A national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Innovation for Our Energy Future 

Fuel Savings and Emission 

Reductions from Next-Generation 

Mobile Air Conditioning 

Technology in India 

Preprint 

L. Chaney 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

K. Thundiyil and S. Andersen 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

S. Chidambaram and Y.P. Abbi 

The Energy Resources Institute, India

To be presented at the Vehicle Thermal Management Systems 

Conference & Exhibition (VTMS-8) 

Nottingham, England 

May 20–24, 2007 

Conference Paper 

NREL/CP-540-41154 

May 2007 

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Fuel Savings and Emission Reductions from 

Next-Generation Mobile Air Conditioning 

Technology in India 

LARRY CHANEY 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, United States 

KAREN THUNDIYIL 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, United States 

SRIDHAR CHIDAMBARAM 

The Energy Resources Institute, India 

YASH P. ABBI 

The Energy Resources Institute, India 

STEPHEN ANDERSEN 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, United States 

ABSTRACT 

Up to 19.4% of vehicle fuel consumption in India is devoted to air conditioning (A/C). 

Indian A/C fuel consumption is almost four times the fuel penalty in the United States 

and close to six times that in the European Union because India’s temperature and 

humidity are higher and because road congestion forces vehicles to operate inefficiently. 

Car A/C efficiency in India is an issue worthy of national attention considering the rate 

of increase of A/C penetration into the new car market, India’s hot climatic conditions 

and high fuel costs. 

1 INTRODUCTION 

India is experiencing record economic growth and middle class affluence, and its car 

market is in a period of rapid expansion. In 2004, India produced more than 1 million 

vehicles domestically (1); 65% of those were equipped with air conditioning (A/C). As 

India grows in affluence, A/C is increasingly a standard feature on new vehicles. By 

2010, 100% of cars are expected to be sold with factory-installed A/C systems (2). In 

light of the expanding car A/C market and worldwide energy security issues, The 

Energy Resources Institute (TERI) and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

3
(NREL) collaborated to quantify the fuel consumption of passenger car A/C systems in 

India. 

Previous analysis by NREL determined that vehicle A/C systems account for 5.5% of 

total vehicle fuel consumption in the United States (3). NREL estimated if all vehicles 

in the European Union and Japan had A/C systems, 3.2% and 3.4% of total vehicle fuel 

consumption, respectively, would be devoted to vehicle A/C (3). In India, the number of 

annual cooling hours is greater than in the United States, the European Union, or Japan, 

and Indian cars typically have smaller engines than do those in the United States, the 

European Union, or Japan. These factors together contribute to a higher proportion of 

fuel devoted to A/C in Indian cars. This higher fuel consumption leads to additional 

emissions from fuel combustion. 

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Cooling Degree Hours (27oC)

Ahmadabad, India Chennai, India Mumbai, India NEW DELHI IND 

HOUSTON TX USA FRANKFURT DEU TOKYO HYAKURI - JPN

Figure 1: Cooling degree hours from around the world 

Recent advances in mobile air conditioning (MAC) technology have demonstrated fuel 

savings and decreased tailpipe emissions from improving car A/C system efficiency. 

This is of particular interest in India where megacities like Mumbai and New Delhi have 

battled air quality issues for decades. This paper quantifies the MAC fuel consumption 

of the typical Indian vehicle and explores the potential fuel savings and emissions 

reductions by improving MAC systems with the next generation of car A/C systems. 

2 BACKGROUND 

As a party to the Montreal Protocol, India fully completed its new car A/C system 

transition to a nonozone depleting refrigerant in 2003. At the same time, to meet Kyoto 

4
Protocol obligations, countries and regions such as Japan and the European Union began 

to move in earnest to the next generation of nonozone depleting, low-global warming 

impact A/C systems, including improved HFC-134a, carbon dioxide (CO2), and HFC152a. Each system has advantages and disadvantages, depending on climatic conditions, 

servicing requirements, and service infrastructure needs. 

