from the literature. A 

brief description of the physical geography is included to allow 

for comparison of the climate and terrain among the countries. 

Guatemala 

Physical Geography 

Guatemala's climate varies with altitude and with the influence of coastal air masses. Coastal lowlands have high temperatures, averaging 25 'C (77 Â¡Fon the Pacific coast and 27 'C (81 

T) on the Caribbean side. Relative humidity is also typically 

high, averaging 80 percent. Highland climates range from warm 

to cool, including an occasional frost between the elevations of 

1500 to 1800 m during the November-April dry season. A rainy 

season prevails over most of the country from April to October, 

the highest rainfall occurring in August or September. Rainfall 

varies from less than 500 mm (20inches) annually in the Oriente 

to nearly 5000 mm (200 inches) on the western slopes of Sierra 

Madre and in the Rio Duke Basin. Topography is diverse; hills, 

plateaus, and steep mountain slopes, especially common in the 

central and western highlands, are dissected by a network of 

water-courses. 

Fire Management 

Guatemala's fire season extends through the dry summer 

months from February to May. From 1983 to 1988 the annual 

number of fires in forested habitats has increased from 137 to 

An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVIIPacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Research Forester and Economist, respectively. Pacific Southwest Research 

Station, USDA Forest Service, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507. 

224, some reaching high intensity. This increase may reflect 

improved accuracy of reporting or may signal an increase in the 

number of fires which are escaping into the forest. Untended 

agriculture and pasture fires are the principal causes of these 

fires resulting in forest degradation and increased susceptibility 

to insects and diseases. 

Guatemala's fire protection program was started in 1988 

under the direction of the forest protection section of the Department of Forest Management. Their 1989 budget was approximately 70,080 quetzales ($14,300). Five staff members are responsible for protecting 65,961.8 km2of Pinus and Cupressus 

species, as well as other mixed conifer and broadleaved species. 

There are some organized fire brigades and vehicles available to 

suppress fires, but funding is insufficient to adequately equip 

people in rural areas for forest protection. 

Current fire program objectives are to organize, educate, 

and train local communities in fire suppression techniques. Major obstacles to these objectives are: 1. Guatemala's illiteracy 

problem. The high incidence of illiteracy among the population 

makes the use of written promotional materials ineffective. 

2. The constant low budgets result in under-staffing and lack of 

adequate coverage in critical rural areas. 

The fire program has attempted some prescribed burning to 

reduce hazards and clear land for pasture and agricultural use. 

Very little is known about fire effects in the tropical forests of 

Guatemala. 

Belize 

Physical Geography 

Belize lies on the Caribbean coast of Central America, with 

Mexico to the northwest and Guatemala to the southwest. It has 

a subtropical climate tempered by trade winds. The average 

mean temperature varies little year-round, 24 "C to 27 'C (75 T -

81 OF). Annual rainfall ranges from 1290 mm (51 inches) in the 

north to 4450 nun (175 inches) in the south. The rainy season 

lasts from May to February. The country encompasses varied 

landscapes ranging from the fertile northern limestone plateau to 

the southern Maya Mountains. 

Fire Management 

Forest fire protection was introduced in Central America in 

1927 in the coastal plains of Belize and was extended to the 

Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve by 1945 (Hudson and 

Salazar 1981). Belize was the first country in the region to 

establish a forest fire protection program because of the importance of its forest products exports to England. 

Economic development of Belize initially depended on exporting logs (Haematoxilium spp.). Exportation of forest products was the main source of economic development in Belize 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
until the late 1940's (90 percent of total exports in 1945; 78 

percent by 1946, and only 21 percent by 1961). The change was 

precipitated by the introduction of synthetic dyes enabling Honduran Mahogany (Swietenia macrophilia) to be substituted for 

logs from Belize. By 1977 forest exports were reduced to a 

trickle (only 2 percent of total exports). 

Once the forestry sector no longer drove the economic 

development of the country, the forest fire protection program 

dwindled. The decrease in fire suppression efforts led to a dramatic increase in area burned. In the Mountain Pine Ridge Forest 

Reserve and adjacent private lands alone, 2,018,12,119,4,155, 

and 8,359 ha of pine forest were burned during 1964, 1968, 

1972, and 1976, respectively (Hudson 1976). 

Honduras 

Physical Geography 

Honduras is located well within the tropics, but temperatures are generally moderate rather than hot. A tropical climate 

prevails on the north coast below 600 m and near the Pacific 

coast below 450 m. Mean annual temperatures are approximately 25 'C (77 OF). A temperate climate, with mean annual 

temperatures changing from 16 to 24 Â¡(61 Â¡-75 Â¡F)characterizes the highland areas (600-2100 m) and intermontane basins, 

which make up more than 80 percent of the land area (Evaluation Technologies 1981). 

Rainfall averages 1500-2500 mm (60-100 inches) annually, 

most of it falling from mid April through October. The winter 

dry season lasts from November to April. Rainfall is higher on 

the north coast and northern mountain slopes than on the south 

coast and southern-facing slopes. 

Fire Management 

The most serious fires in Honduras occur between the months 

of February and June. The average annual number of fires fought 

over the past five years (1985 to 1990) is 2,500, but as many as 

500 to 1,000 go unreported and without suppression (Salazar 

1991). Over the same 5 years an average of 45,000 ha (1 11,150 

acres) burned annually, of which more than 75,000 ha burned in 

1990 alone. This area takes into account only the area burned by 

those fires actually reported and fought. Agricultural burning 

accounts for more than 50 percent of the total forest fires (Hudson 

and Salazar 1981). During the dry season fires and combustion 

columns can be seen everywhere in the fields and along the 

roadsides. The smoke problem is so severe during the fire season 

that the international airport in Tegucigalpa is closed, sometimes 

for up to two weeks at a time. When fire bums in young, 

unweeded plantations, damage to the trees can be severe because 

of crowning and widespread mortality. 

A fire control program was started in Honduras in 1974 

under the direction of COHDEFOR, the national forestry organization. Between 1980 and 1990 the budget doubled in nominal 

terms from 2 to 4 million lempiras ($1,011,561 to $755,0003), 

but the number of employees in COHDEFOR declined from 960 

to about 600. Honduras has 45 funded fire brigades, a small 

cache of hand tools, and 45 vehicles which can be used to 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 

suppress fires (Salazar 1991). The area of fire control responsibility covers 22,260 kin2of mostly young pine plantations. 

A prescribed fire program was initiated in 1979 to reduce 

fire hazard and improve silvicultural management. Research 

was also initiated on fire effects, but little has been published to 

date. Most prescribed fires are conducted in August and between 

December and January, early in the dry season when conditions 

are more moderate. The prescribed fire program has had difficulties ranging from the lack of budget to poor cooperation 

between institutions and civilian personnel. Although appropriate legislation exists to support the fire program, it is not adequately implemented. The public has little interest in forest 

protection. For example, experiments and wood lots set aside for 

forest preservation and improvement are typically subject to 

trespass for firewood, construction materials, and game. 

El Salvador 

Physical Geography 

El Salvador has a tropical climate throughout the entire 

country, although temperatures tend to be cooler in the highlands. Temperatures rarely fall below 18 'C (64 *F)except on the 

highest slopes of the volcanic ranges. Rainfall averages 1500- 

2500 mm (60-100 inches) annually, most of it falling from May 

through October. As in Honduras, the winter dry season lasts 

from November to April, with virtually no rain. 

Most of the country consists of volcanic highlands of moderate elevations. Two parallel chains of volcanoes extend eastwest through the country-the southern or Coastal Range and 

the northern or Sierra Madre Range. 

Fire Management 

During the 2 years that data were collected for this study, we 

were not able to obtain any information about the fire management program in this country. Due to the ongoing civil war it is 

likely that active natural resource management programs of any 

kind have been abandoned in favor of preservation of critical 

resources such as dams and roads. 

Nicaragua 

Physical Geography 

Nicaragua's tropical climate changes to mild or cool weather 

in a few high altitude locations in the Central Highlands. Mean 

annual temperatures range from 20 Â¡ (68 "F)in the highlands to 

27 'C (81 'F) on the Pacific coast. Rainfall varies from 1500 to 

6250mm (60-250 inches) annually. Most falls from May through 

October in the Pacific and central highlands and year-round in 

the Caribbean of the Atlantic coast. 

The smaller budget level in dollar terms for 1990 is due to the devaluation 

of Honduran currency. Up to 1989 the exchange rate was two lempiras to a dollar; 

in 1990 the rate went up to 5.3 lempiras to a dollar. In addition, the country's 

economy is suffering from serious inflation cutting even deeper into the fire 

program budget. 
Fire Management 

The management of natural resources in Nicaragua is organized under the direction of IRENA, the Nicaraguan Institute of 

Natural Resources. There is no fire control organization independent of the forest and agriculture sections of IRENA, but fire 

control and management of slash and bum agriculture are being 

promoted in conjunction with other community development 

and education programs. 

Northeastern Nicaragua is characterized by boggy lowlands 

and pine savannas along the Caribbean Sea. It is adjacent to a 

mountainous region that stretches north to the border with Honduras. The savannas are dominated by Caribbean pine (Pinus 

caribaea) in various configurations of native stands and plantations (Munro 1966). Eighty percent of these stands are burned 

every year from escaped fires lit by local villagers to clear their 

fields for planting food crops. 

The understory has a grass component which forms a basal 

root mass which resembles a miniature elephant trunk and serves 

readily as a source of firebrands. It bums like gasoline under any 

weather condition, even when standing in 2 inches of water. 

This vegetation type suggests that Caribbean pine is a seral stage 

that, if not caused by fire, can be maintained by fire. The pines 

are highly resistant to fire and, unless completely consumed, will 

recover after being scorched. However, their form and vigor 

suffer from frequent burning. 

Nicaragua's fire program, like that of other Central American countries, is understaffed and underequipped. Most of the 

current fire control programs are aimed at reducing the loss of 

established plantations and demonstration areas. Natural resource officials must rely on local citizens to patrol and suppress fires. Incentives such as supplying farmers with tools 

and training in appropriate agroforestry techniques, including 

forest protection, are being used. 

Costa Rica 

Physical Geography 

Geographically, Costa Rica can be divided into three distinct regions: the central mountainous corridor running from 

northwest to southeast, the Pacific coast, and the Caribbean 

lowlands (Caufield Vasconez 1987). Costa Rica's regional climates vary depending on elevation and prevailing winds. Mean 

annual temperatures can be affected by the duration of the rainy 

season which varies among regions. Average temperature in the 

central Meseta region ranges from 15 "C (59 'F) to a maximum of 

25 'C (77 Â¡F)The rainy season varies from year-round in the 

Caribbean lowlands to six months, May to October, in regions of 

Guanacaste Province on the Pacific coast. The national average 

rainfall is 3,300 mm (132 inches) annually. The dry season lasts 

from November to April. 

Fire Management 

Costa Rica's fire control program was founded in 1987. It is 

directed by the Minister of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy. Like most fire programs in this region the fire control 

organization lacks financial and human resources: there is no 

allocated budget and only two full-time technicians. Secondary 

forest and plantations are the main vegetation types being actively protected. Fires in this type include surface and some 

crown fires which occur during the December-to-April dry period. Most fires are caused by humans, both accidentally or 

deliberately. Specific studies documenting the nature of the 

damage to these plantations are inadequately prepared or do not 

exist. Public information projects are being initiated to reduce 

ignitions by humans. 

A prescribed fire program was started at the same time as 

the fire control organization. In 1987 and 1988,840 and 830 ha 

were burned by prescription for the purposes of reducing hazard, 

agricultural clearing, silvicultural improvement, and forest pest 

reduction. Generally, burning is conducted in August and in 

December and January (the beginning of the dry season). The 

program is limited by the lack of trained personnel and equipment, and limited budgets. 

Conservation Programs 

More is known about the social and ecological aspects of 

fire in Costa Rica than in any other Central American country. 

The excellent research and extension work done by the CATIE 

staff (Center for Agricultural Research and Education) provides 

a source of information and academic leadership for the rest of 

Central America. Other environmental management and research 

organizations contribute to their effort, notably Dan Janzen, 

founder and director of the Guanacaste National Park, located 

near the Pacific coast in northeastern Costa Rica. 

There are five parks (Parques Nacionales de Santa Rosa, 

Murciklago, Palo Verde, Barra Honda, and Guanacaste), two 

refuges (Refugios Nacionales de Fauna Silvestre Dr. Rafael 

Lucas Rodriguez Caballero, and de Fauna Silvestre de Ostional), 

and two reserves (Reserva Nacional Absoluta Cabo Blanco, and 

Lomas Barbuda1 Reserva Biologica) in Costa Rica set aside to 

preserve tropical dry forest habitat. Only the Santa Rosa and 

Guanacaste have been studied to any appreciable extent by 

biologists. Because of the publicity and outreach efforts of Dr. 

Janzen, the Guanacaste has received considerable attention in 

the popular and scientific press (Edgar 1989, Janzen 1986, Janzen 

1988a, 1988b) and can be used as an excellent example of the 

type of conservation work being done to combat the unchecked 

effects of farming, grazing, harvest, and the persistent fires 

which accompany them. 

The objectives of park land acquisition, protection, and 

management are to preserve dry forest habitat fragments and to 

restore the degraded pasture and agricultural lands to their indigenous fauna and flora. This forest type once occupied most of the 

Pacific side of the Central American landscape. Because of its 

accessibility and desirability for settlement, it now constitutes 

less than 2 percent of its original 550,000 km2area, and 0.08 

percent in protected areas (Janzen 1988a). 

Park management plans to develop and extend fire control 

and prescribed burning programs to protect the sensitive edges 

of the dry forest vegetation to prevent fires from spreading in 

burnable vegetation within the park boundaries. Much of the 

area has been planted with "jaragua" grass (Hyparrhenia ruffa) 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
imported from Africa because of its tolerance for overgrazing by 

cattle. This grass is highly flammable and reaches heights of 2 

meters when left ungrazed. It bums explosively in the dry season 

during the high winds characteristic of this region. Until the 

grass can be effectively shaded out by recovering vegetation, 

some grazing will be permitted to limit the height growth of the 

grass. Remaining patches of forest habitat will be used to provide seed for natural dispersal by wind and animals. When 

financially feasible, intensive reforestation projects will augment the natural process of recovery. 

Physical parkland development will be augmented by an 

education and apprenticeship program designed to teach local 

residents, especially children, the value of natural habitat preservation and the techniques needed for its preservation. Ongoing 

research will contribute to the knowledge of the dry forest 

ecosystem and will continue to improve its management. 

When fully developed, the Guanacaste park will serve as a 

gene and seed bank for dry forest flora and fauna, will provide a 

demonstration area for use and management of dry forest species 

and habitats, will help protect the regional watershed, and will 

enhance tourism. 

Panama 

Physical Geography 

Panama has a tropical maritime climate (warm, humid and 

cool nights) year-round. There is little seasonal variation in 

temperatures, which average 23 Â¡ to 27 'C (73 T - 81 T) in 

coastal areas. Most of Panama is coastal plains, with its larger 

rivers flowing into the Pacific. The backbone of the country is 

formed by two mountain ranges, the Cordillera Central from the 

Costa Rican border almost to Panama City and the lower Cordillera de San Bias from east of Colon to the Colombian border. 

The northern slopes of the two mountain ranges receive most of 

the rainfall, 3250 mrn (128 inches) a year compared to 1720 rnrn 

(68 inches) a year on the southern slopes. 

Fire Management 

Panama's fire problem is no different from that of any of the 

other countries in Central America. By and large, most forest 

fires are caused by humans both accidentally and deliberately. 

Grasslands and forest habitats are regularly burned during the 

transition to agriculture and pastoral land uses. These fires go 

unchecked because of lack of funding for personnel and equipment. They are generally surface fires of moderate intensity, 

occasionally crowning during the driest periods between January and April. Fires cause mortality in the tree species they 

encounter and delay the growth of those plants which are able to 

regenerate. A general shift in species to those which are able to 

colonize the burned sites has been observed. 

Panama currently has no fire control organization although 

discussions to initiate one are being held by the National Institute of Renewable Resources. Only five fire brigades and two 

vehicles, as well as a small assortment of hand tools, are available for fire suppression. There is no budget for protecting even 

small areas of Caribbean pine plantations frequently threatened 

by fire. 

Although there is no organized prescribed burning program, 

two prescribed fires in 1980 and 1981 treated 50 ha (124 acres) 

and 60 ha (148 acres), respectively, to reduce fire hazard and 

improve silvicultural operations in plantations. One fire escaped 

and burned an additional 20 ha (49 acres). Nevertheless, the fires 

were successful in controlling unwanted understory vegetation 

in 70 percent of the areas treated and in obtaining 80 percent 

regeneration success. The principal objective of future bums is 

to treat 20-year-old plantations that contain hazardous levels of 

accumulated fuel. 

References 

Caufield Vasconez, M. 1987. Costa Rica, a country profile. Arlington, VA: 

Evaluation Technologies, under contract AIDISODRDC-C-3345, Office 

of Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency for International Development, 

Department of State, Washington, DC; 128 p. 

Edgar, B. 1989. Seeds of change in the dry forest. Pacific Discovery magazine, 

CA Acad. of Science, fall, 42: 22-37. 

Evaluation Technologies. 1981. Honduras, a country profile. Arlington, VA: 

Evaluation Technologies, under contract AIDISODPDC-C-0283, Office 

of Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency for International Development, 

Department of State, Washington, DC; 86 p. 

Hudson, J. 1976. Proteccion Contra Incendios de Pino en Belice. (Pine Forest 

Fires Protection in Belize.) Curso Intensive Sobre Manejo y 

Aprovechamiento de Bosques Tropicales. Center for Agricultural Research and Education (Mimeograph); 13 p. 

Hudson, J.; Salazar, M. 1981. Las Quemas Prescritas en 10s Pinares de Honduras. (Prescribed Burning in Honduras Pine Forests.) Sene Miscelanea No. 

1, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Forestales; Siguatepeque, Comayagua, 

Honduras; 58 p. 

Janzen, D.H. 1986. Guanacaste National Park: tropical ecological and cultural 

restoration. 1st ed. San Jose, Costa Rica: EUNED-FPN-PEA; 104 p. 

Janzen, D.H. 1988a. Guanacaste National Park: tropical ecological and biocultural 

restoration. In: Cainrs, J. Jr., ed.. Rehabilitating damaged ecosystems, Vol 

11. Boca Raton, FL.: CRC; 143-192. 

Janzen, D.H. 1988b. Management of habitat fragments in a tropical dry forest: 

growth. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 75:105-116. 

Munro, Neil. 1966. The fire ecology of Caribbean pine in Nicaragua. In: 

Proceedings of the Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference; 1966 

March 24-25; Tallahassee, FL. 5:67-83. 

Salazar, M. 1991. Personal communication by telephone. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
Soil Taxonomy and Land Evaluation for Forest Establishment1 


HaruyoshiIkawa2 

Abstract: Soil Taxonomy, the United States system of soil classification, can 

be used for land evaluation for selected purposes. One use is forest establishment in the tropics, and the soil family category is especially functional for this 

purpose. The soil family is a bionomial name with descriptions usually of soil 

texture, mineralogy, and soil temperature classes. If the growth requirements 

of the tree species are known, they can be matched with the soil and land 

characteristics that are inherent in the taxonomic name. 

In rating soils for specific uses or in land evaluation, land 

use requirements must be matched with the land characteristics. 

Examples of land use requirements are environmental conditions, soil moisture and nutrient status, soil depth, various management practices, and even socio-economic considerations. Land 

characteristics, on the other hand, include not only the various 

soil properties but also the slope of the land, the amount of 

rainfall, the amount and kinds of vegetation, and other factors 

which are normally a part of soil formation. 

Because land characteristics actually show interactions, 

the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

(FAO) (1976) has proposed the use of the term "land quality" 

in land evaluation. The concepts and principles of land evaluation as well as the various definitions associated with land 

evaluation are presented in the FA0 publication "A Framework for Land Evaluation" (1976). Land quality is an interaction of different land characteristics. For example, the land 

quality of erosion resistance would include the interaction of 

characteristics such as slope angle and length, permeability, 

and soil structure, and rainfall intensity. 

This paper describes the taxonomy and system for classifying soils and their requirements for forest establishment. 

Soil Classification and Soil Taxonomy 

There are many kinds of soils. Some are fertile while others 

are infertile; some are highly suited for a specified use while 

others are better suited for other uses. These soils are different 

because of some differences in properties and behavior. At the 

same time, similar soils have similar properties and behavior. 

With so many kinds of soils, it becomes a tremendous task to 

determine which of these soils behave similarly for a given use. 

A classification scheme, however, can be used to group 

similar objects. Soil classification, furthermore, can be used not 

only to group similar soils but also to organize knowledge, so 

that the properties and behavior of these soils and their relationships to other properties and behavior can be easily remembered 

or understood for some specific purpose. 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28. 1991. Honolulu. Hawaii. 

'Associate Soil Scientist, Department of Agronomy and Soil Science, 

University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 

There are many systems of soil classification worldwide. 

Some are based on similar colors, while others are associated 

with similar parent materials, climate, or mode of formation. 

Still others, such as Soil Taxonomy, the United States system of 

classification, are based on properties (Soil Survey Staff 1975). 

Although developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil 

Survey Staff, Soil Taxonomy is a contribution of soil scientists 

from many different countries and agencies. Soil Taxonomy, 

therefore, is used almost worldwide, commonly together with 

the national classification system of a country. 

Like the plant classification system, Soil Taxonomy is made 

up of several categories (Soil Survey Staff 1975). There are six 

categories in Soil Taxonomy: Order, suborder, great group, 

subgroup, family, and series. The soil order, the highest category, is based mainly on properties which are the result of soilforming processes and is associated with general description of 

the soil. The lower categories, on the other hand, carry information not only of the higher categories but also of others which are 

more specific. For example, the soil family taxa is a bionomial 

name with descriptions usually of soil texture, mineralogy, and 

soil temperature classes with additional information on soil 

moisture status. If the land use requirements are known, they 

can be matched with the group of land characteristics or the land 

quality that is inherently contained in the taxonomic name. 

Land characteristics can be determined without regard for 

soil classification, but such a practice would be site-specific 

without concern for information or technology transfer between similar soils. 

Soil Taxonomy and Land Evaluation for 

Forest Establishment 

Soil characterization and soil classification using Soil Taxonomy serve as efficient tools in land evaluation. The taxonomic names denote the various properties and behavior or land 

characteristics that are needed in the matching process with the 

land use requirements. Again, the soil family category with its 

capability of information transfer between similar soils is best 

suited for this matching process. 

Forests require radiation, suitable temperatures, moisture, 

aeration, nutrients, suitable rooting conditions, and an absence 

of conditions that negatively affect tree growth or survival. For 

example, if Acacia koa, an endemic species in Hawaii, is selected for forest establishment, two growth requirements can be 

emphasized: the need for the plant nutrient phosphorus and 

moisture. These requirements are emphasized because of a 

preliminary nutrient study and the common habitat of the koa. 

If the Wahiawa soil, an Oxisol, is considered as a site for 

koa forest establishment, the following land qualities may be 

used in the matching process: phosphorus availability and moisture availability. The interacting land (soil) characteristics associated with phosphorus availability are soil pH and mineralogy, 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
while those of moisture availability are soil moisture regime, 

mean annual rainfall and distribution, evapotranspiration, and 

vegetation indicators. An additional land quality could be seedling transplanting conditions, with the land (soil) characteristics 

of mineralogy, structure, and soil depth. 

The Wahiawa soil is classified as Rhodic Eutrustox, clayey, 

kaolinitic, isohyperthermic family (Soil Survey Staff 1990). In 

relation to phosphorus availability, the taxonomic name suggests that the clayey texture and kaoli~tic mineralogy, together 

with the iron content expressed in Rhodic Eutrustox, indicate 

that there will be at least moderate phosphorus fixation. Such 

behaviors are established relationships. 

For moisture availability, the ustic soil moisture regime 

expressed in Eutrustox may be a limiting factor, especially 

during plant establishment and during the summer months when 

evapotranspiration is high and rainfall may be low. 

For seedling transplanting conditions, the clayey texture 

and kaolinitic (and oxidic) mineralogy can also be related with 

the hard consistence (when dry) which would make seedling 

transplant time-consuming. For example, transplanting 1,000 

koa seedlings may require as much as 54 person-hours in this 

soil, in contrast to only about 18person-hours in a loamy soil. In 

the aggregated kaolinitic and oxidic (Rhodic) clayey soils, the 

cloddy structure also reduces plant survival after transplanting 

because of low moisture retention. 

On the basis of matching of the koa establishment requirements with the land qualities mentioned above, the 

Wahiawa soil would be at best only moderately suited for koa 

forest establishment without further management input. Suitability is expected to improve with management inputs such as 

phosphorus fertilizer application and land preparation for transplanting the seedlings. 

Land evaluation for a specified use can be accomplished by 

matching the land use requirements with the land characteristics. 

For koa tree establishment in a soil such as the Wahiawa soil, an 

Oxisol, tree growth requirements for phosphorus nutrient and 

soil moisture are matched with land qualities of phosphorus 

availability, moisture availability, and seedling transplant conditions that are influenced by characteristics such as soil pH, 

texture, mineralogy, soil moisture status, and so on. According 

to Soil Taxonomy, the Wahiawa soil is classified as Rhodic 

Eutrustox, clayey, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic family, and this 

soil is at best only moderately suited for koa establishment 

without additional management input. With management input 

such as fertilizer application and adequate land preparation, 

suitability is expected to improve. The use of Soil Taxonomy 

and its taxonomic names in land evaluation assures information 

transfer when dealing with similar soils. 

References 

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1976. A framework for land evaluation. 

FA0 Soils Bulletin 32. Rome; 72 p. 

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1984. Land evaluation for forestry. FA0 

Forestry Paper 48, Rome; 123 p. 

Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification 

for making and interpreting soil surveys. Washington, D.C., US. Government Printing Office; 754 p. 

Soil Survey Staff. 1990. Keys to soil taxonomy, 4th ed. Soil Management 

Support Services Tech. Mono., No. 19, Blacksburg: Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University: 422 p. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Cuticular Hydrocarbons for Species Determination 

of Tropical Termites1 

Michael I.Havetty Lori J. Nelson Barbara L. Thorne Margaret S. Collins Johanna P.E.C. Darlington Marion Page2 

Abstract: Cuticular hydrocarbons can be used to discriminate species in 

Coptotermes and Nasutitermes, here discussed for selected species from locations in the Pacific Rim and several Caribbean islands. We recently reexamined the cuticular hydrocarbons of Coptotermes formosanus and identified 

several dimethylalkanes that may be unique to this species. Cuticular hydrocarbons of C. cuwignathus are similar to those of C. formosanus; the primary 

difference is the absence of 9.13-DimeC and 13.15-DimeC in C. cuwignathus. 

Hydrocarbons of C. acinaciformis include abundant quantities of C, which 

does not occur in any other species of Coptotermes examined thus far. C. 

lacreus makes two unusual dimethylalkanes: 15,17-DimeC and 15.17-DimeC. 

C. testaceus is notably different from the other Coptotermes species described 

here. Nearly all of the hydrocarbon components are monomethylalkanes. No 

n-alkanes or alkenes were identified. The predominant hydrocarbons in 

Nasutitermes costalis are mono- and dimethylalkanes: 13.17-DimeC accounts for nearly half of the total hydrocarbon. The most abundant hydrocarbons in N. ephratae are also mono-, di- and trimethylalkanes. Two 

dimethylalkanes (15,17-DimeC and 15.17-DimeC) separate N. ephratae 

from N. costalis. The hydrocarbon mixtures of N. gaigei and N.guayanae 

contain only late-eluting alkenes (C3,,' through C). The major difference 

between these two species is the degree of unsaturation. The hydrocarbon 

profile of N. acajutlae appears to be bimodal: early-eluting hydrocarbons 

consist of n-alkanes, alkenes, and monomethylalkanes, while late-eluting compounds consist entirely of alkenes. N. intennedius predominantly makes longchain alkenes with one or two double bonds (C through C4,:l), including a 

homologous series of alkenes with an even number of carbons in the chain 

(CÃ£ through Cm). 

The outer layer of the cuticle of all terrestrial insects consists of a thin layer of wax (Hadley 1985). This wax plays a key 

role in survival of the insect by providing protection from desiccation (Hadley 1980; Lockey 1988), as well as serving as a 

barrier to abrasion, microorganisms, and chemicals (Blomquist 

and Dillwith 1985). Hydrocarbons are ubiquitous components 

in insect cuticular lipids and can comprise up to 90 percent of the 

material (Blomquist and Dillwith 1985; Hadley 1985; Lockey 

1988). They have been shown to be important semiochemicals, 

and have been postulated as species and caste recognition cues in 

termites (Howard and Blomquist 1982). 

Alkanes occur in all insect surface lipids reported thus far in 

the literature (Blomquist and others 1987). n-Alkanes generally 

range from 21 to 31 carbon atoms; molecules with an odd 

number of carbons predominate. Terminally branched and internally branched monomethylalkanes are also prevalent in in- 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

2Supervisory Research Entomologist and Biological Technician, respectively, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Berkeley, CA 94701; Curatorial Research Associate, Museum of 

Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Research Associate, Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Visiting Scientist, Ft. Lauderdale Research and Education, University of Florida, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida; 

and Principal Research Entomologist, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Berkeley, CA 94701. 

sect surface lipids and range from simple compositions, in which 

only one compound is present, to complex mixtures. In most 

monomethylalkanes, the methyl branch is located on an oddnumbered carbon atom between carbons 3 and 17. As careful 

analyses of mono-, di- and trimethylalkanes are made on more 

organisms, it appears that the methyl groups can be positioned 

almost anywhere on the chain. 

n-Alkenes, with one, two, three, or four double bonds, have 

been characterized in about one-half of the insect species exarnined to date (Lockey 1988). The chain length of cuticular nalkenes ranges from 23 to 47 carbon atoms, with odd-numbered 

chain lengths predominating. The position of the double bond 

can be almost anywhere in the chain, but is common at carbon 9 

(Blomquist and Dillwith 1985). 

Moore (1969) was the first to report the composition of 

cuticular hydrocarbons in a termite, Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill). 

He found the majority of the hydrocarbons to be unsaturated 

with the degree of unsaturation ranging from four to eight double 

bonds; the major component was nonatriacontatetraene (C). 

Also present were paraffins from C to C; compounds with an 

odd number of carbons in the parent chain predominated. 

Blomquist and others (1979) and Howard and others (1978, 

1980, 1982a,b) were next to completely characterize the cuticular hydrocarbons of three termite species. They found that 

Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), R. virginicus (Banks), and 

Zootermopsis nevadensis (Hagen) possess drastically different 

hydrocarbon profiles, and all three of these profiles differ markedly from those reported earlier for N. exitiosus. On the basis of 

these early results, Howard and Blomquist (1982) hypothesized 

that each insect species had a mixture of cuticular hydrocarbons 

that was peculiar to that species and potentially useful as taxonomic characters. 

Insects synthesize most if not all of their complement of 

cuticular hydrocarbons de novo (Blomquist and Dillwith 1985). 

Insect species generally have from 10 to 40 major components in 

their hydrocarbon mixtures. The relatively large number of 

possible hydrocarbon components found in the cuticle of insects, 

ease of chemical analysis and identification of hydrocarbons, 

and apparent species-specific compositions for many insects 

make hydrocarbons attractive characters for use in chemotaxonomy. 

We have been examining cuticular hydrocarbons as taxonomic characters with termites as well as other groups of economically important forest insects (Haverty and others 1988, 

1989,1990a,b, 1991; Page and others 1990a,b). We have found 

that characterization of cuticular hydrocarbons often leads to 

subsequent morphological, biological, or chemical studies which 

clarify taxonomic questions (Haverty and Thome 1989; Thome 

and Haverty 1989). However, by comparing our taxonomic 

separations on the basis of cuticular hydrocarbons with existing 

taxonomic divisions based on morphology, behavior, etc., we 

are broadening the data base of cuticular hydrocarbons as taxoUSDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
nomic characters of termites as suggested by Prestwich (1983). 

The groups of termites we have recently chosen to investigate 

are the economically and ecologically important, tropicopolitan 

genera: Coptotermes and Nasutitermes. 

The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotems formosanus 

Shiraki, is considered one of the most voracious subterranean 

termites and a serious threat to wood in structures throughout its 

range. In addition to buildings, C. formosanus attacks live trees, 

creosoted transmission poles, structural pilings, and even underground utility cables. C. formosanus was introduced into Japan 

from mainland China before 1600 and subsequently into Hawaii 

before 1907. Since its introduction into Hawaii, C. formosanus 

has been imported to Guam, Midway, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, South 

Africa, and the mainland United States (Su and Tamashiro 

1987). Although many of the infestations in the continental 

United States were first noticed after 1965, C. formosanus colonies were most likely established by movement of military 

goods after World War I1 (Beal 1987). Since 1980, established 

infestations in inland areas indicate that this species may now be 

transported in infested wood products via domestic surface commerce (Chambers and others 1988; La Fage 1987; Sponsler 

and others 1988). 

Knowledge of how introductions of C. formosanus have 

been spread will help regulatory agencies formulate and reexamine quarantine policies and procedures. Has C. formosanus been 

introduced numerous times from Asia or Hawaii, or once introduced, has it spread from port to port via domestic, maritime, or 

surface commerce? Are all populations of Coptotermes in the 

mainland United States C. formosanus, or is it possible that 

introductions of other species of Coptotennes,such as C. havilandi 

(Holmgren) or C. testaceus (L.), have been introduced and 

simply misidentified? We hope that cuticular hydrocarbons will 

help to elucidate this problem. 

Nasutitermes Dudley is the largest genus in the Isoptera, 

containing approximately 21 2 species worldwide (based on compiled lists in Snyder 1949; Roonwal1962; Araujo 1977). Taxonomic discrimination is based on morphological characters. These 

characters are often subtle and variable, or most prominent in 

imagoes which are rarely collected. For example, soldiers of N. 

comiger and N. costalis are currently impossible to discriminate 

without locality information. Nest architecture is also indistinguishable. When collections are made outside of the confirmed 

N. comiger range (Central America, see Thorne 1980) or away 

from the recognized N. costalis distribution (Caribbean islands: 

Snyder 1949; Araujo 1977), species determination is equivocal. 

There is currently confusion over the extent of the distribution of 

each of these species in northern South America, with overlapping reports of each, and identifications of each from as far as 

Bolivia and Brazil (Roonwal and Rathore 1976, reviewed in 

Thome 1980). 

As part of a broad examination of the taxonomy of Neotropica1 Nasutitermes, other termites of the Caribbean Basin, and 

the pantropical Coptotermes,we decided to examine cuticular 

hydrocarbons as an adjunct to the study of morphology and 

behavior for taxonomic distinction of species. This paperbehavior 

for taxonomic distinction of species. This paper reports supplemental data on surface hydrocarbons of Nasutitermes (Howard 

USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

and others 1988; Haverty and others 1990b) and Coptotermes 

(Brown and others 1990; Haverty and others 1990a; McDaniel 

1990), and discusses whether this information helps us resolve 

diagnostic problems within the genus (Howard and Blomquist 1982). 

