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|  | Message from                                                                                                                                                                        Donna E. Shalala

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Table of Contents

Chapter 1                                                                                                                                                        Introduction

Chapter 2                                                                                                                                                        The Magnitude of Youth Violence

Chapter 3                                                                                                                                                        The Developmental Dynamics of Youth Violence

Chapter 4                                                                                                                                                        Risk Factors for Youth Violence

Chapter 5                                                                                                                                                        Prevention and Intervention

Chapter 6                                                                                                                                                        A Vision for the Future

Glossary

Index

List of Tables and Figures

Executive Summary | IndexA
Arrest record data, 1 

Academic programs, 113-114 

Active involvement, defined, 46 

Adequate measurement, 115 

Adult court, waivers to, 117-118 

Adulthood, transition to, 51-52 

Advisory labels on music and video games, 93 

African American youths, 18, 20-21, 28-31, 33, 34, 43, 44, 46, 48, 51 

disproportionate number of youth homicide victims, 21 

arrest ratios, 29-30 

peak age of onset of violence and, 43 

cumulative prevalence of violence and, 46 

age-specific prevalence of violence and, 44 

victimization and, 51 

adult violent behavior and, 46, 51 

Age of child and effect of media violence, 92 

Age-specific prevalence, 42, 43-44 

defined, 43 

maturation effect and, 43 

sex and, 41, 43, 44 

race/ethnicity, 43, 44 

Hispanic youths and, 44 

African American youths and, 44 

Aggravated assault, 17, 19, 21, 24, 42 

defined, 17 

arrest rates, 19, 21 

Aggression as a result of media violence, 87-94 

Aggression, 63, 66, 68 

Aggression, reduction in, 134-136 

Alcohol, 49, 51, 64, 66, 69, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 116, 135-136, 137, 146, 147,148, 156

involvement at time of violence, 156 

consumption by children, 135, 137 

use of by serious violent youths, 49, 69 

as part of a delinquent lifestyle, 51 

adolescents and experimentation with, 64 

prenatal exposure interfering with normal development, 66 

reduction in use accompanying intervention programs, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 116,  135-136, 137, 146, 147, 148 

Life Skills Training (LST), 106, 137 

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years, 108, 148 

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT), 108, 147 

Seattle Social Development Project, 109, 135-136 

Montreal Longitudinal Study, 111 

Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses, 112, 135 

Functional Family Therapy (FFT), 116 

Midwestern Prevention Project, the, 137 

Iowa Strengthening Families Program, 146 

Antisocial behavior, 63-64, 64, 66, 68 

Antisocial parents, 66 

Arrest and incarceration rates, 133-135 

Arrest rates of young people, 18-22, 24-27, 29-30, 33 

misconceptions concerning increased rates in 1983-1993, 26 

70 percent increase between 1983 and 1993, 20 

near tripling of homicide arrest rate, 20 

few chronic offenders apparently arrested for serious violent crime, 25-26 

sex and race, differences by, 27-31, 34 

racial differences inconsistent with self-reports, 18, 30, 34 

Arrest rates, 156 

Arrest records, 17-19, 24, 25, 46 

limitations, 17-19 

Arrests for violent crimes, 18-22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 33 

Asian American youths, 29-30 

arrest ratios, 29-30 

Assault, aggravated, 17, 19, 24-25 

arrest rate has not decreased, 24-25 

Assaults with injury, prevalence rates, 25-27 

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 63, 65 
B
Behavior management programs, 108-109 

Behavior monitoring and reinforcement, 115 

Behavioral and skill development interventions, 115 

Behavioral effects of media violence, 89-92 

unequal effect found, 90, 92 

experimental methods, 89 

cross-sectional surveys, 90 

longitudinal studies, 90 

sex and, 90, 91 

delayed effect suggested, 91 

Internet, the, 92 

music videos, 92 

video games, 92 

potential moderators, of, 92 

Behavioral token programs, 118 

*Best Practices of Youth Violence Prevention*, 101, 124 

Boot camps, 117 

Broken homes, 66-67 

Bullying Prevention Program, 109, 142 
C 
Capacity-building programs, 110 

Career length, defined, 47 

Caregiving, 135 

CASASTART, 112-113 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 23, 30-31, 124 