Aware of how the Indian car A/C market is transforming and of India’s plan for export 

of cars, the United Nations Environment Programme, the United Nations Development 

Programme, TERI, the Indian Institute of Technology–Delhi (IIT−Delhi), the Ministry 

of Environment and Forests, Government of India and the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) collaborated in 2005 to host a high-level policy event in New 

Delhi to inform the Indian government and industry officials about recent technology 

and policy changes in the arena of car A/C systems. At this event, titled Workshop on 

Technology Cooperation for Next-Generation Mobile Air Conditioning, NREL and the 

EPA presented a preliminary Indian MAC fuel analysis. This work used U.S. vehicle 

engine and A/C compressor specifications scaled down to match a Maruti 800 with a 

117-cc HFC-134a compressor. That initial analysis resulted in a 20% to 30% fuel 

penalty associated with vehicle A/C use in Indian climatic conditions. This work builds 

on that earlier analysis and improves the technical specification assumptions by using 

data inputs directly from Indian car manufacturers, Indian A/C system suppliers, Indian 

industry trade organizations, and Indian government authorities1

. 

3 METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Data collection 

This study began with TERI collecting the best available data to quantify India’s fuel 

consumption. TERI formed the India MAC Fuel Analysis Steering Committee to guide 

the development, generation, and analysis of data that were most appropriate for this 

study. The Steering Committee included representatives from Subros, Tata Motors, 

IIT−Delhi, the Automotive Research Association of India, the Society of Indian 

Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), the Indian Institute of Petroleum, and the Central 

Institute of Road Transport. 

3.2 NREL models 

This analysis follows the same procedure used in “Significant Fuel Savings and 

Emission Reductions by Improving Vehicle Air Conditioning,” which used the 

Advanced Vehicle Simulator 2004 (ADVISOR 2004) to determine the impact of A/C on 

vehicle fuel use and Fanger’s thermal comfort model (4) to determine passenger comfort 

and A/C ON times. The thermal comfort results and ADVISOR 2004 results were 

 

1 Some data points used in the analysis were protected by confidential business information rules and not 

shared with this study. In those cases, NREL used baseline assumptions from previous cases, scaled 

appropriately to Indian conditions. 

5
combined with vehicle population data and driving statistics to finally determine the fuel 

used for vehicle A/C. 

The ADVISOR 2004 model incorporated data on typical Indian driving conditions, the 

typical Indian passenger car with A/C, and technical specifications of the typical Indian 

passenger car and its A/C compressor. 

The underlying premise of this analysis is that if a person is uncomfortable, he or she 

will take action to become more comfortable (i.e., turn on the A/C). A person’s sense of 

thermal comfort is primarily related to the thermal balance of the body as a whole. 

Physical activity, clothing, air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity, and 

humidity all influence the body’s thermal balance. When these factors are measured or 

estimated, the thermal sensation for the body as a whole can be predicted by calculating 

the predicted mean vote (PMV). The predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD) can then be 

calculated from the PMV. The PPD is a measure of the percentage of people likely to 

feel too hot or too cold in a given environment. Then, following the premise of the 

analysis, this percentage equals the percentage of people who would use the vehicle’s 

A/C system if they are uncomfortably warm. Fanger’s work assumes that all humans 

respond similarly to a given thermal environment (5). Future work on this topic may 

customize the analysis to specific Indian cooling comfort preferences. 

3.3 Climatic conditions of India 

Climatic conditions play a major role in thermal comfort calculations. India has a wide 

range of climatic zones, including a) hot and dry, b) warm and humid, c) moderate, d) 

cold and cloudy, e) cold and sunny, and f) composite. Figure 2 indicates where these 

climate zones are. Nine cities were selected for this study as representative of India’s 

diverse climatic conditions; these account for approximately 80% of India’s total vehicle 

population. Details on these cities can be found in the Appendix. 

TERI compiled the weather database, based on hourly data from 1981 to 1992, for the 

Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE). 

Developing an accurate and validated weather database is a big challenge. Data are 

typically gathered from automated weather stations, which are usually located at 

airports. Airports are often located away from urban centres, so their temperature 

measurements are usually somewhat lower than those taken at urban centres (the heat 

island effect). Data often have “holes” or missing elements that must be either filled or 

smoothed. The final compiled database must reflect long-term representative 

measurements and not temporal trends. The final database is generated via a 

sophisticated statistical analysis. Further discussion of the methodology used to develop 

the data or the validity of the data is beyond the scope of this paper. A full discussion of 

weather data is best obtained from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and 

Air Conditioning Engineers, at http://www.ashrae.org/. 

