TECHNICAL REPORT 445 LEV 'J

COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN

INTELLIGENCE ANALYSIS:

A DESCRIPTIVE MODEL AND

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Robert V. Katter

Christine A. Montgomery

John R. Thompson

Operating Systems Inc. V,

HUMAN FACTORS TECHNICAL AREA, ARI

OFFICE ^f DEPUTY CHIEF of STAFF-SYSTEMS, INSCOM

00 I

Prepared for

US ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE US ARMY INTELLIGENCE

for tOe BEHAVIORAL and SOCIAL SCIENCES and SECURTY COMMAND 5001 Eisenhower Avenue Arlington Hall Station AJ Alexandria, Virginia 22333 Arlington, Virginia 22312 j

80 7 10 0471
WW**1fww

U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of tht

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

FR~ANKLIN A. HART

JOSEPH ZEIDNIER Colonel, US Army ITechnical Diector C011111.1m der

NOTICE S

DISTRIBULTION: Primfary distribution of this rep~ort has been m*by AN 1. Plaeas, midres corriesporidengie

concerning dlistribution oft reports to: U. S. ArmyV Research -Intitute foe %e Behavioral and Social Sieloces

ATTN: PERI-TP, 5001 Eisenhover Ave,kua, Alexandria, Virginia 22333.

FiNAL DIUPOAMTON: This report inmy bg dest'oved when it is no longr reeded. P6eg0 do not return It to

the U. S. Army Reu&'ch Institute lzw the Behaviioral and Siocial Sciencies.

SThe f indings in this report are not to be construed as an off icial Doprmetnt of the Army position,

unless so designated by othior authorized documents.
Unclassifiled

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Date Entered)

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ___ INSTRUCTIONS__

,i . REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION No. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

4. TITLE (and Subtitle)5 PEO RPRT& EID VF O

~C OGNITIVE 2OCESSE INELLIGENCEOALYSIS: ______________

Lt ESCRIPME DEOAD IVIEW OF TffLITERATURE * ROWMWING ORO. REPOUNT NUMBER

II.~~~~S NMEAN CONROLIN ADRS OIC 

US Aobrmy Inelgec Sec-hrurity A..mtngmand / 1 dece-79--,q

14.MOI ORN AENY AM & A N ADDRESS(I ro ololndOfc) 1i0,~ . SECURIYCA E EMEN SS o r PROJETTAS

5001an Eisenowe CAvne AlxnriV1233364____________ II. CONTROISUING SFICTATMEANTDo tAleDRESS

IApprove forpuligo relleas;dtrbtion unlimited

IT DISTRI 08UTIO N ST C AEMEN &. teAbatRESSi entferentfo Con toln Offce 15. SEURT CLS.(o hs eot

andSec.r omn Institute Army UANCM Research n h (ART) Dr.Bhvira

InteallSigences

50 01 EisAen(mahower Avernue Aeadrida,~ bVA blo2333r

coniiv processesIO SAENT(ftin inpoteliec)nlsspeene nti eo a

deprveoed asr aubpacrelofasstudyietribtled unlniemiated fMtoolg n

ISTUPEchniques fo nelligence sfie- ý Teapoctoonruigthmdl Aayss 

sbased onrthe iomnve(stiationSof analytica pro essingh Insttwotyes of) singl

souarc a.Jonalsis (SRIGI and MINT) subsequvigenl geneCM ravizing trogmiorce

analysis.; For. Sthepupoes of thlis (AinvesJitioam irntelignc aInalysis andDs

- defnedt a a- spetru ofr~ unlticladjdgetlatviisivlvdibh

20. 14 T1 11~rRcr cantnnaftreveew-owj
SECURITY CLASIWFICATION OF THIS PAGIK.h.n D00 EAnt__ _

,-., •20. (cant).

processing and production of intelligence, where particular individuals may

devote more or less time to different aspects of such activities acco -ing to

their individual roles in the intelligence cycle.

A production model of imagery intelligence (IMINT) was developed to serve

as a basis for selecting IMINT processes involving high analytical and

Judgmental content for further study, directed at understanding the cognitive

functions that underlie these IMINT processes. The IMINT model is presented in

ARI Research Report 1210. A general overview of the project is published as

ARI Research Report 1237.

N

.. The present paper contains a detailed review of selected aspects of

current psychological literature, as well as the cognitive model which is based

on that literature and on investigation of the IMINT and SIGINT production

models. The cognitive model and the literature review focus on how information is processed, stored and retrieved from memory, evaluated and integrated

to form intelligence. The model has general applicability to the full spectrum

of intelligence processing activities.

inFor

j tif ic • tion •

It 9r

Ib;

Spec al Dist-\

Unclassified

Ujj SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(lWhen DPta Enteered)
Teclulcel Report 445

COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN INTELLIGENCE ANALYSIS:

A DESCRIPTIVE MODEL AND REVIEW

ii OF THE LITERATURE

Robert V. Katter

Christine A. Montgomery

John R. Thompson

Operating Systems, Inc.

J

Submitted by:

Edgar M. Johnson, Chief

HUMAN FACTORS TECHNICAL AREA

I.1

Approved By:

,r James D. Baker, Acting Director

OFRGANIZATI(NS AND SYSTEMS

RESEARCH LABORATORY

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333

Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army

Decombair 1979

'1

Aimy Project Number Intelligence Systems

20163743A774

Approved for public releam: dictribution uniknmid.

•: iii
ARI Research Reports and Technical Report: are intended for sponsors of II R&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings ready for implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part

of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

ivi
r I

Intelligence collection systems have proliferated over the past several

! years, increasing in complexity and in volume of output. However, there has

been no corresponding improvement in the ability of intelligence personnel to

analyze this flood of data. US Army Intelligence and Security Command (INSCOM)

studies and Army Research Ynstitute (ARI) research indicate that improved support

to and training of analysts are necessary to effectively uitilize the increased

collection capability and satisfy increasing demands for intelligence within

current personnel constraints. INSCOM and kRI therefore initiated a joint research

program to provide improved r-loport to the intelligence analyst. During early

discussions of the issues, it became clear that any procedural, training, organizational, or system changes to support analysis will be effective only if based

upon a detailed understanding of the analysts' role, methods, and thought processes

in intelligence production. The first need was to evaluate and describe the human

analytic processes underlying intelligence analysis, synthesis, and production.

This report contains a detailed review of selected aspects of current psychological

literature as well as a descriptive cognitive model.

"The approach taken in this project was to examine the role and activities of

various types af intelligetce analysts, and to develop a'descriptive model of the

cognitive processes involved in analysis. The cognitive model derives in part

from current psychological literature and in part from an earlier effort under

this project--Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) Production Model, ARI Research Report

1210. Not a new statement of psychological principles, the model puts these

principles in a new context, intelligence analysis. separate report provides a

general overview of the project (ARI Research Report 12374

The research was accomplished by a government-contractor team under contract

MDA 903-78-C-2044 and was monitored jointly by INSCOM and ARI. Continuous interaction and collaboration of personnel from Operating Systems, Inc., INSCOM, and

ARI insured a multidisciplinary approach to this research.

This report and the others from this project provide a framework for detailed

examination of training support and system support requirements in intelligence

analysis. These reports should be very useful during the development or evaluation

of trainiag procedures or materials, analytic procedures, doctrine, and system

requirements ior automated support to analysts.

R MC WILLIAM I. ROLYA

rec cal Di or oi ARI and Commander, US Army

ie Psychologist, US Army Intelligence and Security

Command

V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was conducted with the assistance and advice of a Study Advisory Group (SAG). The contribution of the individual SAG participants and

the cooperation and support of the agencies represented by these individuals

greatly benefited the accomplishment of study objectives.- In addition to

those named below, several INSCOM personnel participanted in the four SAG

meetings, several other intelligence activities provided access to analyst

personnel, and 117 individuals contributed as much as 6 to 8 hours of their

time during interviews and discussions. This high level of participation and

support across the intelligence coununity is gratefully acknowledged.

SAG Participants

G. A. Harvey, Jr. INSCOM SAG Chair

E. M. Johnon ARI SAG Co-Chair

H. Woodall ODUSA-OR

H. W. Taylor OACSI DA

C. L. J. Legere USAISD

J. E. VanSant TRADOC

COL S. T. Weinstein XVIII Corps

J. Ribholz NSA

A. Heidig DIA

LTC C. H. Keller CACDA

P. E. Lavigne INSCOM

MAJ W. A. Franklin INSCOM

CPT M. Hainline USAICS

S. M. Halpin ARI

R. H. Phelps ARI

V

- *.. vii

"___ __-L
Cognitive Processes in Intelligence Analysis:

A Description Model and Review of the Literature

BRIEF

Requirement:

To review the psychological literature on cognitive information processing

and develop a descriptive model of the cognitive processes underlying singlesource and multi-source intelligence naalysis.

Approach:

The development of the descriptive cognitive model was based on critical

integration of knowledge obtained from review of the literature ahtd individual

interviews with military intelligence analysts. The literature review was

focused on the latest research findings in the areas of human memory, perception, information processing, as well as judgment and decisionmaking. The

interviews with intelligence personnel and analysts were zonducted as part of

a larger project investigating tLhe processes of intelligence analysis (for an

overview see ARI Research Report 1237). There was a total of 117 interviews

with developers of training materials, image interpreters, signal and allsource intelligence analysts, in both garrison and field exercises.

Product:

The psychological model describes the cognitive processes believed to

underlie intelligence analysis. The focus is on how information is processed,

stored and retrieved from memory, evaluated, and integrated Co form intalligence. The literature review supports the selection of these processes and

provides the details of the nature, mechanisms, and relationships of the

cognitive processes. A major emphasis is on the critical role of analysts'

thought proces;ses; while based ultimately on data, intelligence is actually

created by the analyst. In other words, "truth" is seldom hidden in the data;

it is constructed by the analyst, with the data playing a relatively small

role.

Utilization: I: This report is a detailed exposition and scientific justification of the

cognitive model of intelligence analysis. It will help psychologists and

psychologically sophisticated military personnel to better understand the

underlying processes of intelligence analysis. Such an understanding will

contribute to improvements in the quality of intelligence through training of

boch analysts and management as well as intelligence systems development. An

extension of this model. in the second phase ot the project will support the

development of improved analytic procedures and system specifications for the

All Source Analysis System.

ix
* CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ...........~*..*... .. *........ ....*......*.... ...... *.*..* 1-1

2. THE COGNITIVE MODEL ............ ........ *.............. ............ *. .......... . .. . 2 - 1

2.1 Overview......................................................*........ ............ 2-1

2.2 Information Contents Modification Cycle ............................ 2-3

2.3 Structure of Cognitive Capacities ... *..............*...................... 2-8

2.4 Elemertal Dynamic Processee ................................................... 2-1 4

8. LITERATURE SOURCES ....... *.****..................-................0...........3-1

3.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 3-1

3.2 Cognitive Structure ........................................................................... 3-1

3.3 Elemental Dynamic Processes ................. *.................... .................. 3-1 7

3.4 Memory Modification Mechanisms .............................. 3-18

3.5 Complex Behavioral Procseo c es.....os...............o.s............ 3-22

6. DISTRIBUTION ........ .*.*................... 6-1

r4
COG rrTVE PROCESSES IN INTELLIGENCR ANALYSIS: A DESCRIPTIVE MODEL AND

REVIEW OF THE M.ITERATURE

Robert V. Kattcr

Christine A. Montgomrvy

John R. Thompson

Operating Systems, Inc.

ABSTRACT

This report presents the background research literature used in the tonstuctlon of a descriptive model of cognitive activities underlying tii

acivIties of Intelligence analysis. The approach used to develop the cog- nitve model combined available Information on the way in whfch Intelligence analysis is performed In actual work settings with available

research findings In cognitive psychology. The first step was to Investigate analytical processing as currently practiced in two types of sinlriesource analysis, and subsequently to generalize to multi-source analysia.

The Initial interview and observation research Investigated signal intelligence (SIGINT). A second Investigation focused on imagery intelligence (IMINT) and resulted in a model of the directly observable activities of

single-source IMINT production. A questionnaire Interview guide was

developed and used for deeper analysio of the two single-source disciplines and multi-source production activities.

A oorecmitant task reviewed literature from cognitive psychology for

,ppllcability to the research. A cognitive model was developed, and Intel- I

Ilgence analysis activities were studied from the point of view of the

model. A main finding Is that effective Intelligence analysis Is a conceptdriven adtlvlty rather than a data-driven one. Project results have implications for Improvements in a number of areas of Intellig,)nce work.

The present report discusses the research literature in some detail. An;

earlier report provided an overview of the results of the project.

1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW cycle and associated activities are

reasonably well understood, the activi- The purpose of this report Is to review ties that go on In tte head of an

research literature used In ýhe con- a~alyst are not. The back. objective of '

struction of a descriptive model of the the project was to develop a cognitive

cognitive activities involved In Intelli- model that would p,-ovide a frcmework

gence analysis. Project findings were

ns ie Ifor the description of the •'ontal

summarized In an earlier repo t [Human processes used In Intelligence analy,'%. Pr:oesses In Intelligence Analysis p

Phase I Orvlew] In order to pursue this research the

definition was adopted that intelligence The aim of the project was to Improve analysis Is what Intelligence analysts

understanding of the cogoltive kctfvi- do. This was definnd to Include a apel-t

ties underlying Intelligence processing trum of antlytical and judgmental activi- and production. While the intelligence ties o lved In jrogmental and

ties Involved In processing and
production of Intelligence, where Indlvi- Interpreting them via conceptual models

duals assigned to particular roles In In the analyst's store of knowledge.

intelligence may spend more or 'ess The core functions of Inteiligenco

time In analytical activity, depending on analysis involve the use of complex

the assigned role. It was assumed that conceptual models. The ability to use

a set of common analytical task ouch modele is dependent upon indiviprocesses exists that crosscuts the dua! capacities as well as upon environvarious intelligence disciplines such as mentai or work setting variables.

SIGINT, IMINT, and HUMINT (intelligence Because hoth individual and environfrom human sources). It was also mental variabies affect the analyst's

assumed that the identification of these cognitive performance, the model of

common analytical task processes was cognitive processes underlying intelila key to identifying the core information g.nce analysis must incorporate both

processing funrtlons of greatest impor- kinds of variables.

tance to Intelligence analfsls.

The approach was first to Investigate

analytical processing as currently practiced in two types of single-source

analysis, and then to generalize the

findings to the multi-source analysis

environment where possible. The Initial

task Involved a preliminary investigation

of signal intelligence to Identify those

S•iGiNT task processes which appeared

to have a high analytical and Judgmental

content. The second !nteiligence discipline investigeted was imagery intelligence. A productthn model for IMINT

actIvities was developed, and selected

IMINT task processes were compared

with similar SIGINT task procease3.

71,s comparison generated a definition

of? common analytical task processes

that crosscut the intelligence disciplines. Altht.•jgh a detailed, intensive

Investigation of HUMINT was not within

the scope of thei project, some observatlonh of HUMINT analysts at work

were made and several discussions

were held with such analysts.

1he most telling result of the research

Is the clear implication that intelligesce

anal>•sls Is eonceptually driven as

vpposed to data driven. What is critical

i:,. not just the data collected, but also

what i1 added to those data in

- 1-2 -
2. T"E COGNITiVE MODEL 1. An Individual's initial cognitive pro2.1 Overview ceasing of information from the

environment is conducted within a

The cognitive o. odel presented here few tenths of a second by mechansummerizes selected aspects of cogni- lame operating outside the

tL•e functluning theot appear to be of individual's awareness (termed

central Importance to the processes "aut)matic" processing.) As depInvolved Ii Intelligence analysi3 activl- icted in Figure 2-1, Information

ties. Each aspect has also been the enters through sense organs (eyes,

object of laboratory vwrificatlon in the ears, etc.) where It Is converted to

field of experimental psychology, nerve Impulses by automatic (out- model Is an abstract side awareness) processes and

conducted to the brain. There, an

description Intended to summarize and automatic process rapidly compares

account for 5ehavloral and psychologi- the raw sensory Information with

cal observations and their relationships. inforat pens alreatored

The model serves to describe interre- Inftind uates memoy stos

lated processes that occur Inside a In the IndCviduai's memory. This Is

person's head when performing intel'l- the COMPARE arrow In Figure 2-1.

gence analysis. Cognitive processing Is When a gross match Is found, parts

a continuum--some is superficial and of the raw sensory pattern are

some very deep. During superficial pro- automatically selected because of

cessing the !ndividual '.a c.m..times their similarity to features of the

aware ot t'e proces~sing and sometimes memory pattern and are combined

not; during deep processing the lndlyl- with other elements of the informadual Is sometimes aware of the pro- tion pattern from memory, shown in

ceasing and sometimes not. Whether Figure 2-1 as the CONSTRUCT

accomplished within or outside aware- arrow. The resulting pattern of

ness, cognitive processing is a dynamic combined Information, still outside

Interplay of Information from the senses awareness, constitutes the initial

and from Internal memory. version of "meaning" (of a visual

The cognitive model presented here scene, of a pattern of sound, of a

focuses on the flow of information tactile pattern. etc.) Thus, all Initial focues th flw no Infrmaionmeanings represent active con- through the cognitive "system". It seucins perred by coni

describes Inputs Ing npus n and tose toprouce processes operat- utptsprocessing processng mechanisms mehnimsoperatin operating .

Ing on those Inputs to produce outputs. outside awareness. As already IndiThe Inputs may worl come orfro from the external Inerna meoris. he ated, such constructions are ordiworld or from Internal memories. The narily accomplished within a few

model as presented does not account tenths of a second.

for all known phenomena or describe all

known processes in exhaustive detail. 2. Many irItial meanings remain outIt does provide a framework for under- side awareness and trigger pat- standing cognitive processes In Inteilli- terns of highly practiced adjustgence analysis. ments that are also carried on outThe cognitive model is summarized by side awareness. Automatically

the following three points:

-2-1 -
E

N

V 8 COMPARE' M

I E E

o-I RN 8 CONTRUCT N

N E 0

* S R

E Y

N

T tINmAL

MEANING

AARENESS EXECUTIVE

& ATTENTIO ACTIONS

Figure 2-1. Cognitive Model Overview

constructed Initial meanings form memory-storcaJe structure of the

the bases for generating aware- particular contents accessed. The

ness (when awareness occurs) and modification of memory occurs

attention on certain aspects of the Information Is used only for

aware experience. Such automatic processing outside

responses Include automatically awareness or Is used also for

ignoring Information as Irrelevant, deeper processing at progressively uninteresting, or completely higher levels of awareness (such

expected. as paying close attention, studying

slsts of a continuous cycling of the ig n rbe ovn.

COMPARE/CONSTRUCT process, Three main types of Information

with each cycle accessing the modification occur as products of

Individual's memory. Each cycle the functioning of the basic

causes some modification of' the compare/construct process:

-2-2-

!.-.,.o

.......................... .....................................
e -ýe• jy Information filtering, describes the functioning and implicayinformation consolida- tions of these processes and underlying

tion, processing dynamics.

In the following paragraphs, memory * memory access Interference, modification mechanisms are described

Analysis of ac Individual's expe1i- first, followed by an account of the

ences In terms of these modifica- underlying structure of cognitive capation mechanisms czn provide pred- cities and elemental processing dynamlotions about cognitive Information ics.

processing behavior to be 2.2 Information Contents Modification

expected from that individual.

Thus, although individuals have lit- Cycle

the conscious control over the func- The COMPARE/CONSTRUCT processing

tioning of their memories and per- of informatlon depends upon elemental

ceptions, the predictable relation- cognitive processing uynamics (to be

ships between experience patterns described later) which operate continuand Information modification ously during wakefulness. The elemel,-

mechanisms can, be used to predict tal dynamics suppcrt three information

and control the functioning of modification mechanisms that operaie

memory and perception. on the sensory and memory information

used by the compare/construct proThe main cognitive functions Just

cess. Since Information from the described are produced by bar'c, elemental processing dynamics operating senses and memory constitutes the raw

through a structure of underlying cogni- material up which Intellgence tve capacities. coanalysis Interpretations and estimates

are based, the Information modification

To summarize: Hun, an cognition may be mechanisms have importe.nt imp!icatlons

characterized as a set of Interrelated for understanding and predicting the

processes which operate on available orientations and nature of analytic

Information. "Analysis" Involves the interpretations and estimates. Figure

assignment of meaning to Incoming and 2-2 diagrams the information contents

previously stored Information. The modification cycle.

descriptive model of ainalytic behavior

developed here builds on an understanding of some of 4' ise basic cognitive processes tr )lain analysts' Sensory Informatlo|!

Interpretation, sto -nd recall of

Information. At a ve ..eral level the

model describes the dynamic Interplay

between Incoming information and previously stored Information (i.e., internal Memory Access/Z--Memory Contents

memories). Processes which are cen- Interference \ Consolidation

tral to this Interplay are the

COMPARE/CONSTRUCT sequence and

the memory modification cycle involving Figure 2-2. Information Contents

filtering, consolidation, and access. At

a more detailed level the model Modification Cycle.

- 2-3 -
The cycle Is composed of three attention on the features of the expecmechanisms- sensory Information filter- tation, thus passively rejecting other

Ing, memory contents consolidation, and potentially Important Information that

memory access interfersnce, all of happens to be Irrelevant for confirming

which are described below, or denying the expectation.

2.2.1 Sensory Information Filtering The polarization effect can bring posiThe -sensory Information flitering tive results when unfolding events

Techanism espord i orftion filterg correspond to expectations and negamechanism is composed of two comple- tive results when events are unrelated

mentary functions: selectivity, and • generalization s to confirming or denying expoctations.

Polarizing effects are stronger when an

2.2.1.1 Selectivity Filtering expectation Is Implicit (i.e., is unexamSelectivity mechanisms approach filter- Ined or unquestioned in awareness).

Ing from the viewpoint of ano'wering the Explicit questioning of expectations can

question: Which aspects of the raw rdc oaiain

sensory Information pattern are signifi- 2.2.1.Z Generalization Filtering

cant? The compare/construct process Generalization mechanisms approach outlined irt Section 6.1.1 compares the fenerion mehanisms appro

raw sensory Input for similarity witih filtering from the viewpoint of answerexisting memory contents. An adequate Ing the question: How much and what kind of similarities are required to

gross match Is usually found qLickly, recognize things as the same? The

and the sensory input Is relegated to an confident use of knowledge depends on

existing gross mental category. being able to generalize from experiThus, the Initial compare/construct pro- ence. Success In applying past expericess often Ignores (passively rajicts) ence (memory information) to the

significant Information in the raw sen- present depends on the validity of gensory Input that In fact does not fit (at a eralizations employed between the past

deeper, more detailed level of analysis) and the present. The effective use of

the mental category assigned to it. If generalization is a fundamental and

the overall first Impression of the sen- Inescapable aspect of dealing successsory Information pattern Is a good match fully with the world. The elemental prowith gross feat',res of existing memory ceasing dynamics and basic capacities

contents, dispa ,Ales between the son- of the cognitive model (to be described

sory pattern and the memory information later) provide the bases for identifying

pattern at more detailed levels often three main types of mechanisms lor

have no chance to enter awareness, filtering by generalization: tolerance,

Polarization filtering is a variation of analogy, and fill-In.

the selectivity filtering mechanism, in 2.2.1.2.1 Tolerance Generalization

which an expectation that has been In tolerance generalization, a slot in a

establisheO usually Increases the ofslse memcry nthens memory storage frame (see discussion accessibility of memory contents2-5) Is filled with

related to that expectation (I.e., new raw sensory information matching

memory Information related to both con- that slot. rGeneraliation cano that slot. Generalization carn occur

firming and denying It). This produces a depending upon the tolerance matching polarization effect that focuses more criteria of that slot. Since memory slots

-2-4-

--. 2-4
are organized hierarchically )y Increas- 2.2.1.2.3 Fill-In Generalization

Ing levels of detail-of Information stored In fill-In generalization, missing parts of

there, tolerance requirements fr the raw sensory pattern are filled In

matching grow more stringent at the from similar chunks of Information In the

deeper, more detailed levels of a memory frame slot. If the reasons for

memory slot. Of course generalization memoin fram of the rmaton

may be valid loosr or Invalid tlernce Inceast any th level, chnce but missing pattern parts are of Implicitly a sensory understood, Information

looser tolerances Increase the chance (either because they are obvious or

because of insufficient consideration of

propriately -eneralized. the fact of missing Information), the

The mecha sm of tolerance generaliza- fill-in Is often automatic. The results of

tion usually operates outside aware- fill-in are advantageous if sufficiently

ness. Deeer, more thorough cognitive correct And disadvantageous if based I

processing that Involves more time on faulty assumptions. Careful examispent In highly focused aware comparl- nation of assumptions about missing

son between sensory Information and data can raise the level of awareness

memory Information can prevent some of used In fill-in processing. the errors Introduced by the tolerance typ geerliztin.2.2.2 o Memory Contents Consolidation

tyeof generalization.

