BLS WORKING PAPERS 

 

U.S. Department of Labor 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

Office of Productivity and Technology 

An Update on Bridge Jobs: The HRS War Babies 

Michael D. Giandrea, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

Kevin E. Cahill, Analysis Group, Inc. 

Joseph F. Quinn, Boston College 

Working Paper 407

May 2007

All views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 
An Update on Bridge Jobs: the HRS War Babies 

Michael D. Giandrea, Ph.D. 

(corresponding author) 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

Office of Productivity and Technology 

Postal Square Building, Room 2180 

2 Massachusetts Ave., NE 

Washington, DC 20212-0001 

Email: giandrea.michael@bls.gov

Phone: (202) 691-5628 

Kevin E. Cahill, Ph.D. 

Analysis Group, Inc. 

111 Huntington Avenue, 10th Floor 

Boston, MA 02199 

Email: kcahill@analysisgroup.com

Phone: (617) 425-8380 

Joseph F. Quinn, Ph.D. 

Department of Economics 

Gasson Hall 103 

Boston College 

Chestnut Hill, MA 02467-3803 

Email: joseph.quinn@bc.edu

Phone: (617) 552-2393 

May 30, 2007 

* All views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the 

views or policies of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Alfred P. Sloan Foundation 

supported this research through a grant to the Center on Aging and Work/Workplace Flexibility 

at Boston College.
Abstract 

Are today’s youngest retirees following in the footsteps of their older peers with respect 

to gradual retirement? Recent evidence from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) suggests 

that most older Americans with full-time career jobs later in life transitioned to another job prior 

to complete labor force withdrawal. This paper explores the retirement patterns of a younger 

cohort of individuals from the HRS known as the “War Babies.” These survey respondents were 

born between 1942 and 1947 and were 57 to 62 years of age at the time of their fourth bi-annual 

HRS interview in 2004. We compare the War Babies to an older cohort of HRS respondents and 

find that, for the most part, the War Babies have followed the gradual-retirement trends of their 

slightly older predecessors. Traditional one-time, permanent retirements appear to be fading, a 

sign that the impact of changes in the retirement income landscape since the 1980s continues to 

unfold. 

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I. Introduction 

Are today’s youngest retirees following in the footsteps of their older peers with respect 

to gradual retirement? Cahill, Giandrea, and Quinn (2006a) found that at least half of older 

Americans who had full-time career jobs and were currently in their early 60s to early 70s were 

employed on short-duration or part-time jobs (“bridge jobs”) at some point following full-time 

career employment. This paper examines whether bridge job behavior is as prevalent among the 

next generation of retirees born between 1942 and 1947, known as the War Babies. 

The War Babies are of particular interest because, unlike their older counterparts, these 

individuals are likely to feel the impact of an aging population within the span of their retirement 

years. In fact, the War Babies may provide a first glimpse of the do-it-yourself retirement 

generation. Social Security benefits, which currently replace about 40 percent of pre-retirement 

income for median income workers who retire at 65, are expected to replace about 36 percent of 

pre-retirement income for a 65 year old worker who retires in 2025.1

 Changes in private 

pensions will also affect the youngest retirees. As late as 1992, approximately 40 percent of 

individuals with pensions had primary coverage in defined-benefit (DB) pension plans.2

 By 

2001, fewer than 20 percent of workers had primary DB coverage and many of these actually 

had cash balance plans.3 Defined-contribution (DC) pension plans, in which individuals manage 

their own accounts, have largely taken their place. 

 

1

 From The 2006 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and 

Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds. Munnell (2003) also calculated a reduced replacement rate after further 

accounting for expected tax increases. 

2

 DB plans pay monthly benefits to retirees based on years of service and some percentage of final average salary. 

Munnell, Sunden, and Lidstone (2002). 

3

 Munnell, Triest, and Jivan (2004). Cahill and Soto (2003) provide more information on cash balance plans which 

are often referred to as “hybrid” pension plans, because they contain characteristics of both defined-benefit and 

defined-contribution plans. 

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Finally, savings as a percentage of personal income has declined from over 10 percent in 

the 1960s to about 1 percent today, the lowest rate since the Great Depression.4

 While some of 

the observed decline in saving may be overstated because capital gains are not included as 

income, low savings rates may leave many retirees particularly vulnerable to the changes in 

Social Security and private pensions. 