Materials and Methods 

Detailed descriptions of collection and extraction procedures 

for specific termite species have been published elsewhere 

(Blomquist and others 1979; Howard and others 1978, 1982b, 

1988; Haverty and others l988,1990a,b). In this study, cuticular 

lipids were extracted by immersing 15 to 500 termites (depending on size and total quantity of cuticular hydrocarbon), as a 

group, in 2 to 10 ml of hexane for 10 min. After extraction, 

hydrocarbons were separated from other components by pipetting 

the extract and an additional 2 to 8 ml of hexane through 3 cm of 

activated BioSil-A in Pasteur pipette mini-columns. Hydrocarbon extracts were evaporated to dryness under a stream of 

nitrogen and redissolved in 30 to 100 pl of hexane for gas 

chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses. 

All termite specimens except C. curvignathus Holmgres were 

dried at the field location. Dried termites were then shipped to 

the laboratory in Berkeley, California, for hydrocarbon extraction and chromatographic analysis. Extracted termites, or additional termites from the same colony, were stored in 70 percent 

ethanol for later identification by morphological features and to 

serve as voucher specimens. 

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses 

were performed on a Hewlett Packard 5890 gas chromatograph 

equipped with a Hewlett Packard 5970B Mass Selective Detector interfaced with Hewlett Packard Chemstation computer. The 

GC-MS instrument was equipped with a fused silica capillary 

column (30 m x 0.2 mrn ID, HP-1) and operated in split mode 

(with a split ratio of 20:l). Each mixture was analyzed by a 

temperature program from 2WC to 320Â° at 3OCImin with a 

final hold of 10 to 20 minutes. Electron impact (El) mass spectra 

were obtained at 70 eV. n-Alkanes were identified by comparing their retention times and mass spectra with external standards (n-CZ2, n-C, n-C and n-CÃ£) Alkenes and methylbranched alkanes were tentatively identified by calculating their 

equivalent chain lengths; mass spectra of methylalkanes were 

interpreted as described by Blomquist and others (1987). 

Six colonies of C. formosanus were collected from the University of Hawaii campus; another came from Kaneoe on the 

island of Oahu. C. formosanus samples were separated from 

wood debris and carton material and subsequently dried in a 

desiccator. They were held dry at room temperature until hydrocarbons were extracted. Samples of C. curvignathus from Malaysia and Thailand were extracted live in hexane in the field. 

Samples of C. acinaciformis (Froggatt) from Darwin, Australia, 

C. lacteus from Erica Forest near Melbourne, Australia, and C. 

testaceus (L.)from Trinidad were dried in Australia or Trinidad 

and extracted in our Berkeley laboratory. 

Samples from colonies of various Nasutitermes species were 

collected as follows: N. costalis (Holmgren) from Trinidad, 

Grenada, and Montserrat; N. ephratae (Holmgren) from Trinidad, 

Tobago, and Montserrat; N. gaigei Emerson from Trinidad and 
Tobago; N. guayanae (Holmgren) from Trinidad and Tobago; 

N. intermediusBanks from Trinidad; and N. acajutlae(Holmgren) 

from Great Camino, Guana Island and Scrub Island in the British 

Virgin Islands, and Vieques Island (off Puerto Rico). Entire 

arboreal nests, or large sections of nests, were collected in the 

field and confined in plastic bags. Within 24 hours, live insects 

were removed from the carton matrix by briskly tapping a 

portion of nest material over sorting trays. Workers and soldiers 

were selected with forceps for extraction of hydrocarbons. Species were determined on the basis of nest architecture and soldier 

morphology (Emerson 1925; Snyder 1956; Thorne 1980; Thorne 

and Levings 1989). 

Results and Discussion 

Coptotermes 

Recently we characterized the cuticular hydrocarbons from 

colonies of C. formosanus from four different geographic locations in the United States (Haverty and others 1990a). Concurrently, McDaniel (1990) characterized the hydrocarbons from 

nine colonies of C. formosanus collected from Lake Charles, 

Louisiana, and one from Honshu, Japan. McDaniel(1990, table 

1)identified numerous mono- and dimethylalkanes, which occurred in trace amounts, that were not detected by Haverty and 

others (1990a).. McDaniel (1990) also identified a unique 

trimethylalkane, 13,15,17-TrimeC, in trace amounts, which 

was not detected by Haverty and others (1990a). However, the 

major constituents reported by McDaniel (1990) and Haverty 

and others (1990a) agree with a few exceptions. 

In this most recent re-examination of the cuticular hydrocarbons of C. formosanus from Hawaii, we identified fourteen 

hydrocarbonsin small amounts that were not detected by McDaniel 

(1 990) nor by Haverty and others (1 990a) (9,13-DimeC; n-C; 

3,17- and 3, 15-DimeCZ7; 2-MeCz8; 13,15-DimeC,,; 3-MeCz9; 

3,15- and 3,17-DimeCm; 3,7-DimeC,,; 13,15-DimeC; 13,15- 

DimeC3,; 15,17-DimeC3,; 16-MeC,.; 14,l 8-DimeCm; and 15,17- 

DimeC4,-see table 1). We also detected 13,15,17-TrimeC, as 

well as some later-eluting monomethyl- and dimethylalkanes 

(see table 1) reported by McDaniel (1990), but not seen in our 

previous analysis (Haverty and others 1990a). Of the five 

species of Coptotermes we have investigated thus far, several 

unusual dimethylalkanes with one methylene group between the 

methyl groups (such as 13,15-DimeC) appear to be unique to 

C. formosanus, and could be considered diagnostic for this 

species. Analogous, but different, dimethylalkanes have also 

been identified in Coptotermes from Australia (Brown and 

others 1990). 

A preliminary survey of the hydrocarbon composition of 

four additional species of Coptotermes demonstrates clear qualitative differences from C. formosanus (table 1). C. curvignathus 

Holmgren from Thailand is the most similar of these four species to C.formosanus. Nearly all of the major components in the 

hydrocarbon profiles of these two species are shared (table 1). 

Two significant components, 3-MeC and 1 1,13,15,16-MeC, 

were not detected or occur in trivial amounts in C. curvignathus. 

The primary difference between C. formosanus and C. 

curvignathus,as mentioned above, is the absence of 9,13-DimeCn 

and 13,15-DimeC in C. curvlgnathus. 

In our characterization of the hydrocarbons of C. acinaciformis 

(Froggatt) from Darwin, Australia, we identified several abundant, unique hydrocarbons. Our hydrocarbon profile for C. 

acinaciformis from Darwin is nearly identical to the hydrocarbons of C. acinaciformis from Humpty Doo, Australia, as reported by Brown and others (1990), except that we did not 

identify any hydrocarbons that eluted after 13-MeC,,. The most 

dramatic difference that we, and Brown and others (1990), found 

in C. acinaciformis is the huge Cz7:, peak (ca. 52 percent of the 

total cuticular hydrocarbon composition). This hydrocarbon 

does not occur in any of the other Coptotermes species 

examined thus far. 

We also characterized the hydrocarbons from workers of C. 

lacteus (Froggatt) from Erica Forest near Melbourne, Australia. 

Our results closely agree with hydrocarbon profiles of C. lacteus 

from Batemans Bay and Canberra, Australia (Brown and others 

1990). Several minor components (2-MeC, n-C, 2-MeC,, 

and 3-MeC) were not detected from our workers nor were they 

found by Brown and others (1990) in soldiers or nymphs of the 

colonies they examined. One intriguing difference is our identification of two dimethylalkanes (15,17-DimeC and 15,17- 

Dim&) that coelute with their corresponding internally branched 

monomethylalkanes (X-MeC^ and X-MeC). Hydrocarbons 

with the methyl branches separated by a single methylene group 

are not common in insects (Blomquist and others 1987). However, this type of compound has now been identified in two 

species of Coptotems(Haverty and others 1990a, McDaniel1990). 

Finally, we report the hydrocarbon profile from C. testaceus 

(L.) from Trinidad. C. testaceus is notably different from C. 

formosanus and the Coptotermes species from Southeast Asia 

and Australia. Nearly all of the hydrocarbon components are 

terminally branched monomethylalkanes (such as 2-MeC and 

2-MeC) or internally branched monomethylalkanes. Small 

amounts of dimethylalkanes were found (11,15- and 13,17- 

DimeC,,; 13,17-DimeC,,,; 13,17-DimeC,,). No n-alkanes, alkenes, 3-; 5-; or 7-methylalkanes were identified (table 1).Therefore, we can conclude with reasonable certainty that none of the 

four Coptotermes populations we have studied in the United 

States was misidentified C. testaceus. Next we need to convince 

ourselves that C. havilandi Holmgren, now established in the 

Caribbean (Scheffrahn and others 1990), has not been introduced into the mainland United States. 

Nasutitermes 

We have begun to expand our data base on the cuticular 

hydrocarbons of Nasutitermes from the Caribbean islands. Previously Haverty and others (1990b) characterized the cuticular 

hydrocarbons of N. costalis and N. ephratae from Trinidad. 

They found that these species have hydrocarbon mixtures that 

are qualitatively and quantitatively distinct from one another, 

with sixteen major hydrocarbon components. No unsaturated 

components were found. 

In this study we included samples of these two species from 

Trinidad, as well as samples from other Caribbean islands. 

USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129.1992. 
-- 

Table 1-Composition of hydrocarbon mixtures from workers offive species of 

Coototermes' 

Coptotermes species2 

Hydrocarbon3 form curv acin lact test 

o tr o n-c23 0 0 

9-;l 1-MeC2; o o o tr o 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

Table 1-Composition of hydrocarbon mixtures from workers offive species of 

Coptotennes,' continued 

Coptotermes species2 

Hydrocarbon3 form curv acin lact test 

13,15-DimeC,, + o o o o 

I Hydrocarbons are quantified as follows: +++indicates >5.0 percent of the 

total, ++ from 1.0 to 5.0 percent of the total, and +from 0.5 to 1.0 percent of the 

total hydrocarbon component. Some trace (tr) components appear infrequently 

or consistently in very small quantities (< 0.5 percent of the total). A zero 

indicates the hydrocarbon has not been identified for the species. 

form = Coptotermes fortnosanus from Honolulu, Hawaii, curv = C. 

curvignathus from near Bangkok, Thailand, acin = C. acinaciformis from 

Darwin, Australia, lact =C. lacteus from Erica Forest near Melbourne, Australia, 

and test = C. testaceus from Trinidad. 

3Carbon number is the total number of carbons in the parent chain, excluding 

methyl groups, e.g. 3-McC = 3-methylpentacosane. 

'An isomeric mixture. These components co-elute in this peak. 

2-MeC., co-elutes with Cz, 

'Because of incomplete separation of these hydrocarbons both peaks are 

included as one value. 

'Only the monomethylalkane occurs in this species. 

Only the dimcthylalkanc occurs in this species. 
0 

Since the earlier study by Haverty and others (1990b) and the 

report by Howard and others (1988) on N. ephratae and N. 

comiger (Motschulsky), we have discontinued the use of a 

flame ionization detector (FID) on our capillary gas chromatograph and now use a mass selective detector (MSD). We have 

also changed our methods for collecting, shipping, and extracting specimens. We now dry specimens at the field location and 

extract dry specimens in the laboratory in Berkeley, rather than 

extracting fresh specimens in the field and shipping liquid or 

dried extracts to the laboratory. These changes have resulted in 

much superior separation, identification and quantification of the 

hydrocarbon components, especially the later-eluting components. 

The predominant classes of cuticular hydrocarbons in N. 

costalis are internally branched, mono- and dimethylalkanes 

(table2). Normal alkanes and an alkene (C2_) occur, but only in 

relatively small quantities (51.0 percent). No terminally branched, 

monomethylalkanes were found. The preponderance of one 

component (13.17-DimeC,,) accounts for nearly half of the total 

hydrocarbon of N. costalis. 

The hydrocarbon profile of N. ephratae is much more complex than previously described (Haverty and others 1990b; Howard 

and others 1988). These earlier reports failed to identify the 

compounds that elute after 13,17-DimeC. In our samples from 

Trinidad and Tobago we consistently identified 24 hydrocarbons in significant (2 1.0 percent of the total hydrocarbon) 

quantities (table2). As with N. costalis,the predominant classes 

of hydrocarbons are the internally branched, mono-, di- and 

trimethylalkanes. Most of these compounds have isoprenoid 

spacing between the methyl branches. We also found 

trimethylalkanes (13,15,17-TrimeC31; 13,15,17-TrimeC37; and 

13,15,17-TrimeC,) with only a methylene group between the 

methyl branches. These rare trimethylalkanes elute very soon 

after the analogous dimethylalkanes (15,17-DimeC; 15,17- 

DimeC; and 15,17-DimeC). N. ephratae does make significant quantities of n-alkanes (n-C and n-C) and alkenes (C, 

C, C, and C). We found no terminally branched, 

monomethylalkanes. 

Although we found no qualitative differences in hydrocarbon mixtures between workers and soldiers of the same colony, 

we think it is important to point out significant differences 

between the hydrocarbon profiles of N. ephratae from Trinidad 

versus those from Tobago (table2). Our samples from Trinidad 

contain two isomers of Cml, whereas those from Tobago apparently do not make these compounds. Instead, the Tobago specimens produce a 12,16-DimeC which elutes at about the same 

time as C. In addition, our samples from Tobago include 

11,15- and 13,17-DimeC^; 13,17-DimeC,,; 11,15,19-TrimeC,,,; 

and 13,17,21-TrimeC. These hydrocarbons were not found in 

our sample from Trinidad. These differences will require 

further elucidation. 

N. gaigei and N. guayanae make a very simple, yet unique, 

hydrocarbon mixture. The only hydrocarbons we recovered 

from these species are late-eluting alkenes (C through C) 

(table 2). We found only trivial amounts of an occasional nalkane or methylalkane. The major difference between these 

two species is the degree of unsaturation. Hydrocarbons of N. 

gaigei have either threeor four double bonds; those of A? guayanae 

Table %Mean percent composition of hydrocarbons from workers of six 

species of Nasutitermes' 

Nasulitennes species2 

Hydrocarbon3 cost ephr gaig guay acaj inte 

o + o o tr o '23:l 

n-c23 tr ++ 0 0 + 

"-C24 tr o 0 o t r o 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
0 

Table 2-Mean percent composition of hydrocarbons from workers of six 

species of Nasutitermes,' continued 

Nasutitennes species2 

Hydrocarbon3 cost ephr gaig guay acaj inte 

1 1-;13-;15-MeC3,' ++" ++" o o o +" 

C3%3 0 o t r o o 0 

Unknown o o o o + o 

C3M 0 0 0 +++ 0 0 

Table 2-Mean percent composition of hydrocarbons from workers of six 

species of Nasutitennes,' continued 

Nasutitennes species2 

Hydrocarbon3 cost ephr gaig guay acaj inte 

13,15,17-TrimeC39 o ++ o o o o 

13.17-;l 1,15-DimeCI9 o ++' o o o o 

11J5.19-TrimeC,, o +' o o o o 

0 o t r o o 

Unknown o o o o ++ o 

n-C,, o o o t r o o 

o + t r o c.21 0 0 

Unknown o o o o + o 

' Hydrocarbons are quantified as follows: +++indicates s 5.0 percent of the 

total, ++from 1.0 to 5.0 percent of the total, and + from 0.5 to 1.0 percent of the 

total hydrocarbon component. Some trace (tr) components appear infrequently 

or consistently in very small quantities (c 0.5 percent of the total). A zero 

indicates the hydrocarbon has not been identified for the species. 

2cost=Nasutitermes costalis from Trinidad and Grenada, ephr =N. ephratae 

from Trinidad and Tobago, gaig = N. gaigei from Trinidad and Tobago, guay = 

N. guayanae from Trinidad and Tobago, acaj =N. acajutlae from Great Camino, 

Guana Island, Scrub Island (British Virgin Islands) and Vieques, and inte = N. 

intermedius from Trinidad. 

Carbon number is the total number of carbons in the parent chain, excluding 

methyl groups, e.g. 3-MeC = 3-methylpentacosane. 

An isomeric mixture. These components co-elute in this peak. 

'These isomers occur inconsistently; when present they are fairly abundant. 

Because of incomplete separation of these hydrocarbons both peaks are 

included as one value for N. costalis, N. ephratae, and N. intermedius. 

l Two isomers of Cml occur in N. ephratae from Trinidad and not in the 

sample from Tobago; 12.16-DimeC occurs in the N. ephratae from Tobago but 

not in the sample from Trinidad. 

Only the 9.13.17-TrimeC isomer was found. 

913,17-DimeC39; 13.17-DimeC; 1 l,15,19-TrimeC;and l3J7.21-TrimeC4, 

have been found only in samples of N. ephratae from Tobago. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
have one or two double bonds. The predominant hydrocarbon in 

N. gaigei has 37 carbons, whereas the major component of N. 

guayanae has 39 carbons. 

The hydrocarbons of N. acajutlae differ from the four previously described species in that the chromatograms appear to be 

bimodal. The early-eluting hydrocarbons consist of n-alkanes 

(n-C through n-C), alkenes (CEl and C), and terminally 

branched monomethylalkanes (table 2). The late-eluting compounds consist entirely of alkenes with one, two or three double 

bonds (table 2). Only trivial amounts of internally branched, 

monomethylalkanes were found. No di- or trimethylalkanes 

were found. 

We hesitate to report upon the single colony of N. intermedius 

collected from Trinidad. However, given the consistency of 

hydrocarbon profiles among samples of other species of 

Nasutitermes, the uniqueness of this observation is worthy of 

mention. This species makes predominantly long-chain alkenes 

with one or two double bonds (C3,, or 1 through C4., or 1) (table 

2). This species even produces a homologous series of alkenes 

with an even number of carbons in the chain (C or1 through 

C40:2,). We have not seen this with the other species of 

Nasutitemes. In addition, this sample yielded no hydrocarbons 

before n-C, no terminally branched monomethylalkanes, and 

only trivial amounts of internally branched, mono- and 

dimethylalkanes. 

