The Defense Intelligence Agency Seal

The dark blue background of the seal signifies the unknown or the 

threats and challenges of the world around us. The flaming torch and its 

gold color, which represents knowledge or intelligence, is lighting our 

way to a known world symbolized by the blue-green planet. The eternal 

search for knowledge and truth is the worldwide mission of the Defense 

Intelligence Agency. The two red ellipses symbolize the technical aspects 

of intelligence today and in the future. The 13 stars and the wreath 

identify the Agency as a Department of Defense organization.

PCN7308
 Contents

1	 What is Military Intelligence?

3	 Military Intelligence in U.S. History

4	 The American Revolution: The Roots of U.S. Military Intelligence

6	 The Civil War: Intelligence in 19th Century Warfare

10	 The Spanish-American War: Global Military Intelligence

12	 World War I: Expansion and Contraction

14	 World War II: From Failure to Triumph

16 Cold War Dilemmas

18	 Challenge and Reorganization: The Rise of DIA

22	 A Time of Transition

26	 DIA Comes of Age

32 The Post-Cold War Challenge

36	 The 21st Century: Combating Terrorism, Providing Relief

40	 The Future of Defense Intelligence

41	 Directors of DIA

42	 The Patriots’ Memorial
A History 

What is Military Intelligence? 

Military intelligence is the product of gathering 

information about foreign military dispositions, 

equipment and strategic plans, analyzing the 

contents of that information, and disseminating 

the findings to decisionmakers. It appears in three 

basic forms — tactical, operational, and strategic. 

Tactical intelligence concerns information about 

the enemy that is designed to help decide which 

tactics, units, and weapons will most likely contribute to victory in an assigned area. It is a short-term, 

narrow-use tool that, when properly applied, can 

be a significant force multiplier. Operational intelligence assumes a broader approach. Its purpose 

is to conduct military campaigns that accomplish 

strategic objectives within specific areas of operation. Finally, strategic intelligence involves a focus 

on more overarching, but static factors such as 

geography and infrastructure; or long-term trends, 

such as the application of new tactics or the development of new resources. Strategic intelligence 

is an important tool in the effort to anticipate and 

counter threats throughout the world. 

The intelligence process services the need for 

both tactical and strategic intelligence. The first 

step, information gathering, consists of collecting 

data and making it available for analysis. A common method of information gathering is the use of 

unclassified “open sources,” such as foreign websites, television, newspapers, radio, or openly published government studies. Often, this open source 

intelligence (OSINT) provides such basic information as population statistics, military maneuvers, 

and political, social, and cultural trends. 

Open sources sometimes do not supply enough 

information, and other techniques are often necessary. Analysis of aerial imagery is one commonly 

employed method. A great deal of information can 

be gleaned from photo interpretation of detailed 

high-altitude pictures — so-called IMINT, or imagery 

intelligence — of a nation’s infrastructure, military 

bases, and even troop movements. Human intelligence (HUMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), and 

measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) 

can also provide military advantage over foreign 

enemies. All of these sources provide vital intelligence 

that, when properly analyzed, can provide a significant benefit to warfighters and policymakers. 
 Defense Intelligence Agency

The second step of the intelligence process is 

analysis. Intelligence analysts pull together information gathered from many sources to produce 

all-source finished intelligence that examines local, 

national, and global issues that may influence foreign threats. They assess scientific, technical, tactical, diplomatic, military, organizational, or political 

changes in combination with factors such as geography, demographics, and industrial capabilities to 

anticipate and respond to overseas dangers as well 

as assess enemy capabilities and vulnerabilities. 

The third step of the intelligence process is 

production and dissemination. Once analysts have 

made their determinations, they compose finished 

intelligence reports for both military and civilian 

decisionmakers. Intelligence officers then disseminate these products to relevant policymakers 

who decide on a detailed plan of action. One of the 

intelligence officer’s primary duties is to anticipate 

the intelligence needs of decisionmakers and react 

accordingly, assigning projects or responding to 

specific requests for information. Intelligence officers often work very closely with policymakers and 

warfighters to anticipate information requirements 

and to more sharply hone the finished intelligence 

provided by analysts. 
A History 

Defense Intelligence Agency: A History

Military intelligence is an activity that stretches 

back to the colonial period of American history. 

The scope and practice of military intelligence 

has expanded and contracted over time as need, 

resources, and intelligence philosophy changed 

through the decades. Nevertheless, military intelligence has played a major role in many of the key 

moments in American history.

The American military intelligence system during the Revolutionary War was an active and effective instrument that helped counterbalance British 

numerical and operational superiority. After the 

war, however, successive presidential administrations and Congress allowed intelligence organizations to wither and disappear. It would be nearly a 

century before organized military intelligence was 

formally established in the Military Services. While 

decisionmakers generally recognized the importance of good intelligence during wartime, they also 

believed that it was unnecessary in times of peace. It 

was not until the aftermath of World War II, with its 

catastrophic intelligence failure at Pearl Harbor, that 

U.S. policymakers accepted the concept of a centralized peacetime military intelligence organization.

As world war turned to Cold War, a sophisticated, 

global intelligence apparatus became necessary to 

counter and contain the spread of communism. 

With questions about the value of peacetime military 

intelligence work settled, policymakers turned their 

attention to how that work should be carried out. At 

first, military intelligence activities were fragmented 

among the various service branches, but throughout 

the 1950s, momentum built for the establishment 

of a centralized military intelligence agency. The 

establishment of the Defense Intelligence Agency in 

1961 unified the various intelligence activities of the 

Armed Services. Though its success was not always 

assured, the concept behind DIA was a sound one. 

The Agency provided essential intelligence on nearly 

all of the Cold War’s major events, and continues to 

support policymakers and warfighters in the Global 

War on Terror in the twenty-first century.

Military Intelligence in U.S. History
 Defense Intelligence Agency

The American Revolution: 

The Roots of U.S. Military Intelligence

Credit: U.S. Army Center of Military History
A History 

Because of the British superiority in strength and 

mobility, good military intelligence was vital to 

the strategy of the American Continental Army. 

Perhaps the most famous military intelligence 

agent in the American Revolution was Paul Revere. 

At the outset of the Revolution, Revere and his 

secret intelligence network learned that the British 

planned to raid the towns of Lexington and Concord outside of Boston and confiscate the weapons 

stored there. He and others successfully warned 

the local militias, known as the Minutemen, who 

removed weapons caches and resisted the British 

raids. The Minutemen’s skirmish with the British 

in Lexington and Concord were the opening shots 

fired in the American Revolution.

Throughout the war, General George Washington, an experienced soldier who recognized the 

value of good intelligence, spearheaded much of the 

colonists’ military intelligence effort. No centralized intelligence organization existed at the time, 

but Washington himself established agent networks 

in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, which 

provided him with a great deal of knowledge about 

British troop dispositions and movements. He also 

used information gathered by his agents to plan and 

conduct military operations throughout the Revolution. Knowlton’s Rangers, an intelligence and reconnaissance unit Washington established in 1776, 

provided timely and vital intelligence regarding the 

dispositions and strength of the British army.

John Jay was another notable intelligence officer in the American Revolution. Jay played the 

dominant role in America’s first counterintelligence 

operations. He conducted hundreds of investigations, arrests, and trials involving many influential 

businessmen and political figures loyal to the British 

Crown. He also organized 

clandestine operatives 

and ran dangerous counterintelligence missions. 