Older Americans are adjusting their work decisions later in life in response to these 

changes. A century-long trend towards earlier retirement among older men ended abruptly in the 

mid-1980s, and reversed in recent years.5

 Older women have experienced a dramatic increase in 

labor force participation in recent years, although some of this increase can be attributed to 

higher labor force participation among women more generally. 

Gradual retirement appears to be the norm as well. Cahill et al. (2006a) found that, 

among a nationally-representative sample of retirees aged 51 to 61 in 1992, the majority of 

retirees with long-tenured, full-time jobs did not retire in the traditional sense with a one-time, 

permanent exit from the labor force. Instead, between 50 and 60 percent of workers who had left 

a full-time career job moved to bridge job employment. 

In this paper, we explore whether the prevalence of bridge jobs is different among a 

younger cohort of older American workers. We compare the labor force participation decisions 

of the War Babies to an older cohort aged 51 to 56 in 1992 using data from the Health and 

Retirement Study (HRS). We find that the HRS War Babies picked up just where their older 

peers have left off. Traditional retirements from full-time career employment continued to be the 

exception rather than the rule, and may have become even less prevalent among the War Babies. 

 

4

 U.S. National Income and Product Accounts (2006), Table 5.1 Saving and Investment, line 33. 

5

 Quinn (2002) 

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Section II provides a brief review of the relevant literature and describes our data source, 

the Health and Retirement Study, the country’s premier dataset on issues related to retirement. 

Section III presents our findings, and Section IV discusses the significance of these results. 

II. Background 

Literature

The average retirement age, defined here as the youngest age at which half of the 

population is out of the labor force, declined dramatically among men from age 74 in 1910 to age 

62 in the mid 1980s.6

 The decline was largely the result of increasing prosperity over the past 

century. As GDP per capita increased, workers spent a portion of their wealth on leisure, 

including earlier and earlier retirement. Since the mid-1980s, however, the average retirement 

age for American men has increased slightly. While there has been some debate over the 

cyclical or permanent nature of this break, it is clear that the retirement landscape has changed.7 

The end of mandatory retirement for most workers in 1986, the shift away from traditional DB 

pension plans towards employee-controlled DC plans, and overall increases in longevity have all 

created incentives for workers to stay in the labor force longer, either by remaining on their 

career jobs, by taking on bridge jobs, or both. 

Several papers have examined bridge job employment. Ruhm (1990) used 1970s data 

from the Retirement History Study (RHS) to analyze partial retirement and found that the 

majority of workers leave career jobs for partial retirement at some point in their working lives.8

 

 

6

 Quinn (2002). 

7

 Cahill, Giandrea, and Quinn (2006b). 

8

 Ruhm defined a career job as the longest spell of employment with a single firm. 

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Likewise, Quinn (1999) investigated retirement patterns and bridge jobs in the 1990s.9

 Using 

the first four waves of the HRS, Quinn estimated that between one third and one half of older 

Americans would be expected to take on bridge jobs before exiting the labor force completely. 

Age, health status, type of pension, and pension eligibility were all found to be important 

determinants of whether an individual was employed, in either a full-time career job or a bridge 

job, or retired. 

Purcell (2005) focused on other forms of phased retirement, including job sharing, 

reduced work schedules, and the re-employment of retired workers as part-time employees. 

Using data from the Current Population Survey (CPS), Purcell demonstrated that older workers 

were remaining in the labor force longer and that financial incentives were key explanatory 

factors of the retirement decision. In another related paper, Maestas (2005) focused on job 

reentry and found that nearly one-half of older workers followed a non-traditional retirement 

path involving partial retirement or re-entry and that, among those who reentered, transitions 

back into the labor force were often anticipated prior to retirement. 

 This paper extends many of these findings to the next generation of HRS respondents – 

the HRS War Babies. 

Sample 

 The study sample includes about 8,000 older Americans drawn from the HRS. The HRS 

is a nationally-representative panel data set created to study the antecedents and consequences of 

retirement, the extent of work disability, and the relationship among health, income and wealth, 

and the patterns of wealth accumulation and consumption over time.10 

 

9

 Quinn defined a full-time career job as one requiring at least 1,600 hours per year and that has lasted at least 10 

years. 