The taxonomy of the Caribbean Nasutitemes is in need of 

revision and is a topic of our work in progress. Keys that 

distinguish these species on the basis of morphological characters (Banks 1919; Emerson 1925; Snyder 1956,1959) often lead 

to equivocal determinations. Diagnostic keys and synonomies 

are being re-evaluated on the basis of comparisons with type 

specimens and studies of additional collection^.^ We are certain 

enough about morphological groupings, however, to be confident of species determinations made on material used in this study. 

A brief discussion of diagnostic morphological characters 

among Nasutitermes involved in this project follows, with comments on inferred phylogenetic relationships among the species. 

N. costalis and N. ephratae overlap geographically on Trinidad 

and Tobago, and in northern South America based on known 

ranges (Araujo 1977; Emerson 1925). Morphologically, these 

two species are close, but imagoes are distinguished by position 

of ocelli (Emerson 1925; Snyder 1956) and soldiers may be 

separated on the basis of the pattern of setae on the tergal 

sclerites (Emerson 1925; Snyder 1956; Thome 1980). Nests of 

these species are easily identified on the basis of both exterior 

and interior architectures (Darlington In press; Haverty and 

others 1990b; Thome 1980). N. costalis, N. ephratae, and the 

CentraVSouth American species N. comiger (Motschulsky) are 

all considered to be close relatives based on morphological 

similarities, but a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis involving these groups has not yet been undertaken. 

In this paper we designate the specimens from the British 

Virgin Islands and Vieques Island as N. acajutlae, resurrecting a 

name previously synonomized as N. nigriceps by Snyder (1949). 

Thorne, Collins and Darlington, unpublished data. 

The "N. nigriceps complex" is a broadly dispersed and morphologically variable group, ranging throughout Central America 

and the Caribbean, with isolated reports from a number of 

locations in South America (Araujo 1977, American Museum of 

Natural History collection). In work still in progress, Thome has 

examined material throughout the N. "nigriceps" range and 

isolated three morphological characters which consistently differentiate soldiers of N. nigriceps sensu strictu from soldiers 

found in the American and British Virgin Islands and Puerto 

Rico. The latter groups compare favorably to soldiers of the 

COTYPE specimens of "Eutermes acajutlae" (collected from 

St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, determined by N. Holmgren, American Museum of Natural History collection). The three distinguishing characters are: (1) density of hairs on the head capsule 

of N. acajutlae soldiers greatly exceeds that of N. nigriceps 

soldiers; (2) small hairs are found on the ventral surface of the 

soldier head on either side of the postmenturn in N. acajutlae 

(absent on specimens of N. nigriceps); and (3) the anterior 

margin of the soldier pronotum is distinctly emarginate in N. 

acajutlae, flatter in N. nigriceps. On the basis of these characters, specimens from Jamaica sort as N. nigriceps; samples from 

localities in the Lesser Antilles examined to date separate as N. 

acajutlae. A formal treatment of the taxonomy of the N. nigriceps 

complex is in progress, comparing morphological data with 

hydrocarbon analy~es.~ 

Nasutitermes gaigei, N. guyanae and N. intermedius are 

each distinct morphospecies, identified in these samples on the 

basis of characters of the soldier caste and comparison to determined specimens. Diagnostic suites of characters and geographical distributions of each species are being revi~ed.~ 

As we continue to survey Nasutitermes hydrocarbon profiles 

throughout the Caribbean, we anticipate that correlations between hydrocarbon profiles and morphology will assist us in 

further resolution of the taxonomy of this genus. 

Our study represents only the fourth report of the cuticular 

hydrocarbons of species of Nasutitermes, one of the most ubiquitous and abundant pantropical groups of termites. Moore 

(1969) provided the first description of the cuticular lipids of the 

Australian termite, N. exitiosus. His report that the long-chain, 

unsaturated component C was the predominant hydrocarbon 

is consistent with our characterization of four of the six species 

we have investigated. 

The consistent similarities among the hydrocarbon mixtures of the species of Nasutitennes examined thus far (Moore 

1969; Howard and others 1988; and Haverty and others 1990b) 

indicate that cuticular hydrocarbons can be valuable chemotaxonomic characters for all Nasutitermes species. As has been 

found with other taxonomic character systems (Gush and others 

1985), hydrocarbon profiles may not show exact qualitative or 

quantitative species-specificity, especially across a broad 

geographic range. Further sampling within Nasutitemes and in 

other groups should be encouraged to determine the prevalence 

of such variability, and to ascertain its biological and taxonomic relevance. 

' 

'

Thorne, Haverty and Collins, unpublished data. 

Darlington, unpublished data. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 64 
Conclusions 

There are still some unresolved questions to be addressed to 

optimize the use of cuticular hydrocarbons for taxonomic studies of termites. They are: (1) What is the influence of genetics 

and the environment (e.g., temperature, relative humidity, and 

diet) on hydrocarbon composition? Does drying the samples 

before extraction quantitatively or qualitatively change the hydrocarbon mixture? (2) Are cuticular hydrocarbons, or the other 

chemicals present in the wax layer, responsible for species or 

caste recognition? (3) Are hydrocarbon profiles within "good 

species" qualitatively identical or are there some exceptions to 

the rules? Can different biological species have identical hydrocarbon profiles? (4) What is the rate of change in hydrocarbon 

profiles as species evolve? Do slight differences in profiles 

mean that the species are closely related? and (5) Can hydrocarbons be used to determine phyletic relationships among groups 

within a genus? Resolution of these questions will greatly 

advance the precision of cuticular hydrocarbons as chemotaxonomic characters in all insects. 

Even though there are numerous unresolved questions concerning the utility of hydrocarbons as taxonomic characters, an 

increasingly convincing body of knowledge is accumulating 

which indicates that hydrocarbon profiles are species-specific in 

termites (Brown and others 1990, Clement and others 1985, 

1986, Haverty and others 1988,1990b, Howard and others 1978, 

1980,1982a,b, 1988; Watson and others 1989). Our experience 

in applying knowledge of cuticular hydrocarbon composition to 

the identification of termite species has been encouraging. We 

have used hydrocarbons to initially sort specimens (Haverty and 

others 1988) to identify a new diagnostic morphological character for Zootermopsis species (Thome and Haverty 1989). Geographical races of Coptotermes formosanus can be distinguished 

on the basis of the concentrations of individual hydrocarbon 

components (Haverty and others 1990a). And most importantly, 

we now realize that cuticular hydrocarbons are extremely useful 

taxonomic characters for separating species of termites where 

morphology has proven inadequate in the past (Brown and 

others 1990, Watson and others 1989). 

For their help in gathering the specimens used in these 

studies we thank John French, Ken Grace, and Robin Yarnamoto. 

This work was supported, in part, by National Science Foundation grant BSR-8607407 and a Bunting Institute Science Fellowship to Barbara Thome. Field work by Margaret Collins was 

supported, in part, by the Conservation Agency, 6 Swimbume 

Street, Jamestown, Rhode Island 02835. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Role of Decaying Logs and Other Organic Seedbeds in Natural 

Regeneration of Hawaiian Forest Species on Abandoned 

Montane Pasture1 

Paul G. Scowcroft2 

Abstract: Natural regeneration is one mechanism by which native rnixedspecies forests become reestablished on abandoned pasture. This study was 

done to determine patterns of and requirement for natural regeneration of 

native species in an open woodland after removal of cattle. Ten 50- by 50-m 

quadrats were randomly selected within a 16-ha exclosure located at 1,700-m 

elevation inside the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge on the island of 

Hawaii. In 1989 and 1991, data were collected for all regeneration in the 

quadrats, including species, height, and seedbed type. More than 2,000 

individuals were found in 1989, two years after the cattle were excluded. By 

1991, the number had doubled to more than 4,000 individuals. Ohia was the 

most abundant species both years. Mineral soil accounted for about 97 percent 

of the potential seedbed area inside the exclosure, but less than 25 percent of all 

regeneration was rooted there in 1989 and less than 33 percent in 1991. In 

contrast, decaying logs made up less than 2 percent of the potential seedbed 

area, but they supported about 70 percent of all regeneration in 1989 and 53 

percent in 1991. The data indicated that organic seedbeds are preferred sites 

for recruitment, establishment, and early growth of olapa, kawau, and ohelo. 

Ohia's preference for organic seedbed was less pronounced. Tree fern showed 

a strong preference for mineral soil. Koa was nondiscriminatory. 

During the past 10 years, interest has grown in developing 

technology for restoring native mixed-species forests to deforested and degraded forest lands of Hawaii. Concern for the 

recovery of endangered species has been a key motivating factor 

for this interest. Federal and State forest landowners are mandated by law to protect and restore endangered species. Much of 

the effort to accomplish those goals is focused on habitat protection and restoration. 

The Forest Service has no National Forest land in Hawaii, 

and hence it has no management responsibilities in the State. 

However, the Forest Service maintains an active forest research 

program in Hawaii to help other Federal, State, and private forest 

owners develop technology for better management. Part of that 

research program is focused on reforestation. 

A 16-ha exclosure, hereafter called the woodland exclosure, 

was built by the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge in 

1987 to provide a cattle-free area for conducting reforestation 

experiments (Conrad and others 1988). Two years after the 

fence was erected, I observed that native woody species were 

regenerating naturally, but almost always in association with 

fallen, decaying logs or other organic seedbeds. This study was 

done to determine if organic seedbeds were as important to 

natural regeneration of native species as cursory observations 

suggested. Specifically I wanted to (1) determine the abundance 

of native regeneration, by species and seedbed type, and (2) 

determine the areal extent of each seedbed type. The findings, if 

confirmed by similar studies elsewhere, could have application 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific, XVII Pacific Science Congress, May 

27-28, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

'Research Forester, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Honolulu, HI 96813. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

in evaluating the potential for natural regeneration of open pasture where organic seedbeds no longer exist. 

Methods 

The tropical montane study site was on the east flank of 

Mauna Kea, island of Hawaii, at about 1,700 m elevation inside 

the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. The climate is 

cool and moist year around. Mean daily air temperatures average less than WC, with an annual variation of only 5%. Diurnal 

variation in temperature averages less than 1PC throughout the 

year. During winters frost is common. Rainfall averages about 

2,500 rnm per year, with greater amounts falling during winter 

months. Tradewind-generated clouds often shroud the refuge in 

mist in the afternoon. 

The study area supported an open woodland dominated by 

Hawaii's two principal native overstory tree species, koa (Acacia 

koa) and ohia (Metrosideros polyrnorpha). Grazed by cattle for 50 

to 100 years, the native forest understory was destroyed and replaced 

by introduced grasses and forbs. Kikuyu grass (Pennisetwn 

clandestinum),sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthumodoratwn), and 

velvet grass (Holcus lanatus) dominated the ground vegetation. 

We divided the woodland exclosure into 50- by 50-m quadrats. I selected ten of these at random using a random number 

generator. In 1989 and again in 1991 a crew of 3 to 4 persons 

carefully and thoroughly searched each quadrat for natural regeneration. The grass cover was dense, and I know we must 

have missed some hidden regeneration that was rooted in mineral soil. However, we found that mineral soil seedbeds with 

natural regeneration had a certain characteristic that helped us in 

our search. The banks of cattle tracks and erosion scars often 

supported regeneration, so we examined especially these areas. 

Organic seedbeds were generally easy to see or find. I do not 

think we missed any regeneration rooted in organic material. 

For each plant found in 1989, we recorded species, height, 

and seedbed type. I expanded the data set in 1991 to also include 

crown diameter, elevation of root collar above the soil surface, 

seedbed characteristics (such as degree of decomposition, grass 

covered, etc.), and projected area of each seedbed. Space considerations prevent discussion of all of these data in this paper. 

Differences in mean plant height among the various seedbed types were examined using one-way ANOVA and Tukey's 

method of multiple comparisons. Sample size was 10 in all 

cases. Because sampling was from a finite population (i.e., 54, 

50- by 50-m quadrats), all standard errors of the means shown in 

this paper were adjusted using the finite population correction 

factor (0.91 1 in the present study). Plant density refers to 

number of individuals per hectare of exclosure, not per hectare 

of seedbed type. 
Results 

Abundance of Natural Regeneration 

We found 2,024 individual plants in 1989 within our sample 

quadrats (table 1). Most of these plants (1756) were ohia 

seedlings. Ohelo (Vaccinium reticulatum), olapa (Cheirodendron 

trigynum), kawau (Ilex anomala), and pukiawe (Styphelia 

tameiameiae) were the other' native species tallied. No natural 

koa regeneration occurred within our sample, but we saw what 

we assumed were root sprouts growing elsewhere in the woodland exclosure. 

Two years later, in 1991, we found 4,140 individuals, more 

than double the number tallied in 1989 (table 1). Every species 

except pukiawe increased in abundance during the 2-year interval. Once again, the most abundant species was ohia, with 3,557 

individuals. In addition to the species encountered in 1989, we 

tallied three new species-koa; kolea (Myrsine lessertiana), and 

tree fern (Cibotium glaucum). Much to our surprise, there were 

150 young tree fern in the sample quadrats. We did not expect 

tree fern to invade the grass-dominated site so soon, especially 

considering the total absence of adult tree fern. There were 31 

koa and one kolea. 

Seedbed Area 

We counted 110 live and standing dead trees in our sample 

quadrats, or an average of 44 trees per hectare (std. err. = 12). 

These stems occupied 58 sq. m of basal area, or about 0.2 

percent of the sample area. Because these areas were already 

occupied, they were usually unavailable for seedling recruitment. 

Mineral soil accounted for an average of 97 percent of the 

potential seedbed area in the woodland exclosure (fig. I). Fallen 

Table 1-Total count of natural regeneration of native species in sampled 

areas of the woodland exclosure, Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, by 

seedbed class and year. 

1989 1991 

Species Mineral soil Organic beds Mineral soil Organic beds 

Ohia 443 1,313 1,214 2.343 

Ohelo 18 199 22 312 

Olapa 1 43 2 55 

Kawau 1 1 0 6 

Pukiawe 1 4 1 3 

Koa 0 0 14 17 

Tree fern 0 0 126 24 

Kolea 0 0 1 0 

All species 464 1560 1380 2760 

trees in various stages of decay accounted for about 2 percent of 

the seedbed area. Moss-covered root mats, pockets of organic 

matter perched in fissures and hollows of live trees, and exposed, 

decaying wood of live trees each made up less than 0.5 percent 

of the potential seedbed area. 

Seedbed Preferences 

Analysis of the data confirmed our initial hypothesis that 

organic seedbeds are important sites for recruitment of native 

species. In 1989, more than 75 percent of the natural regeneration was found growing on organic material of one type or 

another (table 1). In 1991,67 percent was found on organic 

seedbeds. 

Organic seedbeds contained a disproportionate number of 

plants relative to their surface area. Although mineral soil accounted for 97 percent of the available seedbed area, only oneSurface area 

Plant count 

< 0.5 pct of surface 

area in these 

seedbed Woes 

Mineral All Decayed Root Perched Rot in 

soil organic wood mat organic live 

beds pocket plant 

Seedbed type 

Figure 1-Average proportion of each type of seedbed in the woodland exclosure (surface area) and 

the average percentage of natural regeneration found growing on each type of seedbed (plant count) 

in 1991. Sample size (n) was 10. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
third of the regeneration was found growing there in 1991 (fig. 1). In 

comparison, decaying logs and limbs made up less than 2 percent of the seedbed area, but they supported more than one-half 

of the regeneration. Moss-covered root mats, which appear to be 

important microsites for growth of some native species, supported 7 percent of the regeneration, but represented only 0.3 

percent of the available seedbed area. 

Seedbed preferences were already evident in 1989 (table 2). 

Ohia showed a moderately-strong preference for organic seedbeds-an average of 524 ohia were rooted in organic material 

compared to 177 rooted in mineral soil. Ohelo and olapa showed 

a strong preference for organic seedbeds; more than 90 percent 

of the regeneration of each of these species was rooted in organic 

material. The greatest densities of ohia, ohelo, and olapa were 

found on decaying wood. Too few kawau and pukiawe seedlings were sampled to determine their seedbed preferences. 

The seedbed preferences expressed in the 1989 data were 

confirmed by the 1991 data (fie. 2). Natural regeneration of ohia 

continued to show a moderately-strong preference for organic 

seedbeds-about 65 percent occurrence in 1991. Decaying logs 

and other large woody debris were the favored organic site for 

recruitment of ohia seedlings. An average of 800 ohia per 

hectare (std. err. = 233) were found on decaying wood. 

Natural regeneration of ohelo and olapa also continued to 

show a strong preference for organic seedbeds (fie. 2). Ninetythree percent of the ohelo and 96 percent of the olapa were 

growing on organic beds in 1991. Decaying logs and large 

Table %Mean density' of natural regeneration of native woody species 

1989, by species and seedbed type 

Mineral Decaying Root Organic Rot in 

mil wood mat pockettree 

- p l a n t s per hectare ..................... 

Ohia 177 478 42 3 1 

(23)' (183) (28) (2) (1) 

Ohelo 7 72 8 0 0 

(4) (36) (4) (0) (0) 

Mean density = plants per hectare of exclosure; sample size = 10. 

'Standard error of the mean shown in parentheses. 

organic debris were less important as safe sites for recruitment of 

ohelo and olapa than for recruitment of ohia. The largest percentage of olapa occurred on pockets of organic matter perched 

in crevices and hollows along the surface of living trees. An 

average of 10 olapa per hectare (std. err. = 5) were growing in 

such organic pockets. 

In contrast to the woody species described above, tree fern 

regeneration showed a strong preference for mineral soil in 1991 

(fig. 2). Out of 150 plants, 84 percent were rooted in mineral 

75 

'O01 

Ohia 

75 

lO0l 

Ohelo 

Seedbed type 

Mineral soil Root mat Â Organic pocket fbb; live on live plant 

Figure 2-Average proportion of natural regeneration growing in the five different types of seedbeds in 1991, by 

species. Sample size (n) was 10. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 69 
soil. This amounted to an average of 50 ferns per hectare (std. 

err. = 16). Of the organic seedbeds, decaying logs were the most 

common sites for establishment of tree fern. But there were only 

7 individuals per hectare (std. err. =3) on decaying logs. No tree 

fern were observed growing in perched pockets of organic matter. 