Child abuse and neglect, as risk factor, 66, 67, 71-72 

Childhood, 41 

predictability of violent behavior, 41, 42 

violence prevention programs and, 42 

serious offenders begin violent behavior in, 41, 42

Children and media violence, 87-88 

City surveys, 42-51 

Classroom management programs, 108-109 

Community-based programs, 110 

Compensatory education, 113 

Conduct disorder, 71-72 

Continuous progress programs, 110 

Co-occurring problems, 49-51 

substance use and abuse, 49-51 

no causal relationship with serious youth violence, 49 

mental disorders, 49-51 

high self-esteem linked to violence, 50 

schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, 50 

Cooperative learning, 110

Cost-effectiveness of prevention programs, 119-120 

and get-tough laws and incarceration, 119-120 

early childhood intervention, 120 

parent training, 120 

public school programs, 120 

early interventions, 120-121 

time lag, problem of, 120 

three-strikes law, 120 

graduation incentives, 121 

Costs of violence, 119 

Counseling, 118 

Crack cocaine market and guns, 23 

Crimes addressed in this report, 17 

defined, 17 

*See also* Homicide; Robbery; Aggravated assault; Rape. 

Crimes committed by youths, 17. *See* Youth violence. 

majority do not reach justice system, 18, 26 

Criteria for inclusion of programs in this report, 100, 102-105 

Cross-sectional studies, 8 

Cross-sectional studies, problems with, 47 

Cross-sectional surveys on media violence, 90 

Cumulative prevalence of youth violence, 45-46 

age and, 45 

defined, 45 

sex and, 45-46 

race and, 46 

magnitude of, 45, 46 
D
Denver Youth Survey, 26, 33, 42, 44, 45-46 

Deterrent effects, absolute and marginal, 101 

Developmental dynamics of youth violence, 41-52 

Developmental pathway to violence, 47 

Developmental perspective on violence, 3 

onset trajectories, 3 

Developmental perspective, 87-88 

Developmental psychopathology, 62, 64 

Developmental trajectories, 41-42, 48, 52 

early-onset, 41-42, 48 

and prevention, 3, 9, 10, 12, 41, 52 

interventions and, 48, 52 

late-onset, 41-42, 52 

and prevention, 9, 10, 12, 41-42, 52 

late-onset and prevention programs, 42, 52 

Discipline, parental, 63, 66 

Does Not Work, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107, 110 

Domestic violence, 135 

Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE), 110-111 

Drug trafficking, 73 
E
Early interventions, 119-121 

Educational programs on empathy and media, 93 

Emergency room records, 1 

Epidemic of youth violence, 1, 5, 9, 11, 17, 18-26, 27, 29, 32-34, 43,48, 49, 52, 153, 154 

firearm use as cause of, 49 

Epidemiological research, 8 

Esteem-building and interventions, 50 

Ethnicity, as risk factor, 72 

Evidence, level of, 8-9 

Evidence, standards of scientific, 7-9 

Experimental methods, limitations of, 89 

Experimental research, 7-8 
F
Families and Schools Together (FAST Track), 113, 142-143 

Family clinical interventions, 115-117 

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 19 

firearm use and, 19-23, 27, 33, 34 

Firearm training, 114 

Firearms, 1, 19-23, 27, 33, 34, 49, 61 

increased homicide rates attributable to greater use of in commission of crimes, 19, 20 

high rate of juvenile deaths and, 21 

international usage compared, 27 

usage of difficult to track in crimes other than homicide, 21 

usage tracked through hospital treatment, 21, 22 

National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), 21 

weapon-carrying trends, 23 

Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), 23, 31 

at schools, 23 

as cause of violence epidemic, 49 

Functional Family Therapy (FFT), 115, 133 
G
Gallup poll on school violence, 32 

Gangs, 70, 71 

gang-related activity, 32-33 

fights, 42 

responsible for majority of youth violence, 48 

Get-tough laws and incarceration, 118, 119-121 

Good Behavior Game, 109, 143-144 

Graduation incentives, 120 

Gun buyback programs, 114. *See* Firearms. 

