|  | APHIS ServicesFind Traveler's InformationSearch RegulationsFind Permit Application Information-- Download permit forms-- Apply Online for Import Authorization-- Apply to Import, Move or Field Test-- Nursery Stock Permits-- View Status of Biotech ApplicationsGenetically Engineered OrganismsAgricultural Select Agent ProgramLocate Missing PetsApply for AWA Licenses/RegistrationFind Vet Accreditation InformationLocate Wildlife Damage ResourcesReport a Pest or DiseaseView Small Business Information |
|--|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|

|  |
|--|

|        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |        |
|--------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|
|   | Press Releases

Publications

– Factsheets          – Popular Pubs          – Scientific & Technical Pubs          – Industry Alerts & Tech Notes

Videos

Art &           Symbols

Email           Us

Privacy StatementEEO StatementUSDA           | MRP

APHIS  Home Page

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  |   | A 25-Year Retrospective of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection           Service, 1972–1997Contents
IntroductionEarly History of Plant and Animal          Regulatory AuthorityAnimal Protection AuthorityPlant Protection AuthorityConsolidation of Plant and Animal Bureaus          Emergence and Evolution of APHISBirth of the AgencyAPHIS Evolves Under Various AdministratorsFrancis J. MulhernHarry C. MussmanBert W. HawkinsDonald L. HoustonJames W. GlosserRobert B. MellandLonnie J. KingTerry L. MedleyAPHIS Today and TomorrowMeeting Societal ChangesLooking AheadReferences
Introduction 
April 1997 marks the 25-year anniversary of the Animal and Plant Health           Inspection Service (APHIS).          This short retrospective begins by examining the early animal and plant           health bureaus. For most of the 20th century, these bureaus operated           independently of one another. Eventually, these animal and plant health           functions were consolidated under the APHIS structure. The bulk of this           report assesses APHIS’ development over the past 25 years, focusing           on the eight APHIS administrators and their particular visions and goals.                     Interviews with the surviving administrators, internal documents, and           other materials of historical significance were the major sources used           in writing this history.           The effort here was not to capture each and every animal and plant health           event or organizational change that occurred during APHIS’ first           25 years. Rather, this report is intended to identify some of the outstanding           issues and events that have contributed to the agency’s development.           Identifying the organization’s roots and past accomplishments           may help us move into the decade ahead with greater confidence about           our basic organization, mission, and capabilities.Return to Contents
Early History of Plant and Animal Regulatory           Authority 
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) was established in May 1862.           Its original function was to acquire and disseminate agricultural information.           To carry out this mission, a USDA Commissioner was appointed and authorized           to conduct experiments, collect statistics, and to collect, test, and           distribute new seeds and plants. This mission, as it was originally           conceived, continues to be the basic function of the Department.          USDA’s first regulatory activity involved the livestock industry.           The Bureau of Animal Industry was established in 1884 after outbreaks           of contagious animal diseases led to the barring of U.S. meat from some           European markets. This ban on U.S. meat exports focused attention on           the need for controlling animal diseases. Regulatory activities to protect           U.S. crops began three decades later with the 1912 Plant Quarantine           Act. This section reviews the early development of the U.S. plant and           animal health bureaus. Return to Contents
**Animal Protection Authority**
In 1883, the USDA Commissioner established the Veterinary Division.           One year later, it became the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI). Congress           established the Bureau in order to promote livestock disease research,           enforce animal import regulations, and regulate the interstate movement           of animals.           Subsequent legislation, such as the 1891 and 1906 Meat Inspection Acts           and legislation to regulate veterinary biological products under the           Virus–Serum–Toxin Act of 1913, enlarged the BAI. During           this time, inspection and quarantine functions were created within the           Bureau to support inspection activities at U.S. ports of entry and elsewhere           within our borders. Over the next 50 years, BAI’s inspection and           quarantine divisions were reorganized on several occasions.Return to Contents
**Plant Protection Authority**
In 1912, the Federal Horticultural Board was established to administer           the 1912 Plant Quarantine Act. The Board included representatives from           the Bureau of Entomology, the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the Forest           Service. The following excerpt from a 1922 Federal Horticultural Board           report describes the general responsibilities of the Board: 

The Federal Plant Quarantine Act has for its object the prevention             of entry into the U.S. of new and important insects or plant diseases             injurious to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.... 

Hence, the history of plant quarantine operations essentially began           in 1912.           In 1928, the Federal Horticultural Board was abolished. Over the next           40 years, the plant health bureaus were reorganized numerous times.Return to Contents
**Consolidation of Plant and Animal         Bureaus**
In 1942, the BAI—along with the other agencies whose missions           related to animal health—was transferred to the Agricultural Research           Administration, although each maintained its separate organizational           identity. The intent of this reorganization was to better coordinate           the scientific work conducted within the bureaus. This was the first           effort to streamline the animal and plant protection organizations,           or at least to consolidate agricultural research in these areas.          In 1953, the plant protection bureau, the BAI, the Bureau of Entomology           and Plant Quarantine, and the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural           Engineering (all of which operated under the auspices of the Agricultural           Research Administration) were abolished, and their functions were transferred           to the Agricultural Research Service (ARS). Under the ARS structure,           plant and livestock responsibilities devolved to either the research           or regulatory division, depending on the nature of the activity. This           reorganization reflected the continuing effort of the Department to           consolidate and centralize animal and plant protection activities.           In 1971, the animal and plant regulatory functions were separated from           ARS to become an entity known as the Animal and Plant Health Service           (APHS)—the direct progenitor of today’s APHIS. Return to Contents
Emergence and Evolution of APHIS 
**Birth of the Agency**

          The underlying rationale for consolidating plant and animal research           and regulatory activities under the ARS structure (1953–71) was           that regulatory work depends upon research to guide its programs and           to provide new technologies to solve problems in the field.           Problems, however, eventually developed under the ARS structure. Balancing           the competing demands of research and regulatory enforcement became           increasingly difficult. ARS work was oriented toward basic scientific           research while regulatory and control activities required practical           pest and disease management tools to use in the field. By 1971, competition           between the regulatory and research programs had reached a crisis. USDA           Assistant Secretary Richard Lyng played a significant role (serving           under Secretary Clifford Hardin) in the Department’s decision           to remove the regulatory functions from ARS and create a separate agency.           The new agency was called the Animal and Plant Health Service (APHS).          Five months later (1972), the meat and poultry inspection divisions           of the Consumer and Marketing Service (later known as the Agricultural           Marketing Service) were added to APHS. The organizational realignment           was intended to group functions that rely on similar professional disciplines           (e.g., veterinary expertise, inspection, and quarantine) together into           one agency. This 1972 change gave our agency its present name. Return to Contents

