BLS WORKING PAPERS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 

Bureau of Labor Statistics 

OFFICE OF PRODUCTIVITY AND TECHNOLOGY 

 

Proposed Category System for 1960-2000 Census Occupations 

 

Peter B. Meyer, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

Anastasiya M. Osborne, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

 Working Paper 383

 September 2005 

 

All views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1

Proposed category system 

for 1960-2000 Census occupations 

9 September 2005 

By Peter B. Meyer and Anastasiya M. Osborne 

Office of Productivity and Technology1

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

Abstract 

This paper proposes a detailed, consistent category system for occupations in the 

Census of Population data from 1960 to 2000. Most of the categories are based on 

the 1990 Census occupation definitions. We analyze employment levels, average 

earnings levels, and earnings variance in our occupation categories over time, 

compare these to similar trends for occupations defined in the occ1950 IPUMS 

classification, and test both classifications for consistency over time. 

1. Introduction and goals 

The decennial Census of Population provides data on the earnings and occupations 

of individuals living in the U.S. The occupations reported by respondents are placed in 

different categories based upon a list of several hundred defined for each Census by the 

Census Bureau. Since 1968, the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) has used the 

Census occupational categories, periodically updating them to the latest category system. 

Researchers can therefore use either the Census or CPS to study occupations over time in 

detail, but only with some restrictions because the classifications have changed from 

decade to decade. Some occupation categories disappeared while new ones emerged, 

partly due to technological reasons but mostly because the category system was evolving. 

In some cases, the content of an ongoing job category changed. This paper proposes a 

mapping between occupational category systems as they existed in the Census of 

 

1

 We thank Leo Sveikauskas, Mike Harper, David Autor, Steve Rosenow, Trent Alexander, and colleagues 

in the BLS Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics for data, advice, and valuable comments. 

The views and findings in this exploratory research work do not represent official views, findings, or policy 

of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 
2

Population from 1960 to 2000, and in the CPS from 1968 to 2003, into a unified set of 

categories, and tests the proposed system for consistency over time. 

Matt Sobek of the IPUMS project2 developed a consistent occupational category 

system and made it available for the IPUMS Census and CPS samples. The central 

variable, occ1950, represents a consistent occupational system based on the 1950 Census 

which Sobek extended to subsequent Censuses. Sobek assigned each occupation 

observed in a given year to a job category from the list of occupations used in the 1950 

Census. As part of our project, we studied the IPUMS common occupational 

classification, since it is the only one we know of. With the exception of the military in 

one year, IPUMS assigned each reported Census occupational code to a single occupation 

in the 1950 category system. Data for each Census and CPS year has consequently been 

dual-coded, in other words, an occupational code for its own year has also been assigned 

a parallel code to tell us what that occupation would have been in 1950. 

The text below reports evidence on the relative size and income stability of 

occupations in the occ1950 category system and the new classification. Appendix B lists 

the mapping between each occ1950 occupation and occupation categories in each of the 

later years. The quality of this mapping is high. However, for certain research purposes, 

one might want to use a different occupation system. For example, a test of a particular 

hypothesis may require more detailed occupations for comparison, or larger subgroups in 

order to provide larger samples to generate reliable summary statistics for each group, 

such as the variance of earnings. Also, the researcher may wish to study a panel of 

occupations to see how technology changes in since 1970s have affected occupations in 

the U.S. Over time it becomes more difficult to match new occupations to the 1950-

based classification. 

Any choice of a category system makes some tradeoffs between different desirable 

attributes, such as consistency over time, length of the time series, accuracy, and 

precision of the occupational information. Ideally, a new system should also conform to 

categories used in other sources, such as the Dictionary of Occupational Titles or the 

Labor Department’s new O*NET. Since specialists in this area repeatedly face the 

 

2

 IPUMS stands for Integrated Public Use Micro Samples. The ongoing project is discussed at 

http://www.ipums.umn.edu cited as Ruggles and Sobek (2003), and King, Ruggles, and Sobek (2003). 
3

problem of mapping a category system to earlier years, we state here our methods 

explicitly and provide supporting tables, code, and criteria reflecting our choices so 

others can use, adapt, and improve on them. 

Our effort to develop a consistent occupation system was similar to the IPUMS but is 

centered on the 1990 Census occupation categories and is intended for somewhat 

different purposes. We do not attempt to apply our category system to data earlier than 

1060, whereas IPUMS mapped the occ1950 definitions onto Census data back to 1850. 

Appendix A lists our Census 1990-based occupational system, together with a mapping 

to relevant occupational categories back to the 1960, 1970, 1980 Census, and forward to 

the 2000 Census. We combined several detailed occupations into more general 

categories (making the occupation set more coarse) in order to provide a consistent time 

series for other Census years. When possible, we tried to map back to the 1960 Census, 

and forward to the 2000 Census. We have 389 occupation categories.3

 We tested these 

categories for consistency over time on the hypothesis that changes in levels and trends in 

income measures should be relatively stable, if the proposed occupations were defined 

consistently. Below we compare our proposed mapping to the IPUMS occ1950 mapping, 

and show the least stable occupations in both systems, using changes from one Census 

year to another in three analytical variables: mean earned income, the coefficient of 

variation of earned income, and the fraction of the work force in each occupation. 

2. Data sources and definitions

We obtained decennial Census of Population data for 1960-2000 from 

www.ipums.umn.edu. All the analysis below was performed on the basis of this IPUMS 

data, using 1% samples from 1960, 1970, and 2000, and 5% samples for 1980 and 1990. 

The CPS has used Census of Population occupational categories since 1968.4 The 

Census data offers large samples, but only every ten years, while the CPS has smaller 

samples of earnings and occupation data for every year. 

 

3

 This includes some special cases which exist only in the 1960 data, and other special cases such as 

“unknown” and “unemployed” which are counted like occupations in some years. 

4

 The 1968-1970 March CPS used the 1960 Census occupation definitions, the 1971-182 CPS data used the 

1970 Census definitions, the 1983-1990 CPS apply the 1980 Census occupation categories, the 1991-2002 
4

The IPUMS occ1950 list of categories is shorter than the list of occupations in the 

1990 and 2000 Census. Some 1950 occupation titles are not used any more. For 

example, there were eleven categories with the job title “apprentice” in 1950, a title not 

used in the later data. On the other hand, the 1950 list does not include distinguish 

recently emerging occupations such as computer programmer, and detailed information 

on those occupations is needed to examine to study the effect of technological change on 

occupational structure and on income variance. 

Chart 1. Counts of the Census occupational categories in years 1950-2000. 

The Census defined 287 separate occupations in 1950, and more in later years, as 

illustrated in Chart 1. Analysis of categories show significant changes over time: some 

occupations disappeared, others emerged, and some were split into several categories. 

The title of apprentice disappeared by the year 2000. Electricians’ apprentices have been 

combined with electricians. Over the years, tile setters and roof repairers were 

sometimes presented separately and sometimes as one occupation. In our proposed 

classification, combining these occupations into one category reduces the level of detail 

in some Census years, but achieves consistency over time. Our proposed classification 

 

CPS data use the 1990 Census categories (with some tiny variations, documented on the IPUMS web site), 

and starting with the 2003 CPS the 2000 Census occupation definitions have been applied. 

Occupational Categories in the Census of 

Population, 1950-2000

543

504

504

441

287 296

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Years

Number of Census 

Occupations
5

has 389 occupation categories. The list of occupations we propose is shorter and 

therefore coarser than the 1990 Census. On the other hand, it is more numerous and 

therefore finer than the 1950 set used by IPUMS. 

A mapping between two category systems is called a crosswalk. Crosswalks 

between occupation categories in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), the 

Census and the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) are available at the National 

Crosswalk Service Center. The national crosswalk service center has a crosswalk 

between the DOT and the 2000 SOC. This Census web site has crosswalks between the 

1990 census and the 2000 census, as well as the 2000 Census and the 2000 SOC. (See 

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/ioindex.html.) Appendix C integrates our proposed 

classification with information on job attributes obtained from data provided in the 

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (required strength, working with people, quality of 

working conditions, and analytical tasks). 

Occupations are distinguished from one another mainly by the kinds of tasks the 

workers perform. Sometimes they are defined based on the function the workers provide 

for others, or by the hierarchical relation between the worker and others (e.g. supervisors 

and apprentices). Also, technological innovation may change the level and number of 

tasks in a particular occupation without changing the occupation title, or it may lead to 

the creation of a new category. For example, the blacksmith occupational category 

existed in the Census classification until 1970, but not later. A category for computer 

scientists first appeared in the 1970 Census. These occupational titles refer to particular 

technologies. When occupations are organized by tasks, technical change can result in 

the decline or disappearance of one occupation, and the appearance of a new one. 

When occupations are instead organized by function, i.e. the type of service provided 

to other people, technical change tends to occur within occupational categories without 

altering occupation classification. For example, technological change has greatly altered 

the work duties of nurses, but the occupation category “nurses” has remained consistently 

defined. 
6

2.1 The 1950 Occupation set used by IPUMS 

 

The IPUMS project studied how occupations in later Census years could be mapped 

to the earlier Census years. This project resulted in a crosswalk variable occ1950 given 

in each IPUMS file from 1850 to the recent year 2000. In almost all cases, there is a 

crosswalk between a particular occupation in a particular year and an occ1950 code. 

The exception is the armed forces category. In most years, respondents could 

specify their occupation as “in the military”. In 1990, the U.S. Census collected detailed 

information on the job tasks the armed forces members were performing (e.g. cook, 

doctor), and recorded separately whether the employer was the armed forces. This 

resulted in a more precise data in 1990 than in other years. However, since the bulk of the 

data came from other years and did not have the same level of detail, we decided to use 

the same definition of the armed forces as the IPUMS occ1950 variable. The armed 

forces are a separate occupation category. Individuals with distinctly military 

occupations and those who reported the armed forces as the last employer were placed 

into this category. Probably some civilian employees of the Dept of Defense, or 

reservists, are being counted in the armed forces, even though if we had more detailed 

information, we would count them in another occupation. (As per 

http://www.ipums.umn.edu/usa/pwork/empstata.html ) See appendix A, category 905, 

and appendix B, category 595, for the exact specification. 

The occ1950 classification cannot satisfy the needs of some research projects, for 

several reasons: 

1) It does not provide detailed information on occupations that developed after 1950. 

For example, it does not separate computer programming and computer administrators 

from electrical engineers or mathematical scientists. A researcher might need to separate 

these categories to study technological change over time.5

 

 

5

 For example, in Meyer (2001) and subsequent research, these occupations were examined for the effects 

of rapid technological change and related uncertainty and turbulence. 
7

2) It contains occupations with a sizable fraction of workers in the 1950s, which 

warranted a separate category, but that fraction became thinner or completely disappeared 

in later Census years. For example, the 1950 Census distinguished eleven categories 

of apprentices (electricians, carpenters, masons, and so forth). All those categories were 

replaced by a single category (“helpers”) in the 2000 Census. The apprentice categories 

were small to begin with, and we do not know the reason of their disappearance from the 

list of occupational categories. 

3) Some of the occ1950 occupations are defined consistently over time and listed 

separately, but are too small to compute reliable large-sample aggregate statistics for the 

group. For example, only a few marine and naval architects and petroleum engineers 

have been ever reported. Here a researcher would face a problem of a small sample, 

rather than a problem of creating consistent time series. 

By extending our proposed 1990-based category system back to the 1960s, we have 

the advantage of knowing how occupations changed over time, and can choose categories 

large enough and long lasting enough for a particular research project. 

 

2.2 Definitions of key variables 

For the statistical analysis presented below, we restrict the sample to respondents 

between ages 16 and 75 who had a job (that is, the empstatd variable has the value 10, 12, 

14, or 15). When we refer to fractions of the work force, we mean fractions of this 

restricted sample. 

We define earned income as the sum of wage income and income from business or 

self-employment. For 1990 and 2000, IPUMS imputed the estimates of topcoded statespecific incomes based on Census estimates they had. We have not studied top-coding in 

other years. 
8

3. Problems, issues, and opportunities in matching categories 

3.1 Choice among assignments in a split 

The Census Bureau published several technical papers that include tables showing 

how many people were coded in each occupation in one Census year and how they 

would be coded using the classification from the a different Census year. This allows us 

to see the frequency of assigning a particular respondent record to particular occupations 

in consecutive Censuses, such as those in Scopp (2003). 

Table 1. Examples of occupational classification changes from 1970 to 1980 

1970 

code 

1970 

occupation 

category 

1980 

code 1980 component categories and codes 

Experienced 

Civilian 

Labor Force 

in 1980 

Percent 

of 1970 

Category 

007 Financial managers 9,810 1.31 

023 Accountants and auditors 640,112 85.67 

025 Other financial officers 50,930 6.82 

036 Inspectors and compliance officers, except 

construction 14,870 1.99 

001 Accountants 

337 Bookkeepers, accounting, and auditing clerks 31,467 4.21 

043 Architects 52,454 88.20 

002 Architects 053 Civil engineers 4,096 6.89 

058 Marine engineers and naval architects 2,925 4.92 

064 Computer systems analysts and scientists 7,943 4.62 003 Computer 

programmers 229 Computer programmers 163,845 95.38 

004 

Computer 

systems 

analysts 

064 Computer systems analysts and scientists 84,804 100.00 

007 Financial managers 153,488 47.37 

019 Managers and administrators, n.e.c. 40,151 12.39 

025 Other financial officers 109,575 33.82 

303 Supervisors, general office 8,643 2.67 

202 

Bank officers 

and financial 

managers 

383 Bank tellers 12,154 3.75 

009 Purchasing managers 9,586 4.40 

013 Managers, marketing, advertising and 

public relations 124,506 57.10 

231 

Sales 

managers 

and 

department 

heads, retail 

trade 

243 Supervisors and proprietors, sales occupations 83,968 38.51 
9

IPUMS used these tables to assign the occ1950 mapping. Trent Alexander of 

IPUMS kindly provided these tables to us. Table 1 provides one example of a mapping 

given in the IPUMS Excel spreadsheet. 

For any of the 1970 categories it is clear which occupation is the closest match in 

1980 (shown in bold), but choosing that single assignment introduces a mismatch for 

some of the individuals within it. The categories are not a one to one match since the 

Census has redefined the category system, often because of technological changes, or to 

conform to other systems such as the SOC, the Standard Occupational Classification. 

3.2 Least-common-denominator occupational categories 

In this section we discuss categories with “not elsewhere classified” in their titles, 

usually abbreviated as “n.e.c.” Our proposed standard system has more of these 

categories than the Census classification. Our “n.e.c.” categories can have different 

meanings depending on a year and particular occupation. For example, midwives and 

chiropractors used to be separate categories in 1960 and 1970, but were combined into 

one category later. We assigned them into an “Other health and therapy jobs” category in 

our proposed standard classification given in appendix A. 

Another problematic example is presented in Table 2. It shows the difficulty of 

creating an occupational crosswalk over time. A plurality of workers (37%) coded in 284 

in 1970 would be mapped to occupation 263 in 1980. 

Table 2. Sales workers category, an example where mapping is difficult 

1970 

code 

1970 

occupation 

title 

1980 

code 1980 component categories and codes 

Experienced 

Civilian 

Labor Force 

Percent 

of 1970 

Category 

263 Sales workers, motor vehicles and boats 185,160 37.06 

266 Sales workers, furniture and home 

furnishings 98,941 19.80 

267 Sales workers; radio, television, hi fi, and 

appliances 76,674 15.35 

268 Sales workers, hardware and building 

supplies 81,668 16.35 

269 Sales workers, parts 39,120 7.83 

274 Sales workers, other commodities 16,008 3.20 

284 

Sales 

workers, 

except clerks, 

retail trade 

277 Street and door to door sales workers 2,082 0.42 
10

However, the title of 1980 occupation 263 is specifically restricted to motor vehicles 

and boats, while the 1970 title is not. If we were to use the 1980 category name and 

apply it to 1970 data, we would have had a category that explicitly mislabeled most of its 

members. Instead, we combined the workers in category 284 in 1970 into the category 

called “Salespersons not elsewhere classified”. Because occ1950 uses the predefined 

1950 categories, no categories were renamed, or “n.e.c.” categories created or expanded, 

to extend consistency in definition across years. 

To test the consistency of occ1950 categories and our proposed standard set, for 

example, “Technicians, n.e.c.” and “Salespersons, n.e.c.”, we conduct statistical analysis 

of the subpopulations in these categories, as shown in Appendix D. 

