LEVELI

Technical Report 511

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

MODEL FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC TRAINING

DELIVERY SYSTEMS

VOLUME Iz HARDWARE,

SOFTWARE, AND PROCEDURES

C. Victor Bunderson and J. Olin Campbell

WICAT Incorporated , and H Beatrice J. Farr

Army Research Institute

MANPOWER AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS TECHNICAL AREA

bI

__ DTIC o) ELECTE

JAN 4

U. S. Army D

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

June 1980

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 82 01 04 013

- I_ =

.. - . ----. ---.---- -...- .- i--,.,--. ... ,-..- ,
U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

FRANKLIN A. HART

JOSEPH ZEIDNER Colonel, US Army

Techlnical Dircctor Commander

Research accomplished under contract t. to the Department of the Army

WICAT Týncorporated

NOTICES

DIST R IOU TI ON: - iri ftiv distribut ion of this report has been mnade by AR I. P14*10 addriess correspo ridence

* I concerning distribution of reports to: U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behevioral and Social Sciences,

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the U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral v~id Social Science$.

_N"T The findings in this report are not to be construed as an offiial Dilepartmient of the Armyt position,

unless so designated by other authorized documnents.

I * ______________Z
Unclassified

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE When Date Entered) REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS REPORT__DOCUMENTATIONPAGEBEFORE COMPLETING FORM I. REPORT NUMBER a GOVT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

Technical Report 511. -"-t@5 ' 7 4. TITLE (and Subtitle) i. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR July 1978 - June 1979

INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC TRAINING DELIVERY SYSTEMS _

VOL I HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND PROCEDURES S. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

7. AUTHOR(&) S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(a)

C. Victor Bunderson

MDA903-78-C-2023 J. Olin Campbell

Beatrice J. Farr

S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT, TASK WICAT Incorporated ., AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS

1160 S. State, Suite 10 2Q162721A764

* Orem, UT 84057 !1. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE

Alexandria Division June 1980

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IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Research monitored technically by Beatrice J. Farr of the Manpower and

Educational Systems Technical Area.

IS. KEY WORDS (Continue an reverse side It neceeeary amd Identify by block number)

Videodisc

Delivery system

Authoring system --7 • Ae• 

Videodisc ISD

!a*. ADSTRACT (Cthue a ,vWin si dt #I n mdodenslty" by blo!PjIbet)

This is Vol. I of the Final Report. It describes the hardware and software

for videodisc training delivery systems (VTDS) and videodisc authoring and production systems (VAPS). The report describes the range of capabilities in

consumer-model videodisc players and intelligent videodisc systems. It also

describes the interim field test delivery system for this project that will be

used the lecond year. The report describes VAP systems hardware, including

differer,_ levels of sophistication and complexity that might be available at

(Continued) a

"D A 7'r 1473 [e t'nT O" I 1 NOV & IS OMLIET Unclassified

SECUPTY CLASSIFICATtON OF THIS PAGE (Whek Data Entbted)

-' " -- -. ... ..- , ',', •
7 . Unclassified

SECuRITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAO((Wha, Does .n...d)

Item 20 (Continued)

any Army authoring site. The videodisc production process, which upas VAP

systems, is summarized and the interim authoring software to be used during

this project is described.

This volume provides a framework for Vol. I, the revised ISD model for

videodisc development. In Vol. 111, preliminary prescriptions for graphics

use in videodi- authoring are given.

I-

"F ..

I

1 •Unclassified

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF TItS PA.GZMhef Date Bntatod)

-.. . .- .. 
Technical RepOr 511

INSTRUCtiONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

MODEL FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC TRAINING

DELIVERY SYSTEMS

VOLUME I: HARDWARE, ,. -fis- "AD"te CRA&IFo 2 SOFTWARE, AND PROCEDURES

i ~DTIC TkB

.: Unanlnounced

1~titatiom _._ C. Victor Bunderson and J. Olin Campbell

-- WWICAT Incorporated

: .. and Dvstributio•n Beatrice J. Farr

Availability Codes Army Research Institute

iAvai. and/or I I___um________ ____________________Submitted by: James D. Baker, Chief

MANPOWER AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS TECHNICAL AREA

Approved:

Edgar M. Johnson, Director

ORGANIZATIONS AND SYSTEMS

RESEARCH LABORATORY

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333 D T IC

OWfice, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army EL EC'T'E

JAN4 1982

/S

Army Project Number Education and Training 20162722A764

* •APDr@ed for Public vrell: dl ribution uniimil:d.

A i

-
ARI Research Reports and Technical Reports are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings ready

for implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part

of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

I r" 1 " . . -

,

1

'I'

iv .
FOREWORD______

The Manpower and Educational Systems Technical Area of the Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) performs research and

development in the area of educational technology with application to military

training. Computer-based training systems have been an area of particular

interest. Developing and implementing such systems has the potential for

reducing both training time and cost while, at the same time, providing more

individualization than is possible using conventional training methods.

This report is Volume I of a three volume report on an Instructional

Systems Development (ISD) Model for Videodisc Training Delivery Systems with

Interactive Capability. A model instructional delivery system is being

developed in order to bridge existing technological gaps. This effort called

for identifying preliminary on and off-line techniques, key requirements and

aids for an integrated microprocessor - controlled videodisc system, and

relating these requirements, etc., to the prototype ISD model. Also included

were the development of a preliminary testable set of principles and guidelines concerning when, where, what kind, and how much graphics to use in

select videodisc settings. LIThe entire research work unit was initiated during FY 1977 in response to

the requirements of RDT&E Project 2Q161102B74F (Research in the Behavioral and 1 Social Sciences) and 2Q162722A764 (Education and Training). The research was

~ performed in support of -the FY 77 ARI Work Program under Project A764, Theme

4:. "Videodisc Technology Applications to Battle Simulation Devices," and

A764, Task A, Work Unit 2, "Critical Factors in the Optimization of Device/

Media Selection and Evaluation."

JsPH D

~Te4nica1 ctor

VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

,The authors would like to acknowledge with sincere thanks the contributions of others to the research and development reported in this report and its two

companion volumes. We are considerably indebted to Mr. James D. Baker, Chief of

the Manpower and Educational Systems Technical Area (MESTA) of the Army Resoarch

*i Institute (ARI). He is responsible for many of the initial concepts. The

statement of work he prepared to initiate this effort could be considered a

formative conceptual paper in the domain of interactive, videodisc training

delivery systems.

With the award of this contract to WICAT Inc., a professionally satisfying

and highly productive association began between key ARI and WICAT personnel.

The work was originally monitored and supported by Dr. John E. Germas and

Mr. John Larson until the untimely death of Dr. Germas in 1979. At that time

Dr. Leon Nawrocki assumed management responsibility for the effort. The WICAT

Inc. team included Dr. C. Victor Bunderson, Dr. J. Olin Campbell, Steven Booth,

Dr. James Schuyler, Dr. Dustin heuston, Robert Mendenhall, and other WICAT

personnel.

Special thanks are due to Dr. Paul Merrill, who spearheaded the Volume III

report, Dr. Joseph Lipson, who consulted on the Volume III report, Dr. Charles

Frye, who consulted on the implementation of PLANIT and provided extremely

valuable assistance. Mr. Jack Cplloway provided valuable consultation in video

production techniques.

Thanks are due to many industry representatives in the computer, video,

and videodisc industries who were consulted in obtaining the data in this report. These companies and some of the helpful individuals are mentioned in the methods

section.

The conclusions and recommendations of this study are those of the authors.

They should not be construed as an official Department of the Army position or

policy.

This report is dedicated to Jack Germas.

Svi

- .
INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC TRAINING

DELIVERY SYSTEMS: VOL. I HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND PROCEDURES

BRIEF

Requirement:

To assess the impact of videodisc training delivery systems on the

Interservice Procedures for ,Instructional System Development. This includes

determining the technological gaps that exist, identifying the front-end r . components that are necessary in order to make videodiscs a training delivery

system, end developing the microprocessor interface techniques which permit the implementation.

Procedure:

Videodisc training delivery system concepts were investigated in relation to Army training. HArdware alternatives, system architecture, potential applications and a description of levels of learner/computer interaction

were exarined. Attention was focused on the constraints involved in videodisc authoring and production, as well as the relative merit of videotaae

versus film-based production. Each of the steps involved in disc development is outlined, and a flowchart job aid is included for planners and managers.

This report summarizes three levels of authoring/production software, and concludes with a list of available hardware and software necessary to I facilitate authoring.

Utilization:

This report will be used by Army authors to assist in step-by-step production of an interactive videodisc delivery system.

vii
INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR INTERACTIVE

VIDEODISC TRAINING DELIVERY SYSTEMS

VOL. I HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND PROCEDURES

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*. . . . . 1

VTDS and VAPS . . . . . . . ... . . . .............. . 2

PART I VTD CONCEPTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Visits to Army Sites . ... . .. ....... 5

Capabilities of VTD Systems . . . . ................. 5

Consumer-Model Videodisc Systems . . . ........... . 6

Intelligent Videodisc Systems ............. . 10

and Costs 'of VTD Systems in the Army . . . 13 

Software for VTD Systems .... ........... 15

Levels of Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Delivery System Software Functions for!

LO Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Interim Field Test System for This Project . . . ... . 24

* Software . * . .. . , . 24

Selection VTD of System Hardware .. for'the Brassboard. . . .. 25

Selection of Videodisc Player ........... 26 First-Generation Optical Players . .. .. . .. 26

Digital Discs . . . .. .... . . . .. 27

Reasons for Selecting the Philips Player

as First Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Terminal Hardware. ................ 28

System Architecture . . . . . . . .... 30

The Brassboard System Is Future Compatible , . . 30

PART II VIDEODISC AUTHORING AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

(VAPS) CONCEPTS .. . . . . . . . . . 34

Visits to Authoring Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Visits to Television Production Studios,. ....... 34

Literature .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35

Pilot Tests of'the Author Mock-up System ....... 36

Tracking and Actual Manual Videodisc Production .... 41

"Constraints on Videodisc Authoring and Production . . . 43

Distribution of Equipment Resources . . . . . . . . 43

Current Level of Sophistication of Army Authors . . 47 4

Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Hardware Diversity ... ........ 50

Instructional Resource Constraints * .. ... 50

' . The Videodisc Authoring-Production (VAP) System . . 53

ix

-"man" N
CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

Hardware .. .. . . . . . .. .. . 53

Software for VAP Systems ... . . .. 54

Interim software for This Project . . . . . . . . 58

Videodisc Production .. . . ..... . ...... 60

The Problem and the Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Assumptions .. . ....... 60

Videotape Versus Fim-Bas;d Productio ....... 61

Major Videodisc Production Steps. . . . . . . . . 64

Tape-Based Videodisc Authoring andProduction Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Authoring . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 71

Media Production ........... 74

Cost of Motion Production . . .......... 76

Alternatives for Text Production . . . . . . . . .. 77

Typesetting and Paste-Up ........... 77

Character Generator Video . . . . . . . ... . 77

Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Digital Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Alternatives for Graphics Production . . . . . . . . 79

Computer-Generated Images ' 79

Board Art. . . . . . . . . ... .. 79 Video Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 80

Media Tranefers ..... .......... . . . . . . . 80

Off-Line Edits and Tryouts ......... .. 80

Alternatives for Editing . . . . . . . . .. .. . . 82

When Editing Is Required ............ 82

Studio Edits . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Off-Line Edits ........ . ..* .*. . 82

Alternatives for Authors' Proofs and Tryouts " " 83

Intelligent vs. Manual Videodisc Requirements * . 83

The Review and Tryout System . . . . . . . . . . 83

Revision . . . . . . . . 84

Postproduction (Final Editing) .*........ 84

Mastering and Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

SurSummary% Three Levels of VAP Systems . . . . . . . . . . 86

Film-Based Videodisc Authoring and Production Systems . . 86

Authoring . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86

Media Production . . . . 87

Media Transfers . _ . . . . 87

Off-Line Edits and Tryouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Post Production ..... .... ....... . 87

NEW HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE NEEDED. ........... . 89

Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Software . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 89

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *. . . .. 91

Ilxk
CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 93

DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Control functions of the magnavision videodisc . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 

2. Control capabilities of consumer videodisc

players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3. Delivery capabilities of a range of VTD systems 11

4. Levels of discourse in student/computer

interaction............. . . . . . . . .. 16

5. Delivery software tunchions for an L language 21 1 6. Proposed system design f,)r "brassboard" field

test system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

7. The concept of second generation intelligent VrD systems................ . . . . . . . . 33

8. Author mock-up system.. ... . .. . . 37

9. An overview of Army authoring and production . 44

10. Possible distribution of VAPS equipment . . . . 46

11. Levels of discourse in an authoring language . 55

12. Media flcw chart--tape . .... .......... . 65

13. Media flow chart--film ............ 66

14. Major steps of videodisc production . . . . .. 67

15. An example of a format grid for a manual

videodisc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

16. An example of a format grid for an interactive

videodisc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

777

• :-

* T2
INTRODUCTION

Background

In 1976 and 1977 the Educational Technology and Simulation

Technical area of the Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences, investigated some of the

critical training problems faced by the modern Army and noted

the great promise of the new videodisc technology. Some of

the Army training problems noted were the increase in the

complexity of weapon systems and the associated serious

increase in the volume of paper documentation. Evidence is

mounting that the current delivery system of stand-up teachers

and print media, is reaching a saturation point. It will

not be possible to meet the Army's growing training problems

by simply throwing more paper at it and the shrinking

training dollar precludes expanding the instructional staff.

The videodisc is seen to be a revolutionary development in

training technology because of its enormous storage potential

and the flexibility of media display. The videodisc can store

all display- that are now delivered on any audiovisual medium,

including color slides, slide-tape, super 8mm, videotape,

or motion picture. I-c can also display the content of print

media by refoi.mattino the print pages to be compatible with

video format. The 3.08,000 video pages of a single disc can

be used to deliver printed information in a small fraction

of the space required by paper documentation.

The growing promise ,f the videodisc, however, cannot be

achieved until the front-end components which are required

to make the videodiF- an instructional system are completed.

One of the most important of these components is a workable

Instructional Systems Development (ISD) model, structured

to guide the authoring and production of materials for

intelligent (computer augmented) videodisc training delivery

systems. For the future, not only the video displays (still

and motion) but interactive ccmputer coursew;ce will be

stored on the videodisc. Special ISD problems emerge in the

development and i :egration of interactive computer pregrams

along with the audio and visual materials. The needed ISD

model must fit into the constraints that exist at Army

authoring sites so it can, and will be, adopted.
2

VTDS and VAPS

The abbreviations VTDS and VAPS (or VTD systems and VAP

systems) will be used throughout this report to denote the

two kinds of hardware systems mentioned in the title:

Videodisc Training Delivery Systems (VTDS). Earlier in

this contract, these systems were referred to under one

heading, "Brassboard System". The concept then was that

computer and video equipment, probably timeshared to a

larger computer, would be required both to test the ISD

concepts developed in the study, and to simulate the ultimate

system that would later be used by the Army. The "Brassboard

Simulation" was designed to keep the Army's options open by

using a flexible simulation rather than prematurely locking

into a particular hardware configuration.

As the effort progressed, it became apparent that two systems

were needed. Videodisc authoring and Production has many

unique features to it. On the delivery side, VTD systems clearly have all the capabilities of the most powerful educational media: the printed page, motion pictures and other

audiovisuals and interactive computer programs. VTD systems

can deliver all of these forms of instruction in an extremely

compact form using low cost, easily replicable packages.

The converse of this powerful delivery capability,- however,

is that authoring requirements are much greater. When so much

capability and flexibility is possible in a delivery medium,

all of the complexities and problems of the composite media

are present. Thus, all of the difficulties of producing audio-visual materials and translating them to video,

developing interactive CAI materials and fitting them into

the constraints and capabilities of this delivery system are

combined.

Since much of the video production involves specialized

equipment, it is not possible for the VTDS and the VAPS to

be composed of identical equipment. Therefore, it is

necessary to distinguish these two types of equipment configurations. Furthermore, VTDS's can be expected to stabilize

and become a standard equipment configuration that will be

used throughout the Army, but so much diversity exists in

video and audio-visual production equipment that there will

not be one simple VAPS in the foresee3ble future. There will

be a range of VAPS hardware configurations that utilize the

available equipment at Army audio-visual service offices

(TASO's), and at Army and contractor production centers.

Because of this diversity and also because of the separation

both geographically and politically (and psychologically)

in authoring and production groups, equipment will not be in

one place. Different devices will serve the functions of

different groups. This report tries to make this diversity manageable by describing a range of VAPS hardware configura- tions. The report also deals with the software, which will

S------------
3

operate on different computerized devices which constitute

the parts of VAP systems. This software can be viewed as

"authoring and production aids". It is a step towards the

design automation of authoring and production processes.

There is considerably less diversity in systems configurations for VTD systems, at least in concept. Videodisc

technology is new and in the next few years there will be a

wide diversity of devices from different manufacturers.

However, at the present time, there are only two distinct

candidate systems that have the likelihood of being deployed

in the Army. The first of these is a consumer-model videodisc, now being marketed to the public, and equipped with

an automatic stop. This player has been shown to have

effective applications for replacing present media delivery

systems now used by the Army audio-visual production program (video cassette players) and by the TEC audio-visual program

(Beseler Cue-See super 8mm and audio players). Costeffective application of consumer-model players has been

documented in a study sponsored by the Army Communicative

Technology Office (Bunderson and Jarvis, 1979).

The othier VTD system can be called an "intelligent" videodisc system. An intelligent videodisc system drives the

videodisc player's functions by a computer instead of manually.

Intelligent videodisc systems add, to the capabilities ofI

consumer players, all of the capabilities of interactive

computer-assisted instruction. They introduce the requirement

and opportuniti for interactive software to deliver a wide

variety of intelligent and semi-intelligent interactions

between the soldier and the system.

Descriptions of these two systems, the VTD system and the

VAP system, constitute the major body of this report. In

part I, VTD system concepts are discussed in the categories

of consumer model and intelligent videodisc systems. The

brassboard or interim field test system selected for this

research is also described. In part II, VAP system concepts

are delineated and the r:omplexity in these systems likely to

abound in the Army for many bears is made understandable by

identifying different system configurations that differ in

complexity. The software for design automation in VAP systems

is also delineated, and the interim software described for

the "Brassboard System".

..

