By Christopher J. Mumola

BJS Policy Analyst

In 1999 State and Federal prisons held

an estimated 721,500 parents of minor

children. A majority of State (55%) and

Federal (63%) prisoners reported

having a child under the age of 18.

Forty-six percent of the parents

reported living with their children prior

to admission. As a result, there were

an estimated 336,300 U.S. households

with minor children affected by the

imprisonment of a resident parent. 

Parents held in U.S prisons had an

estimated 1,498,800 minor children in

1999, an increase of over 500,000

since 1991. Of the Nation’s 72 million

minor children, 2.1% had a parent in

State or Federal prison in 1999. 

A majority of parents in State prison

were violent offenders (44%) or drug

traffickers (13%), and 77% had a prior

conviction. Nearly 60% of parents in

State prison reported using drugs in

the month before their offense, and

25% reported a history of alcohol

dependence. About 14% of parents

reported a mental illness, and 70% did

not have a high school diploma.

This report is the latest in a series

based on the 1997 Survey of Inmates

in State and Federal Correctional

Facilities. Other BJS Special Reports

in this series have addressed substance abuse and treatment, mental

health, women and juvenile offenders,

and inmates’ military service.

 ̆ Since 1991 the number of minor

children with a parent in State or

Federal prison rose by over 500,000;

from 936,500 to 1,498,800 in 1999.

 ̆ The percentage of State and 

Federal prisoners with minor children

(56%) changed little since 1991 (57%).

 ̆ 22% of all minor children with a

parent in prison were under 5 years

old.

 ̆ About 46% of parents in prison lived

with their children prior to admission.

 ̆ About 90% of fathers in State prison

said that at least one of their children

now lived with their mother; 28% of

mothers said the father was the child’s

current caregiver.

 ̆ 10% of mothers and 2% of fathers

in State prison reported a child now

living in a foster home or agency.

 ̆ 40% of fathers and 60% of mothers

in State prison reported weekly contact

with their children.

 ̆ A majority of both fathers (57%) and

mothers (54%) in State prison

reported never having a personal visit

with their children since admission.

 ̆ Over 60% of parents in State prison

reported being held over 100 miles

from their last place of residence.

Highlights

1,324,900 173,900

Estimated 

number of minor

children, 1999

None 44.6% 37.0%

3 or more 15.8 20.5

2 15.8 18.5

1 23.8 24.0

Any 55.4% 63.0%

Minor children State Federal

Percent of prisoners, 1997

*Some prisoners had children in different homes.

Friends/other 4.9 10.4

Foster home/agency 1.8 9.6

Other relative 4.9 25.7

Child's grandparent 13.3 52.9

Child's other parent 89.6% 28.0%

Current caregiver*

43.8% 64.3%

Lived with children

prior to admission

Male Female

Percent of State inmate

parents, 1997

Visits 21.0 23.8

Mail 49.9 65.8

Phone 42.0% 53.6%

Any 62.4% 78.4%

Type of contact Male Female

Percent of State inmate

parents reporting monthly

contact with their children,

1997

In 1999 an estimated 721,500 State and Federal prisoners were parents 

to 1,498,800 children under age 18

Prior to admission, less than half of the parents in State prison reported

living with their children — 44% of fathers, 64% of mothers

Nearly 2 in 3 State prisoners reported at least monthly contact with their

children by phone, mail, or personal visits

August 2000, NCJ 182335

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

Incarcerated Parents

and Their Children
Over half of both State and Federal

prisoners reported having a child

under age 18

When interviewed during the 1997

Surveys of Inmates in State and

Federal Correctional Facilities, a majority of prisoners said that they were the

parent of at least one child under age

18 (table 1). Fifty-five percent of State

prisoners and 63% of Federal prisoners reported having a minor child.

Among State prisoners, women (65%)

were more likely than men (55%) to

have minor children. In Federal

prisons, similar percentages of men

(63%) and women (59%) had a minor

child.

Thirty-two percent of all prisoners said

that they had multiple minor children.

About 24% of both State and Federal

prisoners reported one minor child, but

Federal inmates (39%) were more

likely than State inmates (32%) to

report multiple children. Among State

prisoners, 45% of women had multiple

children compared to 31% of men.

Twenty-two percent of all minor

children with a parent in prison were

under 5 years old. The majority (58%)

of the minor children reported by State

and Federal inmates were less than 10

years old, and the average age of

these children was 8 years old.

State and Federal prisons held 

an estimated 721,500 parents 

of minor children in 1999

At yearend 1999 there were 1,284,894

prisoners in the custody of State and

Federal prisons, including an estimated

721,500 parents with minor children 

(table 2). Imprisoned parents were

predominantly male (93%) and held 

in State prisons (89%). In 1999 State

and Federal prisons held an estimated

667,900 fathers and 53,600 mothers of

minor children. 

Since 1991 the custody population of

State and Federal prisons grew by over

490,000 inmates, an increase of 62%.

As a result, the number of parents in

prison also grew sharply — by over

250,000 — from the 452,500 held in

State and Federal prison in 1991.

1.5 million children in the U.S. had a

parent in prison in 1999 — up by

more than 500,000 since 1991

The number of children with a parent in

prison also rose dramatically during the

1990’s. In 1991, there were an

estimated 936,500 minor children with

a parent in State or Federal prison. By

yearend 1999, this number had risen

by more than a half-million to an

estimated 1,498,800 minor children. 

Of the Nation’s 72.3 million minor

children in 1999, 2.1% had a parent in

State or Federal prison. Black children

(7.0%) were nearly 9 times more likely

to have a parent in prison than white

children (0.8%). Hispanic children

(2.6%) were 3 times as likely as white

children to have an inmate parent. 

At yearend 1999 an estimated

1,372,700 minor children had a father

in State or Federal prison, while

another 126,100 children had a mother

in prison. Since 1990 the number of all

female prisoners has grown faster

(106%) than that of male prisoners

(75%). As a result, the number of

children with a mother in prison nearly

doubled (up 98%) since 1991, while the

number of children with a father in

prison grew by 58% during this period.

 

2 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 

Mean 8 years

15-17 years 14.5

10-14 years 28.0

5-9 years 35.1

1-4 years 20.4

Less than 1 year 2.1%

Percent of minor children

of parents in State 

Age or Federal prison, 1997

Note: Children were assumed to have the same

race/ethnicity as the incarcerated parent.

