ISSUES & ANSWERS

How the 

government 

defines rural

has implications 

for education 

policies 

and practices

REL 2007–No. 010

At Edvance Research

U.S. Department of Education
How the government defines rural

has implications for education 

policies and practices

June 2007

Prepared by

Michael L. Arnold, Ed.D.

Education Strategy Group

Belinda Biscoe, Ph.D.

University of Oklahoma

Thomas W. Farmer, Ph.D.

National Research Center on Rural Education Support

Dylan L. Robertson, Ph.D.

National Research Center on Rural Education Support

Kathy L. Shapley, Ph.D.

REL Southwest

ISSUES&ANSWERS REL 2007–No. 010

U.S. Department of Education

At Edvance Research
Issues & Answers is an ongoing series of reports from short-term Fast Response Projects conducted by the regional educational laboratories on current education issues of importance at local, state, and regional levels. Fast Response Project topics 

change to reflect new issues, as identified through lab outreach and requests for assistance from policymakers and educators at state and local levels and from communities, businesses, parents, families, and youth. All Issues & Answers reports 

meet Institute of Education Sciences standards for scientifically valid research. 

June 2007

This report was prepared for the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) under Contract ED-06-CO-0017 by Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest administered by Edvance Research. The content of the publication does not necessarily reflect 

the views or policies of IES or the U.S. Department of Education nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or 

organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

This report is in the public domain. While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, it should be cited as: 

Arnold, M. L., Biscoe, B., Farmer, T. W., Robertson, D. L., & Shapley, K. L. (2007). How the government defines rural has 

implications for education policies and practices (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007–No. 010). Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs.

This report is available on the regional educational laboratory web site at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs.

WA

OR

ID

MT

NV

CA

UT

AZ

WY

ND

SD

NE

KS

CO

NM

TX

OK AR

LA

MS AL GA

SC

NC

VA WV

KY

TN

PA

NY

FL

AK

MN

WI

IA

IL IN

MI

OH

VT

NH

ME

MO

At Edvance Research
 iii

Summary

Clearly defining what rural means has 

tangible implications for public policies 

and practices in education, from establishing resource needs to achieving the 

goals of No Child Left Behind in rural 

areas. Six definitions of rural are commonly applied in different contexts.

The word rural has many meanings. It has 

been defined in reference to population density, 

geographic features, and level of economic and 

industrial development. Some definitions use 

census tracts as the geographic building block 

to classify rural places, while others use counties or parishes. Some definitions use proximity 

to a metropolitan area as a measure of rurality, 

while others use proximity to an urbanized 

area. One system classifies rural schools according to their distance to an urbanized area, 

but others do not. Rapidly changing conditions 

and growing diversity in rural America make 

defining rural even more difficult.

This report documents national and state 

definitions of rural and considers their application to education policies and practices. Defining rural accurately is especially important 

for addressing two kinds of education policy 

questions. One involves identifying the resource 

needs of rural populations and monitoring and 

evaluating effective use. Who receives resources 

and who does not? Another concerns whether 

rural schools are achieving the goals of the No 

Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Are there obstacles related to being rural that make achieving the goals more difficult, and if so, what accommodations can be equitably made for rural 

schools to help them achieve the goals? 

Six definitions and classification systems 

for rural were identified through searches 

of major federal agency documents and 

databases. Some of these definitions were 

developed specifically to classify schools and 

districts, while others focus on a broader range 

of issues. All have been used in some way to 

better understand the challenges facing rural 

schools. In order of use, beginning with the 

most common, they are:

•	 U.S. Census Bureau classifications, which 

define rural by geographic features, population, and as a residual.

•	 Metropolitan status codes, which define 

rural relative to a core-based statistical area.

How the government defines rural

has implications for education 

policies and practices
iv Summary

•	 Urban-rural continuum codes, which 

define rural by population and proximity 

to urban areas.

•	 Metro-centric locale codes, which are used 

primarily for statistical procedures.

•	 Urban-centric locale codes, which improve 

the reliability and precision of locale code 

assignment.

•	 Core-based statistical areas, which are 

statistically defined geographic areas.

Several issues need to be considered in applying 

definitions of rural to education policies and 

practices. One issue is the unit of analysis. The 

way rural is defined and specified (by school or 

district) is likely to yield different portrayals of 

rural students, which can affect education policies and practices. A second issue involves geographic and political differences among regions. 

What is considered rural in one part of the 

country may not be considered rural in another. 

Demographic changes in rural America are 

a third issue. Some communities are gaining 

population, while others are losing population. 

School districts experiencing growth are noting 

an increase in student diversity.

Several questions arise from this study. Is a 

single definition of rural needed for educational policy and practice? Is it better to have 

multiple definitions that can be applied according to context? What are the key elements 

of a typology that can accurately reflect conditions in the Southwest Region? Research is 

needed to answer these questions by applying 

the most relevant definitions to demographic 

and geographic profiles of rural districts and 

communities. These profiles can then be used 

to examine the implications of applying each 

definition to rural education issues. The results 

can provide useful insight for developing 

policy initiatives aimed at improving educational outcomes in rural schools.

June 2007
 v

Table of contents

Summary iii

Governments recognize the special needs of rural areas 3

Federal programs provide special support 3

State programs also acknowledge the unique needs of rural areas 3

Six definitions and classification systems for rural are used in education policy and practice 4

U.S. Census Bureau defines rural by geographic features, population, and as a residual 4

Metropolitan status codes define rural relative to a core-based statistical area 4

Urban-rural continuum codes define rural by population and proximity to urban areas 4

Metro-centric locale codes are used primarily for statistical procedures 5

Urban-centric locale codes improve the reliability and precision of locale code assignment 6

Core-based statistical areas are statistically defined geographic areas 7

How rural is defined in education policy 7

Rural Education Achievement Program 7

Regional Educational Laboratories 8

Issues to be resolved in applying definitions of rural to education policies and practices 8

Choosing the unit of analysis 9

Understanding regional differences 9

Considering diversity and change in rural communities 9

Implications for additional research 10

Appendix Key terms 11

References 14

Boxes

1 Defining rural—no consensus definition 2

2 Methods used for identifying definitions of rural 4
1

Clearly defining 

what rural means 

has tangible 

implications for 

public policies 

and practices in 

education, from 

establishing 

resource needs 

to achieving the 

goals of No Child 

Left Behind in 

rural areas. Six 

definitions of rural 

are commonly 

applied in 

different contexts.