10 Juster and Suzman (1995). 

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The HRS Core (henceforth, Core) consists of primary respondents aged 51-61 in 1992 

(i.e., born between 1931 and 1941) and their spouses, and includes a total of 12,652 persons from 

approximately 7,600 households. Respondents were first interviewed in 1992 and follow-up 

interviews have since been conducted every two years. The HRS was expanded in 1998 (wave 

4) with the addition of the HRS War Babies (henceforth, War Babies) who were born between 

1942 and 1947 (aged 51 to 56 in 1998). For this analysis, we limit the Core sample to those 51 

to 56 years old in 1992, such that both groups of respondents were aged 51-56 at the time of their 

first interview. We limit the length of the Core study period by considering only the first four 

waves so that the two cohorts will be directly comparable – with each cohort aged 57-62 at the 

time of the fourth interview. In total, we utilize 5,556 respondents from the Core, interviewed 

every two years from 1992 to 1998, and 2,529 War Babies, interviewed every two years from 

1998 to 2004. 

Since we are studying transitions from full-time career employment, we restrict the 

samples to those HRS respondents who had full-time career jobs since age 50. Like Quinn 

(1999) and Cahill et al. (2006a), we define a full-time career (FTC) job as one with at least 1,600 

hours per year (“full time”) and which lasts ten or more years (“career”). A bridge job is 

employment that follows a FTC job and does not meet both of these requirements. 

As shown in Table 1, the majority of both HRS men and women did indeed have work 

experience on a career job later in life. Approximately three quarters of men in both the Core 

and the War Babies samples and about one half of Core and War Baby women had a FTC job 

since age 50.11 A second restriction for parts of the analysis limits both cohorts to only those 

 

11 One concern with this methodology is that respondents might not have enough tenure in 1998 for the Core and 

2004 for the War Babies for a job to be considered a career job, even though the respondent may continue working 

and increase tenure. In some instances, these jobs will in fact turn out to be career jobs if the individual remains on 

the job for ten or more years. When subsequent waves do not cover work status through age 62, or when a 

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respondents with a FTC job in their first interview, since this is when many of our explanatory 

variables are first available. Again in Table 1, we find that among the Core 68 percent of men 

and 44 percent of women were on a FTC job at the time of their first interview in 1992. Among 

the War Babies, both percentages were higher, with 70 percent of the men and 50 percent of the 

women on FTC jobs at the time of their first interview in 1998. 

III. Results 

 Throughout the paper we focus on a comparison of the Core and War Babies cohorts by 

limiting each to respondents age 51 to 56 in each cohort’s first interview. We then compare the 

two cohorts at the same stage of the retirement process when both groups were age 57 to 62. By 

limiting the analyses first to those with a FTC job since age 50 and then to those with a FTC job 

in their first interview, our cohort comparisons are between people of similar ages and with 

similar job histories. 

Cross-Sectional Comparisons

We identify each individual’s status (i.e., on a FTC job; on a bridge job; out of the labor 

force) at different points in time throughout the retirement process. Table 2 shows the labor 

force status of men and women for those who have had a FTC job since age 50. We find that, 

when examining those with FTC jobs, the gender differences that are prevalent in Table 1 fade, 

with men only slightly more likely than women to be on a FTC job and women slightly less 

likely to be in the labor force at any given time. One exception is among the War Babies in 2002 

where men were more likely than women to be on a FTC job, 61 percent versus 51 percent. For 

both men and women, a higher proportion of the War Babies at almost every stage were 

 respondent does not participate in subsequent waves, we assume that the respondent would have worked on the job 

until age 62. If anything, this assumption results in conservative estimates of bridge job activity since some of these 

individuals will leave their jobs before age 62. 

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employed on a FTC job relative to the Core at similar stages of the retirement process. Likewise, 

a smaller proportion of both male and female War Babies had exited the labor force in each wave 

compared to the Core respondents. An exception occurred from 2000 to 2002 when a high 

percentage of War Baby men and women left FTC employment for bridge jobs. Even though the 

Core and War Babies cohorts differ by only six years, the evidence suggests that older workers 

are staying on their career jobs longer and exiting the labor force later. 