2.2..2.2 Analogy Generalization Memory contents, including information recently passed through the filtering

In analogy generalization, comparisons process and stored, are consolidated

of similarity are made between the pat- (i.e., made more accessible and vivid)

terns of relationships connecting the as a joint function of the frequency of

slots of different memory contents processing and the amount of attenstorage frames. For example, the tion used In the processing. Thus, more

memory information about very different frequently encountered, important

social organizations can be compared In types of experiences upon which signiorder to generate analogies between ficant mental effort are expended

organizational hierarchy structures; or become more vivid and Immediately

memory contents depicting the relations accessible In memory. between pressure, flow volume, and beietweenpressure, florwter v e andt The Increased accessibility and vividpipe diameter for water can generate ns fpriua eoycnet

analogies to memory contents for the Increases nes th ikelimood thtteywl the likelihood that they will

relations between voltage, amperage, be used as filtering criteria in and conductance for electricity. The

utility of generalization by analogy comparing/constructing wa iia a xeine future, vru somedepends partly upon the actual rela- whatsimlarrawexperiences (versus dioalepeendctut real- using equally appropriate or more

equivalrences betwee the real- appropriate memory contents that are

world referents for the analogy, and lesacsieanlssvvd.Frts less accessible and less viv!d). For this

partly upon the validity of the Infer- reason the contents consolidation

ances drawn on the bask of assumed

relational equivalences. The mechanism tehns for he accura analytic tions for the accuracy of analytic

of analogy generalization often opertes aarenss.Interpretations utsde and estimates. operates outsido awareness.

If the results of the consolidation

mechanism match the realities of future

- 2-5 -

I
events to be Interpreted, the effects of the situation is such that novel eleconsolidation are advantageous; If not, ments of an experience are accurate

the effects are a disadvantage. Long portents of a future similar event, the

term static conditlons tend to Increase caricature effect may provide help In

the favorability of results ftom the con- interpretation when It arrives. If not,

solidation process, while eras of rapid the caricature effect can be an impediand significant change do not. ment to accurate Int(.rpretation, espeThe caricature effect Is a type of dia- cially If the interpretation must be

tortion that can result from the process based on Incomplete data.

of consolidation. Mental rehearsal of an The caricature effect Is a special "no

experience, rumination about an experi- new Information" version of the consoilence, and problem-solving thinking dation mechanism (the latter being about an experiencn can Increase the based on repeated Instances of a car- accessibility and the vividness of the taln pattern of external experience).

particular memory contents related to Since the caricature effect depends

that experience. Given no additional parVy on the experience of Initial

external information about a certain surprise followed by a situation favoring

experience, continued rehearsal, rumi- the Intensive use of unshared and

nation, and thought tends to eniphasize unexamined rehearsal and rumination,

and deemphasize various aspects of the conditions for predicting and conthe memory of that experience, trolling the caricature effect are at

The result of emphasis and deemphasla present only partially understood.

Is to "normalize" usual or expected 2.2.3 Memory Access Int6rference

gerate 

aspects of the memory and to exag- Memories for very similar experiences unuaws•l or unexpected aspects,

werath uusualneorunuxu tedas beng, can Interfere with one another during

with uiunreia!unutouahre'st bfhein memory access, slowing access and

Judod reatin i totheres ofthe making It less reliable and less accuoverall memory structure. That Is, the rate. tles rndiate in te agrmo

consl3tency or usualness between the modification cycle, such interdi rsome of the contents of the particular the ca tion ech eyc Inte

memory and the balance of memory con- memory Information available for the

tents may be exaggerated beyond their mmr nomto vial o h filtering stage of the next cycle.) The original consistency, and the disagree- two main Interference effects can be ment and Inconsistency In other parts termed the intervening similarities

of that particular memory may also be Interference effect and the similariexaggerated beyond their original con- ties saturation Interference effect.

dition.

2.2.3.1 Intervening Similarities Since the combined results of these Interference Effect

processes tend to produce a memory

that Is a caricature of the original con- The requirement to access a memory of

tents, the result has been termed the an earlier event may be either of two

caricature effect. This effect tends to types: requirement for recall or

feed on the elements of unusualness requirement for recognition.

and surprise and to overweigh these o Recall consists of, for example, elements as compared to the more responding to the question "What expected elements of experience. If

- 2-6 -
kinds of vehicles were present In 2.2.3.2 Similarities Saturation Effeut

the Imagery you viewed before Concentrated repetitions of highly similunch yesterday?" That Is, recall lar experiences cause proliferation of

conesits of accessing memoiy many highly similar memory contents in

contents of sderexerenebased for n a focus of attention on rltd related aesreas of memory.oy The.

of an earlier experience, ition Increased difficulty of comparing across receiving a name or description of and discriminating between many similar

the ofattenwithion whic thatr- memories causes reduced speed and

on oanoaccuracy In the compare/construct proencod ceasing of each new related experie Recognition consists of, for exam- ence. It also Interferes with rapid and

pie, responding to the question "is discriminable storage of the similar new

this frame of Imagery one of those experiences In memory.

that /ou viewed before lunch yes- The simllaritls sturatlon interference

terdayl" That Is, recognition con- effect can be lessened by providing

slits of accessing a memory for an aier situation within whicha chance to refocus attention on different memory contents

currently presented speclflu infer- for a period of time, thus allowing the

mation was experienced as the Interfering memories to become less focus of attention. vivid and less immediately accessible.

For both recall and recognition, highly When the recovery phase has been

similar experiences that have Inter- accomplished, capacity Is again availvened between the original experience able to learn new discriminations in that

and the current requirement for memory area of memory.

access tend to Interfere with the accessiteyd to terhre writl theor The Intervening similarities and simliariaccessibility of the original memoryof interference

Smaterial; the Intervening similrities te auaintpso nefeec

with memory performance are predict- affect creates Interference with effet crates intrfernce ith able cognitive mechanisms of Informamemory access for both recall and tioe cesng. Tey op to

recognition. Thus an analyst processing tien processing. They operate to

weaken and diffuse the Information

many messages of very similar contents

from the same fromthe domain, amedoman, under uderconsant constant available from memory by affecting the

conditions and over an extended period speed, reliability, and accuracy of of access to memory contents. As indi- of time, Is unlikely to be able to recall atedb th diagra ofte modithe specific messages processed durIng a certain period of time. Also,, the tion cycle, such weakening and diffu- Ing peiodof cetai ime Alo,.the sign can change the pattern of memory

analyst may not be able to recognize a sontcn chathe pter of mery specific message specficmessge presented resntedforre- for re- ciei contents o that h wili etcceo be used as filtering xel

criteria for the next cycle of experi- examination as having ever been pro- ence and memory modification. ceased.

When the Intervening similarities type To summarize: Memory contents sub- of memory access Interference must be stantially determine the Individual's

circumvented and can be anticipated, automatic responses-to, as well as aware experience of, new information.

recourse to external memory aids is the At the same time, the functioning of

only currently effective solution. memory and of perception is not under

-2-7-
the direct conscious control of the Indi- as a discriminable Item) or during the

vldual. Nevertheless, three potentlaily retrieval process.

predictable and controllable cogrltlve mechanisms operate In a cycle to 2.8 Structure of Cognitive Capacities

modify Infc,-matlon contents available The structure of basic cognitive capafrom memory. Since memory contents cities consists of Information storage

provide a large portion of the inform&- and routing facilities and their relationtion used In making many intelligence ships, while the elemental processing

analysis interpretations and estimates, dynamics consist of mechanisms for

the Information contents modification transforming Information as It flows

cycle Is an Important concept for sug- through the basic structure. From left

gesting ways to Improve Intelligence to right, the column headings of Figure

snalysls. 2-3 depict the main components of the

As part of this cycle Information Is fil- cognitive structure and their relation- tered, consolidated ano otherwise modl- ship to the analyst environment (the tere, cnsoldatd an oterwie m~l- extended work setting):

fled. Selective filtering may operate to

Ignore (filter out) aspects of information 1. Analytic Work Setting, including

that are disparate from stored Informs- External Memory

tion. Polarization, stemming from

expectations that have been er t ablished, may Increase the chance of 3. Analyst's Sensory Buffer

processing Information that would otherwise have been filtered, but It may

also lead to filtering of other information 8. Analyst's Internal Memory

not directly relftted lo confirmetfon or

denial of the expectancy. Generaliza- Each Is descrObed briefly oelow.

tion Is an Important mechanism which

operates during the filtering process. 2.3.1 Analytic Work Setting and ExterInformation which has passed from the nal Memory

senses through the filtering process Is Column I of the diagram In Figure 2-3

consolidated with preexisting Informs- depicts the work setting, which con- tion contents. The consolidatlen pro- dpcstewr etnwihcn tionconents Th conoilatic1 po- rains many types of information chancess provides a higher degree of neis mnformation m b ava

access to Information frequently called nels. Information may be available

upon. However, It also may lead to through media such as face-to-face or

various distortions of the Information. telephone conversations, printed

Memory access is also affected by the materials, computer-based displays,

structure of memory (the relationship of etc,

various kinds of Information in storage). 2.3.2 Senses

Attempts to recall (remember) Informa- Various senses (vision, hearing, touch,)

resulting from tion'frquenly unavoidable ncouterIntefernce confusion In column 2 are the means by which all

on reqenty ecouner ntefernce In columain 2frem the meansobyewhichtall

with similar Information. It should be Information from the environment enters the co;Inltlon of the analyst. Each

noted that these effects may be due to the sense copnitin type can of be thetanalyst. distinguished by EyIhits

distortion during the Initial storage pro- receptor organ, the type of experience

cess (the Information was never stored produced recep bthsn, by the type of the sense, the type of

- 2-8 -
1 2 3 4 6

-,- PROCESSORS

W 8 LONG

0 E WORKING- - - - TERM

- N COMPARE

K a SU

E 0 CONSTRUCT E

E a Y o

T E R

I F IN NI F MENN

ER HIGH LOW

ACCESS ACCESS

&ATTENTION ACTIONS

Figure 2-3. Cognitive Structures and Information Flows

physical energy to which the sense older Information after a certain

organ responds, and the Information- (small) accumulation In the buffer

carrying capacity of the sense. has been reached.

2.3.3 Sensory Buffer * There Is partial parallel storage

This capability accets (depicted inormtionfromthevery rw in column 3) for different recent auditory, senses: Traces touch, for or

senses and makes It available to the muscular sense Inputs outside

rest of the cognitive structure, while at awareness and attention can ben

the same time preserving the Informs- recaptured by shifting the current focus of attention from, for exam- tion for a short time after cessation or Ie, the visual to the auditory.

change in the sensory Input. The buffer p

Shas several characteristics: (The reader may be able to recapture unnoticed recent sounds.)

e It operates like a Mpush-throughl . Storage life Is very limited: From

stare: New information from the one-half lft to two ts or or three tee seconds From

senses replace,. or forces out

-2-9-
Is typical. behavior.

• It may be "commandeered"l Large

changes in stimulus Intensity for These three processors combine their

one type of stimulus cen "swamp" functions to produce:

the buffer capacity and momentarily eliminate the traces of other 1. External behavior within individual's aaees

types of stimuli from the buffer. awareness.

* Buffer contents are OUTSIDE 2. External behavior outside awaeene 

awareness.. 

Buffer Buffer contents contents O nor- nor-Eindividual's awareness.

mally enter awareness only after 3. Internal, unobservable behavior

they have been within individual's awareness. compared/constructed with con- 4. Internal, unobservable behavior

tents from memory (i.e., are made outside Individual's awareness.

meaningful) and often not even

then. Thus, the fccusing of

attention (the choice of which 2.3.5 Memory

sensory channel and material to attend to), Is often accomplished Coun rpent th oval attendeto)is oftaenes Tchmplishd characteristics of human memory as It Is

tside osingf awareness. That is usually understood. it Is critical to an

thenfoctsiong i awarensshd ah b understanding of human memory and of

attention Is accomplished both by contv pressto eaieht prouesses within and processes cognitive processe•t to realize that

proussides oawtnarnd cmemory and thought are highly strucoutside of awareness. tured. Without categories and con2.3.4 Thi Processor Structures cepts, an Individual would be unable to

deal with Incoming and stored data. A ColmnA4/ofNFigUTroesses wcntahn major aspect of the cognitive model,

COMPARE/CtJNSTRUCT processes which thnishetrcueommo.

operate to transform the information

owing from the sensory buffer to the e There Is a high degree of

memory, and to route It back to the pro- correspondence between the

cessts. Three processor structures categories of Information available

are shown. The In the work setting and the

1. Awareness and P/tmntlon Processor categories of Information in

gunirates awarrness &nd attention memory.

for Information that flows through It. * For each category of &nalyticConversely, all infortnation flowing relevant Information contained in

outside this processor Is outside storage memory, there Is also

the Individual's awareness and corresponding memory Information

attontlon, and thus Is processed by Indicathig the availability (or lack

the: of) supplementary Information of

2. Outslos Awareness Processor which the same category in the work

has a larger capacity than the setting.

awareness and attention processor. . rhe accessibility of contents of

3. Executive Actions Processor sup- memory varies with respect to

ports the production of external speed of access, reliability of

- 2-10-
access, and level of detail of and "ground"); for example, a

Information avc liable. The overall truck figvre In a camouflaged

dimension of accessibility Is dep- position background or a division

leted In the diagram by the scale figure In field maneuvers backshown at the bottom of column 5. ground. The figure and the ground

Highly accessible contents are cart be thought of as two gross

depicted as "closer" to the pro- "chunks" Into which the expericessor structures that will use ence Is divided. Figure and ground

them. chunks are often further divided

and expanded Into chunks at

* Memory contents vary with greater levels of detail (analogous respect to the amount of timegraelvlsodtil(noou to the effect of a zoom Ions in the

the•t have been In storage. visual realm).

Although storage times are on a

continuum, memory researchers e The storage structures of memory

have found It convenient to desig- consist of frames, each comoosed

nate recently stored and/or of a pattern of slots connected by

recently accessed and re-stored links. Each slot represents a cercontents as being in "working" or tain catqgory of experience

medium-term memory. Contents chunks aiready stored in memory

with long storage lives and less and Is organized hierarchically by

recent accesses and re-storage Increasing level of detail of the

are designated as In "long term" experience chunks stored In it.

memory. The examples In Figure 2-4 provide phrases describing Informa-

* The amount of Information poten- tion category chunks stored in

tally available from long termmemory frame slots, with progresmemory is much greater than In meoy mre dled ch atgr4

working memory. On the other l lower levels evels In in the the lists.

hand, as Indicated by the accessibility scale In the diagram, the * A link in a memory frame is a spaInformation In working memory Is clal kind of slot that represents a

more accessible than that in long certain type of relationship. For

term memory. example, possible relationships

linking two slots designated A and

8 would be:

The storage structure of memory Is uniform across Its working and long term A: Is part of B; succeeds B;

portions and across all categories of occurs with B; Implies B; Is a

nontents. The structure Is built up from subclass of B; is a functional

Shunks" of experience that are fitted equivalent of B; Is synonymous

Into the "slots" of memory "frame" with B; Implies NOT B; was

structures, as follows: acquired with B; Is associated

9 An experience Is organized as an with B; A and B are: parts of C; subclasses of C; etc.

Instance of a type of something,

occurring within an Instance of a

type of background setting (i.e.,

organized as instances of "fijure"

-2-11 -
VISION HEARING

Veh'-'k Moving vehicle -ounds

Trr .ad vehicle Tracked vehicle sounds

Light tank Particular motor sounds

Topside Particular track sounds

Turret Combined Tank sounds

Turret hatch Sounds of Specific Tank

Figure 2-4. Example: l.Herarchies of Information Storage Chunks

Thus, both slats vnd llnký; are arrows represents a link between a pal

categories of experlence chunks of figure-ln-ground slots. While all pos.

already stored In memory, the sible relationships between slots have

categories each having a toler- been depicted In the diagram example:

ance limit for accommodating alml- many potential relationships between

lar new chunks of experience, slots in actual memory frames may be

Ench now experience Is non-existent. The contents of slots In

represented as an "instance" of the example were selected somewhat

the category, with content varia- arbitrarily from a larger set of possibit'itions appropriately appended. ties, to help shed light on the concept tion apropiatly ppeded tis of elpr h shaed iih fonltho cocep

9 The contents of memory are out- of a memory frame, as follows:

side awareness until they are Time locale slot: stores a time

accessed by the awareness and trace organized In terms of

attention processor. Ordinarily, "before and after" relationships

when being accessed by the between chronological anchoring

awareness and attention proces- points for significant events, and

sor, the chunks at various levels being more fine-grained for recent

of detail In a memory slot are experience.

J'opacque" to one another; i.e., two Sensory slot: Often contains vague,

different levels of detail from general chunks for sensory

memory do not occupy awaeness experiences of vision, hearing,

simultaneously. touch, taste, etc.; this is espeFigure 2-6 diagrams an example of a cdally true In cases of more

memory frame. Each of the two-way abstract experlences involving

-2-12-
LOMN TIM2I FFC

SLOT / ""A IV

BEHAVI OR /CATEGORI!E S/ P R O D U C 7 11 O R r l O " S

PROCESS

PATTERN

SLOT

Figure 2-5. Example of Memory Frame Structure

LJ

Information communicated via UJngulIlc categories/relations

language or other symbols. On the slot: Contains chunks representing

other hand, the nemory of, for linguistic/semantic descriptive

example, a personally experi- categories and relations. Experienced motorcycle accident may ences originally conveyed via

Include vivid sensory chunks In language and other symbols, and that memory storAge slot. experiences that the Individual

Valuative/af fective s~t.. Contains ha, talked or written about, are

chunks representing value conno- more likely to have vivid material

tatlons such as goodness or bad- readily accessible in this slot.

ness, .st.ength or weakness, and Process pattern slo!: Contains

dynamic or static, as well as emo- chunks representing "process

tions such as affection, anger, or phenomena" in which the particufear. lar linked Instance of experience Is understood es one step or

stage of a larger, time-distributed

- 2-13 -
process not directly experienced Memory may be conveniently divided

In the situation. The chunks In Into a "working" memory, which stores

process pattern slots are a main current Information for short durations,

source of expectations, and "long-term" memory., Information in

Behavior production alott often both parts of memory is stored in patcontains little or no material. In terns caiWhd frames, which consist of

Instances where a type of experi- slots, nodes, or chunks connected by

ence demiands external behavior, links. The Information In slots Is

a chunk residing In this slot pro- arr.nged hierarchically by level of

vides the outlines of "pians" for detail and specificity. The Information in

producing the required behavior, links represents types of relationships that hold between the Information con- 1 tained In the slots. A frame may

Memory frames are the basic building comprise a slot In a larger, more incorblocks for higher-ordei storage struc- porative frame, thus allowing for very

tures of memory: complex memory structureo to be

a A frame may operate as a slot in developed.

another frame. 2-4 Elemental Dynamic Processes

* Superframes (systems of frames) A brain trace representing an experidevelop, which systematize the once chunk exists In the form of a

storage of experience In terms of neural code; colors and sounds themconsistencies based on similarities selves do not exist in the brain but arc

between frames as well as other represented there neurochemically.

types of relationships between When stored in memory, the information

them. represented by such a code Is dormant.

To summarize: Raw Information from the When a trace representing a chunk in

memory Is activated and the information

sense organs flows through the senbcr, represented by the trace is usd in

buffer where It is retained only long precessing, the action Is referred to as

enouah to be accepted by the drodesig decoding the memor tre. Con- the memory trace. 

COMPARE/CONSTRUCT processes, Initial versely, when an Instance of an experlphases of whlch operate outside awareness. These processes rapidly enue chunk Is stored in memory In the

form of Inactive brain traces the action

and automatically COMPARE the inf or- and utoatiall COPAR th Iner- Is referred to ass encoding the expet.-

mation Input with patterns of information 

r already stored in memory, dad CON- ence. Matching is comparing trace

STRUCT a meaning (a response) from a codes for similarity. A match Is an

i

TomTnatio m eaninpy Identified similarity between codes. combination of the Input and memory

Information. The Initial construction of The basic compare/construt process

meaning takes place outside awareness described earlier (see Figure 2-3) Is

within tenths of a second. The meaning made up of more elemental dynamIc

may then be used to elicit actions, it processes consisting of a behavioral

may obtrude Into awareness and drive sequence of matching, decoding,

thought processes, it may remain out- matching, and encoding steps (MDME

side awareness and result in automatic for Match Decode Match Encode). The

adjustive reactions, or any combination MDME processes operate on the inforof these. mation flowing from the sensory buffer

-2-14-
to the memory and back to the proces- actions processor may operate in

sor structures. In brief, in the MDME conjunction with the awareness

sequence, sensory Information in the and attention processor to produce

form of neural Impulses is: aware, deliberate forms of external

1. matched grossly against memory behavior. More commonly, however,

grossy aginstthe executive actions processor

Information. The memory Informa- te outide awarenesso tionactvatd a grssl siila Isoperates outside awareness to

tion activated as grc-ssly similar Is produce automatic external

then behavior In response to DMRs.

2. decoued to a depth sufficient to 7. Under special conditions, raw inforensure the degree of secondary matindfr the sensory buferm

match necessary in the particular momtion from the sensory buffer may

situation. This compare/construct awaeness bore ing processe

process produces a new configur- awareness before being processed

Ing or "chunking" which of isprocesses. information, procse As Asmareslt a result, the there Isis

momentarily no DMR, and the raw

3. encoded in the form of new pas- sensory Information is therefore

sive brain traces. experienced cs meaninglest-.

