__________

The Authors:

____________

Paul A. Murphy, Research Forester, Southern Research Station,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Monticello,

AR 71656-3516; and Gregory J. Nowacki, Regional Ecologist,

Region 10, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Juneau, AK 99802-1628.

Preface

Old growth is widely acknowledged today as an essential part of managed forests, particularly on public lands. However, this

concept is relatively new, evolving since the 1970's when a grassroots movement in the Pacific Northwest began in earnest to

define old growth. In response to changes in public attitude, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, began

reevaluating its policy regarding old-growth forests in the 1980's. Indeed, the ecological significance of old growth and its

contribution to biodiversity were apparent. It was also evident that definitions were needed to adequately assess and manage

the old-growth resource. However, definitions of old growth varied widely among scientists. To address this discrepancy and

other old-growth issues, the National Old-Growth Task Group was formed in 1988. At the recommendation of this committee,

old growth was officially recognized as a distinct resource by the Forest Service, greatly enhancing its status in forest

management planning. The committee devised “The Generic Definition and Description of Old-Growth Forests” to serve as a

basis for further work and to ensure uniformity among Forest Service Stations and Regions. Emphasis was placed on the

quantification of old-growth attributes.

At the urging of the Chief of the Forest Service, all Forest Service Stations and Regions began developing old-growth

definitions for specific forest types. Because the Southern and Eastern Regions share many forest communities (together they

encompass the entire Eastern United States), their efforts were combined, and a cooperative agreement was established with

The Nature Conservancy for technical support. The resulting project represents the first large-scale effort to define old growth

for all forests in the Eastern United States. This project helped bring the old-growth issue to public attention in the East.

Definitions will first be developed for broad forest types and based mainly on published information and so must be viewed

accordingly. Refinements will be made by the Forest Service as new information becomes available. This document represents

1 of 35 forest types for which old-growth definitions will be drafted.

In preparing individual old-growth definitions, authors followed National Old-Growth Task Group guidelines, which differ

from the standard General Technical Report format in two ways—the abstract (missing in this report) and the literature

citations (listed in Southern Journal of Applied Forestry style). Allowing for these deviations will ensure consistency across

organizational and geographic boundaries.

April 1997

Southern Research Station

P.O. Box 2680

Asheville, NC 28802
An Old-Growth Definition for Xeric Pine

and Pine-Oak Woodlands

Paul A. Murphy and Gregory J. Nowacki

Introduction

This old-growth type differs from the general concept of old

growth, which is generally viewed as multicanopied and

with a luxuriant understory. This type occurs in more hostile

environments, such as exposed ridges and southern slopes,

and often the midcanopy layers below the overstory are

missing. This type often occurs as relatively small, isolated

fragments because it is usually restricted to minor

topographic features. These differences make the xeric pine

and pine-oak woodlands unique among the old-growth

types.

Description of Forest Type Group

General Location

Xeric pine and pine-oak forests and woodlands are found

throughout most of the Eastern United States, from southern

Missouri to northeast Texas eastward to the Atlantic

coastline from southern Maine to South Carolina. The chief

physiographic provinces containing these forests and

woodlands are the Ozark Plateau, Ouachita Mountains,

Interior Low Plateau, Appalachian Plateau, Ridge and

Valley, Blue Ridge, Piedmont, West Gulf Coastal Plain,

Embayed Coastal Plain, and southern New England.

Site Characteristics

These communities normally exist on dry, infertile sites

with strongly acidic soils. Xeric site conditions result from

(1) low precipitation, (2) limited moisture absorption/

retention (exposed bedrock, steep slopes, coarse-textured

soils, rocky soils, shallow soils), and/or (3) high

evapotranspiration rates (southern exposures). Most xeric

pine and pine-oak forests and woodlands occur on ridgetops

and south-facing upper slopes in the mountains or on

excessively drained, sandy uplands in gentle terrain (e.g.,

Piedmont).