Height-Seedbed Type Relationships 

Mean height of natural regeneration in 1991 was a function 

of species and seedbed (fig. 3). Ohia seedlings growing in 

mineral soil averaged 7.8 cm in height (std. err. = 1.2). Those 

growing in organic seedbeds were more than twice as tall, 

averaging 20.6 cm (std. err. = 1.0). The difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). There was little difference in mean 

height among the four different types of organic seedbeds. 

Olapa seedlings rooted in mineral soil averaged 8.7 cm in 

height (std. err. = 0.2); those rooted in organic seedbeds averaged 117.3 cm in height (std. err. = 55.8). The difference in 

height was significant, Moss-covered root mats appeared to be 

the best seedbed for rapid height growth of olapa seedlings. On 

that type of seedbed olapa averaged 2.8 m in height. No other 

species of natural regeneration had attained such tall stature. 

Variation in height of olapa on root mats was also large (std. 

err. = 1.7 m). 

Height of tree fern was not significantly greater on mineral 

soil than on organic seedbeds-17.2 cm (std. err. = 1.7) versus 

19.6 cm (std. err. = 7.7), respectively (fig. 3). Tree fern, like 

Ohia 

Tree Fern 

olapa, was tallest on moss-covered root mats [76.5 cm (std. 

err. = 42.4)]. 

The height class distributions for populations rooted in 

mineral soil were quite different from those rooted in organic 

seedbeds (fie. 4). I selected ohia, ohelo, and olapa to illustrate 

this point. For ohia, about an equal number of soil-rooted and 

organic-rooted seedlings occurred in the smallest height class 

(0.1 to 9.9 cm). But in all the other classes there were significantly more organic-rooted ohia than soil-rooted ohia. I suspect 

that recruitment is a continuous process on both types of seedbed, but survival is poor on the mineral soil seedbed because of 

intense grass competition. 

The height class distributions for soil-rooted ohelo were flat 

(fig. 4). The inverse-J shape common to an actively recruiting, 

all-age population was absent. There were significantly fewer 

soil-rooted ohelo than organic-rooted ohelo in all height classes. 

The distribution for ohelo rooted in organic matter showed 

active seedling recruitment, and good survival and growth of 

established plants. 

Soil-rooted olapa occurred only in the smallest height class 

(4.9 cm). I suspect that recruitment on mineral soil seedbeds 

occurred slowly, and the seedlings either failed to survive or 

grew slowly. The distribution for organic seedbeds showed 

active seedling recruitment, and good survival and growth. I 

arbitrarily truncated the height class distributions, so those individuals taller than 1.6 m are not shown infie. 4. 

Olapa 500 1 

Seedbed type 

Mineral soil 

\_\ All organic beds 

r"] Decaying wood 

~ootmat 

Perched organic pocket 

Rot in live plant 

Figure %Average height of natural regeneration of ohia, olapa, and tree fern in 1991, by seedbed type. Vertical 

bars denote standard errors of the mean. Sample size (n) was 10. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Competitionand Seedbed Type 

A universal feature of mineral soil seedbeds in the woodland exclosure is dense grass cover. Seedlings germinating in 

the soil would therefore face competition for light, moisture, and 

nutrients. The grass cover would also affect the soil temperature. Many of the organic seedbeds are free of grass, and hence 

free of interspecific competition. Whether such competition or 

the lack of it affects growth and survival of native species in my 

study site cannot be directly assessed from my data. 

Recall the height class distributions for ohia, ohelo, and 

olapa (fie. 4). Little of the regeneration on mineral soil was 

growing into larger height classes. In contrast, lots of the 

regeneration on organic beds was apparently growing into larger 

classes. Table 3shows the percentage of plants, by species, that 

was growing under a grass overstory. A large proportion of the 

ohia, ohelo, and olapa rooted in mineral soil were grass covered. 

A smaller proportion rooted in organic matter were grass covered. Could grass competition account for the differences in 

height class distributions? Additional research will be needed to 

satisfactorily answer that question. 

Discussion 

On the basis of my analyses, I concluded that organic 

seedbeds were important sites for natural regeneration of several 

but not all native species in the woodland exclosure. It is 

possible that site factors are primarily responsible for the preference. 

Ohia 

Height class midpoint (cm) 

Table3Ã‘Percen of plants that were growing under an overstory of grass in 

1991, by species and seedbed class 

Ohia 

Ohelo 

Olapa 

Kawau 

Pukiawe 

Koa 

Tree fern 

Kolea 

The natural vegetation of the study area has been drastically 

modified by humans and cattle-only a scattering of the overstory remains, along with a few remnant individuals of shrub and 

fern species on elevated logs. Throughout the area, introduced 

grasses covered the ground to a depth of more than 0.5 m. Light, 

temperature, and moisture regimes of mineral soil at ground 

level were no doubt much different from those found in a natural 

forest. Relative to healthy forests at slightly lower elevation, 

there were few decaying logs and other organic seedbeds. 

Still, some of the seedbed preferences I observed have been 

noted by others, albeit in habitats quite different from the one in 

which I worked. Burton and Mueller-Dombois (1984) reported 

that ohia seedling preferentially established on moss-covered 

logs and other bryophyte-covered organic seedbeds in an intact 

Organic seedbeds 

Mineral soil seedbed 

Figure &Average number of plants per hectare of exclosure growing in mineral soil and organic seedbeds in 1991, by 

height class and species. Each height class was 10 cm wide. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
wet ohia-tree fern forest. A similar preference was found for 

other species as well as ohia in an intact mesic ohia-koa forest on 

Mauna Loa, island of Hawaii (Cooray 1974). There the ratio of 

log-established trees to soil-established trees was significantly 

greater (p <: 0.01) than expected on the basis of the ratio of log 

seedbed area to soil seedbed area, a finding similar to that 

shown in fig. 1. 

Two explanations have been offered to account for the 

preference of some species for organic seedbeds. The explanation heard most often is that logs and other organic seedbeds are 

elevated out of reach of rooting feral pigs. Such elevated beds 

thus serve as safe sites for seedling recruitment. There is little 

doubt that disturbance by pigs is extensive in montane rain 

forests (Mueller-Dombois and others 1981), and that pig rooting 

interferes with natural regeneration in general (Diong 1983; 

Higashino and Stone 1982; Katahira 1980). But studies to date 

have used unreplicated exclosures, and they have not been designed to test the hypothesis that the preference for organic 

seedbeds is an artifact of pig rooting in mineral soil seedbeds. 

The second explanation is that the temperature and water 

holding capacity of decaying logs (especially moss-covered ones) 

and other organic seedbeds are higher than those on mineral soil. 

These factors are thought to favor seedling establishment on the 

organic seedbeds (Burton and Mueller-Dombois 1984). Burton 

(1982) found that as temperature decreased below 2PC. germination of ohia seeds declined sharply. Under low light levels, 

which are common in closed canopy rain forests, germination 

ceased at about 12C 

In the present study, pigs were not a factor. So the first 

explanation does not apply. The second explanation, however, 

bears closer examination. Air temperatures in the vicinity of the 

exclosure are generally below 15T. At 10 cm depth beneath 

dense grass, soil temperatures average 17C I do not have data 

for the temperature of the soil surface under a dense stand of 

grasses, but I suspect it is close to the air temperature. At these 

temperatures germination could well be inhibited. The surfaces 

of logs are generally elevated above the grass, and exposed to 

higher solar radiation than the soil surface. Their surface temperature could be higher than at ground level. 

I have no data comparing moisture holding capacity and 

moisture depletion curves of soil and organic seedbeds. I assume, however, that while the dense stands of grass inhibit 

evaporation from soil surfaces, they promote soil drying by 

transpiration. On the other hand, although decaying logs may 

not undergo large losses of water through transpiration, they are 

exposed to evaporative losses. The question of water relations 

of organic versus grass-covered mineral soil needs to be 

explored. 

Light levels at the soil surface under grass are probably very 

low, perhaps even lower than under a closed canopy native 

forest. Such low light levels may not inhibit germination, but 

they could reduce growth and survival. My data showed that 

ohia less than 10 cm in height were just as abundant in mineral 

soil as in organic material. But relatively few seedlings on 

mineral soil grew into the larger height classes. Low light could 

be a factor, especially if coupled with low temperature and low 

moisture availability. 

Management Implications 

Before considering the management implications of these 

findings, I need to sound a note of caution. This study is 

unreplicated. No data exist that will allow me to assess variability of natural regeneration over the range of woodland sites 

present in the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, much 

less extrapolate to other abandoned pasture lands located elsewhere on the island of Hawaii or in the State. This study did not 

address the issue of regeneration dynamics as a function of 

proximity of seed sources, means of seed dispersal, or any other 

factor associated with seed rain and seed storage. Thus, the 

following comments are subjective and speculative. 

What are the implications of these findings for managers 

faced with the difficult task of restoring native forest to abandoned pasture lands? First, managers should realize that 

recolonization of sites devoid of organic seedbeds probably will 

be slow for some species, even assuming that seed rain is not 

limiting. Extensive areas of open pasture land on Mauna Kea 

lack organic seedbeds because of natural decay, fire, harvesting, 

etc. If a manager wants or needs to rely on natural regeneration 

in such areas, then organic seedbeds will have to be created. 

Fast-decaying or partially decayed organic matter (logs, hapuu 

trunks, bagasse, etc.) could be brought on site but would be 

costly. Furthermore, the probability of success is unknown. No 

studies have been done to determine if artificially created organic seedbeds would stimulate natural regeneration of the 

desired species. 

Second, given the anticipated high cost of creating organic 

seedbeds and the uncertainty of success, managers may decide 

to rely on artificial regeneration to restock sites with species 

such as olapa. Such a decision has its own set of unknowns. 

Will the species establish at all in mineral soil, or does it still 

require organic matter in which to root? How well does it 

compete with pasture grasses? Does it require shade? What are 

the costs of getting plants established in the field? These and 

other questions need to be answered before artificial regeneration can be adopted for widespread use. 

Third, these findings should remind managers that logs and 

other coarse woody debris are not undesirable waste or trash to 

be disposed of quickly and efficiently. Not only are they important as sites for natural plant regeneration, but they also perform 

other ecosystem level roles-nutrient reservoirs, energy sources 

for microorganisms, water reservoirs, homes for forest invertebrates, and soil-stabilizing structures. Thus, whether managers 

are trying to rehabilitate degraded forest land or to manage intact 

forests, coarse organic material needs to be recognized as an 

important component of ecosystem structure and function. 

Acknowledgments 

I thank Janis Haraguchi, Donovan Goo, Alan Urakami, and 

Shane Eversfield for their diligence in collecting the field data; 

Michael Buck, Niels DeHoop, and James Baldwin for critical 

review of an earlier draft of this manuscript. 

USDA Forest Service Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
References 


Burton, Philip J. 1982. The effect of temperature and light on Metrosideros 

polymorpha seed germination. Pacific Science 36(2): 229-240. 

Burton, Philip J.; Mueller-Dombois, Dieter. 1984. Response of Metrosideros 

polymorpha seedlings to experimental canopy opening. Ecology 65(3): 

779-791. 

Conrad, C. Eugene; Scowcroft, Paul G.; Wass, Richard C.; Goo, Donovan S. 

1988. Reforestation research in Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. 

1988 Transactions of the Western Section of the Wildlife Society 2480-86. 

Cooray, Ranjit G. 1974. Stand structure of a montane rain forest on Mauna 

Loa, Hawaii. Island Ecosystems Integrated Research Program Tech. Rep. 

No. 44. Honolulu, HI: U.S. International Biological Program, Department 

of Botany, University of Hawaii; 98 p. 

Diong, Cheung H. 1983. Population ecology and management of the feral pig 

(Sus scrofa L.) in Kipahulu Valley, Maui. Honolulu, HI: University of 

Hawaii; 408 p. PhD. Dissertation. 

Higashino, P. K.; Stone, C. P. 1982. The fern jungle exclosure in Hawaii 

Volcanoes National Park: 13 years without feral pigs in a rain forest. 

Abstract. In: Proceedings, 4th Conference in Natural Sciences; 1982 June 

2-4, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, HI. Honolulu, HI: Cooperative 

National Park Resource Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 

Department of Botany; 86. 

Katahira, Larry. 1980. The effect of feral pigs on a montane rain forest in 

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. In: Proceedings, 3rd Conference in 

Natural Sciences; 1980 June 4-6; Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, HI. 

Honolulu, HI: Cooperative National Park Resour. Studies Unit, University 

of Hawaii at Manoa, Department of Botany; 173-178. 

Mueller-Dombois, D.; Cooray, R. G.; Maka, J. E. [and others]. 1981. Structural variation of organism groups studied in the Kilauea Forest. In: MuellerDombois, Dieter; Bridges, Kent W.; Carson, Hampton I., eds. Island 

ecosystems, biological organization in selected Hawaiian communities. 

US/IBP Synthesis Series 15. Stroudsberg, PA: Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co.; 231-317. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 
Nora N. Devoe2 

Abstract: An integrated biotic inventory of mangrove areas of Pobnpei. 

Federated States of Micronesia, was undertaken to dctemine priority areas for 

preservation and sustained-yield management. Criteria for the designation of 

rcscrve areas included: the presencc of threatened or endangered species; rare 

spccies or particularly rich biota; undisturbed old-growth communities; the 

need to maintain intact mangrove to protect biotic resaurccs from excessive 

wave action or sedimentation; or similarly, to protect cultural and economic 

resources; areas of high fisheries or forestty produaivity: timber stacking, and 

proximity to wood-consuming businesses or other infrastrucaro. Standard 

forest inventoiy plots consisting of five sample pain& dislributed over 1.4 ha 

were placed at random throughout thc mangrove to describe stand composition 

and stocking and to estimate the area of mangrove forest cxploiled and the 

amounts and types of pmducu removed. Rcsula of studies to date and 

reeommcndadons for reserves are repond. 

At the request of the state government of Pohnpei, one of 

the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia, an assessment of the mangrove resource on the main island of Pohnpei 

was undertaken to determine priority areas for preservation and 

for sustained-yield management. Components of the study included: estimation of the standing volume of mangrove timber 

by species and size class, assessment of the exploitation of 

mangrove wood and wildlife products, and estimation of pressure on mangrove areas for uses other than forest. Data on these 

components and on additional ground and aerial photo surveys 

have been combined to assign use categories to all mangrove 

areas. This paper provides an overview of the on-going study 

and reports preliminary results and recommendations. 

Pohnpei is a high volcanic island in the Eastern Caroline 

Islands (694' N, 158"14' E), approximately 4,983 km southwest 

ofHawaii @g. I). It is roughly circular with a diameter of about 

23 km and a total area of about 35,488 ha, 16 percent of which is 

mangrove forest. The mean annual temperature on the coast in 

Kolonia, the capital, is 27"C, and mean annual rainfall is 4,820 

mm. Temperatures vary little, but rainfall shows slight seasonality; January and February are drier than the average month 

(MacLean and others 1986). The main island of Pohnpei, where 

this study was done, consists of five municipalities (Nett, Uh, 

Madolenihmw, Kitti, and Sokehs) plus the capital city. 

The vegetation of Pohnpei was described and mapped by 

MacLean and others (1986). The area of Pohnpei mangrove was 

estimated to be 5,525 ha, with 5,290 ha capable of commercial 

timber production. A forest inventory based upon thevegetation 

mapping estimated that Pohnpei had 403,MM m3 of standing 

mangrove timber (MacLean and others 1988). Only four plots in 

'An sbbroviated version of this papcr was presented at the Session an 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific. XVU Pacific Science Congress. May 

27-28, 1991. Honolulu. Hawaii. 

'Research Forrstcr. Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. Pacific Sovthwcsl 

Rcscarch Station, US. Depanmcnt of Agriculture. 1151 Punchbowl SUcct. 

Room 323, Honolulu. HI 96813. 

this region-wide inventory were in the Pohnpei inangrove. In 

order to provide more reliable and detailed estimates of mangrove timber volumes on Pohnpei, an additional study with 77 

plots was undertaken. This study (Petteys and others 1986) 

estimated total mangrove volume at 698,380 m3; it differedfrom 

the fmt study in that measurements were not reduced for poor 

formor rot, no fixedplot data were included, each plot contained 

only one rather than five sample points, and the plots were not 

permanently installed. The second study reduced the estimated 

area of mangrove timberland to 4,855 ha. 

Pohnpei has a significant mangrove timbershed, however, 

several factors suggest that if conservation measures are not 

taken now, the best of the resource may be lost. Mangroves are 

under constant development pressure because thgy occur in 

coastal and estuarine areas, also centers of human settlement 

(La1 1990). This is true worldwide, but especially so on islands 

such as Pohnpei where flat land is extremely scarce. Pohnpei's 

population has grown rapidly since 1950 fig. 2) and currently 

has an annual growth rate of around three percent. Because 46 

percent of the population was less than 15 years of age in 1985 

(Federated States of Micronesia 1988). this growth rate is expected to increase through 2000, even though the fertility rate is 

declining. 

The population grows, and so do individual material expectations. Per capita consumption of manufactured goods such as 

televisions, video cassette recorders (VCRs), and motor vehicles 

(fig. 3) continues to increase (Pohnpei State 1990). In the 

absence of data on Gross National Product, the growth of the 

general fund of Pohnpei State, which increased from $12,742,800 

in 1984 to $17,653,800 in 1989, perhaps indicates the accelerating pace of economic activity. More people, consuming and 

producing more than previous generations, are placing everincreasing demands on the resource base. Mangrove forests are 

particularly subject to increased use pressures in the areas of 

fisheries; timber for construction, furniture, fuel, posts, poles, 

and other small-dimension lumber and craftwood; and for alternative uses of the land itself. These forests have been and are 

disturbed by road-building, dredging, waste-dumping and the 

construction of homes, marinas, and other structures. These 

uses areexpected to intensify with the expanding population and 

economic activity, especially tourism. 