. . . . . '- . . . i-- ..------.--
4

PART I VTD CONCEPTS

This section of the report provides descript've information

on the consumer-model videodisc player, intelligent videodisc systems, and software. The method used to obtain an

understanding of these systems was primarily to visit the

manufacturers and laboratories to discuss technical questions

with corporate engineers. In addition, i~t was necessary to

obtain hands-on experience with the prototype and final

products by putting them through their paces with existing

discs. Besides the visits and telephone calls, literature

made available by the manufacturers and in published Journals

was consulted.

A partial list of manufacturers visited includes the following:

NV Philips Laboratories in Eindhoven, The Netherlands, were visited twice. Of particular interest to the VTD systems was

a visit to the laboratories of Dr. Peter van den Avoort in

Geldrop, The Netherlands. For two years, Dr. van den Avoort

has been experimenting with a computer-controlled videodisc

player (consumer-model). Extensive hands-on experience with

videodisc players was obtained by Dr. Bunderson during these

two visits. Two visits were made to the MCA laboratories in

Los Angeles, California. Visits were made to Mr. Warren

Singer in New York City to discuss the Thomnson-CSF players.

Visits were made to the laboratories of the Sony Corporation

and the Japan Victor Company in Tokyo, Japan.

Several conferences attended in the course of this project

have provided valuable information. The first of these was

the Institute for Graphics Communications Conference in

Carmel, California in July, 1978. only a small number of

industry and government representatives who are definitely

involved in videodisc technology were invited to this

confVerence. The Videodisc Conference of the Society for

Applied Learning Technology (February 1979) in Orlando,

Florida was attended, as was the Association for Development

of Computer-Based Instructional Systems (ADCIS) in San Diego,

California in February, 1979.

In addition to these conferences, WICAT sponsored a conference,

funded by the National Science Foundation, on videodisc and

micro-processors in education. This conference was held in

Salt Lake City, Utah in November, 1978.

Visits to Army Sites

In addition to the visits made to manufacturers and conferences,

it was necessary to visit Army training bases to learn the

constraints on training and on authoring that would affect

the use of VTD systems and VAP systems. Bases visited

included the following: Ft. Sill, Oklahoma; Ft. Benning,
5

Georgia; Ft. Eustis, V..irginia: Ft. Hood, Texas; and Ft.

Bliss, Texas.

The visits to Ft. Eustis were especially significant in that

this base houses the Army Training Support Center (ATSC). The

various training directorates, responsible for the delivery

of materials exported to the field, were consulted regarding

the potential uses of videodiscs. Programs consulted included

TEC, the Institute for Professional Development -(Army

Correspondence Course Program), the Army Audio-Visual Program, 1. the Skill Performance Aids Programs (SPA, formerly called

ITDT), The Skills Qualification Test (SQT) Program, and the

instructional Development Directorate. In addition, the

emerging Job Training Package Concept, not institutionalized

as a separ.ate program, was investigated extensively. The

headquarters of U .Am eev col tF.Esi a

visited. The~y have a widely dispersed program that requires

low cost, compact, exported materials.

In addition to its potential in exported training, the videodisc has potential in conventional and self-paced training

ait TRADOC schools. Fort Sill, Fort Benning, and Fort Bliss

were visited to derive an understanding of this need, and the

conditions that would inhibit or enhance the use of the VTD

systems were studied.

Capabilities of VTD Systems

In a report commissioned by the National Institute of

- ~Education, Heuston, (1977) described the potential and futureI

impact of the videodisc. He pointed out that the interactive

videodisc combines, in one delivery medium, all the capabilities of the three most powerful educational delivery systems

thus far developed: books, movies; and Computer-Assisted

Instruction (CAI).

The 54,000 video pages of the disc give an opportunity to

present the typical text and graphics of the printed page

(although reformatted). When the frames are played at 30

per second, audio and motion become available, providing the

capability of motion pictures (video) or the capabilities of

* sync slide or other AV displays. As Heuston points out,

there is considerable motivational potential in the motion

* picture and audio dis-lays and also potential to reach those

with lower verbal skills for whom the printed word is not an

easy representation. The third great medium is interactive

computer-assisted instruction. This provides practice trials

with feedback, scoring, record-keeping, two-dimensional

simulations, and numerous other functions. In the past, CAI

has not had the visual interest and motivation of notion

pictures and audio, and the speed of the typewritten displaiys

has been too slow for rapid transfer of the printed word.

The combination of these three media in the videodisc solves
6

all of the weaknesses of any of them taken alone, while

retaining most of the strengths of each taken individually.

It is useful to tirst discuss the capabilities of the

consumer-model videodisc. It combines the display capabilities

of the printed page and audio-visual media. The intelligent

VTD systems, which add th- processing intelligence of

computers, will be discussed later.

Consumer model videodisc systems

The first videodisc player marketed was developed by N.V.

Philips in the Netherlands. Philips acquired Magnavox in this

country and Magnavox Corporation is now producing the players

under the "Mapavision" label. Figure 1 depicts the Magnavision videodisc player. The names and functions of the control keys

on the player are listed at the bottom of the figure.

Player capabilities are greatly affected by the kinds of disc

used. There are two kinds of videodiscs that will operate on

the consumer player: a 30 minute disc and a 60 minute disc.

The 30 minute disc has one TV frame per revolution. Thus,

there are 30 minutes x 60 seconds x 30 frames per second, or

: I54,000 frames per side. Any one of these frames can'be accessed through the use of the control keys. Access is random

but manually controlled. The left-most control key in Figure

1, the index key, enables this random accessing. The user

presses the index key once and a 5-digit frame number appears

in the upper left hand portion of the screen. This number is

visible in any playing mode. Using the rapid search or the

normal play mode, forward or reverse, users can go to the

vicinity of any desired index number. Theycan locate a precise frame using the still forward and still reverse keys.

A second depression of the index key gives a chapter number.

"Using the search forward or reverse buttons, users can go

to a 400 frame sequence designated with chapter numbDers and

stop at the first frame encountered. They can then get to the

beginning of the chapter, which presumably is equipped with

an automatic stop code by pressing the forward or reverse play

key.

Chapter stops and automatic stops are two features of the Magna- vision videodisc player. They are extremely important for Army applications. They provide all of the stop action capabilities

used by the Besler Cue-See audio-visual projector, and provide

the user with a manual access control that can be made to be

extremely convenient by judicious placement of stops during

production. il I

'I!
Figure 1

Control Functions of the Magnavision Videodisc Player

0

00 0 .0 00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Key No. Function Key No. Function

1. POWER ON - POWER OFF 8. NORMAL Speed Forward

2. STILL FRAME & single frame Reverse 9. FAST FORWARD (Three Times

3. STILL FRAME & single frame Forward Normal)

4. SLOW MOTION - Reverse 10. SOUND - Audio Track No. 1

5. SLOW MOTION - Forward 11. SOUND - Audio Track No. 2

6. SLOW MOTION Slide - Normal to four 12. SEARCH - Fast Speed Reverse

seconds per frame 13. SEARCH - Fast SpDeed Forward

"7. NORMAL Speed Reverse 14. INDEX (Picture Number Display

.? i" J! Chapter Number Display)

i'ii _
8

All of the functions depicted at the bottom of Figure 1 areq

active with the 30 minute disc, since it has one TV frame per

revolution. "Fronen motion" car be achieved by stopping the

player on a single frame during a motion sequence. Still

frames can be presented to the soldier at his own pace using

the still forward and reverse keys, or after a motion sequence

when an automatic stop occurs. By playing a motion frame more

than once, slow motion can be achieved, first half normal speed,

then one-third, then one-fourth, etc., as the frame is read an

integral number of t4imes before proceeding to the next frame.

The fast motion capabilities (key #9) provides th-ree times normal speed by a process of skipping TV fields. These capabilities are described elsewhere (Nenney, 1976, Bunderson, Jarvis,

and Mendenhall, 1977).

The 60 minute videodisc does not have all of the capabilities

of the 30 minute disc. It makes it possible to put a one hour

motion picture presentation on each side of a single videodisc

but it does this at the cost of the still frame and variable

speed capabilities of the 30 minute disc. More than one TV

frame is stored per revolution. Thus, it is not possible for

the laser to jump from one frame to another during the vertical

sync interval as is done on the 30 minute player, which has one

frame per revolution. On the 30 minute disc, the vertical sync

intervals are lined up in single rays out from the center at

0~0 and 18OPpositions. Thus, the player mechanism can jump

from f rame to f rame af ter either of the television f ields that

constitute a single 30th of a second frame. On a 60 minute disc,

a jump from one frame to the next at the horizontal sync interval

would land the laser somewhere in the middle of the television

frame and it would lose sync.

The placement of video frames at uniform density from the center

out to the outer radius does provide for more information. The

player has a servo that causes'it to slow down so that the uniformly dense pits that encode the video can be read by the laser,

producing 60 minutes of video per side. While having no capability to search to a particular frame number, the 60 minute

disc does enable the user manually to search to a time index,

allowing the user to select out different motion sequences or

different portions of a motion sequence.

Figure 2 summarizes some important capabilities of the consumermodel videodisc player, both for control and for the delivery

of video images. The first of these capabilities enables videodiscs to deliver book-like displays with random access capability.

These many video pages are reproduced with a much higher density

of information packing than is possible with paper. The fourth

and fifth capabilities listed in Figure 2 add a dimension to the

use of audio-visual media that has not been possible in the past. Coupled with the automatic stop, these display capabilities go

well beyond that found with motion picture or videotape players, or

conventional audio-visual delivery media. Thus, the con'sumerA ý .. . . . .. .. . - -- -- - -
9

Figure 2

Control Capabilities of

Consumer Videodisc Players

"Consumer player with:

30 min. Disc 60 min. Disc

1. Ability to freeze any of

54,000 video frames per

side. X Sdisc 

2. Automatic stop -

On a prespecified frame X

On a prespecified "chapter X

number"

3. Random access (manual)

To any of 54,000 frames X

To a time index X

* '4. Variable speed and direction

X

"*of motion (manual control)

5. Manual selection of two X X

audio tracks

('7

*€ , I+ - • , " " • 4 '"

.• • . ... : • , +: . •....
10

Smodel videodisc player not only combines the capabilities of the

book with any standard au.iovisual medium, but in the case of

audiovisual information delivery, enhances the capabilities.

The book retains the advantages over the videodisc of rzt

requiring any hardware for its use, and of providin" higher resolution graphics or text on a single page than is possible on

a television display.

It is important to anderstand these capabilities of the consumer

* model videodisc player since they have strong implications for

* authoring. Text and still graphics must be reformatted to fit

on video pages. Automatic stops must be specified and training

materials must be developed to enable soldiers to utilize the

powerful control capabilities of the consumer model videodisc

player if it is ever deployed. There are many problems of

formatting and production associated with the development of

consumer model videodiscs. These will be discussed in the next

section and in subsequent volumes.

Intelligent Videodisc Systems

When a computer as media storage and display device is introduced

into a configuration which includes a videodisc player, we may I call it an intelligent videodisc. However, tnis title should

be reserved for a computer that is capable of generating the better-known CAI functions. There are sorie Industrial/Education

(I/E) players coming on the market (e.g., tne MCA ind ThompsonCSF players) that have a microcomputer in the player itsel . These microcomputers do not themselves make the confiuuration

intelligent. It is only through the convenient hook-up that

MCA and Thompson-CSF provide for linking to ;' more powerful

computer that these systems could be called intelligent. Figure 3 introduces distinctions between thi consuner model player, the intelligent player, the I/E player and a second-generation intelligent player. The distinctions are q1 -ouped under the

three major display capabilities of the videodisc: the capabilitiqs of print media, audiovisual media, and interactive CAI.

In Figure 3, X means that the capability listed at the row head

exists in the given VTD system. A number rrians that the capability exists and quantifies it. A word modifies the capability listed in the row head. Figure 3 shows that the consumer model

player has all of the display capabilities of print and audio

visual media delivery systems but adds some additional control

capabilities, especially, in the area of audio visual media

delivery. Simple interactive sequences with manual fixed branching can be programmed on the consumer player. An example of

this is a Rule/Example/Practice strategy developed by WICAT

Learning Design Laboratories for McGraw Hill (WICAT, 1978);

as described in Bunderson, Jarvis, and Mendenhall, 1978.

This strategy is a descendent of a widely used strategy first

implemented in the TICCIT CAI system, a major CAI system developed

"during the early 1970's. The circles in Figure 3 indicate

"I
11

FIGURE 3

Delivery Capabilities of a Range of VTD Systems

VTD Systems

Second

Genr.ration

gConsumer L/E Intellioent Int llien

kriMAv media delivery

Text pages X X X X

Line graphics X X X X

Half-tone photos X X X X

Color photos X X X X

Control

Manual random access X X X

Programmed random access X X

Audiovisual media delivery

Motion pictures with audio X X X

Multi-trackaudio 2 2 2

Still photos & graphics X X XX

with audio X X X X

multi-track audio

Cqntrol

Random access & mode

control manual X X X

Variable speed & direction manual X X

Audio-trac\ selection manual X X

Interactive Instruction

Branching, fixed choices manual X X

Branching, dynamic X

Answer analysis X

Item generation X

Scoring K Games, simulations

Computer graphics Si____Q

storage

On separate magnetic mediu X

On videodisc
12

additional capabilities added by a giv VTD system to the VTD

system described in the preceeding coluIn to the left. Thus,

the industrial educational (I/E) system pperating only with

its own built-in microprocessor has prog ammed random access

to any frame number. This adds progranmnmd random access and

mode control to the manual controls founl in the consumer

player. It is possible to write branching sequences on the

standard I/E player like those popularizeo by Norman

Crowder in early programmed instructi6o. •These capabilities

alone may not be sufficient to justify the extra cost of the

I/E player. The Magnavision player costs $695, whereas the

MCA and Thompson-CSF I/E players will cost fr)m $2,250 to

$3,000 each, according to industry sources. However, it is

claimed that the I/E players are built to be more rugged.

"Also, they do indeed have a built-in interface to an external

computer so that they can easily become a part of an intelligent videodisc system. Figure 3 shows that the intelligent videodisc system provides all of the control capabilities

and storage (on a separate magnetic medium) that are inherent

in interactive computer-assisted instruction. Simple computer graphics (2-D lines and curves) canmbe generated on the same

video screen used to display the videodisc imagesi in fact,

they can be overlayed. If desired, a separate display can

be provided so that higher resolution graphics can be generated by the computer.

A second generation intelligent videodisc system will permit

the storage of digital information on a videodisc and the

error-free reading of this digital information into the computer

memory. It will also allow multi-track audio to be played back in either motion or still frame mode. With a consumer,

I/E, and first generation intelligent system, only two tracks

are available, and these require an entire video frame to be

played for every 1/30 second of audio. But when audio can

he digitized and stored in the TV lines themselves, then multitrack audio can be made available. This audio can be associated with single still frames instead of the 30 video frames

per second required by the first three VTD systems. With a

second generation system, a still frame can be presented and

refreshed while 10 seconds or so of audio can be read into

memory at a high data rate, then read out at normal audio

rate. This provides a tremendous amount~of compression so

that sync sound and other audiovisual presentations can be

compressed onto the disc. This has substantial cost implica- tions for the packing of audiovisual media on a single videodisc. The computer graphics capability of second generation

videodisc will become moderately complex compared to the simple

computer graphics that will be available with the first

intelligent system. This will be possible because the computer

power and memory available on a single microprocessor chip will be so great by 1985. It is also expected that the second generation videodisc will be able to store interactive computer

programs on the disc itself, rather than requiring a separate

I .

~"" - - - ----- - .
13

magnetic medium, such as a floppy disc, for distribution of the

interactive programs. When this is possible, all of the text

can be digitized and played back throuqh a character "enerator

in the intelligent videodisc system, making a further significant compression of information possible on the second generation intelligent system. Only about 500 characters of

textual information can be nresented on a television

screen at once. However, somewhere in the neighborhood of

1,000,000 bits of information can be stored on a single video

frame. At 10 bits per character, this means that 100,000

characters instead of 500 characters could be stored on a

single video frame, dumped into memory, and used to generate

V interactions, text, and computer graphics.

The media storage capabilities of VTD systems are treated t more extensively in Bunderson and Jarvis, 1979. This study showed that on a 30 minute disc, assuming reformatting to be

no more than 500 characters for a video page, a great many

of the printed exported training materials of the Army could

be packed. For example, it would be possible to pack all of

the following on a single side of the disc: 100 Correspondence

Courses, 65 Field Manuals, 100 Soldiers Manuals, and 160 How- to-Fight Manuals. Similarly, for audio visual media, 100 TEC lessons with no motion could be stored on a single videodisc

using still frame audio. These storage capabilities have

logistics as well as cost implications for the Army. It is

difficult to gather together all of the printed documentationI

required for all of the jobs in a battalion and make them

available to the soldiers. Even if successful, a battalion

will begin to "drown in print." Some data compression technique must be found to integrate the instruction needed by soldiers in their jobs into a more convenient form and

compress 'it into a package small enough to be used in battalion learning centers or a field location. In the study by

Bunderson and Jarvis (1979), the videodisc was seen to

provide a realistic solution to the problem of producing

job training packages for soldiers. It is not clear that a

job training package, (that now would have to consist of

several bookshelves full of TEC lessons, printed manuals,

videotapes and other media) could be successfully used by NCO's

and soldiers in their training activities in the field.

However, a small number of videodiscs containing the same

information (or better information enhanced with the powerful

instructional capabilities of intelligent systems) could be

made available in garrisons in the field.

Applications and Costs of VTD Systems in the Army

In the visits made to the Army bases listed in the Method

section, an attempt was made to establish the potential

applications of videodiscs in Army training. For exported

training. particularly those programs emanating out of Ft.

Eustis, the videodisc was seen as being quite applicable

for delivering existing audio visual programs.

The Army audio visual program (videotapes especially, but also
14

16mm f ilms) and the TEC audio visual program (super emmu plus

audio) are candidates. The videodisc was not tieen as a good

system to deliver training literature and other itaterials at

the present time unless many different documents could be

combined into integrated packages such an the Job Training

package. Print Media has the advantage of not requiring

electrical outlets for delivery and will long remain a

major Army delivery medium. However, its volume must be

reduced.

