Wetland Evaluation Technical Memorandum for the 

All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida September 5, 

2012

WETLAND EVALUATION

TECHNICAL MEMORADUM

FOR THE ALL ABOARD FLORIDA PASSENGER RAIL PROJECT

WEST PALM BEACH TO MIAMI, FLORIDA

Prepared Pursuant to Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of 1972; and

Presidential Executive Order 11990, entitled “Protection of Wetlands“, dated May 23, 1977

by 

All Aboard Florida – Stations LLC and All Aboard Florida – Operations LLC

 

The following persons may be contacted for information on the Environmental Assessment:

Catherine Dobbs

Federal Railroad Administration

1200 New Jersey Ave, SE

Washington, DC 20590

202.493.6347

Margarita Martinez Miguez

All Aboard Florida – Stations LLC 

All Aboard Florida – Operations LLC 

2855 Le Jeune Road, 4th Floor

Coral Gables, Florida 33134

305.520.2458
Wetland Evaluation Technical Memorandum for the 

All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

All Aboard Florida (AAF) project is an intercity passenger rail service that will provide a necessary 

transportation solution for millions of Floridians and tourists, connecting downtown West Palm Beach 

(MP 299.6 +/-) to downtown Miami (MP 365.5 +/-) with one stop in downtown Fort Lauderdale (MP 

341.2+/-). 

The existing FEC corridor between Miami and West Palm Beach is approximately 100 feet wide and has 

supported freight and/or passenger service on a continuous basis for more than 100 years. The FEC 

corridor was originally built as a double-track railroad, but today it is a single track railroad with several 

long sidings. The roadbed for the second track in the corridor still exists today and would be used for 

the additional track improvements.

In 2006, FECR moved approximately 26 through freight trains per day over this segment, in addition to 

local trains serving customers along the line. Today, the number of daily through freight trains is 14. 

The new intercity passenger rail system would provide hourly service (consisting of approximately 16 

roundtrip trains that will be approximately 725 feet long. Trains will operate at speeds up to 79 mph, 

but will likely average 60 mph. The current FRA Class IV track conditions along the FEC corridor would 

permit passenger train trains to operate up to a maximum speed of 79 mph today.

The existing track is FRA Class IV track, permitting 60 mile per hour freight and 80 mile per hour 

passenger operations. The project will maintain this class of track and will require only minor 

infrastructure improvements for the main line, including replacement of the second main line track, 

reconstruction of existing crossovers and the addition of crossovers to facilitate operational 

improvements. No additional right of way is anticipated to complete these improvements. Further, no 

bridge structures located over bodies of water will be touched.

AAF plans to complete all infrastructure improvements for the main line track for the project within the 

existing FEC corridor that is approximately 100 feet wide throughout this segment (i.e. no additional 

right-of way acquisition is expected). Three existing bridge structures will have an additional second 

main track added to the existing deck, but no improvements to the structure’s footprint will need to be 

made. Seven existing bridges will remain single track and will not be expanded to accommodate two 

tracks. Additionally, 49.2 miles of new track will be constructed in the corridor and 8.3 miles of existing 

track will be rehabilitated. See Project Location Map, Figure 1.

The proposed downtown Miami station will be situated on an approximately nine-acre site that is 

currently owned by AAF’s affiliate. This proposed site was once the location of the original Florida East 

Coast Miami Station built by Henry Flagler. Likewise, the proposed stations at Fort Lauderdale and West 

Palm Beach stations will be situated on downtown sites, providing easy access for auto, bike and 

pedestrians.
Wetland Evaluation Technical Memorandum for the 

All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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Figure 1. Project Location Map
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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The purpose of this technical memorandum is to present the findings of a wetland evaluation for the 

proposed action and to meet the requirements of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of 1972; 

Presidential Executive Order 11990, entitled “Protection of Wetlands“, dated May 23, 1977; and United 

States Department of Transportation (USDOT) Order 5660.1A, “Preservation of the Nation’s Wetlands”, 

dated August 24, 1978, which requires all Federally funded projects to protect wetlands to the fullest 

extent possible. In addition, Sections 401, 402, and 404 of the Clean Water Act (CWA) provide 

protections for Waters of the United States and wetlands.