Longitudinal Comparisons 

The longitudinal nature of the HRS allows us to track each individual’s labor force 

withdrawal process over time. To do so, we examine transitions away from FTC jobs among 

those who were on a FTC job at the time of their first interview. We then examine employment 

in each wave and construct the path from employment to retirement. The prevalence of bridge 

job activity can be examined by looking at first transitions from FTC jobs, shown in Table 3. 

We first note that both War Baby men and women were more likely to still be in the labor 

force as of their fourth interview with only 14 percent out of the labor force compared to 19 and 

23 percent of Core men and women, respectively. Likewise, a higher percentage of War Baby 

men and women remained on their FTC job, 53 and 48 percent, respectively, compared to 47 

percent of Core men and 44 percent of Core women. Of Core respondents who made a transition 

from a FTC job by 1998, 63 percent of the men and 59 percent of the women had moved to 

bridge jobs rather than directly out of the labor force. Among War Babies who moved off a FTC 

job by 2004, 67 percent of the men and 71 percent of the women first moved to a bridge job. 

These findings suggest that among those who have transitioned within six years of the first HRS 

interview, the War Babies were more likely to have moved to a bridge job than their Core 

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counterparts.12 The traditional exit pattern -- directly from FTC jobs -- was clearly in the 

minority among the War Babies who had left their FTC jobs. 

Table 3 also illustrates that self employment in a FTC job was slightly less prevalent 

among War Babies than among the Core (13 percent vs. 15 percent). Across both the Core and 

War Babies respondents, self-employed people were more likely than wage and salary workers 

to take a bridge job when transitioning from a FTC job. Self-employed War Babies were also 

much more likely than Core self employed workers to remain on their FTC job six years later (59 

percent vs. 42 percent). 

Retirement Determinants 

The retirement literature has identified key demographic and economic factors that 

influence the retirement decision. Tables 4 and 5 present two key demographic factors: age and 

health status. Among both cohorts, younger men were more likely than older men to be on a 

FTC job in the fourth wave and, also among both cohorts, approximately two thirds of men who 

had left FTC jobs had taken bridge jobs rather than completely exit the labor force. Conversely, 

War Baby women who had left their FTC job were more likely than similar Core women to take 

on bridge jobs (71 percent vs. 62 percent). 

Respondents from both cohorts who were in excellent or very good health were much 

more likely than others to remain on a FTC job and more likely to take on a bridge job when 

making a transition (Table 5). Of note is that War Baby women in excellent, very good, or good 

health were much more likely than Core women to take a bridge job. 

Table 6 disaggregates first transitions from FTC employment by workers’ health 

insurance status on the FTC job. The Core had a much larger percentage of workers who were 

 

12 We note that a non-trivial portion of the War Babies sample, about 4 percent, had a work history status that was 

unknown at the time of the fourth interview. 

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covered on their FTC job and would maintain that coverage if they left the job compared to the 

War Babies (almost 80 percent versus 60 percent).13 Fifty-eight and 54 percent of War Baby 

men and women, respectively, who would lose health insurance coverage remained on their FTC 

job compared to 46 and 50 percent of corresponding Core workers. This may be indicative of 

workers in 2004 placing a greater weight on the importance of continued health insurance 

coverage making them less likely to abandon a FTC job that supplies it. 

Table 7 considers first transitions from a FTC job based on pension status on the FTC 

job. One notable difference between the cohorts is the increased prevalence of DC pensions. 

Among the Core, 27 percent of both men and women had a DC pension on their FTC job in 

1992. Only six years later, approximately one half of War Baby men and women had a DC 

pension on their FTC job in 1998. Offsetting this difference somewhat is the fact that more Core 

respondents than War Babies respondents had no pension plan on their FTC job (31 percent 

versus 23 percent). 

War Baby men and women without pension coverage on their FTC job were more likely 

to still be in the labor force than their Core counterparts. Conditional on having left their FTC 

job, the War Babies without a pension were more likely to have taken a bridge job than their 

Core counterparts. One possibility is that War Babies without pensions on their FTC jobs may 

be more sensitive to future retirement income needs and therefore remain in the workforce. 