One of the obstacles to developing policy for rural 

schools is that the word rural has many meanings. 

It has been defined in reference to population density, geographic features, and level of economic and 

industrial development (Haas, 1990). Some definitions use census tracts as the geographic building 

block to classify rural places, while others use 

counties or parishes. Some definitions use proximity to a metropolitan area as a measure of rurality, 

while others use proximity to an urbanized area. 

One system classifies rural schools according to 

their distance to an urbanized area, but others do 

not. Rapidly changing conditions and growing diversity in rural America make defining rural even 

more difficult (McGranahan, 1994; Stephens, 1992).

In a discussion of rural policy in the 21st century, 

Marshall (2001, p. 59) summarizes the complexity 

of the issue:

An examination of rural policy requires an 

understanding of the unique conditions in 

rural places that justify separate national 

policies. The great differences among rural 

people and places in America make it hard 

to fashion national policies that fit all of 

the places. The analytical problem also is 

complicated by this diversity as well as the 

absence of a common statistical definition 

of rural and the need by policy makers to 

both accommodate rapidly changing rural 

conditions and balance diverse interests.

Defining rural accurately is especially important 

for addressing two kinds of education policy questions. The first type involves targeting resources 

to rural populations. What are the needs of rural 

populations? What resources should be targeted 

to address these needs? How do we know these 

resources have been used effectively? Who receives 

these resources and who does not? 

The second type of policy questions concerns 

whether rural schools are achieving the goals of the 

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Are rural schools 

achieving those goals? Are there obstacles related 

to being rural that make achieving the goals more 

difficult? What accommodations can be equitably 

made for rural schools to help them achieve the 

goals? Answering these questions requires a clear 

understanding of what is meant by rural.

Identifying what is rural has long challenged 

policymakers, analysts, and educators (Stern, 

1994). Bob Mooneyham, executive director of the 

National Rural Education Association, observes 

that when people come together to talk about rural 
2 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

issues it is not uncommon for them to get to the 

middle of a discussion and realize they are not 

talking about the same thing (personal communication, January 7, 2007). Echoing the need for 

clarity, Rachel Tompkins, president of the Rural 

School and Community Trust, suggests that care 

must be taken to avoid definitions that are too 

exclusive or narrow (personal communication, 

January 7, 2007). In a similar vein, Dale Lestina, 

president of Organizations Concerned with Rural 

Education, argues that defining rural requires 

both precision and flexibility (personal communication, January 7, 2007).

Although agreement appears to be fairly widespread that this is a complex and important 

issue, a solution for defining rural continues to 

be elusive (box 1). Many questions remain. Is a 

single, universally accepted definition needed, 

or is it appropriate to have different definitions 

specific to particular issues or policy needs? 

Answering these questions requires documenting 

the current definitions of rural and articulating 

how they are used in major education policy. It 

also requires elucidating key issues in the application of rural definitions to educational policy 

and research.

This report documents current national and state 

definitions of rural and considers their application to education policies and practices. And while 

other sources also offer information on definitions 

of rural and issues relating to them, this report 

looks at the definitions most relevant in education 

Box 1

Defining rural—no consensus 

definition

Getting rural right has proven elusive 

because rural is a complex concept, 

with no single attribute capable of 

characterizing rural places (Hart, 

Larsen, & Lishner, 2005). This complexity is reflected in the different 

definitions of rural used in research 

and policy.

The Rural Policy Research Institute (2006) identifies nine definitions of rural that have been used 

in research and policymaking. 

Definitions generally classify rural 

places based on population size and 

density, level of urbanization, and 

adjacency and relationship to an 

urbanized area. Some definitions 

also incorporate principal economic 

activity. But none of these attributes 

alone is sufficient to guide policymaking (Haas, 1991). Each definition applies these characteristics 

differently, resulting in potentially 

contradictory research results or 

dissimilar policy outcomes (Rural 

Policy Research Institute, 2006).

At the federal level different agencies 

use different definitions, depending 

on purpose. The National Center for 

Education Statistics (NCES) uses 

multiple definitions in its databases 

and publications. On its Navigating 

Resources for Rural Schools web site 

(2006b), it describes three classification systems for identifying rural 

schools and districts: rural-urban 

continuum codes, metropolitan 

status codes, and locale codes. NCES 

also uses metropolitan status codes 

and locale codes to classify rural 

schools and districts in the Common Core of Data, which contains 

data on all U.S. public elementary 

and secondary schools and all state 

and local education agencies (National Center for Education Statistics, 

2007b). In 2004 NCES revised its 

locale code system to reflect changes 

in the Office of Management and 

Budget’s definition of metropolitan 

and nonmetropolitan areas and to 

take advantage of improvements in 

geocoding technology (Schneider, 

2006). The new system assigned 

locale codes based on a school’s relation to an urban area (urban-centric 

locale codes), whereas the original 

system classified schools based on 

proximity to a metropolitan statistical area (metro-centric locale codes). 

(See appendix for definitions of urban 

and metropolitan statistical areas.)

Some analysts have tried to overcome the rural definition problem by 

developing typologies of rural schools 

(Haas, 1991). Gjelten (1982) identified 

five types of rural communities based 

on assets and liabilities: stable rural 

communities, depressed rural communities, high growth rural communities, reborn rural communities, and 

isolated rural communities. Following a review of rural education and 

research on at-risk students, Khattri, Riley, & Kane (1997) argued for 

developing a taxonomy of rural areas 

and their educational systems.
 Governments recognize the special needs of rural areas 3

and specifically from the perspective of education 

policies and practices.