Species

Principal species of these xerophytic communities include

pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.), Virginia pine (P. virginiana

Mill.), shortleaf pine (P. echinata Mill.), Table Mountain

pine (P. pungens Lamb.), and chestnut oak (Quercus prinus

L.). Associated species are scarlet oak (Q. coccinea

Muenchh.), black oak (Q. velutina Lam.), blackjack oak (Q.

marilandica Muenchh.), post oak (Q. stellata Wangenh.),

northern red oak (Q. rubra L.), southern red oak (Q. falcata

Michx.), white oak (Q. alba L.), and pignut hickory (Carya

glabra Mill.). Understories consist predominantly of

ericaceous shrubs, and within its range, bear oak (Q.

ilicifolia Wangenh.).

Site Disturbances

Due to the prevailing xeric conditions, these forests and

woodlands have had frequent fires. Before European

settlement, most fires were probably low-intensity, surface

burns, although occasional catastrophic canopy fires

undoubtedly occurred in some stands. On sites where

nutrients and moisture are not extremely limiting, periodic

burns are usually necessary to maintain these early

successional forests, especially the pines (Pinus spp.). Over

many decades, accumulation of dead biomass can

predispose these forests to catastrophic fire. However, even

in the absence of fire, successional changes are normally

restricted (possibly ending with oak domination) because

most sites are infertile and dry.

Distinguishing Features

Distinctive differences exist in this group east and west of

the Mississippi River. All the principal species are found

east of the river; shortleaf pine is the only pine species

occurring west of the river; and chestnut oak is confined to

east of the river.
2

The occurrence of pines in the Appalachian Highlands is south-facing slope of the Roaring Branch Research Natural

influenced by elevation, aspect, and exposure, even on xeric Area in Arkansas as open with few overstory trees and

sites. In the Great Smoky Mountains, Whittaker (1956) many canopy gaps. Most shortleaf pines on this site were

found that Virginia and shortleaf pines were concentrated at large, scattered trees. Stahle and others (1985) also

low elevations and were scarce above 2,500 feet [762 characterized a xeric shortleaf pine forest in Hot Springs

meters (m)]; pitch pine dominated between 2,200 and 3,200 National Park as rather open with shortleaf the most

feet (671 and 975 m); and Table Mountain pine was the common species but with abundant white oak, various

most abundant pine at higher elevations. Table Mountain hickories (Carya spp.), and other hardwoods. Whittaker

pine occurred most commonly between elevations of 1,000 (1956) portrayed Table Mountain pine stands in the Great

and 4,000 feet (305 and 1219 m); occurrences above 4,000 Smoky Mountains as having an open pine canopy above a

feet (1219 m) were confined to its southern range in North dense, low, ericaceous shrub layer.

Carolina and Tennessee (Zobel 1969). Golden (1981) found

that communities of pitch pine and Table Mountain pine Because this forest type group includes several species and

tended to occur on exposed ridges, upper slopes, or steep covers a wide geographic area, stand characteristics also

south-southwest slopes at middle to low elevations, less differ. Tree density runs from about 45 trees per acre [11

than 4,100 feet (1250 m), in the central Great Smoky per hectare (ha)] for Table Mountain pine to more than 300

Mountains. Racine (1966) observed that the most important per acre (741 per ha) for shortleaf pine in the Ouachita

factor affecting the dominance of these pine species in the Mountains (table 1). Martin (1991) stated that old-growth

Blue Ridge escarpment was ridge width; however, pine basal areas on dry sites would probably be less than 109

dominance was also influenced by ridge prominence in square feet per acre (25 m /ha).

relation to surrounding topography and a southern exposure.

Racine (1966) reported that ridge orientation was also The average age of large trees in table 1 was taken as the

important; on east-west ridges pine communities would midpoint between the mature age and maximum age given

extend down the south slopes almost to cove forests, but on by Hepting (1971) for each species; values range from 140

north-south ridges the pines were confined to a narrow strip to 200 years. Pitch pine, Table Mountain pine, and Virginia

on the crest. Hack and Goodlett (1960) reported that pitch pine will usually grow to no more than about 15 inches [38

pine and Table Mountain pine in the upper Shenandoah centimeters (cm)] in diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) on

Valley were restricted to noses, ridges, and convex slopes. xeric sites in the Great Smoky Mountains (Whittaker 1956).