**APHIS Evolves Under Various Administrators**

          For the most part, each APHIS administrator has had to respond to many           of the same political and social issues. Throughout the 1970’s,           1980’s, and into the 1990’s, the agency faced increasing           public concerns with the environment, animal welfare, and food safety.           Budget constraints, waxing and waning during this period, also influenced           APHIS’ staffing decisions and program priorities.           Throughout this period, APHIS administrators also saw a steady increase           in international travel and agricultural trade. Maintaining effective           protection against the introduction of foreign diseases and pests continues           to be a challenge as travel and trade increase each year.          While the major issues faced by each of the eight APHIS administrators           may have been similar, each brought a distinct personal and professional           orientation to his work as the APHIS senior manager. The following section           examines each of the eight APHIS administrations and their major concerns           and accomplishments. Return to Contents

**Francis J. Mulhern (1971–80)**          Francis J. Mulhern, previously the ARS Associate Administrator for Regulatory           and Control, was the first APHS Administrator. A veterinarian by training,           Mulhern had a long history of service with the various animal health           bureaus (e.g., BAI, the Agricultural Research Administration, and ARS).           He became the head of an animal and plant health agency with 5,000 employees.           **From APHS to APHIS.—**APHIS personnel were drawn           from the animal health, veterinary biologics, plant protection, and           agricultural quarantine inspection divisions at ARS. Five months after           Mulhern took charge of the newly created APHS, the agency was enlarged           by the addition of the meat and poultry inspection programs (putting           the “I” into APHIS). Mulhern reported directly to the USDA           Assistant Secretary for Consumer and Marketing Services (later known           as the Marketing and Inspection Services).          Five years after APHIS was established (1977), its meat and poultry           inspection functions were transferred to the newly created Food Safety           and Quality Service (later reorganized as the Food Safety and Inspection           Service). Removing these food safety responsibilities from APHIS further           defined APHIS as primarily an animal and plant health agency rather           than a provider of consumer services. 

**Building a Model Agency.—**Mulhern’s first           major task was to establish APHIS’ identity as a “model           agency.” To accomplish this, Mulhern sought to articulate in clear           and simple language APHIS’ distinct mission—protecting the           health of U.S. agricultural resources. The significance and simplicity           of this mission helped him rally APHIS employees and create, in their           minds and in the minds of the agency’s constituents, a clear and           distinct organizational purpose and identity.           Mulhern’s model agency gets things done, spends its money wisely,           regulates firmly but fairly, trains its people, and rewards its outstanding           personnel. To build a model agency, Mulhern believed it was necessary           for APHIS’ top decisionmakers to adopt a philosophy of participatory           management. He encouraged open communication between his managers and           APHIS employees, hoping that such communication would allow agency decisionmakers           to utilize the views and input of APHIS personnel and thereby know how           management decisions would affect programs in the field before decisions           were made.           In the spirit of open communication, Mulhern conducted an employee survey           immediately after becoming administrator. Results of the survey showed           a high level of employee dissatisfaction. This dissatisfaction, Mulhern           believed, was related to the 1971 reorganization and the lingering confusion           over employees’ new roles and organizational relationships.           The 1977 removal of the meat and poultry inspection functions allowed           APHIS to simplify and consolidate its basic quarantine responsibilities.           In addition, a subsequently smaller agency provided a better opportunity           for Mulhern to try to foster a sense of identity and agency esprit de           corps. A later survey showed that employee morale had improved, but           management still had a long way to go in achieving Mulhern’s vision           of a model organization. 

**PPQ and the Consolidation of APHIS’ Quarantine Functions.—**Within           the APHIS structure, the animal quarantine inspection activities at           ports of entry had been conducted by the Veterinary Services (VS) division.           In 1974, these inspection responsibilities were transferred to APHIS’           Plant Protection Division, which promptly changed its name to the one           in use today, Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ). More significantly,           this transfer made agricultural quarantine and inspection (AQI) a single           line item in the agency’s budget structure. AQI is now the largest           and most important program priority for the agency.           As a result of this program realignment, PPQ received approximately           70 animal technicians who had previously reported to VS. Here we can           see, at least on one front, an early merging of the veterinary and plant           health programs and personnel. Since 1974, port inspection responsibilities—or           regulating both animal and plant products—have resided with PPQ.           **The Brucellosis Saga.—**Since the agency’s           inception, the Cooperative State–Federal Brucellosis Eradication           Program has been the subject of much controversy and the symbol of a           basic agency dilemma.           Brucellosis is a cattle (and human) disease that makes pregnant cows           abort spontaneously. Funds appropriated to eradicate this disease are           a significant line-item in APHIS’ annual budget. In Mulhern’s           time, the funds appropriated for the brucellosis program were used not           only to carry out that eradication effort but also to support other           animal disease-control activities. Brucellosis funding continues in           this multiple role today. For many at APHIS, the brucellosis line-item           represents the backbone of VS’ infrastructure. Eliminating it           from the APHIS budget would affect other basic agency activities that           are critical for ensuring the health of U.S. livestock.           Upon the eve of his departure from APHIS in 1980, Mulhern reflected           on a general concern regarding the role of VS after brucellosis was           eradicated. The concern over APHIS’ future in a brucellosis-free           Nation was rooted in what has become a continuing organizational issue           for the agency—how to maintain an animal disease-fighting infrastructure           if an important funding source disappears. On this point, Mulhern advised           that the agency and industry needed to establish a new philosophy about           eradication. Mulhern urged that the agency should stress the goal of           reducing infection to the lowest possible level. Eradication, if achieved,           would be a fringe benefit. This view reflects Mulhern’s effort           to address the controversies and excessive costs surrounding eradication           programs.           Mulhern’s vision foreshadowed the philosophy of later administrators—that           the agency should go from being a reactive organization to one that           promotes agricultural health through ongoing disease and pest surveillance           and control activities. The brucellosis program would continue to reveal           the intrinsic dilemma of a line-item budget for an organization dedicated           to protecting a wide variety of the country’s agricultural resources.           **Major Events and Issues of the Mulhern Period.—**
*• 1972:*An agreement was signed with Mexico to eradicate screwworms               and, in 1976, a new production plant in southern Mexico began producing               up to 500 million sterile flies a week. *• 1973:*Sheep scabies was eradicated.*• 1974:*A serious outbreak of exotic Newcastle disease in poultry in southern               California (1971–74) was eradicated.*• 1977:*The North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) was established.              Mulhern established a Brucellosis Technical Commission to review               the brucellosis program and provide recommendations. The Commission               concluded that eradication was feasible. This Commission was critical               in strengthening industry resolve in eliminating brucellosis from               U.S. cattle herds.*• 1978:*The United States was declared “hog cholera free,”               the culmination of a 15-year effort against the disease.*• 1979:*The Harry S Truman Animal Import Center, a high- security facility               through which animals from countries with foot-and-mouth disease               could be imported, was established. 
 In 1980, Mulhern left APHIS to direct the animal health program of           the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture. Return to Contents