Governments recognize the 

special needs of rural areas

Clearly defining what rural means has tangible 

implications for public policy. Isserman (2005, p. 

466) maintains, “getting rural right is in the national interest. When we get rural wrong, we reach 

incorrect research conclusions and fail to reach the 

people, places, and businesses our governmental 

programs are meant to serve.” 

Federal programs provide special support

Congress has acknowledged that rural districts 

need additional support in meeting the achievement requirements of the No Child Left Behind 

Act. The Rural Education Achievement Program 

initiatives include programs to help rural districts 

meet adequate yearly progress goals. The Small 

Rural School Achievement program provides formula funding to rural districts with enrollments 

of fewer than 600 pupils. The Rural and LowIncome School program distributes funds through 

state education agencies to rural and small town 

districts with 20 percent or more students from 

families with incomes below the poverty line (U.S. 

Department of Education, 2006).

Congress also passed legislation requiring the 

National Center for Education Research (NCER) 

to support research on rural education through 

its national research and development centers 

(Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002, § 9533). 

NCER established the National Research Center on 

Rural Education Support. The 10 regional educational laboratories are required to allocate at least 

25 percent of their funds for rural areas, including 

schools funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002, § 9584).

The U.S. Department of Education also recognizes 

that rural districts need additional assistance in 

achieving the goals of No Child Left Behind. For 

instance, teachers in small rural districts often 

teach more than one academic subject, yet No 

Child Left Behind requires them to become highly 

qualified in each of those subjects in the same 

timeframe as teachers from nonrural districts. 

In response to feedback from the field the U.S. 

Department of Education issued rules providing 

additional time (up to three years) for teachers in 

eligible rural districts to become highly qualified 

in all the content areas they taught as long as they 

were already highly qualified in at least one subject 

(U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

State programs also acknowledge the 

unique needs of rural areas

State legislatures have also enacted laws to address 

the needs of rural districts. Some states allow 

rural schools to implement a four-day school 

week to reduce costs for transportation, heating, 

and other services (National Conference of State 

Legislatures, 2007). The National School Boards 

Association (2003) reports that rural districts in 

nine states (Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Louisiana, 

New Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota, Wisconsin, 

and Wyoming) were implementing the four-day 

school week in 2003. Several states also take the 

higher costs resulting from geographic isolation 

(Idaho, for example) or small scale (New Mexico 

and Texas) into account through the geographic 

cost adjustment in their funding formulas (National Center on Education Finance, 2007).

Recognizing the unique 

needs of rural schools, 

the New Mexico Public 

Education Department 

(2007) established a Rural 

Education Bureau. The 

bureau’s goal is “to create 

a world-class rural education system based on holistic community revitalization in all rural areas of 

the state of New Mexico.” The bureau works with 

other units within the department and with other 

organizations to assist in improving educational 

opportunities, advocate for rural districts, provide 

Congress has 

acknowledged that rural 

districts need additional 

support in meeting 

the achievement 

requirements of the No 

Child Left Behind Act
4 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

a comprehensive school-led community partnership for revitalization, and support programs to 

strengthen relationships among schools, families, 

and communities.

Six definitions and classification 

systems for rural are used in 

education policy and practice

Six definitions and classification systems for 

rural were identified (see box 2). Some of these 

were developed specifically to classify schools and 

districts, while others focus on a broader range of 

issues. All have been used in some 

way to better understand the challenges facing rural schools. While 

not an exhaustive list of definitions used to describe rural areas, 

it includes those most widely used 

in education. They are described 

in the order of frequency of use, 

beginning with the most common.

U.S. Census Bureau defines rural by geographic 

features, population, and as a residual

The U.S. Census Bureau defines rural areas as 

open country and settlements with fewer than 

2,500 people—rural areas are what remains after 

all of the urbanized areas have been identified 

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Urbanized areas 

include a central city and the surrounding densely 

populated areas. Together these areas have a combined population of at least 50,000 and, generally, 

a population density of more than 1,000 people per 

square mile. This definition uses census tracts to 

identify rural areas. The U.S. Census Bureau definition is the foundation on which other definitions 

of rural are built.

Metropolitan status codes define rural 

relative to a core-based statistical area

Metropolitan areas were first identified in 1949 

by the Bureau of the Budget (the predecessor to 

the Office of Management and Budget) and have 

been revised periodically since then (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). The metropolitan status of a 

school district is determined by the location of the 

superintendent’s office in relation to a core-based 

statistical area (CBSA). A CBSA has at least one 

urban area with a population of 10,000 or more.

Metropolitan status codes classify districts into 

three categories:

1: Central city of a CBSA.

2: Located in a CBSA but not in a central city.

3. Not located in a CBSA.

Urban-rural continuum codes define rural by 

population and proximity to urban areas

The urban-rural continuum codes are one of the 

three classification systems described on NCES’s 

Navigating Resources for Rural Schools web site 

(National Center for Education Statistics, 2006b). 

They were developed by the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture’s Economic Research Service to enable 

a more precise description and analysis of countylevel rural and urban differences. Sometimes 

Box 2

Methods used for identifying 

definitions of rural

Different definitions of rural and 

related key terms used by federal 

and state government in the United 

States were identified through 

web-based searches of major federal 

agencies: Census Bureau, Office of 

Management and Budget, Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Education, 

Department of Agriculture, and 

Government Accountability Office. Definitions used for statistical 

purposes or for determinations 

of eligibility for specific funding 

opportunities were included if they 

were relevant to policies and practices in education. Definitions that 

were outdated or specific to a state 

or region outside the Southwest 

were excluded.

Six definitions and 

classification systems for 

rural were identified—all 

have been used in some 

way to better understand 

the challenges facing 

rural schools
Six definitions and classification systems for rural 5

referred to as Beale codes after their creator, 

Calvin Beale, rural-urban continuum codes differentiate nonmetropolitan counties by the extent 

of urbanization and by whether they border a 

metropolitan area. Metropolitan counties are classified based on their population. Although better 

known than other classification systems, NCES 

has never used rural-urban continuum codes to 

conduct analysis.