LAll that is required for the delivery of the Sgstn Army

audiovisual packages is the consumer model player. However,

new production of lessons in the future could exploit the

interactive instructional tapabilities of intelligent videodisc systems and the tremendous media packing capability of

second generation intellig~ent systems. Intelligent videodisc

systems were seen to be r~pplicable to the S,.ZT program and to

the Job Training Package program. The SOT program could use

item generators and scoring algorithms, both to reduce ISD

requairements (especially the requirements for annual revision) I and also the administral.ve and scoring requirements now

placed on that program. A specialized intelligent videodisc

r g system that contains computerized job aids for maintenance

was seen to be applicable for the SPA program. Such a

delivery system is being developed by the Hughes Aircr~aft

Corporation for the Army Communicative Technology Office.

Consumer model videodisc players were not seen as being

widely applicable for school-based instruction in the Army,

except when the school-based instruction utilized exported

or prepackaged products, such as TEC lessons, videotapes, or

commercial textbooks. The reason is that the authors at

the Army training schools feel strongly that they need a

medium which they can change rapidly. This inevitably causes

them to gravitate towards print and sync slide presentations.

Some of the Army programs are based on technology which is b rapidly changing, such as the Hawk missile. The procedures

and methods for using this equipment chanqe rather rapidly,

making less acceptable a fixed medium like the videodisc,

especially the second generation intelligent videodisc, where

everything is mastered onto a single disc. Schools could

utilize the intelligent videodisc in a powerful manner,

however, since the materials that change rapidly could be

implemented on the magnetic medium (computer programs and

some text). The videodisc itself would simply be used to

store motion sequences and still frames associated with the

instruction. These motion sequences and still frames could

be randomly accessed with different computer-generated

overlays as the courseware changes, or deleted entirely by

changing the reference to a frame and replacing it by mag- netically stored instructions to produce compuiter generated

textual or graphic displays. Thus, the intelligent videodisc

system was seen as having substftntial potential in tha Army

training school environment.
15

A more detailed analysis of the applications and costs of

videodisc training delivery systems to exported training is

presented in Volume II of Bunderson and Jarvis,(1979). For

the purpose of this contract, the applicability of intelligent videodisc to the Army training schools and the demands

on authoring which this conveys, are of the utmost sicnificance. The ISD model, which is the major objective of this

study, must be applicable to whatever VDT systems the Army

eventually develops. It is quite possible that consumer

model videodisc systems, because of their low costs and

their applicability to the present large inventory of training materials possessed by the Army, will be utilized in a

mix with intelligent videodisc systems. Thus, the ISD model

and its associated VAP systems must be geared to help Army

authors produce or adopt from existing media excellent consiuner model discs. The use of intelligent videodisc systems

poses severe demands on videodisc authoring and production

procedures. These must be met by the ISD model and the

VAP system developed in this contract. A thorough understanding of the capabilities for display and control inherent

in these systems is thus necessary as a background for understanding the ISb models for intelligent videodisc authoring and production.

Software for VTD Systems

The software discussed in this section is "delivery system

software" appropriate to VTDS's. Software discussed in the

next part is "authoring and production.'software", appropriate

to VAPS's.

Levels of Discourse. Communication between a student and a

machine can be viewed as occurring at three different levels

of discourse. These three levels are depicted in Figure 4.

The initiation of a conversation between a student and a

machine, or indeed between any user and a machine, can be

viewed as a negotiation in which the user agrees,or does not

agree, to be restricted to a particular language that limits

the way he can make inputs to the machine and respond to

displays generated by the machine. The typical student would

prefer to make more na~tural responses, such as vocal responses,

pointing responses, or gestures. A computer system, unfortunately, cannot receive these natural responses as input

without special devices, all of which, except in the case of

pointing, are well beyond the state-of-the-art.

Therefore, the student must agree to a more restricted language,

and he must agree to be controlled by the machine to a greater

extent than when using a more natural language.By taking the

initiative, the machine can greatly restrict the range of

responses made by the student and thus bring the complexity

under control.

All CAI systems start out with at least a L language. A

computer system might present a linear sequgnce of items

but might give the student such commands as a "NEXT" button,

or a small set of numbers or letters to enter as multiple

choice responses. A computer, as directed by the author's

N .-
16

Figure 4

LEVELS OF DISCOURSE

IN STUDENT/COMPUTER INTERACTION

ii

Student enters responses on request,

Makes control choices on request

__Displays & Requests are sequenced by

1) author-defined control logic

i.I )

GENERAL: Student commands the system

in a gross manner, e.g. Logon, Logoff, Calc

STRATEGY CONTROL:

Survey Tactics: Student has "browse" 4

I commands.

Learning Tactics: Student can create I

his own microtactics

Evaluation Tactics

Review Tactics

< Student may ask questions and seek advice

about general and strategic control.

Student may learn of and be given control

over general parameters of strategy.

~IJ

, U,
17

commands,tells the student when he may use which commands in

this Lo language. All of the sequencing is under the direction

of the computer unless the computer gives the student a menuselection display and branches him wherever he chooses in a

fixed set of alternatives.

L0 languages can be more powerful,,by giving the student a

more complicated language. For example, the student can be

given cursor controls and a marking command that allows him

to move the cursor about on the screen and point or mark any

location. This can be made more fine grained. by giving the

J student a joy stick(or mouse) for moving the cursor about and

marking. With flexible answer analysis or natural-language

interface software, the computer can give the student greater

flexibility. For example, it can let him type words, phrases,

or sentences in English. With the joy stick or mouse, it

could also let him draw graphics and enter them. These more

flexible Lo languages are usually made available to the student only at certain specifically defined times. That is,

Lthe overall sequences of the program is still established by

the author, but when a response is requested of the student, j. the response may be entered more flexibly. An exception is

that the menu-selection response may be augmented by a keyword response where the student can type in the name of a

part of the program (e.g., the name of a lesson) and the computer will branch to this location after interpreting the J' student's typed response.

An Ll language gives the student a chance to speak at a higher

level of discourse with the computer program. Instead of just

having the freedom to use anL L language when asked, no matter

how flexible or restricted, theo student can initiate sequencing

commands himself. All interactive computer systems have to

have some general Ll commands , (e.g., commands that allow

the student to log on and log off on request. Some systems

give further control, such as a calculation command, which

allows a learner to branch out of the program controlling his

sequence for a moment to perform a calculation, then come back

in at the same point.

An Ll language gets interesting when a student is given control

over strategy. Strategy control may be considered in four

categories: control over survey tactics, learning tactics,

evaluation tactics, and review tactics. It is often desirable

to give the student survey commands that let him browse around

throughout the entire set of modules implemented on the computer.

Materials can be presented to help him get an overview as he

browses. Learning-tactics commands enable the student to sequence

at a more microscopic level than that provided by the browsing

commands. Indeed, they allow the student to create his own

microtactics for learning. An example of survey tactics and

learning tactics is found in the TICCIT computer-assisted instruction system. TICCIT was a 128 terminal CAI system developed in

the early 1970's under National Science Foundation funding
18

(see Bunderson, 1973; Bunderson & Faust,1976). The student's

learning tactics commands used the Rule, Example and Practice

keys... Some students like to look at practice problems or examples first and then check their generalization against the author's F: "rule". Other students like to look at the rule, follow up with

some-examples, then practice until they feel they have mastered

the concept. Other commands modified the general Rule, Example Practice commands. These included the Easy and Hard coiLmands,

which varied the difficulty of the examples or practice instances,

or varied the simplicity of the text and graphics associated

with the description of the rules. Finally, TICCIT provided a

Help command, which presented the student with a graphic descrip- tion of a good algorithm for working the particular kinds of

practice items in a segment of instruction. These six commands, Rule, Example, Practice, Easy, Hard and Help constitute a true

L1 language for learning tactics.

For survey tactics, TICCIT provided the Map and Objective commands.

At any time, the student could press the -Ma key and proceed to a

table of contents at the level of generality just higher than the

one he was working on when he pressed Ma_•. For example, if he If were working with learning tactics in a segment, he could pro- ceed to the Map and see a representation of all of the segments in that lesson. A second depression of Mag would move him up to f the course map, which showed a representation of all of the units

in the course. Whether segments, lessons, or units, the boxes

on a Map had associated with them an objective. The student

could press the number of any box on the Map and enter that

number. The cursor then would point to the desired box. He

could then press the objective key and would be shown a text

and graphics display representing what he would be able to do

or perform after having worked through the materials associated

with that box on the Map. The objective was a valuable survey command. The student could use the GO command to drop down

into a box once the cursor was positioned on it. Each course

had a "Minilesson" associated with it. The Minilesson (or miniunit, in the case of unit maps), was an overview of everything that was contained in the materials associated with that map. Thus, a Minilesson for a lesson on sentence fragments would

give an overview of different kinds of sentence fragments

found in that lesson. It might be a series of single paqes that the student could step through or it might be a videotape. The Minilessons were valuable survey features. There was not

a separate command for a Minilesson but a positioning of the

cursor on the word Minilesson on a map and a depression of the

GO command. While usually associated as a learning tactic

command, the Rule could also be surveyed in browse mode. MAP, GO, OBJECTIVE, and Minilesson commands constitute an L1 language for survey tactics. On TICCIT, students were given control over

evaluation tactics and to some extent, review tactics. They were

allowed three attempts at each test. They were also scored

by how well they were doing on the practice problems, which were

4 I. V
19

generally taken before attempts at the test were made. A

student could "play a game" with the machine to see how fast

he could pass the test, given only three attempts. His

penalty for failing the test the first time was that boxes

tirned red on the map, because of the failed test items. They

would have to be turned to green before the student could take

the -test another tirrte. Boxes changed color based both upon

scores obtained during testing or during practice item

performance. Evaluation tactics were based on these facts.

On TICCIT, the student could go back and review any previously

given information. However, this system did not give high

level information to help in decisions, such as when to review.

A good L1 language for review tactics would have such information.

F;1

An L language lets the student ask questions and seek advice

abcui general and strategic control of L options. AnL2

language provides data on how the studeni is doing to advise

him on how to improve his strategy and tactics. At the highest

F ~level, not yet implemented, the student could be given inf ormation about general parameters of strategy. For example, he could pick a standard Rule, Example, Practice strategy or

aPractice only strategy and let the computer implement that

strategy from then on, with the student choosing to default

from it when the need was felt. one example of an L2 language

pressing the Advice command and -the Advisor would try to help

the student decide what to do next with L2control commands.

Other L languages have recently been developed in the field

ofintelligent computer-assisted instruction. Brown and

Burton (1976) implemented a counselor with their "How the

West Was Won" program. This counselor or coach watched the

kinds of strategies students used in this arithmetic game * ~against the com~puter. As it accumulated evidence about the

student's strategies (which generally were found to be quite

* i limited), the counselor program would develop a set of hints4

geared to the student's particular needs. The West counselor

was intelligent enough not to interrupt the student the

moment it generated a hint. It waited until a strategic

teaching moment, so as not to interfere with the student's

thinking by constant interruptions. The problem of an

obtrusive advisor has been noted in other games with coaches,

* Iand with the TICCIT advisor. Students dislike advisor programs

which interrupt them too often and constrain what they are

allowed to do. The West advisor was less obtrusive and tried

to select the ideal teaching moment. other coaches have been

implemented by Ira Goldstein and his colleagues, in computerized

games such as Wumpus (Stansfield, Carr, & Goldstein, 1976).
^0

Delivery system software must contain functions at the Lo

level of discourse. Yet instruction is highly restrictive

unless L1 commands are available, at least for survey

tactics and learning tactics. When Ll commands are available, or when there is a strategy involved in the use of an

Lo language ( as in a game or simulation) then an L2 advisor

is extremely desirable. These functions must be built into

the delivery system software, and can be activated by either

author or student.

Delivery System Software Functions for an L. Language

k Software at L2 and L must be built upon the functions already

existing :,;a lower level. Thus, the most fundamental level

of softwdre function is that necessary to implement an Lo

language for dialogue between a student and a machine. The

basic components in such a software system are depicted in

Figure 5. Figure 5 represents a "cybernetic instructional

system" which consists of a student communicating to an instructional delivery systeni,and the instructional delivery

system communicating back. A cybernetic instructional system differs from instruction found in a classroom or a book in r that it is two-way and dynamic. The system presents displays

to the student and modifies the sequence of displays depending

on the student's responses. The "R" box emanating from the

student in Figure 5 represents responsestand the "D" box emanating from the system represents displays. Inside the

fosructonvenieneofreerencyse) whic constituera thxes diffberentd

program cofvnec softwr requirede forc ionstrtuctional deivfery.t

Box 1 represents the instructional display delivery functions

that constitute one of the biggest and most complicated sections of the delivery software package. This isthe soft-dare

which controls the format of any display, the timing of displays,

and the devices involved in the presentation of the displays.

In conventional CAI systems, these devices have included typewriters, cathode-ray tubes for text-only display, cathode-ray

tubes for text and graphics, audio displays, and the control

of random access slide projectors, video tape machines, etc.

Since the focus of this paper is on intelligent videodisc

systems,the display consists of a color television set connected

to a videodisc player. Tihe computer must be able to control the

videodisc player. Thus, the display control software must allow

the computer to randomly access any of 54,000 frames on the

videodisc and then activate one of the player modes. That is,

it could turn the player into still frame mode, into normal

motion, into slow motion, into fast motion, or the reverse of

these. In the case of monaural recording, the computer would

activate the appropriate channel. (Obviously, in the case of stereo, both tracks would be used simultaneously.)

The computer would have to be able to control other devices in '.4 the intelligent videodisc system; namely, the character generator

and the mixer/switcher. instructions must exist in the control
21

FIGURE 5

DELIVERY SOFTWARE FUNCTIONS FOR AN Lo LANGUAGE

Student

R D

instructional Delivery

System (Software)

Record Accepts Responses control Display

Daafrom input Devicr-:s and Devices

3 C4

_____ constructed___ 

Process Execute 

Logis 

Conditional 

iLgic

1

Access Library ofl

Curriculum

Materials

4A

jIý 

7
22

software to identify any window on the television screen into

which text or graphics could be generated by the character

generator. This system would have to be able to control the mode, whether it be overlay, replacement, or in some cases,

scrolling. The software would have to be able to control , ! the timing ot displays so that in animation or pseudoanimation one display could follow another and add to or I

overlay the displays already on the screen or else erase

displays from a particular window and replace them with a

new display. All this would have to be done within a certain

time interval specified within the software. The display software would also have to able to set the mixer/switcher

to overlay computer generated information over a videodisc

display or simply to switch between the videodisc or the

character generator.

There is a line connecting function 1 and function 2 in

Figure 5. This line represents the display of student

aenerated information. The displf.a software must designate the window in which the student's typed response or pointing

response was to appear, then echo the student's response as it

is typed, into that given window

Other functions of box 2 involN ;ccepting responses from any of the response device' resented to the student. These may include means to recocj,Ai.ze any L1 command, as well

as any L en.'.ry.

Notice that the computer must be al'.e to buffer characters typed by the student on a keyboard or recognize the location

the student has marked by moving i cursor around on the screen. It

might also have to recognize the location indicated by a joy

stick or mouse or recognize graphics that the student has

entered. The software must be able to compare these entries

with pre-established or calculated alternatives. The simplest

Lo language accepts only a few characters. More complex "languages accept a fairly free form of response consisting

either of character strings or strings of graphics locations.

This brings us to the next category of software furctions;

the processing of constructed responses.

In box 3 of Figure 5 are a host of answer analysis

software routines ti!at range from simple to complex. The simplest

answer analysis rcucines are those which edit extraneous characters out of the student's typed responses or that search for key letters or key strings. For numeric responses, simple routines

must be available to determine whether the number entered by the student falls within some confidence interval accepted by the author. More complex answer-analysis routines attempt to

parse and interpret short phrases or sentences typed by the student or graphics locations entered by the students.

S ' I
23

The most complex answer processing consists of a natural

language front-end that allows the student to converse in

a natural way, subject only to the restriction that he

must type his input rather than speak it. A natural

language front-end for computer simulations has been developed (Burton, 1977).

In box 4 the dynamic instructional sequencing takes place.

This box is entitled "execute conditional logics" and two

kinds of logics are listed--selection logics and generation

logics. A sel~ection logic uses the student's processed

response, associated with his historical student dataý (box

5) to select the next display from a library of curriculum

materials and present it. Format, timing, and device information might also be included in the software discussed

above in connection with box 1. Most conventional CAI has

used selection logics. It is also possible to use generation

logics. These generate all or a portion of the display,

based on some algorithm. For simple numerical problems the

algorithm may be a random number generator with constraints.

Numbers generated within certain intervals will be delivered

into the display software for the creation of a problem display. The generation software also calculates the right answers II some anticipated wrong answers, some feedback messages and

helps, and prepares them all for use by the students. Generation

logics may call upon a stored library of curriculum materials

instead of a random number generator. A random number or

calculated number may be used to select an item from a file

of curriculum materials. Thus a generative logic may take

unique ways to create instructional displays.

Box 5 indicates the need for a student data area in which the

student's progress in a computer-based or a computer-managed

course is maintained. This data must be kept separately for

each student, must be carried over from session to session,

and must be secure. The software for registering students

separately, tracking them and producing reports for the teacher

can be a fairly complex part of a delivery system. The software which keeps the data and uses it in the conditional

logics may also be fairly complex.

The library of curriculum materials may be stored in several

different places. A large part of it may be stored on the

videodisc and accessed with selection logics. A single still

frame may be the base frame for generative logics (-e.g., a

* game, simulation or drill may be generated by the computer

and overlaid on a picture selected from the videodisc). Other

portions of the curriculum data base may be in magnetic code

in an intelligent videodisc system. In either case, theJ

separation implied between the library of curriculum materials

and the various software programs numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5

is a desirable physical separation as well. Good top-down

structured programming makes it desirable to separate the data
24

files from the processing files. Debugging is much easier,

and data base maintenance is much easier. Thus, the ideal

delivery-system software will have a clear separation between

the file areas reserved for curriculum materials and those

reserved for conditional logics and systems programs for

display control, response control, answer processing, and

student data recording.

Good delivery system software has many built-in functions so

that the authoring group does not have to specify every detail.

In particular, good delivery system software takes care of

accepting student responses from various devices. The

author need merely call for these devices to have the computer

set up the programs which will-activate the response devices

designated. The author will have to specify whether response

time must be measured. Good delivery system software

records student data automatically or,.if the author wishes,

rrimv tur-n this data function off, except for certain basic

ddta that is necessary. Unfortunately, the author must also

define the conditional logics, whether they are selection

or generation logics, and the degree of processing of the I student's constructed responses. The author must obviously

preparp the library of curriculum materials. (The term author

is used, above, in a generic sense to refer to the appropriate

member of the authoring or production teami.)