**Harry C. Mussman (1980–83)**

Harry Mussman came to APHIS after serving as director of animal production           and health for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization           (FAO) in Rome. He joined APHIS in 1971, eventually serving as associate           administrator under Frank Mulhern between 1975 and 1977. **Promoting the Model Agency Concept.—**While Frank           Mulhern actively used participatory management practices, he never formally           articulated or communicated this philosophy. Mussman made a major contribution           to defining APHIS’ organizational identity by developing a document           known as “APHIS Philosophy.” This document, which was subsequently           distributed throughout the agency, articulated and communicated APHIS’           management philosophy and what was expected of APHIS employees.           Mussman’s management document addressed issues such as promoting           an organizational climate that enables employees to work at their highest           potential, maintaining open communication with the agency’s constituents           and other interest groups, maintaining a lean administrative structure           in order to maximize spending on program delivery, and emphasizing APHIS’           action orientation. These were essentially the same principles that           Mulhern had sought to practice.           Mussman’s document was significant because it identified and communicated           the agency’s core values, responsibilities, and expectations.           Mussman’s document reaffirmed Mulhern’s vision of a model           agency. **Expanding APHIS’ International Role.—**As           a result of his FAO experience, Mussman was familiar with animal health           institutions and pest and disease situations around the world. During           his tenure, Mussman repeatedly asserted the importance of assisting           other nations in dealing with plant and animal health problems before           their pests and diseases reached American shores.           Mussman put this philosophy into action when be decided to assist Haiti           and the Dominican Republic in eradicating African swine fever. More           significantly, Mussman’s position on the importance of overseas           pest and disease control programs has become a standard APHIS view,           supported by the agency’s many foreign cooperative programs.**APHIS Faces New Budget Constraints.—**During Mussman’s           tenure, there was increasing recognition of the need to reduce Federal           expenditures and to shift appropriate Federal responsibilities to the           States and private industry. As a reflection of this need, significant           decreases were proposed for APHIS’ fiscal year (FY) 1983 budget,           with further reductions contemplated for subsequent years.          In light of the proposed cuts, APHIS embarked on an internal review           of its plant and animal health mission and organizational structure.           The goal of this review was to identify the basic organization and resources           required by the Federal Government in order to maintain an effective           agricultural protection program. In early 1982, APHIS contracted with           a private consulting firm to perform this agency review and to make           recommendations for streamlining APHIS.           The consultants’ report concluded that there were few ways in           which to reduce APHIS’ role and still provide an effective system           of agricultural protection. The analysis indicated general satisfaction           with existing APHIS programs in Congress and among the agency’s           constituents. Furthermore, reorganizing APHIS along functional lines           was impractical because the work and skills of the plant and animal           protection staffs were not interchangeable. **The Continuing Brucellosis Saga.—**Mulhern noted           on the eve of his departure from APHIS that the brucellosis program           was meeting increasing controversy. When Mussman became administrator,           he encountered a divided cattle industry. Some segments of the industry           were opposed to the eradication program while others supported it. At           the same time, agency veterinarians, accustomed to a perfect record           in combating animal diseases, were not prepared to abandon the brucellosis           eradication program and allow it to mar this record.           Mussman played a key role in developing a government–industry           consensus that put the eradication program on a path to completion.           Industry’s renewed support for brucellosis eradication was in           part the result of the Brucellosis Technical Commission’s recommendations           favoring eradication. The subsequent infusion of government support           and industry’s close cooperation were the basis for striking a           massive and final blow against brucellosis.           Eradicating brucellosis continues to be an important agency effort today.           Administrators succeeding Mussman continued to confront the dilemma           of phasing down the brucellosis program in a way that would not undermine           the other disease-control activities supported with brucellosis funding.           **Major Events and Issues of the Mussman Period.—**
*• 1980:*International programs against the Mediterranean fruit               fly (Medfly) in Guatemala and cooperative programs to eradicate               African swine fever in the Dominican Republic and Haiti were initiated.*• 1982:*• X-ray detection devices for screening baggage for illegal               material were introduced on a trial basis at international airports.Bert               W. Hawkins (1983–87)
Return to Contents