*Includes children of other races.

Hispanic 301,600 2.6

Black 767,200 7.0

White 384,500 0.8%

U.S. total* 1,498,800 2.1%

Number Percent

Minor children in the U.S.

resident population with a

parent in prison, 1999

6 or more 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.2 0.7

5 1.7 1.6 3.6 2.3 2.2 2.7

4 4.1 3.9 7.3 5.0 5.1 4.1

3 8.7 8.4 13.7 11.1 11.3 9.7

2 15.8 15.6 18.7 18.5 18.7 17.1

1 23.8% 24.0% 20.5% 24.0% 24.0% 24.5%

Number of minor children

Yes 55.4 54.7 65.3 63.0 63.4 58.8

No 44.6% 45.3% 34.7% 37.0% 36.6% 41.2%

Have minor children (under 

age 18)

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of prisoners, 1997

Table 1. Percent of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, 

by gender, 1997

Note: Numbers are estimates based on responses to the 1991 and 

1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 

and custody counts from the National Prisoners Statistics program.

1991 852,300 794,500 57,800 84,200 78,300 5,900

1999 1,324,900 1,209,400 115,500 173,900 163,300 10,600

Number of minor children 

1991 413,100 386,500 26,600 39,400 36,500 2,900

1999 642,300 593,800 48,500 79,200 74,100 5,100

Number of parents

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State prisoners Federal prisoners

Table 2. Estimated number of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, 

by gender, 1999
Nearly half of all imprisoned 

parents were black; 

about a quarter were white

Among both State and Federal prisoners with minor children, blacks

comprised the largest racial/ethnic

group (table 3). In State prisons, 49%

of parents were black, 29% white, and

19% Hispanic. Among nonparent

State prisoners, the percentage of

blacks (43%) and Hispanics (15%)

were slightly lower, but the percentage

of whites was higher (39%). 

Blacks (44%) were the largest racial/

ethnic group among parents in Federal

prison, followed by Hispanics (30%)

and whites (22%). The racial distribution was almost reversed among

Federal prisoners without minor

children. Whites made up 43% of

nonparent inmates, while blacks

accounted for 27% of nonparents.

Nonparents in Federal prison were also

less likely to be Hispanic (23%).

Parents in State prison were slightly

younger than those in Federal prison.

Parents in State prison (16%) were

about twice as likely as those in

Federal prison (8%) to be age 24 or

younger. Overall, the median age of

parents in State prison was 32 years

old, compared to 35 years old among

parents in Federal prison. In State

prison, the median age of nonparents

was similar (33 years) to that of

parents. In Federal prison, the median

age of nonparents (40 years) was 5

years greater than that of prisoners

with minor children. 

 

Half of the parents in State prison

were never married

Of the parents in State prison, 23%

said that they were currently married, 

28% were divorced or separated, and

48% said that they had never been

married. In comparison, nonparents in

State prison were less than half as

likely to be currently married (9%), and

69% said that they had never married. 

While parents in Federal prison (36%)

were more likely than those in State

prison to be married, a similar percentage (25%) were either divorced or

separated. Thirty-eight percent of

parents in Federal prison said that they

had never been married, compared to

49% of the nonparents. 

A majority of parents in both State

(70%) and Federal (55%) prison

reported that they did not have a high

school diploma. Similar percentages

of parents in State (16%) and Federal

(20%) prison graduated high school,

but college attendance was nearly

twice as high among parents in Federal

prison (25% compared to 13% in State

prisons). About 12% of parents in both

State and Federal prison said that they

had not been educated past the eighth

grade. Overall, nonparents in both

State and Federal prison reported

similar levels of education as inmate

parents. 

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 3

Some college or more 13.4 13.4 25.0 30.1

High school graduate 16.1 14.9 19.8 20.8

GED 30.6 32.6 27.0 26.5

Some high school 27.1 23.6 16.7 10.7

8th grade or less 12.7% 15.5% 11.5% 11.9%

Education completed

Never married 47.7 69.2 37.6 48.8

Separated 7.2 3.9 6.0 5.3

Divorced 20.5 16.1 19.0 22.9

Widowed 1.6 2.2 1.6 1.8

Married 23.0% 8.7% 35.8% 21.2%

Marital status

Median 32 yr 33 yr 35 yr 40 yr

55 or older 0.6 5.6 2.5 15.8

45-54 6.6 13.3 12.8 22.1

35-44 32.1 26.0 35.1 23.0

25-34 44.9 30.1 41.8 27.9

24 or younger 15.8% 25.0% 7.8% 11.3%

Age

Other 2.8 3.8 4.0 6.7

Hispanic 18.9 14.5 30.0 22.9

Black non-Hispanic 49.4 42.8 44.0 27.0

White non-Hispanic 28.9% 38.9% 21.9% 43.4%

Race/Hispanic origin

Female 7.4 4.8 6.8 8.1

Male 92.6% 95.2% 93.2% 91.9%

Gender

Parents Nonparents Parents Nonparents

State Federal

Percent of prisoners, 1997 

Table 3. Selected characteristics of State or Federal prisoners, 

by whether the inmates were parents of minor children, 1997

a

Detail may add to more than 100% because some prisoners 

had multiple children living with multiple caregivers. b

Includes cases where parent reported that the child now lived alone.

Friends, others 5.3 4.9 10.4 6.8 6.4 11.9 b

Foster home or agency 2.4 1.8 9.6 1.3 1.1 3.2

Other relatives 6.4 4.9 25.7 6.2 4.2 33.9

Grandparent of child 16.3 13.3 52.9 12.2 9.8 44.9

Other parent of child 85.0% 89.6% 28.0% 87.6% 91.7% 30.7%

Child's current caregivera

Lived with children at time of admission 45.3% 43.8% 64.3% 57.2% 55.2% 84.0%

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997

Table 4. Percent of inmate parents in State or Federal prison who lived 

with their minor children at time of admission, by gender, 1997
Fewer than half of the parents in

State prison lived with their minor

children prior to incarceration

Prior to their admission, 46% of all

imprisoned parents lived with any of

their minor children (table 4). Among

parents in State prison, 45% said that

they lived with at least one of their

minor children compared to 57% of

parents in Federal prison. 