3.3 Reusable techniques 

Other researchers may wish to create a different occupational classification more 

suitable for their project. To make their job easier, we mean to make the tables, 

spreadsheets, code, and testing criteria public by describing them in this working paper 

and providing them on the Internet. Our methods and tools can then be applied in other 

circumstances. In principle, the industry variable in the Census could be standardized in 

a similar fashion. 

4.0 Testing the categories 

We computed three statistics for each occupation in the proposed standard system in 

order to detect which job categories show sharp changes from one Census year to 

another. Sharp changes in them probably reflect changes in a category’s definition rather 

than a real-world change. Appendix D shows the three measures, and identifies 

occupations with the most pronounced changes from Census to Census. We applied the 

same criteria to the IPUMS standard occ1950 system that was in the IPUMS data 

containing the 1960-2000 decennial Censuses. We resticted the sample to the employed 

respondents between 16 and 75 years old. The variable empstatd was used to restrict the 

employment status to respondents who had a job. All tables in this paper use Census 

person weights in their construction of averages. 
11

Our first measure is the weighted mean earned income for each occupation in each 

Census year. Earned income was defined to be the person’s annual wage or salary, plus 

business income. We compare this to the weighted mean earned income in the 

occupation in the previous decade. Second, we measure earnings inequality within the 

group by the coefficient of variation, and reported the greatest increase and lowest 

increase for both occupational category systems for each pair of consecutive Censuses. 

Third, we measure the fraction of the work force contained in each occupation, looking 

for sharp increases or declines in this proportion from Census to Census. Appendix D 

reports ratios measuring these changes. We found that the proposed new categories and 

the occ1950 categories perform similarly by these criteria. 

We do not use these measures as a tool to assign groups into an occupational 

category system. The measures serve only to verify that certain kinds of gross errors 

have been avoided. Many errors, avoidable and otherwise, could still be present in data 

which perform well by such criteria. Judgment of whether an occupation system is 

reasonable has to depend on the fundamental criteria by which the respondents were 

grouped, not on these rough measures of consistency. 

5.0 Job content attributes 

The Dictionary of Occupational Titles has over 12,000 detailed occupations with a 

few attributes measured on the basis of observing workers, and a text description about 

each occupation. Among the attributes measured are the physical strength, language use, 

and mathematical reasoning required. These occupations have been mapped to 1990 

Census definitions, so these attributes can be included in all years. 

Other researchers have defined useful attributes of occupations. England, Budig, and 

Folbre (2002) defined care work occupations as those which required specific attention to 

other individuals. Their research followed a tradition of measuring the degree to which 

women were paid less than men because of job attributes. Meyer (2001) defined a set of 

particular jobs which have been strongly affected by the pace of semiconductor 

improvements and technological uncertainty. Rosen (1981) posits that particular 

occupations are subject to a superstars effect, in which larger markets raise the inequality 
12

of earnings. There are also long standing categories of clerical, managerial, professional, 

or technical occupations. Ideally, researchers could use occupation category systems in 

which category boundaries would match up with the substantive relevant to them. 

The table in Appendix C of this paper shows how we map occupational attributes 

from other sources into the proposed classification system. We hope our effort will help 

researchers work around the limited definitions of skills that are sometimes used as 

independent variables in earnings regressions. Sometimes skills are measured crudely by 

the number of years of schooling, implying equal earnings for those with bachelor’s 

degrees in electrical engineering, art history, and finance. Levels of education also reflect 

signaling, certification, and opportunity differences, entirely apart from skills. Including 

other available attributes of the job (see Appendix C) can provide better information 

about the skills, tasks, and functions of the worker. 

Once we establish a common occupational category system, we can measure other 

attributes, such as the fraction of college graduates; the fraction of immigrants; the 

fraction working in urban areas; and the fraction working in the private sector. These are 

possible predictors about the way the occupation has evolved. We could test whether 

occupations requiring mathematics have become more numerous or better paid over time, 

holding all else constant. Perhaps occupations requiring government certification have 

been more stable than other occupations. Perhaps occupations with supervisory authority 

(such as managers) have evolved in different ways than other occupations. Perhaps new 

occupations tend to appear at the top of the income distribution, and then drift down; 

there could be a life cycle of occupations, in a way that is informative about technological 

change. 

6.0 Potential improvement: splitting recorded occupations 

In almost every case, we have assigned each occupation mentioned in the Census to 

one proposed standard category. There is one set of exceptions in 1990, where the armed 

forces category was distinguished by a different field of information (empstatd) and 

members of the armed forces had a variety of occupations (e.g. cook or doctor). Our 
13

classification assigns all members of the armed forces to a single armed forces 

occupation. 

Using other information recorded in a Census, it may be possible in future work to 

split the members of an originally recorded occupation into groups that fit the proposed 

standard occupations better. The next sections provide examples of such recoding. 

6.1 Using dual-coded data sets 

From 2000 to 2002, many CPS records were dual-coded into the 1990 Census 

category system as well as the 2000 Census system. Dual-coding makes it possible to 

look at some occupation categories that were stable in 1990, but were split into groups in 

2000, and vice versa. We can use micro data on the individuals who were assigned in the 

different ways in the dual-coded data set, then apply the rules learned to the Census and 

CPS data at large. Using this detailed information, in later work it may be possible to 

define year-2000 occupation groups better than they are now classified in Appendix A, 

and possibly in a way that improves the test performance in appendix D. 

6.2 Splitting 1960 Census occupations 

There were several cases in the 1960 data where it may be realistic to split a Census 

occupation group into several proposed standard groups. One case is the “Statisticians 

and actuaries” category in the 1960 classification. In the 1970 through 1990 Censuses, 

statisticians and actuaries were recorded as separate groups. In Appendix A we assigned 

all the “statisticians and actuaries” in 1960 to the statisticians group because it was much 

larger and therefore provides the closest match for most of them. But we can detect those 

who were likely to have been classified as actuaries in any later year, and move some of 

them into the actuaries category, which is empty for now. Several predictors are pretty 

strong, based on the 1970 evidence: 

• 65% of actuaries worked in industry 717 (the insurance industry), whereas only 10% 

of statisticians did. 

• 88% of actuaries worked in the private sector, whereas only 60% of statisticians did 

• 10% of statisticians were foreign-born; only 4% of actuaries were 

• About half of statisticians were female. Only a third of actuaries were. 
14

• The mean salary of actuaries was 50% higher than the mean salary of statisticians 

• Actuaries had much higher mean business income. 

Using all this information in a regression, it should be possible to predict which of 

the “statisticians and actuaries” were most likely to be actuaries, and to reassign them. 

Furthermore, we could try to estimate how many were then reclassified correctly and how 

many reclassified incorrectly based on how such a rule would have worked in the 1970 

Census and the 1971-1982 CPS. This would improve the accuracy of the data on 

statisticians, and make a longer time series on actuaries possible. 

Numbers of respondents: actuaries and statisticians in decennial 

Census 

(1% samples of the population in 1960 and 1970; 5% in 1980 and 1990) 

1960 1970 1980 1990 

Actuaries 50 526 899

Statisticians 260 268 1615 1555

A similar situation occurs in the “Lawyers and judges” category. Lawyers and judges 

were combined into a single category in the 1960 data. But in the 1970, 1980, and 1990 

data, all judges worked in the public sector, and it may be possible to use information on 

the place of work (government versus other) to infer which of the respondents were 

mostly likely to be judges. 

There are other examples. In one Census, some of the “athletes and kindred” 

category were physical education teachers. Possibly, teachers can be separated out 

because they worked in the public sector. There is also a large “Foremen, n.e.c.” 

category which existed in the 1960 Census, and we had to keep it in the proposed 

classification because there was no good category to match it to. This category can 

perhaps be split up by industry to align its members with the later categories which 

distinguished supervisors in extractive occupations from those in production occupations 

and several other categories. 
15

7.0 Conclusion: Possible contribution of this project

With an occupation category system lasting from 1960 to the present and large 

samples like those in the Census and CPS, researchers could build informative panels of 

occupations over time and test which attributes of an occupation predict other attributes 

of an occupation. For example, Meyer (2001) tested how an attribute of an occupation – 

the level of earnings dispersion within it -- evolved over time in particular types of 

occupations. The hypothesis was that high tech occupations and media-amplified 

occupations (called “superstars” occupations by Rosen (1981)) had rising inequality 

within them. 

Another set of applications would treat attributes associated with occupations as 

predictors about individuals. For example, particular occupations have been identified as 

involving care work, very new technology, superstars’ properties, and government 

licensing requirements. England, Budig, and Folbre (2002) tested whether caring and 

nurturing occupations (a gendered attribute) predicted pay levels apart from whether the 

jobholder was male or female. There is also a literature on the economics of income 

inequality, which could use narrow occupational categories as measures of skills. 

A third set of applications to the methods proposed in this paper is to construct 

analogous long-lasting category systems for the industry variable in the Census and CPS. 

This would make it easier to identify long run trends, such as technological change, in 

particular industries. 
16

Appendix A. Mapping of Census occupation codes to the proposed 

standard category system 

Below is our proposed standardized list of Census occupations. The columns at right 

show one or several Census occupational codes that we assign into one "proposed 

standard" category. In most cases the proposed standard title is the same as the one in 

the 1990 Census. CPS used the 1960 definitions in 1968-1970; the 1970 definitions 

from 1971-1982; the 1980 definitions from 1983-1991; the 1990 definitions from 1992-

2002; and the 2000 definitions starting in 2003. "N.e.c." stands for not elsewhere 

classified. 

Occupation assignments in the table were overridden if the respondent was actively in 

the military, which would correspond to the values 14 and 15 in the variable empstatd. 

All such respondents were categorized into occupation 905. These rules match the 

IPUMS occ1950 definition. 

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Legislators 3 3 3 3 

Chief executives and public 

administrators 

4 270 4 4 1 

Financial managers 7 202; 210 7 7 12 

Human resources and labor relations 

managers 

8 8 8 13 

Managers and specialists in marketing, 

advertising, and public relations 

13 163 192; 231; 

233; 13; 197 13; 197 4; 5; 6; 282

Managers in education and related 

fields 

14 30 235; 240 14 14 23 

Managers of medicine and health 

occupations 

15 212 15 15 35 

Postmasters and mail superintendents 16 280 224 17 16 40 

Managers of food-serving and lodging 

establishments 

17 230 17 31; 34 

Managers of properties and real estate 18 262 216 16 18 41 

Funeral directors 19 104 211 18 19 32 

Managers of service organizations, 

n.e.c. 

21 21 33; 36; 42; 

72 

Managers and administrators, n.e.c. 

22 

275; 290 

195; 196; 

201; 220; 

222; 223; 

245; 246 

5; 19 5; 22 

2; 10; 11; 

14; 22; 30; 

43; 60; 430

Accountants and auditors 23 0 1 23 23 80; 93 

Insurance underwriters 24 24 24 86 

Other financial specialists 

25 

253 25 25 

82; 83; 84; 

85; 91; 94; 

95 

Management analysts 26 26 26 71 

Personnel, HR, training, and labor 

relations specialists 27 27 27 62 
17

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Purchasing agents and buyers, of farm 

products 28 251 203 28 28 51 

Buyers, wholesale and retail trade 29 250 205 29 29 52 

Purchasing managers, agents and 

buyers, n.e.c. 33 285 225 9; 33 9; 33 15; 53 

Business and promotion agents 34 34 34 50 

Construction inspectors 35 213 35 35 666 

Inspectors and compliance officers, 

outside construction 36 260 215 36 36 56; 90 

Management support occupations 37 37 37 73 

Architects 43 13 2 43 43 130 

Aerospace engineer 44 80 6 44 44 132 

Metallurgical and materials engineers, 

variously phrased 45 90 15 45 45 145 

Petroleum, mining, and geological 

engineers 47 91 21 47 47 152 

Chemical engineers 48 81 10 48 48 135 

Civil engineers 53 82 11 53 53 136 

Electrical engineer 55 83 12 55 55 140; 141 

Industrial engineers 56 84 13 56 56 143 

Mechanical engineers 57 85 14 57 57 146 

Engineers not elsewhere classified 59 93 20; 23 46; 49; 54; 

58; 59 

46; 49; 54; 

58; 59 

133; 134; 

142; 144; 

150; 151; 

153 

Computer systems analysts and 

computer scientists 64 4; 5 64 64 

100; 104; 

106; 110; 

111 

Operations and systems researchers 

and analysts 65 55 65 65 70; 122 

Actuaries 66 34 66 66 120 

Statisticians 67 174 36 67 67 123 

Mathematicians and mathematical 

scientists 68 135 35 68 68 121; 124 

Physicists and astronomers 69 140 53 69 69 170 

Chemists 73 21 45 73 73 172 

Atmospheric and space scientists 74 43 74 74 171 

Geologists 75 134 51 75 75 174 

Physical scientists, n.e.c. 76 145 54 76 76 176 

Agricultural and food scientists 77 130 42 77 77 160 

Biological scientists 78 131 44; 52 78 78 161 

Foresters and conservation scientists 79 103 25 79 79 164 

Medical scientists 83 83 83 165 

Physicians 84 153; 162 65 84 84 306 

Dentists 85 71 62 85 85 301 

Veterinarians 86 194 72 86 86 325 

Optometrists 87 152 63 87 87 304 

Podiatrists 88 71 88 88 312 

Other health and therapy 89 22; 840 61; 73; 

924 89 89 300; 326 
18

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Registered nurses 95 150 75; 923 95 95 313 

Pharmacists 96 160 64 96 96 305 

Dietitians and nutritionists 97 73 74 97 97 303 

Respiratory therapists 98 98 98 322 

Occupational therapists 99 99 99 315; 361 

Physical therapists 103 103 103 316; 362 

Speech therapists 104 104 104 314; 323 

Therapists, n.e.c. 105 193 76; 84 105 105 320; 321; 

324 

Physicians' assistants 106 106 106 311 

Earth, environmental, and marine 

science instructors 113 41 103 113 113 

Biological science instructors 114 32 104 114 114 

Chemistry instructors 115 34 105 115 115 

Physics instructors 116 45 110 116 116 

Psychology instructors 118 50 114 118 118 

Economics instructors 119 35 116 119 119 

History instructors 123 120 123 123 

Sociology instructors 125 121 125 125 

Engineering instructors 127 40 111 127 127 

Math instructors 128 42; 51 112 128 128 

Education instructors 139 125 139 139 

Law instructors 145 132 145 145 

Theology instructors 147 133 147 147 

Home economics instructors 149 131 149 149 

Humanities instructors, nec 150 54 

Subject instructors, college 154 31; 43; 

52; 53; 60

102; 113; 

115; 122; 

123; 124; 

126; 130; 

134; 135; 

140 

117; 124; 

126; 129; 

133; 134; 

135; 136; 

137; 138; 

143; 144; 

146; 148; 

153; 154 

117; 124; 

126; 129; 

133; 134; 

135; 136; 

137; 138; 

143; 144; 

146; 148; 

153; 154 

220 

Kindergarten and earlier school 

teachers 155 143 155 155 230 

Primary school teachers 156 182 142 156 156 231 

Secondary school teachers 157 183 144 157 157 232 

Special education teachers 158 158 158 233 

Teachers , n.e.c. 159 184 141; 145 159 159 234; 254; 

255 

Vocational and educational counselors 163 174 163 163 200 

Librarians 164 111 32 164 164 243 

Archivists and curators 165 33 165 165 240 

Economists, market researchers, and 

survey researchers 166 172 91 166 166 180; 181 

Psychologists 167 173 93 167 167 182 

Sociologists 168 94 168 168 183 

Social scientists, n.e.c. 169 102; 175 24; 26; 92; 169 169 186 
19

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

96 

Urban and regional planners 173 95 173 173 184 

Social workers 174 171 100 174 174 201 

Recreation workers 175 165 101 175 175 462 

Clergy and religious workers 176 23; 170 86; 90 176; 177 176; 177 204; 205; 

206 

Lawyers 178 105 31 178 178 210 

Judges 179 30 179 179 211 

Writers and authors 183 20 181 183 183 285 

Technical writers 184 184 184 284 

Designers 185 72 183; 425 185 185 263 

Musician or composer 186 120 185 186 186 275 

Actors, directors, producers 187 10 175 187 187 270; 271 

Art makers: painters, sculptors, craftartists, and print-makers 188 14 190 188 188 260 

Photographers 189 161 191 189 189 291 

Dancers 193 70 182 193 193 274 

Art/entertainment performers and 

related 194 101 194 194 194 276; 286 

Editors and reporters 195 75 184 195 195 281; 283; 

292 

Announcers 198 193 198 198 280 

Athletes, sports instructors, and officials 199 15; 180 180 199 199 272; 752 

Professionals, n.e.c. 200 195 

Clinical laboratory technologies and 

technicians 203 185 80 203 203 330 

Dental hygienists 204 81 204 204 331 

Health record tech specialists 205 82 205 205 351 

Radiologic tech specialists 206 83 206 206 332 

Licensed practical nurses 207 842 926 207 207 350 

Health technologists and technicians, 

n.e.c. 