**Bert W. Hawkins (1983–87)**

Bert Hawkins, a former rancher and cattle industry leader, liked to           depict APHIS’ role as the “three-horse evener,” a           hitching device used to distribute the load evenly among a team of three           horses. The three horses represented industry, the States, and the Federal           Government. APHIS played a role in evenly balancing the responsibilities           undertaken by the three horses. In trying to balance these roles, Hawkins           sought to reduce APHIS’ dominant position and emphasize industry’s           responsibility in APHIS’ cooperative programs. **Expanding APHIS International Programs.—**Hawkins           shared Mussman’s interest in international programs. For example,           screwworm eradication advanced from Mexico southward into Central America.           The Medfly program in Mexico also continued to receive significant agency           support. During Hawkins’ tenure, APHIS enhanced its presence abroad           by stationing inspectors in other countries to preclear products destined           for the United States. Also, at this time APHIS’ International           Services personnel were granted Foreign Service status. This enhanced           APHIS credibility, prestige, and influence in matters related to international           agriculture.**APHIS Enters the Biotechnology Era.—**During Hawkins’           tenure, the private sector made many advances in biotechnology. In 1985,           the Secretary of Agriculture designated APHIS as the agency responsible           for regulating biotechnology-derived products that affect animal and           plant health. It was not until 1987, however, that the agency made a           request for additional appropriations to establish a separate biotechnology           program. At that point, Hawkins established a Biotechnology and Environmental           Coordination Staff, seeking to demonstrate APHIS’ commitment and           credibility in the biotechnology field.**APHIS’ New Wildlife Damage Control Role.—**In           1985, Congress transferred the Animal Damage Control (ADC) program from           the U.S. Department of the Interior’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service           to USDA. Secretary of Agriculture John R. Block subsequently assigned           the program to APHIS. The transfer of ADC to APHIS had two consequences           for the agency. First and most obvious, the ADC acquisition enlarged           the agency, adding a new facet of agricultural protection to the APHIS           mission. Second, the intense public interest in ADC’s predator-control           activities has drawn APHIS closer to the tensions between environmental           protection and agricultural groups.          Bert Hawkins died at his home in Oregon in November 1992**Major Events and Issues of the Hawkins Period.—**
*• 1984:*APHIS began the “Beagle Brigade” program,               using beagles trained to sniff out food in luggage at international               airports.*• 1984:*Screwworm in Mexico was eradicated down to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec               near Mexico’s southern border. A biological barrier was established               to prevent screwworm reinfestation and its northward movement.*• 1985:*Hawkins proposed a compromise 5-year close-out program to reduce               APHIS’ brucellosis responsibili-              ties and costs. According to the close-out plan, APHIS would cut               funding after the fifth year and be responsible for interstate inspection,               surveillance, and certain other Federal functions only. *• 1986:*The Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management project was initiated               as a 5-year research effort to develop alternatives to chemical               pesticides to control grasshoppers. *• 1986:*APHIS licensed the world’s first vaccine derived from recombinant               DNA. This vaccine, used against pseudorabies in swine, led to licensing               of subsequent genetically engineered pseudorabies vaccines.**APHIS’ international programs staff (within PPQ and VS)               was given Foreign Service status, thereby increasing the influence               of our personnel in the international arena.Return to Contents**Donald L. Houston (1987–88)**        In 1987, Donald Houston left his post as Food Safety and Inspection Service         administrator to take the same position with APHIS. **Houston Launches APHIS’ Reorganization.—**One         month after Houston’s appointment, Kenneth Gilles, Assistant Secretary         of Agriculture for Marketing and Inspection Services, sent Houston a memorandum         directing him to conduct a thorough review of APHIS’ organization         and its management processes (November 1987). Gilles requested recommendations         for reorganizing APHIS in a way that would strengthen its scientific base         and allow the agency to operate more effectively and efficiently.        Houston subsequently established a management review group to conduct         the internal review and to formulate a strategy for reorganizing APHIS.         The group’s report was completed and delivered to Assistant Secretary         Gilles in March 1988.**Houston’s Legacy.—**Sadly, Houston died before         the group had completed its report (Preparing for Future Challenges in         Agricultural Health Protection). James Glosser, Houston’s successor,         implemented the subsequent APHIS reorganization plan.         A message composed by APHIS staff and published on the occasion of Houston’s         death presents an inspiring account of his vision for APHIS         
...During the 100 days he spent as administrator of APHIS, he charted             a clear course of action to strengthen the agency and lead it into             the future. He recognized the importance of the agency’s programs             and had implemented action to improve management and strengthen the             agency’s scientific and technical base.

Houston envisioned an APHIS whose laboratories and staffs received           worldwide recognition as centers of excellence and whose employees were           among the foremost experts in the world in the areas of animal and plant           health. He wanted the industry and the public to better understand the           agency’s role in maintaining an abundant, safe, and affordable           food supply for Americans and the world.          The dramatic reorganization that followed the management review group’s           recommendations, and the current structure of the agency, are the direct           result and product of Houston’s vision and initiative. Return to Contents

**James W. Glosser (1988–91)**

As administrator, James Glosser’s first major task was to spearhead           the 1988 reorganization. Based on recommendations from the management           review group’s analysis and supplemented with ideas developed           by an APHIS team of deputy administrators, this reorganization led to           the creation of five new units. **The APHIS Reorganization.—**The new APHIS structure           consisted of 11 programs, each headed by a director or deputy administrator           sharing equal access to the administrator. The existing and new functions           included the following:

*Existing**

*New*
• Plant Protection and Quarantine• International Services• Veterinary Services• Regulatory Enforcement• Animal Damage Control and Animal Care• Policy and Program Development• Legislative and Public Affairs• Science and Technology• Biotechnology, Biologics and               Environmental Protection• Recruitment and Development• Management and Budget * Some divisions listed above had different names               prior to the 1988 reorganization.
 Some of the more significant goals of the reorganization were to establish           a strong, cohesive APHIS top management team, enhance the agency’s           planning and decisionmaking processes (e.g., strategic planning), and           establish an integrated human resource management system. Glosser hoped           that stronger recruitment programs would strengthen the agency’s           scientific and technical base.           The creation of new units and responsibilities within the agency presented           new linkage and internal communication problems. Building agency cohesiveness           continues to be a major APHIS concern. In March 1991, Glosser reactivated           the management review group to evaluate the 1988 reorganization, setting           the agency on a course for further organizational adjustments.**Recasting the Perception of APHIS.—**Glosser, like           Hawkins before him, found that the public perception of APHIS as a “regulatory           policeman” put the agency in an unnecessarily adversarial relationship           with the regulated community. Glosser attempted to recast this agency–industry           relationship by emphasizing APHIS’ role as a service provider           and by taking measures to increase the participation of affected groups           in developing regulations.           As a result of Glosser’s interest in improving agency–industry           relations, he championed a new approach for writing regulations known           as negotiated rulemaking (or “reg-neg”). This regulation-writing           method allows affected groups to participate in the early stages of           drafting new regulations.          APHIS first employed the negotiated rulemaking approach with the honey           bee industry in response to industry concern with the spread of the           Varroa mite. Soon afterwards APHIS used the “reg-neg” approach           with the sheep industry in formulating a regulatory response to scrapie.           **The Core-Funding Concept Emerges.—**It became apparent           from the strategic planning process that an appropriate budget-allocation           process was also required. Glosser subsequently became interested in           modernizing APHIS’ budget structure so it would be compatible           with the agency’s strategic plans. This interest in modernizing           the budget evolved into what became known as the “core-funding”           concept.          Traditionally, Congress has provided line-item funding for approximately           37 individual APHIS programs. There is no specific funding for some           of the agency’s basic activities, such as identification systems,           surveillance for exotic diseases, and interstate inspection and compliance.           These activities are funded by taking money from each of the individual           programs.           Like Mulhern, Mussman, and Hawkins, Glosser grappled with the dilemma           of the line-item budget structure. These administrators understood that           once a specific program, such as brucellosis, is brought to completion,           its funding would be terminated. This, in turn, would reduce funds that           support some of the agency’s basic activities, such as its systems           for detecting and responding to emergency outbreaks.           Glosser believed the future direction of APHIS called for a new funding           approach—one that would help the agency maintain its infrastructure           so it could always provide surveillance, information analysis (e.g.,           the National Animal Health Monitoring System, NAHMS), and ongoing laboratory           support services. These activities are essential to preventing and/or           combating disease and pest outbreaks.           Glosser, like Mulhern, tried to promote a philosophy that agricultural           health is best ensured by employing surveillance systems and activities           rather than depending solely on emergency eradication or control programs.           Through the core-funding concept, Glosser hoped to establish a funding           base that would allow the agency to carry out ongoing health monitoring           functions instead of depending on disease outbreaks for special appropriations           from Congress.          There has been some success in implementing the core-funding concept,           with increased recognition and funding for some surveillance and detection           activities. Full implementation remains an agency goal.**Major Events and Issues of the Glosser Period.—**
*• 1988:*The boll weevil eradication program was expanded into               Georgia, Florida, and Alabama.*• 1989:*The Rapid Completion Plan for brucellosis eradication was developed               with industry participation. This plan featured the same program               activities that had always been in place (e.g., testing herds, depopulation,               whole-herd vaccination). But the plan also featured an additional               $10 million (from approximately $55 million in FY 1989 to $65 million               in FY 1990) appropriation for the brucellosis program. This infusion               was thought to provide the necessary resources to finally “knock               down” the disease.*• 1990:*APHIS established the National Biological Control Institute to               promote the use of biocontrol tools in and outside of APHIS. Return to Contents**Robert Melland (1991–92)**
In November 1991, Robert Melland was named administrator of APHIS.           Melland’s relationship with the agency began in 1987, when he           served as an assistant to the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture for           Marketing and Inspection Services (the predecessor of today’s           Marketing and Regulatory Programs). In 1990, he became APHIS’           associate administrator. Like former administrator Bert Hawkins, Melland           was not a veterinarian.           Melland came from a private-business and public-service background.           He owned and operated a farm machinery dealership in North Dakota. During           that time, Melland also served as a member of the North Dakota Senate.           Following a period as director of the State’s Office of Management           and Budget, he came to Washington as a special assistant to a U.S. Senator           from North Dakota.          Given the increasing number of competing demands made on APHIS (e.g.,           from trade, environmental, food safety, and animal welfare groups),           Melland’s political and private-sector experience served the agency           well.**Melland’s Focus: Refining the Organization.—**Melland’s           particular focus was on refining the existing organization. Like Glosser           before him, Melland recognized that organizational and cultural barriers           remain among the agency’s program areas as a result of the 1988           reorganization. This, he believed, impeded the effective cross-utilization           of program expertise and inhibited the agency from developing a single           APHIS culture and identity. Melland’s goal was to take the agency           another step toward integration as a single team.          For Melland the notion of an integrated team also meant eliminating           any barriers that prevent the full participation of minorities and women           in the agency’s decisionmaking and program development and delivery.          In addition, Melland recognized that disciplinary differences between           the agency’s veterinarians and plant personnel have, in the course           of APHIS’ evolution, impeded the development of a single agency           culture. Historically, veterinarians have been perceived as assuming           a dominant role within the agency. As this retrospective shows, all           previous APHIS administrators either were veterinarians or came from           the livestock arena. The perception of lack of parity between animal           and plant health programs within the agency prompted Melland’s           interest in measures that would establish greater equality between the           livestock and plant health program areas.          Melland’s focus, throughout his tenure, was on bringing closure           to projects, commitments, and regulations that remained uncompleted.           Melland left the agency because of illness in October 1992, and he died           in August 1993.**Significant Events of Melland’s Tenure.—**
