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Authors JAMES F. BAICHTAL is a forest geologist, Tongass National Forest, Ketchikan

Area, Federal Building, Ketchikan, AK 99901; and DOUGLAS N. SWANSTON is a

principal research geologist, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences

Laboratory, 2770 Sherwood Lane, Suite 2A, Juneau, AK 99801-8545.
Conservation and Resource

Assessments for the Tongass Land

Management Plan Revision

Charles G. Shaw III and Kent R. Julin

Technical Coordinators

Karst Landscapes and Associated Resources:

A Resource Assessment

James F. Baichtal and Douglas N. Swanston

Published by:

U.S Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Portland, Oregon

General Technical Report PNW-GTR-383

November 1996
Abstract Baichtal, James F.; Swanston, Douglas N. 1996. Karst landscapes and associated

resources: a resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-383. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station. 13 p. (Shaw, Charles G., Ill; Julin, Kent R., tech. coords.; Conservation

and resource assessments for the Tongass land management plan revision).

The Tongass National Forest contains world class karst features and the largest

concentration of associated dissolved caves known in the State of Alaska. This

paper describes the dominant karst formation processes operating in southeast

Alaska, the controlling geologic and hydrologic characteristics, and the influence

of karst landscapes on associated forest resources. Recent sediment deposits

and waterline marks in underground karst drainage systems suggest that timber

harvesting has increased sediment and debris transport and the flooding of certain

underground passages.

Keywords: Karst, epikarst, caves, paleontology, Tongass, Alaska.

Contents 1 Background

1 Karst Processes

3 Controlling Geologic and Hydrologic Characteristics

6 Forest Characteristics

7 Wildlife Interactions

8 Fisheries Interactions

8 Paleontological and Cultural Resources

9 Management Effects

10 Conclusions

10 English Equivalents

10 Acknowledgment

10 References
Background

Karst Processes

The Tongass National Forest (Tongass) contains the largest concentration of dissolution caves known in the State of Alaska (Baichtal 1993b, 1993c). The Tongass also

contains world-class karst features, particularly surface or epikarst in the alpine and

subalpine zones (Aley and others 1993). Epikarst refers to the saturated zones within

the intensely dissolved veneers developed at the surface of carbonate rock sections,

either beneath soils or on exposed rock outcrops. The karst and cave features result

from chemical weathering of limestone and marble bedrock. The karst and cave

features and associated resources are a recently discovered and recognized attribute

of the lands within southeast Alaska that are of international significance for a wide

variety of reasons, including their intensity, diversity, and recreational values, as well

as their biological, mineralogical, cultural, and paleontological components (Aley and

others 1993).

In southeast Alaska, these karst and cave features define an ecological unit or "landscape" found within and on top of almost pure carbonate bedrock that formed as the

result of differential solution of these rocks by acid ground water. This acidic ground

water is a direct product of abundant precipitation and passage of the water through

organic-rich forest soils.

A few of the important characteristics of this ecological unit include mature, welldeveloped western hemlock-Sitka spruce forests (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.-

Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) along valley floors and low-gradient slopes, welldeveloped subsurface drainage, and underlying unique cave structures.

The carbonate rocks on which this landscape is developed are primarily Ordovician

through Permian limestone and marble belonging to the Heceta, Descon, Saginaw

Bay, Bay of Pillars, Pybus, Kennel Creek, White Stripe, and lyokeen formations

(Brew and others 1984, Gehrels and Berg 1992). The rock units susceptible to karst

formation are almost-pure calcium carbonate (CaCO3), characteristically fine grained

and massive or thick bedded, and commonly fractured and fossiliferous. Thickness of

the rock units may exceed 4000 meters in some exposures (Brew and others 1984).

These rocks underlie 176 988 hectares of the Tongass in a northwest trending band

extending from northern Prince of Wales Island to northern Chichagof Island (fig. 1).1

The differential solution or chemical weathering of these almost-pure carbonates

results in development of well-defined surface features or epikarst, such as deep

shafts, crevasselike dissolved fissures, erosion or dissolution rills, and spires and

spikes of carbonate bedrock (fig. 2). Subsurface solution channels and cavities along

zones of weakness in the rock are defined by bedding planes, joints, and fractures.