Metropolitan counties include three codes:

1: County in a metropolitan area with 1 million 

population or more.

2: County in a metropolitan area of 250,000 to 1 

million population.

3: County in metropolitan area of fewer than 

250,000 population.

Nonmetropolitan counties include six codes:

4: Urban population of 20,000 or more, adjacent 

to a metropolitan area.

5: Urban population of 20,000 or more, not 

adjacent to a metropolitan area.

6: Urban population of 2,500-19,999, adjacent to 

a metropolitan area.

7: Urban population of 2,500-19,999, not adjacent to a metropolitan area.

8: Completely rural or less than 2,500 urban 

population, adjacent to metropolitan area.

9: Completely rural or less than 2,500 urban 

population, not adjacent to metropolitan area.

Metro-centric locale codes are used 

primarily for statistical procedures

NCES developed locale codes in the 1980s to identify the setting of schools and districts relative to 

populous areas (Schneider, 2006). Locale codes are 

used primarily to identify schools and districts for 

sampling and statistical procedures. On occasion 

they have been used to identify target populations 

of federal programs (the Rural Education Achievement Program).

Locale codes are assigned based on the classification of a school’s location. Under the metro-centric 

locale codes schools located in places with a population of fewer than 2,500 are considered rural 

(National Center for Education Statistics, 2006b). 

Two groups of rural schools are distinguished: 

schools located outside a CBSA or consolidated 

statistical areas (CSA) and schools located within 

such areas. District locale codes are determined 

based on the plurality of students because districts 

can have schools in more than two locales, with 

no locale having a majority of students (National 

Center for Education Statistics, 2006b). 

The metro-centric locale 

codes are:

1: Large city: A central 

city of a CBSA or 

CSA, with a population of 250,000 or 

more.

2: Midsize city: A central city of a CBSA or CSA, with a population 

of less than 250,000.

3: Urban fringe of a large city: Any incorporated 

place, Census-designated place, or non-place 

territory within a CBSA or CSA of a large city 

and defined as urban by the Census Bureau.

4: Urban fringe of a midsize city: Any incorporated place, Census-designated place, or 

non-place territory within a CBSA or CSA of 

a midsize city and defined as urban by the 

Census Bureau.

5: Large town: An incorporated place or Censusdesignated place with a population of 25,000 

or more and located outside a CBSA or CSA.

The urban-rural 

continuum codes 

were developed to 

enable a more precise 

description and analysis 

of county-level rural 

and urban differences
6 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

6: Small town: An incorporated place or Censusdesignated place with a population of less 

than 25,000 and greater than or equal to 2,500 

and located outside a CBSA or CSA.

7: Rural, outside CBSA: Any incorporated place, 

Census-designated place, or non-place territory not within a CBSA or CSA of a large 

or midsize city and defined as rural by the 

Census Bureau.

8: Rural, inside CBSA: Any incorporated place, 

Census-designated place, or non-place territory 

within a CBSA or CSA of a large or midsize 

city and defined as rural by the Census Bureau. 

This code was added in 1998/99. Before that, 

codes 7 and 8 were combined (National Center 

for Education Statistics, 2007a).

Urban-centric locale codes improve the reliability 

and precision of locale code assignment

The U.S. Census Bureau developed the urbancentric locale codes in 2006, with support from 

NCES. This system classifies schools into four 

major types based on their location in relation 

to urban areas: city, suburban, town, and rural. 

Schools in town and rural categories are further 

classified by their distance from an 

urbanized area or urban cluster. 

Schools in the city and suburb categories are further broken down 

by size: small, midsize, and large 

(Schneider, 2006). For districts 

with schools in multiple locales, 

the locale code is determined in 

the following manner:

If 50 percent or more of the public school 

students attend schools with the same 

locale code, that locale code is assigned to 

the district. . . . If no single locale code accounts for 50 percent of the students, then 

the major category (city, suburb, town, or 

rural) with the greatest percent of students 

determines the locale; the locale code 

assigned is the smallest or most remote 

subcategory for that category (National 

Center for Education Statistics, 2006a).

The new urban-centric locale codes are thought to 

improve the precision and reliability of locale code 

assignment for descriptive and analytic purposes. 

Technological advances make it possible to 

know the exact longitude and latitude of about 

91 percent of schools, and the location of the remaining 9 percent is slightly less precise. Locale 

information is updated yearly for about a third of 

communities through the American Community 

Survey (National Center for Education Statistics, 

2006a). 

The urban-centric locale codes are:

11: City, large: Territory inside an urbanized area 

and inside a principal city with a population 

of 250,000 or more.

12: City, midsize: Territory inside an urbanized 

area and inside a principal city with a population of fewer than 250,000 and greater than or 

equal to 100,000.

13: City, small: Territory inside an urbanized area 

and inside a principal city with a population 

of fewer than 100,000.

21: Suburb, large: Territory outside a principal 

city and inside an urbanized area with a 

population of 250,000 or more.

22: Suburb, midsize: Territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with a 

population of fewer than 250,000 and greater 

than or equal to 100,000.

23: Suburb, small: Territory outside a principal 

city and inside an urbanized area with a 

population of fewer than 100,000.

31: Town, fringe: Territory inside an urban cluster 

that is less than or equal to 10 miles from an 

urbanized area.

Urban-centric locale 

codes classify schools 

into four types based 

on their location in 

relation to urban 

areas: city, suburban, 

town, and rural
How rural is defined in education policy 7

32: Town, distant: Territory inside an urban cluster that is more than 10 miles and less than or 

equal to 35 miles from an urbanized area.

33: Town, remote: Territory inside an urban 

cluster that is more than 35 miles from an 

urbanized area.

41: Rural, fringe: Census-defined rural territory 

that is less than or equal to 5 miles from an 

urbanized area as well as a territory that is 

less than or equal to 2.5 miles from an urban 

cluster.