208 85 208 208 340; 353; 

354 

Electrical and electronic (engineering) 

technicians 213 190 153 213 213 

Engineering technicians, n.e.c. 214 154; 162 214; 216 214; 216 155; 196 

Mechanical engineering technicians 215 155 215 215 

Drafters 217 74 152 217 217 154 

Surveyors, cartographers, mapping 

scientists and technicians 218 181; 642 161 63; 218; 867 

63; 218; 

867 131; 156 

Biological technicians 223 150 223 223 190; 191 

Chemical technicians 224 151 224 224 192 

Other science technicians 225 191 156 225 225 193 

Airplane pilots and navigators 226 12 163; 170 226 226 903 

Air traffic controllers 227 164 227 227 904 

Broadcast equipment operators 228 164 171 228 228 290; 296 

Computer software developers 229 3 229 229 101; 102 

Programmers of numerically controlled 

machine tools 233 172 233 233 790 
20

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Legal assistants and paralegals 234 234 234 214; 215 

Technicians, n.e.c. 235 192 165; 173 235 235 194 

Sales supervisors and proprietors 243 254 243 243 470; 471 

Insurance sales occupations 253 385 265 253 253 481 

Real estate sales occupations 254 393 270; 363 254 254 81; 492 

Financial services sales occupations 255 395 271 255 255 482 

Advertising and related sales jobs 256 380 260 256 256 480 

Sales engineers 258 92 22 258 258 493 

Salespersons, n.e.c. 274 301; 381; 

383; 394 

261; 280; 

281; 282; 

284; 285; 

296 

257; 259; 

263; 264; 

265; 266; 

267; 268; 

269; 274; 

284; 285 

257; 259; 

263; 264; 

265; 266; 

267; 268; 

269; 274; 

284; 285 

474; 475; 

484; 485; 

494; 496 

Retail sales clerks 275 283; 314 275 275 476 

Cashiers 276 312 310 276 276 472; 513 

Door-to-door sales, street sales, and 

news vendors 277 390 264; 266 277; 278 277; 278 495 

Sales demonstrators / promoters / 

models 283 382 262 283 283 490 

Office supervisors 303 312 303; 305 303; 305 500 

Computer and peripheral equipment 

operators 308 343; 350 304; 308; 309 

304; 308; 

309 580 

Secretaries 313 342 370; 371; 

372 313 313 570 

Stenographers 314 345 376 314 314 

Typists 315 360 391 315 315 582; 583 

Interviewers, enumerators, and 

surveyors 

316 320 316 316 523; 531; 

534 

Hotel clerks 317 317 317 530 

Transportation ticket and reservation 

agents 318 354 390 318 318 483; 541 

Receptionists 319 341 364 319 319 540 

Information clerks, nec 323 323; 325 323; 325 

Correspondence and order clerks 326 326; 327 326; 327 521; 535 

Human resources clerks, except payroll 

and timekeeping 328 154 56 328 328 536 

Library assistants 329 302 330 329 329 244; 532 

File clerks 335 320 325 335 335 526 

Records clerks 336 336 336 520; 542 

Bookkeepers and accounting and 

auditing clerks 337 310 305 337 337 512 

Payroll and timekeeping clerks 338 333 360 338 338 514 

Cost and rate clerks (financial records 

processing) 343 343 343 

Billing clerks and related financial 

records processing 344 303; 341; 342 339; 344 339; 344 511 

Duplication machine operators / office 

machine operators 345 344 345 345 
21

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Mail and paper handlers 346 332 346 346 556 

Office machine operators, n.e.c. 347 325 355 347 347 590 

Telephone operators 348 353 385 306; 348 306; 348 501; 502 

Other telecom operators 349 352 384 349; 353 349; 353 503 

Postal clerks, excluding mail carriers 354 340 361 354 354 554 

Mail carriers for postal service 355 323 331 355 355 555 

Mail clerks, outside of post office 356 315 356 356 585 

Messengers 357 324; 351 333; 383 357 357 551 

Dispatchers 359 314 315 359 359 552 

Inspectors, n.e.c. 361 450 

Shipping and receiving clerks 364 343 374 307; 364 307; 364 550; 561 

Stock and inventory clerks 365 350 381 365 365 515; 562 

Meter readers 366 334 366 366 553 

Weighers, measurers, and checkers 368 392 368 368 563 

Material recording, scheduling, 

production, planning, and expediting 

clerks 

373 323 363; 373 363; 373 16; 560 

Insurance adjusters, examiners, and 

investigators 375 321 326 375 375 54; 584 

Customer service reps, investigators 

and adjusters, except insurance 376 321 376 376 524; 533 

Eligibility clerks for government 

programs; social welfare 377 377 377 525 

Bill and account collectors 378 313 313 378 378 510 

General office clerks 379 370 395; 396 379 379 586 

Bank tellers 383 305 301 383 383 516 

Proofreaders 384 362 384 384 591 

Data entry keyers 385 345 385 385 581 

Statistical clerks 386 375 386 386 592 

Teacher's aides 387 382 387 387; 467 

Administrative support jobs, n.e.c. 389 311; 394 369; 374; 

389 

369; 374; 

389 522; 593 

Housekeepers, maids, butlers, 

stewards, and lodging quarters cleaners 405 

802; 821; 

823; 824; 

832 

901; 902; 

931; 940; 

982 

405; 449; 

950 

405; 449; 

950 384; 423 

Private household cleaners and 

servants 407 984 407 407 

Supervisors of guards 415 415 415 373 

Fire fighting, prevention, and inspection 417 850 961 413; 416; 

417 

413; 416; 

417 

372; 374; 

375 

Police, detectives, and private 

investigators 418 852; 853 964 6; 414; 418 6; 414; 418 

371; 382; 

385; 386; 

391 

Other law enforcement: sheriffs, 

bailiffs, correctional institution officers 423 854 963; 965 423; 424 423; 424 370; 380; 

383 

Crossing guards and bridge tenders 425 960 425 425 394 

Guards, watchmen, doorkeepers 426 851 962 426 426 392 

Protective services, n.e.c. 427 427 427 390; 395 

Bartenders 434 815 910 434 434 404 

Waiter/waitress 435 875 915 435 435 411 
22

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Cooks, variously defined 436 825 912; 981 404; 433; 

436; 437 

404; 433; 

436; 437 

400; 401; 

402 

Food counter and fountain workers 438 830 914 438 438 

Kitchen workers 439 835 913; 916 439 439 405 

Waiter's assistant 443 911 443 443 406; 412; 

413 

Misc food prep workers 444 444 444 403; 414; 

416 

Dental assistants 445 921 445 445 364 

Health aides, except nursing 446 303 922 446 446 365 

Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants 447 151; 810 925 447 447 360; 461 

Supervisors of cleaning and building 

service 448 448 448 420 

Janitors 453 834 903 453 453 422 

Elevator operators 454 831 943 454 454 975 

Pest control occupations 455 455 455 424 

Supervisors of personal service jobs, 

n.e.c. 

456 456 456 432 

Barbers 457 814 935; 945 457 457 450 

Hairdressers and cosmetologists 458 843 944 458 458 451; 452 

Recreation facility attendants 459 813 932 459 459 440; 443 

Guides 461 463 461 454 

Ushers 462 874 953 464 462 442 

Public transportation attendants and 

inspectors 463 704 465 463 455; 941 

Baggage porters 464 304; 841 934 466 464 453 

Welfare service aides 465 954 467 465 202 

Child care workers 468 801 942; 952; 

980 406; 468 406; 466; 468 460; 464 

Personal service occupations, nec 469 

420; 804; 

812; 820; 

890 

933; 941; 

950; 976; 

986 

469 469 363; 415; 

446; 465 

Farmers (owners and tenants) 473 200 801 473 473 21 

Horticultural specialty farmers 474 474 474 

Farm managers, except for horticultural 

farms 475 222 802; 806; 

821 475 475 20; 602 

Managers of horticultural specialty 

farms 476 476 476 

Farm workers 479 901; 902; 

903; 905 

822 823; 

824; 846 477; 479 477; 479 434; 605 

Marine life cultivation workers 483 483 483 

Nursery farming workers 484 484 484 

Supervisors of agricultural occupations 485 485 485 421 

Gardeners and groundskeepers 486 964 755 486 486 425 

Animal caretakers except on farms 487 740 487 487 435 

Graders and sorters of agricultural 

products 488 654 488 488 604 

Inspectors of agricultural products 489 489 489 601 
23

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Timber, logging, and forestry workers 496 444; 970 450; 761 494; 495; 

496 

494; 495; 

496 

600; 612; 

613 

Fishers, hunters, and kindred 498 962 752 498; 499 498; 499 610; 611 

Supervisors of mechanics and repairers 503 503 503 700 

Automobile mechanics 505 472; 601 473; 474 505; 506 505; 506 720 

Bus, truck, and stationary engine 

mechanics 507 507 507 721 

Aircraft mechanics 508 471 471 508; 515 508; 515 714 

Small engine repairers 509 509 509 724 

Auto body repairers 514 472 514 514 715; 716 

Heavy equipment and farm equipment 

mechanics 516 480; 481 516; 517 516; 517 722; 726 

Industrial machinery repairers 518 518 518 733 

Machinery maintenance occupations 519 461; 692 483; 642 519 519 735 

Repairers of industrial electrical 

equipment 523 474 485 523 523 710; 712 

Repairers of data processing equipment 525 475 525 525 701 

Repairers of household appliances and 

power tools 526 482 526 526 732 

Telecom and line installers and 

repairers 527 453 552; 554 527; 529 527; 529 702; 742 

Repairers of electrical equipment, n.e.c. 533 533 533 703; 705; 

711 

Heating, air conditioning, and 

refigeration mechanics 534 470 470 534 534 731 

Precision makers, repairers, and smiths 535 451; 504 453; 516 535; 647 535; 647 743; 875 

Locksmiths and safe repairers 536 536 536 754 

Office machine repairers and mechanics 538 473 484 538 538 

Repairers of mechanical controls and 

valves 539 539 539 730 

Elevator installers and repairers 543 543 543 670 

Millwrights 544 491 491; 502 544 544 736 

Mechanics and repairers, n.e.c. 549 

475; 480; 

610; 620; 

621 

403; 486; 

492; 495; 

571; 572; 

575; 586 

547; 549; 

864 547; 549 734; 755; 756; 762 

Supervisors of construction work 558 

553; 554; 

555; 556; 

557; 558 

553; 554; 

555; 556; 

557; 558 

620 

Masons, tilers, and carpet installers 563 405; 602 410; 411; 

420; 560 

563; 564; 

565; 566 

563; 564; 

565; 566 622; 624 

Carpenters 567 411; 603; 

960 415; 416 567; 569 567; 569 623 

Drywall installers 573 615 573 573 633 

Electricians 575 421; 604 430; 431 575; 576 575; 576 635; 713 

Electric power installers and repairers 577 433 577 577 704; 741; 

760 

Painters, construction and maintenance 579 495 510; 511 579 579 642 

Paperhangers 583 501 512 583 583 643 

Plasterers 584 505 520; 521 584 584 646 
24

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Plumbers, pipe fitters, and steamfitters 585 510; 612 522; 523 585; 587 585; 587 644 

Concrete and cement workers 588 413 421 588 588 625 

Glaziers 589 434 445 589 589 636 

Insulation workers 593 630 601 593 593 640; 672 

Paving, surfacing, and tamping 

equipment operators 594 412 594; 855 594; 855 630 

Roofers and slaters 595 514 534 595 595 651 

Sheet metal duct installers 596 596 596 652 

Structural metal workers 597 523 550 597 597 650; 653; 

774 

Drillers of earth 598 614 598 598 682 

Construction trades, n.e.c. 599 613 440 599 599 631; 671; 

676 

Drillers of oil wells 614 614 614 680; 692 

Explosives workers 615 634 603 615 615 683 

Miners 616 685 640 616 616 684 

Other mining occupations 617 617 617 691; 694 

Production supervisors or foremen 628 430 441 613; 628; 

633; 863 

613; 628; 

633; 863 770 

Tool and die makers and die setters 634 530 561; 562 634; 635; 

655 

634; 635; 

655 813 

Machinists 637 465; 605 461; 462 637; 639 637; 639 803 

Boilermakers 643 403 404 643 643 621 

Precision grinders and filers 644 644 644 821 

Patternmakers and model makers 645 502 514 645; 656; 

676 

645; 656; 

676 

806; 844; 

852 

Lay-out workers 646 540 646 646 816 

Engravers 649 424 435 649 649 891 

Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet 

metal workers 653 525; 614 535; 536 653; 654 653; 654 

Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters 657 410 413 657 657 850 

Furniture and wood finishers 658 443 658 658 851 

Other precision woodworkers 659 659 659 

Dressmakers and seamstresses 666 651 613 666 666 835 

Tailors 667 524 551 667 667 

Upholsterers 668 535 401; 563 668 668 845 

Shoe repairers 669 542 669 669 833 

Other precision apparel and fabric 

workers 674 432; 680; 705 444; 636 674 674 

Hand molders and shapers, except 

jewelers 675 546 

675; 786; 

787; 793; 

794; 795 

675; 786; 

787; 793; 

794; 795 

892 

Optical goods workers 677 494 506 677 677 352 

Dental laboratory and medical 

appliance technicians 678 426 678 678 341; 876 

Bookbinders 679 404 405 679 679 823 

Other precision and craft workers 684 545 684 684 812 

Butchers and meat cutters 686 675 631; 633 686 686 781 

Bakers 687 401 402 687 687 780 

Batch food makers 688 688 688 784 
25

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Adjusters and calibrators 693 693 693 

Water and sewage treatment plant 

operators 694 694 694 862 

Power plant operators 695 701 525 695 695 860 

Plant and system operators, stationary

engineers 

696 520 545 696 696 861 

Other plant and system operators 699 699 699 863 

Lathe, milling, and turning machine 

operatives 

703 452 454; 652; 

653 

703; 704; 

705 

703; 704; 

705 

801; 802 

Punching and stamping press 

operatives 

706 656 706 706 795 

Rollers, roll hands, and finishers of 

metal 

707 513 533 707 707 794 

Drilling and boring machine operators 708 650 708 708 796 

Grinding, abrading, buffing, and 

polishing workers 

709 521; 653 621; 651 709 709 800 

Forge and hammer operators 713 402; 431 442 713 713 793 

Fabricating machine operators, n.e.c. 717 660 717 717 

Molders, and casting machine operators 719 492 503; 504 719 719 810 

Metal platers 723 635 723 723 820 

Heat treating equipment operators 724 435 446; 626 724 724 815 

Wood lathe, routing, and planing 

machine operators 

726 726 726 822 

Sawing machine operators and sawyers 727 704 662 727 727 853 

Shaping and joining machine operator 

(woodworking) 

728 728 728 

Nail and tacking machine operators 

(woodworking) 

729 729 729 854 

Other woodworking machine operators 733 733 733 855 

Printing machine operators, n.e.c. 734 512; 615 423; 434; 

530; 531 

734; 737 734; 737 824 

Photoengravers and lithographers 735 423; 503 515 735 735 

Typesetters and compositors 736 414 422 736 736 825; 826 

Winding and twisting textile/apparel 

operatives 

738 672; 681 738 738 842 

Knitters, loopers, and toppers textile 

operatives 

739 673; 720 671; 673 739 739 841 

Textile cutting machine operators 743 743 743 840 

Textile sewing machine operators 744 663 744 744 832 

Shoemaking machine operators 745 515 664 745 745 834 

Pressing machine operators (clothing) 747 747 747 831 

Laundry workers 748 674; 803 611; 630; 

983 

403; 748 403; 748 830 

Misc textile machine operators 749 710 670; 674 749 749 836; 846 

Cementing and gluing maching 

operators 

753 753 753 885 

Packers, fillers, and wrappers 754 693 604; 643 754 754 880 

Extruding and forming machine 

operators 

755 755; 758 755; 758 792; 843; 

872 

Mixing and blending machine 

operatives 

756 652 620; 641 756 756 865 
26

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Separating, filtering, and clarifying 

machine operators 

757 757 757 864 

Painting machine operators 759 694 644 759 759 881 

Roasting and baking machine operators 

(food) 