Mothers were more likely than fathers

to report living with their children prior

to admission. About 64% of mothers in

State prison and 84% of those in

Federal prison reported living with their

minor children prior to admission,

compared to 44% and 55% of fathers,

respectively. 

Because most inmate parents did not

live with their children prior to incarceration, the number of households

with children affected by the imprisonment of a resident parent is lower than

the total number of parents in prison.

At yearend 1999 an estimated 336,300

U.S. households with minor children

had a resident parent in State or

Federal prison. A total of 300,900 U.S.

households with minor children were

missing a resident father in prison, and

resident mothers were missing from

35,400 households. 

Fathers cite child’s mother as the

current caregiver; mothers cite

child’s grandparents, other relatives

When asked who is currently caring for

their minor children, over 80% of

inmate parents said that their child was

now living with the child’s other parent.

About 20% of parents cited grandparents and other relatives as caregivers,

and 2% had a child in a foster home,

agency, or institution.

Mothers and fathers in prison differed

sharply in their responses to questions

about their children’s current caregivers. Ninety percent of the fathers in

State prison reported that at least one

of their children was in the care of the

child’s mother, compared to 28% of

mothers who reported that one of their

children was in the care of the child’s

father. 

Mothers in State prison most often

identified the child’s grandparent (53%)

or other relatives (26%) as the current

caregiver. The percentage of fathers

in State prison who said that they had a

minor child in the care of either grandparents (13%) or other relatives (5%)

was much smaller. Mothers in State

prison (10%) were also more likely

than fathers (2%) to report that their

children were in the care of a foster

home, agency, or institution.

Mothers and fathers in Federal prison

also provided differing reports about

their children’s current caregivers.

Nearly all fathers in Federal prison

(92%) said that they had a minor child

in the care of the child’s mother,

compared to 31% of mothers who

reported the child’s father as the

current caregiver. As with State

inmates, a greater share of mothers

than fathers in Federal prison said that

a child was in the care of grandparents

(45% compared to 10%) or other

relatives (34% compared to 4%). 

One-third of mothers in prison had

been living alone with their children

in the month before arrest

In the month prior to their current

arrest, the households of most parents

in prison did not include their children

(table 5). Thirty-seven percent of

parents in State prison said that they

lived with any of their minor children in

the month before their arrest. The

parents who had lived with their

children were split between those who

had lived with both a spouse and the

child (20%) and those who were the

only parent living with the child (18%).

Among parents in Federal prison, a

higher percentage of parents (49%)

reported living with their children in the

month before arrest, and a higher

percentage (32%) came from

two-parent households.

Mothers in both State (58%) and

Federal (73%) prisons were more likely

than fathers (36% and 47%, respectively) to report living with their children

prior to arrest. Mothers (46% of State,

51% of Federal) were also more likely

than fathers (15% and 14%, respectively) to have been the only parent

living with the children in the month

before their arrest. Thirty-one percent

of the mothers in prison had been living

alone with their children compared to

4% of fathers.

4 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 

Mothers 4,300

Fathers 41,000

Federal prison 45,300

Mothers 31,100

Fathers 259,900

State prison 291,000

Total 336,300

Estimated households 

with minor children affected 

by the imprisonment of a 

resident parent, 1999

a

Two-parent households are those in which the prisoner lived with both

 their child(ren) and a spouse. b

Includes the prisoners' step-parents, stepchildren, stepbrothers, and stepsisters.

Did not live with their children 62.7% 64.4% 41.5% 51.0% 52.8% 26.6%

With non-relatives only 10.5 10.5 10.8 9.8 9.7 11.6

With other relatives 1.3 1.0 4.3 0.7 0.4 4.9 b

Parent and children only 5.9 3.9 30.9 6.3 4.2 34.8

In single-parent household 17.7% 15.4% 46.0% 16.8% 14.3% 51.3%

With non-relatives only 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.7 1.3

With other relatives 1.2 1.3 0.7 2.0 2.1 1.2 b

Parents and children only 18.2 18.7 11.7 29.4 30.1 19.6

In two-parent householda 19.6% 20.2% 12.5% 32.2% 32.9% 22.1%

Lived with their children 37.3% 35.6% 58.5% 49.0% 47.2% 73.4%

the month before arrest Total Male Female Total Male Female

Prisoner's household in State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997

Table 5. Households of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, 

by gender, 1997
40% of fathers and 60% of mothers

in State prison had at least weekly

contact with their children

Most parents in both State (80%) and

Federal (93%) prison reported having

some contact with their children since

their admission, either by telephone,

mail, or personal visits (table 6).

Among State inmates, 69% reported

exchanging letters with their children,

58% had spoken with their children

over the telephone, and 43% had

received a personal visit since admission. Higher percentages of parents in

Federal prison reported all types of

contact, with telephone calls and letters

each reported by 84% of parents and

personal visits reported by 56% of

parents. 

In State prisons, mothers consistently

reported more frequent contact with

their children than fathers. Mothers

(78%) were more likely than fathers

(62%) to report some type of monthly

contact with their children, and 60% of

mothers reported at least weekly

contact compared to 40% of fathers.

Nearly 40% of mothers in State prison

said that they spoke to their children by

telephone at least once a week, and

45% reported weekly mail contact with

their children. In comparison, fathers

reported weekly contact by telephone

(25%) or mail (27%) at lower rates. 

However, the frequency of personal

visits did not vary by gender. Similar

percentages of both mothers (24%)

and fathers (21%) in State prison

reported at least monthly visits from

their children. A majority of both

mothers (54%) and fathers (57%) had

never been visited by their children

since entering prison.

Among Federal inmates, mothers and

fathers had more similar levels of

contact with their children. About 70%

of mothers and 60% of fathers had

some type of weekly contact with their

children. Among mothers in Federal

prison, 56% reported weekly telephone

calls and 45% reported weekly mail

contact, compared to 49% and 34% of

fathers, respectively. Similar percentages of mothers (20%) and fathers

(23%) reported monthly visits, and just

over 40% of both had never been

visited since admission. 