*• 1991:*Increasingly required to “do more with less,”               the agency instituted user fees to cover some of the costs of its               services. These fees allowed APHIS to charge directly those who               directly benefit from its services.*• 1992:*Under Melland, APHIS tested a new, multidisciplinary staff concept—a               staff dedicated exclusively to managing trade issues. The new group,               made up of representatives from various APHIS programs, reflected               the agency’s increasing need to respond to changes in the               global economy. As agricultural trade expanded, the agency sought               to enhance its role and identity as an active facilitator of trade.               Melland dissolved the Science and Technology division, transferring               its laboratory and methods-development functions to APHIS’               various operational programs (VS, PPQ, or ADC). This action, which               reduced the number of APHIS divisions from 11 to 10, was undertaken               in order to better integrate the agency’s methods-development               research with its action programs. The position of science advisor               was subsequently created to provide the administrator with direct,               competent support on scientific matters.  To demonstrate the agency’s ongoing commitment to seeking               and promoting alternative control tools, Melland directed the National               Biological Control Institute—formerly a part of the Science               and Technology division—to report directly to the Office of               the Administrator.Return to Contents**Lonnie J. King (1992–96)**
          Lonnie King, a veterinarian, rose through the ranks to be named acting           APHIS administrator in October 1992. Before that, he served as deputy           administrator of Veterinary Services from 1988 to 1991 and as the agency’s           associate administrator under Bob Melland. King was confirmed as APHIS           Administrator in July 1995.          King brought with him a vision of where the agency might go after active           eradication programs, such as brucellosis, were completed. In part due           to his prior staff work with the VS National Animal Health Monitoring           System, King focused on moving APHIS from active animal disease control           and eradication programs to surveillance, information analysis, and           management of animal health.**Major Challenges.—**King recalled four major challenges           during his time as administrator. First was the shift toward globalization           and a new interest in international trade and how industry and the agency           interacted to meet these needs. Second was a new emphasis on food safety           and consumerism, with resulting APHIS activities in preharvest food           safety efforts, such as Salmonella           enteritidis, Escherichia coli, and preventing the entry of bovine spongiform           encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow” disease.          A third challenge was converting the agency from a mindset of responding           to headlines and crisis situations to a proactive world view. “This,”           King noted, “can be termed ‘the ability to separate the           urgent from the important.’” Finally, the fourth challenge           was the problems of keeping focused and preparing for the future needs           of the agency in the face of reduced public confidence in Government           coupled with calls for reengineering, reinvention, and downsizing of           Government agencies.**Progress in Eradication and Prevention.—**King’s           term saw continued progress in the national brucellosis eradication           program. The Rapid Completion Plan, developed in concert with cattle           groups and adopted in 1989, put increased emphasis on herd depopulation           as an eradication tool. These continuing efforts brought striking results           during King’s administration, with the number of cattle herds           under quarantine dropping from 415 in October 1992 to only 51 in July           1996. During the same timeframe, the number of States free of the disease           rose from 32 to 34.          One vexing problem that remained as King left the agency was how to           deal with the problem of brucellosis in bison in Yellowstone National           Park and the threat that infected wildlife there poses to cattle in           surrounding brucellosis-free States.          The pseudorabies eradication program made steady progress, with 19 States           free of the disease by the time King left. An infestation of Asian gypsy           moths in North Carolina introduced via a military cargo ship returning           from Europe was contained and eliminated.           King’s era saw a shift in strategy in dealing with Mediterranean           fruit-fly infestations. Instead of focusing eradication efforts around           specific areas where Medflies were trapped, the agency began massive           releases of sterilized Medflies over the entire Los Angeles basin. This           approach successfully eradicated this potentially damaging foreign pest           and was instrumental in preventing the establishment of new introductions.                     Surveillance, information analysis, and management of animal health           took on added importance under King. Started under Glosser and emphasized           by King, the position of Veterinary Services’ Centers for Epidemiology           and Animal Health (CEAH) at Ft. Collins, CO, was solidified. This, in           turn, helped legitimize APHIS’ animal disease surveillance and           monitoring activities.**Responding to Threats.—**APHIS played a leadership           role with industry and other Government agencies during King’s           tenure in dealing with problems such as Salmonella enteritidis (SE)           in eggs, E. coli 0157:H7, and BSE. In particular, King believed that           the United States has dealt with the threat of BSE better than any other           nation in the world.**International Trade.—**A major accomplishment during           King’s administration was helping the agency get ready to deal           with sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) trade standards and all the implications           stemming from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and           the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The Trade Support Team           was set up as a separate unit within International Services to coordinate           and focus APHIS activities in this area, and the Phytosanitary Issues           Management Team was established in PPQ to aid this effort.          The “foundation building” initiative with the APHIS Management           Team (AMT) was a significant achievement of King’s administration.           Called foundation building to stress the need to clarify the agency’s           trade mission in the midst of changes in global agriculture, this exercise           with the AMT resulted in a recognition that APHIS must embrace a dual           mission of trade facilitation and protecting agriculture. That is, APHIS           must effect a paradigm shift in the way the agency looks at itself.**Visioning.—**The APHIS Visioning and Future Search,           begun under King and continuing under the present administrator, Terry           L. Medley, was an important process that helped set new directions for           APHIS and produced shifts in the organizational culture of the agency.           Reinvention labs helped change the way the agency did business. A number           of these efforts received Hammer Awards from Vice President Gore’s           National Performance Review.          Finally, King’s tenure saw the agency conduct an “information           systems planning” process that helped move information technology           and computer programs from an individual unit focus to an APHIS- wide,           centralized approach. The agency also awarded a multimillion-dollar           contract—the Integrated Systems Acquisition Project or ISAP—to           help standardize computer hardware and software within APHIS. **Model Agency.—**King viewed a “model agency”           as one that is able to successfully convert ideas into action through           a three-cycle process of doing, learning, and changing.          This view resulted in an ability to put the overall APHIS mission and           vision ahead of the self-interest of individual units and helped create           an agency that adopts new techniques, is flexible, has a global perspective,           and is outcome based.           Finally, King believed that a model agency is one that has both a passion           for its mission and a special care for its employees. He felt this was           exemplified by the response to the Oklahoma City bombing in April 1995,           when seven APHIS employees lost their lives.          King left the agency in July 1996 to become dean of the School of Veterinary           Medicine at Michigan State University.