After the war, Jay later 

became the first Chief 

Justice of the United 

States Supreme Court.

Military intelligence 

was of vital importance 

to the Continental Army 

during the Revolution. It helped counter the superior British strength and mobility by informing 

American generals about their movements while 

it also deceived the British into making strategic 

errors. After the war, Washington’s administration 

maintained a robust intelligence establishment, 

but succeeding Presidencies showed little interest 

in developing a full-time, centralized intelligencegathering agency. Military intelligence work continued to be done on an ad-hoc, as needed basis.

(Left) Detail from Trenton, 26 December 1776, 

by H. Charles McBarron.

(Above) Thomas Knowlton led Knowlton’s Rangers, a group 

of 150 volunteers who conducted reconnaissance and 

carried out raids against British targets. It was the 

nation’s first specialized military intelligence unit.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
 Defense Intelligence Agency

The Civil War: 

Intelligence in 19th Century Warfare

Credit: National Archives
A History 

Neither the Union nor the Confederacy was 

prepared for the intelligence demands of the Civil 

War, and neither side possessed a formal, centralized intelligence apparatus. Nevertheless, the 

intelligence practices of code breaking, deception, 

and covert surveillance remained vital. The Union 

and the Confederacy approached these intelligence 

challenges in a variety of ways.

The Confederate Signal Corps employed covert 

communications and mail interception to spy on 

Northern troops. Confederate agents also conducted espionage in Union territory by sending agents 

on covert missions to gather military, political, 

and industrial intelligence. To convey information gleaned from its covert missions, Confederate 

agents used personal columns in newspapers, and 

even sent messages via the postal system. Robert 

E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia (ANV) also 

made excellent use of its cavalry. While this practice 

was not unique to the ANV, intelligence gathered 

by Lee’s famous cavalry officer J.E.B. Stuart most 

critically helped offset the numerical superiority of 

the Union Army. These tactical efforts were often 

successful, but did little to shift the strategic balance 

of the war in the Confederacy’s favor.

Lacking a centralized intelligence service, the 

Union Army left the task to the independent direction of the specific generals in various commands. 

For example, General George B. McClellan selected 

Allan Pinkerton, who had been running a private 

detective agency, to serve as his head of military 

intelligence and counterespionage. Pinkerton’s counterespionage efforts were relatively successful, but 

his military intelligence estimates drastically inflated 

the strength of the ANV, frustrating the planning 

of the already cautious McClellan. Under General 

Joseph Hooker, the Union’s Army of the Potomac 

created the Bureau of Military Information, an allsource intelligence unit. 

(Left) Thaddeus S.C. Lowe, one of the forefathers of overhead reconnaissance, 

observed Confederate forces from his balloon.

(Right) J.E.B. Stuart’s cavalry was perhaps Robert E. Lee’s most important military 

intelligence tool. Stuart’s absence from the Battle of Gettysburg severely 

hampered Lee’s knowledge of Union activities during the engagement.

Credit: National Archives
 Defense Intelligence Agency

The Union and Confederate armies also 

tapped each other’s 

telegraph lines, but most 

intercepts came from captured enemy telegraph stations. For the most part, 

the stations were used to 

transmit false messages. In 

addition to wiretapping, the Civil War also ushered 

in the widespread use of another innovation in U.S. 

intelligence operations — aerial reconnaissance. 

The Union made extensive and successful use of 

observation balloons, while the Confederacy’s own 

fitful attempts were less profitable. 

Both sides in the Civil War also engaged in 

other types of covert action at home and abroad. 

There were plenty of volunteers in the North and 

the South who were willing to serve as informants. 

Abraham Lincoln himself had his own private 

intelligence sources. The war also encouraged a full 

range of covert paramilitary, psychological, and 

political action. This work even went on overseas, 

as both sides sought to sway opinion within the 

British and French governments. 

The Civil War ushered in a new set of demands 

for good intelligence, and both sides did their best 

to respond. Nevertheless, the U.S. government 

allowed the resources built up during the war to 

wither once hostilities concluded. While the U.S. 

Army and Navy maintained their own small intelligence apparatus, many viewed intelligence work 

only in terms of its wartime utility and saw little 

need for its peacetime maintenance.

Credit: National Archives

The use of balloons provided 

Union forces with an important 

aerial reconnaissance tool.

The Civil War Intelligence in 19th Century Warfare
A History

The Civil War Intelligence in 19th Century Warfare

Allen Pinkerton, left, shown here meeting with 

President Lincoln, was George B. McClellan’s 

chief of military intelligence in the 

early days of the Civil War.

Signals Intelligence in the U.S. Civil War

Both the Union and Confederacy depended on the telegraph 

for communications in the Civil War. Information about 

combat campaigns and normal military business routinely 

crossed the wires. Both sides also understood the value of 

gathering signals intelligence (SIGINT) as a way of obtaining 

reliable, actionable information. 

In 1864, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant led the Union Army on 

a bloody campaign of attrition in Virginia in an effort to 

exhaust the Confederacy’s resources. Unknown to Grant, 

however, Confederate telegraph operators secretly tapped 

his telegraph line to Washington. The rebels intercepted many 

encrypted messages, but, as far as is known, were unable to 

decode any of them. Occasionally, however, Union officials 

transmitted plain language cables, and Confederate soldiers 

took advantage of the mistake. 

On September 12, the U.S. Army quartermaster in Washington 

sent Grant’s headquarters an unencrypted message asking for 

a contingent of guards to meet more than 2,400 head of cattle 

due to arrive the next day at Coggins Point, Virginia. Acting 

quickly, Confederate soldiers also went to Coggins Point 

and arrived before the Union Army guard. They captured and 

made off with the cattle, along with 200 mules, 32 wagons, 300 

Union troops, and 40 telegraph construction workers. 

Thanks to a telegraph intercept, the Confederates, always 

short on food and military necessities, had captured about 

forty days’ worth of meat for their army and damaged Grant’s 

strategy of attrition warfare.

Credit: National Archives
10 Defense Intelligence Agency

The Spanish-American War: 

Global Military Intelligence

10 Defense Intelligence AgencyCredit: Library of Congress
A History 11

The United States went to war against Spain in 

1898 after the battleship USS Maine blew up while 

in harbor in Cuba. U.S. citizens already strongly 

supported a Cuban insurgency against Spain, but 

when the Maine exploded, many blamed the Spanish and pushed the U.S. into war against Spain a 

few months later. This war presented a special set 

of intelligence demands to the United States. The 

primary theaters of action were Cuba on one hand 

and the Philippine Islands on the other, two locations on opposite sides of the globe. 

U.S. decisionmakers set out three major tasks 

for its Army and Navy intelligence staff. The first 

was to observe the movements of a Spanish fleet 

sent to the Caribbean to harass U.S. operations. 

The second was to monitor a large Spanish fleet 

on its way to the Philippines to oppose U.S. moves 

there. Finally, U.S. intelligence needed to maintain 

a liaison with Cuban insurgents in order to keep 

abreast of Spanish military dispositions in Cuba. 