Although no wetland impacts are anticipated as part of the proposed action, it was anticipated that 

federal requirements would need to be met as part of the permitting process; therefore, the proposed 

actions were evaluated in compliance with federal requirements for any wetlands that have potential 

involvement with this project.

2.0 ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT

This section discusses those alternatives developed and considered during the EA process. As per NEPA 

and CEQ guidance, the No-Build Alternative will remain a reasonable and feasible alternative throughout 

this evaluation. The No-Build Alternative represents "no change" from current conditions and a 

continuation of the present course of planned and funded actions until that action is changed.

For an alternative to be considered worthy of evaluation, the following criteria were deemed essential:

Geographic location in close proximity to the Downtown core or Central Business District (CBD) 

as well as the FECR right-of-way; 

For West Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale Stations – ability for the FEC ROW to accommodate 

the addition of a second main line track necessary for both passenger rail and freight operations, 

as well as gauntlet tracks through the platform zones for use by periodic high and wide freight 

trains; 

For Miami Station – necessity to maintain railroad infrastructure for continued Port Lead freight 

operations;

Availability of land within the FEC ROW for workable track alignment and platform zones; and 

Availability of land adjacent to the designated stations to accommodate customer access 

(pedestrian and vehicular) and minimum on-site passenger-oriented facilities.

Several sites initially nominated for evaluation did not pass this test. Thus, they were dismissed from 

further analysis.
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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2.1 No Build Alternative

The No-Build Alternative, which involves no changes to the transportation facilities within the FEC 

corridor beyond those that have been currently planned and programmed, was evaluated as part of this 

study. Under this scenario, the existing freight operations and maintenance infrastructure by FECR 

would be maintained. Specifically, the No-Build Alternative would maintain FECR’s operations as a 

freight provider within the FEC corridor assuming an annual growth of approximately 5%-7% between 

today and 2016 due to current FEC projects at the Port of Miami and Port Everglades and 3% after 2016. 

Routine maintenance, safety improvements and as-needed track work would continue as planned. Also, 

the No-Build Alternative would include future planned and programmed roadway, transit, air and other 

intermodal improvements within the study area.

In the absence of passenger service within the FEC corridor, the need for stations and station-associated 

development is negated. It is assumed that land use development would continue consistent within the 

approved and adopted local comprehensive, master and/or visioning plans of each municipality but that 

only planned and programmed improvements will be completed.

Although the No-Build Alternative does not meet the purpose and need for the project, it was retained 

for detailed analysis in order to evaluate potential benefits and impacts associated with the proposed 

action in comparison to taking no action.

2.2 System Build Alternative

The proposed system build alternative will return the existing FEC corridor to a dual-track system 

allowing for the development and re-introduction of passenger service to southeast Florida. 

Infrastructure improvements are planned to be completed within the existing right-of-way (i.e. no 

additional right-of way acquisition is anticipated). Three existing bridge structures will have an 

additional second main track added to the existing deck, but no improvements to the structure’s 

footprint will need to be made. See Figure 2 for typical existing bridge structure proposed for second 

track. Seven existing bridges will remain single track and will not be expanded to accommodate two 

tracks. See Figure 3 for typical bridge transition. Additionally, 49.2 miles of new track will be 

constructed in the corridor and 8.3 miles of existing track will be rehabilitated.
Wetland Evaluation Technical Memorandum for the 

All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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Figure 2. Typical Existing Bridge Structure for Double Track (MP 319.55)

Figure 3. Typical Track Configuration at Single Track Bridge
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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2.3 Station Alternatives

Station alternatives are defined as those alternatives in West Palm Beach, Fort Lauderdale, and Miami 

for the development of stations and ancillary development needed to support the AAF project. 