4. The newly constructed chunk of To summarize -the MDME processes;

Information also flows to other Several points for application to discusparts of the cognitive structure In sions in the chapter following can be

the form of a Decoded Memory drawn:

Return (DMR). The DMA may flow

to the awareness and attention * The awareness/attention procesprocessor where It may program sor has a limited capacity comexternal behavior within awareness pared to MDME processes operatand/o• match and decode other Ing outside awareness.

memory contents, Including aware- . All Information In normal awareness

ness of "no significant change." has been filtered and filled in from

The awareness processor has a memory contents by processes

limited Information processing capa- usually outside awareness.

city, and can focus close attention * Sensory data from the external

on only one level of detail of an worldaha nom une fel expeiene ata tme.world has no meaning unless filexperience at a time. tered and filled in from memory

6. In thomght and problem solving, the contents by procosses operating

OMR often originates in cognitive Initially outside the individual's

activities stimulated by memory awareness.

contents rather than by Information F

from the sensory buffer. * Factors that form and control sen- sory perceptions and attention are

6. The DMR may also flow to the exe- mostly outside the individual's

cutive actions processor, where it control. This is also true of

operates, In coordination with other remembering and thinking; indivibehavioral plans Information from duals cannot force their thought to

memory, to program patterns of contain exac+iy the desired conexternal behavior. The executive tents.

- 2-16-
To summarize the cognitive model:

Memory contents substantially determine' the IndMduar's automatic

responses to, as well as aware experionce of, new information. At the same

time, the functioning of memory and of

perception is not under the direct conscious control of the individual.

Nevertheless, three potentially predictable and controllable cognitive mechanisms operate in a cycle to modify information contents available from memory.

Since memory contents provide a large

portion of the Information used in making

many intelligence analysis interpretatIons and estimais, the Information

contents modIficatkin cycle is an important concept for suggesting ways to

improve Intelligence analysis.

Memory contents are stored hierarchically by level of detail, with gross

features and outlines of information at

shallower, more accessible levels of

storage, and fine details at deeper levels. A central compare/construct

mechanism matches Incoming raw sensory Inputs to similar memory contents

and actively constructs a composite

return which drives behavior and

experience. The compare/construct

mechanism also -matches inputs from

one part of memory with those from

another, thus allowing thought and problem solving without external stimuli.

The basic memory storage frame structure composed of slots and links allows

for very flexible, complex storage

structures comprising super-frames and.

memory systems. The strategies and

Judgmental criteria used by the action

executive processor and the awareness and attention processor are themselves composed of contents from complex memory structures. are themselves composed of contents from complex memory structures. - 2-18- 

]
3. LITERATURE SOURCES organs.

6.1 Introduction * Sensations come not from a single

The odelpreente In hereceingreceptor but from a group of recep- The ode prsened n te peceingtors; comprising a unit triggered by a

chapter Is a simplified framework for Pattern of stimuli.

Integrating a number of diverse findings

and theories from cognitive psychology. . A sensation rests not only upon the

The cognitive model and Its parts ability to distinguish between

represeht metaphors for portraying Instances of stimulat~ion, but also on

understandable outlines for some very the ability to extract Invariants from

complex processes, about which much the sensory Inputs.

Information and varying shades of opin- *Teeaeknso wrns o

ion can be found in the current psycho-whcnosseipsinsanb

logical literature. The following pages dhisveduch aosnemrs siome posture

present selected examples of literaturedicvrsuhasoeptrl

sources supporting, amplifying, and and movement cues. I'refining the concepts presented in the e There are also cross-mode sensacognitive model. tions, such as cutaneous Impressions

3.2 trucurelocalized ogniive on the face of the blind

3.2 trucurewhich ogni~ve utilize auditory Information In

3.2. 1 Trhe Senses the form of the echo-latencies of

As presented In the description of the foses

cognitive model, the various senses can o Far from being passive channels,

be distinguished by the type of experi- sensory activities are integrated

ences they produce, by the types of 'Into active perceptual systems

physical energy to which they respond, involving continuous adjustment of

and by their Information carrying capa- sense organs to extract infteemation

city. Although the details of functioning from stimulation. '

Of specific senses, of sensation, and of I h iga fcgiiesrcue

sense perception are largely tangential difrainfosnFgue2,

to prpoes te min o a ogniive various senses are depicted as flowing model being developed for Intelligence Inamie"fsonntthsnor

analsis thepreentaccont ill buffer. This Is meant to reflect the fact

amend and augment several points ht nitlieceaayi ciiis

about sense reception viewed In some- dhata for Interprgetaatyion areivoften,

whatmor tems.presented tehnic to cognition simultaneously

In a paper reviewing and commenting on through more than one sense (e.g.,

a century of research on sense percep- vision, audition, touch). Second, It

tion, Gibson (Gibson, J. J. 1979) sum- reflects findings that Inputs from difmarizes a current view: ferent senses are Integrated In the

a Difernt ypsof ensry rcepors brain at the level of the association

aDifren espeially sensoryve tocertain cortex, rather than the different sense

are speiall sesitie t cerain data being relegated solely to centers kinds of stimulus energy, but can responsible for processing each

also be triggered by other types of separate type of sensory Input. This

energy from which they are partly hierarchical pattern of neu'ral

protected by tbe anatomy of sense
Integration provides the basis and peripheral level. The below-awareness

rationale for successful experiments on processes Involved In scanning and

visual prostheses for the blind, utilizing activating visual memories typically

sensory substitution In which the brain operate In the range of 100 to 200 mrlconverts patterns of touch Impulses liseconds. The Iconic Image resulting

Into quasi-visual experiences (Restak, from the visual reception Input persists

1979, pp 364-78). (remains activated centrally) only until

sufficient Information has been The concepts gleaned from Gibson and extracted from it to support recognition

from Restak together provide support and Interpretation (an adequate match

for three refinements to the Ideas In the MDME procesu), then the Iconic

sketched In the cognitive model. The Nmemory display" ceases.

first is that sense-based experiences,

as they occur naturally, are most often Other evidence for the central nature

combinations of different types of of Iconic Image persistence comes from

simultaneous sensory Inputs. A second the work of Meyer and Maguire (1977).

is that the concept of a pure "sensa- They used visual gratings with different

tion" Is a metaphor. It Is useful as a spatial frequencies, presented in an

contrast to help define, by negation, oscillating on-off pattern with a conthe complexities of the memory- stant 50 msec on period and a variable

mediated experiences resulting from off period adjusted by the subject to

even the purest, most experimenta!ly achieve an appearance of continuous

Isolated stimuli. A third Is that the con- presence. When spatial frequency

cept of "raw sensory data" as an undif- (density) of the gratings was

ferentiated flow from a "passive" chan- increased, Iconic persistence Increased

nel does not adequately reflect the from 300 to 450 msec, Indicating that

active, orienting aspects of sensorj the appearance of continuous presence

reception, was attributable to more central brain

proceases rather than to Image per- 3.2.2 The Sensory Buffer sistence at the retinal level.

The sensory buffer Is not a peripheral Studies of echoic memory (very short

but a central nervous system function tuditor ehcemory ave ident

representing widely distributed brain t.erm auditory neemory) have Identified

reprvitiesetn widel disctributedsbra phenomena that show a good fit with activities. The concept of a sensory the "push through store" metaphor of

buffer *s presented In the cognitive

summarize the sensory buffer. In the "cocktail model Is a metaphor used to smaie party" phenomenon, auditory attention short-term parallel-processing and Is switched from an attended to a prestimulus persistence effects obtained viously is un unattended attended s c w fr source when, for

In studies on visual and auditory recep- example, one's name Is mentioned. This

tion. A conclusion frow an Investigation e nomenon shows th o re rm

of visual Iconic memory by Dl Lollo phenomenon shows that short-term

(1977) was that the persistence of an parallel storage and processing of audeIconic Image (a visual Imagec perp.R3ng tory stimuli can take place outside of

cter iaes(atio fstimual) Ige phe rs!uttn awareness and the focus of attention.

of after an cessation ongoing feature of stimuli) extraction Is the ra..uit pro- The partial parallel processing capabilicess at higher brain processing levels, ties of the sensory buffer are apparent

rather than the result of a process of In the effects produced by experimenImage decay at the retinal or next most tally induced Interference stimuli.

- 8-2 -
r"w

Typical Investigations of parallel pro- Dist( icting stimuli, however, do not

cesving phenomena use Interfering Invariably result in Interference

stimuli that produce divided attention, effects; they can create facilitative

Triesman (1960) showed that an atten- ones alac. Dallas and Merikle (1976)

tional set to listen to one ear does not propose that Interference is caused by

completely eliminate the processing of the process of switching to the difinterference inputs from the other. The ferent meaning contexts (in memory)

Incomplete (Imperect) selective atten- that are required by some distraction

tion process typically operates outside stimuli. On the other hand, if distract;on

awareness. It allows the distraction words are highly related and congruent

stimuli to attract some attention, thus with the primary channel words, (e.g.,

reducing the amount of attention avail- strongly related semantically) ,oiey may

able to the primary channel and causing actually speed up recognition processInterference with the main attentional Ing. Also, If primary channel words

task. The parallel storage (per- fqdmit of alternative meaning interpretasistence) and parallel processing tions, presentation of distrar' in words

aspects of such auditory Information related to the various meani . alternereception operate at the levels of brain tives te-ds to blas interpretations of

functioning that Involve long-term primary words in the directions of the

memory. distraction meanings.

In the Stroop effect, presenting the Posner and Warren (1972, pp26-27)

word (green) printed In red Ink, for summarize an extensive review of stuexample, causes a lengthening of the dies of sensory reception and meaning

reaction times normally found for ver- by a diagram. They depict the relation

balizing visually presented words. between access, to (or stimulation of)

Keele (1972) jhowed that the Stroop meaning contexts stored in memory, and

type of Interference occurs at vocall- conscious (aware) processing. The

zation time, being an interference diagram portrays consciousness (aware

between the decoding relations for the sense-related experience) as the

word (character string) memory storage result of an Interaction between senpattern and the color stimulus memory sory Inputs and long term memory constorage pattern. In effect, the unex- tents, and emphasizes the importance

pected conflicting color stimulus of the contents of long-term memory for

Impinges on an unattended channel, guiding attention, perception and recogcreating a partial diversion (a divided nition. That processes Interfering with

attention) which Interferes with (but recognition Involve long-term memory Is

does not stop) the processing of words also suggested by the results obtained

on the attended channel. Keele points by Dallas and Merikle. They found that

out that the processing required to larger response lags were caus-d by

establish the relationship between a attending to a second channel when the

presented word and Its "name" (code) subject believes a stimulus Is occurring

stored In memory Is automatic, In the there, but In fact does not receive one.

sense that no conscious processing Is In this case, a searched-for alternative

needed to connect the visual Input with meaning context in memory falls to be

the ultimate triggering of corresponding activated (finding one would reduce the

Information stored in memory. processing load of scanning to find

one), and the attempt to establish an

-3-8-3
anticipated alternative context per- voice, the female voice, or their own

Sslots. voice. A recognition test was then run,

SThe subtle Interplay between aware.- with the word lists being spoken by the "Thesutirecter betwen a waren male or the female speaker. Recogniess, directed attention and Inattention, to a etrweetets oc and'tl• org nz d ote t wt l wh h tlon w as better w here the test voice

an e organized context within which

an item memory resides Is illustrated matched the voice rehearsed mentally

In results ob ed by Forelt (1976). The by the subject.

tendency to bes emember the last Numerous studies of Iconic and echoic

stimulus Item in a pr nted string of memory provide findings similar to the

stimuli (the recency e ) can be examples cited above. A sample of

suppressed by presentatlorV--Qf a these are listed In the bibliography. A

"suffix"-- a further stimulus Item thmt conclusion from such studies is that, In

the subject Is Instructed not to attempt "the same sense that the convenient

to remember. Rowe and Rowe (1976) epncepts of "sensation" and "raw

show that the suffix suppression effect sense data" are metaphors with limited

obtained by Forelt operates only If the explanatory power, so also the concept suffix Is of the same type as the other of "sensory buffer", although succinct,

stimulus items on the list, (i.e., is a is not strictly accurate. The processing

word, a letter, a digit, a tone, etc., sites of "sensory buffer" phenomena

which Involves the same area of are not, as suggwsted by the cognitive

memory as the other stimuli.) Baddeley model diagram, ai-tually located at pernand H~tch (1977) present convincing pheral points in sense reception chan- J

evidence that time Is less important for nels. Rather, they are manifestations of

supporting the recency effect than Is widely distributed brain activities that

the number of similar Intervening events ar3 Involved in the initial combining of

that have occurred since the "last" sensory Inputs with memory contents.

Item. 3.2.3 Cognitive Processors

The sensory qualities of stored memory The cognitive model depicts an awareInformation may correspond closely to

the original experience upon which the ness and attention processor, an exe- cutive actions processor, and an outmemory Is based. Acts of Imagination side awareness processor, all pool-

(Internally stimulated MDME processes)

can manipulate and "transfer" such tioned on the Information flow paths

quaitesfrm oe emrystrctreto connecting the sensory components o)f

qualities from one memory structure tothe Internal memory.

another. A high correspondence In such

sensory qualities between memory The "processors" metaphor has severil

material and new sense reception Identifiable origins. Of least weight 's

Inputs can facilitate the speed of Input the analogy to computer-like central

processing. These three points are processing units. The concept of ai

neatly demonstrated in results obtained executive actions processor takes it.

by Gelselman and Glenny (1977). Sub- main outlines from the Idea of plans as

Jects were familiarized with the voices regulating behavior sequences, as

of a male and a female speaker. Word offered by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram pairs were presented visually with (1960), and the Idea of behavior pro,-

instructions to the subjects to say the duction systems presented by Neweil

words to themselves, either in the male 01973) and Anderson (1976). The

-3-4-

................... '
concepts of an awareness and atten- their test elements with "state" eletion processor and an outside aware- ments, thus eliminating decisions. He

neo" processor take their main Impetvs also differs with them in assigning a

from models of recognition behavior In "ballistic" type of control to many highly

laboratory settings, and from a neodis- practiced acts rather than utilizing their

soclation theory presented In a book feedback type of control.

(Hilgard 1977) summarizing several That the brain's cerebellum is a main

decades of research on dissociation, site for the processing that coordinates

Concepts of Interconnected specialized sequential postural movements has long

processors in the brain, each function- been known. That it Is also Intimately

Ing mainly within the confines of distinct Involved with psycho-social and emolevels and areas of brain anatomy tional development and functioning has

(cerebellum, reticular formation, become clear recently (Restak, 1979, thalamus, R-complex, limbic and neo- chptr 8). The phenomena of apathy, cortical systems, left and right heml- spheres, pre-frontal lobsI, etc.) are innervation, the breakdown of spherest pyre-frotal los, tc.hapter behavioral sequences, and the regula- presented by Restak (1979, Chapters tion of volitional control over behavior

4,6, and 10). all appear to dependent on mediational

In discussing behavioral plans and processing accomplished by the cerebehavior production systems, Wickel- bellum. This is not, however, to suggest

gren (1979, chptr 12) discusses the a highly focused brain "site" for an

concepts originated by Miller, Galanter, "executive acti ,s processor", espeand Pribram, by Newell, and by Ander- clally In view of the major contributions

son. His summary points out that the to extended planning and foresight promost basic behavioral plans have as vided by the pre-frontal lobes (Restak,

constituents a partially ordered set of pp 28-30).

elementary actions and their consequences, such as attending to particu- Support for the concept of ai awarelar Visual locations, moving limbs, and neos and attention processor per se

recalling 

recisuallngasociations. associations. Aovg A lmbehav l has come from several sources. Posner behavioral an W ren( 9 2 p 34 i t od c th

plan must be general enough to handle Idea of a

the variable consequences of its

actions. Plans are stored In long-term "single iimited-capacity central promemory. The encoding of the order of ceasing system that Integrates signals

actions and their possible conse- from all modalities. When this system Is

quences Is critical to many plans, while occupied by any signal, Its capacity Is

the order of components Is usually less reduced for dealing with any other sigImportant for other kinds of memory nal or mental operation that requires its

contents. Wickelgren strives to elim- use.--For our purposes the use of this

Inate the homunculus--the hypothetical system becomes the central definition

miniature decision maker In the head, of a "conscious process" and its nonwhom he believes Is implied by the use defines what is meant by

"test" elements in the behavioral plan "automatic".*

flow-charts formulated by Miller, Atkinson and Joula (1973) presented a

Salanter, and Pribram. He replaces the model that distinguishes two processes

context-free code of the latter with a

context-sensitive code, and replaces very like those of the

- 3-5 -
automatic/conscious distinction. in the physical stimulus magnitudes In the

rapid, error-prone first stage process- same paradigm (Woods, Hillyard, CourIng of this model, the sense reception chesne, and Galambos 1980).

Input Is matched against contents In However, when the surprise Is of the

long-term memory to establish recogni- kind evoking deeper more involved

tion strengths for the Input In relation to semantic processing, asmon reading the

various memory areas. In the second sentence: "I take my coffee with cream

stage, the selected highest-strength and ", a cyrcterith 're0m

memory area Is searched by a limited and dogp, a characteristic "N 400" capacity central processor, wave develops, with a negative spike peaking about 400 msec after the

Part of the theoretical formulations of a surprise (Kutas and Hillyard 1980).

number of authors of the early 70's is While these results await a complete

the Idea that, as compared to the cons- explanation, the 100 msec average

cious processor, the automatic (outside difference coupled with the change of

awareness) processor has a very large electrical sign for the two kinds of

processing capacity (including the surprises appear to be reliable indexes

parallel processing capabilities cited to markedly different responses for

earlier). Bower (1970) and Koler (1970) orienting processes elicited by the

observe, for example, that. skilled qualitatively different situations. The

readers are unaware of all encoding cognitive model for Intelligence analysis

short of the final meanings of textual depicts the focusing of attention as

passage3 being read rapidly (a very under the control of processes both

high rate of Information processing). At within and outside awareness. MDME

the same time, more conscious, pain- processes (interpretations) take place

staking processing of the text takes both outside and within awareness, and

place for difficult or confusing pas- the act of focusing attention may be

sages. viewed as a behavior component of a

During sense reception, the switch from larger, more encompassing interpretive

unaware to aware processor often pcess

takes place In fractions of a second. A That awareness Itself may be

surprise can cause such a shift. Meas- comprised mainly of a high-level, genurements of cortical potentials evoked eralized form of Interpretive behavior Is

while anticipating, for example, soft suggested by several lines of evidence.

versus loud clicks shows a characteris- The contents and general qualities of

tic uP 300" positive response wave to awareness (mental imagery) show an

a false prediction or anticipation (a ordeiy progression In development In

surprise), the wave peaking at approxi- the child, as observed by many investimately 300 msec after the missed click Cators, most notably Olaget. Several

(Restak 1979, pp267). Furthermore, the lines of evidence that such changes In

P300 event-related potential (ERP) consciousness develop In tandem with

appears to be generated at the same the brain's growing capacity to support

high rates as "endogenous" decision Increasingly complex Inte, pretations

processes operating In a signal- (MDME processes) are reported by

detection experimental paradigm. This Restak (1979 chptr 12). Processing

Is In distinction to "exogenous" ERPs capacity Is a joint product of develop-

(100-180 msec) that covary with the Ing brain "readinesses" and the

-38-0 -
experiential laying down of encoding memory. Several different organized

patterni that are highly efficient for systems of belief, Information, emotions,

processing certain ranges of sense and subtle qualitative differences in

reception inputs. In the same vein, experience may be part of the memory

cogent arguments have recently been repertoire of an individual. Often such

made that the Spearman general factor systems may be somewhat Incompati-

(G) common to diverse measures of ble, but are able to coexist within the

intelligence may represent a general loose purview of a more encompassing

capacity for attention and awareness, but inconsistent organization within

with larger capacities able to support memory (e.g. views on civil rights

the ready processing of interpretations applied to self versus to societal ele-

(MDME processes) of greater complex- merits perceived as undesirable).

Ity, no matter what their specific Under conditions of forced confrontation

natures might be (Hunt, 1979, p. 31). and conflict between suct, incompatible

All this suggests that awareness and personal belief systems, s active conattention may be constituted of adJunc- cep tual "barrier" may be interposed

tive components that are temporarily between them to relieve the apparent

attachable to outside-awareness sys- conflict. Such barrier mechanisms (part

tems of Interpretive responses (MDME of memory organization) may be Invoked

processes). Such conscious com- in varying degrees by an individual, and

ponents would be heavily supported by without necessarily involving awarethe contents of memory, and when ness. The barrier mechanism Is, for

activated might operate as "overlays" many persons, also readily accessible

of meaning appended to the MDME from the "outside" by patterns of

processes operating outside aware- suggestion. In fact, an orchestratedness. That such conscious overlays from-the-outside combination of sugfrom memory also function in their own gested barriers and experiential conright, Independently of sensory recep- tents, fabricated from the individual's

tion, Is indicated by the powerful and own memory resources, can result in

convincing patterns of apparent sen- bizarre experiences for the individual.

sory experiences that can occur in the The above concepts are supported by

absence of corresponding outside the re onces of work on dt the results of decades of work on disstimuli. This is demonstrated by sociation that is reviewed and reported dreams, by hallucinations Induced by In Hilgard's book (1977). Hiigard points

Svarious means, and by the reilable and out that dissociation is an everyday

reproducible results of hypnotic pro- psychological mechanism that occurs in cedures.

a variety of forms under many condiAwareness and attention have been tions. Dissociation Is the active splitstudied phenomenologically, i.e., from ting of the experienced unity of consthe point of view of descriptions of the ciousness Into Independent, cocontents and quality of experience, existent, apparently non-communicating

Viewed In this light, apparent Individual mental organizations or entities. Partial

differences in subtle qualitative dissociation occurs In the parallel proaspects of awareness and attention cessing Involved in divided attention. It

are most likely attributable to general- occurs In "non-conscious perception",

Ized structures of unique meanings from in Induced-state-dependent learning, j - 3-7 -

~:
and in sleep-like states. your eyes wish to close, your eyee

The mechanism of dissociation acts in are closing; you wish to pay attenthe manner of an active barrier main- tion to my voice, you are paying

talned between separated systems of attention to my voice, you hear only

thought and experience within the ndl- and become hypnotized, you are

vidual. Clinical syndromes involving becomn hypnotized, you are

apparent massive and persistent dlssocloiston ttdeeply Includo: the Isolation of hypnotized; etc.)

memories from aware experience (as In The result of these procedures is an

amnesia); the blocking of current sense apparent growth and reinforcement in

reception from awareness (as In the hypnotic subject of a concept of 

I

hysterical anaesthesia, hysterical deaf- progressively narrowing and focusing

ness, and 'hysterical blindness); the the attention on the voice of the hyp1

protection 

- memory-synthesized notist. This concept of "sensory narpseudo-sense experiences and con- rowing" Is reinforced and experientially

cepts from contradictory sense recep- validated by the accompanying relaxation Inputs (as In waking hallucinations tion, stilled movement, and attenuation

and delusions); and, the systematized of the visual channel 4.hrough eye fixause of such mechanisms (as in the tion on a target. As the condition of 

]

development of "multiple personalities" hypnosis progresses, the attention and

exhibited by an Individual). consciousness-dividing dissociative

mechanism that Is ordinarily under the

During decades of investigations, individual's conscious and/or automatic laboratory versions of each of the control becomos, Instead, responsive to above types of naturally occurring mas- sive dissociation have been produced tecnet ftehgl oue n

"comparatively amplified" reception by the procedures of hypnosis. Hyp- channel carrying tho hypnotist's

nosis can often be Induced in a willing suggestions.

participant by a sequence of:

1. Atenatin mot of the At slon this of stage the the subject's creation and patterns suppres-of

participant's channels of stimulation ( tf oexperience become more or less corn- (dim light, visual fixation object, pletely under the control of the hyp- silence or a constant low back- Sground buzz, relaxation and restric- notic suggestion stream. Under this

round buzzo , relaxtiocondition, the dissociative mechanism

can, for example:

; 2. "Over-filling" rmaiing comaraivey the participant's ati e Bar ordinarily Intolerable pain from

remaining comparatively activethsbjcsexrin,

verbal-auditory channel with a low

but distinct and reasonably con- * Protect a suggested Illusion that 

a

tinuous line of speech, touch is a hot iron froth zontradictory

3. On this channel, using "self-fulfilling sense reception Information,

prophesy cycles" of contents in * Bar hearing, vision, touch, or muscle

the form of suggestions (please sense reception inputs from awarerelax, you want to relax, you are ness,

now very relaxed; your eyes are

tired of fixing on the shiny spot,- 3-8 

-
a Block the contents of memory from concepts:

experience. 1. Duration of memory retention, with

For purposes of the present discussion, working and long-term memory as

such hypnotic and dissociation convenient names for overlapping

phenomena provide emphasis for the regions on a continuum of retention

following points: of memory contents.