The subsurface solution channels add a vertical, underground dimension to the

karst landscape that is difficult to define and predict. Subsurface drainage networks

generally operate independently of and with more complexity than the overlying

surface drainage systems (Aley and Aley 1993, Huntoon 1992b). The watershed

characteristics of the surface topography may have little or no relation to the subsurface karst drainage system. In karst landscapes, the many solution-widened

fissures become injection points for surface and near-surface waters into a more

complex subsurface drainage system. These fissures rapidly move water and

1

 Data are available from: Tongass Geographical

Information System, Tongass Land Management

Plan Office, 8465 Old Dairy Road, Juneau, AK 99801.

1
2
Controlling

Geologic and

Hydrologic

Characteristics

sediment delivered from surface sources vertically downward and laterally to widely

divergent points of resurgence, such as springs, channel upwellings, and direct drainages from cave entrances. Thus, sediment and water transported from the surface

may emerge unexpectedly at one or more distant points frequently beyond surface

watershed boundaries (Aley and others 1993).

Epikarst is exceptionally well developed throughout the karst areas. In the subalpine,

epikarst has virtually the same characteristics found in the bare alpine settings. Typical thicknesses of the epikarst zone range from more than 30 meters in the alpine

zone to less than 2 meters along the coast and in areas less than 120 meters in

elevation (Baichtal and others, in press). The epikarst thickness seems to be more a

function of glacial history than altitude. The epikarst is extremely important in moving

water, nutrients, organic matter, and soil from the land surface and rooting zone into

the subsurface where these materials can move laterally to seeps and springs or to

vertical collector structures, which channel them downward into cave networks (fig. 3;

Aley and others 1993).

The openness of the drainage system is a major contributor to the vulnerability of

the karst landscape to natural and anthropogenic disturbance (Aley and others 1993;

Baichtal and others, in press; Ford and Williams 1989). For example, a particle of

soil produced by disturbance in nonkarst landscapes is carried by gravity and surface

water flow, sometimes over great distances, into a water course to become sediment.

The sediment may be transported immediately or be stored on the channel floor and

in streambanks for later distribution. Within a karst landscape, depending on the

openness of the drainage system, a soil particle needs to be carried only a few

centimeters before it is washed vertically through the surface and into karst conduits.

Our field observations indicate that the degree to which the surface is connected to

the underground conduits relates directly to the impact of any increases in sediment

or water delivery on karst and cave ecology. The presence of a single sinkhole demonstrates a direct surface-to-subsurface connection, even if the sinkhole intermittently

retains water. A high density of surface solution and collapse features indicates the

presence of well-developed underground systems.

The basic principles of karst development and solution cave formation are well documented (Ford and Williams 1989, Gains 1993, White 1988, White and White 1989).

The rate and processes controlling the areal extent of karst landscape and cave

development along the north Pacific coast under cool, moist, heavily forested conditions is less fully understood.

Karst development in southeast Alaska is controlled by six main factors: (1) the purity

of the carbonate bedrock, (2) the structural components of the bedrock (i.e., faulting,

joints, fractures, bedding planes) that define zones of weakness along which ground

water is directed to form solution cavities and channels, (3) occurrence of igneous

intrusions that may block subsurface flows and alter the carbonates by contact metamorphism, (4) proximity of the carbonates to highly acidic drainage from peatlands

and other forest vegetation, (5) modification of surface topography and drainage by

glacial activity, and (6) precipitation and temperature that influence weathering rates

and solution activity (Baichtal and others, in press).

Figure 1—Distribution of carbonate bedrock in the Tongass National Forest.

3
Figure 2—Well-developed surface or 

Epikarst from the alpine zone on Dall 

Island. Note the cravasslike solution 

Fissures developed along joints and 

fractures that lead directly to deep shafts and 

ultimately to subsurface drainage 

systems. 