Over 60% of parents in State prison

were held more than 100 miles from

their last place of residence

A majority of parents in both State

(62%) and Federal (84%) prison were

held more than 100 miles from their

last place of residence. However,

parents in State prison (17%) were

twice as likely as those in Federal

prison (7%) to be housed within 50

miles of their last residence. Parents 

in State facilities (11%) were also less

likely than those in Federal prison

(43%) to be held over 500 miles from

their last household. 

A majority of parents in prison were

violent offenders or drug traffickers

In both State (57%) and Federal (61%)

prison, a majority of the parents were

sentenced for either violent offenses,

such as homicide, sexual assault, and

robbery, or drug trafficking activities

(table 7). Violent offenses (44%) were

the most common type of crime for

which parents were serving time in

State prison, while 67% of the parents

in Federal prison were drug offenders.

Among State prisoners, parents (44%)

were less likely than nonparents (51%)

to be violent offenders. Parents in

State prison were more likely to be

serving a sentence for drug offenses

(24%) than nonparents (17%).

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 5

More than 500 miles 10.7 43.3

101-500 miles 51.2 40.7

50-100 miles 20.7 8.5

Less than 50 miles 17.4% 7.5%

last place of residence State Federal

Percent of inmate

Distance of prison from parents, 1997

Never 56.6 56.8 54.1 44.1 44.2 42.0

Less than once a month 22.2 22.2 22.1 33.4 33.0 38.5

At least once a month 13.9 13.8 14.7 15.1 15.3 12.0

At least once a week 6.6 6.5 8.0 7.1 7.1 6.6

Daily or almost daily 0.8% 0.7% 1.1% 0.4% 0.3% 0.9%

Personal visits

Never 30.8 31.6 21.0 16.1 16.4 12.3

Less than once a month 18.2 18.6 13.2 18.9 19.2 14.5

At least once a month 23.1 23.3 20.6 30.4 30.5 27.8

At least once a week 23.2 22.2 35.6 30.4 30.0 35.9

Daily or almost daily 4.8% 4.4% 9.6% 4.3% 3.9% 9.5%

Mail

Never 41.8 42.5 32.6 16.2 16.7 9.7

Less than once a month 15.4 15.5 13.8 11.3 11.4 9.2

At least once a month 16.5 16.6 15.3 23.2 23.1 24.9

At least once a week 19.8 19.2 27.0 36.3 35.9 41.2

Daily or almost daily 6.6% 6.2% 11.3% 13.0% 12.8% 15.0%

Telephone

Never 20.4 21.1 12.2 7.5 7.8 3.3

Less than once a month 16.1 16.6 9.7 10.0 10.3 5.0

At least once a month 22.2 22.6 18.0 23.8 23.9 22.0

At least once a week 31.2 30.3 42.4 43.7 43.4 48.5

Daily or almost daily 10.1% 9.5% 17.8% 15.1% 14.6% 21.1%

Any type of contact

of contact with children Total Male Female Total Male Female

Frequency and type State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997

Table 6. Frequency of telephone, mail, and personal contacts with children 

by parents in State or Federal prison, 1997

Public-order 10.3 9.3

Drug 23.9 16.7

Property 21.6 22.5

Violent 43.9% 51.1%

offense Parents Nonparents

Current Percent of State prisoners, 1997
Mothers and fathers were serving time

in State prison for different types of

criminal offenses. Forty-five percent 

of fathers in State prison were violent

offenders, compared to 26% of

mothers. Fathers in State prison (14%)

were more likely than mothers (6%) to

be convicted of robbery. Mothers were

more likely to be sentenced for drug

offenses (35% compared to 23% of

fathers) and fraud (11% and 2%).

The current offenses of mothers and

fathers in Federal prison were more

similar than those of State inmates.

Two-thirds of fathers and threequarters of mothers in Federal prison

were convicted of drug offenses. The

percentage of violent offenders among

both fathers (12%) and mothers (6%)

was much lower than in State prison,

while 5% of fathers and 10% of

mothers were property offenders. 

On average, parents expected to

serve 80 months in State prison 

and 103 months in Federal prison

Due to the large percentage convicted

of violent offenses and drug trafficking,

parents reported lengthy average

sentences — over 12 years (146

months) in State prison and 10 years

(121 months) in Federal prison (table

8). Over 40% of the parents in both

State (48%) and Federal (44%) prison

reported sentences of at least 10

years, including those sentenced to life

in prison or death (6% of State and 3%

of Federal).

Given their higher percentage of violent

offenders, fathers in State prison (150

months) reported sentences that

averaged almost 5 years longer than

those of mothers (94 months). Fortyeight percent of the mothers in State

prison reported sentences of less than

5 years compared to 15% of fathers.

Fathers in Federal facilities also

reported a longer average sentence

(124 months) than mothers (83

months). Mothers in Federal prison

(48%) were also about twice as likely

as fathers (25%) to report sentences 

of less than 5 years. 

6 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 

a

Includes murder and manslaughter. b

Includes rape and other sexual assaults.

Other/unspecified 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 1.0% 0.9% 1.5%

Other public-order 7.6 7.5 9.5 7.8 7.9 6.7

Weapons 2.7 2.8 0.9 6.9 7.3 1.1

Public-order offenses 10.3% 10.3% 10.4% 14.6% 15.1% 7.9%

Other drug 0.7 0.6 1.3 5.4 5.6 3.2

Trafficking 13.1 12.7 19.0 48.9 48.0 61.0

Possession 10.1 9.7 14.8 12.9 13.1 9.7

Drug offenses 23.9% 23.0% 35.1% 67.2% 66.7% 73.9%

Other property 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3

Stolen property 1.6 1.7 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.6

Fraud 2.8 2.1 11.3 3.7 3.3 8.9

Motor vehicle theft 1.5 1.6 1.2 0.2 0.3 0.0

Larceny 4.6 4.3 8.5 0.4 0.4 0.3

Burglary 10.2 10.6 5.4 0.3 0.3 0.1

Property offenses 21.6% 21.1% 28.3% 5.3% 4.9% 10.3%

Other violent 1.8 1.8 2.1 0.9 0.9 0.4

Assault 9.7 9.9 7.2 1.3 1.3 1.3

Robbery 13.2 13.8 6.4 7.8 8.1 3.4

Sexual assault 8.3 8.8 1.7 0.7 0.8 0.1 b

Homicide 10.9 11.1 8.6 1.2 1.2 1.3 a

Violent offenses 43.9% 45.4% 26.0% 11.9% 12.3% 6.5%

Current offense Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997 

Table 7. Current offense of inmate parents in State or Federal prison,

by gender, 1997

a

Excludes sentences to life or death.

b

Based on time served when interviewed plus time to be served 

until the expected date of release.

c

Excludes inmates who do not expect to be released.