763 763 763 783 

Washing, cleaning, and pickling 

machine operators 

764 764 764 886 

Paper folding machine operators 765 765 765 893 

Furnace, kiln, and oven operators, 

apart from food 

766 670; 672; 

712 

622; 666 766 766 804; 873 

Crushing and grinding machine 

operators 

768 490 501 768 768 

Slicing and cutting machine operators 769 612 769 769 785; 871 

Motion picture projectionists 773 493 505 773 773 441 

Photographic process workers 774 695 645 774 774 883 

Machine operators, n.e.c. 779 775 690; 692; 

694; 695; 

696 

673; 714; 

715; 725; 

777; 779; 

798 

673; 714; 

715; 725; 

777; 779; 

798 

884; 890; 

894; 896 

Welders and metal cutters 783 721 680 783 783 814 

Solderers 784 665 784 784 

Assemblers of electrical equipment 785 631 602 636; 683; 

785 

636; 683; 

785 

771; 772; 

773; 775 

Hand painting, coating, and decorating 

occupations 

789 543 789 789 

Production checkers and inspectors 796 643 452; 610 689; 796; 

797 

689; 796; 

797 

Graders and sorters in manufacturing 799 671 624; 625 799 799 874 

Supervisors of motor vehicle 

transportation 

803 803 803; 864 900 

Truck, delivery, and tractor drivers 804 650; 715; 

971; 972 

705; 706; 

715; 763 

804; 805; 

806; 856 

804; 805; 

806; 856 

751; 913; 

960 

Bus drivers 808 641 703 808 808 912 

Taxi cab drivers and chauffeurs 809 714 714 809; 814 809; 814 911; 914; 

915 

Parking lot attendants 813 711 813 813 935 

Railroad conductors and yardmasters 823 252; 645 226 823 823 924 

Locomotive operators (engineers and 

firemen) 

824 454; 460; 

691 

455; 456; 

710 

824; 826 824; 826 920; 926 

Railroad brake, coupler, and switch 

operators 

825 640; 713 712; 713 825 825 923 

Ship crews and marine engineers 829 265; 703 221; 661; 

701 

497; 828; 

829; 833 

497; 828; 

829; 833 

930; 931; 

933 

Water transport infrastructure tenders 

and crossing guards 

834 635; 860 834 834 934 

Operating engineers of construction 

equipment 

844 436 844 844 632 

Crane, derrick, winch, and hoist 

operators 

848 415 424 848; 849 848; 849 951; 956 

Excavating and loading machine 

operators 

853 425 853 853 952 
27

Proposed standard job 

title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Census 

1960 

codes

Census 

1970 

codes

Census 

1980 

codes 

Census 

1990 

codes 

Census 

2000 

codes 

Misc material moving occupations 859 690 726 843; 859 843; 859 965; 973 

Helpers, constructions 865 865 865 761 

Helpers, surveyors 866 605 866 866 660 

Construction laborers 869 750; 751 869 869 626; 673; 

693 

Production helpers 873 873 873 895 

Garbage and recyclable material 

collectors 

875 754 875 875 972 

Materials movers: stevedores and 

longshore workers 

876 965 760 845; 876 845; 876 950; 974 

Stock handlers 877 762 877 877 

Machine feeders and offbearers 878 878 878 963 

Freight, stock, and materials handlers 883 973 753 883 883 942 

Garage and service station related 

occupations 

885 632 623 885 885 936 

Vehicle washers and equipment 

cleaners 

887 963 764 887 887 961 

Packers and packagers by hand 888 634 888 888 964 

Laborers outside construction 889 985 770; 780; 

785; 796 

889 868; 874; 

889 

674; 675; 

962 

Military 905 555

or 

(empstatd

= 14 or 

empstatd

= 15) 

580 

or 

(empstatd

= 14 or 

empstatd

= 15) 

905 

or 

(empstatd

= 14 or 

empstatd = 

15) 

903; 904; 

905; 

or 

(empstatd = 

14 or 

empstatd = 

15) 

980; 981; 

982; 983

or 

(empstatd = 

14 or 

empstatd = 

15) 

Unemployed 991 991 992 

Unknown 999 990; 995; 

999 

0; 995 909 909 0 
28

Appendix B. Mappings of Census occupation codes to the IPUMS 

standard occ1950 

These are the 1950 Census occupation categories. IPUMS researcher Matt Sobek 

mapped all later Census-defined occupation categories to these in the publicly available 

Census and CPS data available from www.ipums.org. Below we show how these 

assignments were made, based on the the IPUMS data available as of Nov 1, 2004. In 

the columns at right are the source categories which were assigned to the occ1950 code at 

the left. "N.e.c." stands for not elsewhere classified. 

For 1960 and 1990, the occupation assignments implied by the table can be 

overridden by the empstatd variable, which has the value 14 or 15 if the respondent were 

actively in the military, regardless of the precise occupation. These respondents are all 

categorized into occupation 595. 

1950 

occ Description Census 

1960 occ 

Census 

1970 occ 

Census 

1980 occ 

Census 

1990 occ 

Census 

2000 occ 

0 Accountants and auditors 0 1 23 23 80, 94 

1 Actors and actresses 10 175 270 

2 Airplane pilots and 

navigators 12 163 226 226 903 

3 Architects 13 2 43 43 130 

4 Artists and art teachers 14 190 188 188 260 

5 Athletes 15 272 

6 Authors 20 181 183 183 285 

7 Chemists 21 45 73 73 172 

8 Chiropractors 22 61 89 89 300 

9 Clergymen 23 86 176 176 204 

10 College presidents and 

deans 30 235 

12 Agricultural sciencesProfessors and instructors 31 102 136 136 

13 Biological sciencesProfessors and instructors 32 104 114 114 

14 Chemistry-Professors and 

instructors 34 105 115 115 

15 Economics-Professors and 

instructors 35 116 119 119 

16 Engineering-Professors and 

instructors 40 111 127 127 

17 Geology and geophysicsProfessors and instructors 41 
29

18 Mathematics professors and 

instructors 42 112 128, 129 128, 129 

19 Medical science professors 

and instructors 43 113 133, 134 133, 134 

23 Physics-Professors and 

instructors 45 110 116 116 

24 Psychology-Professors and 

instructors 50 114 118 118 

25 Statistics-Professors and 

instructors 51 

26 Natural science (nec)-

Professors and instructors 52 103 113 113 

27 Social sciences (nec)-

Professors and instructors 53 120, 121, 122 

123, 124, 

125, 126, 146 

123, 124, 

125, 126, 

146 

28 Nonscientific subjectsProfessors and instructors 54 115 135 135 

28 Nonscientific subjectsProfessors and instructors 54 125 139 139 

28 Nonscientific subjectsProfessors and instructors 54 126 143 143 

28 Nonscientific subjectsProfessors and instructors 54 130 144 144 

28 Nonscientific subjectsProfessors and instructors 54 131, 132, 

133, 134 145, 148, 149 145, 148, 149 

29 Subject not specifiedProfessors and instructors 60 135, 140 117, 147, 

153, 154 

117, 147, 

153, 154 220 

31 Dancers and dancing 

teachers 70 182 193 193 274 

32 Dentists 71 62 85 85 301 

33 Designers 72 183 185 185 263 

34 Dieticians and nutritionists 73 74 97 97 303 

35 Draftsmen 74 152 217 217 154 

36 Editors and reporters 75, 163 184, 192 195, 197 195, 197 281, 282, 

283 

41 Aeronautical-Engineers 80 6 44 44 132 

42 Chemical-Engineers 81 10 48 48 135 

43 Civil-Engineers 82 11 53 53 136 

44 Electrical-Engineers 83 12 55 55 141 

45 Industrial-Engineers 84 13 26, 56 26, 56 143 

46 Mechanical-Engineers 85 14 57, 58 57, 58 146 

47 Metallurgical, metallurgistsEngineers 90 15 45 45 145 

48 Mining-Engineers 91 20, 21 46, 47 46 150, 152 
30

49 Engineers (nec) 92, 93 22, 23 54, 59, 258, 

833 

54, 59, 258, 

833 

133, 134, 

140, 142, 

153, 493 

51 Entertainers (nec) 101 194 184, 194 184, 194 276 

52 Farm and home 

management advisors 102 24, 26 

53 Foresters and 

conservationists 103 25 79, 416 79, 416 164 

54 Funeral directors and 

embalmers 104 165, 211 18 19 32 

55 Lawyers and judges 105 30, 31 178, 179 178, 179 210, 211 

56 Librarians 111 32, 82 164, 205 164, 205 240, 243 

57 Musicians and music 

teachers 120 123, 145, 185 

137, 158, 

159, 186 

137, 158, 

159, 186 275 

58 Nurses, professional 150 75, 212 15, 95, 106 15, 95, 106 313 

59 Nurses, student professional 151 923 

61 Agricultural scientists 130 42 77 77 160 

62 Biological scientists 131 44 78, 83 78, 83 161, 165 

63 Geologists and geophysicists 134 51, 52 75 75 

67 Mathematicians 135 35 68 68 121, 124 

68 Physicists 140 53 49, 69 49, 69 151, 170 

69 Misc. natural scientists 145 54 76 76 171, 174, 

176 

70 Optometrists 152 63 87 87 304 

71 Osteopaths 153 

72 Personnel and labor 

relations workers 154 56 8, 27 8, 27 62 

73 Pharmacists 160 64 96 96 305 

74 Photographers 161 191 189 189 291 

75 Physicians and surgeons 162 65 84 84 306 

76 Radio operators 164 164, 171 227, 228 227, 228 290, 296, 

904 

77 Recreation and group 

workers 165 101 175 175 462 

78 Religious workers 170 90 177 177 205, 206 

79 Social and welfare workers, 

except group 171 100 174 174 201, 202 

81 Economists 172 91 166 166 180 

82 Psychologists 173 93 167 167 182 

83 Statisticians and actuaries 174 34, 36 66, 67 66, 67 120, 123 

84 Misc social scientists 175 33, 92, 94, 

96 165, 168, 169 165, 168, 169 183, 186 
31

91 Sports instructors and 

officials 180 124, 180 138, 199 138 

92 Surveyors 181 161 63, 218 63, 218 131, 156 

93 Teachers (n.e.c.) 182, 183, 

184 

141, 142, 

143, 144, 

240 

14, 155, 156, 

157 

14, 155, 

156, 157 

23, 230, 

231, 232, 

233, 234 

94 Medical and dentaltechnicians 185 

80, 81, 83, 

84, 85, 

426 

203, 204, 

206, 208, 678 

203, 204, 

206, 208, 

678 

314, 330, 

331, 332, 

340, 341, 

351, 352, 

353, 876 

95 Testing-technicians 191, 192 

43, 150, 

151, 155, 

156, 162, 

172, 173 

74, 215, 216, 

223, 224, 

225, 233, 235 

74, 215, 

216, 223, 

224, 225, 

233, 235 

155, 190, 

191, 192, 

193, 194, 

196 

96 Technicians (nec) 190 153 213 213 244 

97 Therapists and healers (nec) 193 71, 76 88, 98, 99, 

103, 104, 105 

 88, 98, 99, 

103, 104, 

105 

312, 315, 

316, 320, 

321, 322, 

323, 324, 

361, 362, 

363 

98 Veterinarians 194 72 86 86 325 

99 Professional, technical & 

kindred workers (nec) 195 

3, 4, 5, 55, 

73, 95, 

154, 174, 

193, 195, 

196, 382 

64, 65, 163, 

173, 198, 

214, 229, 387 

64, 65, 163, 

173, 198, 

214, 229, 

387 

60, 70, 71, 

72, 73, 82, 

83, 84, 85, 

90, 91, 95, 

100, 101, 

102, 104, 

106, 110, 

111, 122, 

181, 184, 

200, 254, 

255, 280, 

284, 286, 

326, 354 

100 Farmers (owners and 

tenants) 200 801, 806 473, 474 473, 474 21 

123 Farm managers 222 802 475 475 20 

200 Buyers and dept heads, 

store 250 205, 231, 233 13, 29 13, 29 4, 5, 6, 52 

201 Buyers and shippers, farm 

products 251 203 28 28 51 

203 Conductors, railroad 252 226 823 823 924 

204 Credit men 253 210 

205 Floormen and floor 

managers, store 254 

210 Inspectors, public 

administration 260 213, 215 36 36 56 
32

230 Managers & 

superintendants, building 262 216 16 18 41 

240 Officers, pilots, pursers and 

engineers, ship 265 221 497, 828 497, 828 931 

250 Officials & administratators 

(nec), public administration 270 201, 222 3, 4, 5, 37 3, 4, 5, 37 3, 93 

260 Officials, lodge, society, 

union, etc. 275 223 

270 Postmasters 280 224 17 16 40 

280 Purchasing agents and 

buyers (nec) 285 225 9, 33 9, 33 15, 53 

290 Managers, officials, and 

proprietors (nec) 290 

202, 220, 

230, 245, 

246 

7, 19, 25, 34, 

187, 243, 

476, 494, 558 

7, 17, 21, 

22, 25, 34, 

187, 243, 

476, 494, 

558 

1, 2, 10, 11, 

12, 13, 14, 

16, 22, 30, 

31, 33, 34, 

35, 36, 42, 

43, 50, 271, 

470,471,600 

300 Agents (nec) 301 363 550 

301 Attendants and assistants, 

library 302 330 329 329 532 

302 Attendants, physicians and 

dentists office 303 921, 922 445, 446 445, 446 311, 364 

304 Baggagemen, transportation 304 

305 Bank tellers 305 301 383 383 516 

310 Bookkeepers 310 305 337 337 512 

320 Cashiers 312 310 276 276 472 

321 Collectors, bill and account 313 313 378 378 510 

322 Dispatchers and starters, 

vehicle 314 315 359 359 552 

325 Express messengers and 

railway mail clerks 315 

335 Mail carriers 323 331 355 355 555 

340 Messengers and office boys 324 333 357 357 551 

341 Office machine operators 325 

341, 342, 

343, 344, 

345, 350, 

355 

304, 308, 

309, 344, 

345, 346, 

347, 385 

304, 308, 

309, 344, 

345, 346, 

347, 385 

511, 580, 

581, 590 

342 Shipping and receiving 

clerks 343 374 307, 364 307, 364 561 

350 Stenographers, typists, and 

secretaries 

342, 345, 

360 

370, 371, 

372, 376, 

391 

313, 314, 315 313, 314, 

315 570, 582 

360 Telegraph messengers 351 383 

365 Telegraph operators 352 384 349 

370 Telephone operators 353 385 306, 348 306, 348 502 
33

380 Ticket, station, and express 

agents 354 390 318 318 541 

390 Clerical and kindred workers 

(n.e.c.) 