Figure 3—Water in Big Creek flows 

From an underground cave system 

Below Twin Island Lake, northern 

Prince of Wales Island 

Figure 4—Highly 

fractured and 

jointed limestone 

from the Heceta 

formation near 

Twin Island Lake,

northern Prince of 

Wales Island. 

4
The rocks most likely to contribute to any karst development have greater than

70 percent CaCO3 (Ford and Williams 1989, White 1988). Maximum karst and

cave development requires that the bedrock be at least 90 percent CaCO3 (Ford

and Williams 1989, White 1988). Chemical analysis of 67 limestone and marble

samples collected from karst landscapes on the northern portion of Prince of Wales

and surrounding islands showed the range of CaCO3 to be from 92 to 99 percent.

The samples averaged 98 percent CaCO3 (Maas and others 1992).

These extremely pure carbonate rocks have had a long geologic history. The carbonates on which the karst has developed originated as marine reef and lagoon

deposits near the equator during Silurian time, some 438 to 408 million years ago

(Aley and others 1993; Brew and others 1984, 1992; Soja 1990). These deposits

were rafted on spreading oceanic plates until they collided with the ancient continental margin of western North America (Brown and Yorath 1989, Coney and others

1980). These rocks are part of what is now recognized as the Alexander Terrane,

one of five subcontinental blocks of rock that have combined to form the panhandle

of southeast Alaska. The oblique collision of the Alexander Terrane with North

America resulted in the rocks being compressed from east to west and smeared

northward along the coast (Coney and others 1980). The Alexander Terrane was

highly fractured and then fragmented at all scales as it was rifted apart and smeared

northward (Coney and others 1980). This smearing occurred along large, northwestsoutheast trending, strike-slip faults. Second-order, intersecting, north trending strikeslip faults allowed the terranes to break into huge blocks. Major blocks bounded by

the large faults were broken into smaller blocks by smaller faults mimicking their

large counterparts. This same fault pattern is mimicked again at the outcrop and

hand specimen scales (fig. 4). The fractures serve two important functions in the

karst landscape of the Alexander Terrane (Aley and others 1993). First, the intraisland-and mountain-block-scale faults commonly define individual karst landscape

boundaries. Second, cave passages, chains of sinkholes, and many of the other

karst features are localized along sets of small- to intermediate-scale fractures, joints,

and faults. Epikarst development is mainly a function of these fractures and faults

(Aley and others 1993).

Glacial activity during the Pleistocene epoch has strongly influenced the character of

karst landscapes in southeast Alaska. For example, recent work on Prince of Wales

Island has documented the existence of karst long before the latest Wisconsin glacial

advance (Aley and others 1993). Passages in two caves have dissolved through

Tertiary paleokarst breccias. One small cave contained a marmot (Marmota sp.) tooth

that dated to more than 44,500 years before present (B.P.) (Baichtal 1995b). Most

caves on the island predate the most recent glaciation, based on the presence of

glacial clays, glacial sediments, wood, Pleistocene vertebrate remains, and possibly

even ancient ice. The epikarst, which is exceptionally well developed in the alpine

and subalpine zones, is subdued or is entirely absent locally at lower elevations.

We have observed similar conditions in caves on Kuiu and Chichagof Islands and

on islands seaward of Prince of Wales Island. Such evidence clearly suggests that

glaciation modified a preexisting karst landscape, eroding some features, collapsing

some passages and systems, gouging into others, and filling some with sediments.

At lower elevations where epikarst still remains, vegetation recolonization has

covered much of the surface, and in effect a forested alpine karst is preserved.

5
Peatlands have developed on compacted glacial sediments and glacial silts within the

karst landscapes and on poorly drained lithologies adjacent to the karst landscapes.

Many of these glacial deposits appear to have been left on collapsed karst features.