2.3.1 Downtown West Palm Beach

2.3.1.1 West Palm Beach – North

For this site location alternative, the AAF station would be located in the northern portion of Downtown 

West Palm Beach roughly between Third and Seventh Streets proximate to the 15th Judicial Circuit 

Courthouse Complex, County Courthouse, County Administration Building and City Hall. 

The station’s 800-foot long, 35-foot wide high-level platform would be located well north of Third Street 

because the platform must be on tangent track north of the curve. This site would take advantage of an 

uninterrupted stretch of FEC ROW without the need for new street closure, although it would block NW 

7th Street which City Planners have identified for circulation improvement study.

The station would extend to the east side of the FEC ROW on unimproved, publicly controlled properties 

situated along Quadrille Boulevard including a parcel with frontage on S. Dixie Highway. The two-story 

station building would face the east. On-site customer facilities would include ticketing, secure waiting 

area for ticketed passengers located in space above the platform level, and retail. Parking to support 

the retail would be provided on site. No dedicated passenger parking would be provided on-site; the 

City supports use of existing parking capacity available within a close radius of the station.
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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West Palm Beach North Station

2.3.1.2 West Palm Beach – Central

For this site location alternative, the AAF station would be located further south than the option 

described above, roughly between Clematis Street and Fern Street. The two-story station building 

would be located to the west side of the FEC ROW on privately controlled property fronting Evernia 

Street. On-site customer facilities would include ticketing, secure waiting area for ticketed passengers 

located in space above the platform level, and retail. Parking to support the retail would be provided on 

site. No dedicated passenger parking would be provided on-site; the City supports use of existing 

parking capacity available within a close radius of the station.

Within the FEC ROW, both main line tracks may be subject to alignment considerations subject to 

additional ROW from FDOT. The tracks could remain or would shift to the west side of the FEC ROW to 

avoid a portion of the ROW that was previously sold to FDOT. Both main line tracks would come back 

on existing alignment through Okeechobee Boulevard. 

The north edge of the 35-foot wide center island platform would commence just south of Clematis 

Street and end north of Fern Street. The high-level platform would physically block the intersections at 

Datura and Evernia Streets, thus two street closures would be required, due to the short block grid. The 

City of West Palm Beach is receptive to this need. 
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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On the west side of the ROW closures could be mitigated by creating a frontage road. The City’s Master 

Plan notes “Incentives are offered for the dedication of right-of-way (ROW) which will allow for the 

construction of a new road adjacent to the west side of the FEC ROW between Gardenia Street and 

Clematis Street." 

For this site’s three-block edge along Quadrille Boulevard, significant streetscaping and traffic calming 

would be considered to support FDOT’s desire to transform Quadrille Boulevard into a pedestrianfriendly corridor.

West Palm Beach Central Station

2.3.2 Downtown Fort Lauderdale

2.3.2.1 Fort Lauderdale – North

For this site location alternative, the AAF station would be located north of Broward Boulevard. The 

station’s 800-foot long, 35-foot wide platform would be located north of Broward Boulevard and south 

of NW Fourth Street. The high-level platform would block one intersection and thus NW Second Street 

would be closed. The City is receptive to this need.

The station would extend to the east side of the FEC ROW onto the existing Broward Transit Center 

property bounded by Broward Avenue, NW First Avenue and NW Second Street. Along with the County 
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September 5, 

2012

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and City, AAF would jointly redevelop the existing bus terminal site and other sites to accommodate, 

AAF passenger rail, regional and local buses, and future WAVE (light rail service).

AAF’s on-site customer facilities would include ticketing, secure waiting area for ticketed passengers 

located in space above the platform level, and retail. Parking to support the retail would be provided on 

site. No dedicated passenger parking would be provided on-site; the City supports use of existing 

parking capacity available within a close radius of the station.