Differences across cohorts were somewhat mixed among those with pensions. Nearly three 

quarters of Core men with DC pensions who had left their FTC job took a bridge job, compared 

to 61 percent for the War Babies, while the percentage of men with DB pensions who had left 

 

13 We measured health insurance status in terms of portability (i.e., would a respondent’s health insurance coverage 

remain intact if he or she left a full-time career job?). Government-provided insurance, private insurance, and 

insurance through a spouse’s employer are all unaffected by the respondent’s employment status and are considered 

portable. Health insurance through an individual’s employer is also considered portable if the coverage will be 

maintained in retirement. 

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their FTC job and taken a bridge job was nearly identical across cohorts (53 percent for the Core 

and 54 percent for the War Babies). 

Table 8 presents first transition information for Core and War Baby respondents broken 

down by the wage rate earned on the FTC job at the time of their first interview. We find a ushaped relationship between wage and bridge job prevalence among men in both cohorts. Those 

with low or high wages were more likely to take a bridge job after leaving a FTC job than those 

with mid-level wages. The relationship was more pronounced among the male War Babies than 

their Core counterparts. The u-shaped relationship was not as well defined among the women. 

Within the Core group, women earning $6 to $10 per hour stand out from the rest, as 64 percent 

of these women took bridge jobs - approximately ten percentage points higher than other Core 

women. Among the War Babies, women earning less than $6 per hour were much less likely 

than other women to take a bridge job after leaving a FTC job. 

As mentioned earlier, self-employment status is a key determinant of labor force 

participation later in life. Table 9 considers the relationship between first transitions and selfemployment status on FTC jobs.14 Self-employed War Babies were much more likely than selfemployed Core workers to be still on a FTC job, by approximately 16 percentage points for both 

men and women. Further, self-employed War Babies who had left their FTC jobs were more 

likely to have taken a bridge job than self-employed Core respondents. More generally, selfemployed workers in both cohorts were more likely to be working in the fourth wave compared 

to wage and salary workers. 

We draw two main conclusions from this descriptive analysis. First, bridge job 

prevalence among the War Babies resembled that of the Core, and was even slightly higher. 

Second, the largest differences between the two cohorts were seen among females, and at times 

 

14 Table 9 disaggregates by gender the results presented earlier in Table 3. 

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these differences were substantial. These results, taken together, indicate that traditional, onetime permanent retirements are clearly in the minority, and have been so for some time. 

 

IV. Discussion 

 Thirty years from now, Americans are likely to approach retirement with financial 

support networks that looks very different from those faced by today’s retirees. The Normal 

Retirement Age for full Social Security benefits will be at least 67 and replacement rates are 

likely to be substantially lower than current replacement rates. Private pensions will be of the 

defined-contribution variety, as defined-benefit plans continue to be phased out or converted to 

cash balance plans. And today’s low savings rates, extended over 20 or 30 years, will mean cash 

reserves are likely to be minimal for many Americans nearing retirement. 

 Future retirees can adapt to these changes in one of two ways, by either lowering 

consumption levels in retirement or by delaying retirement. This paper focuses on the second 

option, which already appears to be underway. We find that the War Babies, the youngest group 

of retirees for which data are available, appear to continue along a similar gradual retirement 

path paved by their predecessors; in fact, even more are doing so. Of those War Babies with 

full-time career jobs who have left their FTC jobs, nearly two-thirds have taken a bridge job. 

Our findings further reinforce the notion that retirement is a process, not a single event. 

Only a minority of older Americans retire in the traditional sense of a one-time, permanent exit 

from the labor force, and this has been the case for some time now. As the retirement income 

landscape changes further, all signs indicate that older Americans will continue to update their 

work and retirement decisions. The end result is that future retirement patterns are unlikely to 

resemble those of older Americans who retired in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. We believe that 

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the evolving work patterns of today’s and tomorrow’s older workers are a rational response to a 

changing retirement environment. 

 

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Bibliography 

Cahill, Kevin E., Michael D. Giandrea, and Joseph F. Quinn. 2006a. “Retirement Patterns from 

Career Employment” The Gerontologist, 46(4). 