320, 333, 

340, 341, 

350, 370 

303, 311, 

312, 314, 

320, 321, 

323, 325, 

332, 334, 

360, 361, 

362, 364, 

375, 381, 

392, 394, 

395, 396 

234, 275, 

303, 305, 

316, 317, 

319, 323, 

325, 326, 

327, 328, 

335, 336, 

338, 339, 

343, 353, 

354, 356, 

363, 365, 

366, 368, 

369, 373, 

374, 376, 

377, 379, 

384, 386, 389 

234, 275, 

303, 305, 

316, 317, 

319, 323, 

325, 326, 

327, 328, 

335, 336, 

338, 339, 

343, 353, 

354, 356, 

363, 365, 

366, 368, 

373, 374, 

376, 377, 

379, 384, 

386, 389 

214, 215, 

365, 500, 

501, 503, 

513, 514, 

515, 520, 

521, 522, 

523, 524, 

252, 256, 

530, 531, 

533, 534, 

535, 536, 

540, 542, 

553, 554, 

556, 560, 

562, 563, 

584, 585, 

586, 591, 

592, 593 

400 Advertising agents and 

salesmen 380 260 256 256 480 

410 Auctioneers 381 261 284 284 

420 Demonstrators 382 262 283 283 490 

430 Hucksters and peddlers 383 264 277 277 495 

450 Insurance agents and 

brokers 321, 385 265, 326 24, 253, 375 24, 253, 375 54, 86, 481 

460 Newsboys 390 266 278 278 

470 Real estate agents and 

brokers 393 270 254 254 81, 492 

480 Stock and bond salesmen 395 271 255 255 482 

490 Salesmen and sales clerks 

(nec) 394 

281, 282, 

283, 284, 

285, 296 

257, 259, 

263, 264, 

265, 266, 

267, 268, 

269, 274, 285 

257, 259, 

263, 264, 

265, 266, 

267, 268, 

269, 274, 

285 

474, 475, 

476, 484, 

485, 494, 

496 

500 Bakers 401 402 687, 763 687, 763 780, 783 

501 Blacksmiths 402 401, 403 

502 Bookbinders 404 405 679 679 823 

503 Boilermakers 403 404 643 643 621 

504 Brickmasons,stonemasons, 

and tile setters 405 410, 560 553, 563, 565 553, 563, 565 622 

505 Cabinetmakers 410 413 657 657 850 

510 Carpenters 411 415 554, 567 554, 567 623 

511 Cement and concrete 

finishers 413 421 588 588 625 

512 Compositors and typesetters 414 422 736 736 824 
34

513 Cranemen, derrickmen, and 

hoistmen 415 424 848, 849 848, 849 951, 956 

514 Decorators and window 

dressers 420 425 

515 Electricians 421 430 555, 575 555, 575 635 

520 Electrotypers and 

stereotypers 423 434 

521 Engravers, except 

photoengravers 424 435 649 649 891 

522 Excavating, grading, and 

road machinery operators 425 412, 436 594, 814, 844, 853, 855 

594, 814, 

844, 853, 

855 

630, 631, 

952 

523 Foremen (nec) 430 441 

485, 503, 

613, 633, 

803, 843, 863 

485, 503, 

613, 628, 

803, 843, 

864 

620, 700, 

770, 900 

524 Forgemen and hammermen 431 442 713 713 793 

525 Furriers 432 444 674 674 

530 Glaziers 434 445 589 589 636 

531 Heat treaters, annealers, 

temperers 435 446 724 724 815 

532 Inspectors, scalers, and 

graders log and lumber 444 450 

533 Inspectors (nec) 450 452 35, 489 35, 489 601, 666, 

941 

534 Jewelers, watchmakers, 

goldsmiths, and silversmiths 451 453 535, 647 535, 647 875 

535 Job setters, metal 452 454 703 703 

540 Linemen and servicemen, 

telegraph, telephone, & p 453 433, 552, 554 527, 529, 577 527, 529, 577 741, 742 

541 Locomotive engineers 454 455 824 824 920 

542 Locomotive firemen 460 456 

543 Loom fixers 461 483 

544 Machinists 465 461 637 637 803 

545 Airplane-mechanics and 

repairmen 471 170, 471 508, 515 508, 515 703, 714 

550 Automobile-mechanics and 

repairmen 472 472, 473 505, 507, 514 505, 507, 514 

715, 716, 

720, 721 

551 Office machine-mechanics 

and repairmen 473 475, 484 525, 538 525, 538 701 

552 Radio and televisionmechanics and repairmen 474 485 523 523 702 
35

553 Railroad and car shopmechanics and repairmen 475 486 722 

554 Mechanics and repairmen, 

nec 470, 480 

470, 480, 

481, 482, 

492, 495 

509, 516, 

517, 518, 

526, 533, 

534, 536, 

539, 543, 

547, 549 

509, 516, 

517, 518, 

526, 533, 

534, 536, 

539, 543, 

547, 549 

670, 704, 

705, 710, 

711, 712, 

713, 724, 

726, 730, 

731, 732, 

733, 734, 

743, 751, 

752, 754, 

760, 762 

555 Millers, grain, flour, feed, etc 490 501 

560 Millwrights 491 502 544 544 736 

561 Molders, metal 492 503 675 675 

562 Motion picture projectionists 493 505 773 773 441 

563 Opticians and lens grinders 

and polishers 494 506 677 677 

564 Painters, construction and 

maintenance 495 510, 512, 543 

556, 579, 

583, 789 

556, 579, 

583, 789 642 

565 Paperhangers 501 643 

570 Pattern and model makers, 

except paper 502 514 645, 656, 676 645, 656, 676 806 

571 Photoengravers & 

lithographers 503 515 735 735 

572 Piano and organ tuners and 

repairmen 504 516 

573 Plasterers 505 520 584 584 646 

574 Plumbers and pipe fitters 510 522 557, 585 557, 585 644 

575 Pressmen and plate printers, 

printing 512 530 734 734 

580 Rollers and roll hands, metal 513 533 707 707 794 

581 Roofers and slaters 514 534 595 595 651 

582 Shoemakers and repairers, 

except factory 515 420, 542 566, 669 566, 669 833 

583 Stationary engineers 520 545 694, 696 694, 696 861, 862 

584 Stone cutters and stone 

carvers 

521 546 

585 Structural metal workers 523 540, 550 597, 646 597, 646 653, 774, 

816 

590 Tailors and tailoresses 524 551 667 667 835 

591 Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, 

and sheet metal workers 525 535 596, 653 596, 653 652 
36

592 Tool makers, and die makers 

and setters 530 561 634 634 813 

593 Upholsterers 535 563 668 668 845 

594 Craftsmen and kindred 

workers (nec) 545 575, 586 

624, 632, 

755, 756, 

852, 855 

595 Members of the armed 

services 

555 

or 

(empstatd

= 14 or 

empstatd

= 15) 

580 

or 

(empstatd

= 14 or 

empstatd

= 15) 

905 

or 

(empstatd = 

14 or 

empstatd = 

15) 

903; 

904;905; 

or 

(empstatd = 

14 or 

empstatd = 

15) 

980, 981, 

982, 983 

or 

(empstatd = 

14 or 

empstatd = 

15) 

600 Auto mechanics apprentice 601 474 506 506 

601 Bricklayers and masons 

apprentice 602 411 564 564 

602 Carpenters apprentice 603 416 569 569 

603 Electricians apprentice 604 431 576 576 

604 Machinists and toolmakers 

apprentice 605 462, 562 635, 639 635, 639 

605 Mechanics, except auto 

apprentice 610 491 

610 Plumbers and pipe fitters 

apprentice 612 523 587 587 

611 Apprentices, building trades 

(nec) 613 511, 521 

612 Apprentices, metalworking 

trades (nec) 614 504, 536 654 654 

613 Apprentices, printing trades 615 423, 531 

614 Apprentices, other specified 

trades 620 571, 945 659 659 

615 Apprentices, trade not 

specified 621 572 

620 Asbestos and insulation 

workers 630 601 593 593 640 

621 Attendants, auto service and 

parking 632 623, 711 813, 885 813, 885 935, 936 

622 Blasters and powdermen 634 603 615 615 683 

623 Boatmen, canalmen, and 

lock keepers 635 701 

624 Brakemen, railroad 640 712 825 825 923 

625 Bus drivers 641 703 808 808 912 

630 Chainmen, rodmen, and 

axmen, surveying 642 605 866 867 

631 Conductors, bus & street 

railway 645 704 
37

632 Deliverymen and routemen 650 705 805, 806 806 

633 Dressmakers and 

seamstresses except factory 651 613 666 666 

634 Dyers 652 620 836 

635 Filers, grinders, and 

polishers, metal 653 621, 651 644, 709 644, 709 800, 821 

640 Fruit, nut, and vegetable 

graders, and packers, e 654 625 604 

641 Furnacemen, smeltermen 

and pourers 670 622 804 

642 Heaters, metal 672 626 

643 Laundry and dry cleaning 

operatives 674 611, 630 747, 748 747, 748 830, 831 

644 Meat cutters, except 

slaughter and packing house 675 631 686 686 781 

645 Milliners 680 636 

650 Mine operatives and laborers 685 614, 640 

598, 614, 

616, 617, 

699, 867 

598, 614, 

616, 617, 

699, 868 

682, 684 

660 Motormen, mine, factory, 

logging camp, etc 690 710 

661 Motormen, street, subway, 

and elevated railway 691 926 

662 Oilers and greaser, except 

auto 692 642 519 519 735 

670 Painters, except construction 

or maintenance 694 443, 644 658, 759 658, 759 851, 881 

671 Photographic process 

workers 695 645 774 774 883 

672 Power station operators 701 525 695 695 860 

673 Sailors and deck hands 703 661 829 829 930, 933 

674 Sawyers 704 662 727 727 853 

675 Spinners, textile 710 

680 Stationary firemen 712 666 766 766 873 

681 Switchmen, railroad 713 713 826 826 

682 Taxicab drivers and 

chauffeurs 714 714 809 809 914 

683 Truck and tractor drivers 715 715 804 804 913 

684 Weavers, textile 720 673 739 739 841 

685 Welders and flame cutters 721 680 783 783 814 
38

690 Operative and kindred 

workers (nec) 

631, 643, 

671, 673, 

693, 705, 

775 

440, 602, 

604, 610, 

612, 615, 

624, 633, 

634, 635, 

641, 643, 

650, 652, 

653, 656, 

660, 663, 

664, 665, 

670, 671, 

672, 674, 

681, 690, 

692, 694, 

695, 696, 

706, 726, 

740 

455, 487, 

573, 636, 

673, 683, 

684, 688, 

689, 693, 

704, 705, 

706, 708, 

714, 715, 

717, 719, 

723, 725, 

726, 728, 

729, 733, 

737, 738, 

743, 744, 

745, 749, 

753, 754, 

755, 756, 

757, 758, 

764, 765, 

768, 769, 

777, 779, 

784, 785, 

786, 787, 

793, 794, 

795, 796, 

797, 798, 

799, 856, 

864, 873 

455, 487, 

573, 636, 

683, 684, 

688, 689, 

693, 704, 

705, 706, 

708, 714, 

715, 717, 

719, 723, 

725, 726, 

728, 729, 

733, 737, 

738, 743, 

744, 745, 

749, 753, 

754, 755, 

756, 757, 

758, 764, 

765, 768, 

769, 777, 

779, 784, 

785, 786, 

787, 793, 

795, 796, 

796, 797, 

798, 799, 

856, 865, 

874, 888 

292, 424, 

434, 435, 

633, 650, 

671, 672, 

673, 674, 

675, 676, 

680, 691, 

692, 693, 

694, 761, 

771, 772, 

773, 775, 

784, 785, 

790, 792, 

795, 796, 

801, 802, 

810, 812, 

820, 822, 

825, 826, 

832, 834, 

840, 842, 

843, 844, 

846, 854, 

863, 864, 

865, 871, 

872, 874, 

880, 884, 

885, 886, 

890, 892, 

893, 894, 

895, 896, 

911, 915, 

942, 960, 

964, 973 

700 Housekeepers, private 

household 802 982 405 405 

710 Laundresses, private 

household 803 983 403 403 

720 Private household workers 

(nec) 801, 804 980, 981, 984, 986 404, 406, 407 404, 406, 407 423 

730 Attendants, hospital and 

other institution 810 925 447 447 360 

731 Attendants, professional and 

personal service (nec) 812 933, 942, 952 463, 468, 469 

461, 466, 

467, 468, 

469 

454, 455, 

460, 465 

732 Attendants, recreation and 

amusement 813 932 427, 456, 459 427, 456, 459 443 

740 Barbers, beauticians, and 

manicurists 814, 843 935, 944 457, 458 457, 458 450, 451 

750 Bartenders 815 910 434 434 404 

751 Bootblacks 820 941 

752 Boarding and lodging house 

keepers 821 940 

753 Charwomen and cleaners 824 902 449 449 
39

754 Cooks, except private 

household 825 912 433, 436, 437 433, 436 400, 401, 402 

760 Counter and fountain 

workers 830 914 438 438 406 

761 Elevator operators 831 943 454 454 

762 Firemen, fire protection 850 961 413, 417 413, 417 372, 374, 

375 

763 Guards, watchmen, and 

doorkeepers 851 962 415, 424, 426 415, 424, 426 370, 392 

764 Housekeepers and stewards, 

except private household 832 931, 950 465 463 

770 Janitors and sextons 834 903 448, 453 448, 453 420, 422 

771 Marshals and constables 852 963 

772 Midwives 840 924 

773 Policemen and detectives 853 964 6, 414, 418 6, 414, 418 

371, 382, 

385, 386, 

391 

780 Porters 841 934 466 464 453 

781 Practical nurses 842 926 207 207 350 

782 Sheriffs and bailiffs 854 965 423 423 380 

783 Ushers, recreation and 

amusement 874 953 464 462 442 

784 Waiters and waitresses 875 915 435 435 411 

785 Watchmen (crossing) and 

bridge tenders 860 960 425, 834 425, 834 394, 934 

790 Service workers, except 

private household (nec) 

823, 835, 

890 

901, 911, 

913, 913, 

954, 976 

439, 443, 

444, 467 

439, 443, 

444, 465 

373, 383, 

384, 390, 

395, 403, 

405, 412, 

413, 414, 

415, 416, 

430, 432, 

440, 446, 

452, 461, 

464, 965 

810 Farm foremen 901 821 477 477 

820 Farm laborers, wage 

workers 902 822, 846 479, 483, 484, 488 

479, 483, 

484, 488 602, 605 

830 Farm laborers, unpaid family 

workers 903 823 

840 Farm service laborers, selfemployed 905 824 

910 Fishermen and oystermen 962 752 498, 499 498, 499 610, 611 

920 Garage laborers and car 

washers and greasers 963 

930 Gardeners, except farm, and 

groundskeepers 964 755 486 486 421, 425 
40

940 Longshoremen and 

stevedores 965 760 845, 876 845, 876 

950 Lumbermen, raftsmen, and 

woodchoppers 970 761 496 496 613 

960 Teamsters 971 763 

970 Laborers (nec) 960, 972, 

973, 985 

750, 751, 

753, 754, 

762, 764, 

770, 780, 

785, 796 

495, 599, 

859, 865, 

869, 875, 

877, 878, 

883, 887, 889 

495, 599, 

859, 866, 

869, 875, 

877, 878, 

883, 887, 

889 

612, 626, 

660, 950, 

961, 962, 

963, 972, 

974, 975 

997 Occupation 

missing/unknown 995 

999 N/A (blank) 990, 0, 991 909 909 0, 992 
41

Appendix C. Attributes of occupations 

These attributes have been measured or imputed by researchers or by the Department 

of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration’s Dictionary of Occupational Titles

(DOT) in 1991. 

For the occupations where many DOT occupations map to just one in the standard 

system, an average of the values of the relevant DOT occupations is shown. Also, an 

average length of special vocational training can be imputed for research purposes. 

Consult the sources in appendix E or the authors for the source data. The cells are blank 

in cases when there is no direct match between the proposed categories and the DOT 

data. 

 

Reas stands for Reasoning Development, (1-6) from the DOT. 

Math stands for Mathematical Development, (1-6) from the DOT. 

Lang stands for Language Use, (1-6) from the DOT. 

SVP stands for Specialized Vocational Training (1-9), measured by the following 

definition, taken from the DOT, volume 2, page 1009: 

Level Time 

1 Short demonstration only 

2 More than short demonstration, up to one month 

3 More than one month, up to three months 

4 More than three months, up to six months 

5 More than six months, up to twelve months 

6 1-2 years 

7 2-4 years 

8 4-10 years 

9 More than 10 years 

Str stands for use of physical Strength (1-5), from the DOT, coded from the 

categories Sedentary Work (1), Light Work (2), Medium Work (3), Heavy Work (4), to 

Very Heavy Work (5). 

Care stands for care work, as coded by England, Budig, and Folbre (2002), by 0 or 1. 

The criterion for this indicator is whether the job involves face to face attention to other 

people in a way that improves the recipient’s capabilities. 

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Legislators 3 0 

Chief executives and public 

administrators 4 5.00 4.00 5.00 8.00 1.00 0 

Financial managers 7 4.88 4.63 4.63 8.25 1.13 0 

Human resources and labor relations 

managers 

8 5.00 4.00 4.83 7.33 1.33 0 

Managers and specialists in marketing, 

advertising, and public relations 13 4.95 3.55 4.45 7.50 1.41 0 

Managers in education and related 

fields 14 5.09 3.55 4.94 8.00 1.18 0 
42

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Managers of medicine and health 

occupations 15 5.22 4.33 5.11 7.89 1.33 0 

Postmasters and mail superintendents 16 4.50 3.50 4.00 7.50 1.00 0 

Managers of food-serving and lodging 

establishments 17 4.38 3.88 3.88 6.88 1.94 0 

Managers of properties and real estate 18 4.53 3.89 4.32 7.21 1.79 0 

Funeral directors 19 4.00 4.00 4.00 7.00 2.00 0 

Managers of service organizations, 

n.e.c. 