6
Figure 2: Climate zones of India 

The primary climate data elements used in the thermal comfort model are ambient 

temperature, humidity ratio (kg/kg of water vapour to dry air) and direct and diffuse 

integrated radiation (Wh/m2

). These data were sourced from the 2005 ISHRAE data set. 

Climatic conditions for the selected Indian cities were synthesized and formatted for 

input into the thermal comfort model. As an example, Figure 3 plots New Delhi’s hourly 

temperature, time of day, and month. The thermal comfort model uses these data as the 

initial air temperature in the car when car occupants determine A/C use. This method 

does not consider the added solar load that contributes to higher interior car temperature, 

which causes the overall A/C operation estimate to be conservative. 

7
Figure 3: Ambient air temperature (°C) for New Delhi 

The humidity ratio data are another input to the thermal comfort model. Humidity 

affects thermal comfort and is important to A/C performance because of the energy used 

to condense water on the evaporator. 

The cabin of a passenger vehicle is a complex thermal environment that consists of hot 

surfaces (those exposed to the sun, such as the instrument panel) and relatively cooler 

surfaces that are shaded from the sun, such as the floor. The mean radiant temperature 

(MRT) is an average temperature of the vehicle cabin with which a passenger exchanges 

thermal radiation. Extensive testing at NREL has determined a correlation for MRT 

based on vehicle size, ambient temperature, solar radiation load, and time of day (time 

that the vehicle has stayed in the sun). Smaller vehicles, with their smaller mass, tend to 

have a higher MRTs and relatively higher ratios of glass exterior area to total car body 

area. 

Specific data to determine the Hyundai Santro MRT were unavailable, so this study 

used the MRT correlation for a midsized U.S. car. The typical Indian vehicle with A/C 

is smaller than a midsized U.S. car, which leads to a conservative MRT value. Further 

details of MRT calculation can be found in Rugh et al (3). 

In the thermal comfort model, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percent 

Dissatisfied (PPD) are used to predict the thermal comfort level. PMV is an empirical 

8
equation for predicting the average vote of a large number of people on a 7-point scale 

(−3 to +3) on thermal sensation scale of thermal comfort. PPD is used to predict the 

thermal sensation and the degree of discomfort (thermal dissatisfaction) of people 

exposed to moderate thermal environments and to specify acceptable thermal 

environmental conditions for comfort (6). Throughout this study, PPD is synonymous 

with the percentage of time the air conditioning is turned on. Figure 4 shows a PPD plot 

diagram of New Delhi. As shown in Figure 4, between 9am and 10 pm during the 

month of June, 100% of the population would be predicted to be dissatisfied with the 

thermal environment of the automobile’s cabin, and thus turn on the A/C. 

12-6am 6-9am 9am-1pm 1-4pm 4-7pm 7-10pm 10pm-12am

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

35

35

35

35

55

55

55

55

75

75

75

95

Predicted Percent Dissatisfied (%PPD) in NewDelhi, India

Month

Time of Day

Figure 4: Percentage of time vehicle A/C is on in New Delhi

3.4 Typical Indian car with air conditioning 

Based on the recommendations of SIAM and the India MAC Fuel Use Steering 

Committee, the Hyundai Santro (Figure 5) was selected as the typical Indian vehicle 

with a HFC-134a baseline A/C system. This selection is based on domestic car sales; 

most cars sold in India are compact models and the Hyundai Santro is a top-selling 

vehicle in this category. The Hyundai Santro would be considered a sub A class vehicle 

in the United States or the European Union. Based on input from the steering 

committee, this study used an A/C compressor size of 110 cc and a 46.43-kW engine. 

9
Figure 5: Hyundai Santro 

Figure 6 shows the compressor load as a function of compressor revolutions per minute. 

This curve was developed from the Society of Automotive Engineers Alternate 

Refrigerant Cooperative Research Project data. The data were interpolated to an ambient 

condition of 28°C and 45% relative humidity, and then the power was scaled to 

represent a 110-cc compressor. In ADVISOR, the compressor power was calculated 

using the curve in Figure 6, and the power was subtracted from engine power as a 

parasitic loss. The compressor/engine pulley ratio was assumed to be 1.179. Neither the 

A/C blower fan power nor the condenser fan power was included in the analysis. 

Because most vehicle trips are short and involve frequent idling, the vehicle is assumed 

to not achieve a cooled down status. Thus, the A/C system would operate at maximum 

capacity throughout its assumed operation time. 