In order to monitor the Spanish fleets, U.S. 

naval intelligence officers set up a large international network of intelligence agents that provided 

HUMINT on the location and strength of the 

respective Spanish fleets. This critical information allowed the U.S. military to seize initiative 

and dictate the pace and timing of operations. At 

the same time, Army intelligence in Cuba gave 

U.S. forces a clearer picture of Spanish strengths 

and weaknesses on the island and led to a decisive 

United States victory in the war. Intelligence operations had again proven their value as strategic and 

tactical force multipliers. Even so, aside from the 

military attaché system, which carried many other 

tasks besides intelligence gathering, and the Office 

of Naval Intelligence (ONI), the U.S. government 

still did not maintain a large, complex, all-source 

peacetime intelligence apparatus when the Spanish-American War ended.

(Above Right) Wreckage of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, 1898.

(Right) The news that the USS Maine had blown up 

in Havana Harbor galvanized U.S. public opposition 

to Spain’s war with Cuban insurgents.

(Left) This Spanish battery on Corregidor Island in the 

Philippines was dismantled and destroyed after 

its discovery by U.S. Navy sailors.

Credit: National Archives Credit: Library of Congress
12 Defense Intelligence Agency

World War I: 

Expansion and Contraction

Credit: National Archives
A History 13

The American declaration of war against Germany 

and Austria-Hungary in 1917 brought an infusion of 

personnel and resources that the military intelligence 

community sorely lacked. In Washington, General 

Peyton C. March, the new Army Chief of Staff, restructured the Army General Staff in Washington and 

established within it the Military Intelligence Division 

(MID) in 1918. While the MID proved useful for 

gathering military and diplomatic intelligence, this reorganization came too late in the war to have a major 

strategic or tactical effect on operations.

General John J. Pershing, who commanded the 

American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in France, 

shaped his own military intelligence apparatus that 

was similar to but independent of the MID in Washington. The Intelligence Section of the AEF consisted 

of the Military Information Division and Air Intelligence. By the end of the war, Pershing’s headquarters 

had established an effective theater intelligence center 

for collection, analysis, and dissemination of information. The AEF engaged in more traditional intelligence gathering while also drawing upon French and 

British tactical doctrine by exploiting air reconnaissance products and photo interpretation. 

Aerial reconnaissance reached new levels of sophistication during World War I. Some of the most 

important pieces of tactical intelligence developed 

during the war came from aerial photographs 

taken by pilots over enemy lines. Topographic 

units produced large-scale war maps, and a radio 

intelligence section intercepted and translated 

enemy messages. The Army Signal Corps provided 

direction-finding and interception equipment 

while also manning radio listening posts. This 

radio intelligence gathering mission also allowed 

friendly units to track the movements of enemy 

aircraft and ground forces.

World War I was an important period in the history of military intelligence. Unprecedented use of 

human intelligence, vigorous advances in technology, and exceptional strides in communication 

contributed to the Allied victory in the war. In the 

wake of the war, however, policymakers allowed 

the U.S. military intelligence establishment to 

wither, a situation that eventually led to one of the 

worst intelligence failures in history.

(Above) New camera technology spurred improvements in 

aerial reconnaissance techniques during World War I.

(Left) A balloon reconnaissance officer descends 

from his post. Balloons remained in wide use 

for military intelligence purposes.

Credit: National Archives
14 Defense Intelligence Agency

World War II: 

From Failure to Triumph

14 Defense Intelligence Agency Credit: Library of Congress
A History 15

The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on 

7 December 1941 came as a tremendous shock to the 

United States. Failure to predict the attack was an historic intelligence failure and clarified the need for an effective military intelligence system, even in peacetime, 

to detect foreign military threats to the United States. 

Upon the U.S. declaration of war, the United States 

once again entered into a global international conflict 

without a centrally organized intelligence system. 

In the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack, both the Army 

and Navy made improvements that streamlined their processing and dissemination capabilities. Joint intelligence 

operations also brought together a modernized version of 

the Army’s MID and the Navy’s Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) to coordinate information in each phase of 

the intelligence cycle: collection, production, and dissemination. In addition, President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the creation of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 

which conducted special military operations, espionage 

activities, and intelligence analysis. Roosevelt also directed 

the FBI to gather non-military foreign intelligence in the 

Western Hemisphere. Existing Army and Naval intelligence branches took responsibility for the rest of the world. 

In Europe, American and British intelligence set up 

clandestine operations behind enemy lines to coordinate 

with local resistance forces. Agents mapped supply drop 

zones for Allied pilots, set up safe houses for escaped 

POWs, helped train resistance fighters in guerrilla warfare, 

and provided intelligence reports to Allied headquarters. 

Aerial reconnaissance was also widely used during the 

war. Within hours of a reconnaissance sortie, photographs 

could be developed, printed, and interpreted, an innovation that could have decisive effects on operations. 

In the Pacific Theater, Army intelligence played the 

dominant role. Some of its most vital tasks included 

HUMINT work. This work included exploiting captured 

documents and interrogating prisoners of war, providing 

geographic intelligence on the poorly mapped areas of 

the theater, and deploying reconnaissance units to gather 

tactical military intelligence. For example, in the Southwest Pacific Area, jungle-wise “coast watchers” remained 

behind enemy lines to transmit Japanese movements. 

General Douglas MacArthur also set up a centralized 

SIGINT center. Much of the work of this group involved 

listening to enemy radio and radar emissions in order to 

pinpoint defensive locations and troop concentrations.

World War II had an enormous effect on U.S. intelligence gathering. It forced policymakers to recognize 

the value of an efficient, professional military intelligence apparatus that was capable of gathering, evaluating, and disseminating information in a timely way, 

even in peacetime. Technological advances engendered by the war also contributed to the development 

of new intelligence gathering techniques. Nevertheless, efforts to establish a unified military intelligence 

establishment languished after the war. 

(Above) Japanese-American, or Nisei, translators were 

absolutely essential in the production of military 

intelligence in the Pacific Theater during World War II. 

(Left) The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor exposed major flaws in 

the U.S. military intelligence system and illustrated the need for a 

unified, coordinated military intelligence establishment.

Credit: National Japanese American Historical Society
16 Defense Intelligence Agency

Cold War Dilemmas

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 17

As successful as it was in World War II, the U.S. 

military intelligence structure faced a serious 

dilemma as Cold War tensions with the Soviet 

Union rapidly forced policymakers to confront the 

next threat. Although the need for timely military 

intelligence was widely recognized, the Army, 

Navy, and newly founded Air Force still separately 

collected, produced, and disseminated information. The system proved duplicative, costly, and 

ineffective, as each Service provided separate, and 

at times conflicting estimates. 

Several overlapping problems existed in the 

management and control of the long-established 

military attaché system as well. Each Service’s 

foreign attaché reported separately to their respective ambassadors, and each represented the 

U.S. separately to the host country military. The 

result was a duplication of effort both on post and 

between posts in neighboring countries. Barriers 

between the Services complicated the coordination 

of attaché activities with other DoD elements, and 

the cost of sponsoring three separate attaché offices 

was an expensive, inefficient use of limited resources. Finally, each attaché office individually collected 

and disseminated information, which sometimes 

resulted in confused reporting. 

The Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 sought 

to correct these shortcomings by streamlining the 

channels of authority within the Department of 

Defense and eliminating much wasteful duplication. DoD intelligence responsibilities, however, 

remained vertically stovepiped into the component Services. Lines of responsibility were unclear, 

coordination poor, and products often parochial. 