21 4.48 3.61 4.16 6.97 1.68 0 

Managers and administrators, n.e.c. 22 4.82 4.08 4.44 7.68 1.39 0 

Accountants and auditors 23 5.00 4.92 5.00 7.62 1.15 0 

Insurance underwriters 24 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 1.00 0 

Other financial specialists 25 4.84 3.95 4.47 7.26 1.11 0 

Management analysts 26 4.60 3.80 4.10 7.40 1.10 0 

Personnel, HR, training, and labor 

relations specialists 27 4.72 3.56 4.40 6.84 1.40 0 

Purchasing agents and buyers, of farm 

products 28 4.80 3.60 4.40 7.20 1.60 0 

Buyers, wholesale and retail trade 29 4.00 3.00 3.50 6.00 2.00 0 

Purchasing managers, agents and 

buyers, n.e.c. 33 4.58 3.83 4.42 7.17 1.42 0 

Business and promotion agents 34 4.44 3.67 4.33 6.67 1.33 0 

Construction inspectors 35 4.30 3.60 3.70 6.60 2.00 0 

Inspectors and compliance officers, 

outside construction 36 4.39 3.44 4.17 6.58 1.88 0 

Management support occupations 37 4.63 3.37 4.37 7.32 1.16 0 

Architects 43 5.33 5.33 5.33 7.33 1.67 0 

Aerospace engineer 44 5.56 5.44 5.56 8.11 1.67 0 

Metallurgical and materials engineers 45 5.18 5.09 5.09 7.82 1.91 0 

Petroleum, mining, and geological 

engineers 47 5.60 5.60 5.60 8.40 1.20 0 

Chemical engineers 48 5.50 5.50 5.33 8.00 1.67 0 

Civil engineers 53 5.08 5.08 4.85 7.92 1.85 0 

Electrical engineer 55 5.13 5.13 5.13 7.93 1.67 0 

Industrial engineers 56 5.22 5.04 5.04 7.74 1.57 0 

Mechanical engineers 57 5.00 4.93 4.86 7.64 1.57 0 

Engineers not elsewhere classified 59 5.33 5.06 4.97 7.94 1.78 0 

Computer systems analysts and 

computer scientists 64 4.62 3.85 4.62 7.08 1.38 0 

Operations and systems researchers and 

analysts 65 6.00 6.00 6.00 7.00 1.00 0 
43

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Actuaries 66 5.00 5.00 5.00 8.00 1.00 0 

Statisticians 67 5.33 5.33 5.00 7.67 1.00 0 

Mathematicians and mathematical 

scientists 68 5.33 5.33 5.33 7.67 1.67 0 

Physicists and astronomers 69 6.00 5.83 5.83 8.00 1.67 0 

Chemists 73 5.40 5.00 4.80 7.20 2.20 0 

Atmospheric and space scientists 74 5.00 5.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 0 

Geologists 75 6.00 5.85 5.69 8.00 2.00 0 

Physical scientists, n.e.c. 76 6.00 6.00 5.75 7.25 1.75 0 

Agricultural and food scientists 77 6.00 5.91 5.82 7.91 2.18 0 

Biological scientists 78 6.00 6.00 5.87 8.00 1.93 0 

Foresters and conservation scientists 79 5.33 4.89 5.11 7.44 2.11 0 

Medical scientists 83 6.00 5.83 6.00 8.00 1.83 0 

Physicians 84 6.00 5.00 6.00 8.21 2.08 1 

Dentists 85 6.00 5.00 5.00 8.00 1.90 1 

Veterinarians 86 5.29 4.21 4.93 7.86 2.36 0 

Optometrists 87 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 1 

Podiatrists 88 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 1 

Other health and therapy 89 4.80 3.60 4.60 6.60 2.20 1 

Registered nurses 95 5.00 4.12 4.88 7.18 2.24 1 

Pharmacists 96 5.67 5.33 5.33 7.33 2.00 0 

Dietitians and nutritionists 97 5.14 4.14 5.00 7.71 1.86 0 

Respiratory therapists 98 4.00 3.00 3.00 6.00 3.00 1 

Occupational therapists 99 5.00 4.50 5.00 7.00 2.50 1 

Physical therapists 103 4.00 2.75 3.75 6.75 2.50 1 

Speech therapists 104 5.00 4.67 5.00 7.33 2.00 1 

Therapists, n.e.c. 105 4.89 3.78 4.89 7.00 2.00 1 

Physicians' assistants 106 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 1 

Earth, environmental, and marine 

science instructors 113 1 

Biological science instructors 114 1 

Chemistry instructors 115 1 

Physics instructors 116 1 

Psychology instructors 118 1 

Economics instructors 119 1 

History instructors 123 1 

Sociology instructors 125 1 

Engineering instructors 127 1 

Math instructors 128 1 
44

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Education instructors 139 1 

Law instructors 145 1 

Theology instructors 147 1 

Home economics instructors 149 1 

Humanities instructors, nec 150 5.20 3.60 4.80 8.00 1.80 1 

Subject instructors (HS/college) 154 4.50 2.00 3.50 7.00 2.00 1 

Kindergarten and earlier school 

teachers 155 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 1 

Primary school teachers 156 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 2.00 1 

Secondary school teachers 157 5.00 3.82 5.00 7.00 2.00 1 

Special education teachers 158 4.52 3.15 4.27 6.83 1.90 1 

Teachers , n.e.c. 159 5.00 3.89 5.00 7.44 1.11 1 

Vocational and educational counselors 163 4.65 2.95 4.45 6.75 1.80 1 

Librarians 164 4.94 4.00 4.76 6.65 1.88 1 

Archivists and curators 165 5.00 5.00 5.00 7.50 1.00 0 

Economists, market researchers, and 

survey researchers 166 5.91 5.55 5.27 7.82 1.36 0 

Psychologists 167 5.67 4.67 5.00 6.67 1.00 0 

Sociologists 168 5.16 3.68 4.79 7.16 1.42 0 

Social scientists, n.e.c. 169 5.00 4.50 5.00 7.50 1.50 0 

Urban and regional planners 173 4.68 3.08 4.64 6.72 1.48 0 

Social workers 174 4.33 2.83 4.17 5.83 1.83 1 

Recreation workers 175 4.89 2.67 4.44 7.00 1.56 1 

Clergy and religious workers 176 6.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.08 1 

Lawyers 178 5.71 3.86 5.43 8.29 1.00 0 

Judges 179 5.55 2.18 5.55 7.09 1.09 0 

Writers and authors 183 5.00 3.00 5.00 8.00 1.00 0 

Technical writers 184 4.71 3.04 4.07 7.25 1.50 0 

Designers 185 5.18 3.45 4.55 8.18 1.64 0 

Musician or composer 186 4.70 3.17 4.52 6.87 1.74 0 

Actors, directors, producers 187 4.81 2.69 3.81 7.13 1.50 0 

Art makers: painters, sculptors, craftartists, and print-makers 188 4.00 2.85 3.54 6.46 2.08 0 

Photographers 189 4.50 2.50 4.50 7.50 1.00 0 

Dancers 193 3.84 2.49 3.27 5.62 1.78 0 

Art/entertainment performers and 

related 194 5.30 2.63 5.26 7.63 1.22 0 

Editors and reporters 195 4.75 2.75 4.50 5.75 1.75 0 

Announcers 198 3.69 2.66 3.10 5.52 1.83 0 

Athletes, sports instructors, and 

officials 199 4.80 3.90 4.70 6.40 1.70 0 
45

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Professionals, n.e.c. 200 4.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 2.00 0 

Clinical laboratory technologies and 

technicians 203 4.50 3.50 4.50 6.50 1.50 0 

Dental hygienists 204 5.00 4.00 5.00 7.33 2.44 1 

Health record tech specialists 205 3.67 2.67 3.67 5.33 3.00 0 

Radiologic tech specialists 206 4.14 3.58 3.89 6.25 2.17 0 

Licensed practical nurses 207 4.40 4.40 3.70 6.90 2.10 1 

Health technologists and technicians, 

n.e.c. 

208 4.16 3.90 3.84 6.71 1.94 0 

Electrical and electronic (engineering) 

technicians 213 4.86 4.29 4.14 7.29 1.71 0 

Engineering technicians, n.e.c. 214 4.59 4.51 4.12 7.02 1.22 0 

Mechanical engineering technicians 215 4.57 4.29 3.90 6.67 1.81 0 

Drafters 217 3.87 3.27 3.27 5.53 2.33 0 

Surveyors, cartographers, mapping 

scientists and technicians 218 4.67 4.25 3.92 6.50 2.00 0 

Biological technicians 223 4.32 4.02 3.95 6.17 2.02 0 

Chemical technicians 224 4.79 4.21 4.36 7.43 1.93 0 

Other science technicians 225 4.40 3.40 4.00 7.80 1.60 0 

Airplane pilots and navigators 226 4.19 3.43 3.81 7.00 1.38 0 

Air traffic controllers 227 4.75 4.25 4.75 7.25 1.25 0 

Broadcast equipment operators 228 4.00 3.50 3.50 6.00 1.00 0 

Computer software developers 229 4.73 2.82 4.64 6.82 1.18 0 

Programmers of numerically controlled 

machine tools 233 4.05 2.97 3.58 6.18 1.92 0 

Legal assistants, paralegals, legal 

support, etc 234 4.14 3.41 3.73 6.50 1.91 0 

Technicians, n.e.c. 235 4.00 3.00 4.00 5.50 1.50 0 

Supervisors and proprietors of sales 

jobs 243 4.40 3.20 4.20 5.80 2.00 0 

Insurance sales occupations 253 4.67 3.33 4.33 6.67 1.50 0 

Real estate sales occupations 254 4.00 2.71 3.71 5.43 2.00 0 

Financial services sales occupations 255 5.00 5.00 5.00 8.00 2.00 0 

Advertising and related sales jobs 256 3.90 2.92 3.71 4.99 1.96 0 

Sales engineers 258 3.00 2.45 2.70 3.15 2.05 0 

Salespersons, n.e.c. 274 3.00 2.29 2.10 3.05 1.71 0 

Retail sales clerks 275 2.38 2.13 2.25 2.63 2.25 0 

Cashiers 276 3.25 2.25 2.94 3.44 1.81 0 
46

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Door-to-door sales, street sales, and 

news vendors 277 4.04 3.00 3.75 6.56 1.45 0 

Sales demonstrators / promoters / 

models 283 3.75 2.75 3.00 5.50 1.75 0 

Office supervisors 303 4.00 2.63 3.88 5.75 1.25 0 

Computer and peripheral equipment 

operators 308 3.33 1.83 3.33 5.67 1.00 0 

Secretaries 313 3.00 1.80 3.00 4.40 1.00 0 

Stenographers 314 3.10 2.20 2.90 3.30 1.40 0 

Typists 315 3.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 2.00 0 

Interviewers, enumerators, and 

surveyors 

316 3.44 2.89 3.11 4.56 1.22 0 

Hotel clerks 317 3.40 2.20 3.20 3.80 1.40 0 

Transportation ticket and reservation 

agents 318 3.55 2.36 3.36 4.27 1.18 0 

Receptionists 319 3.31 2.23 3.08 4.46 1.38 0 

Information clerks, nec 323 3.56 2.00 3.33 4.22 1.00 0 

Correspondence and order clerks 326 2.83 1.50 2.67 3.50 2.00 0 

Human resources clerks, except payroll 

and timekeeping 328 3.33 1.83 2.67 3.67 1.67 0 

Library assistants 329 3.20 2.35 2.85 4.05 1.28 0 

File clerks 335 3.63 3.20 2.80 4.70 1.10 0 

Records clerks 336 3.67 2.67 3.00 4.00 1.00 0 

Bookkeepers and accounting and 

auditing clerks 337 3.50 2.89 2.94 4.44 1.11 0 

Payroll and timekeeping clerks 338 3.22 2.72 2.61 4.00 1.06 0 

Cost and rate clerks (financial records 

processing) 343 2.50 1.50 1.33 3.17 2.33 0 

Billing clerks and related financial 

records processing 344 2.50 1.50 1.83 2.83 2.17 0 

Duplication machine operators / office 

machine operators 345 2.71 1.43 1.86 3.00 1.86 0 

Mail and paper handlers 346 3.38 2.08 3.23 4.69 1.38 0 

Office machine operators, n.e.c. 347 3.38 2.25 3.13 4.25 1.13 0 

Telephone operators 348 3.33 2.33 3.00 4.33 1.67 0 

Other telecom operators 349 3.00 2.50 2.50 3.00 3.00 0 

Postal clerks, excluding mail carriers 354 2.78 1.78 2.33 3.22 1.78 0 

Mail carriers for postal service 355 2.25 1.63 2.25 2.13 1.75 0 

Mail clerks, outside of post office 356 3.48 2.55 3.07 5.14 1.21 0 

Messengers 357 3.59 2.61 3.05 5.44 1.79 0 

Dispatchers 359 2.88 2.18 2.23 3.75 1.95 0 
47

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Inspectors, n.e.c. 361 3.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 0 

Shipping and receiving clerks 364 2.75 2.14 2.18 3.11 2.14 0 

Stock and inventory clerks 365 3.30 2.59 3.02 4.52 1.62 0 

Meter readers 366 4.00 2.80 3.80 5.60 1.40 0 

Weighers, measurers, and checkers 368 3.71 2.93 3.43 4.21 1.36 0 

Material recording, scheduling, 

production, planning, and expediting 

clerks 

373 4.00 3.00 4.00 5.50 1.50 0 

Insurance adjusters, examiners, and 

investigators 375 3.33 2.67 3.00 4.00 2.00 0 

Customer service reps, investigators 

and adjusters, except insurance 376 3.47 2.53 3.00 4.13 1.40 0 

Eligibility clerks for government 

programs; social welfare 377 4.00 3.25 3.50 4.75 1.75 0 

Bill and account collectors 378 3.75 1.25 3.75 4.50 1.25 0 

General office clerks 379 3.30 1.90 3.00 4.60 1.10 0 

Bank tellers 383 3.25 2.75 2.63 4.00 1.25 0 

Proofreaders 384 3.33 2.67 3.00 3.00 1.33 0 

Data entry keyers 385 3.11 2.13 2.80 3.97 1.48 0 

Statistical clerks 386 2.22 1.33 1.78 3.11 2.11 0 

Teacher's aides 387 2.50 1.67 2.00 2.50 2.50 1 

Administrative support jobs, n.e.c. 389 3.80 2.40 3.60 6.80 1.80 0 

Housekeepers, maids, butlers, stewards, 

and lodging quarters cleaners 405 3.78 2.67 3.17 6.06 1.61 0 

Private household cleaners and servants 407 4.20 2.89 3.73 6.93 1.98 0 

Supervisors of guards 415 3.11 2.00 2.83 4.89 2.06 0 

Fire fighting, prevention, and 

inspection 417 2.00 1.33 2.00 2.33 2.00 0 

Police, detectives, and private 

investigators 418 3.13 2.04 2.79 4.25 1.96 0 

Other law enforcement: sheriffs, 

bailiffs, correctional institution officers 423 3.10 1.70 2.60 4.70 1.60 0 

Crossing guards and bridge tenders 425 2.33 1.67 2.00 2.33 2.00 0 

Guards, watchmen, doorkeepers 426 2.70 1.80 2.00 3.40 2.20 0 

Protective services, n.e.c. 427 3.57 2.50 2.74 6.41 2.37 0 

Bartenders 434 2.22 1.78 2.00 2.44 2.11 0 

Waiter/waitress 435 2.44 1.67 1.67 3.00 2.22 0 

Cooks, variously defined 436 2.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.75 0 

Food counter and fountain workers 438 2.10 1.40 1.30 2.30 2.50 0 

Kitchen workers 439 4.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 2.00 0 
48

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Waiter's assistant 443 3.22 2.44 3.00 4.61 2.22 0 

Misc food prep workers 444 3.00 1.83 2.33 3.67 2.33 0 

Dental assistants 445 3.40 2.40 2.90 6.30 2.40 1 

Health aides, except nursing 446 1.69 1.13 1.38 2.31 2.56 1 

Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants 447 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 0 

Supervisors of cleaning and building 

service 448 2.50 1.83 1.83 4.17 1.33 0 

Janitors 453 3.67 2.87 3.27 6.07 2.13 0 

Elevator operators 454 3.00 2.00 3.00 6.00 2.00 0 

Pest control occupations 455 3.18 2.18 2.55 5.18 1.91 0 

Supervisors of personal service jobs, 

n.e.c. 