Cahill, Kevin E., Michael D. Giandrea, and Joseph F. Quinn. 2006b. “A Micro-level Analysis of 

Recent Increases in Labor Force Participation among Older Workers.” US Bureau of Labor 

Statistics Working Paper 400. 

Cahill, Kevin E., and Mauricio Soto. 2003. “How Do Cash Balance Plans Affect the Pension 

Landscape?” Issue in Brief 14 (December). Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for Retirement 

Research at Boston College. 

Juster, F. Thomas, and Richard Suzman. 1995. An Overview of the Health and Retirement 

Study. Journal of Human Resources, 30 (Supplement), S7-S56. 

Maestas, Nicole. 2005. “Back to Work: Expectations and Realizations of Work after 

Retirement.” Rand Working Paper WR-196. 

Munnell, Alicia H. 2003. “The Declining Role of Social Security.” Just the Facts: On Retirement 

Issues, No. 6. (Feb., 2003). Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for Retirement Research at Boston 

College. Retrieved Oct. 27, 2005 from http://www.bc.edu/centers/crr/facts/jtf_6.pdf

Munnell, Alicia H., Annika Sundén, and Elizabeth Lidstone. 2002. “How Important Are Private 

Pensions.” Issue in Brief 8 (February). Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for Retirement Research at 

Boston College. Retrieved Oct. 27, 2005 from http://www.bc.edu/centers/crr/issues/ib_8.pdf

Munnell, Alicia H., Robert K. Triest, and Natalia A Jivan. Nov., 2004. “How Do Pensions Affect 

Expected and Actual Retirement Ages.” Center for Retirement Research at Boston College 

Working Paper 2004-27. Retrieved Oct. 27, 2005 from 

http://www.bc.edu/centers/crr/papers/wp_2004-27.pdf

Purcell, Patrick J. 2005. Older workers: Employment and retirement trends. CRS Report 

 for Congress, Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress. Washington, DC. 

Quinn, Joseph F. 1999. “Retirement Patterns and Bridge Jobs in the 1990s.” Issue Brief 

 206 (February). pp. 1-23. Washington DC: Employee Benefit Research Institute. 

Quinn, Joseph F. 2002. Changing retirement trends and their impact on elderly entitlement 

programs. In S. H. Altman & D. Shactman (Eds.), Policies for an Aging Society. (pp. 293-

315). Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. 

Ruhm, Christopher J. 1990. "Bridge Jobs and Partial Retirement.” Journal of Labor Economics,

8(4): 482-501. 

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Product Accounts. Retrieved June 21, 2006 from 

http://www.bea.gov/bea/dn/nipaweb/SelectTable.asp?Selected=N

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Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds. 

Retrieved Apr. 4, 2007 from http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/TR/TR06/index.html

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Table 1

Sample Size

by Gender, Survey Participation, and Work Status

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 51-56 in 1992

Men Women Total

Particpated in wave 1

n 2,580 2,976 5,556

Had FTC Job since Age 50

n 1,998 1,517 3,515

% of HRS Core 77% 51% 63%

On FTC Job in 1992

n 1,757 1,305 3,062

% of HRS Core 68% 44% 55%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 51-56 in 1998