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Compressor RPM

Compressor Power (kW)

Figure 6: Compressor power versus compressor speed 

3.5 Indian driving cycle 

The Indian driving cycle (Figure 7) describes the speed of a vehicle over the course of a 

typical trip. The cycle can be graphed as the probable plot of a vehicle’s speed from the 

start of the engine through its journey over a prescribed time given road conditions. A 

composite driving cycle, or a combination of highway and city drive cycles, was used to 

10
estimate fuel consumption with typical Indian driving conditions of frequent “start, stop 

traffic.” 

TERI sourced these data from the Automobile Research Corporation of India based on 

two drive cycles: an urban and an extra-urban cycle. TERI could not provide a combined 

drive cycle. Following the European Union example, a combined cycle was constructed 

that consisted of four urban cycles followed by an extra-urban cycle. There is no 

information to indicate that these cycles are used for fuel economy or emissions testing. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

time (s)

Vehicle speed (km/h)

Figure 7: Composite drive cycle 

3.6 Vehicle kilometres travelled and vehicle fuel economy 

The India MAC Fuel Use Steering Committee reported the Indian average vehicle 

kilometres (km) travelled (VKT) in 2005 was 14,685 (9,125 miles) (7). In contrast, the 

U.S. annual average VKT is 19,171 km (11,912 miles). In this study, a key assumption 

is that the percent on time is equivalent to the percentage of kilometres driven with the 

A/C on during the year. This follows the assumption that in hot weather, drivers tend to 

leave A/C on for an entire trip, as most trips are short. Based on the thermal comfort 

model, the A/C is predicted to be on 85% of the time, so if 14,685 km (9,125 miles) are 

travelled in one year, 12,531 km (7,756 miles) are driven with the A/C on (14,685 km * 

85.33% = 12,531 km). Some vehicle occupants lower the windows, which also degrades 

fuel economy as it increases aerodynamic drag. This is particularly true if the vehicle is 

not equipped with A/C. However, in this analysis the fuel used for A/C is computed by 

difference, and considers only the vehicles in the fleet that are equipped with A/C. 

After determining the VKT with A/C on, the next step was to determine fuel use (litres 

per vehicle) with and without A/C. Fuel used per vehicle is calculated by dividing the 

11
kilometres travelled by the fuel economy (kilometres per litre [kpl]). A typical passenger 

car was modelled with ADVISOR 2004 software and simulated over the Indian 

combined driving cycle. 

4 RESULTS 

The typical Indian car with A/C (Hyundai Santro) uses approximately 19.4% of total 

vehicle fuel consumption for the A/C system. The Indian A/C fuel penalty is almost four 

times the fuel penalty in the United States and close to six times that in the European 

Union. 

In this study, the A/C is assumed to be on when certain climatic conditions are met. 

When fuel use is observed under hotter climatic conditions, a higher fuel penalty can be 

associated with car A/C use. 

India’s higher A/C fuel consumption can be attributed to the country’s smaller car 

engines and hotter weather. India has a substantially higher number of degree cooling 

hours annually. Using a baseline of 27oC, there is a population weighted average of 

14,756 annual cooling degree hours in the 9 cities in India considered in this paper. The 

top 10 population centres of the United States have a population weighted average 2,473 

annual cooling degree hours. Comparing cooling degree hours for India and the Unites 

States indicates that A/C requirements in India are 6 times that of the United States. 

Results from the vehicle simulation showed that the Hyundai Santro on the Indian 

combined drive cycle achieved a fuel economy of 19.9 km/l (46.9 mpg). As a 

comparison, overall cars in the United States average 9.1 kpl (21.4 mpg) and trucks 

average 7.3 kpl (17.1 mpg) (8). Previous analysis has assumed that European cars 

average 12.9 kpl (30.4 mpg). In the United States the average on time for A/C is 32.6%; 

in the European Union it is 21.1% (3). When the A/C load was added to the Hyundai 

Santro simulation, the fuel economy dropped to 15.5 km/l (36.6 mpg). 

Of the next-generation refrigerant options available, TERI’s car A/C market study (9)

indicates that Indian car manufacturers and Indian A/C system suppliers are most 

prepared to move to improved HFC-134a. 