Although the Defense Reorganization Act did 

resolve some problems by rationalizing command 

authority within DoD, the military intelligence 

system remained inefficient.

(Above) U.S. military intelligence capabilities atrophied after World War II, lowering 

the quality of products such as bomb damage assessments during the Korean War. 

(Left) The U-2 revolutionized American intelligence analysis of the Soviet threat during the Cold 

War. It has been key to supporting missions for the warfighter because it provided indications and 

warning, threat protection, order of battle, targeting, and bomb damage assessment information.

Credit: National Archives
18 Defense Intelligence Agency

Challenge and Reorganization:

The Rise of DIA

18 Defense Intelligence Agency

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 19

Seeking to correct shortcomings in defense intelligence, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed a 

Joint Study Group in 1960 to improve ways of effectively organizing the nation’s military intelligence 

activities. Acting on its recommendations, Secretary of 

Defense Robert S. McNamara ordered the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff (JCS) to submit to him a concept for a single 

Defense Intelligence Agency that would integrate the 

military intelligence efforts of all DoD elements. 

According to the plan submitted by JCS, the 

new agency would report to the Secretary of Defense through the JCS as a unified body of military 

intelligence and counterintelligence entities. The 

separate Services would no longer act as a loose 

confederation of the independently operating 

groups. This new agency would adopt the mission 

of collecting, processing, evaluating, analyzing, 

integrating, producing, and disseminating military 

intelligence throughout DoD. Other objectives in 

the JCS plan included more efficiently allocating 

scarce intelligence resources, more effectively managing all DoD intelligence activities, and eliminating redundant facilities, organizations, and tasks.

With some minor modifications, McNamara 

approved the concept given to him by the JCS and established the Defense Intelligence Agency on 1 August 

1961, though it would not become officially operational until that fall. In the summer of 1961, as Cold War 

tensions flared over the construction of the Berlin Wall, 

Air Force Lieutenant General Joseph F. Carroll, DIA’s 

first director, planned and organized the new agency. 

On 1 October 1961, it began operations with a handful 

of employees in borrowed office space.

(Above) John F. Kennedy’s Secretary of Defense, 

Robert McNamara, approved DIA’s 

Activation Plan 29 September 1961.

(Left) DIA’s John Hughes gave a 

televised briefing on the Cuban Missile Crisis 

to the nation in February 1963.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
20 Defense Intelligence Agency

Following the establishment of DIA, the Services 

transferred intelligence functions and resources to 

the Agency on a time-phased basis to avoid any degradation in the effectiveness of defense intelligence 

activities. Even during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 

October 1962, Agency organizational efforts continued. In late 1962, DIA established the Defense Intelligence School and in early 1963, activated a new 

Production Center at Arlington Hall Station, Virginia. The Agency also added an Automated Data 

Processing (ADP) Center, a Dissemination Center, 

and a Scientific and Technical Intelligence Directorate, and soon assumed staff support functions of 

the J-2, Joint Staff. Two years later, DIA accepted 

responsibility for the Defense Attaché System, the 

last function transferred by the Services to DIA.

The Agency’s early years were trying ones. The 

Armed Services resisted DIA’s attempts to establish itself as DoD’s central military intelligence 

organization. The Cuban Missile Crisis, in which 

DIA analysts played a paramount role, presented 

the Agency with its first challenge before it had the 

chance to firmly establish itself. The Vietnam War 

also severely tested the fledgling Agency’s ability to 

produce accurate, timely intelligence over a protracted conflict. Other less direct, but no less for1960s Challenge and Reorganization: the Rise of DIA Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 21

midable trials during the 1960s included the effort 

to gather information about China’s first atomic 

bomb test in 1964, the state of China’s armed 

forces during the chaotic Cultural Revolution, and 

increased anti-colonial unrest in Africa. 

Crises only multiplied in the tumultuous later 

years of the decade. The ongoing Vietnam War 

was perhaps the most prominent, but the Six-Day 

War between Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Israel, North 

Korea’s seizure of the intelligence vessel USS Pueblo, 

and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, strained 

DIA’s ability to handle major challenges even as its 

efforts at organization and consolidation continued. 

(Far Left) During the Vietnam War, DIA 

provided bomb damage assessments of 

targets such as this Hanoi airfield.

(Left) DIA analysts also provided 

targets for airstrikes in Vietnam.

(Right) Military intelligence support to 

ground operations was critical to 

fighting a large-scale war against 

an elusive enemy. DIA helped 

provide the increased level of 

intelligence necessary to support 

helicopter insertions against 

remote enemy strongholds.

(Below Right) Lt Gen Joseph F. Carroll, USAF 

First DIA Director, 1961–1969.

1960s Challenge and Reorganization: the Rise of DIA

Credit: DIA History Office Collection Credit: DIA History Office Collection
22 Defense Intelligence Agency

A Time of Transition

Credit: Bertil Videt
A History 23

Poland, civil wars in Jordan and Nigeria, and U.S. 

activities in Cambodia also required the agency’s 

attention. In other crises, the DIA monitored Idi 

Amin’s assumption of power in Uganda, unrest in 

Pakistan, and continued fighting in Southeast Asia. 

The Agency’s reputation grew considerably by the 

mid-1970s as decisionmakers increasingly noted 

DIA’s ability to respond to such a variety of crises.

Meanwhile, a specially convened conference 

in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1972 examined the 

effects of DIA resource reductions. Conference 

participants recommended putting more emphasis on exploiting technology for agency purposes 

and upgrading DIA’s National Military Intelligence 

Center (NMIC). New global challenges made these 

changes even more urgent. North Vietnam’s overwhelming offensive into South Vietnam forced DIA 

and its Defense Attaché Office in Saigon to plan for 

the evacuation of American civilians and their Vietnamese allies. The civil war in Angola expanded 

into a proxy war between Eastern and Western Bloc 

nations, which required DIA to provide policymakers with constantly updated information on Soviet 

intentions in southern Africa. DIA’s knowledge 

of Soviet military capabilities became particularly 

important when the U.S.S.R. threatened to intervene in the Yom Kippur War in the Middle East, the 

closest the world had come to a war between the 

superpowers since the Cuban Missile Crisis. DIA 

also monitored Soviet compliance with the AntiBallistic Missile (ABM) and Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreements. 

DIA faced difficult transitional years in the early 

1970s, as the Agency shifted focus from consolidating internal and external management roles to 

establishing itself as a credible producer of national 

intelligence. Sweeping manpower cuts between 

1968 and 1975 reduced Agency manpower by thirty-one percent, a situation that led to sharp mission 

reductions and broad organizational restructuring. 

The attaché system also underwent major changes.

In 1970, DoD created a position for an Assistant 

Secretary of Defense (Intelligence) (ASD/I) to supervise Defense intelligence programs and to provide 

the principal point for coordination with the Director 

of Central Intelligence as well as other intelligence 

officials outside DoD. President Nixon also reorganized the national Intelligence Community (IC) and 

designated DIA’s Director as the program manager 

for a newly established General Defense Intelligence 

Program (GDIP), which coordinated and managed 

defense intelligence as a whole. 

In 1974, DIA established a J-2 Support Office to 

better satisfy JCS’s intelligence needs. In October of 

that year, the Agency began a comprehensive overhaul of its production functions, organization, and 

management. As part of this reorganization, DIA 

created a cadre of Defense Intelligence Officers 

(DIOs), who served as the DIA Director’s senior 

staff representatives on major intelligence matters.