Men Women Total

Particpated in wave 4

n 1,200 1,329 2,529

Had FTC Job since Age 50

n 890 675 1,565

% of HRS WB 74% 51% 62%

On FTC in 1998

n 843 664 1,507

% of HRS WB 70% 50% 60%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 2

Labor Force Status, by Year and Gender

Individuals with a Full-Time Career Job at Age 50 or Older

HRS Core: Respondents

Men

Full Time Not in 

Year Age n Career Job Bridge Job Labor Force

1992 51 - 56 1,985 89% 6% 6%

1994 53 - 58 1,830 73% 13% 14%

1996 55 - 60 1,708 62% 21% 17%

1998 57 - 62 1,639 43% 31% 26%

Women

Full Time Not in 

Year Age n Career Job Bridge Job Labor Force

1992 51 - 56 1,506 87% 7% 6%

1994 53 - 58 1,404 73% 13% 14%

1996 55 - 60 1,313 61% 18% 21%

1998 57 - 62 1,258 40% 31% 29%

HRS War Babies: Respondents

Men

Full Time Not in 

Year Age n Career Job Bridge Job Labor Force

1998 51 - 56 879 94% 2% 5%

2000 53 - 58 810 80% 12% 9%

2002 55 - 60 750 61% 23% 16%

2004 57 - 62 740 54% 26% 20%

Women

Full Time Not in 

Year Age n Career Job Bridge Job Labor Force

1998 51 - 56 669 92% 2% 6%

2000 53 - 58 629 75% 14% 11%

2002 55 - 60 590 51% 31% 19%

2004 57 - 62 588 49% 29% 22%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 3

First Transitions from Career Jobs

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992 or 1998, by Gender and Class of Worker

(horizontal percentage)

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 51-56 in 1992

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job) 

Gender

 Men 1,459 47% 33% 19% 1% 63%

 Women 1,093 44% 33% 23% 1% 59%

Class of Worker 

 Wage & Salary 2,172 46% 31% 22% 0% 59%

 Self-Employed 380 42% 42% 15% 1% 74%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 51-56 in 1998

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job) 

Gender

 Men 726 53% 29% 14% 4% 67%

 Women 574 48% 34% 14% 4% 71%

Class of Worker 

 Wage & Salary 1,126 50% 30% 16% 4% 66%

 Self-Employed 174 59% 33% 5% 3% 86%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 4

First Transitions from Career Jobs by 2004

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992 or 1998, by Gender and Age

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 1998

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Age in 1998 n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 < 58 274 55% 32% 12% 1% 72%

 59-61 935 49% 35% 15% 1% 70%

 62+ 186 38% 29% 33% 0% 46%

 Total 1,395 47% 34% 17% 1% 67%

Women

 < 58 212 53% 31% 15% 1% 68%

 59-61 708 43% 35% 21% 1% 62%

 62+ 125 47% 28% 26% 0% 52%

 Total 1,045 46% 33% 21% 1% 62%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 2004

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Age in 2004 n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 < 58 272 58% 28% 11% 3% 71%

 59-61 386 53% 29% 13% 5% 68%

 62+ 68 37% 32% 28% 3% 53%

 Total 726 53% 29% 14% 4% 67%

Women

 < 58 313 55% 27% 14% 3% 65%

 59-61 231 43% 39% 13% 4% 74%

 62+ 30 49% 26% 18% 7% 59%

 Total 574 48% 34% 14% 4% 71%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 5

First Transitions from Career Jobs by 2004

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992 or 1998, by Gender and Health Status

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 1998

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Health Status in 1992 n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 excellent or very good 900 49% 34% 17% 1% 67%

 good 409 44% 32% 23% 1% 58%

 fair or poor 150 36% 35% 29% 0% 54%

Women

 excellent or very good 687 47% 34% 19% 1% 65%

 good 299 41% 29% 30% 0% 50%

 fair or poor 107 32% 30% 37% 0% 45%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 2004

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Health Status in 1992 n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 excellent or very good 499 55% 31% 11% 3% 74%

 good 251 52% 25% 18% 6% 59%

 fair or poor 93 49% 24% 21% 6% 53%

Women

 excellent or very good 389 50% 38% 9% 2% 81%

 good 189 53% 24% 16% 7% 61%

 fair or poor 86 30% 31% 32% 7% 49%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 6

First Transitions from Career Jobs by 1998 and 2004

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992, by Gender and Health Insurance Status on FTC Job

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 1998

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Health Insurance Statusa n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 Not covered on career job 127 37% 43% 17% 3% 71%

 Covered - would maintain 1,018 47% 32% 21% 0% 61%

 Covered - would lose 173 46% 35% 19% 1% 66%

Women

 Not covered on career job 89 36% 37% 25% 1% 60%

 Covered - would maintain 752 43% 33% 24% 0% 58%

 Covered - would lose 110 50% 29% 21% 0% 59%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 2004

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Health Insurance Statusa n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 Not covered on career job 49 48% 39% 10% 3% 80%