Iterim Field Test System for This Project

Software. The VTD system of interest in this project is an

Thinifllgent videodisc system as defined above, and with the

capabilities listed in Figure 3. It must have software

functions in each of the areas represented in Figure 5. In

addition to the delivery software functions depicted in Figure

5, the software should also meet criteria of transportability.

It is clear that the atate-of-the-art in VTD systems is

changing rapidly. The Army should not be restricted to a

particular hardware/software configuration. Therefore, software

developed in this project should in the future be transportable

to other VTD systems that might be deployed by the Army. The

* PLANIT CAI software system meets this requirement and also

* has acceptable capabilities in the. delivery system area

depicted in Figure 5.

PLANIT is a language developed initially under National

Science Foundation funding to be as machine independent as

possible. It does this by placing the arguments of the

machine dependent code (i.e. the transfer of one device to

another) into one small subroutine which must be written for

each configuration. Thus, PLANIT will allow an intelligent

videodisc system to control the character generator, the

videodisc player, and the mixer/switch. It controls the

character generator directly as though it were a standard
25

* cathode-ray tube and it uses functions called "special calls"

to control the modes of the videodisc player and the mixer/

*switch. Special calls can also be used to generate simple

graphics on displays which permit this capability. This is

quite satisfactory for a "brassboard system", which allows

authors to write special calls (by means of macros) which

lessen the complications that arise in V'rD systems.

Through similar processes, PLANIT is able to accept responses

from the keyboard which will be a part of the intelligent

videodisc system. PLANIT has excellent capabilities for

controlling the timing of displays, for measuring the latency

of responses, and for branching on the basis of timing

information.

PLANIT has a good set of constructed response analysis

routines including keyword, phonetic match, and numeric

tolerance. It also has excellent capabilities for conditional

logics, of the selective variety, through its D frame. TheP

D frame or decision frame allows displays to be selected

based upon complex logical conditions involving prior student

* response data. PLANIT is also a good system for implementing

* a variety of generative logics. It has the capability to write

specialized programs for generative logics through theP

(Programmning) frame. PLANIT has good capabilities for recording

student data and these are built in so that they do not place -

an undue burden on the author.

in anticipation of the need to implement PLANIT on small

sixteen bit microprocessors in the field, PYAANIT was implemented by WICAT on the Texas In~struments 990/10 mini computer,

a sixteen bit machine. In the initial implementation, the

response time was excessively slow because of the slow speed

of the TI processor; but by developing a multi-tasking version

of the system, with most of the PLANIT sub-programs simultaneously

in memory, this slow speed was overcome and the PLANIT software

is now acceptably responsive for this project. Detailed

documentation is available on this implementation (Booth, 1979).

Selection of Hardware for the Brassboard VTD System. The

deployment of the field test VTD System will take place

starting in 1979-1980, when microelectronics advances can be

expected to revolutionize the capability and cost of logic

components and when the new optical video recording technology

* is just beginning to yield potential improvements in capacity

and cost analogous to those which are occurring in microelectronics. Because of the rapid changes in these technologies,

it is important that the hardware and software used in this

project provide a great deal of flexibility so that many

variations and tradeoffs can be assessed in the evaluation

portion of this contract. Similarly, it is important that

the hardware and courseware be generalizable and transferable

to other hardware configurations which will be available

in the 1980-1985 time frame. In the following sections, the
26

hardware selected for the field test system is justified:

Selection of Videodisc Player

First Generation Optical l Three alternate optical

Videodisc players that have been announced, demonstrated,

and delivered to at least some users. A selection must be

made from the videodisc players which will clearly be

available during 1979-1980. The alternatives are:

1. The consumer model player (Philips/

Magnavox) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $695 Dec. 1978

2. Industrial/Education (branching)

players (MCA, US NTSC Standard) .... $2000-$2500 June 1979

3. (Thompson-CSF, French SECAM

Standard)..... . . . . . . . . . $3000 late 1979

Prototypes of the Philips player have been available for

several years; numerous players have been tested by Philips

employees, and demonstrated both in the Netherlands and

United States. Philips acquired Magnavox a few years ago,

and the players have been distributed in this country through

Magnavox dealerships under the "Magnavision" label since i 1978.

Approximately thirty branching players were delivered by

MCA to government, military, and industrial installations

and some universities by the end of 1978. These were prototypes that sold for between $10,000 to $20,000 each.

MCA, in affiliation with the Pioneer Electronics Corporation

of Japan, will produce the MCA player with a target in the

$2000-2500 range.

"Thompson CSF, a French company, has also delivered a small

number of branching videodisc players to corporations and

government agencies in this country. The Thompson disc

differs from the Philips and MCA disc in that it has no

protective plastic layer. This makes the disc much more

susceptible to dust, fingerprints, and scratches. Although the Thompson disc comes in a protective caddy, it is quite

probable that there would be far more problems in a military setting with the sensitive disc than with either the MCA

or Philips disc. The Philips/MCA discs are created with a

1.0 mm plastic protective covering, so dust, fingerprints, and small scratches on the surface of the discs do not affect

the picture.

MCA's price of $2,000-2,500 for the branching players is

competitive with expensive videotape playback systems used

Nl
27

in industry and government rather than with the Magnavox

player. Players like the Magnavox player, can, with little

additional expense, add the ability of connecting to an

external computer to provide all of the features of the

branching players, in addition to the features present in

the controlling computer. This will be discussed in more

detail below.

Other manufacturers are waiting in the wings and could

provide competitive alternatives. Foremost among these is

Sony, who has demonstrated a player with capabilities very

similar to the Magnavox player, differing only in the way

that the 60 minute disc is implemented. Other manufacturers

are known to be conducting videodisc R & D. These include

IBM, Xerox, JVC, Corning Glass, and Atlantic Richfield. The

latter has acquired the photographic videodisc company:

IOMETRICS.

Digital Discs: All of the videodisc companies with announced

products use a frequency modulation encoding technique on

the discs, encoded by varying the length and frequency of

pits burned by a laser in photo-resist during mastering, and

developed to a uniform depth. It is also possible to encode

data digitally by burning holes in a metal film such as

tellurium or by exposing dot patterns representing bits on

aphotographic emulsion. Philips and other companies have

been studying a digital disc under the name of "Direct Read

After write" (DRAW) technology (Kenny, et al, 1977). The

big advantage of the DRAW disc is that pro~uction units for

mastering can be purchased locally, probably within the range

of $45,000 to $50,000 and that replicate dis.cs can be

produced in about 30 minutes of time, costing $10 each. The

play-back unit will be a modified consumer-model player. WhileI

the unit costs and speed of production of the DRAW discs will

make large production runs infeasible, they may be excellent

for local development and small production runs. The analogue

discs, on the other hand, require very expensive premastering

* and mastering facilities which cannot be expected to be

available at a co~llege or university. In quantities greater than 1,000 however, the cost of the analogue replicates are

well below the $10 expected for DRAW discs.

A new optical recording technique has been developed and

patented by the Digital Recording Corporation (Russell and

* Walker, 1976). This technology is certainly in the spirit

of the present proposal since it provides all of the features

of the 30 minute optical videodisc and in addition, makes it

easy to encode digital data readable by a computer. However,

it is not a videodisc since the information is stored on

small plates of film. A 3 X 7-inch plate is the equivalent

of one side of a 30-minute videodisc. This technology also

features local production and replication of the film plates

for 250 or less, to play on shoe-box sized players expected

to sell for $300.

-A ~zzc.j-- ...... ..
28

The digital recording technology is not far enough along to

be considered during the next year when the field testing

must commence. However, its promise is such that care must

be taken to avoid implementing a systems design that cannot

be transferrui to new models of videodisc players or digital

card players in the future.

Reasons for selecting the Philips player as first alternative%

All three optical videodisc players have largely the same

capabilities. The differences are summarized in Figure 3. The

I/E players may prove to be more rugged, and do have a

convenient jack in the back for interface to a computer.

However, this project requires the interface of an external

computer to a videodisc player regardless of the player chosen,

so there is no real advantage to using one of the existing

branching players. The external computer attached to the

consumer model can control branching and mode selection as

easily as the internal computer of the branching players,

and in fact, provide a real cost advantage. WICAT favors

the Philipj/Magnavox player because itis targeted for the

mAss onsumer market and is much lower in cost. Additionally, this player should enjoy a more widespread availability because of its lower cost.

WICAT's research assures that the Philips player can be

easily interfaced to an external computer. The principal

investigator has visited the laboratories of the Philips

Corporation in the Netherlands, both in 1977 and 1978.,

On both of these occasions he observed a Philips player•

connected to a minicomputer that is being studied in the laboratories of Dr. Pieter van den Avoort in Geldrop,

Netherlands, WICAT's staff has obtained additional technical

information from Philips and Magnavox engineers about the

feasibility of connecting an external computer into the

circuitry of the Philips player so that branching to a

specified frame and activation of any of the playing modes

can be controlled by the computer. WICAT has also determined

that the five-digit frame number encoded as video, and

read by the player, can be recovered from the Philips

circuitry for use by the computer. Thus, WICAT considers

this to be the best available choice of a videodisc player,

particularly in terms of both current and future cost.

Should the Philips player prove unacceptable due to

unanticipated problems of interfacing or reliability, a

rapid adjustment will be made and the player that seems

best at that time will be selected. The critical time is

prior to disc mastering.

Terminal Hardware

As discussed above, PLANiT has been implemented on the TI

990/10, and has the needed delivery system software functions

for this project. However, the terminals available on the TI

do not have capabilities similar to those listed in Figure 3
29

for the intelligent VTD system. Thus a specialized terminal

must be developed for use in the field testing at some point

in the future. It will be able to operate on its own at

that future time, with substantial non-volatile storage (the

memory is not erasedwhen the system is turned off). The

interim system for this project will have neither lorge

capacity bubble memory nor the currently available expedient--

floppy discs. Therefore, there is the need for some kind

of processing intelligence at "the end of the line", that

can accept commands from the PLANIT program (special calls)

and activate the character generator, the videodisc player,

and the mixer/switch. The needed hardware is discussed

in this section.

It is desirable to select a microcomputer, for this interim

terminal, that could also be a candidate for the future

stand-alone microprocessor. The microprocessor selected

should also have promise of low future cost and widespread

availability. Techniques of very large scale integration

have already drastically reduced the size and cost of

computers, such that it is possible to put a powerful processor

on a single chip, and 64,000 bits of memory dn another chip.

By 1985, it will be possible to put an extremely powerful

microprocessor and a million bits memory on the same chip.

Texas Instruments estimates that this chip will sell for

less than $100.

WICAT analyzed several microcomputer options and focused on

the TI 9900. This is a 16-bit microprocessor, rather than

the great variety of 8-bit microprocessors currently available.

The 16-bit microprocessor was selected because an intelligent

videodisc system will need the larger i'struction set and

memory addressing capability of the 16-bit machine. WICAT

also projects that 16-bit microprocessors will become much

more dominant during the 1981-1985 time frame when the

results of this project will be visible to Army decision

makers.

The TI 9900 can be bought in a standard package (TI FS 990/4)

or configured separately using standard off-the-shelf

components. This modularity is n•.cessary for the hardware

tasks of this proposal, and the costs should continue to

come down on this sytem for several years. Another reason

for selecting the 9900 is that it was especially designed for process control applications, and its use in controlling

a videodisc player is very natural.

A final major reason for selecting TI is the video display interface board available from TI. This is not a commercially

available TI product, but a board designed specifically to

test the limits of an NTSC color television monitor. TI

has agreed to make copies of this board available to WICAT.

The board will enable us to vary the size of letters, both

foreground and background colors, the kerning of text (space

I .... .. . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . L.
30

between letters), the leading (.space between lines of text),

the type font, the motion of foreground objects, and other

features. These capabilities will allow WICAT to investigate

a wide variety of display capabilities in the courseware

developed the second year. A final configuration of a display interface board would probably be some subset of the

prototype boards.

System Architecture

The proposed systems design is illustrated in Figure 6. It

has the following hardware components:

(a) a 16-bit Texas Instruments microprocessor with a real

time clock, 64 K bytes of main memory composed of both

RAM and EPROM.

(b) A display interface board (character/graphic generator)

supplied by T.I. and incorporated into the microcomputer.

It will be driven by external sync from the videodisc

player and produce composite color video for output on

the color monitor, either alone or mixed with the video

output of the videodisc player.

(c) A Philips Consumer model player with an interface to

the computer providing for computer control.

(d) A video mixer and switch that will be selected by WICAT

in coordination with Bell & Howell, that will mix the

video output from the computer with that of the videodisc for display on the color monitor. It will also

switch between outputs to TV displays from the

character generator or from the videodisc.

(e) An appropriate color television monitor (e.g., Sony) on which the videodisc output and some computer generated

character/graphics will be presented.

Figure 6 shows a needed addition to the software: a PASCAL

operating system running in the remote field-test station.

This is a powerful and convenient language to use in writing

the software to control the videodisc, switcher, etc. The

PASCAL routines will accept input from PLANIT "special calls"

to direct the control of these devices.

The Brassboard System is Future-Compatible. It is assumed that the proposed systems design could well differ from the ultimate

systems design that are likely to be marketed before 1985.

2 ) 
Figure 6 31

Proposed System Design for

"Brassboard" Field Test System

(orither

.~.t7
I v I

32

(1) It is possible that there will be two monitors in the

final system. There could be a black and white monitor

for graphics of higher resolution than in the color

display. Alternately, there could be a higher reso- [ lution color monitor that will permit the display of

both computer-generated graphics and videodisc-generated

still frames and motion sequences, with the possibility

of overlaying them.

(2) The intelligent videodisc of the future may have the

capability of storing computer programs, and other digital

information, which could be read off the disc into the

computer memory (second generation disc in Table 3).

(3) Bubble memory (or in the near future, floppy discs) would be needed for record-keeping, since the videodisc

may never be able to record data). This will make it

a stand-alone system. Other users may not desire to

use bubble or floppy storage. They may, instead,

interface a large computer with hard discs, or

choose to dispense with record-keeping altogether in I some Army applications.

u (4) Finally, a promising future videodisc capability is

still-frame audio, by which the videodisc could encode

audio information on a video frame instead of only in

the standard audio tracks. This is discussed above.

The configuration of a future stand-alone VTD system,that could

interface to a local storage station for records update, is

depicted in Figure 7. The interim "brassboard" system selected

for this project will be compatible with such a system, even

though the PLANIT interpreter would have to be housed physically in the stand-alone VTD system. This could be accomplished by putting the PLANIT software or ROMs in the distributed VTDS

work stations.

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34

PART II VIDEODISC AUTHORING AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

(VAPS) CONCEPTS

Visits to Authoring Sites. Visits were made and discussions

were held with authoring personnel at Fort Sill, Oklahoma;

Fort Benning, Georgia; and Fort Eustis, Virginia. In addition,

P.M. Trade in Orlando, Florida, was visited to discuss authoring

and production concepts related to the TEC Contracts which are

monitored from Orlando.

During these visits, the Training Aids Service Offices (TASO's)were visited, and the equipment which was available at different

Army sites was discussed. The equipment generally available

throughout the Army, was -ýiscussed with the Department of Army Audio-Visual L~oduction Program personnel at Fort Eustis,

Virginia, and it was recognized that the quality of the

available .- ,_vis~.on studios varied greatly. About four or

five of the TRADOC schools have extremely well-equipped television studios which could be used for videodisc post-produciI j tion and pre-mastering. Other Army training schools have less

well-equipped facilities and could not serve this function. These visits were instrumental in defining the constraints

discussed below, and in characterizing the kind of VAP system

hardware that was likely to be available.

In addition to visits made specifically in connection with this

project, visits made on other projects yielded data. Trip reports and the memories of those who made the trips were consulted to check hypotheses about authoring constraints and hardware availability that is relevant to VAP systems. In addition

to Army training sites at Fort Eustis and Fort Monroe, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps bases were visited in connection

"with another project. Many of the constraints on authoring

are very similar from service to service. The Naval IPD Center in San Diego, California, was visited, as was the CMI

facility at Memphis, and the Correspondence Course Development

Center at Pensacola, Florida. Lowrey and Lackland Air Force

Bases in Denver, Colorado, and San Antonio, Texas, respectively

were visited. The Twenty-nine Palms Marine Corps Base, special- izing in basic electronics instruction using computer-assisted

and managed instruction was visited. The Lincoln Laboratories,

housed at Hanscom Field Air Force Base were visited to consider

the authoring capabilities of the Lincoln Terminal system, a

system which combines still frames with audio.

Visits to television production studios. WICAT is fortunate in

Having three excellent television Stuios in the local area. The Brigham Young University television studios were visited

and the engineers consulted extensively. The Osmond Studios in

Orem, Utah, one of the newest and best-equipped studios in the

_____ __-- --- -----
35

country, and the Skaggs Television Studio in Salt Lake City

(also a new, extremely well-equipped television studio) were

visited. The pre-production and post-production activities at

Skaggs and Csmond Studios were studied intensively in testing

initial versions of the ISD model. In addition to the local

studios anti the television studios at the Army TASOS mentioned

above, WICAT personnel have visited the NBC studios in New York

City, the Cine Centrum Studios in Hilversum, Holland, the Image

Transform Studios in Los Angeles, California, and the Consolidated Film Industries and Videocraftsman Studios in Los Angeles,

'California.

Mr. Jack Calloway of Vidtronics in Los Angeles, one of the most

knowledgeable persons, and advanced thinkers on VAP systems for

videodisc production, served as a consultant on the VAPS hardware discussions and spent several days at WICAT in Orem, Utah,

during the more intensive phases of our VAPS research.

Literature. There is not much literature in the field of

authoring and production of the intelligent videodisc. This

ARI-sponsored research on videodisc authoring and production is

helping to "write the book" for VTD systems. One of the earliest

papers on videodisc authoring was written in 1976 by Junius L.