In the Interior Highlands of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and But shortleaf pine in the Interior Highlands may reach 25

Missouri, xeric communities of shortleaf pine are found up inches (64 cm) in d.b.h. on these sites (Fountain and

to 2,000 feet (610 m) on south-facing slopes and ridges that Sweeney 1985).

are harsh, refractory sites (Eyre 1980).

Associated Society of American Foresters Cover Types:

43—bear oak (in part) Mountain pine in the Great Smoky Mountains. A sample of

45—pitch pine (in part) south-facing midslopes in the Roaring Branch Research

75—shortleaf pine Natural Area (Fountain and Sweeney 1985) revealed six

76—shortleaf pine-oak classes for shortleaf pine and four classes for hardwoods.

78—Virginia pine-oak

79—Virginia pine

Old-Growth Conditions

Living Tree Component

Because of the poor growing conditions, tree size and other

old-growth characteristics of xeric pine and pine-oak

woodlands are vastly different from other old-growth types;

e.g., mixed mesophytic (Martin 1991). For instance, Stahle

and others (1985) described the vegetation on a steep, xeric,

2

Limited information is available on the number of 4-inch

(10-cm) diameter classes. Whittaker (1956) showed four

4-inch (10-cm) diameter classes in a stand table for Table

Dead Tree Component

The only information available about dead tree components

involves glade and decadent stands in the Hot Springs

National Park (Johnson and Schnell 1985). The glade type

occurs as narrow strips on ridgetops and steep, south-facing

slopes with thin, rocky soils and rock outcrops. The

overstory is composed of pines, oaks, and hickories; the

understory is primarily grass with some herbaceous cover.

The decadent stands have medium-to-heavy fuel loads and

are composed of large, old, shortleaf pine trees scattered

among smaller pines and hardwoods. Most of the large
3

downed and dead woody material and snags are pine. Some

stands have a large amount of dead material, probably

because they accumulated more biomass than the glades and

went longer without fire. 

Other Components

In the Great Smoky Mountains, Whittaker (1956) observed

that common associates of Virginia pine at lower elevations

were chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white pine (P. strobus L.),

blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.), black oak, and white

oak. Shrub-layer coverage ranges from 10 to 40 percent;

common species are Kalmia latifolia L., Vaccinium

vacillans Torr., V. stamineum L., Ilex montana var. beadlei

Ashe, and Smilax spp. The herb-layer coverage is only 2 to

10 percent with Andropogon scoparius Michx. being the

most prevalent species. Chestnut oak is a common associate

of pitch pine along with other species. Shrub coverage is

greater, from 40 to 70 percent, and the dominant species are

K. latifolia, V. vacillans, and V. hirsutum Buckl. Herb

coverage is 5 to 20 percent with A. scoparius Michx.,

Pteridium aquilinum var. latisculum Desvaux, Epigaea

repens L., and Gaultheria procumbens L. the most common

species. At high elevations, pitch pine, scarlet oak, chestnut

oak, and blackgum are associates of Table Mountain pine.

Kalmia latifolia and Vaccinium spp. dominate the shrub

layer, which ranges from 60 to 90 percent coverage. Galax

aphylla L., E. repens L., and G. procumbens L. are the

important species of the herb layer, which ranges from 5 to

20 percent coverage.

In addition to shortleaf pine, the south-facing slopes at Hot

Springs National Park (Dale and Watts 1980) support post

oak, blackjack oak, and black hickory (C. texana Buckl.).

Ground cover is sparse but comprises a variety of species;

dominants are Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Persoon and

Brachyelytrum erectum (Schreb.) Beauv.