Diplomatic and military dilemmas continued 

as well. DIA confronted a variety of issues in the 

early 1970s, including the rise of Ostpolitik (West 

Germany’s efforts at deténte with the East), the 

emergence of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in the Middle East, and increased 

concerns about controlling the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Massive shipyard riots in Gdansk, 

(Left) The defaced seal of the United States Embassy in Tehran. 

In November 1979, radical Iranian students stormed the 

Embassy and took over sixty hostages.
24 Defense Intelligence Agency

Credit: DIA History Office Collection

With American involvement in Vietnam winding down by 1975, defense intelligence faced 

massive resource reductions. The recommendations aired at the Williamsburg Conference three 

years earlier proved useful. Despite the cutback 

in resources, DIA was able to continue producing 

timely intelligence by exploiting recent technological advances. It also modernized the National Military Intelligence Center. Ultimately, the Agency 

maintained its support to consumers in OSD, the 

JCS, and the Unified & Specified (U&S) Commands despite the depletion of resources. 

Intense Congressional review during 1975-76 led 

to uncertainty and even more change in the national 

Intelligence Community. Several different Congressional investigations into charges of intelligence 

abuse ultimately spurred President Gerald Ford 

to sign Executive Order 11905, which clarified the 

functions of the Intelligence Community and the 

restrictions in place on it. Within DIA, the leadership adopted the “delegated production” concept, 

which spread production responsibilities across intelligence organizations within each service, to offset 

heavy production requirements. A report from the 

Intelligence Management Study Group also led to a 

reorganization of all DIA production activities in an 

attempt to streamline the process.

Following the promulgation of Executive Order 

12036 in 1979, which restructured the Intelligence 

Community and better outlined DIA’s national and 

departmental responsibilities, the Agency reorganized around five major directorates: production, 

operations, resources, external affairs, and J-2 

support. Despite these and other community-wide 

reorganization and modernization efforts, cuts in 

resources and funding during the decade limited 

the community’s ability to collect and produce 

timely intelligence. Ultimately, these shortages contributed to the failure to predict the overthrow of 

the Shah in Iran and a misunderstanding of Soviet 

intentions in Afghanistan. 

In fact, while resources decreased and DIA 

wrestled with ways to maintain quality products, 

intelligence requirements expanded. In the late 

(Right) Following the discovery of a Soviet combat brigade 

in Cuba in the late 1970s and the resulting concerns over the 

intentions of the troops, DIA took the lead in tracking developments. 

(Far Right) Vietnam POWs return from Hanoi during OPERATION 

HOMECOMING in 1973. DIA played a major role in monitoring 

POWs held by the communist forces in Southeast Asia and 

bringing them back to the United States.

1970s A Time of Transition
A History 25

1970s, Agency analysts focused on global events 

from Central America to China. DIA took responsibility for locating and returning prisoners-of-war 

in Southeast Asia. It grappled with the repercussions of expanding state-sponsored terrorism, 

especially in the Middle East and Africa. DIA set 

up special task forces to monitor crises such as 

the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the overthrow 

of Iranian monarchy, and the internment of U.S. 

hostages in the American embassy in Tehran in 

1979. Other events that provoked serious concern for DIA included the Vietnamese invasion of 

Cambodia, the China-Vietnam border war, clashes 

between Libya and Egypt, the Sandinista takeover 

in Nicaragua, and the Soviet movement of combat 

troops to Cuba near the end of the decade.

1970s

Defense Attachés

Military attachés play an important historical role in nearly 

every country around the world. The United States’ Attachés 

have represented the U.S. to host country militaries, advised 

U.S. Ambassadors, and provided information on foreign military capabilities. A formal Defense Attaché System (DAS) was 

established under DIA in 1965, giving the Agency managerial 

authority over attachés worldwide.

Today, as part of DIA, Attachés continue their time-honored work 

of observing and reporting on in-country and regional militarypolitical developments and supporting the work of Ambassadors, 

the Secretary of Defense, and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff. The photograph below was taken by a Defense Attaché 

during a parade in Moscow in the 1970s. In the photograph at 

bottom, a Defense Attaché inspects foreign equipment.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection Credit: DIA History Office Collection
26 Defense Intelligence Agency

DIA Comes of Age

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 27

DIA came of age in the 1980s, focusing heavily on 

the intelligence needs of both field commanders 

and national-level decisionmakers. This was done 

against a backdrop of Congressional support for 

DoD budget increases to enhance “readiness, sustainability, and modernization.” As a part of these 

improvements, the Agency also broke ground for 

the Defense Intelligence Analysis Center (DIAC) at 

Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C. in April 

1981. The opening of the DIAC in 1984 improved 

the DIA’s work by collocating nearly all of DIA’s 

disparate directorates under one roof, allowing for 

better information sharing and more rapid output 

of intelligence products. Moreover, the concept of 

intelligence as a “force multiplier in crises” became 

a predominant theme in U.S. military intelligence 

circles. DIA assembled an all-source integrated 

database to enable the Unified and Specified Commands to better assess threats as they existed in 

the field, thereby pinpointing enemy strengths and 

weaknesses. The Agency also established a Research 

Crisis Support Center to provide a central, secure, 

all-source crisis management center to support the 

NMIC and the various commands.

One agency product in 

particular brought wide acclaim. In 1981, DIA published 

the first in a series of white 

papers on the strengths and 

capabilities of Soviet military forces. The series, titled 

Soviet Military Power, met 

with great praise in military 

and intelligence circles. DIA 

published ten issues over the 

next decade, and they became 

a respected source of information on the military 

strength of the United States’ chief rival in the world. 

(Above Right) DIA’s publication of Soviet Military 

Power provided policymakers, U.S. allies, and 

the American public with a better understanding 

of Russian capabilities in the 1980s.

(Right) A critical DIA task in the 1980s was to 

monitor the Soviet Union’s war in Afghanistan, 

which lasted from 1979 to 1989.

(Left) An F-14A Tomcat from the aircraft carrier 

USS America flies over a Soviet Balzam Class 

intelligence collection ship off the Virginia

 coast. DIA was able to compile a great 

deal of information on Soviet intelligence 

ships that prowled the U.S. coastline 

during the Cold War.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
28 Defense Intelligence Agency

World crises also continued to flare in the 1980s, 

often in the Middle East and North Africa. In the 

early part of the decade, they included the Iran-Iraq 

war and the increasing bellicosity of Muammar

Ghaddafi’s Libya, best exemplified early in the decade by the attack of two Libyan SU-22 jet fighters 

on American F-14s over the Gulf of Sidra. As the 

Iran-Iraq War spilled into the Persian Gulf, intelligence support to U.S. allies in the Middle East intensified. DIA played a significant role in Operation 

EARNEST WILL, the effort to protect international 

shipping in the Persian Gulf. It provided targeting 

data on Iranian surface-to-air and surface-to-surface 

missile batteries and intelligence on Iraqi air power 

1980s DIA Comes of Age

(Above) The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989 

symbolized the end of the Cold War and the start 

of a new era for Defense intelligence. 

(Right) DIA provided intelligence support before and during the 

U.S. invasion of Grenada. Here, a U.S. soldier displays 

Cuban weapons captured during the fighting.