Guns and violence. *See* Firearms. 
H
Hazard rate, 42, 43 

defined, 42 

sex and, 42 

race and, 43 

Heredity, as risk factor, 73 

Hispanic youths, 29-30, 44, 70 

age-specific prevalence, 44 

Home visitation, 112 

Homicide, criminal, 17, 20-22, 24, 25 

defined, 17 

arrest rates, 20, 21, 22, 24 

role of firearms in, 20-23 

Hyperactivity. *See* Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 
I
I Can Problem Solve, 107, 144-145 

Identification of ineffective programs, 103 

Incident rate, 24, 25 

defined, 24 

Index crimes, 153 

Ineffective primary prevention programs, 110-111, 114 

Ineffective secondary prevention programs, 114 

Ineffective tertiary prevention programs, 117-119 

Intelligence of child and effect of media violence, 92 

Intensive Protective Supervision Project, 117, 138 

Interactive nature of new media, 87 

International prevalence of youth violence, 26-27, 28 

firearm access and, 27 

International Self-Report Delinquency Study, 26-27 

Internet, the, 92, 94 

Intervention personnel, training and certification of, 155 

Intervention programs, 155-156 

public awareness of, 155-156 

*vs.* incarceration, 155 

Intervention. *See* Tertiary Prevention, Secondary Prevention, and PrimaryPrevention. 

Interventions for youth violence, 3, 48, 52 

Iowa Strengthening Families Program, 108, 146 

IQ, 66 
J
Justice system services, 117 

Juvenile court, 133, 138 
K 
Koop, Surgeon General C. Everett, 4 
L
Level of evidence, 8-9 

Life skills training, 106, 137 

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT), 108, 147 

Longitudinal and panel designs, 8 

Longitudinal studies of media violence, 90 

Longitudinal studies, 41, 42 

identifying chronic violent offenders, 48 
M
Mandatory gun ownership, 114 

Marital and family therapy, 115 

Maturation effect, defined, 43 

Measuring youth violence, 17-18 

by official crime statistics, 17-18 

by confidential surveys, 17-18 

Media self-regulation, 93

Media violence, 65, 87-94 

sex and, 65 

interactive nature of new media, 87 

outcomes of, 87 

developmental perspective and, 87-88 

observational learning and, 88 

exposure to, 88-89 

content of, 88-89 

major behavioral effects of, 89-91 

causal links to violent behavior, 93 

preventive efforts, 93 

implications, 93-94 

Media, the, 87-94 

Mediating-effects analysis, 8 

Medical or physical conditions as risk factors, 66 

Mental disorders and violent behavior, 49-51 

Meta-analysis, 8, 100, 101 

Midwestern Prevention Project, 106-107, 137-138 

Milieu treatment, 118 

Minorities, racial and ethnic, 18, 20-21, 27-30, 31, 34 

at greatest risk of school homicide, 31 

Model programs, Level 1, 133-136 

Functional Family Therapy (FFT), 133 

Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care, 133-134 

Multisystemic Therapy (MST), 134 

Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses, 135 

Seattle Social Development Project, 135-136 

Model programs, Level 2, 137-138 

Life Skills Training (LST), 137 

Midwestern Prevention Project, the, 137-138 

Model programs, replication and integrity of, 155 

Monitoring the Future (MTF), 17-18, 25-29, 31, 43, 46-47, 156 

Montreal Longitudinal Study, (Preventive Treatment Program, the), 111, 138-139 

Moral-reasoning, problem-solving, and thinking skills interventions, 114 

Multicontextual programs, 112 

Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care, 117, 133-134 

Multisystemic Therapy (MST), 116, 134 

Music videos, 92 

Myths about youth violence, 2, 5-6 

that the epidemic is over, 5 

that future offenders can be identified in early childhood, 5 

that child abuse and neglect lead to violent behavior, 5 

that African American and Hispanic youths have increased likelihood of serious  violence, 5 