In Le Flore County, Oklahoma, Johnson (1986) found

several species characteristic of xeric sites associated with

shortleaf pine on south-facing slopes. Vaccinium vacillans

Torr. dominated the shrub layer.

On the Roaring Branch Research Natural Area in Arkansas,

Fountain and Sweeney (1985) found that white oak,

northern red oak, black oak, and mockernut hickory [C.

tomentosa (Poir.) Nutt.] were common associates of

shortleaf pine on a south-facing midslope. The shrub layer

was dominated by V. arboreum Marsh., V. vacillans, and Q.

alba. Typical herbaceous species were Panicum spp. L.,

Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv., and Desmodium spp.

Desvaux.

Forest Dynamics and Succession

Xeric pine and pine-oak woodlands occur primarily in small

patches that have survived settlement, mining, logging,

farming, grazing, and other activities that have greatly

affected the more fertile and accessible forest land.

Typically, they occur on steep slopes, ridgetops, and less

fertile sites, thus discouraging human exploitation. Confined

to these rugged locations, most old-growth xeric pine and

pine-oak woodlands are small and scattered rather than in

large contiguous blocks. Stahle and others (1985) stated that

some of the old growth still found in the Eastern United

States occurs on these sites as small pockets of relict stands.

Because of greater productivity and easier access, forests in

the Piedmont and Coastal Plain have been so extensively

logged and cleared that old-growth forests, including xeric

pine and pine-oak woodlands, are rare. Jones (1988)

described the xeric sites in the South Carolina Piedmont

where this old-growth type could occur as high-landscape

positions, southerly and westerly aspects, and heavy claytextured soils or rocks close to the soil surface. The driest

sites were on exposed ridge flats and upper slopes of any

aspect with soils that had a heavy clay subsurface within 1.0

feet (0.3 m) of the surface or bedrock within 2.0 to 2.3 feet

(0.6 to 0.7 m) of the surface. Ward (1984) described xeric

sites in the east Texas Coastal Plain as rounded to

flat-topped hills with sandy, porous soils.

Whether this forest type group is self-sustaining or is a seral

stage is debatable. Even the historic role of fire is not

completely understood. Whittaker (1956) suggested that

intense fires on xeric sites in the Great Smoky Mountains

might produce an even-aged pine stand. As this pine stand

ages, mortality creates small openings where a new

generation of pine becomes established. Whittaker (1956)

speculated that these successive waves of new seedlings

might be the reason for bimodal distributions in these

stands. He also stated that fire alone does not produce these

pine stands. Barden and Woods’ (1976) results indicate that

not every lightning fire is intense enough to eliminate the

existing forest canopy in the Great Smoky Mountains; thus,

most lightning fires would not necessarily initiate new pine

reproduction. Harmon and others (1983) found in the Great

Smoky Mountains National Park that occurrence of both

natural and anthropogenic fires increased with elevation, but

most of the lightning fires occurred on xeric sites. Barden

(1977) found that Table Mountain pine maintained itself for

87 years without fire on Looking Glass Mountain in North

Carolina. Zobel (1969) suggested that Table Mountain pine

might be self-sustaining on rock outcrops or shale slopes

where hardwood species grow poorly. The pines might
4

Table 1 (English units) —Old-growth attributes for xeric pine and pine-oak forests a

and woodlands

Value Quantifiable _________________ No. of

attribute Range Mean stands References b

Stand density

(no./acre; $4-in d.b.h.)