Bennion, entitled, "Authoring Procedures for Interactive Video- disc Irnstructional Systems: A Manual". This was published

privately by Bennion, then published more:broadly by WICAT in

1977 (Bennion, 1977). It used authoring know-how gained on

the TICCIT project. Poe (1978) completed an early study for

the Navy that included refence to the mastering and replication

phases of videodisc production. WICAT has completed two other

studies which provided some input for this work: the first is

"Videodisc Authoring for Training Delivery Systems", prepared

for the Navy Personnel Research and Development Center (Bunderson, Mendenhall, and Jarvis, 1978). We have learned much since

that effort, but it still provides a good review of the hardware and some of the authoring procedures. WICAT has also

recently completed a paper for the National Institute of Education (Mendenhall, 1979). This paper describes authoring system

alternatives for educational uses of videodisc systems. It also

presents technical details of editing, image "jitter", and hardware. In addition to these two papers, two papers on videodisc

authoring have been produced by Instructional Science and Development, Inc. The first is by Kribs, Hawkins, and Mark (1978).

This paper is specifically oriented to the problems of authoring

for the intelligent videodisc.

The content chosen was operation of the INCOS (integrated copilot system) panel on the S-3A Navy aircraft. The project

resulted in a set of scripts, storyboards, specifications for

artwork, programming and photography, all oiptimized for this

application. The study by Kribs et al provides an early sample

of actual lesson development for t]e-Tntelligent videodisc.
36

The use of guidelines and procedures optimized around a particular application is a good approach for cost effective authoring, but more general ISD guidelines are necessary for wide

use in the Army.

The second paper by Instructional Science and Development, Inc.

was prepared for the Naval Training Equipment Center (NTEC) and was not available at the time this report was written.

However a preliminary paper on the topic has been presented

i by Hawkins (1979).

The standard reference on instructional systems design in

the Army is TRADOC pamphlet 350-30, "Interservice Procedures

L for Instructional Systems Development." This provides the

main structure. for the videodisc ISD model that is the main

deliverable of this project. Since the 350-30 pamphlet does

not specify VAP system hardware, this report is a necessary

adjunct to it.

Pilot test of the Author Mock-up System. After considering a

number of alternatives For mock-up and review of the components

of the videodisc (prior to final mastering) a mock-up system consisting of a number of separate low -ost components was

chosen. The components were assembled into a complete mock-up/

tryout system as presented in Figure 8. The mock-up hardware

consists of:

-- Telemation model TCG-1432A character generator (which produces only white upper-case letters)

-- JVC Vidstar VHS 1⁄2" videotape player, specially modified

by Bell & Howell for random access

-- Telemation switcher and sync generator with switcher control (model RC-5)

-- Kodak EKTAGRAPHIC RA-960 randc., ,rcness ..,Ue projector

-- MAST random access slide control (model 140-C10)

--Hitachi color camera, model GP-5U with trlpod and power

adaptor (AP-5)

-- Telemation Telecine adapter i -- SONY 19" color television monitor

-- Cables and connectors for the above

,.4
37

Figure 8

Author Mock-up System

Color 1kaodom Access

TV Display Switcher Videotape pl1ayer

Authors Keyset

Telecine Adaptor

ý4-.
38

It was felt that this system would permit ths review of both

motion and still sequences and the overlay of text so as to

permit the assembly of a rough version of the final videodisc.

A pilot test plan was prepared in order to determine the ability

of the system to perform the mock-up and review functions re- i

quired. The first objective was to generate characters using the character generator, with the signal traveling through the

mixer to the monitor. This test was successful. Individual

characters can easily be placed on the screen, and their location changed. It was found, however, that the chosen character

generator was limited to twelve lines of 31 characters each,

which is slightly less than the 14 lines of 35 characters

selected by WICAT as the standard for an earlier disc. In practice, this-limitation was not found to be a problem, but is typical

of most video character generators.

The second objective of the pilot test was to present motion

and stills by manually controlling the random access videotape player through the switcher and character generator to the

monitor. The character generator is involved in this loop in

order to provide sync,and to permit the overlay of text charac- ters on motion seqments. This test was also successful, despite

difficulty encountered using the random access feature of

the videotape player. This was attributed to the prototype

nature of the modification. We have since observed other videotape players which have been modified to provide very accurate

computer-controlled random access.

A third objective was to present skills by manually controlling

the raadom access slide projector, with the output sent through

and monitor. This test was also successful, although some

difficulties were encountered with double images when using the

very inexpensive telecine adapter. This problem would be

easily solved with a better quality adapter.

"The last objective was to overlay computer text on the slides

and motion sequences, and to look at the framing of each.

Synchronization initially was a problem, but eventually excellent results were obtained with these overlays. Because the

camera was tripod mounted,rather than being permanent'v attached

to a stand, minor problems were experienced in maintaining alignment.

When each of the components and functions were operational, the next

step in the pilot Test plan was to mock-up a TEC-like lesson using

a McGraw-Hill Biology segment taken from WICAT's first disc.

It was found that manual control of the videotape player was

adequate, in combination with the random access slide projectcr, to permit a successful mock-up. During this mock-up,

text overlays were introduced to call attention to special points. No difficulty was encountered in doing this. In

order to try out a simple SQT simulated test item in computer

i •-rT-117 ~--~-~ ____'__
39

mode, we also connected our computer to the character generator, switcher, and monitor. The test revealed the power of such an

approach, but made clear that both hardware and software interfaces must be improved in order to make such a connection work

smoothly.

In a parallel pilot test effort, equipment was assembled in the

computer laboratory of the Army Research Institute for Behavioral

and Social Sciences in Alexandria, Virginia, under the direction

of Mr. John Larson. Mr. Art Lynch connected the ARI PLANIT computer (the CDC 3304 CPU) to the ANAGRAPH system (an early but

advanced video character/graphics generator). This system has

an INTERDATA 70 CPU, 4 video mixer/faders, a 6601 display gen- erator, a device multiplexer, a 5408 display refresh disc, and a

BI-2609 tape drive. The INTERDATA 70 has a 64K memory and a

7206 two megabyte character disc on which very flexible, colorful character and graphics displays can be produced digitally and then refreshed on a Conrac 19" RGB color monitor. This

character generator is much more flexible than the one available

at WICAT, as are the device multiplexers at the ARI facility. A random access videotape player with a telecine adapter was

provided so that ARI could conduct pilot tests on the mixing of motion and still sequences with text and graphics materials

generated by the ANAGRAPH system, all under PLANIT control.

ARI did not interface this random access videotape player, but showed the feasibility of doing so, and controlling it from

PLANIT code. The output from the videotape to an NTSC monitor

had to be scanned in by an RGB camera pointed forward on the

monitor, since the videotape output was composite video and

not RGB. However, since this was demonstrated to be feasible, with no significant degradation of display, the ARI facility had all of the features of a complete, computer-controlled author mock-up facility. The pilot tests at ARI showed that

PLANIT programs that would control the ANAGRAPH character generator, the videotape player, the random access slide projector, and the mixer switches could be written.

The pilot tests at WICAT used a manually controlled author mockup system, while the pilot tests at ARI demonstrated the feasibility of a completely computer-controlled author mock-up facility. However, as the discussion below shows, there appears

to be no one best VAPS system; what is used will depend on local

needs.

In sununary, the pilot tests of the two author mock-up systems

were largely successful. Either a manually controlled set of

components (the WICAT system), or a totally PLANIT-controlled

system (ARI) is feasible. Some component parts need to be

improved. The particular random access videotape player used

was not accurate or flexible enough in random access mode, but,

as will be discussed below, there is not a strong need to use

it in this mode. The WICAT character generator left much to be

desired. It did not provide colored backgrounds or colored

............
40

characters, and in general, was much less-flexibl *.Ihn the

character generator that should be used in a produbtion operation. The ARI ANAGRAPH system is much more flexible. The

WICAT system did suffice, however, to provide an initial look

at how the text would appear. It was found that the components

of the system could be used individually. The camera and monitor provided a means for mocking-up and evaluating the appearance of graphic art, while questions of video proportions,

shooting angles, and distance from art to camera were clarified by using these components of the author mock-up system.

The pilot study also indicated that the random access slide

projector was adequate to simulate the stills sequencinq of an

intelligent videodisc, so long as the range being searched was

within the 80 slide limit imposed by the slide projector. Finding motion sequences on the videotape recorder, even in

manual mode, was relatively fast. If the intelligent videodisc

program is largely linear, then the mock-up system, as evaluated, would be sufficient for use by authors. It is probably

not sufficiently fast for students unfamiliar with delays during

tryouts. If the intelligent videodisc program involves considerable branching and answer processing, then an integrated computer controller, and answer processor, would clearly be required.

Little difficulty was encountered in specifying start and stop

points for motion sequences using the videotape player's turns

counter and a reference to the content (e.g., visual and words of narration). We did not evaluate in the pilot tests the use

of visual SMPTE code. The Society of Motion Picture and Tele- vision Engineers has developied this co~le to indicate the Fours,

minutes, seconds, and individual frames on the videotape. With

a 3/4" videotape player, rather than the 1/2" player used, this

becomes an attractive means for reviewing and specifying edits.

In a parallel effort studied as a part of this project, a

visual SMPTE code was used. In standard video practice, visual

SMPTE code is printed onto 3/4" tape copies of the production

tapes. This is a valuable time saver for videotape editing

in that it enables the rapid compiling of an edit list without

incurring expensive studio costs (the process is referred to as

"off-line edit review"). Off-line editing proved invaluable

in reducing costs on the referenced project. Tape in the 1/2"

format is rarely used in this manner.

In general, frame accurate tolerances were not required until

later in the editing process; therefore, standard videotape

players could be used for review. For example, text frames

from the character generator were duplicatee for one second

each on an intermediate tape. Any player which could display

still frames could be used for text review. It was not

necessary to use a player which was accurate eaough to pick

out a given frame. Any player that could freeze one of the 30

duplicate frames in the one second of tape was sufficient for

the initial work. A frame accurate edit was required, however
41

for off-line review of the final edited tape, in which there

were no repetitions of text frames.

Tracking an Actual Manual Videodisc Production. Another way in

which we gained information about the VAP system was through the

actual production of a manual vidiodisc. While this production did not have the benefit of the job aids and full format guides that will be prepared during the seqond year, a great deal was

learned about the production process when videotape is used as

the mastering medium prior to videodisc. WICAT has now developed videodisc instructional programs using both film and videotape.

r Ili order to increase efficiency in videodisc authoring and production procedures, the decision was made to limit the amount of

rough production done on the author mock-up system. If a program is produced using non-broadcast quality equipment, then the work

must be repeated to obtain the quality required for the final pro- V

gram. This principle of sirgle production led to a concept different from either author mock-up system pilot tested: an

inexpensive system for review, tryout, and off-line edit of

copies of broadcast-quality masters. This avoids double pro- duction, but enhances the cost-saving features of the author

mock-up system, since the authoring group is able to get much

closer to the final product the first time through than was

originally imagined. Double production of the entire videodisc

• I program would be wasteful, but selective tryouts of individual

pieces, using a 3/4" copy of the master tape, was quite helpful. In addition, we decided to use a much higher quality studio character generator (Telemation Video Compositor) to produce

the final videodisc frames. The basic procedure was to author

the videodisc "pages" using paper format guides, then to enter

this text into the high quality character generator at the

studio, saving the results on a magnetic disc in digital form. These individual frames or pages here then reviewed on the

Compositor by the author and Subject Matter Expert (SME),

revised, and sequenced into the-proper Urder. A number of pro- duction economies were realized by producing all the frames of

a similar type together, then sequencing the individual frames

into the proper order at a later point. Graphic art was prepared using a series of photostats and overlays. This graphic art,

together with animation scenes, was tried out using the camera

and monitor from the WICAT author mock-up system. Corrections

were made, then all of the art work was taken to a television

studio and shot onto videotape, with several seconds for each

graphic. The still frames were then "dumped" from the character

generator onto the videotape, again using at least a second of

repetition on the videotape for each frame of text.

Motion sequences from an earlier videotape production were reviewed on the videotape player of the author mock-up system, and the start and stop points of each motion segment were noted

for developing the new audio script.

'1
42

Paper format guides were used to develop the entire videodisc

program. The instructional program was divided into sections

(e.g., Problem 1, Problem 2, Helps, Data Tables). Each section was assigned a unique letter identifier, and each still

frame or motion sequence on a format guide was numbered sequentially within the section. In addition, a SMPTE code-like

number was assigned to each still or motion sequence within

the section. Motion sequence format guides (storyboards) also

included a time estimate as well as the visuals and audio script.

In this way, the total number of frames, and thus the running

time, could be accurately estimated at any point in production. With the format guides, authoring information needed for each

still or motion sequence on the disc was located on a single

form, which also contained production information. The forms

were placed in a loose leaf notebook. Changes in sequence

were made by rearranging the forms, which retained their original numbers. The notebook was invaluable for guidinq and

tracking the entire production operation.

New motion sequences were then shot on broadcast-quality equipmcnt, and new narration and music was recorded on 1/4" mag- netic tape. Three-quarter inch review tapes were then made

of all the master 1" broadcast-quality tapes. These tapes

were reviewed off-line and corrections and sequencing noted.

It should be noted that because the SMPTE code was visually

printed on the 3/4" tapes, it was easy to review the entire

program on a standard videotape player, using the nause button.

The final edit step required a standard computer editing

facility. A frame storage device was used (the Ampex ESS-2,

Electronic Still Store slow motion disk). Single fraites from

the multiple copies of stills were pulled from the broadcastquality tape. By using the Slo Mo disk, single fields within

each frame could be compared, to assure that all'eits left

"two alternate fields. After inspection, the still frames were

dumped from the ESS to a videotapethen edited onto the

master tape. This final editing produced a single videotape containing motion and still sequences in proper sequence,

and with the proper fields for each still frame.

The ESS Slo Mo disk offered thtq advantages:

(a) It was somewhat faster to use .he ESS than computer

editing for long sequences of • frames, uhich

were stored in one-second repetit...)Ž on the

original tape. These were pulled off the original

tape and sequenced in the ESS as individual frames,

then dumped in sequence to a second tape. Without

ESS it would have been necessary to back up the

master tape, get up to full speed, lay in the

single frame, stop, then back up again for the

next frame and so on for every still frame in the

*

...- ~--
43

sequence. This could have caused excessive wear

on the original tape, but is quite possible to do.

(b) It was possible to examine individual fields to ensure the field accuracy of the edits. No errors were

found using the Ampex AVR 3 2" quad machines with a

MACH 1 computer editor. Newer 1" Type C equipment

like the Ampex VPR-2 helical scan machine permits single frame checking, so that no ESS would be required.

(c) The $1o Mo disk was used to freeze a single frame of

motion in order to stretch visuals to match the narration: First the audio track was laid down, then the

visuals were edited in to match the narration. A

studio which has digital special effects would not need a Slo Mo disk for this.

Based urion this experience in preparing a videotape-based manual

videodisc instructional program, we helieve a TASG television

st..dio evP1irned with standard character '.enerator, broadcastuiality recorders, and a comrputer editor can bo videodisc

pjroduction.

Constraints on Videodisc Authoring and Production that Now Exist

in the Army

Distribution of Equipment Resources. Figure 9 presents an overview of the geography of Army authoring and production, as learned

from WICAT's visits to Army sites. Figure 9 shows that the equipment for videodisc authoring and production is not evenly distributed at each TRADOC school. For example, TRADOC school C has a

TASO with a fully equipped TV studio, which could serve for postproduction and premastering of videodiscs. However, TRADOC

school A may also have authoring and production groups who could

develop videodiscs. Their TASO might only have the simplest videotape equipment. They would, therefore, have to have some

long distance communication with the TASO at TRADOC school C or

with a contractor in a local city to do their high quality studio

production. TRADOC school B ie included to indicate that one

school might be charged with a final packaging and distribution

of videodiscs. This is now the case with most of the Army's

exported media. Fort Eustis has been designated as the base for

the Army Training Support Center. The soldier's manuals, correspondence courses, SQT's and other materials developed at the

local TRADOC schools are sent to Fort Eustis for final packaging and distribution. Distribution is handled through the Tobyhanna

Army Depot. The example of TRADOC school B in Figure 9 was

designated to illustrate the possibility that final mastering and

replication may be at one central Army site at some future time.

This unequal distribution of potential videodisc authoring and

production hardware, especially the expensive television studio ] equipment, is an important constraint that might be kept in mind in

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44

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[ I •• .t• . . '- • ••.. _,L- •.L .-7-'• • ., ,•• • _,._, , ,•. •••• • •• ,,' •••." J,•• !r• • •. q -•, : ..
45

considering how authoring and production groups at any TRADOC

school could use the ISD procedures being developed in this

project.

Figure 10 provides further detail on the geographical distribution of VAPS equipment. In order to author intelligent

videodiscs, an authoring group must have close coordination with a production group. The production group will

have graphic art and layout equipment, photography equipment,

and the ability to produce final print masters (including text

editors if possible). The production group will also have CAI

authoring stations. It may have a video character generator,

such as the Telemation Compositor for the production of still

frames and the placement of these still frames on tape. A production group thus equipped can support several authoring

groups at the TRADOC school.

Each authoring group should have,, in addition to the typical

desks and equipment for producing manuscripts, a CAI station

for the review and editing of CAI sequences which will become

a part of intelligent videodiscs. It may be that the coders

(or packagers as they may come to be called), will work primarily in the production group and enter the author's manuscript materials on CAI authoring stations. However, a station

is needed by the authoring group for review and editing. We i! expect the trend to be that authoring groups will want to have it in

their own office facilities rather than running to their production group, especially if the production group is not in

the same building. By the same reasoning, an authoring group

will want to have a 3/4"' videotape player,with stops, for review of the intermediate videotape sequences representing the

developing motion and still frame sequences.

Figure 10 shows that our original conception of a single author

mock-up facility (which did everything) is probably unrealistic, - ~ and that different pieces of equipment will exist in different

locations for use by different groups. Figure 10 also shows

that the well-equipped video studio must be quite accessible

to the production group. The principle of producing materials

only once, suggests that the production group should bring motion sequences and still frame sequences to a production studio

as few times as possible. There it will be placed cn 2"1 or 1"

video edit equipment and a 3/4" dub will be made to take back

to the production group for review by the production group and

authoring group. The 3/4" dub can have visual SMPTE code on

it. The well-equipped video studio would also have a S10-Mo

disk (although this is not absolutely necessary), a telecine

for taking 16 or 35nmm film and transferring it to videotape,

a cue code inserter for inserting the stop codes, chapter stops,

pull down pulses that are needed by the mastering equipment,

and a character/graphics generator. If the production group has its own aenerator, it can bring the

* 4
46

0 to

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C:to -S-

.4to I

=01

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.. ... .... ..
47

magnetic disc from its group over to the TV studio, mount it

on their generator and generate the frames from their digital

representation on their generator disk. Figure 10 gives a good

idea of how the authoring groups, the production groups, and

~1 the video studios must inter-relate during the production of

a videodisc.