that superpredators threaten the United States, 5 

that "getting tough" reduces recidivism, 5-6 

that "nothing works" to treat or prevent violent behavior, 6 

that 1990s school violence affected mostly white or nonurban students, 6 

that weapons-related school injuries have increased dramatically, 6 

that most violent youths will be arrested for a violent crime, 6 
N
National Crime Victimization Survey, 26, 31, 46 

National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), 21 

National Incident-Based Reporting System, 156 

National Strategy for the Prevention of Suicide (1999), 3-4 

National Television Violence Survey, the (NTVS), 88-89 

National Youth Survey (NYS), 26, 41, 42-50 

National Youth Gang Survey, 33 

Native American youths, 29, 30 

arrest ratios, 29, 30 

Neighborhoods, 69 

social disorganization, 69, 70 

Nonpromotion to next grade, 110 
O
Observational learning, 88 

Offending, rates of, and reoffending rates, 46-47, 133 

Onset and prevalence of serious violence, 42-44, 48 

Onset of serious violence, peak ages of, 42, 43, 44 

race and, 43 

Onset of violence and timing of risk factors, 59-61 

Onset trajectories of violence, 3 
P
Parent Child Development Center Programs, 112, 147-148 

Parent Teacher Associations, 94 

Parent training programs, 108, 111-112 

Parental influences, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 75 

Parental involvement, 50 

Parental supervision of media intake, 94 

Parent-Child Interaction Training Program, 112, 148 

Parent-child relations, 66 

Parents, role of in children's exposure to violence, 92 

Peer programs, 110 

Perry Preschool Program, 111, 139-140 

Pittsburgh Youth Survey, 43 

policy to reduce or prevent youth violence not proposed, 4 

conclusions of, 11-13 

Positive social orientation, 75 

Positive youth development programs, 110 

Poverty and socioeconomic status, 61, 66 

Practices for prevention of youth violence, identification of, 100-104 

Prenatal and early postnatal complications, 66 

Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses, 112, 135 

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years, 108, 148-149 

Prevalence rate, 24, 25-27, 28 

defined, 24 

international prevalence of youth violence, 26-27 

Prevention and intervention efforts, 1-2, 61, 99-125 

risk factors and, 57, 59 

protective factors and, 57 

Prevention programs, 42, 52, 102-119 

need to address both early- and late-onset violence, 42, 52 

Model, 100-105, 107, 109 

Promising, 100, 102-105, 107, 109 

Does Not Work, 100, 102-105, 107, 110 

primary prevention, 105-111 

secondary prevention, 111-114 

tertiary prevention, 114-119 

cost-effectiveness of, 119-121 

Prevention, primary, 105-111

Parental training programs, 108 

Iowa Strengthening Families Program, 108 

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years, 108, 148-149 

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT), 108 

Behavior management programs, 108-110 

behavior monitoring and reinforcement, 108 

classroom management, 108-109 

Seattle Social Development Project, 109 

Bullying Prevention Program, 109 

Good Behavior Game, 109 

School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP), 109 

Capacity-building programs, 110 

Program Development Education, 110 

Teaching strategies, 110 

continuous progress programs, 110 

cooperative learning, 110 

Community-based programs, 110 

positive youth development programs, 110 

Ineffective primary prevention programs, 110-111 

peer programs, 110 

nonpromotion to next grade, 110 

Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE), 110-111 

Prevention, secondary (Intervention), 111-114 

Parent training, 111-112 

Montreal Longitudinal Study 

(Preventive Treatment Program), 111 

Syracuse Family Development Research Program, 111 