Mean 80 mo. 82 mo. 49 mo. 103 mo. 105 mo. 66 mo. c

Do not know 5.1 5.0 6.5 3.2 3.3 1.8

No release expected 2.1 2.2 1.0 1.2 1.3 0.5

240+ months 5.3 5.6 2.1 6.9 7.3 2.2

180-239 months 4.0 4.2 1.5 7.1 7.4 3.2

120-179 months 8.7 9.1 3.6 14.9 15.4 8.3

72-119 months 16.6 17.2 8.9 25.1 25.6 17.8

48-71 months 15.7 15.9 14.0 18.1 18.1 17.2

24-47 months 23.1 22.9 24.9 15.0 14.5 22.9

Less than 24 months 19.3% 17.9% 37.5% 8.5% 7.2% 26.2%

served on current sentenceb

Estimated total time to be 

Mean 146 mo. 150 mo. 94 mo. 121 mo. 124 mo. 83 mo. a

Life/death 6.1 6.3 2.8 3.1 3.3 0.7

240+ months 19.1 19.9 9.4 12.2 12.7 5.8

180-239 months 8.9 9.1 6.3 9.0 9.2 5.2

120-179 months 14.0 14.3 10.7 19.6 19.7 18.1

60-119 months 22.5 22.4 23.2 30.0 30.6 22.4

36-59 months 13.2 12.7 19.9 13.2 13.0 16.2

12-35 months 13.1 12.5 20.3 10.6 9.5 26.3

Less than 12 months 3.1% 2.8% 7.3% 2.3% 2.1% 5.1%

Maximum sentence length

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997 

Table 8. Maximum sentence length and time to be served until release of State

and Federal prisoners with minor children, by gender, 1997
On average parents in State prison

expected to serve a total of 80 months 

prior to their release (55% of the mean

sentence length). Fathers (82 months)

expected to serve nearly 3 years more

than mothers (49 months). In State

prison 18% of parents said that they

expected to serve at least 10 years

before release. Two percent of

parents never expected to be released;

5% did not know their release date. 

Despite reporting shorter sentences

than parents in State prison, parents in

Federal facilities expected to serve an

average total of 103 months (85% of

the mean sentence length). Fathers in

Federal prison (105 months) expected

to serve about 3 years longer than

mothers (66 months). About 30% of

parents in Federal prison expected to

serve at least 10 years. Less than 5%

of parents in Federal prison either

never expected to be released (1%) or

did not know their release date (3%). 

Over 75% of parents in State prison

reported a prior conviction; 

56% had been incarcerated

At the time of their current arrest, 49%

of the parents in State prison were on

some type of conditional release from

custody, such as probation or parole

supervision in the community (table 9).

Of the parents in State prison, 25%

were on parole and 24% were serving

a sentence to probation supervision at

the time of arrest. 

Over three-quarters of parents in State

prison reported a prior sentence to

incarceration or probation, while the

remainder said that they were first-time

offenders. Almost half (46%) of

parents in State prison were violent

recidivists (repeat offenders with either

a current or past violent offense). Most

parents in State prison (60%) had

served multiple prior sentences. 

Among State prison inmates the criminal histories of parents and nonparents

did not differ appreciably. At arrest for

their current offense, about 45% of the

nonparents had a criminal justice

status and 74% had a prior conviction.

Overall, fathers in State prison reported

more serious criminal histories than

mothers. Fathers (25%) were more

likely than mothers (19%) to have been

arrested while on parole release from a

prior prison term. First-time offenders

made up a smaller share of fathers in

State prison (22% compared to 35% of

mothers), and fathers (48%) were also

twice as likely as mothers (23%) to be

violent recidivists. In addition, 44% of

fathers reported at least three prior

convictions compared to 32% of

mothers.

Parents in Federal prison (27%) were

almost half as likely as those in State 

prison (49%) to report a criminal justice

status at time of arrest, and less likely

to report a prior conviction (62%

compared to 77%). As in State prison,

fathers in Federal facilities (65%) were

more likely to be recidivists than

mothers (34%), particularly violent

recidivists (23% of fathers, 6% of

mothers). The percentage of fathers

(32%) reporting at least three prior

sentences was nearly triple that of

mothers (11%). 

A majority of parents in State prison

used drugs in the month before

their offense

More than 4 in 5 parents (85%) in State

prison reported some type of past drug

use, and a majority (58%) said that

they were using drugs in the month

before their current offense (table 10).

Nonparents in State prison reported

slightly lower levels of prior drug use.

Parents in State prison most commonly

reported using marijuana (39%) and

cocaine-based drugs (27%), including

crack, in the month before their crimes,

followed by heroin and other opiates

(10%), stimulants (9%), depressants

(5%), hallucinogens (3%), and

inhalants (1%).

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 7

a

Recidivists with at least one current or past violent offense.

b

Includes recidivists with unknown offense types.

11 or more 6.1 6.3 4.6 2.2 2.3 0.3

6-10 12.6 13.0 7.6 7.6 8.0 2.1

3-5 24.8 25.2 19.7 20.9 21.8 8.2

2 16.9 17.0 15.2 13.6 14.0 8.3

1 16.8 16.7 18.2 18.1 18.4 14.7

0 22.8% 21.9% 34.7% 37.5% 35.4% 66.3%

incarceration sentences

Number of prior probation/

Other recidivists 27.3 26.6 36.0 28.8 29.4 21.3 b

Drug recidivists only 3.7 3.6 6.1 11.4 11.8 6.6

Violent recidivists 46.1 48.0 23.2 22.2 23.4 5.6 a

Priors 77.2 78.1 65.3 62.5 64.6 33.7

None 22.8% 21.9% 34.7% 37.5% 35.4% 66.3%

Criminal history

Escaped from custody 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.8

On probation 23.7 22.6 37.0 14.2 14.3 12.5

On parole 24.8 25.2 18.6 12.7 13.4 2.8

Status 49.1 48.5 56.0 27.0 27.8 16.1

None 50.9% 51.5% 44.0% 73.0% 72.2% 83.9%

Status at time of 

current arrest

.