Planning and allocation may enable Pohnpei to conserve 

representative areas of the mangrove ecosystem, and provide for 

the sustained production of all commodities traditionally obtained from mangroves. The first objective of this study was to 

place all mangrove areas into one of three broad use categories: 

(a) preservation, (b) sustainable use and, (c) general-use areas 

not specifically reserved for (a) or (b). Criteria in theassignment 

of use categories were (1) presence of endangered or threatened 

species, rare species or particularly rich biota, and undisturbed, 

USDA Forest Scrvico Gcn. Tcch. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
Flgure l-Location of Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Pohnpei lies at 6'54' north latitude, 158'14' east 

longitude. 

$0 1950 1960 1970 1960 1890 2000 2010 

Year 

Flgure 2-Population of Pohnpei since 1950 (Pohnpei State Government 1986, 1990: Federated States of Micronesia 19881. The oroiec- 

. . lions snown are the lowest from the range g ven in the Ponnpel Slate 

1985 Census Report (Federated States of M cronesia 1988). 

Year 

Figure 3-Cost of automobile imports to Pohnpei from Japan and the 

United States (Pohnpei State Government 1990). 

USDA Forest Scrvicc Gcn. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992 
old-growth communities; (2) the need to maintain intact mangrove to protect biotic resources from excessive wave action or 

sediments, or similarly, to protect cultural and economic resources; (3) presence of fisheries or forests of high productivity, 

(4) amount of timber stocking and (5) proximity to processing 

installations and other infrastructure. 

Methods 

Forest Inventory 

The present inventory differs from previous ones in that 

exploitation is estimated by tallying stumps in addition to standing timber stock; cult is reduced from the volume estimate, and 

all mangrove areas, even dwarf stands, are included. 

Plots were selected on a sauare end - usine - a random start. 

Grid intersections falling within areas mapped as mangrove 

were selected a? field plots. Selected grid points were pinpricked 

on aerial photographs and located on the ground. plots were 

permanently referenced for future remeasurement. For each 

plot, a cluster of five sample points was established, with the 

points distributed over approximately 1.4 ha in a standard 

USDA Forest Service inventory plot Vig. 4). Two samples 

were taken at each point. The first sample included all trees 

greater than 2.4 cm and less than 12.5 cm diameter at breast 

height (d.b.h.) within 2.36 m of point center. The fixed plot 

sample picked up stocking. growth and regeneration data on 

smaller trees not measured in the second samole. The second 

sample was a variable radius plot of all trees within the limiting distance of a metric basal area factor-seven prism (USDA 

Forest Service 1983). 

Species, d.b.h., total height, hark thickness, crown ratio, 

crown class, azimuth, and distance from point center were reFigure +Standard USDA Forest Service plot layout. The sample 

points are numbered 1, 2, 3. 4, and 5. The distances between the 

points and the bearings by which they are reached are shown. 

corded for all trees. Each tree greater than 12.4 cm d.h.h. was 

visually divided into logical segments, and end diameters of 

these segments were measured orestimated. The segments were 

then classified as either sawtimher, poletimber, craftwood bolts, 

crotches, branches, or upper stems. Defective segments were 

identified as cull. 

MacLean and others (1986) categorized mangrove stands 

as either: 

MNO-trees of small stature with average d,b.h.'less than 

12.0 cm, 

MN1-trees generally between 12.1 and 30.0 cm d.b.h., or 

MN2-trees with average d.b.h. greater than 30.0 cm. 

Estimated areas of each of these strata were taken from 

MacLean and others (1986), thus providing a means of expanding plot data from the per hectare level to the stratum and island 

1evel.Datafrom the field tallies were analyzed with an inventoly 

program developed at the USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station. Ground reconnaissance of randomly chosen transects in areas not inventoried was used to assess presence 

of rare or unusual plant species. Areas identified as old growth 

from aerial photographs were field-checked. 

Timber Cutting Permits and Sawmill Survey 

Both the State of Pohnpei and the individual municipalities 

claim legal authority to regulate mangrove exploitation (relevant 

legislation outlined in Appendix). This jurisdictional dispute 

aside, municipalities established permit requirements for exploitation, which vary by municipality. Permits were examined to 

see whether their numbers, types, and costs would provide information on the volume of timber removed, the number of persons 

involved in exploiting mangrove wood, or the revenues returned 

to the municipalities from these permits. Another attempt to 

estimate harvesting independently of the forest inventoly was 

made by canvassing sawmills on Pohnpei. 

Demand for Non-forest Use of Mangrove Areas 

Land sought for conversion was estimated by reviewing 

applications for filling and building permits for mangrove areas 

filed with thepohnpei State Department of Lands between 1985 

and 1991. 

Results 

Forest Inventory: Standing Timber and Exploited Volume 

The inventory was designed to estimate the average stocking (m3ha) by stratum within 20 percent of its true value at the 

82 percent probability level for the MNI stratum and at the 95 

percent probability level for the MN2 stratum. Based on eoefficients of variation derived from the fust four plots taken in each 

stratum (61 percent for the MNI stratum and 42 percent for the 

MN2 stratum), 21 plots were required in the MNI stratum and 

17 plots in theMN2 (Dilworth 1970). Theresults presented here 

are based only on 7 MNI and 8 MN2 plots. 

Projections of total volume based on these preliminary data 

(table I) are about 40 percent higher than values' found in the 

USDA Forcsb Scrvicc Ocn. Tcch. Rep. PSW-CTR-129. 1992. 
Table &-Mangrove net volume by segment ond strolum 

Inside Ouuidc 

bark bark 

Stratum' Roughwood Sawlog Bolt Branch Pole total total 

MNO 3,328 0 0 7.179 32.187 42.713 58.939 

MNI 80.434 62.235 26.636 30,010 125,292 324,716 418.429 

MN2 104,830 326.843 25,298 35.858 95.527 588.269 703.539 " 

Total 188.592 389,078 51.934 73,047 253.006 955.698 1.180.%l5 

' MNO Trccs of small staturc with ovcragc diameter at breast height (dbh) less than 12.0 em 

MNI Trees generally between 12.1 and30.0 cm dbh 

MN2 Trees with average dbh greater than 30.0 cm 

previous inventory (Petteys and others 1986). This is probably 

due to a bias created by the order in which the plots in this study 

were installed. Because the first objective was to evaluate areas 

already identified from other reconnaissance as having the highest values for preservation and management, the plots that fell in 

these areas were installed first. No conclusions can be drawn 

born these data until the entire sample is taken. 

However, these data do suggest some noteworthy trends. 

The range of volumes pa hectare is larger than previously 

thought, with more variation in site quality and stand response 

than has been noted before or elsewhere in margmves. Although stem dimensions are generally quite small, the MNO 

stratum is densely stocked and standing basal area is nearly the 

same as that in theMNl stratum. Useful products do come from 

the dwarf mangrove (table 2). and among other things, it represents a significant carbon store. 

Species tallied were (nomenclature after Fosberg and 

others 1979): 

Bruguiera gymnorhim (L.) Lam. Rhizophoraceac 

Lumnifrern litloma (lack) Voigt Combrctaceae 

Rhirophoro apiculotn BI. Rhizopharaceae 

Rhirophoro mucronoto Lam. Rhizaphoraceae 

Sonnerolia alba I.E. Smith Sonneratiaceae 

Xylocnrpus gronntum Koen Meliaceae 

Heririero lirmrolir Dryand Sterculiaecae 

ond species 

Outside 

TableLAveragener volume inrn'ond brternolional boardfeet (IBFJ, qrmdrolbmeon diameter (QMDJ, andbosoloreaperhecrare (BAPH) by slrotum 

- 

Inside bark bark 

Species' Roughwood Sawlog Bolt Branch Polc Total Total IBF . .-..--. . . . .---.. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ,,,> .-..-.. . . .-. ... . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .... .. . . .. . . .. . . 

Stralum MNO 

BR GY .O 

LU LI 6.1 

RH AP .6 

RH MU .O 

SO AL .o 

Total 6.7 

Stratum MNl 

BR GY 8.0 

RH AP 1.8 

RH MU 1.2 

SO AL 8.8 

XY GR 13.6 

Total 33.3 

Stratum MN2 

BR GY 14.8 

HE LI .O 

RH AP 6.3 

RH MU 2.3 

SO AL 14.5 

XY GR 8.5 

Total 46.4 

Stump 

QMD BAPH BAPH 

cm m'ho 

- 

USDA Farcsl Scwicc Gem Tcch. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 77 
Heritiera littoralis is found in the transition zone between the 

agroforest or lowland forest and the mangrove; the others are 

true mangrove species occurring only in the mangrove. 

The species with the majority of volume varies by stratum 

(table 2). The volume summations are only for growing stock 

trees, which have d.b.h. greater than 12.4 cm. The results for the 

MNO stratum are thereby distorted, because the very small but 

numerous stems of Rhizophora mucramfa and R. apiculata do 

not enter the calculation. Lumnitzera linorea dominated because only the largest trees were considered; R. apiculata followed. Lumnitzera littorea was found in this sample only in 

stratum MNO. The species occurs outside the dwarf mangrove, 

but most of the large dimension Lumnitzera, Pohnpei's most 

valuable mangrove species, has been logged. None of the 

inventory plots fell in thecut-over areas. Replacing this population and stewarding what is left are high priorities for thePohnpei 

forest management program. In the MNI stratum, Bruguiera 

gymnorhiza had the highest volume. In the MN2 stratum, 

Sonneratia alba predominated. 

As can be seen in table 2, Lumnitzera littorea is harvested 

even as small stems. Commercial harvesting accounted for 

most of the exploited volume, with stump basal area nearly 20 

percent of the standing basal areaha. Stump basal areaha was 

28 percent of standing basal areaha for Xylocarpus granatum 

in the largest size classes. Xylocarpus granatum is a highvalue wood; branchwood is carved into handicrafts while 

larger stems are sawn for cabinetry, flooring, and other interior construction. Harvesting in the pole timber sizes was 

mostly Bruguiera gymnorhiza (stump basal areaiha about six 

percent of standing basal areaha) and Rhizophora apiculata 

(stump basal areaha approximately three percent of standing 

basal areaiha). Cutting of these species as pole-sized stems is 

almost certainly subsistence extraction for house timbers. 

Smaller stems of these species are also taken on a subsistence 

basis for uses such as fence posts. 

Timber Cutting Permits and Sawmill Survey 

Kolonia does not regulate mangrove exploitation. Uh 

kept no records. Madolenihmw had eight records on file for 

the period February 1987 through January 1991 for which a 

total of $634 was collected, $500 of which was a permit for a 

commercial sawmill. By contrast, Nett had 10 records on file 

for the period October 1990 through February 1991 for which 

a total of $10 was collected. Kitti had 48 records on file for the 

period August 1990 through May 1991. Five of these 48 

records were from persons who had already held at least one 

permit. Kitti records included the location of the requested 

harvest; the number of days for which the permit was valid; 

and for 10 of the records, the number of trees taken. These 10 

records summed to 1,240 trees. Two hundred dollars was 

collected; most of the permittees were not charged. Only two 

of the permit requests filed in Kitti could be for commercial 

purposes (the data are not explicit), and these are for 100 trees 

or less. It is often said but not documented that virtually all the 

mangrove timber now being sawn on Pohnpei is coming from 

Kitti; the implication is that the municipality is not capturing 

all the revenue to which it is entitled. 

Sokehs had 384 permit applications on file for the period 

October 1985 through March 1991; these generated $1419 for 

the municipality. There were two gaps in the holdings, the last 

months of 1989 and February-May 1990. The records indicate 

that most of the exploitation in Sokehs is by woodcarvers from 

Kolonia who sell their handicrafts to tourists. Fuewyd cutting 

was a close second, most of the requestors also residing in 

Kolonia. Approximately 50 percent of the permit applications 

filed during this period were from persons who had already held 

at least one permit. Because of proximity to Kolonia, activity in 

Sokehs cannot be taken as representativeof the wholeof Pohnpei. 

The Sokehs permits allow unlimited cutting for three days, so it 

is unknown what wood volume they represent. 

Records from defunct sawmills were unavailable. Among 

operating mills, only one acknowledged that records of sawn 

volume were kept. This mill was involved in building a controvenial tourist facility and so refused to disclose any records. In 

the course of the canvassing, it was learned that the first sawmill 

began operation on Pohnpei in 1942. In 1952, a second mill 

started up and both operated through 1972. One closed and two 

new ones were established in 1973; three mills were sawing 

through 1975. In 1976, one of the mills started in 1973 closed. 

By 1985, four mills were operating, one intermittently. Two 

closed the following year. A new mill opened in 1988, and three 

mills have continued to function, two intermittently, since then. 

It is noteworthy that so few permits for commercial milling are 

on file while threemills are operating on this small island. Other 

wood-consumers include furniture maken and a soap factory; I 

have no estimates of their consumption. 

Demand for Non-forest Use of Mangrove Areas 

From 1985 through 1990, at least 62 applications for development of mangrove areas were filed with Pohnpei State Department of Lands (table 3). Because of the disorder of the 

records and gaps in the holdings, these data appeared incomplete. Of the 62 permit requests on file, 57 were granted. Most 

of the requests were for the filling of the swamp and building or 

expansion of residential facilities on what is legally public land. 

Only three public works projects were officially sited in the 

mangrove. Of the 57 approved applications, 13 were for unspecified amounts of land. The total area explicitly approvedfor 

conversion was approximately 10 ha; the actual amount may 

have been much higher. Most of the requests on file were from 

municipalities with the least land; Uh with 24 percent of the 

permit applications, 6 percent of the total land area, and 9 

percent of the population; and Sokehs with 47 percent of the 

permit applications, 12 percent of the land area and 18 percent of 

the population (Pohnpei State 1986). Much of the Iand in 

Sokehs is too steep for any form of development. 

Data from building and filling permits are too sketchy to 

reflect actual land use pressure. Viewed from the cucumferentialroad, recent encroachment appears to beconsiderably greater 

than 10 ha. Mangroves are a popular location for piggeries and 

outhouses, presumably because tidesflush the areas. In addition 

to the existing, unpermitted conversion, there are plans afoot for 

developments that would destroy extensive mangrove tracts. 

One of these is a 500-bedroom hotel proposed for Nett. 

USDA Forest Servicc Gen. Tcch. Rev. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
Table 3-Applications forfilling and building in mangroveforestfiled with the 

Pohnpei Stare Depnnment ofLonds 1985-1990 

Municipality Applica- Arcs in Applica- Area in Total area 

lions each tions each approved for 

denied (total) approved (total) conversion 

m* rn' ho 

Uh Nonc 0 11 Rcsi' 50,454 

i Resi unspec 

2 Comm 4SW 5.53 

l Public 334 plus unspec 

Sokchs 2 Resi 745 20 Resi 20.967 

4 Resi unspec 

2Comm 711 2.60 

1 Public 4,5W plus unspcc 

Nett l Comm 7.607 l Resi 2,5W 

1 Public 2.322 0.48 

Madolcnibmw None 0 3 Resi 1.620 0.16 

3 Rcsi unspcc plus unspee 

Kitti None 0 None 0 0 

Kolonia 2 Resi 1.640 1 Rcsi 520 

5 Resi unspec 0.78 

1 Public 7.333 plus unspec 

'Resi = Residcntial. Comm = Commercial, unspec = unspecified 

1 continue to measure (through sampling) current and past 

exploitation in the mangrove as one estimate of the demands on 

the resource. Since some desired uses will have been frustrated 

(i.e., cutting and building permit requests that were discouraged 

before an application was filed), demand must be underestimated. I anticipate that increasing demand will at least parallel 

expanding population; probably, demand will accelerate faster 

than population due to increased economic activity. 

Discussion 

Holthus (1987) listed the prohibition of clear cutting on the 

lagoon side of mangrove forests and in areas where the mangrove strip is less than 250 m wide as the highest priority 

management intervention for the protection of coastal resources. 

Ecological services of mangroves include: protection of coastline and infrastructure from the action of wind and waves; 

filtration of upland sediment, thereby protecting lagoon and reef 

systems; critical habitat for larval and juvenile fish; habitat for 

other wildlife, especially birds, and conservation of germplasm. 

Preservation and conservation measures are necessary now. 

While the filling and building permit applications suggest that 

little mangrove is legally converted to other uses, field reconnaissance indicates that the active degradation of mangrove is 

extensive. Known clearcuts apm from those for development 

total only about 150 ha, but of all the mangrove covered on foot 

during 1990 and 1991, not a single site was without evident 

harvesting. 

According to the US Fish and Wildlife Service (Herbst and 

Engbring 1991), no plant species are listed as threatened or 

endangered from the Pohnpei mangrove, nor are the mangroves 

critical habitat for any threatened or endangered species. However, old-growth stands are prime habitat for a number of seabirds and for the fruit bat (Pteropus rnariannus). The USDA 

Forest Service recently sponsored a study of epiphytes in the 

mangrove that found a number of taxanot previously described; 

it is not yet known how widespread these are. For the tree 

component, there are no rare species or unusual assemblages in 

the Pohnpei mangrove. The remaining criteria for assigning use 

categories (see Introduction) remained operational at the closeof 

this assessment. 

Recommended Sites for Preservation and Management 

The following categories are proposed to designate reserve areas: 

A. Preserve: access severely restricted. Uses limited to 

protective functions, wildlife htbitat, and non-manipulative research. 

B. Sustainable Use: Class 1 Parks. Access unlimited, activities restricted: No timber harvesting; huntingandfishing by permit only. 