Hot Springs National Park Dale and Watts 1980

Shortleaf pine 234-434 340.0 NA

Hardwoods 84-167 112.0 NA

Oklahoma Johnson 1986

Shortleaf pine and

hardwoods (>2-in d.b.h.) NA 253.0 NA

Roaring Branch RNA Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Shortleaf pine NA 56.0 1

Hardwoods NA 169.0 1

Great Smoky Mountains Whittaker 1956

Table Mountain pine NA 45.0 NA

Stand basal area

(ft /acre; $4-in d.b.h.) 2

Hot Springs National Park Dale and Watts 1980

Shortleaf pine 36.7-76.7 56.7 NA

Hardwoods 18.4-21.7 20.0 NA

Oklahoma Johnson 1986

Shortleaf pine and

hardwoods (>2-in d.b.h.) NA 94.0 NA

Roaring Branch RNA Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Shortleaf pine NA 30.0 1

Hardwoods NA 51.0 1

Great Smoky Mountains Whittaker 1956

Table Mountain pine NA 24.4 NA

Age of large trees (years) Hepting 1971

Shortleaf pine NA 200.0 NA

Pitch pine NA 150.0 NA

Table Mountain pine NA 200.0 NA

Virginia pine NA 140.0 NA

Number of 4-in size classes

($4-in d.b.h.)

Roaring Branch RNA Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Shortleaf pine NA 6.0 1

Hardwoods NA 4.0 1

D.b.h. (or maximum d.b.h.)

of largest trees (inches)c

Shortleaf pine 22-25 23.0 1 Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Pitch pine 12-15 NA NA Whittaker 1956

Table Mountain pine 10-15 NA NA Whittaker 1956

Virginia pine 10-15 NA NA Whittaker 1956

Standing snags

(tons/acre; $3-in d.b.h.)

Hot Springs National Park Johnson and Schnell 1985

Glade NA 3.5 NA

Decadent stand NA 13.1 NA

Downed logs (tons/acre)

Hot Springs National Park Johnson and Schnell 1985

Glade NA .1 NA

Decadent stand NA 4.2 NA

Decadent treesd

(no./acre; $4-in d.b.h.) NA NA NA NA

Canopy layers (no.) NA NA NA NA e

Canopy in gaps (percent) NA NA NA NA

Other features NA NA NA NA

 NA in the table denotes that information is not available. a

 Number of stands may not equal the number of citations. b

 Includes dominant and codominant trees that make up the upper canopy. c

 Includes deformed, bole-scarred, spike-topped, and wind-damaged trees. d

 May be bimodal. e
5

Table 1 (metric units) —Old-growth attributes for xeric pine and pine-oak forests a

and woodlands

 Value Quantifiable ________________ No. of

attribute Range Mean stands References b

Stand density

(no./acre; $10-cm d.b.h.)

Hot Springs National Park Dale and Watts 1980

Shortleaf pine 578-1072 840.0 NA

Hardwoods 208- 413 277.0 NA

Oklahoma Johnson 1986

Shortleaf pine and

hardwoods (>5-cm d.b.h.) NA 625.0 NA

Roaring Branch RNA Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Shortleaf pine NA 138.0 1

Hardwoods NA 418.0 1

Great Smoky Mountains Whittaker 1956

Table Mountain pine NA 111.0 NA

Stand basal area

(m /ha; $10-cm d.b.h.) 2

Hot Springs National Park Dale and Watts 1980

Shortleaf pine 8.4-17.6 13.0 NA

Hardwoods 4.2- 5.0 4.6 NA

Oklahoma Johnson 1986

Shortleaf pine and

hardwoods (>5-cm d.b.h.) NA 21.6 NA

Roaring Branch RNA Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Shortleaf pine NA 6.9 1

Hardwoods NA 11.7 1

Great Smoky Mountains Whittaker 1956

Table Mountain pine NA 5.6 NA

Age of large trees (years) Hepting 1971

Shortleaf pine NA 200.0 NA

Pitch pine NA 150.0 NA

Table Mountain pine NA 200.0 NA

Virginia pine NA 140.0 NA

Number of 10-cm size classes

($10-cm d.b.h.)

Roaring Branch RNA Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Shortleaf pine NA 6.0 1

Hardwoods NA 4.0 1

D.b.h. (or maximum d.b.h.)

of largest trees (cm)c

Shortleaf pine 56-64 58.0 1 Fountain and Sweeney 1985

Pitch pine 30-38 NA NA Whittaker 1956

Table Mountain pine 25-38 NA NA Whittaker 1956

Virginia pine 25-38 NA NA Whittaker 1956

Standing snags

(tons/ha; $7.6-cm d.b.h.)