 Covered - would maintain 392 50% 30% 15% 5% 67%

 Covered - would lose 202 58% 24% 16% 2% 60%

Women

 Not covered on career job 34 29% 50% 10% 11% 83%

 Covered - would maintain 304 45% 33% 17% 5% 66%

 Covered - would lose 190 54% 33% 11% 1% 75%

a

 For those younger than age 65 in 2002

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 7

First Transitions from Career Jobs by 1998 and 2004

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992, by Gender and Pension Status on FTC Job

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 1998

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Pension Statusa n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 No pension 429 42% 37% 20% 1% 65%

 DB plan only 642 46% 29% 24% 0% 54%

 DC plan only 285 57% 31% 11% 0% 73%

 DB and DC plan 103 39% 50% 11% 0% 82%

Women

 No pension 362 32% 44% 24% 1% 65%

 DB plan only 433 48% 26% 26% 0% 50%

 DC plan only 266 53% 27% 19% 1% 59%

 DB and DC plan 32 51% 47% 3% 0% 95%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 2004

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Pension Statusa n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 No pension 233 51% 37% 7% 5% 84%

 DB plan only 276 52% 23% 21% 4% 53%

 DC plan only 309 57% 25% 16% 2% 61%

 DB and DC plan 185 55% 21% 22% 2% 48%

Women

 No pension 177 39% 41% 14% 5% 74%

 DB plan only 200 47% 35% 15% 3% 70%

 DC plan only 254 52% 30% 15% 3% 67%

 DB and DC plan 115 40% 37% 19% 4% 67%

a DB refers to defined-benefit pensions while DC denotes defined-contribution pensions.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 8

First Transitions from Career Jobs by 1998 and 2004

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992, by Gender and Wage Rate on FTC Job

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 1998

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Jobs/

Wage Rate in 1992a n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 < $6/hour 97 34% 43% 19% 3% 69%

 $6 - $10/hour 225 50% 33% 17% 0% 66%

 $10 - $20/hour 629 48% 30% 22% 0% 57%

 $20 - $50/hour 312 48% 36% 15% 1% 70%

 > $50/hour 40 56% 30% 14% 0% 69%

Women

 < $6/hour 153 37% 36% 26% 2% 58%

 $6 - $10/hour 337 46% 34% 19% 1% 64%

 $10 - $20/hour 416 46% 30% 25% 0% 54%

 $20 - $50/hour 96 44% 31% 24% 2% 56%

 > $50/hour 1 0% 0% 100% 0% 0%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 2004

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Jobs/

Wage Rate in 1998a n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 < $6/hour 52 50% 41% 4% 5% 92%

 $6 - $10/hour 119 47% 39% 9% 5% 81%

 $10 - $20/hour 296 55% 23% 17% 5% 57%

 $20 - $50/hour 171 56% 28% 14% 1% 66%

 > $50/hour 14 50% 50% 0% 0% 100%

Women

 < $6/hour 80 37% 31% 25% 7% 55%

 $6 - $10/hour 159 49% 37% 11% 3% 77%

 $10 - $20/hour 215 49% 32% 14% 5% 70%

 $20 - $50/hour 61 62% 29% 8% 1% 77%

 > $50/hour 2 100% 0% 0% 0% --------

a

 War Baby wages are deflated from 1998 dollars to 1992 dollars using the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Employment

Cost Index for Wages and Salaries.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.
Table 9

First Transitions from Career Jobs by 1998 and 2004

Those with Full-Time Career Jobs in 1992, by Gender and Self-Employment Status

HRS Core: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 1998

1998

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Self-Employment Status n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 Self employed 269 46% 41% 12% 1% 78%

 Wage and salary 1,190 47% 32% 21% 0% 60%

Women

 Self employed 111 32% 46% 22% 1% 68%

 Wage and salary 982 45% 31% 23% 1% 58%

HRS War Babies: Respondents Aged 57-62 in 2004

2004

Still on Moved to Moved to Don't Ratio of Bridge Job/

Self-Employment Status n Career Job Bridge Job No Job Know (Bridge Job + No Job)

Men

 Self employed 121 62% 31% 5% 2% 87%

 Wage and salary 605 52% 28% 16% 4% 64%

Women

 Self employed 53 48% 37% 7% 8% 84%

 Wage and salary 521 48% 33% 15% 4% 69%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the Health and Retirement Study.