Energy efficiency improvements may reduce the fuel needed by car A/C systems to 

obtain occupant thermal comfort. The reductions in required A/C power are 

hypothetical, and may result from a combination of efficiency improvements to the 

vehicle A/C system, from reducing the thermal load on the vehicle or from cooling the 

occupants more efficiently. Figure 7 shows the potential reduction in fuel used for A/C 

and the reduction in CO2 emissions that could be achieved with a more energy efficient 

system. If these technologies were applied in India, the A/C efficiency improvements 

would translate to nationwide savings of up to 202 million litres (54 million gallons) of 

fuel saved per year and 472 metric tons (520 tons) of CO2 emissions avoided annually 

(see Figure 8). Looking at per-vehicle fuel savings, almost 43 litres (11 gallons) of fuel 

can be saved annually. 

12
0

100

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1000

65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 95.00 100.00 105.00

AC Power Consumption: Percent of Baseline

Fuel Used for AC (Million Liters)

0

100

200

300

400

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600

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1000

CO2 Saved (Million kg)

Fuel Used for AC CO2 Emission

Figure 8: Fuel used and CO2 emissions savings from improved systems 

Improved HFC-134a systems provide the additional benefit of better refrigerant 

containment. By reducing refrigerant emissions by 50%, consumers will realize savings 

in repair and recharge costs. 

5 CONCLUSION 

Car A/C systems originally posed an ozone layer depletion concern. Now that 

industrialized and many developing countries have moved away from ozone-depleting 

substances per Montreal Protocol obligations, car A/C impact on climate has captured 

the attention of policy makers and corporate leaders. Car A/C systems have a climate 

impact from potent global warming potential gas emissions and from fuel used to power 

the car A/Cs. This paper focuses on car A/C fuel consumption in the context of the 

rapidly expanding Indian car market and how new technological improvements can 

result in significant fuel savings and consequently, emission reductions. 

A 19.4% fuel penalty is associated with A/C use in the typical Indian passenger car. Car 

A/C fuel use and associated tailpipe emissions are strong functions of vehicle design, 

vehicle use, and climate conditions. 

Several techniques: reducing thermal load, improving vehicle design, improving 

occupants’ thermal comfort design, improving equipment, educating consumers on 

impacts of driver behaviour on MAC fuel use, and others - can lead to reduced A/C fuel 

consumption. 

13
Car A/C efficiency in India is an issue worthy of national attention considering the rate 

of increase of A/C penetration into the new car market, India’s hot climatic conditions 

and high fuel costs. Reducing A/C fuel use has the potential to greatly benefit India, 

including reduced reliance on imported oil and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. 

6 AKNOWLEGMENTS 

This study was conducted by The Energy and Resources Institute in cooperation with 

the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, United Nations 

Environment Program, the EPA, and in consultation with the Society of Indian 

Automobile Manufacturers. 

7 REFERENCE LIST 

1. Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers. 2006. Indian Automobile Industry 

Statistical Profile 2005−2006. 

2. Chenoy D. 2005. Growth and Projects of Automobile Industry and Mobile Air 

Conditioning. Presentation at Workshop on Technology Cooperation for NextGeneration Mobile Air Conditioning. March 2005. 

3. Rugh J, Hovland V, Andersen SO. 2004. Significant Fuel Savings and Emission 

Reductions by Improving Vehicle Air Conditioning. Presentation at the 15th 

Annual Earth Technologies Forum and Mobile Air Conditioning Summit, April 

15, 2004. 

4. Fanger PO. 1982. Thermal Comfort. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company: 

Malabar, FL. 

5. Johnson VH. 2002. Fuel Used for Vehicle Air Conditioning: A State-by-State 

Thermal Comfort-Based Approach. SAE paper #2002-01-1957.

6. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. 2005 

Thermal Comfort. In Fundamentals Handbook. ASHRAE: Atlanta, GA. 

7. National Council of Applied Economics Research. 2002. Demand Projection for 

Automobiles and Automotive Tyres in India. 

8. Ward’s Automotive Yearbook 2001. Wards Communications. 

http://wardsauto.com/ 

9. Chidabaram S, Abbi YP. 2006. India MAC Study – Phase I TERI Market 

Assessment. TERI Project Report No. 2005IE26. 

10. Bateman DH. 2005 An Industry in Transition – DuPont’s Perspective of the 

Mobile Air Conditioning Industry. Presentation at the MAC Summit 2005, March 

15-16 2005. 

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