"• The concept of separate processors 2. Memory frame, with the slots and

for cognitive processing within and links of the frame providing a metaoutside awareness Is a reasonable, phor for the observed association

though somewhat loose, metaphor of various types of memory confor summarizing the variably corn- tents into cohesive units.

plete dissociative compartmenting

and parallel operations that occur In 3. Memory hierarchy, with degree of

much normal cognitive processing, Information detail being the organiz- and whichl are highlighted In extreme Ing principle for "chunking" a given

aersiond whic highlightedissocitn eInstance of a pattern of a specific versions by hypnotic dissociationtyeoinrminitoevalif phenomena. type of Information Into several different hierarchically arranged lev-

"* The processors themselves consist els of stored detail.

of programmed sequences of MDME

elemental processes controlled Int- 32.4.1 Working memory

rinsically by the contents of memory. Working memory is typified by the type

of memory capacities used In storing * The main or definitive common con- tent a7108 of he exarlw-.e of Information from a currently unfolding real-time scene which may or may not

awareness ard attention are themselves highly organized products Involve problem-solving and actions on

from memory, that can be attached the part of the individual. Durations of

and detached from the contents of information retention may vary In worksense-reception channels. ing memory from about two to about fifteen seconds. Unfolding real-time

• Sensations (in line with Gibson's scenes can vary between the extremes

conclusions cited earlier) are active of a jumble of disconnected, arbitrarycentral constructions. Sense- appearing events to a fixed, hi jhly fainreception Is not passive, but rather illar, rituat'v organized tableau. Working

a dynamically controlled orienting memory is a metaphor for a range of

and seeking activity, retention processes that show varied degrees of organization and durations

* The strategies, tactics, and missing of retention.

Ingredients used In the cognitive

processing of sense reception Inputs Atkinson and Shiffrln (1971) describe a

are overwhelming determined by the rehearsal buffer which provides part of

organization and contents of the memory facilities used by a limited

memory. capacity conscious processor in per3.2.4 Mencry forming programmed1 sequences of executive actions. ShiffrIn and Schneider The memory' structure depicted in the (1977) re-conceived the rehesirsal

cognitive model is based on three buffer as an activated subset of long-

- 3-9 -

& L Ii.

- - - - - .. -..... . . . .... -- • . i
'1

term memory. Cralk (1979) criticizes presented are from a jingle semantic

Shlffrin and Schneider's concept of the category, but that memot,' for presenoperation of the rehearsal buffer, that tation order of the Items Is better for

at Input all features of incoming stimuli mixed-category than for singleare analyzed and appear as active ele- category lists. Whether %one form of

ments In long term memory. In the encoding interferes with the other, one

Shlffrin-Schnelder view, most activated serves as a functional substitute for

elements drop out Immediately because the "Need to encode" the other, or the

they are not attended to after Initial encoding alternative Involving least

activation. Cralk, however, believes effort Is used, Is not clear. The idea

that for reasons of processing economy that the rehearsal buffer (working

and biological efficiency only a fraction memory) can provide parallel processing

of the many possible combinations of access for several distinct forms of

Interpret'tions of the Input become specialized attention is suggested by

"acttvated". (This is the view adopted results obtained by Roediger, Knight,

for the MD sequence of the MDME ele- and Kantowltz (1977) and Paterson, mental process presented In the cognl- Rawlings, and Cohen (1977). The

tive model.) former found no differences in the

retention of five words while performing A widely held concept for the operation easy difficult perceptual-motor

of working memory (short-term memory,

rehearsal buffer) is that actlvated

^(Matched/Decoded) elements of sense rehearsal in visual-spatial memory could

reception Inputs remain In their initial proceed concurrently with verbal

foim until they can be encompassed rehearsal. Thus several different sys-

(reencoded) as parts of established tems co-exist of "active concurrently tags" In may memory, be able withto

meanings (memory organizations) Collins and Loftus (1975). There are many the total available processing capacity

being flexibly split (dissociated), and varieties of Initial forms; t. r example; a railaloae rapidly allocated acrdn according tovy to very

list of recognized letters, a list of non- complex dynamic behavior programs.

sense syllables, 'the string of words

making up a not-understood sentence, Estes (1980) shows that the time

an Instantly understood cent-ice, a required for the mental operation of

strange animal or machine, a recognized retrieving from long-term memory a

type of animal, the face of an intimate newly learned association between two

friend, a view of one's house, etc. The characters Is about 200 msec, and from

mental act of rehearsal allows such inl- short-term memory about 25 masc. He

tial forms to be refreshed or reac- provides evidence about the organiza- tivated as they decay, to be ro- tlon of short-term memory from experilencoded as established meanings, or ments In which subjects attempted to

both, recall characters from a previously

Encoding can Include categorizing the presented string In the order of their

presented Items, encoding their order of presentation, and in addition diagramed

the positions of the characters. The presentation, or combinations of characters appear to be retained In

categorization and order encoding. shr-em short-term memory eoyntasdcee not as discrete

Murdock (1976) found that memory for items in fixed positional slots, but

Items on a list is Improved If all Items rather as "uncertainty distributions" j -8-10 -

LJ I, - .'.:,."i. ........•
that show (via positioning errors) some processor from that originally

overlap Immediately after presentation, presented, thu= softening somewhat

and Increasing overlap as a fun'tion of the distinctions between the aware and

time between presentation and recall unaware proces3ors. It also suggests

trial. Estes postulates that the preci- that part of the apparently greater sion of Information about an event such capacity of the automatic proceusor

as sense-reception of a character In may be due to the shallower (grosser)

slowly lost over time. He proposes that level of encoding at which it characterthe capacity of human short-tern Istically (though not necessarily)

memory only appears to be small when operates In scanning and activating

It Is measured In terms of discrete (matching) memory contents. Another

Items, such as letters or words. In con- part of the greater apparent capacity tract, he characterizes the general of the automatic processor may accrue

nature of human memory: because It Is not required to support

-- the human memory seams strongly to conscious experience overlays from

prefer an analog mode in which Infor- memory, which may Impose a variably

mation of varying degrees of precision taxing load on within-awareness proor levels of specification concerning ceasing.

at*tributes of events are stored with 3.2.4.2 Long-Term Memory

r yhigh redundancy, so that t The concept of unitary memory patterns

19M artil leat reentin rtenionof prtil ofInformation nfomaton such as formats, schemas, or frames

about an experience Is likely even It the ithe (as theesgatdi thyaedsgaedI the h!rsnpresent system Is grossly disturbed, as by

disease or injury.--It seems to be not at cognitive model) has s hiscory going

back at least to the "schemas" of

all like a storeroom, a library, or a com- Brtlet (1932). Common to these conSof puter nfomatin core memory, ae stred• a place where ket Itemse util captions have been two components of

of Information are stored and kept until strgthtmkupniay eoy

' a wanted, omplx, but rather ynamc presents sytemthatany a picture uf pttrn patterns. Te The firt first has has be been variouy variously

a compiex, dynamic sy-stem that any naenosltfaurrchk d

given time can be maode to deliver Infor- named node, slot, feature, or chunk hnd

miatin concerning discrete events or comprises or contains a memory Image

Items It has had experience with In the or trace pattern representing an organ- Ized aspect of experience (whether past. In fact, human memory does not, In

sense-reception based or mentally syna changes literal sense, as a funcion store anything, of experience. It simply (p thesized). tele) The h second eodi Is a generalized eeaie

ch e alink, connector, association, or relation

68) that brings the first type of components

The preceding points add complexity to together into an Identifiable pattern of

the view of the cognitive model as memory.

presented earlier. The model depicts

the within-awareness (conscious) pro- s

cessor as of limited capacity and limited the chief expositional function of the

s to the concept of frame-like memory strucdmenslonallty in comparison tot tures Is to depict the organized aggre- outside-awareness (automatic) proces- gating and Juxtaposltloning of distinctly

s"r. The above discussion suggests dint ind ometa l ontentsT

expanding the capacity and dimen- different kinds of mental contents. The

slonality of the within-awareness contents within a frame often Include

Imagery based on different sense

- 3-11-
modalities. This Is attested by the factors that can impact on the mix of

results of psychological experiments on encoding that may occur for a particular

memory and learning, (Shiffrin and experience.

Grantham 1974), as well as by findings A hierarchical organization for memory

from studies of brain functioning. The

latter provide support for multi-sense bres om v anes an Ritey

Integration at high levels of brain organ- by resu(ts from Mandler and Rmtchey

Ization, "e"ptnilt"fr for considerable ifrn functional otcl (1977). was stronger Recognition for the contents over four of months beter "equipotentiality" for different cortical organized (more typical or sensible)

areas of the brain, and for partial func- organied (more typical one)

tionai substitution between senses pictured scenes than for atypical ones, tionl sbsttutin btwen 8but only for more generlca types of con- under appropriate conditionr (Restak, tents suc as a entry of con 107, 1),(Brss hpt Hrpe, nd tents such as an Inventory of objects 1979, chptr 18), (Bross, Harper, and and their spatial relations. Recognition

of more specific descriptions of objects

The memory fre.me presented In the and the composition of the scene was

cognitive model Implies that traces may not Improved for better organized

be encoded for each of the sense scenes. Patterson and Baddeley

modalities that respond during the (1977) report similar results for the

experience; I.e., the frame diagram recognition of faces, in which rating

Implies a multi-coding theory. Paivio faces on judgments of personality pro-

(1967) presents a dual-coding d'iced greater subsequent recognition

(imaginal/verbal) theory, postulating levels than rating faces on physical

that a visual image Is more likely to also characteristics such as size of nose.

generate and be encoded as a verbal Interactions within memory frames namebIneratieens semathicnd memoyfaimaerys name, than geneateand a verbal e ecode Image asa Is to vlu~l also between semantic and visual Imagery

generate Image. D'Agostino, and be encoded O'Neill, as and a visual Pelvic inoatnchksIdecedb Information chunks Is depicted by

resulti obtained by Loftus, Miller, and

(1977) present evidence showing that Burs (1978). The words "smashed"

dual coding occurs relatively automatl- and (hit wee ) vard inmashew" and "hit" were varied In otherwise

oslly for pictures, but that only verbal Identical written questions about a carcoding Is likely for abstract words for tia picte of a car a

which images (Ig7) are hatundr sows undeveloped. codltona Nelsonpresented prsntedceare earlier. o For r subeqent subsequently

(1 g78) shows that under conditions prsnevryimlrbtaeedcr

where words are phonemically distinc- presented very similar but altered cartive and plctu*es are confusing, words toons, the word "smashed" biased

may be retained better. Nelson aug- recognition twr hs errors eltn significantly rae more rs

Vests that, gest a a,,3 tht, copare compared wih with wods, words, toward those depicting greater crash

pictures usually Induce a more detailed Impact and more damage.

representation ir' memory. The Issue Is The many possible semantic meanings

compllccted further by findings of Slple, of a single word such as "structure"

Fischer, and Belligi (1977) that sug- are likely to be assoclted with difgost that deaf persons encode known ferent frames in an Individual's memory.

gestures from the American Sign Thus In word association experiments, a

Language In a semantic (verbal) form, word presented alone will produce difand other gestures In the form of ferent pat' -l'ns of associative

Imagery. Dhawan and Pellegrino ,1977) responses than when presented In a

discuss variables and situational meaningful sentence context (Baker

- 3-12 -
and Santa 1977). Moreover, Till (1977) story from the jumbled slides were later

showed that the effectiveness of a able to place new "intervening" slides

word or phrase as a cue for retrieving never before seen Into correct

(recalling, recognizing) a sentence Is sequence for the scenario. The metatypically based on complex inferencas phor of a "process pattern slot" In the

about the meaning of the sentence memory frame diagram of the cognitive

rather than on the superficial (surface model is Intended to suggest these

structure) aspects of the sentence. kinds of memory patterns.

The effects of frame contexts persist The cognitive model also portrays the

Into even more complex systems of Idea that experiences typically are

frames involved in memories for 3torles. encoded (stored In memory frames) as

Bellezza, Cheesman, and Reddy (1977) Instances of certain types of

found that linking a list of words phenomena occurring in certain types of

together In a coherent story enhanced contexts, (i.e., in a figuro-ground relalater recall of the words more than gen- tion). Flexser and Tulving (1978), and

erating separate sentences using the Craik (1979, pp 89) address the reawords, or defining each of them. sons for the anomolous condition In

Rumelhart (1977) developed a "story which an earlier-experienced stimulus

grammar" composed of frame-like struc- object may not be recognized as such,

tures set In hierarchical relations, the but still may be recalled. The anomohighest (most generic) nodes having lous unsuccessful recognition may

names like cause, try, and outcome. In represent an Inability of the presented

turn, each such node subsumes various Item to match and decode the otiginal

types of causes, of trials, of outcomes, episode-specific context of the earlier et(.. Such a structure can be used to experience. The anomolous successful

predict patterns of recall for stories, recall may represent the ability of the

and to predict the shifting of learning description (naming) of the episodeover repeated experiences with a specific context to decode the episodic

story, from serial order effects to the context memory chunk, (the "ground"),

hierarchically organized acquisition of coupled with the ability of the linkage

meaning constituents as Isolated by the between the background memory chunk

grammar. Thorndyke (1977) and and the Item memory chunk to reacMandler and Johnson (1977) describe tivate (decode) the item chutik (an

similar results using other forms of story apparently more complex process than

grammars. recognition).

In a similar vein, the dependence of This Is the view of recogniJon and

visual memory for a scenario on higher- recall adopted In the cognitive model

order frameworks for organizing events presented here. In this view, correct

Into a meaningful whole Is shown in an reactivation of the one-itern-÷--oneexperiment by Kraft and Jenkins context linkage Involved in recognition

(1977). Slides showing different steps would be more reliable than reactivation

or phases of a story-like sce nario were of the. correct linkage among the oneshown In correct sequence and In jum- covitext-to-many-ltems linkages posed

bled sequence to different groups of In recall. This Is In fact thu result most

subjects. For jumblnd sequence sub- commonly obtained In experimental

jects, those able to form a coherent paradigms in which a list of sirn!lar items

-83-13 - i

~II
Is presented In one episodic context. In discussing his studies of concept forSuch results support the concept of a matlon using chinese characters. In

typical figure-ground patterning of the everyday life, conceptual categorloe

memory contents stored for events are not Vormed by the presence of a

(episodes). The functions of the Item of few attributes invariable for all examattention (figure) and the episodic con- pies of the concept, but by .,,any fretext (ground) of such memory struc- quently present ones which are highly

tures In mediating the more nebulous associated with each other, and highly

uses of memory Information for meta- associated with membership In the

phors and analogies are considered by category. Both Hull and Evans found

Verbrugge and McCarrell (1977). that a person can discover the protoThe cognit','e model depicts the slots or type pattern within a concept on the Thes ofthe modelr depictsthe sts on basis of receiving only camo.flaged, chunks of the memory frame as being partial, or systematically distorted ver- hierarr-hically organized by level of sions of the pattern. Bransford and

detail ýjf -the type of Information con- Johnson (1972), and Roach, %impson

tainea in each slot, with the higher more and Miller (1976) have obtair.3d similar super*lcial levels containing gross generic c~tegrlesari th subrdiate results and offered similar explanatior-.s eric catgores ad th suordiate The properties common to the diflerent

•;eeer"leves mre lne-r•Ied, examples define the attr;butes or specific Information about thd same eape eieteatbtso

conceptual categories.tMischelh(1979) dimensions of similarity used to conSstruct the prototypical central pattern

natural 'classifications of persons be governing the conceptual schemd.

discussing the Idea of "cognitive Tversky and Gati (1978) and Rosech

economics". The person's system for (1978) present two similar but distinclassifying other Individuals must pro- guishable accounts of the main factors

vide efficient and personally meaningful contributing to the development,

"igecnn-holes" for others, and at the ma'ntenance, and usage of conceptual

same time avoid apparent conceptual categories. Tversky and Gati Introduce

contradictions. How this tradeoff Is the Ideas of salience and di3gnosticlty

accomplished depends upon the con- of the features of objects. A feature

tents of the perscn's social attains salience as a function of Its

environment,--the psycho-social ecol- degree of diagnosticlty for the particuogy of the Individual's so-al surround- lar environment (psychologlcal ecology)

Ings. Depending upon 'such factors, within which It 2ppears. A feature

some of the Indlid;Ial's person- acquires diagnosticity within an

categories may be very Inclusive with environment on the basis of the degree

very little elaboration of suboidinate to which Its presence/absence In varlconcepts. Other categories may be op.s concepts Is correlated with the

quite highly refined, magnitude of classificatory significance

In presenting the concept of a memory of the concepts. Tversky and Gatl schem, (967)emphslze Evns the pro-sent Intrlg'Ing results demonstrating

schema, Evans (1987) emphasizes the that the degree of Judged difference

notion of a prototype around which the between two concepts is not necesexamples constituting the contents of sarly symmetrical; A toy train, for the schema are organized. A very siml- example, sycmmeticl;Aty traedin, fon-r

trolled experiments as more similar to a

a dawsepesdb ul(90- 8-14- +

(
real train than the real train Is judged learning Is also Indicated by the discusas similar to the toy train. Their expla- sion summarizing the findings of Spyronation Is that the must salient concepts poulos and Ceraso (1977) In which they

become psychological bench-marks, conclude that a cu1 fragment is effecstandards, or anchors against which tive if it acts as the Identifying proother "lesser" concepts are contrasted. perty of the tote! unit, and that,.1r

The concept of the real train has more reintegration depends on the cf " ' of

salience than that of the toy train, unity achieved during Initial per :4,tion.

because the fousmier Is composed of a That cue diagnosticity applies to visual

larger number of salient foatures having Images stored in the sensory Image s'

diagriostlcity (general memory- of the memory frame diagram t shown

classificatory significance) for the Indi- by Bower and Glass (1976). They found

vidual. that certain types of fragments of nonsense line drawings were superior caes

Roach (197b) postulates that the "cue validity" of an attribute for a categor y for recalling the whole drawing of which Increases as a function of the condl- they are parts. These cues

incrasesas afuntionof te codi- corresponded to larger structural units

tional probability of its association with of the graphic Image when such units

that category, and decreases as a were defined In terms 0.. gestalt princi- function of its association with other per pieo deffna Koffka (3 01936), tohfer Kohler (1940, 01940,

categories. The validity of a category is 47).

defined as the sum of the cue validities 1

of the attributes making up the Internal organizational aspects of the

category. She presents results show- time locale slot of the neemory frame

Ing that subjeuts typically arrange dimgram are suggested by the findings

categories in hierarchies, and Identifies of a number of authors. McTaggart

a "basic" level In the hierarchies for (1927) noted two frameworks within

which the categurles have higher validi- which positions In time are embedded.

ties than categories In either superordi- Each position is in the past, present, or

nate or subordinate levels. As compared future; and, each position is earlinr than

to the basic level categories, superor- some others, and later than some othdinate (more generic) ones have fewer ers. Reacher and Urquhart (1971)

cxnmon and more distinguishing attn- analyze the meaning relations between

butes, while subordinate categories such terms as past, present, future,

have fewer distinguishing and more now, later, and earlier through use of a

common attributes. system of axioms of temporal logic

In terms of the cognitive model for exprsed In the form of a predicatei

Intelligence analysis, the above results calculus. The analyzed relations

between terms can be graphically and discussion perhaps fit best into the medwon te line whachcaresum

oategcrles/relation slot of the memor mapped onto a time line which, presum- ,

catgores/elaionslo ofthememry ably, could be projected onto the Greframe diagram, tlo although prncilesundubedl the aply categoriza- o oh- gbly, gorlan cald caendar and and clock osystem te of of•

tIon principles undoubtedly apply to oth- time coordinates for a particular set of

era of the slots as well, i.e., the senaory Image slot, the behavior production Identified events.

slot, and the process pattern slot. That Biankenship (1974) postulates that

attribute diagnosticity or cue validity there are no Important differences in I

are of general functional Importance in the ways In which memory for event3

- 3-16 -

L4, .. ." •m,•. 
and memory for concepts are encoded Is Interesting to speculate whether the

in long-term memory: temporal Inference rules suggested by

In partioular, It Is assumed that the pro- Blankenship usually operate more defintess of encoding information In long- Itively on the contextual aspects of cessof ncoingInfomaton n lng- memories. The observations discussed

term memory does not automatically earier of baeeyanditch ss97

Incorporate information about when the earlier of Baddeley and Hitch (o977)

storage took place. As a result, judge- regarding the dependency of the

mants of the sequence of events must be recency effect on numbpe of similar

an Inferential process based on infor- Intervening events seem pertinent here.

motion retrieved about events, together The linkage In the cognitive model

with processing rules that reflect the meonory frame diagram between the

order in which certain classes of sensory Image slot and the

events, or events that have certain pro- affective/valuative slot Is highlighted

partiles, have generally occurred In the by the findings of several Investigators.

past.(p 2) Schwartz (1976) and Biown and Kulick

Using several Independent methods of (1977) discuss the manner in which a Usin inepenent~nehod seera of strong affective/valuative component

assessing subjects' knowledge of the sor aneeivnce comport

of occurrence of events, h foundor forder 

order thft ourrence ofdvents, hde fund reverse the normally expected process that sequence judgments made wltn a of re-encoding sensory images us

reliable rule available were much more s

accurate than beneit those a rle. o suc made without the semantic emory (the categories in long-term categories!relatlons and

Sbenefit of such a rule. process pattern slots). In "flashbulb"

Kihistrom (1979) used posthypnotic memories, the strong

amnesia as a method for, probing the affective/valuative componeit of the

organization of recall in episodic original experience appears to be

memory. He notes that recognizing Items related to a shift of the encoding propresented In earlier episodes involves cess away from converting the sensory

the reconstruction of the spetlotem- Information mainly to semantic

poral and experiential context In which categorios, and toward increasing

the Item appeared, and that It Is this emphasis on continued storage of the

step which appears especially difficult sensory Information in a long-term

during posthypnotic amnesia. The loss representation very like the sensory

of contextual cues Impairs complet., experience Itself. Similarly, Keenan,

reconstruction of the originai MacWhinney, and Mayhew (1977) and

Item/event, and thus lImpairs recognition Kintsch and Bates (197"-) observe that

of the Item. He summarizes; while the verbatim surface aspects of

These findings are leading us to shift sentences are nor-ally lost from long- Thetapeor fodngre meadin uom *searhift term memory (see Till aarlier), terms

our metaphor for memory from "search" and phrases linked with high affective

to Ivreconstructlon", and our metaphor adprsslne lhhg fetv

tor amnesiarom andisourganiz m " taor overtones, such as wit, sarcasm, and

"rmdssocestiona. (p d3) personal criticism, show a significantly

"stronger tendency to be remembered

In this view, memories for temporal rela- verbatim. This effect Is not simple

tions are associated more closely with however. Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker

episodic context or 91ground" traces (1977) replicated earlier results showthan wltn Item/event "figure" traces. It ing that increased degrees of