Surface waters originating from these poorly drained areas seldom flow more than

a few yards onto carbonate substrate before diving below the ground, down vertical

shafts or into cave entrances (Baichtal 1993a, 1995b; Brock and others 1995). The

highly acidic waters flowing from the these sphagnum-dominated peatlands (pH

ranges from 2.4 to 5.8) accelerate cave and karst development. Because the pH of

waters flowing from the cave systems range from 7.5 to 9.0 (Aley and others 1993),

the buffering capabilities of the pure carbonates is evident.

Most of the karst landscapes studied so far are hydrologically active. The subsurface

hydrologic systems in these landscapes are best described as highly dynamic and

subject to extreme variations in flows, especially during the fall rainy season. Rainfall

in the areas dominated by karst landscapes varies greatly, ranging from annual average precipitation of 1.5 meters to more than 6.4 meters per year (Baichtal and others,

in press). The highest flows occur during the fall rainy season or during winter and

early spring when heavy rains fall on wet snow packs. Limited dye-tracing work on

Prince of Wales Island has demonstrated that karst ground water systems routinely

transport water for more than 1000 meters to receiving caves, springs, and surface

streams (Aley and others 1993). The limited specific conductance information

gathered to date from this same area suggests that specific conductance from karst

systems in southeast Alaska are about half the mean values typically encountered in

most other North American karst areas (Aley and others 1993; Wissmar and others,

in prep.). However, annual runoff from karst areas in southeast Alaska is typically

on the order of 8 to 16 times greater than that found in other North American karsts

(Aley and others 1993). The net effect is that solution of soluble bedrock occurs at

least four to eight times faster in southeast Alaska than elsewhere (Aley and others

1993).

Forest Although only limited empirical data are available, field observations by the authors

Characteristics indicate a definite association between karst landscape and the productivity of the

western hemlock-Sitka spruce forests found in the Tongass. The controlling variables seem to be the nutrient richness of soils on the valley floors and along the

slopes below 120 meters, well-developed subsurface drainage, and dissected

bedrock surfaces that allow tree roots to hold fast and become somewhat more

windfirm. At lower elevations, old-growth forest on the karst landscape provides

a well-structured, multilayered canopy that is important winter habitat for Sitka

black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus Rafinesque) and other mammals (Baichtal

1995a, Gustafson 1993). The structure of the forest provides many forbs and shrubs

for wildlife. Possibly the available forage contains, at a minimum, higher calcium

levels that may allow for better bone, muscle, and antler development.

Exceptionally dense stands of very large-diameter western hemlock and Sitka

spruce are characteristic of low-elevation karst landscapes. Past timber harvest

on the karst landscapes, therefore, has been disproportionately high owing to this

high percentage of large, dense forest stands. On central Prince of Wales Island,

for instance, 66 percent of the commercial forest land on known karst landscapes

has been harvested, whereas only 33 percent of nonkarst areas has been cut

(Baichtal 1993b).

6
Wildlife Interactions Many wildlife species find the epikarst features and the stable environment and

shelter provided within the caves to be suitable habitat. Caves have been used

as natal den sites by river otter (Lontra canadensis Schreber), and as resting

and denning sites by Sitka black-tailed deer, bear (Ursus spp.), wolf (Canis lupus

Linnaeus), and small fur bearers (Baichtal 1995b; Baichtal and others, in press).

Sitka black-tailed deer are known to rest around cave entrances in summer, when

the air coming from the caves is cooler, and in winter, when the cave entrance

environment is warmer than elsewhere (Baichtal 1995b; Baichtal and others, in

press).

Cave systems provide critical roosting and hibernating habitat for bats (Vespertilionidae) (Baichtal 1995b; Baichtal and others, in press). The stable environment

within the caves provides roosting habitat in both summer and winter. Bats select

cave sites because the caves fulfill specific habitat requirements, including cave

structure, air circulation patterns, temperature profiles, humidity, and location relative

to feeding sites (Hill and Smith 1984). Preliminary surveys show some bat-use of

most of the caves inventoried (Baichtal 1995b; Parker 1996). Bats have been found

within a few caves once outside temperatures drop below freezing. Roosting sites

are beyond the point where outside freezing air temperatures penetrate from the

cave entrance. Five species of bats have been reported from caves in karst landscapes in the Tongass: the little brown bat (Myotis lucifuga Le Conte), the California bat (M. californica Audubon & Bachman), and possibly the silver-haired bat

(Lasionycteris noctivagans Le Conte) (Parker 1996). In addition, two new records

of Keen's myotis (M. keenii Merriam) and the first long-legged bat (M. volans H.