Fort Lauderdale North Station

2.3.2.2 Fort Lauderdale – South

For this site location alternative, the AAF station would be located just south of Broward Boulevard and 

north of the existing railroad bridge over the New River. No track work would be undertaken within 100 

feet of the existing bridge. To tie into the existing track alignment over the river crossing, the station 

would employ a side platform configuration in lieu of the center island platform described for the Fort 

Lauderdale-North alternative as well as those alternatives in West Palm Beach . The 800-foot long highlevel platforms would block one intersection. The City has indicated that closing Broward Boulevard 

would be out of the question. In all likelihood closing SW Second Street would also be highly 

problematic. The latter is a necessity for the success of this station location alternative.
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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The station would extend to the east side of the FEC ROW onto the privately controlled Las Olas 

Riverfront property. AAF’s on-site customer facilities would include ticketing, secure waiting area for 

ticketed passengers located in space above the platform level, and retail. Parking to support the retail 

would be provided on site. No dedicated passenger parking would be provided on-site; the City 

supports use of existing parking capacity available within a close radius of the station. The existing atgrade pedestrian crossing across the FEC tracks would be preserved. 

Fort Lauderdale South Station

2.3.3 Downtown Miami / Government Center

Miami’s downtown station will be located on a multi-block, nine-acre site owned by AAF’s affiliate. This 

site was the location of the original Florida East Coast Miami Station built by Henry Flagler. The site is 

centrally situated at the heart of the City’s Government Center district, an area characterized by a 

concentration of City, County, State and Federal government facilities, as well as cultural and civic uses. 

The Overtown neighborhood is located to the north of the site, and the Flagler Street retail corridor is to 

the south.

The area possesses strong transit connections the north and south (there are two Metrorail stations) 

and excellent connectivity with other destinations Downtown (there are two MetroMover stations) plus 

multiple convenient and well-used bus routes.
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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2.3.3.1 Miami – South At Grade

This station alternative is an at-grade option. At the north end, two main line tracks would pass under 

the Dolphin Expressway overpass at grade. The Port Lead would remain in service; the single track 

would peel off the main line at Eighth Street and head east into the Port of Miami. The passenger track 

arrangement would fan out to four tracks between Eighth and Fifth Streets, allowing for platforms south 

of 5th Street. 

The Miami layout provides a combination of side and center island platforms. All four tracks would be 

accessed also by a low-level service platform. The 1,000-foot long platforms would be located between 

Fifth Street, which would remain open, and Third Street, which would need to be closed. Therefore the 

entire track and station platform footprint would realize its full width at the south edge of Fifth Street. 

Four tracks would cross Sixth and Fifth Streets at grade.

This alternative would not impact the existing Overtown Metrorail Station or existing Government 

Center Metrorail and Metromover Stations. The existing Metromover station at NE Fifth Street would 

also be maintained. However, it would not be possible to squeeze four passenger rail tracks and 

platforms under the existing Metromover alignment without altering the existing pier spacing; hence, 

the Metromover span through the property owned by AAF’s affiliate would be rebuilt. 

The AAF station would have multiple points of pedestrian access. Passenger facilities would be located 

at the south end of the platforms. Mixed-use development would be situated on the property south of 

the station platforms, incorporating the station’s primary entry at NW First Street and NW First Avenue. 

The following TOD uses are anticipated:

Retail

Office

Limited Service Hotel

Residential

Parking

The architectural program would be accommodated in several building masses. A fifteen-story office 

building would anchor the southern end of the property. A thirty-story residential and hotel tower 

would front on NW First Avenue at Third Street. Structured parking garages would be built in the air 

rights over the station platforms between Second and Third Streets and between Third and Fourth 

Streets.
Wetland Evaluation Technical Memorandum for the 

All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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Miami South at Grade Station

2.3.3.2 Miami – Central Elevated

This alternative is an elevated option. The station layout assumes the same passenger and service 

platform configuration as the at-grade alternative described above, except the station platform 

footprint would be accommodated entirely on an elevated viaduct structure approximately 45 feet 

above grade. This alternative shifts the platform closer toward the northern portion of the property 

owned by AAF’s affiliate. 

At the north end, the main line tracks would pass under the Dolphin Expressway overpass at grade, and 

single Port Lead track would peel off the main line at Eighth Street and heads east to the Port of Miami. 