42: Rural, distant: Census-defined rural territory that is more than 5 miles but less than or 

equal to 25 miles from an urbanized area as 

well as a territory that is more than 2.5 miles 

but less than or equal to 10 miles from an 

urban cluster.

43: Rural, remote: Census-defined rural territory 

that is more than 25 miles from an urbanized 

area and is also more than 10 miles from an 

urban cluster.

Because the urban-centric locale codes are new, 

they have not been used extensively. They do not 

replace the metro-centric locale codes in qualifying rural schools for the Rural Education Achievement Program because the metro-centric codes 

are specifically identified in the statute creating 

the program.

Core-based statistical areas are statistically 

defined geographic areas

NCES also identifies the CBSA of every school 

district in the United States. Rural districts that 

are located outside a CBSA are coded as 00000. A 

CBSA contains:

at least one urban area of 10,000 or more 

population. Each metropolitan statistical 

area must have at least one urbanized 

area of 50,000 or more inhabitants. Each 

micropolitan statistical area must have at 

least one urban cluster 

of at least 10,000 but 

less than 50,000 population. . . . Counties 

or equivalent entities 

form the geographic 

“building blocks” for 

metropolitan and 

micropolitan statistical areas throughout 

the United States and Puerto Rico (National Center for Education Statistics, 

2007a).

How rural is defined in education policy

Definitions of rural have not been applied extensively to educational issues. There have been some 

notable exceptions including the Rural Education Achievement Program, which uses the NCES 

metro-centric locale codes to identify eligible 

districts. In most uses of the term rural in the 

education section of the U.S. Code, rural is not 

specifically defined, providing the Department of 

Education with flexibility in applying it.

Rural Education Achievement Program

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 provides 

additional support to rural districts through the 

Rural Education Achievement Program, which 

helps districts that:

•	 Lack the personnel and resources needed to 

compete effectively for federal competitive 

grants.

•	 Receive formula grant allocations in amounts 

too small to be effective in meeting their 

intended purposes (No Child Left Behind Act, 

§ 7341a).

Metro-centric locale codes and other criteria are 

used to determine eligibility for two Rural Education Achievement Program initiatives: the Small 

Rural School Achievement Program and the Rural 

and Low-Income School Program.

Metro-centric locale 

codes and other criteria 

are used to determine 

eligibility for two Rural 

Education Achievement 

Program initiatives
8 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

Small Rural School Achievement Program. The 

Small Rural School Achievement Program provides funding to local education agencies to help 

them meet adequate yearly progress achievement 

goals. Eligible districts receive formula-based annual funding directly from the U.S. Department of 

Education. Districts are eligible if:

•	 The total number of students in average daily 

attendance at all the schools served by the 

local education agencies is fewer than 600, 

or each county in which a school is served 

by the local education agencies has a total 

population density of fewer than 10 people per 

square mile.

•	All the schools served by the 

local education agencies are 

designated with a school locale 

code of 7 or 8 by the Department’s 

National Center for Education 

Statistics, or the secretary of education has determined, based on a 

demonstration by the local education agencies and concurrence by the state 

education agency, that the local education 

agencies is in an area defined as rural by a 

government agency of the state (U.S. Department of Education, 2006, p. 15).

Rural and Low-Income Schools Program. The Rural 

and Low-Income Schools Program provides funding to state education agencies on a formula basis. 

The state education agencies then issue subgrants 

to larger rural districts with higher percentages of 

low-income students to help them meet adequate 

yearly progress targets. To be eligible for a grant 

a local education agency must meet the following 

criteria:

•	 It cannot be eligible for a grant under the 

Small Rural School Achievement Program (# 

84.358A).

•	 Twenty percent or more of children ages 5–17 

served by the local education agency are from 

families with incomes below the poverty line.

•	 All schools served by the local education 

agency are designated with a school locale 

code of 6, 7, or 8 (U.S. Department of Education, 2006, p. 11).

Regional Educational Laboratories

The U.S. Department of Education funds a network of 10 regional educational laboratories to 

serve the educational needs of designated regions 

by providing access to high-quality scientifically 

valid education research. By law at least 25 percent of the funding for the regional educational 

laboratories must address issues in rural areas. 

Each lab is tasked to “develop strategies to utilize 

schools as critical components in reforming education and revitalizing rural communities in the 

United States” (Education Sciences Reform Act of 

2002 § 9564). Neither Congress nor the Institute 

of Education Sciences established a definition of 

rural for the regional educational laboratories, 

leaving it up to each lab to determine a definition 

of rural.

Issues to be resolved in applying

definitions of rural to education 

policies and practices

Several issues need to be considered in applying definitions of rural to education policies 

and practices. One is the unit of analysis. The 

way rural is defined and specified (by school or 

district) is likely to yield different portrayals of 

rural students, which can affect education policy 

and practices. A second issue involves geographic 

and political differences among regions. What is 

considered rural in one part of the country may 

not be considered rural in another. The Southwest is less densely populated than the Southeast, 

for example, and has geographically larger counties and school districts. Demographic changes 

in rural America are a third issue. Some communities are gaining population, while others 

are losing population. School districts experiencing growth are noting an increase in student 

diversity.

By law at least 25 percent 

of the funding for the 

regional educational 

laboratories must 

address issues in 

rural areas
 Issues to be resolved in applying definitions of rural to education policies and practices 9

Choosing the unit of analysis

Getting an accurate count of the number of rural 

students is important for developing an education 

policy aimed at improving outcomes in rural communities. Under the NCES locale code systems, 

the locales of schools are designated first, followed 

by their districts. Using school data to measure 

rural education indicators related to rural schools 

is more precise than using district data. Using 

district data can exclude students who attend rural 

schools that are part of larger districts that are not 

designated as rural. Johnson & Strange (2005, p.2) 

put this phenomenon into perspective: “8,797,497 

students attend school in the 25,151 schools designated by NCES as rural, while 8,036,222 attend 

school in the 7,204 districts designated as rural.”