Perry Preschool Program, 111 

Parent Child Development Center Programs, 112 

Parent-Child Interaction Training Program, 112 

Home visitation, 112 

Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses, 112 

Multicontextual programs, 112-113 

Yale Child Welfare Project, 112 

CASASTART, 112-113 

Families and Schools Together (FAST Track), 113 

The Incredible Years Series, 113 

Academic programs, 113-114 

compensatory education, 113 

preventive intervention program, 113 

Quantum Opportunities Program, 113-114 

Moral-reasoning, problem-solving, and thinking skills interventions, 114 

Ineffective secondary prevention programs, 114 

gun buyback programs, 114 

firearm training, 114 

mandatory gun ownership, 114 

redirecting youth behavior, 114 

shifting peer group norms, 114 

Prevention, tertiary (Intervention), 114-119 

meta-analyses of, 115 

behavioral and skill development interventions, 115 

family-based clinical interventions, 115-117 

marital and family therapy, 115 

Functional Family Therapy (FFT), 115 

Multisystemic Therapy (MST), 116 

Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care, 117 

justice system services, 117 

ineffective tertiary prevention programs, 117-119 

boot camps, 117 

residential programs, 118 

milieu treatment, 118 

behavioral token programs, 118 

waivers to adult court, 118 

counseling, 118 

shock programs, 119 

Scared Straight, 119 

Preventive efforts, 93 

Preventive Intervention program, 113 

Preventive Intervention, 149 

Primary prevention, 4, 105-110 

Secondary prevention (Intervention), 111-114 

Tertiary prevention (Intervention), 114-117 

Probability samples, 8 

Problem behavior, 66 

Program Development Education, 110 

Program implementation, effective principles, 123 

Project I-Star, 137 

Promising programs, Level 1, 138-142 

Intensive Protective Supervision Project, 138 

Montreal Longitudinal Study/Preventive Treatment Program, 138-139 

Perry Preschool Program, 139-140 

School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP), 140-141 

Striving Together to Achieve Rewarding Tomorrows (CASASTART, formerly Children at Risk [CAR]), 141 

Syracuse Family Development Research Program, 141-142 

Promising programs, Level 2, 142-151 

Bullying Prevention Program, 142 

Families and Schools Together (FAST Track), 142-143 

Good Behavior Game, 143-144 

I Can Problem Solve, 144-145 

The Incredible Years Series, 145-146 

Iowa Strengthening Families Program, 146 

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT), 147 

Parent Child Development Center Programs, 147-148 

Parent-Child Interaction Training, 148 

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years, 148-149 

Preventive Intervention, 149 

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), 149-150 

The Quantum Opportunities Program, 150-151 

Yale Child Welfare Project, 151 

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), 107, 149-150 

Protective factors, 57, 58, 62 

defined, 57, 62 

five domains used in this report, 57, 58 

developmental psychopathology and, 62 

Protective factors, proposed, 73-76 

evidentiary standards for, 73 

family, 75 

individual, 74-75 

intolerance of deviant and violent behavior, 74 

school commitment, 74, 75-76 

IQ, 74-75 

sex, 75 

positive social orientation, 75 

peer group, 76 

school, 74, 75-76 

Psychological conditions, 68 

as risk factors, 65, 68 

Public health approach to youth violence, 2-3, 4-5 

advantages of, 2, 4-5 

and primary prevention, 4 

*vs.* the medical model, 4 

surveillance processes and, 4 

epidemiological analyses and, 4 

interventions and, 4 

models and, 4 

Public school programs, 110-111 
Q 
Quantum Opportunities Program, 113 
R
Racial/ethnic minority populations, 2, 18, 20, 27-31, 33, 34, 43, 44, 46, 48, 51 