(Center Right) The guided missile frigate USS Stark lists to port 

after it was struck by an Iraqi-launched Exocet missile.

(Far Right) Iranian oil platforms in the Persian Gulf burn after 

retaliatory strikes during Operation EARNEST WILL, the U.S. 

effort to protect international shipping in the Gulf, 1988.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 29

capabilities. This information was vital for U.S. 

retaliatory strikes on Iranian oil platforms and in the 

aftermath of the Iraqi attack on the USS Stark. 

DIA also supported decisionmakers as threats 

arose in other parts of the world. The intelligence 

provided by the Defense Attaché in El Salvador, for 

example, prompted massive U.S. assistance to the 

government’s struggle against a Communist insurgency. DIA monitored events in Britain’s 1982 war 

with Argentina over the Falkland Islands. When 

U.S. troops invaded Grenada during Operation 

URGENT FURY in 1983, a special DIA Task Force 

responded to numerous demands for briefings, 

papers, and intelligence information. The Agency 

also distributed intelligence summaries to assist 

field commanders during the operation. 

By the middle of the decade, DIA was fully 

engaged in collection and analysis efforts for events 

around the globe. The Agency kept a close watch on 

1980s DIA Comes of Age

Israel’s invasion of Lebanon, the Soviet imbroglio 

in Afghanistan, the civil war in Chad, and unrest 

in the Philippines. Terrorist attacks, sometimes on 

American targets, multiplied in the mid-1980s. 

Indeed, the significantly large number of hijackings, 

bombings, kidnapping, murders, and other acts of 

terrorism led observers to characterize 1985 as the 

“Year of the Terrorist.” Secretary of Defense Caspar 

Weinberger presented DIA with the Agency’s first 

Joint Meritorious Unit Award in 1986 for outstanding intelligence support in 1985, including assistance in a series of crises including the hijacking of 

TWA Flight 847 and the cruise ship Achille Lauro, 

the unrest in the Philippines, and counterterrorist operations against Libya. Later in the decade, 

the “Toyota War” between Libya and Chad and 

the turmoil in Haiti added to DIA’s heavy production workload, as did unrest in other parts of Latin 

America, Somalia, Ethiopia, Burma, and Pakistan.

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
30 Defense Intelligence Agency

During this crisis period, DIA established its 

Operational Intelligence Crisis Center (OICC), 

which served as the primary vehicle for coordinating analytic support during crises. DoD moved, 

renovated, and upgraded the National Military 

Intelligence Center (NMIC) so that it was collocated with the National Military Command 

Center—a move that encouraged the fusion of 

military operations and intelligence at the national 

level. The Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 designated DIA a “combat support 

agency,” which made it subject to the oversight of 

the Chairman of the JCS and thereby improved 

its combat readiness. DIA also moved quickly to 

increase cooperation with U.S. military commands. 

At the same time, the Agency began developing a 

body of joint intelligence doctrine that was even 

more responsive to the needs of the Services.

1980s DIA Comes of Age

The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

On December 24, 1979, U.S. intelligence began receiving reports 

that a massive Soviet airlift was underway in Afghanistan and 

that Soviet ground troops were streaming into the rugged 

Afghan countryside. Their aim was to replace the indigenous 

Afghan communist government with a proxy regime that was 

more willing to follow Soviet instruction. The ten-year Soviet 

occupation was a humanitarian disaster for Afghanistan and 

an economic and military disaster for the Soviet Union.

The Soviet invasion did, however, provide an intelligence 

windfall. DIA focused the bulk of its intelligence resources on 

the actions of Soviet forces. It analyzed Soviet military tactics, 

strategy, and capabilities over the course of the conflict and 

came away with a much improved understanding of Soviet 

doctrine in general. One early DIA report saw an emerging 

quagmire with few easy solutions for the occupying forces, 

stating “We believe the Soviets would have to double their 

strength to break the current stalemate.”

DIA’s improved ability to handle increased production loads 

in the 1980s is reflected in its expanded reporting on the 

conflict. It examined other factors bearing on the occupation, 

such as its disastrous impact on the Soviet and Afghan 

economies and Iranian support to the Afghan resistance. DIA 

analysts concluded that Iranian and U.S. interests coincided 

insofar as Soviet expansion in Central Asia was concerned. 

When the Soviets began their withdrawal in 1988, DIA 

monitored the removal of their forces from Afghanistan. 

The occupation of Afghanistan proved too costly 

for the Soviet Union to maintain. Here, armored 

personnel carriers begin pulling out of the country. 

Credit: Mikhail Evstafiev.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 31

The rapidly shifting national security environment, characterized by key issues such as the 

monumental changes within the Soviet Union, 

engagement in counternarcotics operations, and 

the increasing pace of contingency operations, 

also forced DIA analysts to develop new intelligence doctrine on warfighting capabilities and 

ongoing low-intensity conflicts. These doctrinal 

changes paid off near the end of the decade. 

DIA’s intelligence support to Operation JUST 

CAUSE— the successful U.S. invasion of Panama 

in 1989— demonstrated the benefits of increased 

cooperation between the Agency and operational 

force planners. DIA also provided threat data on 

“hot spots” throughout the Middle East, Eastern 

Europe, and Asia, while supporting decisionmakers with intelligence on important events 

such as the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 

and the Tiananmen Square incident in China. 

Counter-proliferation, counternarcotics, and 

counter-terrorism remained high priority issues.

1980s DIA Comes of Age

(Above Right) Intelligence planning provided 

by DIA was central to the success of 

Operation JUST CAUSE, the U.S. 

intervention in Panama in 1989.

(Right) President George Bush (2nd from left) 

visits DIA’s National Military Intelligence 

Center for a briefing on Panama.

(Left) DIA’s mission in the 1980s included 

support for counternarcotics operations 

in South America. The Agency provided 

intelligence for locating and destroying 

coca fields and cocaine factories.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
32 Defense Intelligence Agency

The Post-Cold War Challenge 

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense
A History 33

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the 

Cold War brought major changes and challenges to 

the U.S. Intelligence Community. National security 

policy, focused on containing the spread of Communism for nearly five decades, was fundamentally 

altered, compelling DIA to examine its priorities in 

the new era. Drastic cuts in funding and personnel, 

part of the so-called “peace dividend,” forced DIA 

to restructure its directorates in order to operate 

more efficiently and with fewer resources.

This period of reevaluation and restructuring 

in the Intelligence Community as a whole began 

after the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 

the reunification of Germany, and the end of the 

Cold War. During this period, DIA emphasized 

improved management of intelligence production DoD-wide as resource reductions once again 

threatened Agency objectives and depleted staffing. 

This new emphasis enhanced flexibility, improved 

cooperation with the Service intelligence organizations, sharply reduced management overhead, 

and returned to intelligence basics by focusing on 

the areas of collection, production, and management. Throughout the world, meanwhile, defense 

attachés increased their work of observing military 

conditions, evaluating developments in their assigned countries, and advising the ambassador. 

Events of the early 1990s compelled a widespread 

review of DIA’s role, as the nation confronted a 

different set of challenges in a new era of diverse 

regional conflicts. The defining mission for DIA 

came in response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 

August 1990. DIA set up an extensive, 24-hour 

crisis management cell designed to tailor nationallevel intelligence support for the coalition forces 

assembled to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait. At 

the beginning of Operation DESERT STORM, 

2,000 Agency personnel participated in the intelligence effort. The Joint Intelligence Center (JIC) 

that DIA established in the Pentagon to integrate 

and coordinate intelligence produced by various 

agencies was the locus of this work. 