A related issue concerns the geographic building 

blocks used to construct a definition of rural. Although rural and nonmetropolitan are often used 

interchangeably, they yield different population 

numbers because the nonmetropolitan designation is based on a county unit of measure while 

the Census Bureau definition of rural is based on 

census tracts. Cromartie & Swanson (1996) find 

that census tracts define rural populations and 

areas more precisely than do counties. They note 

that using county-based systems resulted in the 

misidentification of much of nonmetropolitan 

America.

Understanding regional differences

A challenge for policymakers in crafting rural education initiatives involves dealing with regional 

differences in what is considered rural. The two 

subprograms of the Regional Education Achievement Program illustrate the issue. In an analysis 

of adequate yearly progress in schools qualifying 

for the Small Rural Schools Achievement and the 

Rural Low Income Schools programs, Farmer et 

al. (2006) find regional differences in the distribution of districts participating in the two 

programs. Two-thirds of the schools participating 

in the Small Rural Schools Achievement program 

were concentrated in 31 states, primarily in the 

northern and central regions, whereas more than 

80 percent of the schools participating in the Rural 

Low Income Schools program were located in 16 

southern states, including the five Southwestern 

Region states. Differences in participation between 

the two programs may reflect the larger size of 

rural districts in the south than in the northern 

and central regions.

Considering diversity and change in rural communities

Rural America is experiencing significant changes. 

About half of nonmetropolitan communities are 

growing, while the other half are declining. Statistics from the Economic Research Service (Kusmin, 

2006) indicate that nonmetropolitan areas grew 

by 2.2 percent from 2000 to 2005. That growth 

was concentrated in nonmetropolitan counties 

contiguous to metropolitan areas. At the same 

time about half of all nonmetropolitan counties 

lost population. These declining counties were 

generally already sparsely populated and tended to 

focus on agriculture. The four states with the largest nonmetropolitan population loss between 2000 

and 2005 were located in the Midwest: Kansas, 

Iowa, Illinois, and North Dakota, while the four 

with the largest nonmetropolitan population increases were in North Carolina, Florida, Georgia, 

and Texas.

Nonmetropolitan America is also becoming more 

diverse. Nearly a third of 

the growth is a result of 

international migration. 

This migration accounts 

for all of the population 

growth of nonmetropolitan areas in the Midwest 

and 18–28 percent in the 

South, West, and Northeast. The four states with 

the largest population growth from international 

migration are Indiana, Oklahoma, Alabama, and 

New Mexico. Among ethnic groups Hispanics 

have the largest percentage increase in population, followed by Asian, American Indian, African 

American, and non-Hispanic Whites.

About half of 

nonmetroplitan 

communities are 

growing, while the 

other half are declining. 

Nonmetropolitan 

America is also becoming 

more diverse.
10 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

International migration is potentially creating 

additional challenges to schools unaccustomed 

to working with English language learners. Some 

rural schools have difficulty recruiting trained 

staff to work with English language learners 

because of the limited professional development 

opportunities for teachers in rural areas (Johnson 

& Strange, 2005).

Implications for additional research

The multiple definitions of rural used in policymaking and practice employ different criteria in 

identifying rural places. There are also differences 

in how the definitions are applied. Policymakers 

adapt these definitions to target specific types of 

rural schools. For example, the two subprograms 

of the Rural Education Achievement Program 

use the metro-centric locale codes to determine 

eligibility, but additional requirements limit which 

districts can participate. In the U.S. Government 

Accountability Office’s (September 2004) study of 

the ability of small rural school districts to implement provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act, 

analysts restricted the sample to districts 55 miles 

or more from a metropolitan area and with enrollments of under 300 students.

Several questions arise from this study. Is a single 

definition of rural needed for educational policy 

and practice? Is it better to have multiple definitions that can be applied according to the context? 

What are the key elements of a typology that can 

accurately reflect conditions in the Southwest Region? There is a need for research to answer these 

questions by applying the most relevant definitions to demographic and geographic profiles of 

rural districts and communities in the Southwest 

Region today. These profiles can then be used to 

examine the implications of applying each definition to rural education issues. The results of these 

studies can provide useful insight for developing 

policy initiatives aimed at improving educational 

outcomes in rural schools.

Note

Many individuals contributed to this report. The 

authors thank Dr. Bob Mooneyham, whose knowledge and understanding of rural education policy 

and practice was a valuable contribution. They 

also thank Jonathan Banks, who assisted with data 

collection and data analysis, and Dr. Rosemary 

Dawson, who retired from the University of Oklahoma in January 2006, for her early contributions 

in supporting the management and administration of this research study. In addition, project 

managers Kristin Newkirk and Geneva Strech and 

project coordinator Norma Reyna provided support to keep the project on schedule. 
 Appendix 11

Appendix

Key Terms

Central county: The county or counties of a 

core-based statistical area containing a substantial portion of an urbanized area or urban cluster 

or both and to and from which commuting is 

measured to determine qualification of outlying 

counties (U.S. General Accounting Office, June 

2004, p. 29).

Commuting ties: At least 25 percent of the employed residents of the county work in the central 

county or counties of a core-based statistical area 

(CBSA); or at least 25 percent of the employment 

in the county is accounted for by workers residing 

in the central county or counties of the CBSA (U.S. 

General Accounting Office, June 2004, p. 32).

Consolidated statistical area: If an area that 

qualifies as a metropolitan area has more than 1 

million people, two or more core-based metropolitan statistical areas may be defined within it. 

Each core-based statistical area (CBSA) consists 

of a large urbanized county or cluster of counties 

(cities and towns in New England) that demonstrate strong internal economic and social links, 

in addition to close ties to other portions of the 

larger area. When CBSA’s are established, the 

larger metropolitan area of which they are a part 

is designated a consolidated statistical area (CSA). 

CSAs and CBSAs are established only where local 

governments favor such designations for a large 

metropolitan area (National Center for Education 

Statistics, 2007a).