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997 

Table 9. Criminal histories of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, 

by gender, 1997

77.2% 74.0%

Had prior sentence to

probation or incarceration

49.1% 45.1%

Had a criminal justice

status at time of arrest

Criminal history Parents Nonparents

Percent of State

prisoners, 1997

At the time of the offense 33.6 31.5

In month before offense 58.1 54.9

Ever 85.4% 80.3%

Prior drug use Parents Nonparents

Percent of State

prisoners, 1997
A third of the parents in State prison

reported committing their current

offense while under the influence of

drugs. Parents were most likely to

report the influence of cocaine-based

drugs (16%) and marijuana (15%)

while committing their crime. About

equal percentages of parents in State

prison reported the use of opiates (6%)

and stimulants (5%) at the time of their

offense, while 2% used depressants or

hallucinogens.

1 in 3 mothers in State prison

committed their crime to get 

drugs or money for drugs

Mothers in State prison reported more

serious drug use histories than fathers.

Mothers in State prison (65%) were

more likely than fathers (58%) to report

drug use in the month before their

offense, particularly the use of cocaine

or crack (45% of mothers compared to

26% of fathers). Mothers (43%) were

also more likely than fathers (33%) to

report the influence of drugs in their

current offense. Mothers were about

twice as likely to have committed their

crimes while under the influence of

cocaine-based drugs (28%) or opiates

(11%) as fathers (15% and 5%,

respectively). 

In addition, 32% of mothers in State

prison reported committing their crime

to get drugs or money for drugs,

compared to 19% of fathers. Prior

intravenous drug use was also

reported more commonly by mothers

(29%) than fathers (19%).

While reports of prior drug use were

lower among parents in Federal prison,

3 in 4 had used drugs and nearly half 

used drugs in the month before their

offense. Twenty-three percent of

parents in Federal prison were under

the influence of drugs when committing

their offense. Aside from marijuana

use (higher among fathers), mothers

and fathers in Federal prison reported

similar drug use histories. 

Over a third of parents in State

prison committed their offense

while under the influence of alcohol

Parents in State prison were more

likely to report being under the influence of alcohol (37%) than drugs

(34%) while committing their current

offense (table 11). According to the

CAGE diagnostic instrument, 25% of

the parents in State prison reported

experiences that are consistent with a

history of alcohol dependence (for

details on the CAGE instrument, see

Methodology). Overall, parents and

nonparents in State prison did not differ

in their reports of prior alcohol abuse.

Parents in State prison also reported

engaging in troubled behaviors associated with prior alcohol abuse. About

48% of parents said that they had

driven drunk in the past, 42% reported

arguments with family members and

friends while drinking, and 39% had

alcohol-related physical fights. 

8 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 

19.0% 29.2%

Ever using

intravenous drugs

18.5% 32.2%

Committing offense to

get money for drugs

Male Female

Percent of inmate

parents in State 

prison who reported —

b

Includes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaalude. c

Includes amphetamine and methamphetamine.

d

Includes LSD and PCP.

Note: Detail adds to more than total because prisoners may have 

used more than one type of drug.

-- Not reported.

a

Other unspecified drugs are included in the totals.

Inhalants 6.7 6.9 4.6 0.5 0.5 0.0 -- -- --

Hallucinogens 17.1 17.4 13.0 1.7 1.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.4 d

Stimulants 18.3 18.2 18.9 6.7 6.6 8.1 3.4 3.3 5.0 c

Depressants 14.8 14.9 13.2 2.9 2.9 3.7 0.9 1.0 0.5 b

Heroin/opiates 14.7 14.9 12.2 4.7 4.6 4.7 2.7 2.6 3.4

Cocaine/crack 45.7 46.3 36.9 20.7 21.0 17.1 9.7 10.0 5.8

Marijuana/hashish 66.8 67.5 57.2 31.7 32.6 20.1 11.3 11.7 6.0

Any druga 75.2% 75.8% 66.4% 46.0% 46.6% 37.4% 22.6% 23.0% 17.9%

Federal prisoners, 1997

Inhalants 14.2 14.2 13.1 0.7 0.7 1.3 -- -- --

Hallucinogens 28.5 28.6 26.6 3.4 3.5 2.1 1.6 1.6 1.1 d

Stimulants 28.6 28.4 30.7 9.2 9.1 10.5 4.6 4.6 5.3 c

Depressants 23.9 23.7 25.9 5.1 4.9 7.1 1.8 1.8 2.3 b

Heroin/opiates 25.3 24.8 31.3 9.7 9.2 16.0 5.6 5.2 10.7

Cocaine/crack 53.3 52.2 67.2 27.1 25.7 44.6 16.0 15.0 28.3

Marijuana/hashish 79.0 79.8 69.4 39.3 40.3 27.5 15.2 15.7 8.8

Any druga 85.4% 85.4% 86.3% 58.1% 57.5% 65.3% 33.6% 32.9% 42.5%

State prisoners, 1997

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Using drugs at the

time of the offense

Using drugs in the 

Ever using drugs month before the offense

Percent of inmate parents who reported —

Table 10. Drug use of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997

36.7% 37.8%

Under influence of

alcohol at time of offense

Alcohol dependent 25.1% 23.7%

Prior alcohol abuse Parents Nonparents

Percent of State

prisoners, 1997
While similar percentages of fathers

(25%) and mothers (23%) in State

prison met the criteria for alcohol

dependence, fathers were more likely

to report other indications of alcohol

abuse. A greater share of fathers

(37%) than mothers (29%) reported

committing their crime while drinking.

Fathers in State prison were also more

likely than mothers to report driving

drunk (49% compared to 36%) and

getting into physical fights while drinking (40% and 31%, respectively). 

Compared to State prisoners, parents

in Federal prison were less likely to be

alcohol dependent (16%) or to report

committing their offense while drinking

(21%). Lower percentages of the

parents in Federal facilities also

reported alcohol-related fighting (22%)

and domestic disputes (30%). As in

State prison, fathers in Federal prison

were also more likely than mothers to

report drunk driving (44% compared to

27%) and alcohol-related physical

fights (23% and 14%, respectively).