The media production group at each school is able to support

several authoring groups which are clustered around it. The

authoring groups may be producing different lessons or even

different programs. It is assumed that authors work primarily

with paper and pencil. As mentioned above, they will also

need a 3/4" videotape player with still frame control (not

necessarily single frame accurate) and a computer terminal to

review the videodisc sections as they are produced. It is

important that the media production group be located physically

close to the authoring group, to facilitate discussions and

reviews of text and graphics. On the other hand, the videotape or film studio need not be located close to the authoring

and media production groups. Where new motion shots must be

produced, a mobile team can be dispatched from the television

or film studio. It is possible that a central location, not

corresponding to any one school's studio, will be selected

for the final packaging and distribution of videodiscs.

Current Level of Sophistication of Army Authors. Visits to

famiiar iththe Interservice Procedures for Instructional

SysemsDevelopment (IPISD). Army authors are also currently prepringSOTtest materials, correspondence courses, and revieingorwriting TEC lessons. The prescriptions of this

ARIproectshould present no great wrenching in the procedures

usedby rmyauthors at present. The job aids and format

guides being prepared for this project are specifically tailoned

to th ed fthe current level of authoring expertise which

we aveobserved in the Army. Over time, we believe that other

prcdre o generative exercises and simulations will be

Forepthedb Army authors.

Forthesecndyear of this project, it will be well to start

wit maerilsfamiliar to Army authors, such as TEC lessons, vidotaesandSQT's to show how intelligent VTD systems can

enhnc thseproducts, and evolve into new and unique forms

of istrctinalinteraction.

Personel._ A described in the previous section, Army authors

see tobereaonalywell informed with respect to ISD procedures.

A great deal of variability may be observed, however, in the

way in which authoring is structured in the military services.

In some cases, former instructors act as subject matte~r experts

(SME's); in other cases, SME's are supported by educational

technologists and script writers. In still other instances, the

"Now ...........
48

authoring is by the technical designers of the equipment,

rather than by operators. In these cases, educational

specialists review the material, but do not help put them

together. In yet other cases, as with TEC, some of the

materials are farmed out to independent contractors who

work with the military subject matter experts, but do most

of the writing at a distance.

The procedures described in this report assume an authoring

team composed of subject matter experts and instructional

technologists, who are also able to write technical scripts.

we have found that it is crucial that the client have a representative to sign of f the instructional materials at each

stage of authoring and production. This can be the subject

matter expert for interim sign of fs, with the contract monitor maintaining final authority to sign off the completed

programs. The interim reviews required of subject matter

experts or other client representatives represent an amount

of work approximately equal to the original authoring, and

more, if new motion shots are used, since the SME

L i must be in constant attendance during shooting.

It is not possible to specify at this time just which composition of the authoring team will be used for each project.

We have observed a high quality of authoring in the Army and

find a real openness to use of IPISD procedures.

Some other specific constraints are observed when subject

matter experts (SHE's) are assigned short-term on an authoring project, either ar writers or as technical consultants.

The following constraints apply to these short-term SHE's:

1. During the time assigned, SME's will be required else- I where and have little time for consulting, so a pro-

~duct (not time) commnitment must be agreed upon early.

1 2. SHE's assigned to an instructional'design project will

sometimes be inexperienced, so instructors must review

.J the materials on a routine basis through design, authoring and production. Instructors are usually in short

supply, so command emphasis and management will beI

3. When a SHE leaves, the replacement will likely not

arrive in time for overlap. The replacement will frequently adopt the "not invented here" attitude and change

the first SHE's approach and technical guidance. Therefore, outside review and even a group of consulting

instructors is useful.

4 * ~ I:& *4p- ;2~
:1 ~49

4. Prior to the project, the SME's are likely to have

only minimal training in authoring. Due to shortness of time, a brief introduction and practice

session will be needed to teach only that part of

authoring pertinent to thei.. assignment. The SME

training is critical and should include examples of

what similar finished products should look like.

During the project, long-term consultants or supervisors will provide on-the-job trainialg. The authoring

system must be simple from the SME's point of

view. Owe-line, as well as off-line, authoring aids

should be available. An intelligent videodisc would

be an excellent way to present this author training

information.

5. There will be little or no normal reward and recognition for SME's who do a good job. Instructional

design is not in their career path. Therefore,

corrmiand recognition of those who do well is important.

6. It is difficult for two reasons for the Army to hire

instructional development and production personnel

needed for large training projects% (a) some of the

jobs are in specialties not emphasized in the Army

(e.g., Production Editor) and (b) the jobs are vola- ( tile: they surge to a huge peak at the end of pro- duction, then drop to near zero until the next project.

Since Army bases are usually not in metropolitan

centers, the pool of talent on which to draw is limited--

individuals can be attracted to the bases but only

with a high expenditure of time to get them.

Moreover, the top quality supervisors needed to get

the production shots going (e.g., edit, art, layout,

photo, word processing, proofreading) are not available on a short-term-- they must be hired long-term.

This is the reason much of TEC authoring and production

is contracted out.

7. Contractor support for videodisc authoring also presents

constraints: (a) if it is a small business, they

probably lack management experience, (b) they must

hire a new inexperienced crew, using inexpensive

talent to keep prices low, which means mistakes and

slow production, (c) they are usually at a distance,

in a metropolitan center, so time is lost in the mail,

and coordination with the Army base is difficult.

Even over the phone, if the contractor is on the West

coast and the school is in the East, time is lost.

Differences in the time zones may often permit only

2 to 3 hours during the day for necessary interactions.

If someone is out of the office (or tied up) during

these periods, then the discussion waits for the next

day.
50

Contractors with a good management track record, with

an experienced permanent staff and access to many

short-term workers or which have a high volume, have

much to contribute. Physical proximity to the source

of SME's and instructors helps. Material authored on

F a nation-wide computer network like PLATO or the

ARPANET may suffer less from this constraint.

S. Large amounts of authoring require large teams.

Facilities, equipment, and supplies are often not

ordered until after the team is physically set up,

unless the needs of the authoring team are identified early and planned for.

Hardware Diversity. We have observed a great deal of diversity among the TASO's in the amount of equipment and facilities they have for videotape or film productions. This diversity means that it is not possible to specify the exact equipment and procedures to be used in videodisc production. However, quite a few studios in and out of the Army have the minimum equipment required for production of manual videodiscs.

With the acquisition of computer programming equipment, these

groups would be able to handle intelligent videodisc production as well. Those bases which lack complete facilities

can farm out the work for which they lack equipment to other

bases, or to private studios. Our observations lead us to

conclude, however, that most TASO's will be able to handle

the bulk of videodisc production in-house. Standardization

of common/compatible equipment will produce economies for

the Army in those cases where work must be farmed out.

'tk:c equipment required for videodisc premastering may include

the following: slow motion magnetic videodisc, digital spe- cial effects, flying spot scanner or telecine adapter with

color camera, character generator with text editing capability, graphics generators, broadcast-quality videotape recorders,

audio tape player, video monitor, computer edit controller,

interfaces from the computer to the equipment, and a video

mixer.

Instructional Resource Constraints. There are nine categories

that constrain those instructional resources which might become

part of an intelligent videodisc production. These are:

1. Motion footage is expensive. Motion sequences normally

cost from $1,000 to $4,000 per minute commercially. For

this reason they are seldom used in TEC (and require special approval when they are specified by the developer).

Using videodisc, small sections of existing motion sequences may be combined with still frames to provide

g .I. , , ..•-.,.. .,.>-• • •

i 'i ; • . , . : . ".'•: .:•, • • •
51

new or more relevant instructi~on, with motion, at lover

cost. Thejenu.nces must be on a high quality master

(e.g., not 1⁄2"videotape). The old motion sequences

need not be continuous with new motion sequences (as is

required with videotape), but can be called up as

"exhibits" to make a point, while still frames carry

the bulk of instruction and the transitions. in

brief, videodisc allows concatenation, while videotape requires smooth integration. In this way, some

of the objections to using old film or videotape

clips are avoided, since colors, background, actors,

etc., need not be the same. The videodisc may also

offer the possibility of low cost demonstration of

procedures, since the procedure can be shot at full

speed and the videodisc used to permit slow motion

or freeze frame replay. The data to substantiate

these assumptions needs to be obtained in an operational

setting such as is planned for the second and third

years of this study.

2. Any type of computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

beyond frame-oriented CAI is expensive. In particular,

generated practice (except for math) and interactive

models are expensive, at least at first. Later, with If experienced authors and standard procedures, they may

be less expensive. Indeed, it has been conjectured

that there will be a point in the future W~hen CAI

material will be less expensive than books.

3. Changes will be made to the materials throughout the

production process, but mostly at the end when the SH4E

can see what the final product looks like. Then minor

graphics details which were overlooked in production

because they were not specified (e.g., insignia, backgrounds, gauge readings, etc.) will be picked up. In

addition, video sequences with actors using actual

gear are usually difficult to revise because the

actors or specific gear used will no longer be

available by the time the need for revision is apparent.

For this realson, it is highly recommen~ded to have the

SME at the taping, or to use very simple caricature

graphics which minimize unrelated details and avoid

showing faces, clothing details, and the like.

4. obtaining equipment and talent is time consuming and

inherently low in efficiency because the production of

training materials has lower priority than commnand

functions. An. entire videotape camera and lighting

crew will allocate a day to shoot repair procedures for

a particular missile launcher they have been shooting

in the past. That day the launcher may be required

for a field exercise because the launcher scheduled for

4A;
52

the exercise broke and there are no others available.

This will happen regularly. For this reason, simple

graphics are often preferable for depicting scarce

equipment.

5. Review is crucial. Instruction will not be user

oriented unless it is planned that way by involving

instructors and students in tryouts and reviews. This

is costly and hard to arrange, but the "there's never

time to do it right, but always time to fix it," syndrome must be countered through reviews and validation

trials. once the material is mastered for the videodisc, revision will be difficult. Tryouts can be

* ~very motivat4ng for SME's, and give them a sense of

ownership.

6. Instruction must explicitly answer the question, "What's

in it for me?" If the coxmmander sees no value in it,

then no amount of clever instructional design will benefit his troops because they won't use it. Videodisc

instruction should be precisely linked to qualification

tests like ARTEP and SQT.

7. Most ISD instructional materials are dull in the aggregate. They need some life to motivate the soldier to

use them. Color and motion on the videodisc can provide this. If, on the other hand, the soldier feels

a strong need to learn (because the unit is on the

Czech border or an SOT is coming up next week), the

soldier will learn despite the materials. This is

another reason to link to qualification tests.

8. Instruction should feed back to doctrine: some procedures which are universally ignored or modified in

practice should be reviewed before they are incorporated into instruction. Although not frequent, this

happens enough to be a problem. Doctrine revision

usually happens more slowly than instruction writing,

so an explicit review board with authority to make some

change in doctrine should be available.

9. Revision rates vary--equipment changes more slowly than

doctrine. Therefore, type of content must be considered

(equipment or doctrine) before selecting presentation

mode.

10. Soldier ability and preference constrains what will be

used. If soldiers read at the sixth grade level, then F presenting them with many volumes of text is a mistake,

* unless their reading skills are brought up first. It

may be better to train the sold'er in basic skills

(reading, math, writing, goal setting), and let the
53

soldier self-select materials rather than to attempt

to write all materials down to the lowest level.

The Videodisc Authoring-groductioi (VAP -S stein

Hardware

This section presents an overview of hardware requirements.

Details are presented in a later section.

The hardware required for the videodisc authoring and production system is, in most cases, already found in most TASO's.

The computer editing and programuing equipment reqaired for

the intelligent videodisc will need to be acquired I.n order to

round out the VAPS system. Because the equipment required for

graphics and, in some cases, for text editing, has many other

uses, it is reasonable for the Army to have this equipmont at

many sites. Mastering and replication hardware for the videodisc, on the other hand, has a very limited and specialized

usage. Therefore, it is not reasonable for the Army to

develop a number of the mastering and replication sites, but

should instead develop a central facility for its own use if

the demand is quite high, or rely on outside contractors to

provide this service.

The videodisc produces a requirement to blend two technologies: (1) computer text editing and authoring aids on

the one hand, and (2) video character generators. Over the

last several years, a number of very useful display editors

fo text haebeen prprdon cmu er.systems These da-..

play editors permit rapid entry of text into a computer system,

* I with subsequent typing corrections and even changes in the location of entire blocks of text. More recently, because of

the high cost of programnming for computer-instruction, a numberI

of computer authoring systems have been developed. These systems prompt the author who then enters the text, questions,

* answers, and branching for each frame of the instructional

program. The authoring system avoids the necessity of using

a programmer. The author can enter text directly. or can give

it to a trained typist to enter. Together, the text editing

and author-prompting software can substantially reduce authoring costs. A limitation of these systems at present is that

they are almost universally oriented to high-resolution CRT

displays. They cannot be used with standard television receivers which the videodisc uses. On the other hand, a number of high quality character generators have been produced

for use by television studios to place text on television

monitors and receivers. The new technology required is to

blend the text editing and author prompting software with a

character generator which will produce high quality images

on a standard television receiver. This is not a particularly Adifficult problem and there will be a high payoff from its

'1 solution.
54

Software for VAP Systems

It is useful to consider larguages for videodisc authoring

and production in the context of three levels of discourse

analogous to those discussed in connection with Figure 4.

Figure 4 referred to languages for authoring and production.

Whenever an author must interface with a machine, as he must

do on the production of intelligent videodisc courseware, a

language must be defined. It is useful to consider this

language at three different levels of discourse.

L0 in Figure 11 refers to the language that is interpretable

by the computer in its most fundamental sense. These are

commands that provide the authorultimately,with precise

control over display devices, the format of information on

the displays, and the timing. This is the level of language

that activates the response devices and accepts certain input

from the student, records aspects of that input in the student data area, and executes the algorithms which describe

the selection of logics and generation logics that the author

will use. At its lowest level, this is a machine language.

However, assemblers and compilers or interpreters can be

developed for low level instructional patterns. If these

assemblers, compilers, or interpreters still require a high

degree of programming sophistication, we would call in an

Lo language since authors should not have to learn to be programmers. Most of the "CAI authoring languages" that have been developed in the last 20 years must be classed as L.

languages. One of the earliest of these, COURSEWRITER is

still being used by IBM as part of the ITS system. It use3I

such commands as QU (question), CA (correct answer), and

WA (wrong answer). It also uses various answer processing

"functions" which the author may call in an attempt to interpret what the student has typed into the computer. Languages like TUTOR, PILOT, and even PLANIT, the language selected in this project, are primarily at the Lo level. This

cannot be avoided entirely, since the author or his produc- tion assistants in the production group are ultimately responsible for the precise instructions which must be input

to specify where on the screen text will appear, how long it

should remain, how responses are to be input, and how they are

to be processed and interpreted. This level of detail is

necessary since display formats and response formats have so

many unique attributes. The L level commands for this display

formatting and response analysTs cannot be avoided. Thus, it

is assumed that personnel familiar with these programming

languages are available in the production group which will develop intelligent videodisc materials. Thie is necessary because few

authors are likely to become proficient with such programming, especially when highly complex color displays with attached

videodiscs are available and when powerful answer analysis

g ii
55

Fiqure 11

Levels of Discourse in an Authoring Lana

Programming level. Precise control over display

devices, format and timing, response devices for

i0;4 S/ input, student data area for records, and computer

registers and instructions.

Assemblers, compilers or interpreters for low-level

instructional patterns.

A language o0 cototype instructional strategies.

For survey

For instruction

For testing

For review

SC- A lanquaae for editing and revision

"Notes" file for reviewers

Convenient data from student tests

Display editors

Printers (Graphics and text) for video edit loq

b and "edit editors"

Prompting and instruction for use of the prototype

strategies and editing/revision tools.

Management systems to track production schedules and

reduce bottlenecks.

%2

ýO

t'I

4

4l . . - , " . 4 
56

rouine ar aailable. Powerful response analysis sofwr

can expand the student's L. language for response entry to

includ~e entire sentences or sequences of graphics coordinates.

All is not hopeless for the author, however, for there exists

the concept of angL, language, which may have primitives more

at the level of a ggegation at which the author's thinking

occurs. The L1 language concept depicted in Figure 11 has

two component groups of commands. One would be the commands

needed to select from,and use~a library of prototype instructional strategies. The author will learn to use these prototype instructional strategies instead of learning programming.

The interactive prototypes on the terminal can generate theI

code at the Lo level and can generate it error free. When the

prototypes constrain the author too much, he can get a pro- grazmmer and do something in the Lo language.

It is desirable for the author to have prototype strategies

for orientation and survey, such as a particular kinds of map

or menu structure with objectives, overviews, and other instructional components. These components could be input to structure the many modules of a course and provide the student with

survey opportunities. It is also desirable for the library of

prototype strategies to include a series of instructional prototypes. There -are drill and practice prototypes that are quite

useful, tutorial prototypes, learner control prototypes like

the Rule-Example-Practice-Help prototype used on TICCIT * There

should be libraries of different testing paradigms that the

author could select from. He should be able to provide for review through use of the same structures that he prepares for

survey.

While not at as high a level as is suggested in Figure 11, the

macros used by the Army in the CTS system and its predecessor,

the IBM 1500 system with COURSEWRITER II macros, are examples

of tools that provide production efficiencies. Such efficiencies are gained through giving the authors some higher level

program structures, which they themselves generate as code at a

lower level. The authoring procedure for TICCIT is another

example of how production efficiency can be gained through

letting the author relate to a set of higher level instruc-

* tional prototypes.

The second set of Ll language commands represents a language for

* editing and revision. In the future, the authoring and production group depicted in Figure 10 will probably have a storage

station such as the one depicted in Fiiure 7. In this storage

station, notes from reviewers working at different work stations

can be maintained and referenced to the particular labels of

the developing courseware. The person responsible for editing

* and revising a given lesson would have access to these notes
57

files immediately. This could also ameliorate the telephone

coftiru~nication problem noted between contractors and Army

personnel located on opposite sides of the country.