Core-based statistical area: A statistical geographic entity consisting of the county or counties 

associated with at least one core (urbanized area or 

urban cluster) with a population of at least 10,000, 

plus adjacent counties having a high degree of 

social and economic integration with the core 

as measured through commuting ties with the 

counties containing the core. Metropolitan and 

micropolitan statistical areas are the two categories of core-based statistical areas (U.S. General 

Accounting Office, June 2004, p. 29).

Metropolitan area: The general concept of a metropolitan area is one of a large population nucleus, 

together with adjacent communities that have a 

high degree of economic and social integration 

with that nucleus. Some metropolitan areas are 

defined around two or more nuclei.

The metropolitan areas and the central cities 

within them are designated and defined by the 

federal Office of Management and Budget following a set of official standards published in a 

Federal Register notice. These standards were 

developed by the interagency Federal Executive 

Committee on Metropolitan Areas, with the aim 

of producing definitions as consistent as possible 

for all metropolitan areas nationwide.

Each metropolitan area must contain either a 

place with a minimum population of 50,000 or a 

U.S. Census Bureau-defined urbanized area and a 

total population of at least 100,000 (75,000 in New 

England). A metropolitan area contains one or 

more central counties. It also may include one or 

more outlying counties that have close economic 

and social relationships with the central county. 

An outlying county must have a specified level of 

commuting to the central counties and also must 

meet certain standards of metropolitan character, 

such as population density, urban population, and 

population growth. In New England metropolitan 

areas consist of groups of cities and county subdivisions (mostly towns) rather than whole counties.

The territory, population, and housing units in 

metropolitan areas are referred to as ‘‘metropolitan.’’ The metropolitan category is subdivided into 

‘‘inside central city’’ and ‘‘outside central city.’’ The 

territory, population, and housing units located 

outside the territory designated ‘‘metropolitan’’ 

are referred to as ‘‘nonmetropolitan.’’ The metropolitan and nonmetropolitan classification cuts 

across the other hierarchies; for example, generally 

there are both urban and rural territories within 

both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.

To meet the needs of various users, the standards 

provide for a flexible structure of metropolitan 
12 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

definitions that classify each metropolitan area as 

either a metropolitan statistical area or a consolidated metropolitan statistical area divided 

into primary metropolitan statistical areas (U.S. 

Census Bureau, 2007, pp. A-15–A16).

Metropolitan statistical area: A core-based statistical area associated with at least one urbanized 

area that has a population of at least 50,000. The 

metropolitan statistical area comprises the central 

county or counties containing the core, plus 

adjacent outlying counties having a high degree of 

social and economic integration with the central 

county as measured through commuting (U.S. 

General Accounting Office, June 2004, p. 29).

Micropolitan statistical area: A core-based 

statistical area associated with at least one urban 

cluster that has a population of at least 10,000 but 

less than 50,000. The micropolitan statistical area 

comprises the central county or counties containing the core, plus adjacent outlying counties having a high degree of social and economic integration with the central county as measured through 

commuting (U.S. General Accounting Office, June 

2004, p. 29).

Outlying county: A county that qualifies for inclusion in a core-based statistical area on the basis 

of commuting ties with the CBSA’s central county 

or counties (U.S. General Accounting Office, June 

2004, p. 29).

Place: Places, for the reporting of decennial census 

data, include census designated places, consolidated cities, and incorporated places. Each place is 

assigned a five-digit Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) code, based on the alphabetical order of the place name within each state. If 

place names are duplicated within a state and they 

represent distinctly different areas, a separate code 

is assigned to each place name alphabetically by 

primary county in which each place is located, 

or if both places are in the same county, alphabetically by their legal description (for example, 

‘‘city’’ before ‘‘village’’) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007, 

p. A-17).

Rural: Rural consists of all territory, population, 

and housing units located outside of urbanized 

areas and urban clusters. Geographic entities, such 

as metropolitan areas, counties, minor civil divisions, and places, often contain both urban and 

rural territory, population, and housing units (U.S. 

Census Bureau, 2007, p. A-22).

Urban: The U.S. Census Bureau classifies as 

urban all territory, population, and housing units 

located within urban areas and urban clusters. It 

delineates urbanized area and urbanized cluster 

boundaries to encompass densely settled territory, 

which generally consists of:

•	 A cluster of one or more block groups or census blocks, each with a population density of 

at least 1,000 people per square mile.

•	 Surrounding block groups and census blocks, 

each with a population density of at least 500 

people per square mile.

•	 Less densely settled blocks that form enclaves 

or indentations or are used to connect discontiguous areas with qualifying densities (U.S. 

Census Bureau, 2007, p. A-22).

Urban cluster: An urban cluster consists of 

densely settled territory that has at least 2,500 

people but fewer than 50,000 people. (An urban 

cluster can have 50,000 or more people if fewer 

than 35,000 people live in an area that is not part 

of a military reservation.) The U.S. Census Bureau 

introduced the urban cluster for Census 2000 to 

provide a more consistent and accurate measure 

of the population concentration in and around 

places. Urban clusters replace the provision in the 

1990 and previous censuses that defined as urban 

only places with 2,500 or more people located 

outside of urbanized areas (U.S. Census Bureau, 

2007, p. A-22).

Urban cluster central place: A central place 

functions as the dominant center of an urban 

cluster. The U.S. Census Bureau identifies one or 

more central places for an urban cluster, with a 
 Appendix 13

preference for the most populous incorporated 

places. Some urban clusters do not have a central 

place (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007, p. A-22).

Urbanized area: An urbanized area consists of 

densely settled territory that contains 50,000 or 

more people. The U.S. Census Bureau delineates 

urbanized areas to provide a better separation of 

urban and rural territory, population, and housing in the vicinity of large places. At least 35,000 

people in a UA must live in an area that is not part 

of a military reservation. For Census 2000 the 

urbanized area criteria specify that the delineations be performed using a zero-based approach. 

Because of the more stringent density requirements and the less restrictive extended place criteria, some territory that was classified as urbanized 

for the 1990 census has been reclassified as rural. 