- 3-16 -
semantic-oriented processing (meaning view of the conscious processor, each

contents-orlented processin,) produces level of hierarchy In the memory code is

Increased retention In long-term "opaque" with respect to the other levmemory, ranging from syntactic levels, els. He noted that during recall producthrough phonemic (sound) repetitions, tion, subjects make decoding decisions

through synonyinity produced by adjec- for a chunk before producing any item

tive pairs, to the most powerful treat- from the chunk, and terminate recall if

mcnt which used affect/value uncertain of any Item In the chunk.

referencing personal description adjec- Graesser and Mandler (1978) found

tives and required subjects to judge that the maximum span of apprehension

their applicability to themselves. of naturally occurring categories is five

To summarize: Research results and plus or minus one, and that when the

theoretical formuiations can be cited to limit Is reached there Is a pause and a

now entry point Is sought. The above

support each feature of the concept of nee oIntas sought the above

node-link memory frames as described range of ieaprov the b ornthe

in the rwognltlve model. This Includes basic MDME metaphor of the cognitive

the ideas of hierarchical organization by

level of specificity of Information, rela- Goldman and Pellegrino (1977) found

tional linkages between different kinds that proliferated multiple encodings of

of information, and a general figure- an item are partially additive for

ground or context-item type of organl- Increasing later recognition and recall,

zation. and that repetition of deeper level

(more detailed) encodings benefited

retention more. Griffith (1976) cornThe elemental dynamic processes of pared the etfects of mnemonic "remthe cognitive model are basic Inlers" supplied by the experimenter

Match/Decode/Match/Encode (MDME) and Invented by the subject. The latter

sequences operating both within and required more capacity to form, but

outside awareness to process inputs required less attention and produced

from sense reception and/or from better recall. Anderson and Reder

memory contents against the contents (1978) define the deeper, memory reinof memory. Miller (1956) was an early forcing levels of processing as the proproponent of a coding concept of cognl- duction of a greater variety of more

tive processing that Introduced the Idea elaborate patterns of memory encoding.

of hierarchically organized "chunking" Brandsford, Franks, Morris, and Stein

of the input, and noted an apparent Iliml- (1979) summarize the discussion of a

tatlon of about seven plus or minus two range of such findings and concepts

chunks that could be consclous!y pro- with the idea of "transfer appropriate

ceased for any given level of the processing" --that memory accessibility

hierarchy. Wickelgren (1967) observed Is a product of an Interaction between

that the optimum chunk span was some- encoding elaboration on the one hand,

what less than Miller's maximum, finding and on the other, the degree of compathat the easy optimum at any level is tiblilty between encoding patterns for

three chunks, and that subjects tend to the Initial storage and the access

resist the use of four or more chunks. cycles. Cralk (1979) points out that

Johnson (1972) used a similar concept retrieval cues are effective to the

and postulated that, from the point of extent that they Induce operations, or

-83-17 -
records of operations, that match the their support. The Immediately precedoriginal event-as-encoded. He senses a Ing discussion of elements) processing

growing agreement that retrieval mechanisms (MDME sequences) culprocesses are quite similar to encoding minated in the view that encoding

processes In many respects and may (storage) and decoding (search)

even be Identical. -,his summary view Is processes are very similar if not identireflected in the mechanics of the ele- cal. These established points provide

mental MDME processes depicted In the the framework for asserting that sencognitive model. sory information filtering occurs within

8.4yModification Mechanim the confinep of the MDME process.

Information selectivity and generaliza- The memory modification mechanisms tion filtering actions are both deterdepicted In the cognitive model do not mined by the momentary relationship

Include the hypnotic-suggestion-based, between the Information pattern in the

memory-partitioning, dissociative sense reception input and the informsphenomena described in the present tion pattern matched and decoded

chapter. On the basis of the evidence (actively constructed) from long-term for ready every-day mobilization of par- memory. Information elements from the

tial dissociations (e.g.,divided attention) sense reception pattern may be missed

abid the data on hypnosis-induced dis- or highlighted, used with a good fit or a

soclations, It seems reasonable to poor one, and be "smoothed" by addiexpect that, especially under pressing tions of missing elements from memory

circumstances, dissociations of varying information. The criteria used for such

strengths, having been Induced by automatic operations Is the pattern of

suggestions and/or by wish-fulfillment information already existent in memory.

mechanisms, In may te avalablit mmor play significant patern rolesof Perhaps the most ubiquitous evidence

In the memory availability patterns of or selectivity nd generalization filtermany normal individuals. However, this fng secome fro tenclinicaluero

topic will not be pursued further In the Ing has come from the clinical use of

topice wllot bhe puresuedt efrther ihe "projective" tests. One does not have

context of the present effort because to espouse the details of projective

of limited time and resources. theory or of personality and motivational

The three elements of the Information interpretations made from their results

Contents Modification Cycle shown in to appreciate the nature of the massive

Figure 2-2 are: Sensory Information evidence they afford for selective

Filtering; Memory Contents Consolida- filtering of sense reception inputs.

tion; and, Memory Access Interference. Examples of all the forms of Information

filtering posited in the cognitive model

can be seen In responses to pictureIn the earlier discussion of the senses, scene and Inkblot types of tests. The

Gibson's summary points were used to under-structured "projective" stimulus

portray the current view that sensory patterns are combined (encoded) with

reception and experience are active the individual's mental contents, and an

rather +han passive processes, that experience varying from Individual to

they involve Intimate and continuous individual is generated. The particular

use of contents from long-term memory, aspects used from the available

and that wide-spread activities stimulus pattern depends upc. "N, parthroughout the brain are necessary for ticular contents of the Individual's

- 3-18 -
memory that are potentially mobilizable, Rather, It is the actively constructed

partially mobilized, and fully mobilized result of setting up or emphasizing

when the sense reception Input arrives, aspects of the stimulus Input tiat proThrough such mobilization factors, ape- vide contrastive informatlor to distinclalized knowledge often controls gulsh the Input from Athe background

selective Information filtering. At a commonality of a certain momentary

cocktail party, a physician's mobilized context.

memory contents may lead him to "see" Expectations operate selectively to

a woman's forward-swung shoulders as emphasize some kinds of contrastive

the early sigis of a form of muscular Information over -others. Wickelgren

dystrophy, while others are commenting (1979 pp 110-117) provides examples

on the resemblance of her shoulders to from hearing spoken words. People will,

the stylish ones of a famous actress of for example, rarely notice anyti.ng

the past. A musician recognizes "bor- wrong with a new-day greeting of

rowings" in the melodic line of a new "Could borning" If it is followed immecaipiece of music unrecognized by others. stely by continuing comments. Warren

An engineer Is dazzled ay the unusual (1970) replaced the "gis" syllable in

and clever design of a new text- "legislatures" with a cough, tone, or

processing machine, viewing it as an buzz. Subjects were unable to distininevitable financial bonanza, while a guish (to contrast) the altered word

marketing researcher views it as just from the normal v,3rsion. In effect, such

another fancy gadget to do something expectations operate not only to filter

already done very well by other means. out Incorrect syllables but to fill In missThe Importance of the momentary sltua- Ing correct ones. Correct expectations

tional context on selective encoding of employing the same kinds of mechan- the sensory reception input is Isms can facilitate the speed and accuemphasized by Jacoby and Cralkrecognton (Pachela 979) y1975). In general, the Input-filtering (17 In presenting their concept of mechanisms of expectations are active

encoding distinctiveness. They point "constructive" processes guided by

out that a careful review of word sense

usages will make It apparent that there ghy g ry

are very few "exact" synonyms In Selection and generalization mechanenglish. At the same time, many words Isms are also evident In the contents of

operate as functionally equivalent communications between Individuals.

meanings In a given context, as In their Both selection and generalization occur

example of a driver hearing the exhor- in the use of metaphorica: expressions,

tatlon "Watch out for the subtle versions of which are extremely

-_(house, tree, truck, bicycle, frequent In much human communication.

train, atc.)". The encoding distinctive- Ortony (1975) proposes that metaphors

ness concept holds that the meaning of serve communicative needs by being

a sense reception Input Is a set of con- "compact" and by carrying contents

trasts resulting from the distinctions that are "inexpressible" in other ways.

required for Interpreting the Input within A metaphor Is compact in that it can

a certain ongoing dynamic context transfe. many properties at once from

(episode). Meaning Is not simply an an already established domain to a new

attribute that is or Is not encoded. one. Many of these properties may be

- 8-19 -
inappropriate to the new domain, and number of repetitions of "practice" for

other properties needed for the new Increasing retention are well known in

domain may be missing, thus providing everyday observation and have been

the conditions for generalization and confirmed by literally thousands of

selectivity. There are many combina- experiments In animal and human learntions of semantic properties for which Ing. However, retention and strength of

we have no name and no concept (i.e., learning can Increase without apparent

the combination is Inexpressible). A practice under certain conditions, and

metaphor can be a practical means of this has prompted the theoretical concommunicating such a combination of cept of Internal rehearsal and "consoliproperties that are not yet well enough dation" of the* contents of memory.

analyzed to be named or described con- Hockey, Davies, and Gray (1972) show

ceptually. Again, such conditions are that memory Is better following a retenIdeal for generalization and selectivity. tion Interval containing sleep than one

Sternberg (1977) presents a theory of not containing sleep. Whether this is

Steanbgical (1977)ing pntsln theopryof due to conscious rehearsals performed

analogical reasoning involving the pro -while falling off to sleep, to automatic

cess components of encoding, Infer- rehearsals during sleep, to the reducencs, mapping, application, Justification, tion of wakeful interference effects

and preparation-response. Although attendant upon sleeping, or to a combiwide variatons In the use of these nation of these effects is not clear at

components were observed, no consistent Individual differences In the present.

particular differential emphasis and pat- The strength of the Initial memory trace

tern of their use were noticed over a for the sensory Input pattern appears

range of experimental settings. The to be established very rapidly, within

chances for serial unreliability seem seconds. On the other hand, the

great In the sequential operation of apparent Increased retention afforded

such a set of components, and large by the consolidation process appears to

random differences In generating and be the result of Increasing the depth

understanding analogies can be and range of E6ncoding relationships

expected. Put In other terms, the (retrievability) between the sensory

opr'nrtunities are great for Introduction Input pattern memory trace and the rest

c. ,iolse" In interpersonal communica- of memory contents, rather than further

tions through selectivity and generali- strengthening of the original memory

zation effects implicit in analogies, trace (Miller and Springer 1973).

3.4.2 Memory Contents Consolidation. Mandler (1978) distinguishes between

Integration and elaboration in the conThe discussion of the cognitive model solidation process. Integration Improves

asserts that memory contents are made the Item's cohesiveness, while elaboramore accessibl" and vivid as a joint tion increases the Item's connections

function of the frequency of processing with other ones. Anderson and Bower

and the amount of attention used In (1972, 1974) propose a two-process

p7-s•slh. "e effects of Increasing theory of generation-recognition, in

,'ha dept ý aiu/or proliferation of encod- which the Item Is the eliciting stimulus

Ing of the sensory reception Input for and the context Information stored from

Increasing retention were reviewed the original learning episode compri-ass

earlier. The effects of Increased the rusponse. Recognition involves

- 3-20 -

- ~*, . -
recovering Information concarning the contrastlva distortions can be undertime/place context of occurrence of sto-4 as forms of "caricature". the original item In greater or lesser 3 4 3 M w c e sIt r e e c

degrees of detail (Watkins, 1074, Watkins and Tulving 1976). The Intervening similarities and similarlties saturation types of Interference Retrieval/hetention effects Induced by describedsin described In the the cognitive ognItemoere model are

consolidation appear to be governed by meant as lay-descriptive re-namings for

the kinds of highly organized, contras- the retroactive and proactive Inhibition

tive mechanlsm'- operating between the effects. Melton and Irwin (1940) prosensory rec.. Aton input and memory posed that retroactive inhibition was

contents discussed earlier. Bartlett's posed t f troactive I1h.)Theon ntru

(192)composed of two factors: 1.) The intru- 0 92) lasicboo Itruce te Iea sion of now, Interpolated learned

of a mental schema (frame) to account sionea

for the results of experiments in which responses In conflict with the earlier

subjects studied a printed story and ones, iiresoesaarsutfntbig and 2.) The extinction of the earwere then asked to reproduce It on responses as a resultion being

several later successive occasions. No reinforced during the Interpolation trials. Barnes and Underwood (1969) used the

corrective feedback or further oppor- earning of ists of paired words t:

tunitles to study the story were given, demonstrate retrcactive Inhibition.

Culturally unfamiliar Cultraly stories, etoles ufamlla such suh as a anan They showed that subjects recalled the

american Indian story entitled "The War

of the Ghosts", produced the most response words associated with a

dramatic examples of progressive decreasing percentage of the cue

changes in successive reproductions of words from an original list presented a

second time, depending upon how many

stories. Reproductions storee.Reprducions•er were usually usully scn Intervening ie practice eedn trials pnhwmn they had

shorter, more concrete, used more modern phraseology, and unfamiliar been given on an "interference" list

terms dropped out (a non-contrastive which presented the same cue words "as the original list but required diffarent

"leveling" action). On the other hand,

some shocking, weird, or unlikely (highly response words.

contrastive) details tended to be Underwood (1957) invoked the concept

retained and even elaborated (a "shar- of proactlve Inhibition to axplain why

pening" effect). Bourne, Dominowski, about 75% of the Items or. a criterion

and Loftus (1979) note that when sub- list of words learned to one perfect trial

jects hear a story, they usually do not could not be recalled after 24 hours,

remember portions of it which do not fit even though no Interpolated interferInto their existing long term memory ence learning trials had taken place.

structures ( p 86). Allport and Postman Fe showed that the number of highly

(1958) noted similar effects In similar lists learned shortly before

memories for pictures, with distortions learning the criterion list, would predict

of the picture memories fitting social the amount of lost recall experienced

stereotypes presumed to be contained for the criterion list. If the subject had

In more Incorporative memory structures not recently learned such highly similar

(such as remembering a straight razor lists, there would be an average of only actually pictured In the hand of a white about 25% loss of recall In 24 hours,

man as being held by a black). Both the rather than 75%. In other words,

subtle and extreme forms of such memory contents for the earlier similar

-3-21 -

. . . . . . . .
lists were creating Interference effects 8.5 Complex Behavioral Processes which cumulated during the 24-hour

retent 

which 

k•on period pumuleriod In during 

w hich tichnonew 

no n ow - The cognitive model serves as a frame- list- w r i h n w i h t o s d r m r

learnlno activity had taken place, work within which to consider more

These and many similar results suggest complex cognitive processes usually

thr.t for learning taking place under nied in lntel plex cognitiv- highly 7epetitive, redundant cir- ybe safely assumed processes Include problem-solving and cumetanczes, It may saet deiio-akn theseviemfeer that pro-active Inhibition will be present decision-making In the service of perto - -"•nificant degree, operating on forming the three generic types of

both Item InformAW-and context infer- Intelligence analysis: mation. Some types of intelligence prol ceasing under high load have this char- 1. Making Interpretations.

acter. 2. Managing resources.

Wickens, Born, and Allen (1963) Intro- . duced the concept of release from

proactive Inhibition and demonstrated Problem s'hIlng involves the making of

its effects. They hold that the-loss in decisions, and decision-making may

recall caused by preceding items Is in Involve the solving of problems. Probeffect a loss of encoding distinguisha- lem solving of a particular kind can be

bility among current Items. A change of viewed as the orchestration of a

pace or "break"--a change In the type behavior plan or program (a la Miller,

of Items to be encoded-- has the Newell, Anderson), toe use of memory

effect of "releasing" or reducing the Information unique to the problem area, interference effect, the more differ- the utilization of relevant generalized ence between the "break" Items and processing skills, and, the Invoking of

the Inhibited items, the stronger the decision criteria. Selected examples of

effect. O'neill, Sutcllffe, and Tulving research bearing on each of these

(1976) show that for such release to Ingredients Is presented In the following

take place, tie "break" item must be sections.

discriminably encoded In memory, and an

appropriate stimulus Item must be 36. ProblemSolving

presented. In other words, a random, As summarized earlier from Wickelgren

"meaningless" distraction will not do as (1979), behavioral plans/programs usua break Item; subjects must be ally consist of a partially ordered set of

presented with an alternative they can actions and their consequences. Both

"get their teeth Into". As could be anti- the actiois and consequences are

cipated from the contrastive view of embedded In and/or constructed of

encoding discussed earlier, Gardiner, memory Information for the particular

Kies, Redman, and Ball (1976) show environmental contexts, situations,

that the degree of release reflects the objects, and event classes within which

relative contrast between the "break" the behavioral plan is to be carried out.

and Oproadlyvem stimulus encodings, and There is usually an Intimate, often inexthat such contrantive effects also tricable Interweaving of the

appear to be hlera-chically organized In actions/consequences information and

encoding patterns, the contextual supporting Information

(Schank and Abelson 1977). A

-F8-22-
oorrolery is that to support highly prac- not encoded in short-term memory.

ticed planned/programmed behavior, the Thirty seconds of distraction activity

contextual supporting Information must following the viewing of the positions

first be encoded deeply and widely reduced recall of the positions only 6%,

(l.ep.,rollferated), and second, this although subjects took much longer to

Information must be readily accessible "reconstruct" the positions. Making

to (elloitable by) the partially ordered essentially the same point, Frey and

aotlona/oonsequences information also Adesman (1976) found that highly

stored In memory. Games hivolving skilled chess players could recall almost

oomplex problem solving provide exam- the same percentage of positions from

pies of these nmcessary conditions, observing two positions as from one.

Hayes and Simon (1977) discuss "prob- Evidently the unique patterns

13m solving isomorphs4 for games such represented by the positions were very

as Tic-Tac-Toe, Missionarles and Canni- rapidly matched with highly encoded -bale, and Tower of Hanoi. Gea Ieo- memory structures, decoded ("recogmorphs are constructed by disguises or nized" as "fitting certain patternse)

"cover storles" that alter the apparencies of the game but leava the logical patterns (following the formulation given

structure Intact. Transfer of skill from In the cognitive model).

performing on. isomorph to another is' The Intimate relationship between

not reliable; Insuights gained In more dif- actions/consequences (plans) informaficult games are sometimes applied to tion and supporting context Information

simpler ones, but the reverse Is much is further suggested by the idea that

leas true. The sensitivity of the the two types of Information are stored

actions/consequences programs to the in very similar memory structures. Plans

particular Information available from the are structurally very sirrilar to the

supporting context is also shown, for episodic memories representing

example, by large performance impacts sequences of related events. Watkins

that can ressl'f Vrom framing game and TuIvIng (1975) note that the

Instructions In the active versus the node-link frames which organize zemanpassive voice (Johbrson-Laird, 1968). tic memory may be either topical (as in

de Groat (1966) Observed the extraor- a hierarchically organized text-book on

dinary degrees of flexibility and sum- a topic) or episodic (as in a script miaryzng power (eeflciency) of memory involving that topic). The solution to a

problem combines the use of both topiencoding patterns developed by highly cal and plan/episodic information in a

skilled game players for Informitlon from cladpa/psdcIfrainI coordinated fashion. Moreover, before

the supporting contaxt. Chess masters couldhreconstrucot could reconstruct 90% 0t.of of thess the psters positions o asolution h rbe can be utb attained siiae a descriptionn

from a gan.e (approx~mately 26 pieces) of the problem must be assimilated and aftr, havn ( se n Irotel for 5ieoes0 understood. This description must be after' having seen it for 6 to 10 representative of, and consistent with, seco)nds, while und,• the same condi- tson weaker playd, t averaged 40cd. the combined topical and episodic information necessary for solution. TyplWith random board settings, however,

the chess masters did little better than cally, an "understanding procass" which

the others. Charness (1976) showed develops and assimilates such a

description precedes the solution phase that memory for chess game positions Is (Greeno, 1976). Skill in the proper

- 8-28 -
Splacement of the understanding process 6. The major processing steps In

is Itself a form of episodically organized problem solving occur in an essenknowledge. Failure to solve a problem tially serial (rather than parallel)

can result froim Inadequate encoding of fashion, (p. 23a)

relevant episodic (plan) Information, of 3.5.2 Quantitative and Spatial

topical (problem context) information, or

of both (Norman and Bobrow 1976).

Positive and negative transfer of nolu- It Is evident from casual observation [ lions between problems can also be that quantitative and spatial thinking

based on generalizdtions of either kind often play parts In the cognitive

of Information. processes Involved in solving problems

In Intelligence analysis. The question Is, Bourne, Dominowski, and Loftus (179) what Is the nature of these thought

summarize the major aspects of problem processes? Calder (1979) reviews the

solving: history of professional mathematical

1. Attention to environmental Informa- thought In addressing the question of

tion is limited and selective, whether mathematics is discovered or

2. Performance on * tear i a joint Invented. His discussion portrays the

cudependencies of later mathematical fuactiab aW the quallocati of pro- dconcepts on historically earlier ones, available s rsn the allocation of pro- and shows that mathematical concepts

ately available environmental inhor- can be developed both with and without

atey andilconetentionenld Infeort- regard for "reality". He espouses a

mation and content helo ini short- constructivist position which holds that

Sterm memory (STM) constitute data. mathematics can have real meaning only

There Is some limit to the process- If Its concepts can be constructed by

Ing resources available; when task the human mind. The algebraic,

demands exceed this limit, perfor- dmanc's l~exee toi delinet grauarlly geometric, and trigonometric conceptual

S~although performance may show tools used In some types of intelligence althou formancermay show analysis tasks fit well Into this conSabrupt failure under certain cir- structivist view. Observations of the

S~cumstances. utelearning of mathematics and of the

3. Processing resources are required processes of detecting and correcting

to maintain content in STM. Main- performance errors suggest that the

taining content in STM and operat- gross steps in the cognitive processing

Ing on that content compete for the of applied mathematical tasks are usulimited resources available, ally quite Isomorphic with the operations

4. Informnation Is beth entered into a depicted In the text books. However, frmatriee from longtermd h mmor a many problem-solving and judgemental retrieved from long-term memory tasks In Intelligence analysis appear to

(LTM), which has unlimited capa- Involve the use of less formally specioity. Entering Information Into LTM fled quantitative and/or spatial conrequires processing resources, and, fet anditage anquestio l as

while some Information in LTM Is cepts and Images. A question crises as

retrieved with minimal processing to the nature of such Informal cognitive

demand, retrieval may fall. patterns and the processes utilizing

them.