Hot Springs National Park Johnson and Schnell 1985

Glade NA 7.8 NA

Decadent stand NA 29.5 NA

Downed logs (tons/ha)

Hot Springs National Park Johnson and Schnell 1985

Glade NA .3 NA

Decadent stand NA 9.4 NA

Decadent treesd

(no./ha; $10-cm d.b.h.) NA NA NA NA

Canopy layers (no.) NA NA NA NA e

Canopy in gaps (percent) NA NA NA NA

Other features NA NA NA NA

 NA in the table denotes that information is not available. a

 Number of stands may not equal the number of citations. b

 Includes dominant and codominant trees that make up the upper canopy. c

 Includes deformed, bole-scarred, spike-topped, and wind-damaged trees. d

 May be bimodal. e
6

maintain themselves best where understory hardwoods and C Botkins Pine Woods, Ste. Genevieve County,

shrubs do not prevent the establishment and development of Missouri—30 acres (12.2 ha)

pine reproduction. Indeed, fires help keep competition in

check. So it may not be necessary for the sparse pine

overstory to be eliminated for pine reproduction to develop,

particularly with understory burning. Tornadoes and wind C Hickory Canyons, Ste. Genevieve County, Missouri—

storms may also create openings in certain regions (Turner 30 acres (12.2 ha)

1935). Ward (1984) described xeric forests (not necessarily

old growth) in hilly, dry uplands in east Texas as open and

two-storied and speculated that dense understories might

prevent establishment of seedlings of overstory species. In C Johnson Tract, Wayne County, Missouri—30 acres 

the past, fire may have kept understory densities lower. (12.2 ha)

The limited, scattered occurrence of this type probably

precludes setting aside an area exclusively for old growth.

Rather, old-growth xeric pine and pine-hardwood forests C Lovers Leap, Howell County, Missouri—15 acres (6.1

and woodlands will probably be managed in areas that have ha)

more than one type, especially where oak dominates.

Because it occurs in small tracts in large areas, setting a

minimum area for management may not be appropriate.

Representative Old-Growth Stands

Areas where representative old-growth stands may appear

include:

C Hot Springs National Park, Arkansas

C Lake Winona Research Natural Area, Ouachita National

Forest, Arkansas

C Magazine Mountain, Ozark National Forest, Arkansas

C Roaring Branch Research Natural Area, Ouachita

National Forest, Arkansas

C Marshall Forest Preserve, near Rome, Georgia

C Alley Spring Hollow, Shannon County, Missouri—

50 acres (20.3 ha)

C Big Spring Towering Pines, Carter County, Missouri—

150 acres (60.8 ha)

C Hawe's Recreation Area, Carter County, Missouri—

15 acres (6.1 ha)

C Highway T Forest, Phelps County, Missouri—20 acres

(8.1 ha)

C Kaintuck Hollow, Phelps County, Missouri—15 acres 

(6.1 ha)

C Paddy Creek Wilderness Area, Texas County,

Missouri— 50 acres (20.3 ha)

C Peter A. Eck Tract, Texas County, Missouri—230 acres

(93.2 ha)

C Prairie Hollow, Shannon County, Missouri—13 acres 

(5.3 ha)

C Rocky Falls, Shannon County, Missouri—30 acres 

(12.2 ha)

C Spring Valley Branch, Carter County, Missouri—15

acres (6.1 ha)

C Twin Springs Woods, Ripley County, Missouri—30

acres (12.2 ha)

C Virgin Pine Forest, Shannon County, Missouri—47 acres

(19.0 ha)

C Great Smoky Mountains National Park, North Carolina

and Tennessee

C Linville Gorge, Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina.
7

Literature Cited

Barden, L.S. 1977. Self-maintaining populations of Pinus pungens Lam. in

the Southern Appalachian mountains. Castanea 42:316-323.