B. Sustainable Use: Class 2 Demonstration and Production 

Forest. Access unlimited, activities restricted. Forest 

management to beconducted by Pohnpei State Division 

of Forestry; harvesting of marked timber by permit (subsistence) or concession (commercial) granted by the 

Division of Forestry; hunting and fishing by pennit only. 

A well-designed reserve system generally includes core 

areas that are strict nature preserves where no anthropocenlric 

influence is allowed. Surrounding core areas are zones designated for uses of varying intensities, with the least intensive uses 

contiguous with the core area. 

Thefollowing I1 sites, totalling 1915 haor35 percent of the 

total mangrove area, are suggested as those most important to 

include fig. 5). Category A accounts for434 ha, categoryB1 for 

176 ha, and category 82 for 1305 ha. The area within either 

preserves or reserves is limited to what can optimistically be 

protected and in some cases, managed, to maximize benefits to 

society. The features referred to below can beseeuclearly on the 

US. Geological Survey 1:25,000 topographic maps of Pohnpei 

(U.S. Geological Survey 1983). 

1. Dausokele, Netr. Category A. 30 ha MN2.18.5 haMNl. 

This reserve should include all land along the Dausokele, especially the area south of the circumferential road and north of 

Pilen Sepeipei. This area is sought primarily for maintenance of 

aquatic habitat and waterquality. Themangrove also protects an 

important taro cultivation area. 

2. Parentpei Island, Nett. Category A. 20 ha MN2, 26 ha 

MNIJO; Category B2. 41 ha MNIJO. The core area contains 

some of the oldest and least disturbed dwitrf and MNI mangrove 

on Pohnpei; the production forest borders it on the south.The 

reserve is desired to preserve this valuable community and to 

USDA Forest Scrvicc Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 79 
- Proposed Reserves 

Figure 5--Darkened areas represent proposed mangrove reserves, tween Piien KihiidIDauen Wapar and Dauen Lohd, Madoienihmw; (8) 

Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia: (1) Dausokele. Nen; (2) iand between Kepindau Pohnahtik and Nan Diadi. Madoienihmw; (9) 

Parempei island, New; (3) from Nansalohi tochannel northof Maramosok, iand between Dauen Semwei and Dauen Rakis, Enpein. Kitti; (lo) 

Uh; (4) trom the Lamahi to the Dien Outcrop, Madoienihmw; (5) Dauen Dauen Soundau, Sokehs; and (1 1) Dau Mwoakote. Sokehs. The 

Sapwalap, Madoienihmw; (6) Nan Madol, Madolenihmw; (7) land be- island is surrounded by a barrier reef. 

USDA Forest Scrvico Gcn. Tech. RCD. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
safeguard the health of Parempei Island's fringing reef and the 

banier reef surrounding Pohnpei. The interior of Parempei is 

high and extremely steep, especially on the north side; without 

complete mangrove cover, water-bome sediments would quickly 

silt the near-shore corals. Parempei and surrounding waters 

were proposed as amathe park(Ho1thus 1987) and described as 

especially rich in octopus (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1985). 

The production forest is necessary to provide for the material needs of the small Parempei Island population. If the reserve 

is well-managed, all the house timbers, posts, and poles required 

can be supplied from a relatively small area. Parempei would be 

an excellent site to begin intensive forest management because 

of the small user population, absence of commercial use pressure, and relative ease of controlliig access. 

3. From Nansalohi to channel north of Maramosok, Uk. 

Category A. 42 ha MN2. A considerable volume of fresh water 

of upland origin drains through this mangrove through two 

riven and a host of smaller streams. Water moves from the 

extreme slopes of the crest at the Nett-Uh boundary at high 

velocities during storm events. Because vegetation has been 

greatly reduced on the east-facing slopes, the sediment toad is 

probably high. This mangrove should be preserved to protect 

water quality. The forest has been "picked over" for various 

products but is a well-developed old-growth area interesting in 

its own right. US. Army Corps of Engineers (1985) identified 

this area as important habitat for the mangrove crab. Much of 

the mangrove on the lagoon side of the circumferential road 

through Uh has been severely degraded; it is recommended that 

action be taken immediately to protect this section. 

4. From the Lamahi to the Dien Outcrop, Madolenihmw. 

Category A. 44.5 ha MN2; Category B2. 57 ha MNl, 17 ha 

MNO. This preserve area is sought for some of least-disturbed 

old-growth MN2 on theeastem sideof Pohnpei, with a management area to surround and buffer the core area. Forest manipulation should be confined to the landward side of the reserve in 

order to protect a highly productive reef fishery; this area was 

also identified as important habitat for the mangrove crab (US. 

Army Corps of Engineen 1985). Low use pressure in the locale 

suggests that this reserve should be relatively easy to protect. 

Some timber of suitable dimensions might be a"ai1able from this 

reserve to feed the two sawmills in Nen. 

5. Dauen Sapwalap, Madolenihmw. Category A. 30 ha 

MN2, Category B2.43 ha MNI. Much of this area was logged 

during the Japanese era; the best and least-accessible stands 

should be preserved in a core area. The tallest and largest 

mangrove on the island is here. High forest productivity is 

inferred from the existing stand, topography, and substrate. The 

reserve should be between the mouth of the Sekereriau and 

Wetiak channels, easy features to find on the ground. This 

reserve could contribute feedstock to the mills in Nett and to the 

Ponape Coconut Products soap factory (thinnings). 

6. Nan Madol, Madolenikmw. Category B1. 13 ha. Nan 

Madol is perhaps the premier archeological site in the westem 

Pacific. Much of the mangrove near the ruins on Temwen has 

been cleared for gardening and house lots; the vegetation on the 

small islands of the wins themselves has becn extensively modified. The site should receive special legal status, probably as a 

State Park, to maintain the character of the area and to protect the 

ruins. Restoration and conservation of the mangrove would 

protect the reef fishery and lobster habitat (US. Army Corps of 

Engineers 1985) at the nearby reef passage. Holthus (1987) 

recommended that this area be a species preserve for top shell 

(Trochus), giant clams (Tridacna), and lobster (Panulirus) My 

recent examination disclosed that the reef nearest Nan Madol 

has been highly disturbed. 

7. Land between Pilen KikliUDauen Wapar and Dauen 

bkd, Madolenihmw. Category B2.29.5 ha MN2,S.l haMN1. 

One of the few areas known where large Lumnitzera littorea 

occurs. One section was logged in 1988 with an appalling waste 

of wood; another part was logged earlier and regeneration is 

lacking in both areas. The clearcuts should be regenerated with 

slash reduction and tests of seed bed and light level effects on 

germination and establishment of lumnitzera. Large-dimension 

thinnings and products of limited selection harvesting could feed 

the Kitti and Nett mills from this reserve. The channel has a 

deepsiltbed, and silt deposits are foundout toward thereef (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers 1985). Tree cover should be restored 

and manipulated on the landward side only, with selection and 

sheltenvood cuttings to minimize soil exposure. Highly productive reef fisheries, sea grass beds. fish aggregation areas, and f~h 

migration routes are found at the mouth of the channel (US. 

Army Corps of Engineers 1985). 

8. Land behveen Kepindau Pohnahtik and Nan Diadi, 

Madolenihntw. Category 82.22.5 haMN2.50 ha MNI, 4.9 ha 

MNO. This area carries the highest timber volume in the Pohnpei 

mangrove. Logging of Lumnitzera littorea took place in the 

central portion of the parcel. This reserve is sought for management, research, and demonstration primarily because of its productive capacity and the occurrence of stands in many developmental stages within a small area. Timber for the Kitti mill could 

come from here. Forest manipulation should beconfined to lowintensity operations on the landward side to prevent siltation of 

the sea grass beds, which are known sea turtle feeding areas. 

Mangrove crab is abundant; a rich reef fishery, fish migration 

route, lobster and lipwei (Anandara antiquata) clam beds are 

also found (US. Amy Corps of Engineers 1985). Holthus 

(1987) proposed this area as a species preserve for trochus, giant 

clams, and lobster. 

9. Land behveen the Dauen Sernwei and Dauen Rakis, 

Enpein, Kirti. Category A. 76 ha MN2; Category B1. 83 ha 

MN2, 80 ha MNI (plus lagoon areas); Category 82. 151 ha 

MN2.230 ha MNI, 135 ha MNO. (Total area 755 ha). The 

primary factor indicating desirability of a reserve in this area is 

the need to trap sediments carried by the major drainages in the 

locale. Deep sediments line the channel (U.S. Amy Corps of 

Engineers 1985). A concentration of known sea turtle feeding 

and nesting sites are found in this area, the reef complex is 

especially rich in lobster and trochus, and the forest contains 

abundant mangrovecrab (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1985). 

In addition, some of the forest is particularly well-developed and 

contains the now scarce Lumnitzera littorea. The truly majestic 

and little modified mangrove has mostly been placed in 

Category A. 

USDA Forest Serviec Gen. Tcch. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
The Category B1 area includes the canoe landing and watenvays presently used by the Enpein Marine Park @MP) Corporation for their ecotourism enterprise. Considerable backing 

has been amassed for legally constituting this area a State or 

National Park; this would have social as well as conservation 

benefits. The condition of the forest visible along the canoe 

route is surprisingly good, considering that there is effectively 

no control on exploitation. The area is exploited by locals for a 

rangeof materials and foodstuffs. Except for the cutting done by 

the Enpein Marine Park Corporation itself, the exploitation has 

been low impact. The best mangrove is to the west of the canoe 

landing, not at present part of the park tour. However, within the 

westem section of the park tract there is also a clearcut of 

perhaps 8 ha. The clearcut should be treated as a B2 inclusion, 

rehabilitated, andused to study regeneration of Lwnnitzera linorea. 

The park should extend to and include the reef. 

The land immediately west of the Dauen Semwei is proposed as a research and management location. While the landward end of the peninsula between the Semwei and Enpein Pah 

is mostly old-growth forest, it has been heavily exploited by 

commercial timber interests, and because of accessibility via an 

extensive channel network, is now heavily exploited by locals 

for smaller timbers (poles, posts, canoe wood, fuel, etc.). The 

west central area of this peninsula is dwarf mangrove. Land to 

the west of Dauen Pakein and east of Dauen Rakis is also a 

proposed management area. Some of this is important wildlife 

habitat; some is well-stocked pole timber that would be excellent 

for study of response to thinning and other silvicultural intervention, and some is dwarf and MN1 that is included to protect the 

marine environment, shoreline, and the interior forest. Subsistence and mill timbers can be produced. Holthus (1987) proposed a marine park for the area west of the Dauen Rakis. 

10. DauenSoundau, Sokehs. Category A. 50 ha freshwater 

swamp, 21 ha MN2,19 ha MNl; Category B112.387 ha MN1, 

83 ha MNO (Total 560 ha). Much of the land interior to and 

elevated above this large drainage has been under agriculture 

since the Japanese era. The mangrove should be given special 

status to safeguard water quality; the river bed is deeply silted. A 

reserve here is also desired to protect the unique freshwater 

swamp community within. The larger reserve may have some 

potential as a park; the market for this park would be the community associated withFederated States of Micronesia government 

functions at Palikir. The B2 lands could also be managed in time 

to feed the small-dimension lumber market centered on Kolonia, 

which is now consuming Sokehs mangrove further east. Mangrove crab populations were reported to be high immediately 

north and south of the Soundau (US. Amy Corps of Engineers 

1985). Holthus (1987) proposed a marine park for the reef 

complex off the Soundau, which includes small mangrove islets 

reported to be important sea bud nesting sites. 

11. Dau Mwoakote, Sokehs. Category A. 56 ha MN2; 

Category B112.45 ha MNI. A reserve is needed here to protect 

the banks of this fast-moving channel and to reduce the movement of pollutants from Kolonia into Sokehs Harbor. South of 

the channel there is someexcellent old-growth mangrove which 

has been little disturbed. At the west end of the channel are sea 

grass and lipwei clam beds and an important reef fishery (US. 

Army Corps of Engineers 1985). Because the channel and 

surrounding forest are beautiful and close to both Kolonia and 

Palikir, this reserve may have some potential as a park. 

I foresee serious problems with the acceptance of designated reserves of any description on the part of elected officials 

and the general public unless well-structured public education is 

undertaken now. People need to understand what the'costs and 

benefits of reserves will be and how these wid be equitably 

distributed. In order to successfully implement a reserve system, 

appropriate legislation conferring special legal status upon these 

areas is necessary. The authority to enforce this legislation, a 

budget sufficient to execute demarcation, management and protection of the reserves, and additional skilled professionals to 

carry through the program with dedication and vision are all 

requisite to success. 

Acknowledgments 

This work was done in close cooperation with Pohnpei 

State Division of Forestry. I relied upon the Pohnpeian foresters, 

especially Salis Peter and Herson Anson, for their superior 

knowledge of the resource and for their sense of how things can 

best be done in their culture. I also had considerable backing 

from the USDA Forest Service team in Honolulu, notably Forester Tom Cole. On Pohnpei, Bill Raynor at the College of 

Micronesia Land Grant contributed to some parts of this study. 

Special thanks go to the Director and staff of the Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, whose generous hospitality so facilitated this work. 

Appendix: Legislation Relating to Mangrove Use 

Under the Trust Territory government, Public Law 104-67 

gave municipalities the right to tax and regulate the use of 

mangrove and upland forest. Each of the municipalities except 

Kolonia passed laws to this effect, beginning with Uh and Kitti 

in 1961. In 1979, the State of Pohnpei passed the Forest Management Act (DL. No. 4L-203-79), transferring jurisdiction 

over lands below the high tide mark to State government agencies. Another state law, the Pohnpei Watershed Forest Reserve 

and Mangrove Protection Act (L.B. 381-85). was passed in 

1987. This act was intended to restrict cutting, dredging, building, and polluting in mangrove areas upon the filing of regulations to accompany the law. The regulations have yet to be 

signed into law. The municipalities in some cases revised theu 

earlier legislation but without recognizing the state authority. 

The present situation is that State agencies maintain that only 

they have the authority to permit or restrict exploitation in the 

mangrove, while the municipalities also claim this authority. 

Uh passed a law in 1961 (Uh Municipal Ordinance 5-61) 

that levied a charge of $1.00 for the cutting of any tree larger 

than 30.5 cm (12 inches) d.b.b.. This legislation has not been 

revised. It appears that the law is not enforced; no records 

indicating revenues collected were located. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tcch. Rcp. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 
Kitti also passed a law in 1961 (Kitti Municipal Ordinance 

5-61) that taxed residents $1.00 per year for the exploitation of 

mangrove and upland forest trees. Sawmills were required to 

pay a $10-per-year license fee. 

Kini Ordinance5-61 was superseded by Kitti Law 21-96-90 

in 1990. No permit or tax is now required of Kitti residents 

cutting for their own consumption, and religious and municipal 

government agencies are exempted from permit requirements 

provided that harvested timber be used "for the benefit of Kitti 

Municipality or the religious organization." Harvesting for 

commercial purposes requires a $50.00 permit fee, plus cutting 

fees of $150.00 for every 50 trees greater than 10 cm (4 inches) 

diameter at the base, and $50 for every 100 trees with basal 

diameter smaller than 10 cm that are taken. 

Madolenihmw's 1969 law charged a $1.00 cutting fee for up 

to 300 trees up to 28 cm (11 inches) basal diameter taken for 

oersonal use. Additional trees reauired additional uermits. The 

$10.00 for harvest of wood for handicraft production or 

"other related businesses" 

$50.00 for harvesting for a commercial sawmill 

$5.00 for harvesting for any purpose not included above. 

These permits place no restrictions on volume, and are valid 

for up to three days after being signed. 

Kolonia has no laws relating to mangtove exploitation. 

According to the mayor, 'There are not enough mangroves to 

worry about." In fact, there are about 50 ha of good mangrove 

within Kolonia that have not been eradicated due to limited 

accessibility. 

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Trees cut and removed for ~~mmrcial uses or for the Pohnpei State Government. 1989. Pohnpci Statc statistics. Yearbaok 1989. 

construction of anv business facility were charaed: Kolaniu. Pohnpci. Eastcrn Caroline Islands: Office of Budget, Planning - 

$0.30 per tree for any tree 10 cm or less in basal diameter and Statistics. Pohnpci Stutc Govcrnmcnl: 152 p. 

per tree for any tree cm or less in basal diameter Pohnpci Slate Government. 1990. Pohnpci State statistics. Yearbook 1990. 

Kolonia. Pohnpci. Eartcrn Caralinc Islands: Office of Budget. Planning processed in a sawmill and Statistics. Pohnpci Statc Government: 161 p. 

$1.00 per tree for any tree 10-28 cm basal diameter US. Army , Corns of Encineers. Pacific Ocean Division. 198.5. Pohnnci . - $3.00 per tree for any tree greater than 28 cm basal diameter. Coastal Resource Atlas. Honolulu. HI: Manaa Mapworks; 78 p. 

US. Depunmcnt of Agriculture. Forest Scrvice. 1983. Ficld manual for the Only twisted, gnarled or dead trees could be taken for forest inventory of thc Fedcratcd States of Micronesia. Kosrac, Ponapc, 

fuewood. Sokehs passed a new law in 1986 (Sokehs Municipal Truk. Yap. Unpublished. Available from Pacific Nonhwcst Forcst ExLaw SC1-40-86) that revised these fees: pcrimont Station. Forest Scrvice. US. Dcpanmcnt of Agriculture. Pan- 

$2.50 for cutting house timbers land. Oregon; 24 p. 

$2.00 for firewood for personal use, $5,00 iffirewood is to US. Geological Survey. 1983. Island of Ponapc (Nonh Half) and Island of 

Ponvpe (South Hulf) I:2.5.00 topographic maps. Denver. CO: U.S. Gco- be sold logical Survey. Dcpunmcnt of thc Interior; 2 leaves. 