;: "-3-24 -
Through analyses of combinations of found Individual differences In mental

rating scale judgments Anderson rotation speeds, as well as Individual

(1979) shows that loosely "algebraic" tendencies to use either rapid "holistic"

cognitive processes control the judg- or more belabored "analytil"

ments. In the well-known weight-size approaches to the judgments Involved

Illusion, an "adder Integrator" combined in the mental rotation tasks. These

the weights and heights of judged differences may be related to individual

cylinders Into a ;lnear combined judg- differences Ir lateralizatlon--the more

ment of their heaviness. A "multiplier" dominant use of one cerebral hemipro-.ess produced a "linear fan" of sphere "processor" over the other

functions for subjective oxpected (Restak 1979, p 173-85).

values for events, which combined their 3.5.3 Sampling Concepts and Probabtlsubjective values and their subjective

likelihoods, in discussing the linear fan ity Judgments

pattern of findings, Anderson cites au Tho complex, generalized concepts that

experiment of Oden (1977) on assign- individuals may use to evaluate the

Ing animals (penguins, sparrows, quality and extent of Information availostriches, bats) values of "birdineas". able to them, and the bearings it may

Using a factorial design Involving have on predicting anticipated events,

animals of dlffe.-ent degrees of blrdl- seem of obvious Importance for cogniness, Oden obtained the linear fan pat- tion. A number of studies show that the

tern of. results. These results support a Intuitive concepts of sampling and of

multiplicative rule for the elements of a probability used by most persons,

semantic compound In predicting the Including many with formal training in

degree of truth for assigning the com- statistics, do not square well with the

pound to a certain semantic category. rigorously developed versions of these

This also supports the concept of trut. concepts (Tversky and Kahneman

valtue as a continuous value in semantic 1971, Kahneman and Tversky 1972,

theory (Zadeh, Fu, Tanaka, and Shimura Tversky and Kahneman 1974, Estes

1976). 1976). Kahnenman and Tversky foind

Shepard and Metzler (1971) obtained that the intuitive understandings of proresult.W consistent with the Idea that bability, chance, likelihood, etc. dceviate

subjects' mental images of solid objects systematically from probability theory:

they were asked to "rotate mentally" The ratios of events, types, members, In

did in fact undergo a mental rotation in a particular sample of experience tend didInfac udero mnta rtatonIn to be taken as values for the

real time. Rotational "problems" were be ta as values for the

presented in both the depth plane and universe", with little thought for samthe visual surface plane. Subjects were piing variation or the size or power of

asked whether various pairs of objects the sample. The statistical Indepen- constructed of cubes and set at varl.- dence between series of uncorrelated

ous angles to one another could be events is not grasped, so that an rotated into one another. The decision unlikely string of events often causes

times were linear on the degree of men- "corrective" predictions based on antital rotat'on required to "tdst" for the cipations of restored "normality" in the

answer by mentally rotating the short-term distribution of events. More

objects. For tasks similar to those of representative" (balanced) samples Sheppard and Metzler, C~oper (1976) are expected to occur more frequently

-8-26-
than les" representative" ones when the data should load to raising a

(though they do root). That Is, the "can- probability, subjects tend to raise It. In

trolds", "idealized types" "stereotypi- general, however, people do not change

cal examples* "most salient probabilities as much as Bayes' theorem

categories" or "basic level" categories Indicates they should--they are

of encoded memory (see Evans, Hull, conservatlv..--lHowiwer, recent evidence

Bransford and Johnson, Tversky and Indicates that the way In which people

Gati, Roach, earlier) are anticipated to Irntuitively process probabilistic in forbe more likely to occur than deviations, maition may have little or nothing to do

even In cases where the "ideal" confi- with formal theory. (1979 p.292)

TVuratky has never been experienced.

Tesyand Kahneman (1971) propose Kahneman and Tvoarsky (1979) present

thtpeople use the amount of mental "prospect theory" as a more accurate

effrt equredto magne r evison n model of observed choices among risky requiredts imagin ore envison to ane

event (its comparative inaccessiblity In Incnsitnt which the chictenes are

memory) as a yardstick for estimating icoisetwhtebactntsf

the ompratve ikeihoo orproabiity utility theory. Paopie underweight pros- thecomaraivel~kl~oodor robbilty pects that are probable In favor of

of 

that 

the 

when 

event. 

provided 

Estes with (1978) "mstatistical showed those that are certain. In wehn I

Prospects, asp~ects shared by all pros- data" on types of events, people tend pcsaeinrd hc a edt

to stinats aseV~er o ftur evnt Inconsistent choices among the same likelihoods on the comparative frequen- Prospects when presented In dliferent

cles provided for them, Ignoring more cnet. n eprsctmdl

refined considerations regarding cison-makis g Is thbrokpect donmodea

wheherthe haeceveda fir nd series of steps or phases comprising a

unbisedsamle.problem-solving process, with the per3.5.4 Decision Making calved decision situati~n being cycli- cally re-encoded In terms of prospoc- The quantitative, sampling, and likeli- tv an n ossvee rmec

hood processing characttbristics of nor- particular procesa reference point as It

mal cognition as described above Is reached. The process Is a cycle of

repre,,sent conceptual tools that may be Information editing and~ inforimatiohi

used In pioblem-solvng activities aimed evutlnpasbondwnio

at the making of decisions under conWi- sera ts.Fsth dcion

tion ofuncrtantyandris. Aong Information Is encoded In gain/loss models of rational decision-making terms from the initial reference point. under risk, Bayes' theorem has held '.o" poe% aI hncobndo

ceniter stage for almost two decades of "lumped" for simplification. No-risk cor4ilaboratory research In decision-making. pontarseegedo.Fcor

Bourne, et al ask the question Aire peo- omnt h aiu rset r

pie ayesanand rovie aa~umary cancelled from further consideration.

answer: Very low probability prospects are

-- people seem to, agree at least In dismissed. Finally, the remaining doinpositive/negative terms with the Inant p~ospecws are compared and

formula's predict ions. When the evi- nweeded,. and the cycle may be

dence or data should lead to lowering a repeatiid. The result of this process Is

probability, subjects tend to lower It; a value funct'..n that Is normally

- 3-26 -
conoave for gains, ccnvex for losses, They present evidence that under conSand, usually steeper for Pessee than for ditons promoting defensive avoidance,

gains, decision-makers distort evaluations of

P e Balternatives both before and after they SPayne, Braunstein, and Carroll (1978) have made a decision, and that under

present a process tracing approach for conditions favoring vigince, decisionthehilvestigatonroef predclslonat d o makers remain open-minded both Defore

psychological processes that lead to and after they have made a decision.

decisions. The method alms to identify rhe desn avg coditisitha

the Information available to the declslon The decislon-makng conditions that

maker and how It Is psychologically pro- tend to lead to the various predeciceased during the predecisional period. tSlros of various combin tpons of inferThe tracing method combines analysis maton about five toiso c nging

of verbal protocols obtained by "talk- mation about five toplu: challenging

along" from the decision-maker, and negative feedback or an opportunity;

potential losses from continuing the concomitant Information acquisition present course of action unchanged;

behaviors, potential iosses from changing the

course of action; the availability of

"Decision-builders" are affected not more relevant Information and other

only by the amount and quality of avail- unused resources; and, time pressures

able Information and by their relevant and a decision deaoline. The authors

problem-soiving skills, but also by major also provide an extensive review of the

motivation-related features of the results of various techniques of interdecision-making context. Janis and vention designed to improve decisionMann (1978) review a range of making under the range of conditions

research cehtering on describing the studied.

conditions under which psychological

sb1ess Imposes limitations on the

processes of decision-making. They

present a table summarizing the predecisional behavior characteristics of five

basic patterns of declsion-makino:

Unconfllcted adherence, Unconflicted

change, DefensivI avoidance, Hypervlgliance, and Vigilance. Each pattern Is

defined by its degree and pattern of

Ircorporation of efch of eight

behavioral steps In the decision procons: Thorough canvassing of alternatlvea, Thorough canvassing of objective.-, Careful evaluation of consequence of current policy, of new po!!-

cles, Thorough search for Information,

Unbiased assimilation of now Information, Careful reevaluation of. consequences, and Thorough planning for

Implementation and contingnncies.

-3-27-
• ' '., ,• ?9"i. ...- .. . .

V

4. OUMMARY Decision-making or decision-achieving

This review has considered research processes were depicted as forms of

relating to the concepts Incorporated In problem solving. In the context of intel- hel iting mligence work, decision making often

the cognitive model. The senses, sen- Involves the use of concepts involving

covered braefly and shown to Involve spatial, quantitative, probabilistic, and

cvenred brieeflyandshown toning.olve sampling considerations. Several studies were cited to show that informal

concept of a sensory buffer was ela- boratedcognitive behavior differs In systematic ways from formally derived theories for echoic memory, both of which are such concepts. Finally, the effects of

phenomena Involving long-term memory various pressures on decision making

accesa and wide Involvement of brain

were considered briefly.

activity. The processing of information

within and outside of awareness were Practical constraints of time and prodepicted as being on a continuum ject resources limited the further purbetveen these two polarities, with suit of many of the concepts presented

processes outside awareness ordinarily here. For the future, a number of topics

operating rapidly and grossly on large seem especially deserving of additional

quantities of Information. Awareness attention. The recent focus on relationand attention were shown to be con- ships between spreading-activation and

trollable through aware conceptual levels-of-processing theories of

activities of the individual as well as by memory functioning may help shed light

automatic processes outside aware- on problems of cognitive functioning in

nes. The phenomenon of dissociation or intelligence analysis, especially if conmental barriers was seen to be a sidered In the light of theories of the

powerful and undoubtedly widely distri- contrastive functioning of memory (in

buted pattern of behavior, distinction to retrieval from slots). The

The observed Importance of memory apparent continuum from divided attenfunctioning In the contexte of Intelli- tion to massl"e dissociative barriers in

gence analysis work was underscored mental functioning needs deeper conby the central position of memory inits

laboratory studies of cognitive function- apparent control by susceptlbllity either to conceptual the Individual or by

Ing. The distinction between working

and long-term memory was shown to be outside suggestions.

supported by a range of research find- This array of memory-functioning topics

Inga. The comparatively unlimited caps- needs to be considered In the framecity but sometimes problematic acces- work of the particular kinds of

slbility of loug-term memory was con- problem-solving sequences of

strasted with the limited capacity and plarned enrogrammed behavior that are

more ready accessibility of working Involved In the making of information

memory. The Importance of working decisions In Intelligence analysis.

memory capacity limitations for Within such a context of ongoing dayproblem-solving activities was to-day activities, the various impacts of

highlighted by the focuses of a number the memory-modification cycle might

of research studies. prove particularly amenable to observation and manipulation. As suggested in ii

- 4-1 - 4•

4. "
the recommendations of the summary

report, t.he environ of an automated

Information support system for Intelligence analysis could provide many of

the conditions necessary for such

study.

J

42

- 4-2

I•
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abelson, R. P. The Structure of Belief Systems. In: Schenk, R. C., Colby, K. M. (ods.),

Computer Models of Thought and Language, San Francisco: Freeman, 1973. p.287-

339.

Allik, J. P. & Siegel, A. W. The Use of the Cumulative Rehearsal Strategy: A Developmental Study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1976, 21, 318-827.

Anderson, J. R. Language, Memory, and Tivught. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum, 1978.

Anderson, J. R. & Reder, L. M. An Elaborative Processing Explanation of Depth of

Processing. In: Cermak, L. S., Cralk, F. I. M. (eds.), Levels of Processing In Human

Memory, New York; Wiley 1979.

Anderson, J. R. & Bower, G. H. A Propositional Thecry of Recognition Memory.

Memory & Cognition, 1974, 2, 408-412.

Anderson, J. R. & Bower, Q. H. Recognition and Retrieval Processes In Free Recall.

Psychological Review, 1972, 79(2), 79-123.

Anderson, J. R. & Paulson, R. Representation and Retention of Verbatim Information.

J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behev., 1977, 16:439-51.

Anderson, N. H. Algebraic Rules In Psychological Measurement. American Scientist,

1979, 07: 555-63.

Anderson, R. C., Pichert, J. W., Goetz, E. T., Schallert, D. L., Stevens, K. V. & Trollip, S.

R. Instantlation of General Terms. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Be,'rv., 1978, 18:687-79.

Andvrson, S. & Kiparsky, R., (eds.). The Role of Focus In the Interpretation of AnaphorIc Expressions. In: A Festschrlft for Morris Halle, New York: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, 1973, 216-226.

Anlsfeld, M. & Knapp, M. E. Association, Synonymity, and Directionality In False

, ~-6-1 -

~ .0.., ... t.
Recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 77, 171-179.

Arieti, S. Creativity: Tove Magic Synthesis, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1978.

Atkinson, R. C. & Juola, J. F. Factors InfluentIng Speed and Accuracy of Word Recognitlon. Report No. 177, Institute for Mathematical Studies In the Social Sciences,

Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1971.

Atkinson, R. C. & Juobl, J. F. Factors Influencing Speed and Accuracy of Word Recognition. In: Kornbloom, S. (ed.), Attention and Performance IV, New York: Academic

Press, 1973, pp. 5883-12.

Atkinson, R. C. & Juola, J. F. Search and Decision Processes in Recognition Memory.

In: Krantz, 0. H., Atkinson, R. C., Luce, R. D., & Suppes, P. (eds.), Contemporary

Developments In Mathematical Psychology, Vol. 1, San Francisco: Freeman, W. H.,

1974, pp. 242-293.

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. The Control of Short-Term Memory. Sclentific Amern'

can, 1971, 225, 82-90.

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. Human Memory. A Proposed System and Its Control

Processes. in: Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T. (eds.), The Psychology of Learning and

Motivation, Vol. 2, New York: Academic Press, 1969, pp. 89-105.

Attneave, F. & Benson, B. Spatial Coding of Tactual Stimulation. Journal nf Experimental Psychology, 1969, 81, 216-222.

Attneave, F. Triangles as Ambiguous Figures. American Journal of Psychology, 1968,

81, 447-463.

Baddeley, A. D. The Trouble with Levels. A Re-examination of Cralk and Lockhart's

Framework for Memory Research. Psychol. Rev., 1978, 85:139-52.

Baddeley, A. D. & Hitch, G. J. Recency Reexamined. In: Dornic, S. (ed.), Attention and

Performance, HiIIsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum, 1977, p.847-67.

- 6-2 -

L,- -
Baker, J. 0., Mace, D. J. & McKendry, J. M. The Transform Operation In TOS. Assessment of the Human Counterpart, Technical Research Note 212, U. S. Army Research

Institute, Arlington, VA, August 1969.

Baker, L & Santa, J. L. Context, Integration, and Retrieval. Mom. Cognit., 1977,

5:308-1 4.

Barmes, J. M. & Underwood, B. J9. "Fatew of First-List Associations In Transfer Theory.I

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959, 58, 97-106.

.n, J. & Strawson, C. Use of Orthograph~ic and Word-Specific Knowledge In Readug Wores Aloud. J. E~xp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 1976, 2:386-93.

Barrett, G. V., Thornton, C. L. & Cabe, P. A. Human Factors Evaluation of a Computer

Based Information Storage & Retrieval System. Human Factors 1968, 10 (4) 431-

436.

Bartlett, F. C. Remembaring. A Study In Experimental and Social Psychology, New

York: The Macmillan Co., 1932.

Bartlett, F. C. Thinking. New York: Basic Books, 1958.

V Beilezza, F. S., Cheesman, F. L. H. & Reddy, B. G. Organization and Semantic Elaboration In Free Recall. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum Learn. Mom., 1977, 3:639-50.

Berlyne, D. E. Attention. In: Carterette, E. C. & Friedman, M. P., (eds.), Handbook of ~

Perception, Vol. 1, New York: Academic Press, 1974.

Bezdek, J., Splillman, B., & Splillman, R. Fuzzy Measures of Preference and Concen'sus

In Group Decision Making. Proc. 1077 IEEE Conference on Decision and Controi, New

Orleans, LA, December, 1977, 1303-1308.

Blankenship, D.A. Human Memory for Temporal Sequence. Phd. dissertation, University of California Dept. of Psychology. San Diego, 1974.

Bobrow, D. G. & Winograd, T. An Overview of KRL, A Knowledge Representation
Language. Cognitive Science 1:1, January 1977, pp. 3-46.

Bobrow, 0. G., & Winograd, T., & the KRL Research Group. Experience with KRL-0:

One Cycle of a Knowledge Representation Language. Fifth Intetnational Joint

Conference on Artificial Intelligence (1977), pp. 223-227.

Boume, Jr., L. E. Knowing and Using Concepts. Psychological Review, 1970, 77,

646-5685.

Bourne, Jr., L. E., Dominowski, R. L., & Loftus, E. F. Cognitive Processes. Englewood

Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979.

Bowen, S. J., Halpin, J. A., Long, C. A., Lukas, G., Mullarsey, M. M. & Triggs, T. J. Decision Flow Diagrams and Data Aggregation. In: Army Ta4t67t si Intelligence Report No.

2670, Bolt, BeraneA & Newman. Cambridge, MA, June, 1973.

Bower, G. H. & Glass, A. L. Structural Units and the Reintegrative Power of Picture

Fragments. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem., 1976, 2:4W6-86.

Power, T. G. R. Reading by Eye. In: H. Leving & J. Williams (eds), Basic Studies In

Reading- New York: Basic Books, 1970.

Bransford, J. D., Franks, J. J., Morris, C. 0. & Stein, B. S. Some General Constraints on

Learning and Memory Research. In: Cermak, L. S. and Cralk, F.I.M. (ads.), Levels of

Processing In Human Memory, New York: Wiley, 1979.

Bransford, J. 0. & Johnson, M. K. Considerations of Some Problems of Comprehension.

Chase, W. G. (ed.), In: Visual Information Processing, New York: Academic Press,

1973.

Bransford, J. D. & Franks, J. J. Abstraction of Linguistic Ideas. Cognitive Psychology,

1971, 2, 331-360.

Bransford, J. D. & Johnson, M. K. Contextual Prerequisites for Understanding. Some

Investlgations of Comprehension and Recall, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal

Behavior, 1972, 11,717-728.

-6-4-
Bransford, J. D. & Franks, J. J. The Abstraction of Linguistic Idea's. Cognitive

Psychology, 1971, 2,331-350.

Bross, M. Harper, 0. Sicz, 6. Visual Effects of Auditory Deprivation: Common lntennodal and Intramodal Factors. Sciencel 1980, 207, 0617-688.

Brown, J. S., & Burton, A. R. Multiple Representation of Knowledge for Tutorial Reasowing. In: Bobrow, D. Q. & Collins, A. (oed.), Representation &wid Understanding, New

York: Academic Press, 1978.

Brown, R., Kulick, J. Flashbulb Memories. Cognition,. 1977, 8:73-ý99.

National Conference, !~n Society for Computational Studies of

intalligence/Socleto ,,anadienre des Etudes d'inteiligence per Ordinateur. Toronto,

July 1978, 4"-54.

Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J. & Austin, G. A. A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley,

1986.

Bruner, J. S. On Perceptual Readiness. Psychological Review, 1957, 64:123-152.

Calder, A. Constructive Mathematics. Scientific American, October, 1979,

241(4): 148-.

Carbonell, J. Mixed-Initiative Man-Computer Instructional Dialogues. Ph.D. Dissertation, MiTJune, 1970.

Carborsell, Jr., J. G. P'olitics: Automated Ideological Reasoning. Cognitive Science,

1978, 2, 27-51.

Catteil, R. B. Abililties: Their -Structure, Growth and Action. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin,

Charness, Nd. Memory for Chess Positions: Resistance to Interfirence. J. Exp.

Psychoi. Hum. Learn. Mem., 1976, 2:641-53.
Clifton, Jr., C. & Tash, J. Effect of Syllabic Word Length on Memory-Search Rate.

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 99:231-2386.

Collins, A. M. & Loftus, E. F. A Spreading-Activation Theory of Semantic Processing.

Psychol. Rev., 1975, 82:407-28.

Coltheart, V. Recognition Errors After Incidental Learning as a Function of Different

Levels of Processing. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem., 1977, 3:437-44.

Cooper, L. A. Individual Differences in Visual Comparison Processes. Percept.

Psychophys., 1907, 1 9:433-44.

Cooper, L. A. & Shepard, R. N. Chronometric Studies of the Rotation of Mental

Images. In: Visual Informtion Processing, Chase, W. G. (ed.), New York: Academic

Press, 1973.

Cralk, F. & Lockhart, q. A Framework for Memory Research. Journal of Verbal LearnIng and Verbal Behavior, 1972, 11:671-884.

Cralk, F. I. M. & Lockhart, R. S. Levels of Processing. A Framework for Memory

Research, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1972, 11:1371-684.

Cralk, F.I. M. & Watkins, M. J. The Role of Rehearsal In Short-Term Memory. JournalA

of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1973, 2:698-607.

Cralk, F.I.M. Human Memory. In: Ann. Rev. Psychol., 1979, 30:83-102.

Crowder, R. G. Principles of Learning and Memory. HillIsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum, 1976.

Cutting, J. E. Auditory and Linguistic Processes In Speech Perception. Inferences

From Six Fusions In Dichotic Listening, Psychol. Rev., 1976, 83:114-40.

D'Agostino, P. R., O'Neill, B. J., Palvio, A. Memory for Pictures and Words as a Function

of Level of Processing: Depth or Dual Coding? Mem. Cognit., 1977, 5:252-56.

-86-8- -

I
Dallas, M. & Merlkle, P. M. Semantic Processing of Non-Attended Visual Information.

Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1976, 30:16-21.

Davies, G., &' Cubbage, A. Attribute Coding at Different Levels of Processing. Q. J.

Exp. Psychol., 1976, 28:663-60.

Davis, J. H. Group Decision and Social Interaction. A Theory of Social Decision

Schemes, Psychol. Rev., 1973, 80:97-126.

Davis, J. H., Kerr, N. L, Sussmann, M. & Rissman, A. K. Social Decision Schemes

Under Risk. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 1974, 30:248-71.

deGroot, A. D. Thought and Choice In Chess. The Hague: Mouton, 1965.

LDhewan, M. & Pellegrino, J. W. Acoustic and Semantic Interference Effeceta In Words

and Pictures. Mere. Cognlt, 1977, 6:340-46.

DI Lollo, V. Temporal Characteristics of iconic Memory. Nature, 1977, 267:241-43.

Dion, K. L., Miller, N. & Magnan, J. A. Cohesiveness and Social Re3ponsibility as Determinants of Group Risk Taking. J. Pers. See. Psychol., 1971, 20:400-6.

-Douher, B. A. The Retrieval of Sentences From Memory. A Speed-Accuracy Study, Cognitive Psychology, 1076, 8-.291-310.

Egan, D. E. Accuracy and Latency Scores as Measures of Spatial Information Proaessing. Tech. Rep. 1224, US Naval Aerospace Med. Res. Lab., 1976.

Eketrand, B. R., Barrett, T. R., West, J. N. & Maier, W. G. Effect of Sleep on Human

Long-Term Memory. In: Drucker-Collin, R. R. & McGaugh, J. L. (eds.), Neurobiology of

81ep and Memory, New York: Academic Press, 1977.

Ernest, C. H. Imagery Ability and Cognition. A Critical Review, J. Mont. Imagery, 1977, 1:181:216.

-86-7 -

S. . . . .. .. .... .
Estes, W. K. The Cognitive Side of Piobabillty Learning. Psychological Review, 1978,

83:37-64.

Estes, W. K. Is Human Memory Obsolete? American Sclent-st 1980, 88:62-89.

Evans, S. R. A Brief Statement of Schema Theory. Psychonomic Science, 1987,

8:87-88.

Fillmore, C. Scsns3 and Frames Semantics, In: ZampoIll, A. (ed.), Linguistics Structures Processing, Amsterdam: North/Holland, 1977.

Flachhoff, B. "Hindsight/Foresight: The Effect of Outcome Knowledge on Judgement

Under Uncertainty." Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Por'-eption and Performance, 1975, 3:288-299.

Flexser, A. J. & TuivIng, E. Retrieval Independence in Recognition and Recall.