probability of arrest and, 28-30, 34 

and risk of being killed at school, 31 

peak age of onset of violence and, 43 

hazard rate and, 43 

age-specific prevalence of violence and, 44 

cumulative prevalence of violence and, 46 

role of victimization and, 51 

violence in adulthood and, 51 

gang activity and, 70 

as a risk factor, 72 

Racial bias, 18, 30 

Randomization, 8 

Rape, forcible, 17, 19, 21, 42 

defined, 17 

arrest rates, 19, 21 

Rates of offending and violent careers, 46-47 

mean annual offending rate unchanged, 46 

active involvement, defined, 47 

career length, defined, 47 

Recidivism, 117 

Recommendations, informal, of this report, 154-156 

Redirecting youth behavior, 114 

Research opportunities and needs, recommended, 154 

effectiveness, 154 

firearm safety, 154 

media effects, 154 

violence prevention programs, 155 

Research, multidisciplinary, 7-9 

standards of scientific evidence for, 7-9 

experimental research, 7-8 

randomization, 8 

mediating-effects analysis, 8 

meta-analysis, 8 

epidemiological research, 8 

probability samples, 8 

cross-sectional studies, 8 

longitudinal and panel designs, 8 

experimental studies, 8 

Residential programs, 118 

Risk factors and protective factors, in general, 57-63 

Risk factors for youth violence, 57-77 

Risk factors in adolescence, 67-73 

relationships with parents and, 68 

community, 70-71 

social disorganization, 70 

neighborhood violence and criminal adults, 71 

drug use, 71 

family, 69 

individual, 68-69 

psychological conditions, 68 

aggressiveness, 68 

sex and, 68 

antisocial behavior, 68 

substance use, 69 

peer group, 70 

school, 69-70 

school violence and gang activity, 70 

Risk factors in childhood, 63-67 

exposure to violence, 64 

community, 67 

family, 66-67 

poverty and socioeconomic status, 66 

antisocial parents, 66 

parent-child relations, 66 

broken homes, 66 

child neglect, 66, 67 

individual, 64-66 

substance use, 64-65 

sex and, 64-65 

risk markers, 64-65 

aggression, 64-65 

psychological conditions, 65 

media violence, 65 

antisocial behavior, 65-66 

medical or physical conditions, 66 

peer group, 67 

school, 67 

Risk factors, unexpected findings, 71-73 

conduct disorder, 69-70 

race, 72 

ethnicity, 72 

child abuse, 72 

heredity, 73 

drug trafficking, 71, 73 

Risk factors, 57-62 

defined, 67, 58-59 

intervention and, 61 

predictive value, 57 

developmental progression toward violence and, 59-61 

limitations, 61-62 

five domains used in this report, 57, 58 

differentiated from causes, 57-59 

biological basis, lack of, 59 

multiple, 59 

race and, 61 

sex and, 61 

violence or exposure to violence, 64 

medical or physical conditions as, 66 

Risk factors, reduction of, 103 

Risk markers, 64-65 

race/ethnicity, 12, 72, 77 

defined, 64-65 

male sex, 64, 65 

Robbery, 17, 21, 42 

defined, 17 

arrest rates, 19, 21 

with a weapon, prevalence rates, 25, 26, 27, 42 

Rochester Youth Development Survey, 26, 33 
S
Scared Straight, 119 

Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, 50 

School commitment, protective factor of, 74, 75-76 

School functioning, attendance, and dropout rates, 139-141 

School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP), 109, 140-141 

School violence, 30-33 

homicides, 30-31 

nonfatal injuries, 31 

weapons at school, 31 

gang activity, 70 

gangs at school, 32 

perceptions of, 32-33 

School-based programs, 110-111 

Schools, 69 

culture of violence in, 69 

in socially disorganized neighborhoods, 69 

importance of dominant peer culture in, 70 

Science base, need to build, 154 

Seattle Social Development Project, 109, 135-136 

Secondary prevention programs, ineffective, 114 

Self-esteem, link to violent behavior, 50 

Self-reports, or surveys, of violent behavior, 1, 17-19, 23-34, 42-51 

advantages and limitations of, 18 

exaggeration or overreporting and, 18 

longitudinal surveys, 17 

cross-sectional surveys, 17-18 

Monitoring the Future (MTF), 17-18, 25-29, 31 

from victims, 24 