About 1 in 7 parents in State 

prison reported indications 

of a mental illness 

In responses to questions regarding

mental health, parents in State prison

(14%) were twice as likely as those in

Federal prison (6%) to report indications of a mental illness (table 12).

Inmates were considered mentally ill if

they reported either of the following

criteria: a current mental or emotional

condition or an overnight stay in a

mental hospital or treatment program.

Reports of a mental illness were

somewhat higher among State prisoners without children (19%). 

Among parents in State prison, 23% of

mothers reported an indication of

mental illness compared to 13% of

fathers. Reports of mental illness

indicators were more similar among

mothers (10%) and fathers (6%) in

Federal facilities.

Nearly 20% of mothers in State

prison had been homeless 

in the year prior to admission

Mothers in State prison (18%) were

twice as likely as fathers (8%) to report

a period of homelessness in the year

prior to admission (table 13). Overall,

parents in State prison (9%) were more

likely than those in Federal prison (4%)

to report being homeless in the year

before admission. In Federal facilities,

similar percentages of mothers (5%)

and fathers (4%) reported periods of

homelessness.

In the month prior to their arrest, 29%

of parents in State and 27% of parents

in Federal prison said that they were

unemployed. Half of mothers in State

prison were unemployed in the month

before their arrest, compared to a

quarter (27%) of fathers. The level of

unemployment among mothers in

Federal prison was lower (38%) but still

exceeded that of fathers (26%). 

 

Forty-six percent of the parents in

State and 53% of parents in Federal

prison reported a personal income of 

at least $1,000 in the month before 

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 9

*Measured by 3 or more positive CAGE responses. 

For a description of the CAGE diagnostic measure see Methodology.

of beer, or 3 bottles of wine)? 41.4 42.3 30.4 29.8 30.6 18.9

in 1 day (20 drinks, 3 six-packs

Had as much as a fifth of liquor

Gotten into a physical fight? 39.2 39.8 31.3 22.4 23.0 14.3

41.7 41.8 39.5 29.8 30.1 25.3

Had arguments with your

spouse, family, or friends?

under the influence of alcohol? 47.6 48.5 35.7 42.4 43.6 27.1

Driven a motor vehicle while

While drinking have you ever —

at time of current offense 36.7 37.4 28.8 20.7 21.0 16.6

Under the influence of alcohol

History of alcohol dependence* 25.1% 25.3% 23.5% 16.3% 16.6% 12.7%

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997

Table 11. Alcohol dependence and experiences of inmate parents in State 

or Federal prison, by gender, 1997

*Reported either a mental or emotional condition or an overnight stay

in a mental hospital or treatment program. See BJS Special Report, 

Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and Probationers, July 1999, NCJ 174463.

hospital or treatment program 8.8 8.4 14.1 3.5 3.5 3.8

Admitted overnight to a mental

or emotional condition 8.9 8.3 15.7 3.6 3.2 7.9

Reported a mental

Mentally ill* 14.1% 13.4% 22.5% 5.9% 5.6% 10.3%

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997

Table 12. Mental health status of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, 

by gender, 1997

Mentally ill 14.1% 18.7%

Parents Nonparents

Percent of State

prisoners, 1997
their arrest. Parents in Federal prison

(15%) were nearly twice as likely as

those in State prison (8%) to report the

highest incomes (at least $5,000) in the

month before arrest. Mothers in both

State (70%) and Federal (66%) prison

were more likely than fathers (53% of

State, 45% of Federal) to report

incomes below $1,000 in the month

before arrest.

In the month before their current arrest,

nonparents in State prison were less

likely than parents to be employed

(65%), or to report at least $1,000 of

personal income (38%). Nonparents in

State prison also reported a higher

incidence of homelessness in the past

year prior to admission (12%). 

Wages or salary were the most

common source of income for parents

in both State (66%) and Federal (68%)

prison, followed by income from illegal

activities (27% of State, 31% of

Federal). Eighteen percent of parents

in State and 13% in Federal prison

reported income from family and

friends. Parents in State prison (15%)

were more likely than those in Federal

prison (9%) to report receiving transfer

payments such as welfare, Social

Security, or compensation payments.

Less than 1% of all parents received

child support or alimony payments in

the month before arrest. 

Among State prisoners, mothers (44%)

were less likely than fathers (68%) to

receive wages in the month before

their arrest, but were more likely to

receive transfer payments (42%,

compared to 13% of fathers) and

income from family or friends (26% and

18%). About 6% of mothers

reported receiving child support or

alimony payments, compared to less

than 0.5% of fathers. Mothers (28%)

and fathers (27%) in State prison were

equally likely to report income from

illegal sources in their final month prior

to arrest. 

10 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 

Homeless in the past year 9.2% 12.3%

46.0% 38.2%

Income of at least $1,000 

in month before arrest

70.9% 64.8%

Employed during month

before current arrest

Parents Nonparents

Percent of State

prisoners, 1997

compensation and Veteran's

Compensation.

c

Includes pensions, educational assistance, investments, and other unspecified types of income.

a

Detail may add to more than 100% because 

prisoners may have had multiple sources of income. b

Includes welfare, Social Security, Supplemental 

Social Security income, and compensation payments

such as unemployment insurance, workman's 

9.2% 8.5% 18.4% 3.8% 3.7% 5.0%

Homeless in the past year, living

on the street, or in a shelter?