456 2.67 1.88 2.21 2.75 2.04 0 

Barbers 457 3.22 2.00 3.00 4.11 1.56 0 

Hairdressers and cosmetologists 458 2.00 1.00 1.60 2.00 2.00 0 

Recreation facility attendants 459 2.90 1.80 2.70 2.90 2.20 0 

Guides 461 2.25 1.75 2.25 2.25 2.25 0 

Ushers 462 3.50 2.00 3.00 4.00 2.00 0 

Public transportation attendants and 

inspectors 463 3.00 1.67 2.67 3.00 2.67 0 

Baggage porters 464 2.43 1.66 2.19 2.77 2.17 0 

Welfare service aides 465 4.00 3.10 3.30 6.55 1.85 0 

Child care workers 468 4.00 3.25 3.50 6.75 2.75 1 

Personal service occupations, nec 469 4.60 3.40 3.80 7.40 2.00 0 

Farmers (owners and tenants) 473 5.00 3.67 4.67 7.67 2.00 0 

Horticultural specialty farmers 474 2.66 1.84 2.17 4.01 2.23 0 

Farm managers, except for horticultural 

farms 475 2.25 1.00 1.25 3.50 1.50 0 

Managers of horticultural specialty 

farms 476 2.25 1.38 2.00 2.50 1.75 0 

Farm workers 479 3.92 3.08 3.42 6.00 2.17 0 

Marine life cultivation workers 483 2.70 1.90 2.40 3.70 1.50 0 

Nursery farming workers 484 2.75 1.75 2.00 3.75 2.38 0 

Supervisors of agricultural occupations 485 2.56 1.78 2.11 3.78 2.00 0 

Gardeners and groundskeepers 486 2.80 2.20 2.60 4.00 2.40 0 

Animal caretakers except on farms 487 2.23 1.41 1.46 3.46 1.28 0 

Graders and sorters of agricultural 

products 488 2.46 1.38 1.54 3.62 0.81 0 

Inspectors of agricultural products 489 3.98 3.47 3.50 7.43 2.12 0 

Timber, logging, and forestry workers 496 3.14 2.32 2.73 5.68 2.41 0 

Fishers, hunters, and kindred 498 4.00 3.00 3.00 7.00 2.14 0 
49

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Supervisors of mechanics and repairers 503 3.57 2.71 3.29 5.86 2.71 0 

Automobile mechanics 505 3.58 2.92 2.92 6.25 2.17 0 

Bus, truck, and stationary engine 

mechanics 507 2.92 2.08 2.00 5.23 2.23 0 

Aircraft mechanics 508 3.65 2.65 2.88 6.47 1.71 0 

Small engine repairers 509 3.55 2.76 2.91 6.11 2.09 0 

Auto body repairers 514 2.30 1.27 1.64 3.39 1.98 0 

Heavy equipment and farm equipment 

mechanics 516 3.80 3.20 3.02 6.59 2.37 0 

Industrial machinery repairers 518 3.50 3.00 2.50 6.00 2.00 0 

Machinery maintenance occupations 519 3.63 2.63 2.75 6.13 2.00 0 

Repairers of industrial electrical 

equipment 523 4.00 3.40 3.00 7.00 1.60 0 

Repairers of data processing equipment 525 3.52 2.58 2.61 6.06 2.32 0 

Repairers of household appliances and 

power tools 526 3.55 2.64 2.91 6.64 1.91 0 

Telecom and line installers and 

repairers 527 3.51 2.41 2.57 6.51 2.01 0 

Repairers of electrical equipment, n.e.c. 533 3.67 3.00 3.00 6.33 1.33 0 

Heating, air conditioning, and 

refigeration mechanics 534 3.75 2.75 2.88 6.38 2.38 0 

Precision makers, repairers, and smiths 535 3.24 2.67 2.67 5.71 2.33 0 

Locksmiths and safe repairers 536 4.00 3.00 3.00 7.25 2.00 0 

Office machine repairers and 

mechanics 538 4.00 3.50 3.50 7.33 1.00 0 

Repairers of mechanical controls and 

valves 539 2.93 1.86 2.02 4.60 1.88 0 

Elevator installers and repairers 543 3.98 3.06 3.04 7.45 2.23 0 

Millwrights 544 3.33 2.21 2.38 6.17 2.00 0 

Mechanics and repairers, n.e.c. 549 3.48 2.61 2.39 5.82 2.36 0 

Supervisors of construction work 558 2.67 2.00 2.00 5.50 2.50 0 

Masons, tilers, and carpet installers 563 3.69 2.92 2.77 6.62 2.85 0 

Carpenters 567 3.67 3.17 2.83 6.50 1.42 0 

Drywall installers 573 2.83 1.83 1.83 6.67 2.67 0 

Electricians 575 3.00 1.50 1.50 4.50 2.50 0 

Electric power installers and repairers 577 3.50 2.25 2.50 7.00 3.00 0 

Painters, construction and maintenance 579 3.67 2.44 2.78 6.50 1.33 0 

Paperhangers 583 3.50 2.33 2.33 6.67 2.00 0 

Plasterers 584 3.00 2.00 2.00 6.67 2.00 0 
50

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Plumbers, pipe fitters, and steamfitters 585 2.83 1.67 2.17 6.00 2.67 0 

Concrete and cement workers 588 2.78 1.22 1.22 4.17 2.13 0 

Glaziers 589 3.00 1.67 2.00 6.67 2.67 0 

Insulation workers 593 0 

Paving, surfacing, and tamping 

equipment operators 594 3.20 1.80 2.20 6.60 1.20 0 

Roofers and slaters 595 3.14 1.86 1.86 5.29 1.86 0 

Sheet metal duct installers 596 2.80 1.75 1.92 4.46 1.54 0 

Structural metal workers 597 3.00 2.33 2.00 5.67 3.00 0 

Drillers of earth 598 3.25 2.50 2.13 5.75 1.75 0 

Construction trades, n.e.c. 599 2.91 1.82 1.64 4.82 2.27 0 

Drillers of oil wells 614 2.76 1.59 1.47 4.41 1.06 0 

Explosives workers 615 3.94 2.86 3.09 6.99 2.13 0 

Miners 616 3.74 3.14 2.94 6.80 2.60 0 

Other mining occupations 617 4.00 3.82 3.27 7.18 2.64 0 

Production supervisors or foremen 628 3.80 3.20 2.60 7.00 1.20 0 

Tool and die makers and die setters 634 3.47 2.80 2.60 6.47 2.67 0 

Machinists 637 3.93 3.36 3.20 6.98 2.55 0 

Boilermakers 643 3.71 3.14 2.57 7.14 1.86 0 

Precision grinders and filers 644 3.64 2.18 2.45 6.64 1.91 0 

Patternmakers and model makers 645 4.00 4.00 3.00 7.00 3.00 0 

Lay-out workers 646 3.50 3.50 3.00 6.00 3.00 0 

Engravers 649 4.00 2.33 2.67 6.67 2.00 0 

Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet 

metal workers 653 3.67 3.08 2.75 6.67 2.17 0 

Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters 657 3.33 2.44 2.56 6.00 2.00 0 

Furniture and wood finishers 658 4.00 3.00 3.00 7.00 2.00 0 

Other precision woodworkers 659 3.22 2.22 2.78 6.11 2.89 0 

Dressmakers and seamstresses 666 3.18 2.18 2.55 6.27 2.18 0 

Tailors 667 3.02 1.98 2.13 5.35 2.17 0 

Upholsterers 668 2.33 1.39 1.58 3.46 2.05 0 

Shoe repairers 669 3.17 2.46 2.71 5.54 1.92 0 

Other precision apparel and fabric 

workers 674 3.75 2.88 3.63 6.50 1.50 0 

Hand molders and shapers, except 

jewelers 675 3.00 2.00 2.00 7.00 3.00 0 

Optical goods workers 677 3.54 2.79 2.85 5.92 2.18 0 

Dental laboratory and medical 

appliance technicians 678 3.00 2.00 2.29 5.86 0.86 0 
51

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Bookbinders 679 3.00 2.00 2.00 6.67 0.67 0 

Other precision and craft workers 684 3.67 2.44 2.89 6.56 2.44 0 

Butchers and meat cutters 686 3.29 2.12 2.18 5.76 1.88 0 

Bakers 687 3.43 2.86 2.86 5.14 2.29 0 

Batch food makers 688 3.75 3.00 2.94 6.94 2.38 0 

Adjusters and calibrators 693 3.10 2.60 2.50 5.50 2.70 0 

Water and sewage treatment plant 

operators 694 3.26 2.65 2.61 5.32 2.29 0 

Power plant operators 695 2.89 2.19 2.19 4.53 2.42 0 

Plant and system operators, stationary 

engineers 696 2.60 1.82 1.88 3.84 1.90 0 

Other plant and system operators 699 3.00 2.19 1.97 4.97 2.52 0 

Lathe, milling, and turning machine 

operatives 703 2.75 2.18 2.00 3.82 2.46 0 

Punching and stamping press operatives 706 2.61 1.76 1.89 3.99 2.26 0 

Rollers, roll hands, and finishers of 

metal 707 2.94 2.06 1.94 4.82 1.65 0 

Drilling and boring machine operators 708 2.60 1.76 1.84 3.93 2.35 0 

Grinding, abrading, buffing, and 

polishing workers 709 2.55 1.69 1.75 3.74 2.09 0 

Forge and hammer operators 713 2.53 1.92 1.90 3.63 2.24 0 

Fabricating machine operators, n.e.c. 717 2.96 2.25 2.07 4.43 2.25 0 

Molders, and casting machine operators 719 2.68 1.68 1.48 3.78 2.58 0 

Metal platers 723 2.62 1.46 1.27 3.85 2.31 0 

Heat treating equipment operators 724 2.17 1.33 1.21 3.00 2.25 0 

Wood lathe, routing, and planing 

machine operators 726 2.00 1.20 1.20 2.00 2.20 0 

Sawing machine operators and sawyers 727 2.37 1.50 1.50 3.23 2.49 0 

Shaping and joining machine operator 

(woodworking) 728 2.85 1.65 1.89 4.67 2.27 0 

Nail and tacking machine operators 

(woodworking) 729 3.53 2.14 2.31 6.35 1.94 0 

Other woodworking machine operators 733 3.50 1.64 2.57 6.14 2.21 0 

Printing machine operators, n.e.c. 734 2.08 1.06 1.31 2.86 2.17 0 

Photoengravers and lithographers 735 3.03 1.55 1.95 4.87 2.24 0 

Typesetters and compositors 736 2.25 1.11 1.75 2.81 2.11 0 

Winding and twisting textile/apparel 

operatives 738 2.27 1.07 1.24 3.05 2.02 0 
52

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Knitters, loopers, and toppers textile 

operatives 739 2.80 1.60 1.80 3.40 2.00 0 

Textile cutting machine operators 743 2.07 1.11 1.22 2.48 2.19 0 

Textile sewing machine operators 744 2.44 1.44 1.67 3.59 2.41 0 

Shoemaking machine operators 745 2.13 1.19 1.65 2.81 2.32 0 

Pressing machine operators (clothing) 747 2.04 1.24 1.33 2.80 2.15 0 

Laundry workers 748 2.17 1.25 1.52 2.71 2.05 0 

Misc textile machine operators 749 2.28 1.38 1.46 3.10 2.21 0 

Cementing and gluing maching 

operators 753 2.47 1.64 1.67 3.46 1.66 0 

Packers, fillers, and wrappers 754 2.54 1.62 1.70 3.57 2.15 0 

Extruding and forming machine 

operators 755 2.37 1.45 1.65 3.28 2.34 0 

Mixing and blending machine 

operatives 756 2.37 1.59 1.68 3.41 1.93 0 

Separating, filtering, and clarifying 

machine operators 757 2.21 1.40 1.49 2.72 2.16 0 

Painting machine operators 759 2.37 1.53 1.53 3.16 2.37 0 

Roasting and baking machine operators 

(food) 763 2.52 1.59 1.59 3.47 2.17 0 

Washing, cleaning, and pickling 

machine operators 764 2.33 1.33 1.36 3.34 2.05 0 

Paper folding machine operators 765 2.22 1.36 1.46 2.89 2.10 0 

Furnace, kiln, and oven operators, apart 

from food 766 4.00 2.00 2.00 6.00 2.00 0 

Crushing and grinding machine 

operators 768 3.21 2.00 2.19 5.20 1.70 0 

Slicing and cutting machine operators 769 2.45 1.63 1.77 3.40 2.18 0 

Motion picture projectionists 773 3.18 2.72 2.49 4.85 2.33 0 

Photographic process workers 774 2.56 2.11 2.22 3.50 2.22 0 

Machine operators, n.e.c. 779 2.24 1.41 1.52 3.03 2.06 0 

Welders and metal cutters 783 2.13 1.20 1.28 3.05 2.06 0 

Solderers 784 2.81 2.00 2.20 4.17 2.03 0 

Assemblers of electrical equipment 785 2.15 1.33 1.61 2.90 2.04 0 

Hand painting, coating, and decorating 

occupations 789 3.73 2.67 3.07 6.13 2.13 0 

Production checkers and inspectors 796 2.64 1.42 1.78 3.08 2.67 0 

Graders and sorters in manufacturing 799 3.00 2.00 2.00 3.33 2.67 0 
53

Proposed standard job title 

Proposed 

standard 

code 

Reason Math Lang SVP Str Care 

Supervisors of motor vehicle 

transportation 803 2.25 1.38 1.63 2.88 1.88 0 

Truck, delivery, and tractor drivers 804 2.33 1.33 1.67 2.33 2.00 0 

Bus drivers 808 3.88 2.88 3.50 7.00 1.75 0 

Taxi cab drivers and chauffeurs 809 3.07 1.79 2.29 4.43 2.07 1 

Parking lot attendants 813 2.50 1.67 2.17 3.33 2.67 1 

Railroad conductors and yardmasters 823 3.53 3.03 2.93 6.13 2.07 0 

Locomotive operators (engineers and 

firemen) 824 3.25 2.00 2.25 5.00 2.25 0 

Railroad brake, coupler, and switch 

operators 825 3.00 1.00 2.00 6.00 3.00 0 

Ship crews and marine engineers 829 2.65 1.21 1.59 4.12 1.85 0 

Water transport infrastructure tenders 

and crossing guards 834 2.91 1.45 1.45 4.45 2.64 0 

Operating engineers of construction 

equipment 844 2.53 1.70 1.78 3.94 2.21 0 

Crane, derrick, winch, and hoist 

operators 848 2.29 1.54 1.81 3.46 1.56 0 

Excavating and loading machine 

operators 853 2.13 1.35 1.48 3.22 1.04 0 

Misc material moving occupations 859 2.00 1.17 1.33 2.67 1.33 0 

Helpers, constructions 865 0 

Helpers, surveyors 866 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0 

Construction laborers 869 2.50 1.50 1.50 3.50 1.50 0 

Production helpers 873 1.67 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 0 

Garbage and recyclable material 

collectors 875 1.49 1.02 1.04 1.91 1.87 0 

Materials movers: stevedores and 

longshore workers 876 1.76 1.11 1.15 2.33 1.13 0 

Stock handlers 877 2.40 1.40 1.40 3.00 2.80 0 

Machine feeders and offbearers 878 1.77 1.06 1.08 2.06 2.15 0 

Freight, stock, and materials handlers 883 1.63 1.06 1.19 1.94 1.97 0 

Garage and service station related 

occupations 885 1.63 1.09 1.13 2.13 1.87 0 

Vehicle washers and equipment 

cleaners 887 2.85 2.39 2.33 4.70 0.91 0 

Packers and packagers by hand 888 0 

Laborers outside construction 889 5.00 4.00 5.00 8.00 1.00 0 

Military 905 4.88 4.63 4.63 8.25 1.13 0 

Unemployed 991 

Unknown / not matched 999 3.40 3.00 3.00 5.40 1.00 0 
54

Appendix D. Tests of consistency of occupation definitions 

The tables which follow compare the most pronounced changes by different criteria 

in the IPUMS assignment of Census 1950 occupations (in the variable named occ1950) 

and in the proposed classification (in appendix A). We apply the same consistency 

criteria to both classifications in order to study which categories seem to be inconsistent, 

and whether one classification is doing much less well than the other . Overall they 

perform similarly on these criteria. 

Appendix D1. Occupation categories with the greatest and smallest increases in 

mean earned income within the occupation category 

Occupations which were not measured at all in one of the years are left out of the 

table. The measure of income is nominal, so a change of 1.0 is actually a decline in real 

income. 

Occupations with the greatest and least increases in mean nominal income, 1960 to 

1970, occ1950 classification 

occ1950 Job title from 1950 Census 

Mean 1970 earned income divided by 

mean 1960 earned income 

752 Boarding and lodging house keepers 3.22 

360 Telegraph messengers 3.12 

59 Nurses, student professional 2.89 

78 Religious workers 2.76 

772 Midwives 2.63 

. . . . 