(Above) Joint task forces working complex Balkans issues were 

responsible for providing intelligence information 

that was brief, clear, accurate, and timely. 

(Left) Soldiers inspect a downed SCUD missile. During 

Operation DESERT STORM, DIA took part in 

the difficult “SCUD hunting” operations.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
34 Defense Intelligence Agency

DIA also dispatched more than 100 employees 

into the Kuwaiti Theater to provide intelligence 

support, and deployed eleven National Intelligence Support Teams overseas. Intelligence they 

produced was key to the overwhelming coalition 

victory. Colin Powell, Chairman of the JCS during DESERT STORM, noted after hostilities that 

no combat commander had ever received more 

benefit from as full and complete a view of an 

adversary as U.S. and coalition commanders did 

prior to and during the conflict. This DIA-led effort 

remains a powerful example of the force multiplying effect that excellent intelligence support can 

offer operational units in theater.

DIA’s restructuring early in the decade and 

the experience provided by Operation DESERT 

STORM prepared the agency for other challenges 

as well. Organizational reforms and intelligence 

threats during the opening years of the decade 

resulted in an unprecedented level of integra1990s The Post-Cold War Challenge Credit: U.S. Department of Defense

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense
A History 35

tion between DIA, the military Services, and the 

Combatant Commands. This arrangement served 

the national security community extremely well 

as it surged to provide intelligence support to U.S. 

and United Nations forces involved in places such 

as Somalia, the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, 

Tanzania, Congo, and Haiti.

1990s The Post-Cold War Challenge

Intelligence provided by DIA allowed Coalition forces in 

Operation DESERT STORM to destroy Iraqi early warning 

radar sites (Far Left) and hardened aircraft hangars (Left).

(Above) DIA supported HUMINT operations against al-Qaida 

in Afghanistan. The Defense HUMINT Service became fully 

operational in 1996.

MSIC, The Missile and Space Intelligence Center (Top Right) 

Huntsville, AL, and AFMIC, the Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Center Right) Ft. Detrick, MD, joined DIA in 1992. 

(Below Right) As the decade closed, the Agency prepared for 

the feared worldwide Y2K computer system problems. The 

preparations not only averted major intelligence failures but 

also improved the overall technical capabilities of DIA.

Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection Credit: DIA History Office Collection

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
36 Defense Intelligence Agency

The 21st Century: 

Combating Terrorism, Providing Relief

36 Defense Intelligence Agency

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense
A History 37

The new millennium brought even more varied 

challenges to the Intelligence Community. Preparations for the anticipated “Y2K” worldwide computer crash averted problems but made clear both 

the vulnerability of computer databases and the 

difficulties of database integration. In response, 

DIA sought to improve its databases and render 

them fully interoperable in order to better meet the 

needs of a changing world.

Major transformation in the Intelligence Community had been in progress since the 1990s, but 

the unprecedented challenge of the Global War on 

Terrorism (GWOT), which began with the terrorist 

attacks of 11 September 2001, ushered in a new era 

of integration and cooperation in intelligence. In the 

wake of the attacks, DIA reshaped and revitalized its 

workforce to meet the requirements of warfighters 

and decisionmakers in dealing with the asymmetric 

threats presented by terrorism, insurgency, and the 

spread of weapons of mass destruction.

In the months after the 11 September attacks 

on the Pentagon and World Trade Center, the U.S. 

and its Coalition partners embarked on Operation 

ENDURING FREEDOM, toppling the Taliban 

regime in Afghanistan — which harbored the terrorist planners of the 11 September attacks — and 

installing a democratic government. Anti-terrorist 

initiatives took place in other parts of the world as 

well, including in the Philippines and the Horn of 

Africa. In March 2003, the United States and Coalition forces also launched Operation IRAQI FREEDOM, the effort to remove Saddam Hussein from 

power and install a new democratic government 

in Iraq. DIA provided intelligence on enemy troop 

disposition, weaponry, and damage assessments, as 

well as tactical and strategic estimative products. 

The Agency also established and supported the Iraq 

Survey Group, an interagency body tasked with 

searching Iraq for weapons of mass destruction. 

(Above) The terrorist attacks on 11 September took the lives of 

seven DIA employees at the Pentagon.

(Left) Critical intelligence provided by DIA allowed U.S. forces to 

invade and occupy Iraq in six weeks. Here, a Marine intelligence 

officer briefs a company of Marines at Landing Strip Viper 

during Operation IRAQI FREEDOM.

(Below) Counter-Insurgency operations in Iraq remain a primary 

focus of DIA’s work. Here, U.S. Army soldiers on foot patrol 

question locals about insurgent activities. 

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense Credit: U.S. Department of Defense
38 Defense Intelligence Agency

DIA’s experiences in the 1990s as well as the 

organizational improvements made to cope with the 

direct threat posed by transnational terrorist groups 

such as al-Qaida have enabled the agency to provide 

enhanced tactical, operational, and strategic intelligence support to initiatives around the globe. Today, 

DIA’s assets have unprecedented global reach, and 

Agency personnel are deployed to theaters around 

the world in support of military commands and 

operations in the fight against terrorism.

DIA’s work is not limited to just the GWOT, 

however. In addition to its protracted commitments in Iraq and Afghanistan, the Agency 

monitors North Korean missile launches and 

tracks the development of Iran’s nuclear proThe 21st Century Combating Terrorism, Providing Relief

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
A History 39

gram. It is also heavily engaged in countering 

the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, 

interdicting narcotics trafficking, conducting 

global information operations, and assessing 

foreign military capabilities in space. 

In 2004 and 2005, DIA also provided an unprecedented level of support to foreign and domestic 

humanitarian missions. Operation UNIFIED 

ASSISTANCE, the response to the Asian tsunami 

disaster in December 2004, utilized DIA assets to 

locate hospitals and to efficiently direct humanitarian assistance to the hardest hit locations. DIA also 

participated in Joint Task Force Katrina, which 

mobilized to assist recovery efforts after Hurricane 

Katrina in September 2005. 

(Top Left) Saddam Hussein’s “Perfume Palace” served as the 

headquarters of the Iraq Survey Group, in which DIA 

participated in the hunt for weapons of mass destruction. 

(Left) DIA has provided a great deal of intelligence to 

Coalition forces hunting al-Qaida and Taliban militants.

(Top Right) Weapons proliferation is a key concern 

for DIA in the 21st century. This Iranian Shahab 

missile is a variant of the Soviet SCUD-B.

(Middle Right) DIA played a key role in the international 

response to the 2004 Asian tsunami disaster by 

locating and directing assistance to local hospitals. 

Here, German and American rescue personnel 

evacuate a victim to the hospital ship USS Mercy.

(Bottom Right) DIA supported relief efforts in 

the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina by pinpointing 

open land routes and assisting rescue operations.

The 21st Century Combating Terrorism, Providing Relief

Credit: U.S. Department of Defense Credit: U.S. Department of Defense

Credit: DIA History Office Collection
40 Defense Intelligence Agency

The Intelligence Community as a whole has 

become more integrated to confront this new challenge, and DIA has been a major part of this unification of effort. The Agency also has more than 11,000 

military and civilian employees deployed around the 

world to support a wide range of military operations. It is increasing its investment in the development of HUMINT and technical collection capabilities to further improve its surveillance and warning 

capabilities. The multi-dimensional nature of 

twenty-first century threats means that the Agency 

must be prepared for rapid changes in an unpredictable and unstable global environment.