disparities with police reports and arrest figures, 24-27, 29, 30 

sex and race, differences by, 27-31, 33, 34 

Serious violence, 3 

as defined by city surveys, 42 

Serious violent youths, 42 

defined, 42 

chronic violent offenders, 48 

responsible for great majority of crime, 48 

arrest records of, 48 

identifiable in childhood, 48 

gang membership and, 48 

interventions and, 48 

Serious youth violence, 153 

emergence as sizable health problem, 153 

Sex, 2, 42-46, 59, 61, 64-65 

age-specific prevalence of violence and, 41, 43, 44 

hazard rate and, 43 

cumulative prevalence of violence and, 45-46 

victimization and, 51 

and risk factors, 65 

gang activity and, 70 

Sex and behavioral effects of media violence, 90, 91 

Sex and race, differences in arrest rates by, 27, 29-30, 34 

differences in self-reports, 27-31, 33, 34 

Sex differences in violence, 28-30, 34 

Shifting peer group norms, 114 

Shock programs, 119 

Siblings, diffusion effects on, 133 

Skill- and competency-building programs, 106-107 

Social case work, 118 

Social disorganization, 69, 70 

Socioeconomic status, 61, 66 

Standards of scientific evidence, 7-9 

Standards, scientific, for determining program effectiveness, 102-105 

rigorous experimental design, 102-103 

significant deterrent effect, 102-103 

replication, 102-103 

low attrition, 102 

adequate measurement, 102 

statistical significance, 102 

risk factors, reduction of, 102 

sustainability of effects, 102-103 

identification of ineffective programs, 103 

Statistics, crime, 17 

as measure of youth violence, 18 

public health, 17, 18 

Striving Together to Achieve Rewarding Tomorrows (CASASTART, formerly Children at Risk[CAR]), 141 

Substance use and abuse, 49-51, 61, 64, 69, 71, 137, 138, 141 

Suicide, 3-4 

Superpredators, myth of, 48-49 

Surveillance and the public health approach, 17-18 

importance of in public health, 17-18 

Surveys of adolescent violence 

U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 42 

city surveys, 42-51 

serious violence, as defined by city surveys, 42 

aggravated assault, 42 

robbery, 42 

gang fights, 42 

rape, 42 

Surveys. *See* Self-reports of violent behavior. 

Sustainability of effects, 103 

Syracuse Family Development Research Program, 111, 141-142 
T
Teaching strategies, 110 

Television violence, 87, 88-88, 90-91, 88-89 

The Incredible Years Series, 113, 145-146 

The Quantum Opportunities Program, 150-151 

Three-strikes law, 119 

Time lag, problem of, 120 
U
U.S. Department of Education, 30-31 

U.S. Department of Justice, 30-31 

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program, 19, 25, 26, 153, 156 

inexact nature of UCR numbers, 19 

University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, 25 
V
V-chip, 93, 94 

Victimization and perpetration, 3, 51 

data, 1 

relationship to violence, 51 

parental involvement and, 51 

Video games, 92, 94 

Violence as a risk factor, 64 

as hindrance to parent-child bonding, 64, 66 

Violence index, 26, 27 

defined, 27 

Violence on television, 87, 88-89, 89-91 

defined, 88 

ratings for media, 93 

Violence, costs of, 119 

exposure to, 64 
W
Waivers to adult court, 118 

Workshop on Violence and Public Health (1985), 4 

Wraparound services, 117 
Y
Yale Child Welfare Project, 112, 151 

Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), 23, 31 

defined, 23 

Youth violence, 2, 3 

designation as public health concern, 2 

intervention, 3 

developmental dynamics of, 41-52 

magnitude of, 17-34 

epidemic of, 17, 18-25, 33 

measurement of, 17-18 

monitoring of. See Surveillance and the public health approach. 

prevention and intervention, 99-125 

risk factors for, 57-77 

*Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General,* 1-4 

purpose of, 1-4 

focus of, 2-3 

developmental perspective on violence, 3 

hate crimes not addressed, 3 

victims not addressed, 3 

violence against intimate partners 

not addressed, 3 

self-directed violence not addressed, 3-4 
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