731 Attendants, professional and personal service (nec) 1.18 

521 Engravers, except engravers 1.18 

611 Apprentices, building trades (nec) 1.15 

645 Milliners 0.92 

100 Farmers (owners and tenants) 0.39 

1960 to 1970, proposed standard classification 

Proposed 

code Proposed job title 

Mean 1970 earned income divided by 

mean 1960 earned income 

468 Child care workers 3.32 

469 Personal service occupations, nec 2.98 

283 Sales demonstrators / promoters / models 2.61 

599 Construction trades, n.e.c. 2.48 

89 Other health and therapy 2.41 

 ... 

199 Athletes, sports instructors, and officials 1.17 

185 Designers 1.16 

228 Broadcast equipment operators 1.11 

475 Farm managers, except for horticultural farms 1.00 

473 Farmers (owners and tenants) 0.36 
55

Occupation categories with the greatest and least increases in mean nominal earned 

income, 1970 to 1980 

IPUMS 

occ1950 Job title from 1950 Census 

Mean 1980 earned income divided 

by mean 1970 earned income 

710 Laundressses, private household 4.46 

764 Housekeepers and stewards, except private household 3.11 

370 Telephone operators 2.74 

600 Auto mechanics apprentice 2.57 

614 Apprentices, other specified trades 2.41 

 . . . . 

77 Recreation and group workers 1.32 

790 Service workers, except private household (nec) 1.32 

6 Authors 1.30 

33 Designers 1.23 

525 Furriers 1.09 

1970 to 1980, proposed standard classification 

Proposed 

code Proposed job title 

Mean 1980 earned income divided 

by mean 1970 earned income 

475 Farm managers, except for horticultural farms 2.95 

348 Telephone operators 2.74 

468 Child care workers 2.62 

616 Miners 2.46 

717 Fabricating machine operators, n.e.c. 2.44 

 . . . 

274 Salespersons, n.e.c. 1.30 

183 Writers and authors 1.30 

425 Crossing guards and bridge tenders 1.29 

194 Art/entertainment performers and related 1.22 

328 Human resources clerks, except payroll and 

timekeeping 0.89 
56

Occupation categories with the greatest and least increases in mean nominal earned 

income, 1980 to 1990

1980 to 1990, occ1950 classification 

occ1950 Job title from 1950 Census 

Mean 1990 earned income divided by 

mean 1980 earned income 

430 Hucksters and peddlers 2.60 

230 Managers & superintendants, building 2.24 

340 Messengers and office boys 2.23 

720 Private household workers (nec) 2.22 

55 Lawyers and judges 2.20 

 . . . . 

710 Laundressses, private household 1.36 

601 Bricklayers and masons apprentice 1.34 

380 Ticket, station, and express agents 1.34 

614 Apprentices, other specified trades 1.22 

612 Apprentices, metalworking trades (nec) 1.16 

1980 to 1990, proposed standard classification 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Mean 1990 earned income divided by 

mean 1980 earned income 

149 Home economics instructors 2.57 

277 Door-to-door sales, street sales, and news 

vendors 2.42 

125 Sociology instructors 2.36 

88 Podiatrists 2.35 

693 Adjusters and calibrators 2.32 

 . . . . 

456 Supervisors of personal service jobs, n.e.c. 1.30 

37 Management support occupations 1.29 

866 Helpers, surveyors 1.27 

659 Other precision woodworkers 1.22 

474 Horticultural specialty farmers 0.75 
57

Occupation categories with the greatest and least increases mean nominal earned 

income from 1990 to 2000 

occ1950

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Mean 2000 earned income divided by 

mean 1990 earned income 

100 Farmers (owners and tenants) 7.51 

790 Service workers, except private household 

(nec) 2.00 

720 Private household workers (nec) 1.98 

302 Attendants, physicians and dentists office 1.94 

783 Ushers, recreation and amusement 1.93 

 . . . . 

622 Blasters and powdermen 0.97 

51 Entertainers (nec) 0.96 

562 Motion picture projectionists 0.95 

732 Attendants, recreation and amusement 0.93 

96 Technicians (nec) 0.41 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Mean 2000 earned income divided by 

mean 1990 earned income 

473 Farmers (owners and tenants) 7.38 

4 Chief executives and public administrators 3.77 

465 Welfare service aides 2.52 

799 Graders and sorters in manufacturing 2.43 

346 Mail and paper handlers 2.37 

 . . . . 

233 Programmers of numerically controlled 

machine tools 1.06 

773 Motion picture projectionists 0.95 

678 Dental laboratory and medical appliance 

technicians 0.92 

159 Teachers , n.e.c. 0.88 

876 Materials movers: stevedores and longshore 

workers 0.72 
58

Appendix D2. The fraction of the work force in each occupation

We measured the changes in the fraction of the work force in each occ1950 category 

and proposed standard occupation to detect which job categories experienced sharp 

change in the number of workers. The work force was defined by the respondent’s 

employment status (empstatd value in the set {10,12,14,15} and age (between 16 and 75). 

Here are the occupational categories which expanded or shrank rapidly from one decade 

to the next, first given for occ1950, then for the proposed classification. 

Occupation categories which grew or shrank the most in size as a fraction of the 

work force from 1960 to 1970 

occ1950 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Fraction of workforce in 1970 

divided by fraction of 

workforce in 1960 

26 Natural science (nec)-Professors and instructors 10.70 

594 Craftsmen and kindred workers (nec) 5.44 

51 Entertainers (nec) 5.18 

10 College presidents and deans 5.10 

24 Psychology-Professors and instructors 3.71 

 . . . 

59 Nurses, student professional 0.24 

710 Laundressses, private household 0.23 

752 Boarding and lodging house keepers 0.21 

780 Porters 0.12 

300 Agents (nec) 0.11 

Proposed 

Code Proposed job title 

Fraction of 

workforce in 1970 

divided by 

fraction of 

workforce in 1960 

14 Managers in education and related fields 25.41 

13 Managers and specialists in marketing, advertising, and public 

relations 14.18 

859 Misc material moving occupations 12.47 

599 Construction trades, n.e.c. 6.98 

703 Lathe, milling, and turning machine operatives 6.41 

 . . . . 

193 Dancers 0.24 

464 Baggage porters 0.12 

347 Office machine operators, n.e.c. 0.10 

674 Other precision apparel and fabric workers 0.01 

225 Other science technicians 0.00 
59

Occupation categories which grew or shrank the most in size as a fraction of the work 

force from 1970 to 1980 

1950 

occupation 

category 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Fraction of workforce in 

1980 divided by fraction 

of workforce in 1970 

69 Misc. natural scientists 7.71 

731 Attendants, professional and personal service (nec) 2.86 

525 Furriers 2.60 

82 Psychologists 2.50 

33 Designers 2.24 

 . . . . 

27 Social sciences (nec)-Professors and instructors 0.30 

420 Demonstrators 0.23 

681 Switchmen, railroad 0.14 

710 Laundressses, private household 0.12 

612 Apprentices, metalworking trades (nec) 0.10 

Proposed 

standard 

code Proposed job title 

Fraction of workforce in 

1980 divided by fraction 

of workforce in 1970 

225 Other science technicians 109.92 

675 Hand molders and shapers, except jewelers 11.03 

888 Packers and packagers by hand 10.47 

76 Physical scientists, n.e.c. 7.71 

235 Technicians, n.e.c. 5.75 

 . . . 

439 Kitchen workers 0.16 

754 Packers, fillers, and wrappers 0.14 

469 Personal service occupations, nec 0.13 

346 Mail and paper handlers 0.05 

275 Retail sales clerks 0.03 
60

Occupation categories which grew or shrank the most in size as a fraction of the work 

force from 1980 to 1990

Occ1950 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Fraction of workforce in 1990 

divided by fraction of workforce in 

1980 

420 Demonstrators 2.93 

380 Ticket, station, and express agents 2.21 

250 Officials & administratators (nec), public 2.05 

6 Authors 1.98 

480 Stock and bond salesmen 1.86 

 . . . . 

624 Brakemen, railroad 0.35 

601 Bricklayers and masons apprentice 0.27 

12 Aricultural sciences-Professors and instructors 0.24 

604 Machinists and toolmakers apprentice 0.23 

632 Deliverymen and routemen 0.17 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Fraction of workforce in 1990 

divided by fraction of workforce in 

1980 

37 Management support occupations 10.19 

866 Helpers, surveyors 6.26 

24 Insurance underwriters 3.13 

205 Health record tech specialists 3.10 

283 Sales demonstrators / promoters / models 2.93 

 . . . . 

825 Railroad brake, coupler, and switch operators 0.35 

703 Lathe, milling, and turning machine operatives 0.31 

708 Drilling and boring machine operators 0.27 

149 Home economics instructors 0.20 

865 Helpers, constructions 0.16 
61

Occupation categories which grew or shrank the most in size as a fraction of the work 

force from 1990 to 2000 

Occ1950 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Fraction of workforce in 2000 

divided by fraction of 

workforce in 1990 

69 Misc. natural scientists 12.04 

77 Recreation and group workers 4.70 

99 Professional, technical & kindred workers (nec) 3.11 

782 Sheriffs and bailiffs 2.83 

622 Blasters and powdermen 2.19 

 . . . 

522 Excavating, grading, and road machinery operators 0.17 

81 Economists 0.15 

96 Technicians (nec) 0.12 

582 Shoemakers and repairers, except factory 0.11 

250 Officials & administratators (nec), public 0.08 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Fraction of workforce in 2000 divided 

by fraction of workforce in 1990 

726 Wood lathe, routing, and planing machine 

operators 69.26 

4 Chief executives and public administrators 52.23 

346 Mail and paper handlers 19.05 

275 Retail sales clerks 15.62 

729 Nail and tacking machine operators 

(woodworking) 13.49 

 . . . 

594 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment 

operators 0.19 

225 Other science technicians 0.13 

684 Other precision and craft workers 0.11 

883 Freight, stock, and materials handlers 0.03 

235 Technicians, n.e.c. 0.01 
62

Appendix D3. Measures of the dispersion of earned income 

Our third criterion of occupational stability was earning inequality. Earnings 

inequality was measured by the coefficient of variation, or the sample’s standard 

deviation for each occupation divided by its mean. 

Occupation categories with the greatest and least increases in coefficient of 

variation of income, 1960 to 1970 

occ1950

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Ratio of 1970 coefficient of variation to 

1960 coefficient of variation 

100 Farmers (owners and tenants) 2.87 

771 Marshals and constables 1.87 

700 Housekeepers, private household 1.78 

69 Misc. natural scientists 1.76 

611 Apprentices, building trades (nec) 1.72 

 . . . 

201 Buyers and shippers, farm products 0.73 

15 Economics-Professors and instructors 0.71 

645 Milliners 0.67 

660 Motormen, mine, factory, logging camp, etc 0.65 

59 Nurses, student professional 0.63 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Ratio of 1970 coefficient of variation to 

1960 coefficient of variation 

473 Farmers (owners and tenants) 2.95 

76 Physical scientists, n.e.c. 1.76 

199 Athletes, sports instructors, and officials 1.70 

883 Freight, stock, and materials handlers 1.64 

703 Lathe, milling, and turning machine operatives 1.54 

 . . . . 

584 Plasterers 0.76 

28 Purchasing agents and buyers, of farm products 0.73 

745 Shoemaking machine operators 0.73 

119 Economics instructors 0.71 

583 Paperhangers 0.63 
63

Occupation categories with the greatest and smallest increases in coefficient 

of variation of income, 1970 to 1980 

occ1950 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Ratio of 1980 coefficient of variation to 

1970 coefficient of variation 

525 Furriers 0.74 

573 Plasterers 0.74 

630 Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen, surveying 0.65 

612 Apprentices, metalworking trades (nec) 0.62 

201 Buyers and shippers, farm products 0.62 

 . . . 

31 Dancers and dancing teachers 0.36 

78 Religious workers 0.36 

710 Laundressses, private household 0.30 

764 Housekeepers and stewards, except private 

household 0.29 

700 Housekeepers, private household 0.24 

31 Dancers and dancing teachers 0.36 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Ratio of 1980 coefficient of variation to 

1970 coefficient of variation 

349 Other telecom operators 0.79 

225 Other science technicians 0.76 

658 Furniture and wood finishers 0.75 

584 Plasterers 0.74 

139 Education instructors 0.71 

 . . . 

105 Therapists, n.e.c. 0.35 

168 Sociologists 0.34 

475 Farm managers, except for horticultural farms 0.33 

205 Health record tech specialists 0.29 

316 Interviewers, enumerators, and surveyors 0.28 
64

Occupation categories with the greatest and smallest increases in 

coefficient of variation, 1980 to 1990 

occ1950 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Ratio of 1990 coefficient of variation to 

1980 coefficient of variation 

610 Plumbers and pipe fitters apprentice 1.80 

24 Psychology-Professors and instructors 1.53 

380 Ticket, station, and express agents 1.49 

45 Industrial-Engineers 1.44 

47 Metallurgical, metallurgists-Engineers 1.40 

 . . . 

270 Postmasters 0.87 

700 Housekeepers, private household 0.85 

460 Newsboys 0.82 

600 Auto mechanics apprentice 0.80 

12 Aricultural sciences-Professors and instructors 0.70 

Proposed 

Standard 

Code Proposed job title 

Ratio of 1990 coefficient of variation to 

1980 coefficient of variation 

729 Nail and tacking machine operators 

(woodworking) 1.70 

34 Business and promotion agents 1.56 

118 Psychology instructors 1.53 

485 Supervisors of agricultural occupations 1.51 

318 Transportation ticket and reservation agents 1.49 

 . . . 

139 Education instructors 0.84 

149 Home economics instructors 0.81 

483 Marine life cultivation workers 0.78 

726 Wood lathe, routing, and planing machine 

operators 0.76 

693 Adjusters and calibrators 0.47 
65

Occupation categories with the greatest and smallest increases in 

coefficient of variation, 1990 to 2000 

occ1950 

(IPUMS) Job title from 1950 Census 

Ratio of 1990 coefficient of variation to 

1980 coefficient of variation 

96 Technicians (nec) 4.27 

513 Cranemen,derrickmen, and hoistmen 3.83 

680 Stationary firemen 3.74 

570 Pattern and model makers, except paper 3.58 

34 Dieticians and nutritionists 3.47 

 . . . 

84 Misc social scientists 1.84 

760 Counter and fountain workers 1.83 

783 Ushers, recreation and amusement 1.53 

45 Industrial-Engineers 1.40 

100 Farmers (owners and tenants) 0.81 

Proposed 

standard 

code Proposed job title 

Ratio of 1990 coefficient of variation to 

1980 coefficient of variation 

594 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment 

operators 5.00 

106 Physicians' assistants 4.07 

764 Washing, cleaning, and pickling machine 

operators 4.04 

848 Crane, derrick, winch, and hoist operators 3.83 

539 Repairers of mechanical controls and valves 3.81 

 . . . . 

225 Other science technicians 1.33 

168 Sociologists 1.28 

346 Mail and paper handlers 1.18 

489 Inspectors of agricultural products 0.99 

473 Farmers (owners and tenants) 0.82 
66

Appendix E. Data and code available from the authors 

DOT stands for Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991). 

Spreadsheets with the DOT values in appendix C. 

DOTsum.xls – drawn principally from the DOT attributes summary at the 

National Crosswalk Center, accessible at 

http://webdata.xwalkcenter.org/ftp/DOWNLOAD/occnames/dot91ac.zip 

Stata code to assign job codes and labels 

Remapjob.do – given variable year for the Census or CPS, empstatd with the 

respondent’s employment status, and variable ocsrc with the occupation code 

given that year, it assigns the proposed code to variable ocdest. 

Labels.do – creates text labels with the proposed occupation category names for 

the ocdest variable. 

SAS code - We have five SAS programs: 

Freq_Census.sas - This program investigates how IPUMS assigned occ1950

codes to OCC codes in each Census year, and creates a time series of 

occupational codes and their descriptions. 

occmap_analysis.sas - This program checks the input file with mappings 

between occupational categories in each Census year and proposed standard codes 

for inconsistencies, and then automatically creates Excel tables of problem codes. 

occ1950.sas - computes the statistics shown in Appendix D based on the occ1950

classification for the Census 1960-2000. 

proposed.sas - computes the Appendix D statistics for the proposed 

classification.

DOTcomparison.sas - Based on a mapping from the National Crosswalk Center 

of the 12741 DOT occupations to the 1990 Census occupations, this program 

computes averages of several DOT-measured attributes for the proposed-standard 

categories. The attributes computed are those listed in appendix C. 

Contact Information: 

Peter B. Meyer: Meyer.Peter@bls.gov 202-691-5678 

Anastasiya Osborne: Osborne.Anastasiya@bls.gov 202-691-5633 

Office of Productivity and Technology, Room 2180 

Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor 

2 Massachusetts Ave N.E., Washington DC, 20212-0001
67

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