DIA’s contributions to national security have been 

instrumental in shaping many of the significant 

events in U.S. history. From the first major challenges it faced during the Cuban Missile Crisis 

to the current perils presented by international 

terrorism and arms proliferation, DIA has played a 

central role in gathering, processing, and producing intelligence used to defend the United States 

from foreign aggression. In doing so, it has also 

served as an effective force multiplier, allowing U.S. 

military leaders to project power that is greater 

than the sum of its parts. 

DIA has evolved as the nature of national security threats has changed. During the Cold War, it 

was faced with more conventional threats from the 

Soviet Union and its allies. In response, DIA efforts 

focused on defeating state-sponsored militaries that 

adhered to informal, but generally accepted rules 

of conduct. The unconventional, organic nature of 

global, transnational terrorism and counterinsurgency has meant that Agency personnel have had 

to adjust to new challenges, building a more agile 

organization to provide intelligence warnings and to 

pass information quickly to combat forces. 

The Future 

of Defense Intelligence 
A History 41

Lt Gen Joseph F. Carroll, USAF

1961 - 1969

LTG Donald V. Bennett, USA

1969 - 1972

VADM Vincent P. de Poix, USN

1972 - 1974

LTG Daniel O. Graham, USA 

1974 - 1975

LTG Samuel V. Wilson, USA

1976 - 1977

Lt Gen Eugene Tighe, Jr., USAF

1976 (Acting) 1977 - 1981

LTG James A. Williams, USA

1981 - 1985

Lt Gen Leonard H. Perroots, USAF

1985 - 1988

LTG Harry E. Soyster, USA

1988 - 1991

Mr. Dennis M. Nagy

1991 (Acting)

Lt Gen James R. Clapper, Jr., USAF 

1991 - 1995

Lt Gen Kenneth A. Minihan, USAF

1995 - 1996

LTG Patrick M. Hughes, USA 

1996 - 1999

VADM Thomas R. Wilson, USN 

1999 - 2002

VADM L. E. Jacoby, USN

2002 - 2005

LTG Michael D. Maples, USA

2005 - Present

 

Directors of DIA 
42 Defense Intelligence Agency

The Patriots’ Memorial honors the twenty-one 

Defense Intelligence Agency employees who died 

in the service of the United States. The memorial 

lies at the center of the Defense Intelligence Analysis Center (DIAC) at Bolling Air Force Base. The 

Patriots’ Memorial commemorates the profound 

individual sacrifices made on behalf of the United 

States by DIA members and acts as a reminder of 

the selflessness, dedication, and courage required to 

confront national challenges now and in the future. 

DIA Director Lt. Gen. Leonard Perroots dedicated 

the memorial on 14 December 1988.

The stories behind the names in the memorial are themselves monuments to the bravery of 

those who served in harm’s way. Major Robert 

Perry was the Army Assistant Attaché in Amman, 

Jordan in 1970. He was killed when fighting broke 

out between the Jordanian army and Palestinian 

refugees who had taken shelter in Amman. In June, 

a Palestinian gunman shot Perry through the front 

door of his house in front of his wife and children. 

After the incident, the United States considered 

sending troops to Jordan on a contingency operation to quell the violence, but the fighting subsided 

a few days later.

In April 1975, a U.S. Air Force C-5A Galaxy 

transport plane carrying 250 Vietnam War orphans 

crashed outside of Saigon, killing 100 of the children 

and many others. Among the dead were five female 

employees of the Defense Attaché Office in Saigon 

— Celeste Brown, Vivienne Clark, Dorothy Curtiss, 

Joan Prey, and Doris Watkins — who assisted in 

tending the children. After takeoff, the plane’s cargo 

doors blew off, damaging the hydraulic lines in the 

tail. The pilot tried to make an emergency landing, 

but the aircraft crashed two miles short of the runway, crushing the cargo deck of the aircraft.

DIA also lost seven employees to the September 

11th terrorist attack on the Pentagon. Rosa Chapa, 

Sandra Foster, Robert Hymel, Shelley Marshall, 

Patricia Mickley, Charles Sabin, and Karl Teepe 

died in the attack. 

 

The Patriots’ Memorial
A History 43

Major Robert P. Perry, USA

Assistant Army Attaché, Jordan

10 June 1970

Celeste M. Brown

Defense Attaché Office, Saigon

4 April 1975

Vivienne A. Clark

Defense Attaché Office, Saigon

4 April 1975

Dorothy M. Curtiss

Defense Attaché Office, Saigon

4 April 1975

Joan K. Prey

Defense Attaché Office, Saigon

4 April 1975

Doris J. Watkins

Defense Attaché Office, Saigon

4 April 1975

Colonel Charles R. Ray, USA

Assistant Army Attaché, Paris

18 January 1982

Chief Warrant Officer Robert W. Prescott, USA

Defense Attaché Office, Guatemala

21 January 1984

Chief Warrant Officer Kenneth D. Welch, USA

Defense Attaché Office, Beirut

20 September 1984

Petty Officer First Class Michael R. Wagner, USN

Defense Attaché Office, Beirut

20 September 1984

Captain William E. Nordeen, USN

Defense and Naval Attaché, Greece

28 June 1988

Judith Goldenberg

Defense Attaché Office, Cairo

15 July 1996

Staff Sergeant Kenneth R. Hobson II, USA

Defense Attaché Office, Nairobi

7 August 1998

Master Sergeant William W. Bultmeier, USA, Ret.

Defense Attaché Office, Niamey

23 December 2000

Rosa M. Chapa

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001

Sandra N. Foster

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001

Robert J. Hymel

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001

Shelley A. Marshall

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001

Patricia E. Mickley

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001

Charles E. Sabin

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001

Karl W. Teepe

Defense Intelligence Agency, Pentagon

11 September 2001
44 Defense Intelligence Agency
 Contents

1	 What is Military Intelligence?

3	 Military Intelligence in U.S. History

4	 The American Revolution: The Roots of U.S. Military Intelligence

6	 The Civil War: Intelligence in 19th Century Warfare

10	 The Spanish-American War: Global Military Intelligence

12	 World War I: Expansion and Contraction

14	 World War II: From Failure to Triumph

16 Cold War Dilemmas

18	 Challenge and Reorganization: The Rise of DIA

22	 A Time of Transition

26	 DIA Comes of Age

32 The Post-Cold War Challenge

36	 The 21st Century: Combating Terrorism, Providing Relief

40	 The Future of Defense Intelligence

41	 Directors of DIA

42	 The Patriots’ Memorial
The Defense Intelligence Agency Seal

The dark blue background of the seal signifies the unknown or the 

threats and challenges of the world around us. The flaming torch and its 

gold color, which represents knowledge or intelligence, is lighting our 

way to a known world symbolized by the blue-green planet. The eternal 

search for knowledge and truth is the worldwide mission of the Defense 

Intelligence Agency. The two red ellipses symbolize the technical aspects 

of intelligence today and in the future. The 13 stars and the wreath 

identify the Agency as a Department of Defense organization.

PCN7308