Unlike the previous alternative, here the two Station Lead tracks would then immediately commence a 

maximum 3% incline onto the viaduct. The existing at-grade crossings at NW Eleventh and NW Tenth 

Streets would be eliminated due to the climbing passenger tracks; these streets would become blocked 

by a retaining wall. 

Closure of Tenth and Eleventh Streets would be carefully mitigated and balanced by road capacity 

enhancements. For example, the frontage road located immediately west of the FECR ROW could 

potentially be extended to connect the street grid in the Overtown neighborhood to the existing 

Thirteenth or Fourteenth Street at-grade crossings under I-395 and the proposed viaduct underpass at 

Eighth or Ninth Streets.
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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By Ninth Street the elevated railroad approaching the station would transition from retained 

embankment to viaduct structure. The Port Lead track would remain at grade for continued freight 

operations. A minimum overhead clearance of 23’-6” above top of rail would be maintained as the Port 

Lead track passes under the elevated Station Lead tracks.

After the Station Lead tracks fan out into four tracks, the 1,000-foot long platform zone would 

commence just south of Seventh Street and end just south of Fourth Street. The entire track and station 

platform footprint thus would pass over Eighth Street, the Port Lead, Sixth Street, Fifth Street, and the 

Metromover. This alternative would not impact the major through streets of Eighth, Sixth and Fifth 

Street, the existing Overtown Metrorail Station or existing Government Center Metrorail and 

Metromover Stations. 

The AAF station would have multiple points of pedestrian access. The headhouse’s primary entry would 

front NW First Avenue opposite the Federal Courthouse. A three to four story liner of passengeroriented functions and retail would create a continuous street wall extending to the north. Structured 

parking would be concealed behind the liner, under the tracks and platforms.

Mixed-use development would be situated immediately south of the station headhouse. The same TOD 

programs as the at-grade alternative described for the at-grade scenario would be anticipated, in 

roughly the same massing.

Miami Central Elevated Station
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

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3.0 METHODOLOGY

In order to determine the approximate locations and boundaries of existing wetland communities within 

or adjacent to the FEC Railway ROW, existing site-specific data was collected and reviewed. The 

following information was collected and analyzed:

• South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) Land Use GIS data (2008) based on the 

FDOT Florida Land Use, Cover and Forms Classification System (FLUCCS), (third ed.) 1999.

• National Wetland Inventory (NWI) GIS data (2011) based on the aerial extent of wetlands as 

defined by the USFWS. 

• Aerial photographs of the project area.

Using the above information, the approximate boundaries of wetland communities were mapped on 

color aerial images for the station alternatives and rail alignment alternatives. Wetland boundary 

accuracy and presence was then increased through a field evaluation of the rail line ROW and proposed 

station locations on July, 13, 2012, that compared the GIS data to on-site conditions. New wetland 

boundaries and more accurate existing wetland boundaries were determined during the field groundtruthing efforts. Wetlands were then classified using the FLUCCS and the USFWS classification system as 

described in Cowardin’s "Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States".

4.0 WETLAND COMMUNITIES

Wetlands are located adjacent to or abutting the FEC railway right-of-way, in areas adjacent to sections 

of track that will be rehabilitated or where new track will be constructed. The majority of these 

wetlands are associated with excavated drainage ponds, as well as, rivers, creeks, and canals that cross 

beneath the FEC railway right-of-way. 

Based on the current NWI and SFWMD mapping, there are no jurisdictional wetlands that exist within 

the FEC ROW. However, based on the field investigations and review of aerial photography, new 

wetland boundaries were mapped within the FEC ROW in three locations as shown in Table 1 and 

Figures 4 - 6. These wetlands were not mapped by resource agencies and were delineated utilizing field 

notes and aerial photography. Each one of these newly mapped wetlands within the FEC ROW 

represents less than 1/3 acre and total less than 0.5 acre.