**Major Events and Issues of the King Period.—**
*• 1993:*Planning continued for a headquarters relocation,               accomplished in early 1995, to new office space, a move intended               to centralize APHIS activities in a single place and to enhance               employees’ work environment. The objective was to improve               agency morale, strengthen internal linkages, and improve APHIS’               delivery of services. APHIS simplified its rules for genetically engineered plants by               adding a notification system to expedite field testing and a petition               process to exempt qualified plants from further regulation. A joint investigative effort by APHIS and local Oregon officials               ended in a criminal prosecution in which three individuals who maintained               false records in a dog kennel received jail sentences of 10 to 12               months plus 3 years’ probation.*• 1994:*APHIS opened up markets for Washington apples in both China and               Japan, with the historic first shipment of Red Delicious apples               leaving for the People’s Republic of China in late June. Ten new teams are added to APHIS’ “Beagle Brigade,”               a group of detector dogs at the forefront of agency activities to               protect the health of the Nation’s plant and animal resources.               Detector dogs are also used in Guam to locate brown tree snakes,               an introduced species that has decimated native bird species and               threatens Hawaii and other Pacific islands. To help reduce the level of pathogens before animals reach the               slaughter plant, APHIS established a Preharvest Food Safety Team               to work with industry, consumer organizations, academic and research               communities, and other Federal agencies on preharvest food-safety               initiatives.               With fewer than 28,000 of an original 435,000 acres remaining infested               with witchweed and eradication in sight, APHIS turned over the eradication               program to North Carolina.*• 1995:*APHIS negotiated SPS agreements with a number of countries to               enhance trade opportunities, including markets in Japan for sweet               cherries; in China for cattle, swine, bovine embryos, ostriches,               apples from Oregon and Idaho, and sweet cherries from Washington;               in South Africa for stone fruit, strawberries, blackberries, and               raspberries; in New Zealand for California peaches and nectarines;               and in Turkey for an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cattle over a 2-year               period. Boll weevil eradication activities were expanded into south Texas,               the rest of Alabama, and parts of Tennessee and Mississippi. A national aquaculture coordinator was named to oversee APHIS               efforts in this area. The APHIS home page was established on the Internet’s World               Wide Web in June, providing an additional way to disseminate information               about the agency and its programs. APHIS and State agencies cooperated in the aerial distribution               of an oral rabies vaccine for coyotes to combat an outbreak of rabies               in Texas.*• 1996:*APHIS mobilized a task force to combat an outbreak of Karnal bunt,               a fungal disease of wheat, durum wheat, and triticale, first found               in Arizona in March.Return to Contents**Terry L. Medley (1996–Present)**        Terry L. Medley was named APHIS administrator on July 8, 1996. In making         the appointment, Agriculture Secretary Dan Glickman said, “He has         extensive experience in managing complex, scientific regulatory programs.”         When Medley came to APHIS in 1988 to develop the regulatory framework         for biotechnology that was to be administered by APHIS, he became the         head of the Biotechnology, Biologics and Environmental Protection unit.         There, in addition to the biotechnology regulatory process, he administered         the only commercial licensing program in the agency as well as an analytical         program that developed risk assessments—all areas of increasing         importance to APHIS’ role in global agriculture.        In February 1993, Medley was named acting associate administrator of APHIS.         From February to August 1995, he served as acting administrator of USDA’s         Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), before being named associate         administrator upon his return to APHIS. Before coming to APHIS, Medley         spent 10 years as an attorney in USDA’s Office of the General Counsel,         where he advised APHIS and FSIS on a variety of technical issues.        When Karnal bunt was found in Arizona in March 1996, Medley immediately         assumed an important leadership role in the efforts to contain and control         this foreign wheat fungus. This involvement continues to the present.        Begun under King and implemented under Medley, the process of restructuring         functions within the agency was completed in October 1996. The Biotechnology,         Biologics and Environmental Protection unit was dissolved, and its program         areas reverted to PPQ, VS, and Policy and Program Development. Reporting         lines for the National Biological Control Institute were transferred from         the Office of the Administrator to PPQ. The Regulatory Enforcement and         Animal Care unit was split, with Animal Care becoming a stand-alone unit         and regulatory enforcement functions placed under Management and Budget         and renamed Investigative and Enforcement Services.**“Essential Agri-data.”—**Medley uses         the term “essential agri-data” to describe the information         necessary to certify the health of our animal and plant resources for         export. Building on King’s vision and legacy, Medley continues to         emphasize the importance of surveillance and monitoring activities within         APHIS—the Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey and National Agricultural         Pest Information Service on the plant side and the National Animal Health         Monitoring System to record information on animals. A renewed emphasis         on monitoring and surveillance points to the critical significance of         acquiring and maintaining information on pests and diseases. For Medley,         this information also leads the agency to a state of emergency preparedness         where it is better positioned to deal with incursions of foreign pests         and diseases.         Medley sees several major accomplishments in the relatively brief period         he has served as administrator. Following passage of the 1995 farm bill,         the agency has implemented procedures to allow APHIS total access to the         user fees it collects. In the Karnal bunt program, Medley feels that APHIS         has done an excellent job of balancing efforts directed toward the program’s         three major goals: protecting the Nation’s $5.5 billion wheat export         market, containing the disease, and minimizing the regulatory impact on         the affected industry.**A Critical Role in Trade.—**As with many of the administrators         before him, Medley recognizes the importance of trade. He sees APHIS as         being increasingly recognized for its critical role in expanding trade         opportunities. He cites one recent example in the biotech area where APHIS         efforts helped get European approval of genetically engineered corn and         soybean exports—an export market estimated at nearly $1.5 billion         a year. “Our expertise is establishing APHIS as a crucial player         in maintaining and expanding export markets for U.S. agricultural products,”         Medley says. He points to trade as one of a number of areas where APHIS         is operating with a “team approach” to accomplish its goals.        Medley sees his view of APHIS’ role in trade as slightly different         from that of his predecessors. He believes that maintaining and expanding         agricultural markets is part of APHIS’ efforts to protect American         plant and animal resources. “This is not an addition or a balance,         but an integral part of our mission,” Medley says. He sees expanding         markets as critical to the viability of American agriculture. “Protecting         American agriculture requires APHIS leadership in SPS issues,” Medley         says, “so we can apply the same set of standards to both domestic         and international markets.”**Challenges Lead to Opportunities.—**If we have expanded         trade, this also provides the potential for more opportunities for pest         and disease introductions. Finding the proper balance is both a challenge         and an opportunity, Medley believes. Regionalization is one example where         the agency is charting new waters, and developing implementation plans         in this area is a top priority for the agency.**Reduced resources—**both in human and dollar terms—will         continue to be a challenge as pressures escalate for Government to be         “reinvented” and “downsized.” According to Medley,         resource restrictions will force expansion of team-based approaches and         will expand cross-utilization within the agency. This scenario creates         the opportunity for us to maximize our use of resources by maximizing         our efficiencies, Medley believes. It also will require greater commitment         from employees at a time when the system gives them less security. “How         do you get them to make that commitment?” Medley asked. The challenge         of change requires one to get maximum individual growth from a job in         order to be better prepared if that job changes. Finally, Medley addressed         the challenge of making sure the agency respects and values each employee,         regardless of his or her position or duty. **Results Oriented.—**Medley sees a “model agency”         not in terms of a form or structure for APHIS, but rather in looking at         results. He believes that the agency’s accomplishments should be         measured in terms of “four C’s”—commitment, competency,         communication, and caring. “These can be listed in any order you         want,” he notes, adding that the agency must have a commitment to         its most valuable resource—its people.**Significant Events of Medley’s Tenure.***• 1996*China approved two artificial insemination centers               and nine embryo transfer centers, a development that let the United               States export bovine semen and embryos to China, a potential $20-million-a-year               market for each. Ceremonies in October in Tokyo, Honolulu, and Washington, DC,               marked the inaugural shipment of potted plants from Hawaii to Japan               under a new certification program with a market that could be worth               an added $10 million over the next couple of years. The screwworm eradication program in Latin America continued to               make progress toward its goal of establishing a barrier zone in               Panama as Honduras was declared free of the flesh-eating pest. APHIS joined international efforts to eradicate the Carambola               fruit fly from Suriname and Guyana. The National Wildlife Research Center relocated from Denver to               Ft. Collins, CO.*• 1997*After an extended rulemaking period, APHIS issued a final rule               establishing a “systems approach” with nine overlapping               safeguards under which commercial shipments of fresh Hass avocado               fruit grown in approved orchards in the state of Michoacan, Mexico,               can be imported into the Northeastern United States. This action               demonstrated APHIS’ commitment to science-based regulatory               decisions, as mandated by APHIS trade policy and the World Trade               Organization/SPS agreement. The APHIS Center for Plant Health Science and Technology was established               in Oxford, NC, to provide the best possible scientific and technical               support for the protection of U.S. plant resources and the facilitation               of agricultural trade. A letter signed by Medley and former administrator Harry Mussman               formally established a linkage between the agency and the APHIS               Alumni Organization to allow people from both groups to “meet               challenges by working together.” APHIS made significant progress in working with the Forest Service               and the National Park Service to resolve the problem of straying               Yellowstone National Park bison that threaten cattle in surrounding               brucellosis-free States. Mexico allowed the importation of U.S. sweet cherries from California,               Oregon, and Washington—an action estimated to be worth several               million dollars to U.S. cherry growers.Return         to ContentsAPHIS Today and Tomorrow 
While APHIS’ mission has remained essentially the same over its           25-year history, the number of actors involved in the agricultural policy           arena, both inside and outside of government, has grown, as have the           number and type of agricultural issues.           Today, interest groups that demand to have a voice in agricultural policy           include commodity groups, specialized trade associations, grassroots           agricultural reform organizations, agribusiness, and environmental and           animal welfare groups. Furthermore, agricultural policy is more than           just farm policy. Today, agricultural policy encompasses farm, food           and fiber, trade, environmental, and macroeconomic policy.Return to Contents