Allen) known from southeast Alaska were collected from Prince of Wales Island in

1993 (Parker 1996; Parker and Cook, in press). In December 1991, the first recorded

hibernating bat in Alaska was described and photographed from within El Capitan

Cave on northern Prince of Wales Island (Parker 1996). A California bat collected in

El Capitan Cave in February 1992 was the first live record of that species in Alaska

(Parker 1996).

Cave systems provide habitat for many invertebrates. Preliminary studies conducted

during July 1992 identified 77 species from collections made within several caves

(Carlson 1993a). These species must be more completely identified before further

biological associations can be made. One amphipod that was collected, Cratigonyx

obliquus-richmondensis, is not known to occur elsewhere in northwestern North

America (Carlson 1993a). Field work continued during the 1993 field season, with

collections made from a number of additional caves. A troglobitic Stygobromus

amphipod was collected on Heceta Island (Aley and others 1993, Carlson 1993a).

This species is morphologically identical with S. quatsinensis from two caves on

Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Holsinger and Shaw 1987). This discovery is

possibly a high-latitude world record for a cave-adapted species (Aley and others

1993). Other members of the genus Stygobromus were discovered in caves and

karst springs on the western shore of Dall Island (Carlson 1995).

Several birds, such as the dipper (Cinclus mexicanus), the thrush (Turdidae), and

the swallow (Hirundinidae), use cave entrances for nesting and feeding (Baichtal

1995a). Rookeries for sea birds, including the cormorant (Phalacrocoracidae) and

pigeon guillemots (Cepphus coluba), occur in some littoral caves (Baichtal 1995b).

7
Fisheries

Interactions

Paleontological

and Cultural

Resources

The karst landscape influences productivity of its aquatic habitats in several ways.

The geochemistry associated with karst development contributes to productivity of

aquatic environments through its carbonate buffering capacity and carbon input

dissolved from the limestone bedrock (Wissmar and others, in prep.). This action

has significant downstream effects on the aquatic food chain and biotic community.

Preliminary studies suggest that aquatic habitats associated with karst landscapes

may be 8 to 10 times more productive than adjacent, nonkarst-dominated aquatic

habitats (Bryant and others, in prep.). The karst-dominated aquatic habitats support

a higher biodiversity than the noncarbonate-based systems, have higher growth

rates for smolts and resident fish, reflect less variable water temperatures and flow

regimes, and contain unique habitat affecting species distribution, abundance, and

adaptations (Bryant and others, in prep.).

The potential cultural and paleontological significance of the karst landscapes is

high. The Pleistocene paleontology of the area is primarily known from cave and

rock shelter deposits, which often are intimately related to archaeological sites. The

cool, stable, basic environmental conditions in the caves result in exceptionally good

preservation of bone and organic materials (Aley and others 1993). Recent work

on Prince of Wales and surrounding islands on the extensive karst resources, combined with botanical surveys of alpine areas and genetic studies on chum salmon

(Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum)) populations, strengthen the argument for a welldeveloped coastal refugium along the west coast of southern southeast Alaska. The

evidence sheds new light on our understanding of glacial chronology, climatic change,

biogeography, and archaeology along the western margin of North America (Autrey

and Baichtal 1992, Dixon and others 1992, Heaton and Grady 1992).

To date, significant archaeological and paleontological materials have been discovered in more than 30 caves and rock shelters in the Ketchikan Area (Carlson

1993b). At least three new bone deposits were located during a summer 1993

inventory of cave resources (Heaton 1994).