Psychol. Rev., 1978, 86:163-71.

Forelt, K. G. Short-lived auditory Memory for Pitch. Percept. Psy%hophys, 1978,

19:368-70.

Franks, J. J. & Bransford, J. D. Abstraction of Visual Patterns. Journal of Exper!mental Psychology, 1971, 90:86-74.

Freleriksen, J. A Chronometric Study of Component SAills in Reading. Cambridge,

Mass: Bolt, Beranek & Newman, 1978.

Frederikeen, N. & Ward, W. C. Measures for the Study of Creativity In Scientific

Problem-Solving. Appl. Psychol. Mess., 1978, 2:1-24. 1

Frey, P. W. & Adesman, P. Recall Memory for Visually Presented Chess Positions.

M10m. Cognit., 1976, 4:641-47.

Gardiner, J. M., Kise, H., Redman, G. & Ball, M. The Ro~e of Stimulus Material in Determining Release From Proactive Inf,"Ation. Q. J. Exp. Psychol., 1978, 28:395-402.

- 5-8 -
Gelselman, R. E. & Glenny, J. Effects of Imagining Speakers' Voices on the Retention

of Words Presented Visually, MNm. Cognit., 1977, 5:499-504.

Gibson, J. J. Conclusions from a Century of Research on Sense Perception. Paper

presented at American Psychologic•al Association Annual Meeting, September 5,

1979.

Givon, T. The Time-Axis Phenomenon. Language 1973, 49(4).

Glass, A. L. & Holyoak, K. J. Alternative Conceptions of Semantic Memory. Cognition,

1975, 3(4), 313-339.

Goldberg, Lewis R. Simple Models or Simple Processes? Some Research on Clinical

Judgements. American Psychologist, 1968, 23:484-.

Goldman, S. R. & Pellegrino, J. W. Processing Domain, Encoding Elaboration, and

Memory Trace Strength. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav., 1977, 16:29-43.

Goodenough, 0. R. The Role of Individual Differences In Field Dependence as a Factor In Learning and Memory. Psychol. Bull., 1976, 83:675-94.

Graesser, A. II. & Mandler, G. Limited Processing Capacity Constrains the Storage of

Unrelated Sets of Words and Retrieval from Natural Categories. J. Exp. Psychol.

Hum. Learn. Mem., 1978, 4:86-100.

A

Greeno, J. G. Indefinite Goals in Well-Structured Problems. Psychol. Rev., 1976,

83:479-91.

Greeno, J. G., James, C. T., & DaPolito, F. J. A. A Cognitive Interpretation of Negative

Transfer and Forgettings of Paired Associates. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal

Behavior, 171, 10:331-345.

Gregg, L. W. & Simon, H. A. Process Models and Stochastic Theories of Simple Conoept Formation. J. Math. Psychol., 1076, 4:246-76.

Griffith, D. The Attentional Demands of Mnemonic Control Processes. Mrn?. Cognlt.,

- 8-9 -
1976, 4:103-8.

Grosz, G. The Representation and Use of Focus In Dialogue Understanding. Stanford

Research institute, Menlo ParA, California, July, 1977.

Hasher, L. & Griffin, M. Reconstructive and Reproductive Processes In Memory. J.

Exp. Psych., 1978, 4:218-330.

Haviland, S. & Clark, H. What's New? Acquiring New Information as a Process in

Comprehension. J. of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1974, 18:512-621.

Hayes, J. R. & Simon, H. A. Psychological Differences Among Problem Isomorpha. In:

Castellan, N. J. Jr., Plsonl, D. D., & Potts, G. R. (ads.), Cognitive Theory, Hillsdale, N.J.:

Erlbaum 1977.

Hebb, ,.. 0. The Organization of Behavior. A Neuropsychologlcal Theory, New York:

Wiley, 1949.

Hilgard, E. R. Divided Consciousness. Multiple Controls in Human Thought and Action.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1077.

UHntzman, D. L. & Block, R. A. Memory Judgments and the Effects of Spacing. Journal

of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1970, 0:681-65.

Hlntzman, D. L. Theoretical Implications of the Spacing Effect. In: Solso, R. L. (ed.),

Theories In Cognitive Psychology, The Loyola Symposium, Hillsdale, New Jersey:

Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., 1974.

Hintzman, D. L., Block, R. A. & Summers, J. J. Modality Tags and Memory for Repetitions. Locus of the Spacing Effect. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,

1973, 12:229-238.

Hlntzman, 0. L. Effects of Repetition and Exposure Duration on Memory. Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 1970, 83:436-444.

Hockey, G. R., Davies, S., & Gray, M. M. Forgetting as a Function of Sleep at

- 5-10 -

S. .. ...
Different Times of Day. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1972,

24:386-393.

Hochberg, J. & Brooks, V. The Psychophysics of Form. Reversible-Perspective DrawIngs of Spatial Objects, American Journal of Psychology, 1980, 73:3,7-354.

Holyoak, K. J. & Glass, A. L. The Role of Contradictions and Counterexamples In the

Rejection of False Sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1976,

14:216-39.

Holyoak, K. J. & Waliker, J. H. Subjective Magnitude Information in Semantic OrderIngs. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1973, 16:287-99.

Hornby, P. A. The Psychological Subject and Predicate. Cognitive Psychology, 1972, 3:832-642.

Hull, C. L. Quantitative Aspects of the Evolution of Concepts. An Experimental Study.

Psycho!ogical Monographs, 1920, 28, (whole No. 123).

Hundal, P. S. & Horn, J. L. On the Relationships Between Short-Term Learning and

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence. Appl. Psychol. Meas., 1977, 1:11-21.

Hunt, E., Lunneborg, C. & Lewis, J. What Does It Mean to be High Verbal? Cognitive

Psychology, 1975, 7:194-227.

Hunt, E. Mechanins of Verbal Ability. Psychological Review, 197C•, 86:109-130.

Hunt, E. Intelligence As an Information Processing Concept. Presented at British

Psychological Society Conference, April 1979, England. Department of Psychology,

MO-25, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98196

Jacoby, L. L. & Cralk, F. I. M. Effects of Elaboration of Processing at Encoding and

Retrieval. Trace Distinctiveness and Recovery of Initial Context, In: Cermak, L. W. &

Cralk, F. I. M. (eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory, New York: Wiley,

1079.

-51- i.-
Janis, I. L & Mann, L. Coping With Decisional Conflict. American Sc/iontlst, 1976,

84:667-67.

Jenk!ns, J. G. & Dallenbech, K. M. Obliviacence During Sleep and Waking. Amerin an

Journal of Psychology, 1924, 35, 6O6-M112.

Johnsen, N. F. Chunking: Associative Chaining Versus Coding. Journal of Verbal

Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1969, 8, 726-731.

Johnson, N. F. Organization and the Concept of a Memory Code. In: Coding

Proce ;ses In Human Memory, Milton, A. W., and Martin, E. (eds.), New York: Wl'ey,

1972.

Johnson-Laird, P. N. The Interpretation of the Passive Voice. Quarterly Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 1968, 20:69-73.

Katter, R.V., Montgomery, C.A., and Thompson, J.R. Cognitive Processes In Intelligence

Analysis: A Descrlrtive Model and Review of the Uterature. ARI Technical Rep ,rt No.

445. February, 1980.

Katter, R.V., Montgomery, C.A., and Thompson, J.A. Human Processes in Intelligence j

Analysis: Phase I Overview. ARI Research Report No. 1237, February, 1980.

Katter, R.V., Montgomery, C.A., and Thompson, J.R. Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) Production Model. ARI Resear-h Report No. 1210 September, 1979.

Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. Subjective Probability. A Judgment of Representativeness, Cognitive Psychology, 1972, 3:430-454.

Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk.

Econometrica, 1979, 47:283-91.

Keele, S. W. Attention Demands of Memory Retrieval. Journal of Experimental

Psychology, 1972, 93:246-48,

Keenan, J. M., MacWhinney, B. & Mayhew, D. Pragmatics In Memory: A Study of

- 6-12 -

II

1
Natural Convers0tion. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav., 1977, 16:549-60.

Kihlstrom, J. F. Organization of Recall In Episodic Memory and Posthypnotic Amnesia.

American Psychological Association Annual Meeting, September 5, 1979.'

Kintach. W. & Bates, E. Recognition Memory for Statements from a Classroom Lecture. J. Fixp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem., 1977, 3:160-59.

Kintech, W. & van Dik, T. A. Toward a Model of Text Comprehension and Production.

Psychological Revifiw, 1978, 85(6,.

Koffka, K. Principles of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt-Brace, 1935.

Kohler, W. Dynamics in Psychology. New York: Liveright, 1940.

Kohler, W. G, ,alt Psychology. New York: Liveright, 1947.

Kolers, P. A. Three Stages of Reading. In: H. Loving & J. Williams (eds.), Basic Studies In Reading, New York: Basic Books, 1970.

Kotovsky, K. & Simon, H. A. Empirical Tests of a theory of Human Acquisition of Concepts for Sequential Patterns. Cogn. Psychol., 1973, 3:399-424.

Kraft, R. N. & Jenkins, J. J. Memory for Lateral Orientation of Slides in Picture

Stories. Mem. Cognit., 1977, 5:397-W30.

Kutas, M. & Hillard, S. A. Reading Senseless Sentences: Brain Potentials Reflect

Semantic Incongruity. Science, 1980, 207:203-204.

Lakoff, G. Linguistic Gestalts. In: Proceedings of the Chicago Linguistics Society

(CLS13). Chicago, IIl., University of Ch!cago, 1977, pp. 236-287.

Lambert, R. Risky Shift in Relation to Choice of Metric. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 1972,

8:815-18.

-6-13 -
Lamm, H. & Trommsdorff, G. Group Versus Individual Performarre on Tasks Requiring

Ideational Proficiency (brainstorming). A Review. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol., 1973,

3:361-88.

Laughlin, P. R. Selection Versus Reception Concept-Attainment Paradigms for Individuals and Cooperative Pairs. J. Educ. Psychol., 1 972, 63:116-22.

Laughlin, P. R. & Bitz, D. S. individual Versus Dyadic Performance on a Disjunctive

Task as a Function of Initial Ability Level. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 1976, 31:487-96.

Laughlin, P. R., Kerr, N. L., Davis, J. H., Haiff, H. M. & Marlniak, K. A. Group Size,

Member Ability, and Social Decision Schemes on an Intellective Task. J. Pets. Soc.

Psychol., 1975, 31:622-36.

Lawless, H. & Engen. T. Associations to Odors: Interference, Mnemonics, and Verbai

Labeling. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum Learn. Mem., 1977, e 52-59.

Lewis, J. L. Semantic Processing of Unattended Messages Using Dichotlc Listening.

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 86:225-228.

Loftus, E. F. & Cole, W. Retrieving Attribute and Name Irformation from Semantic

Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1974, 102:1116-22.

Loftus, E. F. & Palmer, J. C. Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction. An Example of

the Interaction Between Language and Memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1974, 13:585-589.

Loftus, E. F. & Zanni, G. Eyewitness Testimony The Influence of the Wording of a

Question. Bulletin of the Psychonomlc Society, 1975, 6:86-88.

Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G. & Burns, H. J. Semantic Integration of Verbal Information into

a Visual Memory. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem., 1978, 4:19-31.

U• ?tue, G. R. & Loftus, E. F. The Influence of One Memory Retrieval on a Subsequent

Memory Retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 1974, 3:467-47 i.

-57-14-
Medlgakn, S. A. & McCabe, L. Perfect Recall and Total Forgetting: A Problem for

Models of Siort-Term Memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1971,

Sr10"101-11e.

Madigan, S. A. Reminiscence and Otem Recovery In Free Recall. Mem. Cognlt., 1976,

4:233-36.

Madigan, S. A. Intraserial Repetition arnd Coding Processes In Free Recall. Journal of

Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavlor, 1 969, 8:828-835.

Maidler, G. Organlzatkin and Repetition: An Extension of Organizational Principles

with Special Reference to Rote Learnihg. In: N!Isson, L. G. (ed.), Hl!lsdale, N. J.: Perspectives on Memory Resiterch,, Essays In Honor of Uppsala University's 500th

Anniversary, Erlbaum, 1978.

Mandler, J. & Johnson, N. Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and

Recall. Cognitive Psychology, 1977, 9:111-1 51.

Mandler, J. M. A Code in the Node. The Use of a Story Schema in Retrieval,

Discourse Proocsses, 1978, 1 14-35.

Mandler, J. M. & Ritchey, G. H. Long-Term Memory for Pictures. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum.

Learn. Mem., 1977, 3:386-96.

Martin, E. Generation-Recognition Theory and th& Encoding Specificity Principle.

Psychological Review, 1975, 82:160-153.

Martin, E. & Greeno, J. G. Independence of Associations Tested. A Reply to Hintzman, D. L., Psychological Review, 1972, 79:265-267.

Martin, E. Stimulus Encodin6 in Learning and Transter. In: Melton, A. W. & Martin E.

(ads.), Coding Processes In Human Memory, Washington, D. C.: Winston, 1972.

McDaniel, M. A., Friedman, A., & Bourne, Jr., L. E. Remembering the Levels of Information In words. Mem. Cognit., 1978, 6:156-64.

-56-15 -

:.1
McGaugh, J. L. Time-Dependent Processes In Memory Storage. Science, 1968,

15-3:1361-1388.

McTaguart, J. M. E. The Nature of Existence. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Preso, 1972.

Melton, A. W. & Irwin, J. M. The Influence of Degreo of Interpolated Learning on

Retroactive inhibition and the Overt Transfer oW Specific Responses. American Journhl of Psychology, 1940, 53:173-203.

Melton, A. W. The Situation with Respect to the Spacing of Repetitions and Memory.

Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1970, 9:596-806.

Melton, A. W. & Martin E. Coding Processes In Human Memory. New York: John Wiley

& Sons, 1972.

Meyer, G. E. & Maguire, W. M. Spatial Frequency and the Mediation of Short-Term

Visual Storag3. Science, 1977, 198:624-26.

MilUer, G. Semantic Relations Among Words. In: Halle, M., Bresnan, J. & Miller, G.,

(eds.), Linguistic Theory and Psychological Reality. Cambridge: MIT Preas, 1978.

MIFler, G. A. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. Some LUnlts on our Capacity for Processing Information, Psychological Atwlew, 1966, 63:81-97.

Miller, G. A., Galanter, E. & Pribram, K. H. Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New

York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960.

Miller, R. R. & Springer, A. 0. Amnesia, Consolidation, and Retrieval. Psychological

Review, 1973, 80:69-79.

Mischel, W. On the Interface of Cognition and Personality. Beyond the PersonSituation Debate, American PsychologIst, 1979, b4:740-.

Moray, N. Attention In Dichotic Listening. Affective Cues and the Influence of

Instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959, 11:69-80.

- 5-16 -
Moray, N. Listening and Attention. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1969.

Moray, N., Fritter, M., Ostry, D., Favreau, D. & Nagy, V. Attention to Pure Tones.

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1976, 28:271-83.

Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D. & Franks, J. J. Levels of Processing Versus Transfer

Appropriate Processing. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behdv., 1977, 16:619-33.

Morton, J. Two Mechanisms In the Stimulus Suffix Effect. Mem. Cognit., 1976,

4:144-49.

Murdock, Jr., B. B. Item and Order Information In Short-Term Serial Memory. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen., 1976, 106:191-216.

Nelson, D. L. Remembering Pictures and Words. Appearance, Significance, and Name.

In: Cermak, L. S. & Cralk, F. I. M. (eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory, New York: Wiley, 197G9.

Nemeth, C., Swedlund, M. & Kanki, B. Patterning of the Minority's Responses and

Their Influence on the Majority. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol., 1974, 4:63-64.

Newell, A. Production Systems: Models of Control Structures. In: Ct,4e, W. G. (ed.),

Visual Information Processing, New York: Academic Press, 1973.

Newell, A., Shaw, J. C. & Simon, H. A. The Processes of Creative Thinking. In: Gruber,

H. E., Terrell, G. and Wertheimer, M. (eds.), Contemporary Approaches to Creative

Thinking. New York: Atherton Press, 1962.

Norman, D. A. & Bobrow, D. G. On Data-limited and Resource iUmited Processes. Cognitive Psychulogy, New York: Academic Press, 1976, 7:44-64.

Norman, D. A. & Bobrow, D. G. Descriptions: A Basis for Memory Acquisition and

Retrieval. Cen. Hum. Inf. Process. Tech. Rep. 74., 1977, pp. 24.

- 5-17 -
Norman, D. A., Rumelhart, D. E. & the LNR Research Group. Explorations In Cognition.

San Francisco: Freeman, 1976.

Oden, G. C. Integration of fuzzy logical Information. J. Exp. Psych.:Hum. Perc. and

Perf. 1977, 3:568-76.

O'NelI, M. E., Sutcliffe, J. A. & Tulving, E. Retrieval Cues and Release from Proactive

Inhibition. Am. J. Psychol., 1976, 89:636-43.

Ornstein, P. A., Naus, M. J. & Liberty, C. Rehearsal and Organizational Processes in

Children's Memory. Child Development, 1976, 46:818-830.

Ortony, A. Why Metaphors are Necessary and Not Just Nice. Educational rheory,

1976, 26:46-53.

Oskamp, S. "Overconfidence in Case-Srudy Judgments." Journal of Consulting

Psychology, 1965, 29: 261-266.

Pachelia. The Effect of Set on the Tachistoscopic Recognition uf Pictures. on: AtteMtion and Performance, P. M. A. Rabbitt and S. Dornig (eds.), New York: Acader

Press, 1976.

Paivio, A. Imagery In Recall and Recognition. In: Brown, J. (ed.), Recall and Recognition, New York: Wiley, 1976.

Paivio, A. Perceptual Comparisons Through the Minds's Eye. Memory and Cognition,

1976, 3:636-647.

Patterson, K. E. & Baddeley, A. D. When Face Recognition Fails. J. Exp. Psychol.

Hum. Learn. Meom., 1977, 3:408-17.

Payne, J. W., Braunstein, M. L. & Carroll, J. S. Exploring Predecisional Behavior: An

Alternative Approach to Decision Research. Organizetional Behavior and Human Performance, 1U978, 22:17-44.

- 6-18 -
Perfetti, C. A. & Goldaman, S. R. Discourse Memory and Reading Comprehension Skill.

J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Bohmv., 1978, 14:33-42.

Pertetti, C. A. & Lesgoid, A. M. Discourse Comprehension and Sources of Individual

Differences. In: Just, M. & Carpenter, P. Ceds.), Cognitive Processes anW

Comprehension, Hillsdale, N.J.: Eribaum, 1977.

Piemons, J. K., Willis, S. L. & Baltes, P. B. Modifiability of Fluid intelligence In Aging. A

':short-Term Longitudinal Training Approach, J. Gerontol, 1978, 33:224-31.

Posner, M. 1. & Mitcheil, R. F. Chronometric Analysis of Classification. Psychological

Review, 1987, 74:392-409).

Posner, M. 1. & Soles, S. W. Componenta of Attention. Psychological Review, 1971,

78:391 -408.

Posner, M. 1. & Keele, &. W. Time and Space as Measures of Mental Operations.

Paper presented to the Meeting of the Aqmerican Psychological Assochetion, Miami

Beach, September, 1970.

Posner, M. 1. & Klein, R. On the Function of Consciousness. Paper Presented to the

Fourth Conference on Attention and Performance. Boulder, Colorado, August, 1971.

Posner, M. 1. & Snyder-, C. R. R. Facilitation and inhibition In the ProcesainC of Signals.

In: Rabbltt, P. M. A. and 00mbi, S. (eds..i, Attention and Perfornmane V. ftaw York:

Academic Press, 1976.

Pomner, M. I., Goldsmith, R. & Welton, Jr., K. E. Perceiv~d Distance and the Classification of Distorted Patterns. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1987, 73:28-38.

Posner, M. 1. & Warren, R. E. Traces, Concepts, and Conscious Constructions. In:

Meiton, A. W. & Martin, E. (ode.), Coding Processes In Human Memory, New York:

Wiley 1972.

Rabinowitz, J. C., Mandier, G. & Barsalou, L. W. Recognition Failure: Another Case of

Retrieval Failure. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Bobay., 1977, 16:039-83.

- i5-19A
Raitta, H. Decision Andalyss: Introductory Lectures on Choice& Under Uncertainty.

Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Weslev, 1968.

Reed, S. F., Ernst, 6. W. & flanerjl, R. The Role of Analogy In Transfer Between Similar

Problem States. Cognitive Psychology, 1974, 6:436-450.

Reed, S. K.. Pattern Recognition and Categorization. Cognitive Psychology, 1972,

3.383-407.

Relchman, R. Conversational Coherency. Cognitive Science, 1978, 2:283-327.

Reacher, N. & Urquhart, A. Temporal /logic. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1971.

Restak, R. The Brain: The Last Frontier. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Comnpany, Inc., 1979.

Restie, F. Structural Ambiguity In Serial Pattern Learning. Cogn. Psychoi., 1976,

8:367-81.

Reyna, V. F. Prototype and Relational Models of Categorization. Paper presented to

Annual Meeting of American Psychological Association September 5, 1979.

Rieger, C. Conceptual hieinory and Inference. In: Schank, R. C.,(ed.), Conceptual

Information Processing, Amsterdam: North Holland, 1976.

Rock, 1. A. Neglected Aspect of the Problem of Recall: The Hotfding Function. In:

Scher, J. M. (ad.), Theories of the Wind, New York: Free Press, 1982.

Roediger, Ill, H. L., Knight, Jr., J. L. & Kantowitz, S. Inferring Decay In Short-Term

Memory. Mom. Cognit, 1971, 6:187-76.

Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A. & Kirker, W. S. Self-Peference and the Encoding of Pe, - sonal Information. J. Pers. Soc. Psycho'., 1977, 36:677-88.,

Roach, E. Principles of Categorization~. In: Cognition and Categorization, New York.

-6-20-
Wiley, 1978.

Roach, E. H. Cognitive Representation$ of Semantic Categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General, 1976, 104:192-233.

Roach, E. H., Mervis, C. B., Gray, W. D., Johnson, 0. M. & Boyes-Braem, P. Basic

Objects In N~atural Categories, Cognitive Psychology, 1976, 8:382-439.

Roach, E., Simpson, C. & Miller, R. S. Structurai Bases of Typicality Effects. Journal

of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 1976, 2:491-602.

Rothenberg, A. The Process of Janusian Thinking In Creativity, Archives of General

Psychiatry, 1971, 24:195-206

Fkwe, E. J. & Roe, W. G. Stimulus Suffix Effects with Speect, and Non-Speech

6 inds. NMai. Cognit., 1976, 4:128-31.

Rumeihart, D. E. & Ortony, A. The Representation of Knowledge In Memory. Center

Rumeihart, 0. E. Understanding and Summarizing Brief Stories. In: Laberge, 0.&

Samuels, J. (eds.), Basic Processes In Reading: Perception and Comprehension, Hillsdale, N. J.: Eribaum, 1977.

Rumeihart, D. E. & Ortony, A. The Representation of Knowledge In Memory. In Andersom, R. C., Spiro, R. J., & Montague, W. E. (eds.), Schooling and the Acquisition of

Knowledge. Hillsdale, N.J.: Eribaum, 1977.

Ruspini, E. H. A Theory of Mathematical Classification. Ph.D. Dissertation, School of

Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 1977.

Backs, H. V, & Eysenck, M. W. Convergence-Divergence and the Learning of Concrete and Abstract Sentences. Br. J. Psychoi., 1977, 88:215-21.