**Meeting Societal Changes**

In the course of the past 25 years, APHIS has adapted to societal changes           by changing its organizational structure and adopting innovative approaches           in the way it develops regulations and conducts its programs.          For example, as a result of new environmental concerns and subsequent           legislation, APHIS has been required to create new staffs to provide           environmental documentation and conduct environmental-monitoring activities.           Similarly, animal welfare legislation, enacted because of a public concern           that evolved during the sixties, seventies, and eighties, culminated           in new regulatory responsibilities for APHIS. APHIS responded by creating           an animal care staff and later establishing a formal division to enforce           animal care regulations.           Another example of the way APHIS has responded to the challenge of incorporating           and balancing the conflicting demands of new and traditional interest           groups can be seen in Glosser’s effort to institute the negotiated           rulemaking process. This regulation- writing method attempts to reconcile           competing interests by inviting affected groups into the regulation-writing           process.           Finally, APHIS administrators, beginning with Mulhern, sought to demonstrate           a management mindset that welcomes both internal and external criticism.           Mulhern, and Mussman later, emphasized that critics, such as animal           welfare and environmental groups, are the agency’s best allies.           Their views keep the agency in the dynamic process of self-assessment           and improvement. Their criticism can be the basis for positive change.Return to Contents**Looking Ahead**

Environmental and food safety concerns will continue to require APHIS           attention in the future. However, the emphasis will be on improving           the agency’s risk-management and risk-communication capabilities.           The critical challenge for the agency is to provide eradication and           control programs or license biotechnology products while at the same           time responding to the concerns of those who oppose the use of tools           perceived to present an unacceptable risk to human or environmental           health.          Another challenge APHIS has faced and will continue to face is how to           modernize its budget structure to reflect a philosophy that emphasizes           maintaining agricultural health instead of responding to agricultural-health           emergencies. APHIS has built an enviable record and reputation for its           quick emergency response capability. This has been evident in the successes           of both its animal and plant health and disease-fighting programs. However,           each administrator has sought to make APHIS more than an emergency response           organization by promoting a vision of an agency that can provide ongoing           disease and pest surveillance and prevention services.           This vision of an agency oriented to prevention has been evident at           various times in APHIS’ history. For example, the expansion of           APHIS preclearance and control and eradication programs in foreign countries           demonstrated a prevention philosophy for it attempted to stymie pests           and diseases before they could reach U.S. shores. James Glosser also           emphasized prevention approaches and activities. His core-funding concept           was the first step to promote a budget that would support an agency           capable of protecting agricultural resources through ongoing animal           and plant health monitoring services.           Today, the Department of Agriculture has come under intense scrutiny.           Questions come up often about USDA efficiency and relevance in a world           that has changed dramatically. This scrutiny by members of Congress           and by the media has put the spotlight on all USDA agencies, including           APHIS. APHIS’ challenge in the immediate future will be to continually           modernize and demonstrate its vitality and significance to farmers,           exporters and importers, and consumers.           Every administrator has faced the challenge of trying to maintain a           dynamic, highly competent, and responsive organization in the face of           changing needs and perceptions. However, Frank Mulhern’s statement           that “management in all government is going to come under close           scrutiny and that mediocrity is not going to be tolerated because we           don’t have all those resources we had at one time” seems           especially prescient today.           The basic challenge of building and maintaining an effective organization           will continue to depend on cultivating productive management–employee           relationships. Twenty years ago, Mulhern recognized the value of participatory           management and open communication          .           Robert Melland also recognized the talent and energy that exist among           APHIS employees and sought ways to tap into it. His interest in equal           opportunity policies, workplace issues, program parity, and measures           for consolidating and strengthening field operations reflected a vision,           conceived 25 years ago, of making APHIS a model agency.          Today, SPS issues play an increasingly important role in international           trade. Both GATT and NAFTA affect APHIS’ decisions in this area.           Science-based import-export regulations must form the long-term basis           of APHIS’ trade policy.          As this history demonstrates, the path to agency preeminence never reaches           an endpoint. Instead, we find that attaining excellence is a dynamic,           ongoing process.Return to Contents
References
Caro, Luhrs Associates. 1982. A study to assess the long-term goals           and mission of APHIS. Washington, DC: Caro, Luhrs Associates.          Moore, Ernest G. 1967. The Agricultural Research Service. New York:           Frederick A. Praeger.          U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1922. Annual report of the Federal Horticultural           Board, 1913–1922. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.          U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1963. Century of service: the first           100 years of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S.           Department of Agriculture, Centennial Committee.           U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 1974. Protecting           American agriculture: inspection and quarantine of imported plants and           animals. Agric. Econ. Rep. 266. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,           Economic Research Service.           U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 1991. History           of U.S. agriculture: 1966–1990. Washington, DC: U.S. Department           of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.          Weber, Gustavus A. 1930. The Plant Quarantine and Control Administration.           Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.Return to Contents

 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination           in its programs on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion,           age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or familial status.           (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities           who require alternative means for communication of program information           (braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDA Office           of Communications at (202) 720-2791.          To file a complaint, write the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S. Department           of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250, or call (800) 245-6340 (voice)           or (202) 720-1127 (TDD). USDA is an equal employment opportunity employer.         

United States Department of Agriculture          Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service          APHIS 10-05-007          Issued April 1997 |   |
|   |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |   |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |   |