Recently, remains have been discovered of seven black bear (Ursus americanus

Pallas), one dating to about 39,000 years B.P., and 10 brown bear (U. arctos

Linnaeus), one dating to about 35,300 years B.P. (Baichtal 1995b). Natal river otter

dens dating to about 8000 B.P. have been described (Baichtal 1993a). Remains of

red fox (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus), caribou (Rangifer sp.), ringed seal (Phoca hispida

Schreber), and marmot, now extirpated from the islands, have been recovered

(Baichtal 1995b). The marmot dated to more than 44,500 years B.P. (Baichtal

1995b). Botanical evidence from Dall and Prince of Wales Islands suggest an

ancestry for current plant populations from local remnant populations that escaped

glaciation (Hulten 1968, Muller 1991). Studies of chum salmon populations from

the Queen Charlotte Islands and southeast Alaska found that the greatest genetic

variation exists along the western coastlines of Queen Charlotte and Prince of Wales

Islands (Kondzela and others 1994). These significant genetic variations suggest

longer habitation of streams in these areas and, therefore, the possibility of coastal

refugia. The occurrence of the Stygobromus species on Heceta and Dall Islands also

provides support for the presence of refugia (Carlson 1995). The apparent lack of

troglobites on Prince of Wales Island seems to be correlated with the glacial history

of the region (Aley and others 1993). This new information, combined with limited

data on raised marine beaches in the area, provides additional evidence of a coastal

refugium through which Pleistocene mammals and humans may have migrated south.

8
Management Effects Quantitative information on the effects of forest management on karst landscapes in

southeast Alaska is limited. In particular, it is not known what cumulative effects past

timber harvest has had on the epikarst landscape. Hydrologic models currently used

for estimating cumulative effects of proposed surface management activities are not

designed to model effects of timber harvest on karst lands. We have observed recent

sediment deposits and waterline marks in underground systems that suggest timber

harvesting has increased sediment and debris transport and flooding of underground

passages, many of which may have not previously flooded for centuries. Our observations in some caves also indicate that recent flooding has resulted in fragile ceiling

formations becoming tannin stained and showing signs of dissolution. Many cave

entrances are filled or blocked by logging slash, sediment, and debris. Additional

runoff generated from road surfaces has commonly been diverted into karst features

(Baichtal 1993b).

Field observations and aerial photo interpretations also show strong evidence of

greatly increased surface runoff on karst landscapes and adjacent surfaces after

harvest, which increases sediment, nutrient, and debris transport capability of

associated drainage networks.

Tree regeneration information from Prince of Wales Island indicates few regeneration

problems in low-elevation stands on karst landscapes (see footnote 1). As a consequence, most easily accessible, low-elevation karst areas on the island have been

harvested. Timber harvest is now concentrated on steeper, higher elevation karst

landscapes characterized by shallower, excessively well-drained soils. Our field

observations suggest that trees are smaller and regeneration problems greater at

these steep, upper elevation sites. This condition may result from several factors,

including (1) shallow soils with low nutrient availability, (2) excessive drainage of

surface and soil waters into subsurface karst systems, (3) removal of much of the

shallow soil because of inadequate log suspension, and (4) continued desiccation of

the soil once the protective forest canopy is removed. Once the timber is removed,

high rainfall can rapidly transport these fragile soils into the well-developed epikarst.

On karst landscapes worldwide, timber harvesting has led to serious, often long-term

declines in soil depth and fertility, in some cases culminating in permanent deforestation (Harding and Ford 1993; Huntoon 1992a, 1992b; Kieman 1993). Trees growing

on karst generally have roots extending into dissolved cracks in the bedrock. These

roots translocate water and nutrients back up into the forest canopy. Much of the

site productivity is tied up in this nutrient cycle and in the forest canopy; when trees

are harvested, the cycle is disrupted. On these karst areas, soils tend to be thin and

residual. As the epikarst becomes more developed, the surface-to-subsurface connection increases, as does the likelihood that soil and nutrients can be transported

vertically beyond the rooting depth of vegetation and into the conduit systems of the

karst drainage. Vertical migration of nutrients and soil becomes possible in areas

of heavy rainfall and well-developed subsurface drainage once the forest canopy is

removed (Gains 1993; Harding and Ford 1993). Karst systems are productive, but

fragile (Huntoon 1992a, 1992b; Streveler and Brakel 1991).