Other 3.4 3.4 2.8 6.0 6.1 4.1 c

Illegal sources 27.2 27.1 28.1 30.6 31.1 23.7

Child support/alimony payments 0.6 0.1 6.5 0.6 0.2 6.3

Family/friends 18.4 17.8 26.1 13.3 12.7 22.2

Transfer payments 15.4 13.3 41.8 8.8 7.1 33.3 b

Wages or salary 66.4% 68.3% 43.6% 67.6% 68.4% 57.1%

before current arresta

Source of income in month

$5,000 or more 8.2 8.4 5.6 15.1 15.7 6.6

$2,000-4,999 13.4 13.9 7.7 14.4 14.8 8.2

$1,000-1,999 24.4 25.1 16.7 23.8 24.1 19.4

$600-999 16.9 16.7 18.7 15.8 15.4 21.6

$200-599 20.5 19.9 28.4 14.4 13.8 23.6

Less than $200 16.5% 16.0% 22.9% 16.5% 16.2% 20.6%

before current arrest

Personal income in the month

Occasional 2.7 2.8 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.1

Part-time 9.2 9.2 8.9 8.5 8.4 10.2

Full-time 59.0 60.5 39.2 62.7 63.7 49.4

Employed 70.9 72.6 49.9 73.5 74.4 61.8

Unemployed 29.1% 27.4% 50.1% 26.5% 25.6% 38.2%

before current arrest

Employment during month

Total Male Female Total Male Female

State Federal

Percent of inmate parents, 1997

Table 13. Pre-arrest employment, income, and homelessness of inmate parents

in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997
Methodology

Data in this report are based on

personal interviews conducted through

the 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State

and Federal Correctional Facilities.

Detailed descriptions of the methodology and sample design of the surveys

can be found in the BJS Special

Report, Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners,

1997 (NCJ 172871). 

Accuracy of the estimates

The accuracy of the estimates in this

report depends on two types of error:

sampling and nonsampling. Sampling

error is the variation that may occur by

chance because a sample rather a

complete enumeration of the population was conducted. Nonsampling

error can be attributed to many

sources, such as nonresponses, differences in the interpretation of questions

among inmates, recall difficulties, and

processing errors. For example,

inmates may deny or dispute parenthood and fail to report children. The

sampling error, as measured by an

estimated standard error, varies by the

size of the estimate and the size of the

base population. 

Appendix tables 1 and 2 contain

estimates of the standard errors for

selected characteristics of inmate 

parents that were calculated for each

survey. (For other inmate characteristics, please use the generalized

standard error estimates presented 

in the appendix tables of Substance

Abuse and Treatment, State and

Federal Prisoners, 1997.) 

The standard errors included in the

appendix tables below may be used to

construct confidence intervals around

percentages. For example, the 95%

confidence interval around the percentage of parents in State prison who

reported a prior conviction is approximately 77.2% plus or minus 1.96 times

0.62% (or 76.0% to 78.4%). 

These standard errors may also be

used to test the statistical significance

of the difference between two sample

statistics by pooling the standard errors

of the two sample estimates. For

example, the standard error of the

difference between mothers and

fathers in State prison who were violent

offenders would be 1.46% (or the

square root of the sum of the squared

standard errors for each group). The

95% confidence interval around the

difference would be 1.96 times 1.46 (or

2.86%). Since the difference of 19.4%

(45.4% minus 26.0%) is greater than

2.86%, the difference would be considered statistically significant. 

CAGE diagnostic instrument for alcohol

dependence

The CAGE questionnaire is a diagnostic instrument for detecting a person’s

history of alcohol abuse or dependence. In a clinical test, three or more

positive responses to the four CAGE

questions carried a .99 predictive value

for alcohol abuse or dependence. For

further information on the predictive

values of the CAGE instrument, see

the article “Screening for Alcohol

Abuse Using the CAGE Questionnaire”

by B. Bush and others, The American

Journal of Medicine, Vol. 82, February

1987, pp.231-35.

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 11

*Based on all Federal prisoners.

Alcohol dependent 0.98 1.05 1.77

Used drugs in month before offense 1.32% 1.41% 2.58%

Prior substance abuse

Any priors 1.28% 1.35% 2.51%

Criminal history

Public-order 0.68 0.71 1.98

Drug 1.40 1.46 5.02

Property 0.43 0.43 2.23

Violent 0.62% 0.65% 1.81%

Current offense

Visits 1.11 1.18 2.10

Mail 1.26 1.35 2.35

Phone 1.18 1.27 2.08

Any 1.00% 1.09% 1.47%

Monthly contact with children

Foster home/agency 0.30 0.30 0.93

Child's grandparent 0.87 0.84 2.64

Child's other parent 0.87% 0.78% 2.45%

Child's current caregiver

1.31% 1.40% 1.94%

Lived with children 

prior to admission

Have minor children* 1.01% 1.08% 2.00%

Selected characteristic Total Male Female

Percent of Federal inmate

parents, 1997

Appendix table 2. Standard errors of selected characteristics of Federal prisoners with minor children, 1997

*Based on all State prisoners.

Alcohol dependent 0.64 0.68 1.19

Used drugs in month before offense 0.72% 0.77% 1.33%

Prior substance abuse

Any priors 0.62% 0.65% 1.34%

Criminal history

Public-order 0.45 0.48 0.85

Drug 0.63 0.66 1.34

Property 0.61 0.64 1.26

Violent 0.73% 0.78% 1.23%

Current offense

Visits 0.60 0.64 1.19

Mail 0.73 0.78 1.33

Phone 0.73 0.77 1.39

Any 0.71% 0.76% 1.15%

Monthly contact with children

Foster home/agency 0.23 0.21 0.83

Child's grandparent 0.55 0.54 1.40

Child's other parent 0.53% 0.48% 1.26%

Child's current caregiver

0.73% 0.77% 1.34%

Lived with children 

prior to admission

Have minor children* 0.54% 0.58% 1.07%

Selected characteristic Total Male Female

Percent of State inmate

parents, 1997

Appendix table 1. Standard errors of selected 

characteristics of State prisoners with minor children, 1997
12 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 

This report and others from the

Bureau of Justice Statistics are

available free of charge through the

Internet &

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

The data from the 1997 Surveys of

Inmates in State and Federal

Correctional Facilities are available

from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, maintained by the

Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research at the

University of Michigan, 1-800-

999-0960. The archive may also be

accessed through the BJS Internet

site.

The Bureau of Justice Statistics 

is the statistical agency of the 

U.S. Department of Justice. 

Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D., is director.

BJS Special Reports address a

specific topic in depth from one or

more datasets that cover many

topics.

Christopher J. Mumola wrote this

report under the supervision of Allen

J. Beck. Laura M. Maruschak and

Todd D. Minton provided statistical

assistance. Tom Hester and Ellen

Goldberg edited the report. Jayne

Robinson prepared the report for

publication.

August 2000, NCJ 182335