Barden, L.S., and F.W. Woods. 1976. Effects of fire on pine and

pine-hardwood forests in the Southern Appalachians. For. Sci.

22:399-403.

Dale, E.E., and M.R. Watts. 1980. Vegetation of Hot Springs National

Park, Arkansas. Final rep. for the Southwest Region, NPS, U.S. Dep.

Interior (#CX-70299001). U.S. Dep. Inter., Nat. Park Serv.,

Washington, DC. 85 p.

Eyre, F.H. (ed.). 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada.

Soc. Am. For., Washington, DC. 148 p.

Fountain, M.S., and J.M. Sweeney. 1985. Ecological assessment of the

Roaring Branch Research Natural Area. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv. Res.

Pap. SO-213. 15 p.

Golden, M.S. 1981. An integrated multivariate analysis of forest

communities of the central Great Smoky Mountains. Am. Mid. Nat.

106:37-53.

Hack, J.T., and J.C. Goodlett. 1960. Geomorphology and forest ecology of

a mountain region in the central Appalachians. Prof. Pap. 347. U.S.

Geol. Surv., Washington, DC. 64 p.

Harmon, M.E., S.P. Bratton, and P.S. White. 1983. Disturbance and

vegetation response in relation to environmental gradients in the Great

Smoky Mountains. Vegetatio 55:129-139.

Hepting, G.H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United

States. U.S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 386. 658 p.

Johnson, F.L. 1986. Woody vegetation of southeastern LeFlore County,

Oklahoma in relation to topography. Proc. Oklahoma Acad. of Sci.

66:1-6.

Johnson, F.L., and G.D. Schnell. 1985. Wildland fire history and the

effects of fire on vegetative communities at Hot Springs National Park,

Arkansas. Final rep. for the National Park Service, Santa Fe, New

Mexico (#CX-702930034). U.S. Dep. Inter., Nat. Park Serv.,

Washington, DC. 49 p.

Jones, S.M. 1988. Old-growth forests within the Piedmont of South

Carolina. Nat. Areas J. 8:31-37.

Martin, W.H. 1991. Defining old-growth deciduous forests: seeing the

forest and the trees. P. 139-145 in Proc. of the restoration of old growth

forests in the Interior Highlands of Arkansas and Oklahoma conf.,

Henderson, D., and L.D. Hedrick (eds.). Winrock Int. Inst. for Int.

Dev.

Racine, C.H. 1966. Pine communities and their site characteristics in the

Blue Ridge escarpment. J. Elisha Mitchell Soc. 82:172-181.

Stahle, D.W., J.G. Hehr, G.G. Hawks, Jr., et al. 1985. Tree-ring

chronologies for the Southcentral United States. Tree-Ring Lab.,

Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. 135 p.

Turner, L.M. 1935. Catastrophes and pure stands of shortleaf pine.

Ecology 16:213-215.

Ward, J.R. 1984. Woody vegetation of the dry uplands in east Texas.

M.S. Thesis. Stephen F. Austin State Univ., Nacogdoches, TX. 145 p. 

Whittaker, R.H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains. Ecol.

Monogr. 26:1-80.

Zobel, D.B. 1969. Factors affecting the distribution of Pinus pungens.

Ecol. Monogr. 39:303-333.
Murphy, Paul A.; Nowacki, Gregory J. 1997. An old-growth definition for

xeric pine and pine-oak woodlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-7. Asheville, NC:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

7 p.

The old-growth characteristics of xeric pine and pine-oak woodlands are

summarized from a survey of the available scientific literature. This type occurs

throughout the South and is usually found as small inclusions on ridgetops and

south-facing slopes in the mountains or on excessively drained, sandy uplands

in gentle terrain. Historically, this type has had frequent fires. The overstory is

rather open, and ericaceous shrubs commonly form the understory.

Keywords: Chestnut oak, downed logs, ericaceous shrubs, pitch pine,

shortleaf pine, snags, Table Mountain pine, Virginia pine, xerophytic

communities. 
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