Schank, R. C. Conceptual Dependency: A Theory of Natural Language Understanding.
Cogn. Psychol., 1972, 3:552-631.

Schank, R. C. The Structure of Episodes in Memory. Ini: Bobrow, D. & Collins, A.,

(eds.), Representation atid Uinderstanding, Now York: Academic Press, 197.5

Schank, R. C. & Abelson, R. P. Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding. Hillsdale, N.

J.: Erlbtium, 1977.

Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. Controlled and Automatic Human Information ProcessIng: I Detection, Searc.), and Attention. Psychal. Rev., 1977, 84:1 -86.

Schwartz, S. Individua! flifferences In Cognition. Some Relationships Between Personality and Memory, J. Res. Pers., 1976,19:21 7-25.

Shepard, R. N. & Metzler, J. Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects. Science,

1071, 171: 701-703.

Shlffren, R. M. & Schneider, W. Controlled and Automatic I-luman Information ProcessIng. 11, Perceptual Learning, Automatic Attending, and a General Theory. Psychol.

Rev., 1977, 84: 127-90.

Shiftrin, R. M. & Grantham, D. W. Can Attention be Allocated to Sensory Modalities?

Perception and Psychophyslcs, 1974, 6:190-215.

Shriftrin, R. M. Short-term Store: The Basis for a Memory System. In: Restle, F.,

Shiffrin, R. M., Castellan, N. J., Llndman, H. R. & Pisoni D. B. (eds.), Cognitive Theory,

Vol 1, Hillisdale, N. J.- Erlbaum 1975.

Sikiossy, L. A Language-Learning Heuristic Program. Cogn. Psychol., 1971, 2:4 79-

95.

Silva, G. & Montgomery, C. A. Knowledge Representation for Automateci UnderstandIng of Natural Language Discourse. In: Computers and the Humanities, Vol. it, Pergamon Press, 1078.

Simon, H. A. & Hayes, J. R. The Understanding Process: Problem lsomorphs. Cognitive

-8-22-
Psychology, 1976, 8:166-90.

Simon, H. A. How Big is a Chunk? Science, 1974, 183:482-88.

Siple, P., Fischer, S. 0. & Bellugi, U. Memory for Nonsemantic Attributes of American

Sign Language Signs and English Words. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav., 1977, 16:561-

74.

Smith, E. E., Shoben, E. J. & Rips, L. J. Structure and Process in Semantic Memory. A

Featural Model for Semantic Decisions, Psychological Review, 1974, 81, 214-241.

r

Sperling, G. The Information Available in Brief Visual Presentations. Psychological

Spyropoulos, T. & Ceraso, J. Categorized and Uncategorized Attributes as Recall

Cues. The Phenomenon of Limited Access, Cognit. Psychol., 1977, 9:384-402.

Steiner, I. D. Whatever Happened to the Group in Social Psychology? J. Exp. Soc.

Psychol., 1974, 10:93-108.

Steiner, I. D. Group Process and Productivity. New York: Academic, 1972.

Sternberg, R. J. Intelligence, lnfi.d'mation Processing, and Analogical Reasoning. The

Componential Analysis of Human Abilities. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum, 1977.

Sternberg, S. Memory Scanning. New Findings and Current Controversies, Quarterly

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1975, 27:1-32.

Sternberg, S. High-Speed Scanning in Human Memory. Science, 1966, 153, 662-

654.

Thomas, A. L. Ellipsis. The Interplay of Sentence Structure and Context, Lingua,

1979, 47:43-68.

Thorndyke, P. W. The Role of Inferences in Discourse Comprehension. J. Verb. Learn.

-6-23-

Ib
Verb. Behav., 1976, 16:437-46.

I ,orndyke, P. W. Cognitive Structures in Comprehension and Memory of Narrative

Discourse. Cognitive Psy-hology, 1977, 9:77-110.

Till, R. E. Sentence Memory Prompted with Inferential Recall Cues. J. Exp. Psychol.

Hum. Learn. Mem., 1977, 3:129-41.

Treisman, A.M. Conceptual Cues In Selective Listening. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1980, 12:243-48.

Tulving, E. & Pearistone, Z. Availability Versus Accessibility of Information in Memory

for Words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1966, 6:381-391.

Tulving, E. & Watkins, 0. C. Recognition Failure of Words with a Single Meaning.

Mere. Cognit., 1977, 5:613-22.

Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability. Cognitive Psychology, 1973, 6:207-232.

Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. Belief In the Law of Small Numbers. Psychological Bulletin, 1971, 76:106-110.

Tversky, A. Features of Similarity. Psychological Review, 1977, 84:327-362.

Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.

Science, 1974, 185:1124-1131.

Tversky, A. & Gstl, 1. Studies of Similarity. In: Cognition and Categorization, E.

Rosch and B. Lloyd (ads.), New York: Wiley, 1978.

Underwood, B. J. Attributes Cf Memury. Psychological Review, 1969, 76:559-573.

Underwood, B. J., Boruch, R. F. & Malmi, R. A. Composition of Episodic Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1978, 107:393-419.

-6-24-

S=I
ypi Underwood, B. J. Forgetting. Scientific American, 1964, 482 (reprint).

Underwood, B. J. Individual Differences as a Crucible in Theory Construction. Afr..-

can Psychologist, 1975, 30:128-134.

Underwood, B. J. Interference and Forgetting. Psychological Review, 1957, 64:49-

80.

Underwood, B. J., Bouch, R. F. & Malmi, R. A. The Composition of Episodic Memory.

Tech. Rep. Northwestern Univ. Dep. Psychol., Evanston, II!., 1977, 79 pp.

Undheim, J. 0. Ability Structure in 10-11 Year Old Chi!dren and the Theory of Fluid

and Crystalized Intelligence. J. Educ. Psycho!., 1976, 68:411-23.

Verbrugge, R. R. & McCarrell; N. S. Metaphoric Comprehension. Studies in Reminding

end Resembling, Cognlt. Psychol. 1977, 9:494-533.

Warren, R. M. Perceptual Restoration of Missing Speech Sounds. Science, 1970,

167:392-93.

Watkins, M. J. & Watkins, 0. C. Processing of Recency Items for Free-recall. Journal

of Experimental Psychology, 1 974, 102:488-493.

Watkins, M. J. When Is Recall Spectacularly Higher Than Recognition. Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 1974, 102:161-63.

Watkins, M. J. & Tulving, E. Episodic Memory. When Recognition Fails, J. Exp.

Psychol. Gen., 1975, 104:6-29.

Wickelgren, W. A., & Corbett, A. T. Associative Interference and Retrieval Dynamics

In Yes-No Recall and Recogniton. 1kurnal of Experimental Psychology, Human LearnIng and Memory, 1977, 3:189-20,.,

Wickelgren, W. A. Rehearsal Groip'nj and the Hierarchical Organization of Serial

Position Cues in Short-Term Memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,

1967, 19:97-102.

- 5-26 -
Wickelgren, W. A. Cognitive Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall 1979.

Wickens, D. D. Some Characteristics of Word Encoding. Memory and Cognition,

1q73, 1-485-490.

Wickens, D. D., Born, G. G. & Allen, C. K. Proactive Inoibition and Item Similarity in

Short-Term Memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1963, 2:440-

445.

Wickens, D. D., Dalezman, R. E. & Eggemeler, F. T. Multiple Encoding of Word Attributes In Memory. Mem. Cogn/t., 1976, 4:307-10.

Wickens, T. D. ' r~illward, R. B. Attribute Elimination Strategies for Concept Identifi- Scation with Expetienced Subjects. J. Math. F-sychol., 1971, 8:433-80.

Winograd, T. Frame Representations and the D-clarative/procedure Controversy. In:

Bobrow, D. & Collins, A. (eds.), Reptasentation and Understanding, Studies in Cognitive Science. New York: Academic Press, 1975.

Wollen, K. A., Weber, A & Lowry, 0. H. Bizarreness Versus Interaction of Mental

Images as Determinants of Learning. Cognitive Psychology, 1972, 2:618-623.

Woods, D. L. Hillyard, S. A. Courchesne, E. Galambos, R. Electrophysiological Signs of

Split-Second Decision-Making. Sclence 1980, 207:665-656.

Woods, W. A. What's in a Link. Foundations for Semantic Networks. In: Bobrow, D. 0.

& Collins, A. (eus.), Representation and Understanding. New York: Academic Press

1976.

Zadeh, L. A. Fu, K.-S. Tanaka, K. Shimura, M. Fuzzy 3ets end Their Applications to

Cognitive and Decision Processes. Academic Press 1976.

-56-26 -
DISTRIBUTION

ARI Distribution List

4 OASO (M&RAI 2 HOUSACOEC, Ft Ord, ATT'N: Library

2 MODA (DAMI*CSZI 1 HOUSACOEC. Ft Ord, ATTN: ATEC-EX-E-lHum Factors

I HODA (OAPE-PBA) 2 USAEEC, Ft Benjamin Harrison, ATTN: Ubrary

I HQOA (OAMA-AARI 1 USADACOC, Ft Benjamrin Harrison, ATTN: ATCP-H.R

1 HODA (OAPE.HRE.PO) I USA Comm-Elmc Sch, Ft Monmosuth, ATTN: ATSN-EA

1 HGOA (50110.101 I USAEC. Ft Monmouth, ATT'N: AMSEL-CT-HOP

I HODA IOAMI-OOT.C) 1 USAEC, Ft Monmouth, ATTN: AMSEL-PA--P

1 HODA (OAPC-PMZ.A) 1 USAEC, Ft Monmouth, ATTN: AMSEL-SI--CB

1 HODA (OACH.PPZ.AI I USAEC, Ft Monmouth, ATTN: C. Fad Dev Br

IHODA (DAPE-H RE) I USA Materials Sys Anal Agcy, Aberdeen. ATTN: AMXSY-P 1 HODA (DAPE-MPO-C) I Edgawvood Arsenal, Aberdeen, ATTN: SAREA-BL-H I HGOA (DAPE*DW) 1 USA Ord Ctr & Sch, Aberdeen, ATTN: ATSL-TEM-C

1 HOCA (DAPE-HAL) 2 USA Hum Engr Lab, Aberdeen, ATTN: Library/Dir HODA (DAPE-CPS) 1 USA Combat Arme Trig Sdl. Ft Beanning, ATT'N: Ad Supervisor

1 HGOA (DAFO-MFA) 1 USA Infantry Hum Rsch Unit, Ft Banning. ATTN: Chief

1 HOZ-A (DARD-APS-P) 1 USA infantry Sd, Ft Banning, ATTN: STESC-TE-T

IHOOA (DAPC-PAS- A) I USASMA. Ft Olin, ATrN: ATSS-LRC

I ODA (DUSA.ORI I USA Air Def Sch, Ft Bliss, ATTN: ATSA--CTD.-ME

1 HODA (OAMO.ROR) I USA Air Oef 5th. Ft Bliss, ATTN: Tech Lib

1HQOA (DASG) 1 USA Air Oaf Sid, Ft Bliss, ATTN: FILES

11 HODA IOAlO-PI) 1 USA Air Oaf Sd. Ft Bliss, ATTN: STEUD--PO

1 Chief, Consult Oiv IDA*OTSGI. Adelphi. MO 1 USA Crnd & General S~t Collae., Ft Leavenworths, ATTN: Lib

1 Mil Ant, Hum Res, OODR&E. OAD (EILSI I USA Cmii & Grieral S~t Coillage. Ft teaevenworth, ATTN: ATSW-SE-L

IHO USh.RAL, APO Seaittle ATTN: ARAGP-R 1 USA Cmii & General Stt Collag, Ft Leamnenworth. ATT'N: Ed Advisor

1 HO First Army, ATTN: AFKA.OI.TI 1 USA Combined Arms Cmbt 0ev Act, Ft Leavenworth, ATTN: Deoddr

2 HO Fifth Army, Ft Sam Houston I USA Combined Arims C'nbz 0ev Act, Ft Laavenworthd, ATTN: CCS

I Dir. Army Stf Studies Ofc, ATTN: OAVCSA IOSP) I USA Cosnhriiud Anne Cmbt 0ev sw Ft Lereaienwor d , ATTN* ATCASA

1 Ofc Chief of Stf, Studies Ofc 1 USA Comsbined Arms Cmbti 0ev Act, Ft Leasvenworth, ATTN: ATCACO-E

I OCSPER. ATTN: CPS/OCP 1 USA Combined Arms Cmbt Dow Act, Ft Leaenworth. ATTN: ATCACC-CI

1 The Army Lib. Pentagon, ATlTN: P553 Chief 1 USAECOM. Night Vision Lab, Ft Bavoir. ATTN: AMSEL-NV--'5

I The Army Lib. Pentagron, ATTNt AN PAL 3 USA Comiputer Sys Card, Ft Selvoir. ATTN: Tech Libraery

I Oft, Ant Sect of the Army (R&D) 1 USAMEROC, Ft Belvoir. ATT'N: STSFt3-DO

1 Tech Suppo,-t Oft. OJCS 1 USA Engq Sch. Ft Belvoir. ATTN: Library

I USASA, Arlington, ATTN: IARO-T 1 USA Topographic Lab, Ft Beivci;. ATTN: ETL-TD--S

I USA Rach Ofc. Durham. ATTN: Life Sciences Dir 1 USA Topographic Lab. Ft Balvoir. ATTN* STINFO Center

2 USARIE.I, Natick, ATTN: SGRt0.UE-CA 1 USA Topographic Lab. Ft Beivoir. ATTN: ETL-GSL

1 USATTC. Ft Clayton, ATTN: STETC.MO-A I USA Intelligence Ct, A Sch. Ft Huachuca. ATTN: CTD-MS

1 USAIMA. FtiBragg, ATTN: ATSU.CTO.OM 1 USA Intelligence Ctr & Sch, Ft Huac~huca, ATTN: ATS-CTD-MS

1 USAIMA, Ft B1ragg, ATTN: Marquat Lib I UISA Intelligence Ctr & Sd,., Ft Huachuca, ATTN: ATSI-TE

I US WAC Ctr & 5th, Ft McClellan, ATTN: Lib 1 USA Intelligence Ctr & Sch. Ft Huachuca, ATTN: ATSI-TEX -GS

1 US WAd Ctr & 5th, Ft Mcdlellsir., ATTN: Tng Dir 1 USA Intelligence Cur & 5th, Ft Huachuca, ATTN: ATSI--CTS-OR

I USA Ouartermaster Sch. Ft Lee. ATTN- ATSM-TE 1 USA Intelligence Ctr & Sch. Ft Huaichuce, ATTN: ATSI-CT-D-T

1 lntalliylance Material Dev Ofe. EWL. Ft Holabird 1 USA Intelligence Ctr & Sch. Ft Huaichuce. ATTN: ATSI-.CTtJ-CS

1 USA SE Signal 5th. Ft Gordon. ATTN: ATS504 A 1 USA Intelligenice Ctr & 5th, ;t Huaechuca, ATT'N: 0/ /SRO

1 USA Chaplain rtr & Sch. Ft Hamilton, ATTN- ATSC-TE.PO I USA Intelligence Ctr & Sch, Ft Huathuca, ATT'N: ATSI-TEM

1 USATSCH, Ft Eustis, ATTN: Educ Advisor 1 USA Intelligence Ctr & Sch. Ft Huactiuce. ATTN- Library

1 USA War College, Carlisle Barracks, ATTN: Lib 1 CDR. HO Ft Huechucs, ATTN: Tech Ref Div

2 WRAIfl. Neuropsiychiatry Div 2 CDR. USA Electionic Pr"gGrd,ATTN: STEEP-MT-S

I 0U. SDA. Monterey 1 HO, 'fCATA. ATTN: Tech Librery

I 1JSA oCept And Agey, Bethseda, ATTN: MOCA-MR 1 HO, TCATA. ATTN: AT CAT-OP.O, F, Hood

1 USA Concept Anal AgV ayid~esda, ATTN: MOCA.JF 1 USA Recruiting Cmii. F% Sherroen, ATTN: USARCPM-$

1 USA Arctic Teeo dtr. APO Seadle, ATTN: STEAC-PL-MI 1 Senior Army Adv.. USAFAGODITAC, Elgin AF Asux Fid No. 9

I USA Arctic Test dsr. APO Seattle, ATT'N: AMSTE-PL.TS 1 HO, USARPAC, DCSPER, APO SP Wi65W ATTN: GPPESE

1 USA Armament Cmii. Pedsto.e Arsenal. ATTN: ATSK-TEM I Stisnion Lib. Academy of Health Scdencs, Ft Sam Houston

1 USA Armamrent Cmd, Rods Island. ATT~N: AMSAR.TDC 1 Marine Corps Inst.. AT114: Oean-Mdl

I FAA-NAFEC, Atlantic City. Al'ITN: Library 1 HO, USiIC. Commandant. ATTN- Code MTMT

I PAA.NAFEC, Atlantic City, ATTN: Human EnrW Br I HO, USMC, Commandant. ATT'N: Code MFII-20-28

I FAA Aeronautical Ctr. Okli~ioms City. ATTN: AAC.44D 2 USCG Acad;emy, New London, ATTN: Admnission

2 USA Fid Arty Sch. Ft Sill, ATTN, Library 2 USCG Academy, New London, ATTN: Library

1 USA Armor Sth, Ft Knox, ATTN: Library I USCG Training Ctr, NY, ATTN. ý;O

I USA Armor 5th, Ft Knox, ATTN: ATSBO-.6 I USCG Tralning Ct, NY. ATTN: Edut Svc Oft

I USA Armor 5th, Ft Knox, A flN: ATS8.OT-TPi I USCG, Pvychol Raes Or, DC. ATTN: GP 1/62

1 iJSA Arsnnr Sth, Ft Kno's. ATTN: ATSB.CD-AO 1 HO Midd.Pangs, Br, MC Det, Guantico, ArrN: P15 Div '

6-1
I US Marine Corps Leaison Oft. AMC. Alexandria. ATTN: AMCGS-F I Oaf & Civil Init of Enviro 1ý,aicine. Cat.nv

I USATRADOC, Ft Monre. ATTN: ATRO-ED 1 AIR CRESS, Kensington. ATTN: Info Sys Or

6 USATRADOC, st Monroe. ATTN: ATPR-AD I Mi\ltlvroykiog"* Mieneste. Copenhagen

I USATRADOC. Ft Monroe. ATTN: ATTS-EA IM .rI y A(t' F- renc• Emossyv, ATTN: Doc Sac

1 USA Forces C , Ft McPherson, ATTN: Libtrary I- "1,P.A.,-Arsenal, TouloniNavol France

2 USA Aviatimo Test Ed. Ft Rucker. ATTN: STEBG-PO Prmn S p1 Hum Eng Rich Dv. Minisr

1 USA Agcv for Aviation Safety. Ft Runs- ATTN: Lbrarv of Ofefeý -

1 USA Agcv for Aviation Safety. Ft -:u':tr. ATTN: Educ Advisor I Pe'a Rich 01: r' AI'A. Israci DLferse Forces

1 USA Aviation Sch. Ft Rucker. ATTN: PO Drawer 0 1 Miunsteris van 1⁄2v,,rie. DOOP/KL Afd Socisal

1 HOUSA Aviation Sys Cmd, St Louis. ATTN: AMSAV-ZOR Psychologischie Zaken, The Hague, Netherlands

USA Aviation Sys Test Act.. Edweards AFE. ATTN: SAVTE-T

1 USA Air Oaf Sch. Ft Bliss. ATTN: ATSA TEM

I USA Air Mobility Rich & 0ev Lab. Moffett Flo, ATTN: SAVOL-AS

1 USA Aviation Sdt. Res Trg Mgt. Ft Rucker. ATTN: ATST-T-RTM

I USA Aviation Sc. CO, Ft RwFoer. ATTN: ATST-O-A

1 lO. DARCOM. %lexandria, ATTN: AMXCD-TL

I HO. OARCOM, Alexandria. ATTN: COR

1 US Military Academy, West Point ATTN: Serials Unit

1 US Military Academy. West Point, ATTN: Oft of Milt Ldrshp

1 US Military Academy. West Point. ATTN: MAOR

I USA Standardization Gp, UK, FPO NY, ATTN: MASE-GC

I Oft of Naval Rich, Arlington. ATTN: Code 462

3 Ofti of Naval Rath. Arlington. ATFT: Code 458

I Oft of Naval Rich, Arlington. ATTN: Code 450

1 Oft of Naval Rich. Arlington. ATTN: Code 441

1 Naval Aeroepc Med Res Lab, Pensacola. ATTN: Acous Sch Div

1 Navel Aerosoc Med Ret Lab Pensacola. ATTN: Coca LS1

I Naval Aerosoc Mod Rei Lat. Pensacola, ATTN: Code L5

1 Chief of NavPen. ATTN: i ars.OR

1 NAVAIRSTA. Nofolk, ATT'- Safety Ctr

SNay Oceanographic. DC. ATTN: Codc 6261, Charts & Tech

SCanter of Novel Anal. ATTN: D Ctr

I NavAirSysCom. ATTN: AIR- 313C

V 1 Nay BuMed. ATTN: 713

I NavHlelicopterSubSqua 2. FPO SF 96601

1 A .HIIL IFT) Williams AFE

1 AFHRL ITT) Lowry AFR

1 AFHRL (ASi WPAFB. OH

2 AFHRt. IDOJZ) Brooks Aý6

I AFHRL iDOJN) Lacklapd AFO '

1 HOUSAF (I NYSOi

1 HOUSAF DPXXAI

I AFVTG IRDI Randolph AFE

3 AMRL (ME) WPAFB. 014

2 AF Inst of Tsch. WPAFB, OH. ATTN: SNEiSL

I ATC iXPTDI Randolph AFE

I USAF AeroMed Lib. Brooks AFE (SUL-4l, ATTN: DOC SEC

1 AFOSR (NLI. Arlington

1 AF Log Cmcd, McClellan AFB. ATTN: ALCVPCR8

1 Air Force Academy, CO. ATTN: Dept of Bel Scri

5 NsvPers & Dev Ctr. San Diego

2 Navy Mao Neiuropsychiatric Rich Unit, San Diego

I Niv Electronic Lab. San Diego. ATTN: Res Lab

1 Nat TrngCan. Sa.i Diego, ATTN: Code 9000-Lib

I NavPostGraSi., Monterey, ATTN: Code 55A&

I NevPostG'a&h, Monterey, ATTN, Code 2124

I NavTrn•glquiOCtr. Orlando. ATTN: Tech Lib

1 US Dept of Labor, DC, ATTN: M:.npowor Admn

I US Dept of Justim. DC. ATTN: Drug Enforce Admin

I Nat Eur of Standards, DC. ATTN: Computer Info Section

1 Nat Cleawing House for MM-Info. Rockville

1 Denver Federal Ctr, Lalhewood. ATTN: BLM

12 Defenu Documentet'on Canter

• Dir Patch Army Ho Russeil Ofct. Canberra

Scie•nTf;c Aovsr Vil Bd, Army Ha. Russell 0Cct. Canoerra

M\il ria Air Attache. Austiran Embassv

I Cenrtre oe qecnerc.li Des Facteurs. H.,maint de ia Defense

%lationale Brussels Ws 27 Canadian Joint Staff Wasnngton

1 C Air Staff Royal Cansdiai AF. ATTN: Pors Std Anal Er

3 C&:ef Canadian Def Risci Staff. ATTN: CCROSIWI

4 Sritvn Oaf Staff. Br.tist E•oassy. Washington

6-2

IL -- - t.