The eld~iting and revision language would also summarize data

from student tests taken a't various work stations that communicate with a single storage station. Using the data from

the notes and the data from the students, the person or persons responsible for revising a given lesson could use powerful display editors to make corrections. The current authors

have observed that the most efficient production occurs when

the author is able to use the display editors himself to make

the corrections, although it is not necessarily the case that

the author should input the origi~al material. However, we

have also observed that only a s~l1 percentage of authoring

personnel wish to take the time to learn how to operate a

particular terminal with its editing commands. Therefore,

Army authors should have a coder or packager assigned to them,

who can follow their instructions, and make the needed changes

using the display editor with speed and efficiency.

one output device which should be able to be activated by the

language for editing and revision is a printer that would

print the contents of the videodisc screen, whether it contained graphics or text. (It is not necessary that it print

a videodisc generated picture, but only the computer graphics

and text.) Authors can then take this printout home or to

their desk for the detailed work of making corrections and

revisions.

A final feature of the language for editing and revision is

a video edit log, with associated edit commands. This cdtn

be called an "editor". As the authors look at the 3/411 videotape dubbed from the studio, they see changes that should be

made in the sequence and content of videodisc displays. They

must keep a detailed record of which frames require changes.

These frames can be specified by SMP-2E code placed on the tape.

This edit log changes as the author's work progresses, especially

during review and student tests. Keeping the 'edit log in a

digital form would make it easy to change the edit log as

needed. It would also save time and money if the edit log,

stored digitally on a floppy disc or other portable magnetic

media could be taken to the television studio and used to

driv.e the computer editors. This would save expensive studio

time and reduce humian error generated by keeping a printed

edit log and manually typing the edit conuuandL into the computer

editor in the studio.

The general concept of an L language is that it represents

a high level of discourse t~iat allows the user to converse

with the system about how to use the next lower level language, and about the strategy and tactics for using that language effectively. At L 2 ' then, we need prompting and

.............
58

instruction to teach authoring personnel how to use the

prototype strategies and how to use the editing and revision

language. This should be available at the touch of a

button whenever the author is uncertain about what command

to use to achieve the desired results.

Another high level feature of an L language would enable

the system and personnel to converne about the project and

the production schedule. This has been called an author

management system (Bunderson, 1977, O'Neal, 1978). It keeps

track of what materials are being produced by a coherent

label system and compares this with the production schedule Skfor reference to that label system that describes the materials

that must be produced. It produces reports to help identify bottlenecks and re-allocate resources.

It is clear that at this time no system exists with all of

F the features described in connection with Figure 11.

Nevertheless, even as it was necessary to describe the

future VTD system with its associated storage station, it

is software necessary system to describe should have the for functions efficient whir' a future !odisc authoring

and production.

Interim Software for this Project

As was discussed in Part I, the PLANIT software system was

selected as the delivery system software for this project. PLANIT is also an authoring language, and indeed, it is an

excellent authoring language. PLANIT permits authors and

programmers working together to specify all of the displays

and display formatting. PLANIT was designed for a teletype

or typewriter terminal initially; thus, special calls

have to be written to utilize the graphics display, such

as the one that will be used for the videodisc system.

Computer graphics, which will be placed in "windows" within

I the screen, must be accommodated by special calls, although

* , they are not always convenient for authoring personnel to

use.

PLANIT has good response processing functions and excellent

capabilities to define selection and generation logics.

These functions are at an L level, however, and it is not

possible within PLANIT to wqite high level structures such

as the prototype instructional strategies discussed in

connection with the L language. PLANIT has some built-in

macro structures, howiver. It has the M frame and the Q

frame which permit the implementation of a standard tutorial

strategy and allows the creation of drill and practice

patterns. One can also write Rule, Example, Practice

sequences in PLANIT, although a high level prototype for

generating the code does not exist. The code for this

prototytpe strategy would have to be written line by line.

........
59

Nevertheless, for the purposes of this project, almost any

instructional strategy we might want to implement can be

implemented by programming in PLANIT. It should also be

noted that few systems exist that provide the prototype

strategy function described in connection with L1 in Figure

11, so PLANIT is not alone in not having this feature.

It is possible to write prototypes in the TUTOR language which generate TUTOR code, and some have been written. It

is also possible to write prototypes in WICAT's CDS language (Courseware Design System).

PLANIT does have some features related to the L1 language

for editing and revision. PLANIT has editors for the source

code at LO. PLANIT does not have a notes file for reviewers,

but it is possible to write data collection routines in

PLANIT and provide data to guide the author's revision

efforts based on student trials.

It is unclear at this time to what extent PLANIT may be

adapted for convenient editing of the display commands.

Clearly, PLANIT will not have a high level display editor,

but it does have a good line editor. It will be necessary to edit

line-by-line any special calls that format material on the

two-dimensional TV screen.

It is feasible to implement a dot-matrix printer on the

i ITI 990/10 and activate it through PLANIT (with, a special

call) to reproduce the contents of any screen. However, it

would not be convenient to implement the edit log and video

edit editor using the PLANIT software.

At L2 , PLANIT has a "verbose mode" which prompts the author

in use of the Lo language. PLANIT does not have a built-in

author management system.

It is seen from the above that a good Lo authoring language allows authoring personnel to produce any of the components

of any standard instructional interaction. The absence of

powerful L1 prototypes and editors simply makes the process

more difficult,but by no means impossible. PLANIT is a good

authoring language and fully meets the requirements of this

project. Data that will be collected the second and third

year and authoring and production using PLANIT can provide

a good baseline so that if more powerful software systems

come into use (e.g., if PLANIT itself can be adapted to

provide more L and L functions) then any improvements in

productivity and cost can be compared against the baseline

data collected using PLANIT as it now exists.

7I

7.. .-. -
60

Videodisc Production

The Problem and the Approach

k The key problem addressed in this section is to

optimize videodisc production under different constraints

imposed by available equipment and resources. Both videotape-,and film-based systems are considered. We first

present each of the major steps of videodisc production,

together with a detailed description of who is involved,

what tasks are performed, and what sequence must be

followed. We have already presented a discussion of which

components should be performed in close physical proximity

in order to facilitate review and revision. Each step is

described for a tape-based and then for a film-based

production system. A number of alternatives are presented

for text and graphics production, and for off-line edits t I and tryouts. The final section describes new hardware and

software required for maximum efficiency during videodisc

production.

Assumptions

The following assumptions have been made about

videodisc production:

"-"Author" is assumed to be a Subject Matter Expert

(SME) and Instructional Technologist (IT)/scriptwriter.

The combination used depends upon the project

and the skills of the individuals. The varying

composition of authoring teams is discussed

elsewhere in this paper. Administrators are crucial,

but do not usually enter directly into its production

process and are therefore not included in the flow

diagram.

-Every instructional program has at least two

authors. one is in charge and has exclusive signoff

authority. The other either writes or, in small

programs, provides a second review.

-The review responsibilities for SME's are very heavy,

and if new motion is shot, the SME must be in constant

attendance. Either more personnel or a longer time

must be allowed to accommodate these responsibilities,

iWA Z ._ 
which are easily underestimated in planning a

project. The IT/writer reviews are to assure

adherence to presentation specs rather than for

content details, and are therefore Jess time

consuming. Two reviews are usually provided.

The first is for corrections, and the second is

to verify that the corrections were made. A penalty should be assessed for revisions at the second

review, or the first review will become perfunctory.

- The primary production medium is videotape rather

than film.

- Subject matter experts (as opposed to IT's/script- writers) usually have only rudimentary format

knowledge, do not type, and draw only at the stick

figure level. They primarily work with paper and

pencil.

- Text is primarily typed by packagers (specially

trained typists) not authors, whether or not a text

entry system is used.

- Scripts and rough storyboards are prepared by IT/scriptwriters.

- Text and graphics specs (not scripts/storyboards)

are polished by a copy preparer, who checks format

and consistency.

- Graphics are usually prepared as board art rather

than as computer graphics.

- Digital information (e.g., the computer program) is

stored and distributed on a separate memory from

the videodisc.

- The student terminal consists of a standard National

Television Standards Committee (NTSC) color receiver (no

high resolution monitor) and videodisc with the

addition, for an intelligent system, of a micro-

". bcomputer, keyboard, mixer, and external digital

memory.

Videotape Versus Film-Based Production

Instructional material may be prepared\for the videodisc using either a film- or videotape-baoed production

medium.

Tape has several advantages:

- The production medium is the same as t~iat whizh ui]•

be used for videodisc mastering (all moterials are

eventually transferred to videotape for msterinqi..

The proper aspect ratio is automatically maintained

throughout the production process.
62

- Color shifts are minimized between parts of the

program--the color is stable from different production

runs.

- Revision is relatively simple, for audio as well as

for visuals.

- Digital codes can be inserted for still frame audio

and for the computer program.

Videotape has three disadvantages:

- The equipment is sometimes more expensive.

- Special equipment is required in order to view what

is on the videotape. This is not the case with

slides, which can be easily viewed at'any time.

- Segments or frames cannot be resequenced without

editing on studio equipment.

Film has certain advantages:

- There is reassurance in being able to see what is

on the film without special equipment.

- Slides (but not roll film) are easy to resequence.

- In some cases film equipment is less expensive than

videotape equipment, and more portable.

Film has some very considerable disadvantages for

the inte-lligent videodisc:

- It must eventually be transferred to videotape for

mastering. This transfer inevitably costs quality.

- Film is usually recorded at 24 frames per second,

while videotape operates at 30 frames per second.

The transfer between the two can be quite complex, and requires special pulses on the videotape. The

equipment to place these pulses is available at

only a few studios in the world.

- Film and videotape have two different aspect ratios

(the ratio of height to width). Film production must

always use this "artificial" aspect ratio, which is * .the "natural" one for videotape.
r7. 77--

63

-The film, unlike videotape, cannot carry digital

codes for computer programs or for still frame audio.

-The grain of film can sometimes produce "color

noise."

-Film is always susceptible to color shifts caused

by differences in the developing process between

batches, and by aging.

-When film is cut into individual pictures to be

mounted in slides, there is some movement even with

pin-registered slides. Therefore overlays will

always involve a component for hand adjustment,

and this may not always be accurate.

-Unless a video character generator is used to

produce the slides, text on slides is costly and

I time consuming.

-The cost of revision of the final roll film is

very high after the audio track is laid in.

Corrections are almost always made at this late

stage and, on a film-based system,they are costly

in both time and money. Time is a critical factor

during these final production steps.

For the reasons presented above, we believe that

videotape will be the method of choice for production of

intelligent videodiscs. We present both film and tape

procedures here, to accommodate the different hardware

and capabilities found in the TASO's today.
64

Major Videodisc Production Steps: Their Processes,

Hardware and Outputs

Figure 12 presents the several transformations in

media for a videotape-based production system. Figure 13

presents the transformations for a film-based system. We

will describe a generic production flow which can be

adpated to either medium.

Videodisc production consists of the major steps

of (1) authoring, (2) media production, (3) media transfers,

(4) off-line edits and tryouts, (5) post-production,

(6) revisions, (7) mastering and, (8) replication. Since the

last two will normally be conducted apart from the authoring

group, they are not discussed in detail here. Figure 14

graphically presents the production flow and presents an

operational definition of the components and a "cast of

characters" with their jobs. The production process is

described for a full scale production operation. On

smaller projects one person can perform many of the

operations, thus reducing the apparent complexity.

43

-!

ID4 - •~a~..La
FIGURE 12 65

Media Flow Chart - Tape

Motion Sequences

existing film transfer to tape

existing tape

new motion ___ _

on tape

(Note: all tape 3/4" review tapes

except review tape w/ visual SMPTE --- "

is 1" or 2" broad- for OFF-Line edit

cast quality) logOF-iedt

Still Frames i: ( elect ro-- i- text )

A video i Computer

character Controlled

generator still frame Videotape _tape or Editing J Slo-Mo disc

(Text & Graphics)

Artwork or

Photographs

(35 rmm slides)

slides W..... Slide chain 1

Still frames 

Master tape

(hand) 

A

typesetting (to Disc Mastering Co.j

aste-up

Artwork
FIGURE 13 66

Media Flow Chart - Film

xsigfilm

Motion and/or seqoen

B roll

S~motion "Ssequences

Still

Frames

(electronic) C roll

Character/ 35 still

graphics sequences ix generator

•: ~~optical'

Still printer

Frames till

(ex-Etng slides) frame film

sequences printer [; or

Stillfilm

S ~Frtames7 - (hnd) m :1

typesetting 35 mm slides

[i• L•ast-up1) Kodalith

as e - l2) Backgroun d

A artwork 3) Burnthrough

Fmaster f il

exsinq videotape

(to Disc Mastering Co.)

I, I
S...... . ..-..-.. .......

67

FIGURE 14. MAJOR STEPS OF VIDEODISC PRODUCTION

Note: Steps requiring the Subject Matter Expert are markedt 0

Steps requiring the IT/Writer are marked:

A. AUTHORING

1. Subject Matter Hold lesson specifiExpert (SME) and cation conference and

Instructional list existing materials

Technician (IT/ (motion, slides, lesson

Writer plans, etc.). Review

task analysis and

specify lesson maps. 2

2. IT/Writer Prepare draft to

include (a) text,

(b) graphics sketches,

(c) rough storyboard

for motion sequences,

(d) specs for generative CAI or an interactive model, (e)source

film, tape, slide or

graphic material and

(f) control specs for

motion and stills. I 3

3. SHE Review drafts

4. IT/Writer Rewrite draft materials 4

5. SME Conduct tryouts of the

paper version with 5

individual students

6. SME and IT/ 6

Writer Revise based on tryout

7. SME Conduct second tryout 7

on those materials

which failed the first

tryout

8. SME and IT/

Writer Revise based on tryout

9. Copy preparer Check format and add

specific production

codes.

71
68

FIGURE 14 (Continued)

10. Productionl

Assistant obtain masters from

other programs which

can be incorporated

into this program

B. MEDIA PRODUCTION

ii. Production Hold pre-production

SDirector, IT/ planning conference to

writer assign text, graphics, video motion shots, and

"CAI coding.

12. Packager Enter text and standard

(typesetter) CAI codes.

13. Proofreader Proof text and codes 344

14. SME and IT/ Review text I 1

SM 24. 4 Writer 7

15. Copy preparer check format

I 16. packager Correct text and codes 15 2l 

17.SM ad T/signoff text (insure 2

Writer that corrections were 6 made)

18. Artist Prepare rough art

19. SME and IT/ Review rough art

Writer

20. Artist Complete art

21. paste-up Paste up graphics and

2 person text if required

22. SME and IT/ Signoff art

Writer

23. Director and Shoot new motion

crew, with SME sequences.

talent or consultation during

shooting

24. SME and IT/ signoff motion shots

Writer

- 77 = 7 .... ...
FIGURE 14 (Continued) 

e

25. Narrator Record scratch tape

26. SME and IT/ Review scratch tape writer and specify revisions

27. Narrator Revise narration

28. Editor Edit new motion and

narration 

3

29. SME and IT/ signoff new motion

Writer and narration

30. Cameraman Transfer still graphics

(including special

e ffects) and text to 

4

videotape or film.

31. SME and IT/ signoff stills

Writer

32. Programmer Program special

generative CAI codes

33. SME and IT/ Review special CA;,

Writer codes

L 34. Programmer Revise special CAI . Pcodes

35. SME and IT! Signoff CAI codes

Writer

C. MEDIA TRANSFERS

36. Video studio Transfer existing film

(tape only) to videotape, with

pull-down pulses and

color balancing.

37. Technician 

Transfer slides to

videotape or film with

color balancing. 

6

38. Technician Transfer text to . Tvideotape or film

Shoot still graphics

39. cameraman to videotape or film
• I,

70

FIGURE 14 (Continued)

40. Editor Mix text and graphics sothey are properly

aligned. Use digital special effects if

necessary (tape only).

41. Technician Copy all motion shots to

1" or 2" videotape or to

film. Copy all stills

to another tape or film.

Make a 3/4" copy of each

tape with visual SMPTE i : ~2 code, track. and code in audio -

9

D. OFF-LINE EDITS AND TRYOUTS

42. Editor Edit motion sequences

43. SME arid IT/ Check off motion sequences

Writer or ncte revisions.

• 44. Editor Assemble motion and still

sequences and create edit Ii list. 44. MEdio Asseblemot onrand andi

45. SME and IT/ Review intact program and

Writer note revisions

46. Instructor Conduct group tryouts

(not SME)

47. SME and IT/ Wriie revision specs

Writer

48. Editor with Edit the source tapes Writer or film according to

the edit list.

49. SME IT/Writer Sign off the corpleted and client tape or film.

representative

50. Programmer After disc mastering,

modify the computer

program to refer to final videodisc frames. 50

i '1*

7.. •
71

Tape-Based Videodisc Authoring and Production Systems

We begin with a discussion of each step from the

viewpoint of a tape-based prodvction system.

Authoring

The author receiv=s the analysis which describes

the tasks to be trai.ned, together with two job aids:

(a) a set of procedure guides which describe how to

author different forms of instruction and (b) a set of

format grids on which the author writes, and which

delineate the physical locations of text and graphics

on the screen, for - n-motion sequences. These aids i

are contair-d in a ] .per authoring kit or within interactive ncýt .are. The procedures guides are a series of

prompts whirh lead the author through each step in preparing

tex.ual material for the student. For example, a procedure

guide to prepare a RULE-EMA1LE-PRACTICE sequence includes

the following items:

5. State th-e rule to be taught

6. List the examples, with helps

7. List the practice items, with feedbeck

figure 15 presents a format grid for a mania•a ieodise,

;-hile Figure 16 presents an intelligent videodisc t, in

the upper right hand corner of which a graphic will inserved. A variety of format grids are provided to cuommodate

different layouts of graphics and tcxt. By specifying standard

layouts of graphics and text throughout the production process,

the number of hand adjustment3 is lessened. Both graphics and

vLdeo work are simplified because each grid is part of a common

language. The language specifies the same la*'out across all

production stells. Special formats can be usud if they receive

prior aproval and are budgeted.

The output of the authoring process is a job packet

wbich contains all the material for one section of the

prograin. The f.ont of the job packet is a routing and

.1
72

. ... .. ... ...... 2.... !- /

, , - ...... ... . . ... -"' " -

* 1 i i- , . ' 2- :,.~ ,

4

S 4. 1 I

, . . . . . . . ......