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tcch. Rep. PSW-GTR-129. 1992. 83 
uced Weeds of Native 

Hawaiian Forests1 

George P. Markin Roddy F. Nagata Donald E. Gardner2 

Abstract: Among the many threats to the continued existence of tho remaining native forests and other native ecosystems of thc Hawaiian Islands. the 

most severo and be most difficult lo conuol are he invasion and replacoment 

by inuoduccd species of plants. Because conventional methods of plant 

management have failfd to control this invasion, a multiagency, state and 

federal program was initiated in 1980 to attempt conuol through the use of 

classical biological control: the inuoductian, release, and establishment of the 

natural enemies of the weeds, including bolh insects and pathogens. Currently. 

active programs are under way against six different introduced weeds: banana 

paka (Possijtoro moiiis~imn). iuetrec (Myrica fayo). gorse (Via europocus). 

introduced blackberry (Rubus orguturJ. Kostcr's curse (Clfdemia hinn), and 

suuwberry guava (Psidium conieionum). Under the present program, five 

insects and one pathogen have been tested and released in Hawaii. Thrcc more 

insects are waiting find approval, and one pathogen has been approved but not 

released. Ten other insecls and pathogens arc being tested in Hawaii, and we 

are supporting scientists in five foreign countries who are studying the plants 

in their native ecosystems to identify further agents for us. On the basis of the 

high rate of success of previous programs for biological control oT agricultural 

wceds in Hawaii. we hope that this program will he a sueccssful tool for 

The native forests of Hawaii are unique. Evolving over 

millions of years on themost isolated pieces of land in the world, 

most of the trees, shrubs, and ferns that compose the forest and 

the associated bids, arthropods, and other invertebrates are 

native only to the Hawaiian Islands (Carlquist 1980). This 

complex represents a unique ecosystem, but unfortunately one 

that is rapidly disappearing. The destruction of the Hawaiian 

forest began when the fust Polynesian settlers began clearing 

land for fdng, but accelerated greatly after contact with the 

rest of the world (Smith 1990). 

Fortunately, some of the most pristine of our remaining 

forest ecosystems arc now protected in state forest reserves, 

natural areas, parks, and wildlife refuges. Even in these protected areas, these ecosystems are not safe, because they are 

subjected to continual degradation, mostly from introduced species of animals, particularly cattle, goats, and pigs, as well as 

from replacement by introduced species of plants. 

Most of our problem weeds were introduced to Hawaii as 

desirable plants, i.e., for their flowers and fruits or for agricultural use. But soon they escaped into the wild where, without 

their complex of natural enemies, they spread and multiplied 

unrestricted. The problems the weeds cause in these native 

ecosystems, and particularly in forests, are only now being 

recognized (Vitousek, in press) and include physical displacement of other species, competition for sunlight and moisture, 

competition for nutrients, interference with nutrienr'cycling and 

shading out or smothering of regenerating native species. The 

full impact of introduced weeds on Hawaii's native forests has 

not been fully studied, but it is estimated that if their invasion 

remains unchecked, our native forests and their complex of 

associated animals could be extinct within 50 to 100 years. 

Invading plants can be controlled by conventional methods 

including grazing, herbicides, and mechanical weeding (Smith 

1990). All these methods have been tried, but all were found to 

be expensive, often as destructive to the native forest as the 

weeds to be controlled, and at best, suitable for only limited 

areas. It was obvious that a new approach to forest weed 

management was necessary and in 1980 an interagency cooperativeprogram between the State of Hawaii's Department of Land 

and Natural Resources, the Hawaii Depiutment of Agriculture, 

the University of Hawaii, the USDA Forest Service, and the 

USDI National Park Service was established to attempt the use 

of biological control as a means to control forest weeds in 

Hawaii. 

Biological control is based on the observation that plants, 

when introduced by humans to a new area, have often escaped 

from the constraining influence of the complex of natural enemies with which they evolved in their natural homeland (DeBach 

1964). Biological control, therefore, is simply an effort to locate 

the original homeland of a weed, identify its natural enemies 

(usually insects or plant pathogens) and import and introduce 

these enemies into the new area, where they can once again 

attack their original host. 

In Hawaii biological control has been tried against more 

than 20 species of agricultural weeds (Funasaki and others 1988), 

mostly found in pasture lands, and has been successful in more 

than half the attempts (Markin and others, in press). On a 

worldwide basis, this approach has been tried on more than 75 

different weeds with about the same ratio of success (Julien 

1987). 

Exploratory work to study the weeds in their original homeland to identify their natural enemies began in 1982. An insect 

quarantine facility, which is the key to our insect biological 

control program, was constructed at Hawaii Volcanoes National 

Park in 1984, and the first shipment of insects from a foreign 

country was received in December of that year. More than 20 

weeds have been identified as problems in our National Forests 

(Gardnerand Davis 1982), and 12 cause problems serious enough 

to justify immediate control efforts (Smith 1990). Biological 

control programs are active against six of these. 

'An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the Session on 

Tropical Forestry for People of the Pacific. XVII Pacific Science Congress. 

May 27-28. 1991. Honolulu. Hawaii. 

'Research Entomologist and Farcstry Technician. respectively. Pacific 

Southwest Research Station. USDA Forest Service. Hilo. HI 96720: Plant 

Pathologist. USDI National Park Service. Honolulu. HI 96822. 

USDA Forest ScrviccGen. Tech. Rcp. PSW-129. 1992. 
Progress to Date 

Clidemia hirfa (Melastomatacae) (Clidemia) 

Clidemia, or Koster's curse, is a native of low-elevation 

lands of the northem parts of South America. It was introduced 

into Hawaii probably as an ornamental plant for its veined and 

attractive leaves (Wester and Wood 1977). Near sea level in 

Hawaii, it has invaded moist areas on all major islands except 

Lanai. Once established, it forms dense stands 1 to 2 m high that 

exclude all native and most other introduced plants. Ctidemia 

also at one time was a major problem in grazing lands in Hawaii, 

but programs in the 1950's introduced two insects that eliminated it in open areas (Nakaham and others, in press). Unfortunately, the insects were not effective in shade, particularly where 

clidemia grows as an understory in the forests. A new program 

has resulted in the release of a disease agent, the fungus 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Tmjillo and others 1988), in 

1987, and the leaf mining beetle Lius poseide, in 1988, both of 

which are now well established. Many other insects have been 

discovered and tested inTrinidad (Nakaham and others, in press), 

but the expense and work necessary for releasing them is being 

postponed until the impact of the two new agents, in combination with the two earlier established agents, can be studied to 

determine whether they are capable of exerting sufficient control. 

Passifora moUissima (Passifloraceae) (Banana Poka) 

Locally known as banana poka or banana passion fruit 

because of its elongated yellow fruit, this weed is a domestic 

plant grown throughout the Andes of South America. Introduced to Hawaii around 1900, it soon escaped from cultivation 

and found the higher-elevation (1,000 m and above) native 

forests of Hawaii a perfect habitat (La Rosa 1983). It is now 

established on three of the Hawaiian islands, where it infests 

40,000 haand is still spreading (Warshauer and others 1983). In 

areas where it is well established, banana poka forms mats of 

vegetation that can cover native trees and breaks them with their 

weight, or increases their chance of blowdown during storms. 

On the ground these mats of vegetation smother shrubs, seedlings, and even small trees. Where banana poka is well established, regeneration of Hawaii's native forests has ceased to 

occur (Markin and Nagata 1989). 

Exploration in South America to find natural enemies of 

banana poka began in 1982 and although many potential biological control agents are now known (Pemberton 1989), the 

inaccessibility and political instability of most of the countries of 

the Andes make it difficult to conduct the necessary studies of 

this plant in its native homeland. To date, only two insects have 

been released. An attractive blue moth Cyanotricha necyria 

(Lepidoptera: Dioptidae), the larvae of which feed on the leaves, 

was released in 1988 (Markin andothers 1989). A second moth, 

Pyrausraperelegans rnpidoptera: Pyralidae), the larvae of which 

attack the flower buds, was released in February 1991. We hope 

that once P. perelegans is established, destruction of flower buds 

will reduce fruit set and slow the further spread of this weed. 

Four other insects are presently in quarantine undergoing evaluation, and under a new cooperative program, entomologists in 

Venezuela are searching for additional species. Two plant pathogens, a vascular wilt fungus (Fusarium oxysporum) and a powdery mildew (Acrosporium sp.), are also being studied. The 

powdery mildew has been approved for use in Hawaii, but has 

not actually been released in the field. 

Ulex europaeus (Leguminosae) (Gorse) 

Gorse is a spiny, dense-growing shrub native to westem 

Europethat was extensively used for hedges to contain livestock 

before the development of barbed wire. As a beneficial plant, it 

was exported to many parts of the world by European settlers, 

but it soon escaped from cultivation (Markin and Yoshioka 

1989). Around the Pacific, gorse is aproblemin Australia, New 

Zealand, Chile, northwestern United States, as well asin Hawaii. 

In Hawaii, gorse is established on only two islands, usually at 

elevations between 1,000 and 2,000 m. It currently infests only 

14,000 ha, but despite extensive efforts to contain, or eradicate 

it, it continues to spread (Markin and others 1988). 

In recognition of gorse's role as a rangeland pest, Hawaii 

has had a long-standing program to find and introduce biological 

control agents for the weed, although the earlier programs succeeded in establishing only the seed weevil Apion ulicis 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (Markin and Yoshioka 1989). 

Gorse, also a forest weed, is capableof invading open forest 

lands, where it competes with native species, interferes with 

forest access and management, and competes with seedlings 

planted for reforestation. Because gorse is primarily a rangeland 

weed, the present program is still headed by the Hawaii Department of Agriculture, but receives assistance from our forest 

weed biological control program, as well as fromcooperators in 

Chile, New Zealand, and Oregon. The present program has 

evaluated more than 10 species of insects, mainly from England 

and Portugal, and in 1989 released the foliage feeding moth 

Agonopterir ulicerella (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae). This insect is now well established with an expanding population. In 

1990 we also released a gall-forming weevil (Apion scutellare 

(Coleoptera: Apionidae)), and this summer we will begin releasing a small foliage feeding thrips (Sericothrips staphylinus 

(Thysanoptera: Thripoidae)). Our cooperators in New Zealand 

have also successfuily established a gregarious web-forming 

mite, Tetranychus linrearius (Acaria: Tetranychidae), that is 

already killing gorse plants at some locations. We hope to 

introduce this mite along with several other insects still in quarantine within the next few years. 

Because of the support of the agricultural community in 

Hawaii, cooperation from several foreign countries, and the ease 

of working with a plant from Europe, the gorse program is our 

most advanced, and we tentatively plan to discontinue thesearch 

for and testing of new insects by 1993. At that time we hope to 

have established a complex of at least five species of arthropods, 

each attacking a different part of the plant. We will then enter a 

phase of redistribution and monitoring for a 5- to 10-year period 

to allow the populations to expand and determine their impact 

before we decide whether further releases are necessary. 

USDA Forest Se~ice Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992 
Myrica faya (Myricaceae) (Firetree) 

Firetree is native to the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands of the eastern Atlantic and was probably introduced by 

Pomguese settlers from the Azores Islands who were brought to 

Hawaii in the 1880's as sugar cane workers. The plant readily 

found a new home in Hawaii and has now spread over 35,000 ha 

on five islands (Whiteaker and Gardner 1985). In stands of 

native vegetation, particularly those on new soils, lava flows or 

cinder fields, firetree's association with nitrogen-fixing actinomycetes in root nodules and thedistribution of its seeds by buds 

allow this tree to rapidly outgrow and outcompete most native 

species (Vitousek and others 1987). 

A new program was initiated against fuetree in 1984. Several visits to its original islands have shown an abundance of 

native enemies (Hodges and Gardner 1985, Gardner and others 

1988) and resulted in acooperativeprogram with entomologists 

at the University of the Azores to study them. To date, three 

plant pathogens have been found, two of which are undergoing 

testing at the USDA-ARS Plant Disease Research Laboratory, 

Ft. Detrick, Frederick, Maryland. The fungi are species of 

Nectria and Cryphonectria, which cause bark cankers in stems 

and branches and have the potential to kill cambial tissue and 

- girdle the tree. 

The work on insects has progressed further than that on 

pathogens, and the first agent was just approved for release in 

Hawaii. The small moth, Phyllonorycter myricae (Lepidoptera: 

Graciliaraceae), has larvae which feed in a shelter formed by 

rolling the tip of the leaf. Several other insects are presently 

being tested in quarantine in Hawaii or are being studied by 

cooperators in the Azores. 

Rubus argufus (Rosaceae) (Blackberry) 

This blackberry was introduced into Hawaii for its edible 

fruit, but was quickly spread by birds into the forests where, like 

gorse, it forms spiny, impenetrable canebrakes that replace native vegetation and interfere with forest access and management. 

Blackberry was originally also a pest of pasture lands, but the 

Psidium caffleianum (Myrtaceae) (Strawberry Guava) 

Strawbeny guava is another South American plant introduced to Hawaii probably for its small, flavorful fruit (Neal 

1965). It has been spread widely by birds on all of theHawaiian 

islands, particularly at an elevation between 500 and 1,000 m. It 

is capable of becoming established in the densest forests but 

does best in disturbed areas where it often forms dense stands 

containing 50 stems per square meter. 

Strawberry guava is the newest weed to be considered for 

biological control as part of our forest weed program. We have 

conducted surveys for it in South America to locate its origin, 

which apparently is in southern Brazil, and have a cooperative 

agreement with a university in Curitiba, Brazil, to survey its 

associated insects and diseases. It will be several years before 

the most promising agents have been identified, studied, and are 

ready for shipment to quarantine in Hawaii for further testing. 

Strawberry guava (P. cattleianum) is very closely related to the 

commercial guava (P. guajava) which is an important crop in 

Hawaii and is grown on approximately 400 ha, primarily for 

juice (Anonymous 1985). Finding an insect or pathogen that 

will attack only the strawbeny guava and not the commercial 

guava will probably be difficult. 

Additional Weeds Targeted for Biological 

Control 

Rubus ellipticus (Rosaceae) (Himalayan Raspberry) 

Himalayan raspberry is a native of Asia and is believed to 

have been introduced to Hawaii sometime in the 1950's in the 

area of Volcano Village on the island of Hawaii (Neal 1965). 

Buds feeding on its small yellow fruit have now spread it to up to 

30 miles from its original site of introduction. This weed is 

particularly dangerous because pf its ability to become established in undisturbed native forests, whereas many of our weeds 

at least need disturbances such as pig rooting, roads, blowdowns, 

or fires to get their initial foothold. 

establishment of three insects in the 1960's resulted in its effective control in open areas. The three insects also attack it in the Tibouchilraspp. (Melaslomatacae) (Glory Bush) 

forest (Nagata and Markin 1986), but their impact is generally 

insufficient to reduce the plant to acceptable levels. Rather than 

introducing additional insect species that might compete with 

the existing complex, the present program is focusing on plant 

pathogens. A European rust fungus (Phragrnidiwn violacewn) 

was introduced to Chile (Oehrens and Gonzales 1974) and later 

to Australia (Bruzzese and Field 1984), where it successfully 

attacked and suppressed related introduced species of blackberries. This pathogen was recently tested againstRubusargutus in 

a cooperative program in Chile; unfortunately, it was found 

incapable of attacking this blackberry species. Present efforts 

arecontinuing pn finding pathogens in North America, and tests 

areunder way on the rust Gymnoconia nitens in North Carolina, 

one of the areas that may be the original home of this particular 

blackberry. 

Glory bush is another South American plant introduced 

probably as an ornamental for its attractive dark blue flowers. 

For many years it was thought to be only an incidental introduced plant that had become feral because it was confined to 

only a few small and limited areas. Recent surveys, however, 

indicate that for some unknown reason it has begun to expand its 

range and now threatens a major watershed and one of our 

national parks. 

Pennisehrm setaceum (Gramineae) (Fountain Grass) 

Fountain grass is a native of North Africa, and its bushy 

and attractive seed heads indicate it was brought to Hawaii 

probably as another ornamental. The plant is unpalatable to 

cattle and is a pest of grazing land, so a program for its control 

is high on the wish list of Hawaii's ranching industry. Fountain grass also creates an extreme fire danger; wildfires carried 

86 USDA Forest Scrvice Gcn. Tech. Rep. PSW-129. 1992. 

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violaceurn (Schullz) Wintcr como factor do control biologics dc zarrahora 

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other PosilTora species; field survey in the Andes. Proceedings of thc 

Hawaiian Entamologieal Soeicty 29:71-84. 

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weeds: patterns, limitations and needs. Proceedings of the V. International 

Symposium of Biological CanVal of Wceds. Brisbanc. Australia; Commonwealth Scicnfic and Industrial Rcscarch Organization, AusMia; 57-71. 

Smith. Clifford W. 1990. Weed management in Hawaii's National Parks. 

Monogram. Systomic Botany. Missouri Botanical Gardens 32223-234. 

Tmjillo, Eduarda E.; Latterell. F.M.; Rossi, A. E.. 1988. Collelotrichum 

gloeosporioides, a possible biological control agent for Clidernio him in 

Hawaiian forests. Plant Disease 70:974-976. 

Tunison. 1. T. Fountain grass (Pe~iserm setnceurn) conuol in Hawai'i 

Volcanoes National Park: effon. economies, and feasibility. In: Stone. 

C.P.; Smith. C. W.; Tunison. J. T.. cds. Alien plant invasions in native 

ecosysems of Hawai'i: managcment and research. Honolulu. Hawaii. 

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C.P.; Smith. C. W.; Tunison, I. T.. cds. Alien plant invasions in ~ativc 

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managcment of the intraluced vine. PosriJlorn mollisri,nn (Passikloraceae) 

in Hawaii. Technical Repon 48. Honolulu, Hawaii: Cwperativc National 

Park Rcsourccs Studies Unit. Dcp. of Bomy, UNV. of Hawaii at Manoa: 39 p. 

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USDA Forest Scrvice Gen. Tech. Rcp. PSW-129. 1992.