9
Conclusions Field reconnaissance has shown that in southeast Alaska, wherever carbonate bedrock crops out, karst landscapes have developed. This development occurs because

of the unique geologic, biologic, and climatic conditions that result in dense, nearly

pure carbonate bedrock and the acid ground water that fosters rapid chemical weathering and solution of the carbonates along well-developed, structural weaknesses in

the rock. In select areas, karst landscape development is extreme, with surface or

epikarst solution fractures extending to more than 15 meters in depth (Baichtal and

others, in press). Some areas of alpine and subalpine karst commonly have more

than 380 sink holes per square kilometer (Baichtal and others, in press). Karst

development to this extent is rare globally (Aley and others 1993).

The functions and biological significance of the karst landscape are only just beginning to be understood. Preliminary investigations suggest an increased productivity

for plant, animal, and aquatic communities that develop on top of or otherwise benefit

from karst landscapes. Some of the most productive western hemlock-Sitka spruce

forests exist on top of karst landscapes in areas where past and planned timber harvest activities have focused. The waters issuing from subsurface karst drainage systems are 8 to 10 times more productive for associated aquatic communities (Bryant

and others, in prep.). In areas where karst development is most intense, soils on

slopes and intervening benches and ridges tend to consist of shallow organic mats.

Much of the mineral soil has been displaced into dissolved fissures and eroded

dissolution rills. These surface or epikarst features tend to be more then 2 meters

deep and to open directly into extensive subsurface drainage systems (Aley and

others 1993; Baichtal and others, in press). This direct surface-to-subsurface connection and the presence of disturbed and displaced soils make these areas the

most sensitive to natural and human disturbance. Sediment, debris, and pollutants

can rapidly be transferred into the karst groundwater systems to reappear at springs

and resurgences kilometers away.

English Equivalents

Acknowledgment

References

The assistance with manuscript review by the Northwest Scientific Association was

most appreciated.

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water to significant caves. In: Foster, D.L., ed. Proceedings of the national cave

management symposium; 1991 October 23-26; Bowling Green, KY. [Place of

publication unknown]: American Cave Conservation Association: 111-120.

Aley, T; Aley, C; Elliot, W.; Huntoon, P. 1993. Karst and cave resource significance assessment. Draft report. 76 p. On file with: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Ketchikan Area, Ketchikan, AK 99901.

Autrey, J.T.; Baichtal, J. 1992. Evidence suggesting coastal refugia in southern

southeast Alaska during the height of the late Wisconsin glaciation [Abstract].

In: Proceedings, Alaska Anthropological Association: 19th annual meeting; 1992

March 27-29; Fairbanks, AK. [Place of publication unknown]: Alaska Anthropological Association.

10

When you know:

hectares

meters

square kilometers

Multiply by:

2.47

3.28

0.39

To find:

acres

feet

square miles
Baichtal, J.F. 1993a. An update on the exploration and resource evaluation of the

cave resources on the Ketchikan Area of the Tongass National Forest, southern

southeastern Alaska [Abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 20th annual meeting of the

Alaska Anthropological Association; 1993 April 8-10; Anchorage, AK. [Place of

publication unknown]: Alaska Anthropological Association.

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AK: [Place of publication unknown]: Alaska Anthropological Association: [Pages

unknown].

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geologic map of the Port Alexander and Sumdum 1:250,000 quadrangles, southeastern Alaska. File Rep. 84-405. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior,

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Bryant, M.D.; Swanston, D.N.; Wissmar, R.C.; Wright, B.E. [In prep.]. Salmonid

populations in the karst landscape of north Prince of Wales Island, southeast

Alaska.