Wetlands in the project area are basically comprised of low energy intertidal habitats dominated by 

broad-leaved evergreen woody vegetation less than 20 feet tall, such as red mangroves (Rhizophora 

mangle) and white mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa). (USFWS: E2SS3Pd; FLUCCS: 612 – Mangrove 

Swamp).
Wetland Evaluation Technical Memorandum for the 

All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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Table 1. Wetlands within FEC ROW

County Milepost

Acres 

within 

FEC ROW

Location Comment

Broward 338.5

0.07

East edge of ROW abutting 

Colohatchee Park boundary

Proposed double track on opposite 

side.

0.06

West edge of ROW near Middle 

River (South Fork) bridge No proposed bridge work

MiamiDade 353.7 0.05

West edge of ROW near Oleta 

River bridge.

No proposed bridge work or 

double tracking

MiamiDade 354.3 0.29

East edge of ROW between NE 

172 St and Snake Creek Canal

Proposed double track on opposite 

side. Wetland restoration site.

Total 0.47

These wetlands provide some of the following hydrologic functions: water quality enhancement/ 

pollution abatement - capacity to retain or absorb waterborne particulates or chemical compounds; and 

flood and erosion control - capacity to regulate surface water runoff. In addition, the adjacent 

Colohatchee park provides recreational and scientific uses, the Oleta River is part of the Biscayne Bay 

Aquatic Preserve (Outstanding Florida Water), and the wetland area between NE 172nd Street and 

Snake Creek Canal is identified as a restoration site. 

These wetland areas do not have food and fiber (timber) uses, public water supply system uses and they 

have been subjected to physical influences resulting from human activities which have affected the 

structure and/or function of the wetlands. These influences include exotic species infestations, and 

point and non-point pollution sources. These wetlands are important to the surrounding biological 

community since they provide primary wetland functions (e.g., wildlife habitat, erosion control, etc.). 

However, because these areas are part of larger contiguous wetland systems, the relative importance of 

these functions to the total wetland resources of the area and the uniqueness of these wetlands are 

minor.

The fringe mangrove wetlands at the identified locations are along the perimeter edge of the ROW and 

no work is proposed in the immediate vicinity of these wetlands. It is anticipated that any intrusion into 

these edge wetlands can be avoided or minimized through project design, such as using cross-sections 

of minimum practicable width. Furthermore, best management practices would be employed during 

construction to avoid temporary impacts to the wetland system. 
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

September 5, 

2012

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Figure 4. Middle River (South Fork) – Colohatchee Park
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Figure 5. Oleta River 
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All Aboard Florida Passenger Rail Project West Palm Beach to Miami, Florida

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Figure 6. NE 172 St and Snake Creek Canal 
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Since the proposed project is not anticipated to impact wetlands in the project area, no Uniform 

Mitigation Assessment Methodology (UMAM) or Wetland Rapid Assessment Procedure (WRAP) 

assessments were performed.

5.0 CONCLUSIONS 

Wetlands that exist adjacent to or abutting the FEC ROW are limited to sporadic fringe mangrove 

wetlands, associated in most cases, with larger wetland systems (waterways). No bridge modifications 

or bridge replacements are proposed for the mainline, and any mainline modifications to accommodate 

the increase in train speeds or additional capacity (proposed segments of double tracking) will occur 

within the existing FEC ROW, predominately on already established trackbed. The only bridge work 

(placement of additional track) that is proposed is at locations where concrete structures and ballast 

rock is already in place. Furthermore, no wetlands were identified at any of the proposed station 

alternatives or maintenance facility alternative. Based on these findings, the proposed project would not 

adversely affect wetlands.

Discharges of fill material into waters of the United States require the authorization of the USACE. 

Although not anticipated, any wetland impacts that would result from the construction of this Project 

would be mitigated pursuant to S. 373.4137 F.S. to satisfy all mitigation requirements of Part IV, Chapter 

373, F.S. and 33 U.S.C. §1344. Any mitigation requirements would be coordinated further during 

permitting. Because of the wetland mitigation required for state and federal permit efforts, the total 

potential wetland impact (less than 0.5 acre) provides a nominal effect on the environment.