(Area that was part of a 1990 urbanized area has 

not been automatically grandfathered into the 

2000 urbanized area.) In addition, some areas that 

were identified as urbanized areas for the 1990 

census have been reclassified as urban clusters 

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2007, p. A-22).
14 How the government defines rural has implications for education policies and practices

References

Cromartie, J. B., & Swanson, L. L. (1996). Census tracts 

more precisely define rural populations and areas. 

Rural Development Perspectives, 11(3), 31–39.

Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002, 20 U.S.C. § 9501 

et seq. Retrieved January 3, 2007 from Cornell Law 

School, Legal Information Institute, http://www.law.

cornell.edu/uscode/).

Farmer, T. W., Leung, M-C., Banks, J., Schaefer, V., Andrews, B., & Murray, R. A. (2006). Adequate yearly 

progress in small rural schools and rural low-income 

schools. The Rural Educator, 27(3), 1–7.

Gjelten, T. (1982). A typology of rural school settings. Summary of presentation prepared for the Rural Education 

Seminar, U.S. Department of Education (Washington, 

DC, May 3-5, 1982). Abstract obtained from Education 

Resources Information Center ED 215858.

Haas, T. (1990). Leaving home: Circumstances affecting rural 

America during the last decade and their impact on public education. Peabody Journal of Education, 67(4), 7–28.

Haas, T. (1991). Why reform doesn’t apply: Creating a new 

story about education in rural America. In A. DeYoung (Ed.), Rural education: Issues and practice (pp. 

413–446). New York: Garland Publishing.

Hart, G. L., Larsen, E. H., & Lishner, D. (2005). Rural definitions for health policy and research. Journal of Public 

Health, 95(7). Retrieved July 21, 2006 from Academic 

Search Premier.

Isserman, A. (2005). In the national interest: Defining rural 

and urban correctly in research and public policy. 

International Regional Science Review, 28(4), 465–499.

Johnson, J. & Strange, M. (2005). Why rural matters 2005. 

The facts about rural education in the 50 states. Arlington, VA: Rural School and Community Trust.

Khattri, N., Riley, K. W., & Kane, M. B. (1997). Students 

at-risk in poor, rural areas: A review of the research. 

Journal of research in rural education, 13(2), 79–100.

Kusmin, L. (Ed.) (2006). Rural America at a glance. Economic Information Bulletin No. (EIB-18). Washington 

DC: U.S. Department of Education, Economic Research 

Service.

Marshall, R. (2001). Rural policy in the new century. International Regional Science Review, 24(1), 59–83.

McGranahan, D. E. (1994). Rural America in the global 

economy: Socioeconomic trends. Journal of Research in 

Rural Education, 10(3) 139–148.

National Center for Education Statistics (2006a). Identification of rural locales. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved 

October 20, 2006 from http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/Rural_

Locales.asp.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2006b). Urban/

rural classification systems. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. 

Retrieved September 21, 2006 from http://nces.ed.gov/

surveys/RuralEd/definitions.asp.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2007a). CCD

school and district glossary. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. 

Retrieved January 12, 2007 from http://nces.ed.gov/

ccd/commonfiles/glossary.asp.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2007b). What is 

the CCD? Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved January 

12, 2007 from http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/aboutCCD.asp.

National Center on Education Finance. (2007). Geographic 

cost adjustments in education. Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved January 3, 2007 

from http://www.ncsl.org/programs/educ/PubsGeo.htm.

National Conference of State Legislatures. (2007). Four 

day school week. Denver, CO: Author. Retrieved 

January 3, 2007 from http://www.ncsl.org/programs/

educ/4DaySchWeek.htm.

National School Boards Association. (2003). Four day 

school week survey. Retrieved January 3, 2007 from 
 References 15

http://www.nsba.org/site/view.asp?TrackID=&SID=1&

DID=31750&CID=257&VID=2.

New Mexico Department of Public Education. (2007). Rural 

education. Santa Fe, NM: Author. Retrieved January 14, 

2007 from http://www.ped.state.nm.us/div/rural_ed/

index.html.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. § 7341 et seq.

Retrieved January 3, 2007 from Cornell Law School, 

Legal Information Institute, http://www.law.cornell.

edu/uscode/).

Rural Policy Research Institute. (2006). Defining rural: 

Definitions of rural areas in the U.S. Columbia, MO: 

Author. Retrieved July 19, 2006 from http://www.rupri.

org/resources/context/rural.html.

Schneider, M. (2006). New classification scheme for locale 

codes. Washington, DC: US. Department of Education, 

National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved 

August 30, 2006 from http://nces.ed.gov/whatsnew/

commissioner/remarks2006/6_12_2006.asp.

Stephens, E. R. (1992). The condition of the diverse regions 

of rural America. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 8(1), 1–13.

Stern, J. D. (1994). The condition of education in rural 

schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 

Programs for the Improvement of Practice.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2005). About metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas. Retrieved July, 20, 2006 from 

http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/

aboutmetro.html.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2006). Definition: Urban and rural.

Question and Answer Center. Washington, DC: Author. 

Retrieved July 12, 2006 from https://ask.census.gov/.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2007). Appendix A. Census 2000 geographic terms and concepts. Washington, DC: Author. 

Retrieved January 13, 2006 from http://www.census.

gov/geo/www/tiger/glossry2.pdf.

U.S. Department of Education. (2004, October 27). Teacher 

update: Rural teachers and No Child Left Behind. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved November 16, 2006 

from http://www.ed.gov/teachers/how/tools/initiative/

updates/041027.html.

U.S. Department of Education. (2006). Guide to U.S. 

Department of Education Programs, Washington, DC: 

Office of Communications and Outreach. Retrieved 

January 5, 2006 from http://www.ed.gov/programs/

gtep/gtep.pdf.

U.S. General Accounting Office. (June 2004). Metropolitan 

statistical areas: New standards on their impact on 

selected federal programs (Report GAO-04-758). Washington, DC: Author.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (September 2004). 

No Child Left Behind Act: Additional assistance and 

research on effective strategies would help small rural 

districts (Report GAO-04-909). Washington, DC: 

Author.