11
Carlson, K.R. 1993a. Report on biospeleological investigations on Prince of Wales

Island during the summer of 1992. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Thorne Bay Ranger District, P.O. Box 1, Thome Bay, AK 99919.

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cavernicolous (cave-associated) invertebrate species and their interactions in

representative karst ecosystems on carbonate terrain in the Ketchikan Area

Tongass National Forest. Part I: Dall Island. Christiansburg, VA: Kent Carlson;

report to the U.S. Forest Service-Craig District; 57 p. Available from: Craig District,

Tongass National Forest, Ketchikan Area, Craig, AK 99921.

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and rockshelters in southern southeastern Alaska: 20th annual meeting of the

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Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 2770 Sherwood Lane, Suite 2A,

Juneau, AK 99801-8545.

Ford, D.C.; Williams, P.W. 1989. Karst geomorphology and hydrology. London:

Chapman and Hall. 601 p.

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karst (-kras). Environmental Geology. 21: 110-114.

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Ser. Map 1-1867. Menlo Park, CA: U.S. Geological Survey. 24 p. [and map].

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1255 W. Eighth, Juneau, AK 99801.

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Island. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Thorne Bay

Ranger District, P.O. Box 1, Thorne Bay, AK 99919.

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with remarks on zoogeographic relationships. Canadian Journal of Ecology.

65: 2202-2209.

12
Hulten, E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories; a manual of the vascular

plants. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p.

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forest aquifers. In: Sauro, U.; Bondesan, A.; Meneghel, M., eds. Proceedings of

the international conference on changes in karst areas; 1991 September 15-27;

Padova, Italy. [Place of publication unknown]: 13 Quaderni del Departimento de

Geografia, Universita di Padova: 353-360.

Huntoon, P.W. 1992b. Hydrogeologic characteristics and deforestation of the stone

forest karst aquifers of south China. Ground Water. 30: 167-176.

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10th Australian conference on cave and karst management; 1993 May; [Location

of meeting unknown]. Canberra, Australia; [Publisher unknown]: 1-13.

Kondzela, CM.; Guthrie, CM.; Hawkins, S.L. [and others]. 1994. Genetic relationships among chum salmon populations in southeast Alaska and northern British

Columbia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 51(1): 50-64.

Maas, K.M.; Still, J.C.; Bittenbender, P.E. 1992. Mineral investigations in the

Ketchikan Mining District, Alaska, 1991: Prince of Wales Island and vicinity.

OFR 81-92. Juneau, AK: U.S. Bureau of Mines. 69 p.

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Alaska. R10-MB-128. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Alaska Region. 63 p.

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University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 72 p. M.S. thesis.

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Vespertillionidae) a resident of southeast Alaska? Canadian Field-Naturalist.

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southeastern Alaska (Alexander terrane). Journal of Sedimentary Petrology.

60(2): 235-249.

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resource. Gustavus, AK: Icy Straight Environmental Services; report to the

southeast Alaska Conservation Council. 39 p.

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Oxford University Press, Inc. 464 p.

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Cave area. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 346 p.

Wissmar, R.C; Swanston, D.N.; Bryant, M.; McGee, K. [In prep.]. Controls on

stream chemistry within a karst landscape, southeast Alaska.

13
Baichtal, James F.; Swanston, Douglas N. 1996. Karst landscapes and associated

resources: a resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-383. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station. 13 p. (Shaw, Charles G., Ill; Julin, Kent R., tech. coords.; Conservation

and resource assessments for the Tongass land management plan revision).

The Tongass National Forest contains world class karst features and the largest

concentration of associated dissolved caves known in the State of Alaska. This

paper describes the dominant karst formation processes operating in southeast

Alaska, the controlling geologic and hydrologic characteristics, and the influence

of karst landscapes on associated forest resources. Recent sediment deposits

and waterline marks in underground karst drainage systems suggest that timber

harvesting has increased sediment and debris transport and the flooding of certain

underground passages.

Keywords: Karst, epikarst, caves, paleontology, Tongass, Alaska.

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