T T

- 1- 

. .4 .. . 4. - ' '

•P-!~~~ ~~ ... -1. ......

I .. I, I

-

0

i 

I

I I °a

" ; - . "T " i "T -'. . . . . . i ..- _ _ -" -".

. : -. ** - -. - - •- -

- *,[ *.. . . . "i " i;i -

- '- - - .. - . i -- . ..-. . l

I
Branh toOTlLtotiaI.

j~jC~sicnr~rnchtoAnswer B~ranch tO

I)SCIP1I On.

GWtIIlIIS

Brandh tO __

Brarlch to __

Ti fraxre f frc:

Figre 6. ll xamle of A Format Grid for

an interactive Videodisc
1r,7..,. -7-

74

checkoff sheet for each stage of production. The packet

contains:

a. Text on format grids for still frames, in numbered

sequence.

b. Graphics specs with stick figures or graphicsIi

references to the source, with required changes

noted.

C. A rough storyboard for motioz# or audio/still

sequences (including new narration/background for

existing material, if appropriate).

d. Specs for the computer program, if an intelligent

videodisc is being produced (including generative/

simulation specs, answer processing, and response

history branching schemes).

e. Title, description, excerpts desired, and location

of film, videotape, slides, art work, or other

original source material to be included in the

videodisc. Excerpts desired from motion

sequences are marked in a log by scene description

and frame number (SMPTE time code), if available.

f. Sequence guides to show production personnel

how to integrate the parts.

No special equipment is required for the authoring

component.V

Authors will usually work "on location," close to

the equipment, procedures, and experts for wiat is being

trained. [OP Media Production

Authors specifications on grids, rough storyboards,

and programming notes are the input for media production.

Media production consists of: i

a. Copy preparation of text and graphics to insure

format adherence and to specify additional

production formats like size of heads or

indentation.

b. Graphics production by board art or computergenerated images.

c. Text production on a typesetter, computer text

editor, or separate video character generator.
75

d. Audio production of narration and background.

e. Motion sequence production.

f. Computer programming.

Author reviews are scheduled throughout the production

process, and culminate in signoffs on the components. During

media production the text and graphics are prepared, then

later they are shot onto videotape or film. Motion and

audio sequences are recorded (not final edited), and the

special computer-assisted instruction programming is

completed.

The output of media production is a series of 1" or

2" videotapes containing motion sequences, text, and graphics,

together with the audio tracks and computer codes. All

are signed off as acceptable to the authorized reviewers

prior to -. dia transfer.

It is preferable for media production to be co-located with

authoring because of the large number of reviews and the coordination requirements. It would be very costly in terms of an

artist's time if every time there was a problem he had to shelve 4

the rough art until the next review visit, when a few minutes

discussion would solve the problem. If close proximity is not

possible, regular visits and exchange of material is required.

The special hardware for media production includes

the following items:

1. Graphics

- Animation tables

- Stat camera

2. Video (all items are broadcast quality) - Color cameras - - videotape recorders

- Lightinqr - !.:eters, sync generators, cables, racks, etc.

3. Audio

- Microphones - Multi-track audio recorders

- Cables, meters, etc.

4. Text entry (the equipment required depends upon

the text entr- rethod selected) - Video character generator

- Computer for editing system

- Disc digital storage

- Phototypesetter

I•
76

A few observations about media production may help

to elucidate this process.

Cost of motion production. Production of original

motion sequences can Cost between one and four thousand

dollars a minute. This cost may be reduced by using

existing motion footage, for example from. the large

number of videotapes presently available to the Army.

It may also be possible to reduce costs by shooting on- 1

site, then using still frames to carry the message of

instruction while these on-site motion clips illustrate

pertinent points.

Media production includes the narration and soundtrack

for the videodisc. At present, audio is available on the

videodisc only with motion. (i.e., to present an audio

commentary for a still frame requires that the still frameI

be repeated 30 times per second while the audio narration

continues). If the narration is ten seconds long, threehundred video frames are required to accommodate it. If

all still frames have audio of ten seconds duration,

then the disc can accommodate only 180 such still frames

(54,000 divided by 300 equals 180).In some cases, 180 still

frames is more than enough. In others, the problem of

audio for still frames seriously reduces the number of

interactive still frame sequences that can be used. Videodiscs

and players with still frame audio should be available in

the not-too-distant future.

number of transfers, and the fact that the videodisc player

inherently loses some of the quality of the video image,

mdaproduction should use the highest quality video

components. It is highly recommended that either one

or two inch broadcast quality videotape and associated

equipment should be the standard for videotape-based production. In the following sections we recommend that

off-line three-quarter inch copies be used to save editing

costs. It should be clearly understood that these are

only intended as review copies to guide the editing of the

broadcast quality original tapes.
77

Alternatives for Text Production

Within media production a number of alternatives are available

to develop text. This section considers four methods of oroducing text for a videodisc. The four methods are paste-up,

video, slides, and digital. Each method has a number of

variants. The choice of which method to use depends uDon which

equipment is already available, what quality is required for

still frames, and the amount of text revision expected.

- Typesetting and Paste-Up. The source for paste-up text is a

typewriter, word processor, or typesetter (photo or otherwise). Paste-vp text is produced as hard copy on a sheet of paper, then

laid out and pasted up on a board, for later input via a camera

to videotape.

Paste-up text has the following advantaaes:

a. It uses proven technology

b. Qualified workers and shops are widely available

c. Text and graphics can be mixed directly without going

to a post-production studio with digital special effects

d. Limited paste-up text is required anyway for graphics

labels and arrows if board art is used

However, paste-up text has some considerable disadvantages:

a. It requires many hand steps--it is slow

b. It requires a camera to transfer to video

- Character Generator Video. Video text is prepared on a character

generator. Character generators vary widely in their capabilities, and the type intended here is one which permits a variety of type

fonts, background colors, and character colors. This type of

character generator produces the highest quality, replicable text.

For productions which require very good video, use of a high

quality studio character generator is essential.

The advantages of a studio character generator are its high quality, the speed with which material can be entered and modified as compared to paste-up text, its ability to highlight text very simply by using colors, and the capability of doing simple graphics directly. Its disadvantage is that in comparison to diaital text, revisions are relatively slow, since the textual material must be

converted to videotape, mastered on a disc, replicated, then sent

to the customer. Moreover, video text requires a separate step in

which the graphics are mixed with text, and this must be accovwnlished

in an expensive post-production studio. It should be noted that this

disadvantage exists only in comparison to paste-up text, and not to

digital text.
78

-Slides. One of the major variants of video production is

thit inwhich the video is used to produce a slide. An example of this is the General Electric Genigraphics System.

This system appears to the user very much like a video

character generator, inasmuch as video frames are composed

on a CRT screen. However, the output is a slide rather

than a video picture.

An advantage of slides for still frames is that they can be

easily manipulated by hand. Expensive video editing equipment is not required in order to review these slides and

their sequence. Moreover, this method provides the very

high quality of a studio character generator, while it

permits easy manual mock-up. A major disadvantage of the

slide text production system is cost. The user of the GE

Genigraphics system is charged $26,000 a terminal plus a

fee of $6 to $7 for processing of each slide produced at

the central facility. In addition, slides must eventually

be transferred to a video medium. Slides, as with any photographic medium, will vary in color as a result of the

dyes used and the conditions under which they are stored.

-Di ital Text. Digital text is that which is stored and

distr5ibutodt students as digital information. It must be

transformed to video by a character generator in the student's terminal.

The advantage of digital text is that it permits extremely

fast revision; no videodisc mastering and replication pro- I cess is required for text stored on a magnetic medium. Revisions can be made to the text material, and distributed

to st~udents the same day. With a distributed network, changes

made in the central archival computer are imm~ediately avail:

able at all distributed computers and terminals in the network.

Another advantage of digital text, is that the author sees

precisely what the student will see, in that the text need

not be further r :ocessed by studios over which the author

has no control.

The major disadvantage of digital text is that the character

generator in the student terminal must be very expensive,

and therefore, limited in its capabilities. While the digital

storage of text inherently requires less space than video

storage, the magnetic memory available at the student terminal

will probably be considerably smaller in capacity than the

videodisc (although second generation players will store digital

code directly on the videodisc). Therefore, use of digital

text may require largar and more expensive magnetic external

memories than would be required if text were stored as video

from the videodisc. Digital text also ~equires that the video

frcm the videodisc be mixedi with the tdec t directly at the

student terminal. This produces a change for misalignment of 4 text and graphics, for example.
79

This field is evolving rapidly. Texas Instruments has just

announced a video character generator chip which they use in

their home computer. The chip will produce text as well as

high and low resolution color graphics. The chip will sell

for approximately $45.00. It includes a video mixer, so that

the generated text and graphics can overlay video pictures

and motion. In addition, Winchester disk technology is

yielding relatively inexpensive ($2500 - $3500 in OEM quantities) hermetically sealed disks with very high density of

magnetic information. One or more work stations could be

attached to such a disc, which in turn may be attached to

regional or Army-wide computers with appropriate data bases.

The one chip character generator/mixer and Winchester disks

may permit rapid development of digital text. WICAT is

currently developing such a digital text/videodisc system.

In summ~ary, digital text is the most direct and fast means

for developing text for an intelligent videodisc system.

This method will likely become the method of choice for

text development as character generator quality and flexibility,

magnetic storage cost and problems of alirinment or generated

symbols with videodisc pictures are worked out.

Alternatives for Graphics Production

Computer-Generated Images. These are presently available from

specialty houses like Computer Images Corn. orXanna Barbera

in Los Angeles. A number of very good and ver!y expensive

systems have been prepared for special applications such as

structural engineering and architecture. These systems tend

to be extremely high resolution, and are not presently suited

to NTSC-standard video. Much less expensive video graphics are

available, for example, the "high resolution" graphics of the

Apple II computer. These inexpensive graphics systems do not

provide the flexibility and efficiency required for a large

volume production oper~ation.

Computer graphics may well be the method of the future, since

it will permit rapid animation and revision of graphics. For

the present, the cost is very high for a production system.

This is a new technology which is not dt all we'lL-standardized

and for which workers and equipment are not widely available.

A. graphics production facility will need to be optimized for

cost and human factors. A final feature of presen-t1 computer

graphics is that in many cases, an original must bL- drawn as

board art, then placed under a digitizer in order to develop

the image for further video manipulation. This is both an

advantage (flexible and familiar development) and a disadvantage (multiple steps, cost).

Board Art. This is the traditional method for producing graphics.

Artists Use conventional materials at their brards, and produce

hard copy graphics which are recorded on videotape with a

television camera.
The advantage of board art is that it is a proven technology,

and is relatively inexpensive for small volumes. Artists to

use this method of production are widely available. By clever

use of overlays using peg-registered cells, it is possible to

use just a few base art pictures for many purposes. The most

well-known example is animation, but the same technique may

be applied to still frames. This can greatly reduce cost.

Another advantage of board art is that, in contras t to video

pictures or slides, it can depict hard~.to-see situations.

The major disadvantage of this system is that the work must be

converted, one piece at a time, to videotape frames. This is

a rather expensive operation in a television studio.

Video Pictures. By shooting wi~th videotape then selecting

representatirve still frames, it is possible to develop a poI: tentially low-cost alternative to graphics for events which

are readily set up and observable. The individual video

pictures must be edited out of the 30 frame per second

sequences. The advantages are that (1) the system uses

production, and (2) since the actual training equipment is

taped, there is less likelihood an artist will use an outdated

technical manual depicting obsolete features of the equipment.

The disadvantages are that video shooting crews are expensive,

especially if their work is not carefully planned. Equipment I. or personnel may not be available when they are needed for

taping, and the logistics and costs are difficult for getting

tbe'm in place and keeping them in place during shooting.

Media Transfers. The input for media transfers includes th.

orgnlflm lds and videotapes of board art and text.

All are transferred onto standard broadcast quality videotape.

Where text and graphics must be mixed, this is done to produce a composite image. The result of the transfers is one

or two source reels of I" or 2"' videotape containing the

moti 'n sequences (unedited) and another reel containing the

still frames.

For videotape, the source reels are then copied onto 3/4"

tapes with the SMPTE codes of the source reels contained both

visually and in audio track 2. The SMPTE code is a means of

identifying each frame within a videotape program. For

example, 00:14:32:17 is 0 hours, 14 minutes, 32 seconds and

17 frames -from the starting point. The 3/411 tapes are the

output of video transfer, to be used for off-line editing

and tryouts. The SMPTE code frame numbers serve as an index

for the edit list.
! 81

The equipment required for video transfers includes the

following (some or all may be rented in a studio):

a. 1" or 2" videotape recorders (x 3)

b. Mixer/switcher (12 inputs, level and chroma keys, fades, basic patterns)

c. Digital special effects (DSE)

d. Rank Cintel Mark III flying spot scanner with Digiscan

e. Pull down pulse (or white flag) inserter (presently available only at Cine Centrum or Video Reproductions

studios)

f. 3/4" videotape recorder

g. SMPTE code inserter for visual burn in

h. SMPTE code inserter for audio 2 track

Video transfers, except for film to tape (which requires pull

down pulse equipment) are performed at the post-production studio.

This work need not be physically adjacent to authoring or to

media production.

Off-Line Edits and Tryouts. Off-line edits are performed outside

the studio, using 3/4" copies of the original tapes. The purpose is to save money. Tryouts can be conducted using the off-line

edited version. The inputs to this component are the 3/4" tapes

containing motion sequences and still frames. First, motion shots

are edited into the final motion sequences, then the motion and

still segments are mixed to produce the complete videodisc program,

The off-line editing can be accomplished by viewing the tapes

one after the other, noting the SMPTE code addresses of the

still frames or the start and stop points of motion sequences.

The result of off-line editing is an edit list to drive the

computer editor in the post-production studio, together with

a list of revised shots, and the durations of the new shots.

Off-line editing in this fashion requires only two videotape

players. No edited videotape is produced until the postproduction studio produces the I" or 2" master. Tryouts with

this system require that first one tape then the other be

searched for the relevant material.

An alternative mode for more complex edits is to produce a new

3/4" videotape which contains the program in its edited form.

This tape can then be used for tryouts. Authors and production

personnel can get n good feeling for the final product using

this method. The result is (a) an edit list to drive the

computer editor, (b) a 3/4" proof copy against which to check

the 1" or 2" edit in the post-production studio, and (c) a

list of revised shots for the media production shop.

""... .
82

The mnmmequipment reuie for off-line edits and tryouts

is vow 3/4" videotape player which can be precisely controlled,

together with the controller (e.g., Convergence Corporation Joystick) which is accurate to a single frame. If an edited tape

is to be produced, then a 3/411 editor is also required, as well

as two other 3/4"1 videotape recorderu.For the intelligent videodisc, the student's computer will control %'-he videodisc player.

Tryouts using a videotape can be conducted either by1iiving the

computer program print on the screen "Go to Frame "or by

linking the computer to the player, so that the comrputer program

directly cont;..ols which frame is displayed.

Off-line edits should be conducted near the authors, who must sign

off the final edit. The tryouts should be conducted where students

who will be using the training are-located. The tryout equipment

should be portable enough to take to the students.

L Alternatives for Editing

When Editing is Required. Editing is required in two instarnces:

(a) for motion sequence post-production, when individual shots

are edited together to produce a final sequence, and (b) for

integrating stills with the completed motion sequences in order

to develop the videodisc program. Editing of motion sequences

may require that shots from many different reels be edited

together into a final program. Therefore, this type of edit

is relatively complex.

Studio Edits. All editing may be performed using studio equip.-

ment. This typically consists of 1" or 2", videotape equipment,

with digital special effects and computer editing which permits

edits accurate to single frames, as required for the final

videodisc master tape. Studio editing is quite expensive, andI

is usually performed at a studio some distance from the authors.

The primary advantage of studio editing is that it is frameI

accurate, and produces high quality copies in case extra genera- tions are required in the editing process.- The major disadvantage of studio edits are their expense.

Of f-Line Edits. Off-line edits are performed on 3/4" videotape

equipment. T---he edit may result simply in an edit list, which

details the sequence of frame numbers as they are to appear in

the final version. In other words, of f-line edit need riot result immediately in a new version which is the integration of

the source tapes. off-line editing is accomplished by reviewing

one or more source tapes which contain SMPTE time code placed

visually in each frame. The editor specifies the source tape

and the SZ4PTE time code of the desired frames, in the sequence

that they are to appear in the final tape. This edit list is
may for some studios be produced in a computer-readable form,

that can directly drive the computer editor of the studio

equipment. Since such a post-production studio edit is

virtually automatic because of the computer edit list, off-line

editing does not require a double editing effort. Once the

editor completes an assembly of all the components, all that

is required at the post-production studio is to insure that

the original directions are followed, and to verify the

reasonableness of the final edit (to guard aginst typoI graphics errors producing an incorrect edit).

The primary advantage of off-line editing is that it is quite inexpensive compared to studio edits. It permits the editing

operation to be brought to the authors, so they can review

tentative edits. The disadvantage of off-line editing is

that it is not broadcast quality and, if a new tape is made,

it is not always frame accurate. Expensive studio equipment is required to guarantee frame accurate edits. However, so

long as the edit list guides the studio editing machine, and

the tape, if any, produced from off-line editing is used only

as a rough review, this system is quite adequate. &nd much

expensive than a studio edit. Sless 

Alternatives for Author's Proofs and Tryouts

Intelligent vs. Manual Videodisc Requirements. It is not easy

to provide a high-fidelity try-out of a proqram designed eitherfor manual or for intelligent videodisc systems, usina a 3/4"

player and the proof tape. Manual proqrams can be reviewed by looking at each frame in sequence (for specially-prenared video

pages) and by running the motion sequences. The tape will not

stop automatically where the disc would stop. Each video nage

sequence must thus be accessed by SMPTE code after the motion

sequence reaches the end and rushes on. This absence of stons

also makes it impossible for the student to iump quickly to mn adjacent automatic stop, as he can do with the manual disc.

The intelliqent disc is even harder to tryout usina videotane

plus CAI terminal. The program will typically branch around a

et n the disc. For tryout., however', the C61 program can only display the SMPTE code, and the taoe player must be manually moved to that spot.

A Cost-Effective Review and Tyout System. Despite the limitations of videotape for Branching and stoppina, the proposed

system, consisting of a frame-accurate 3/4" tape with visual

SMPTE code, and a CAI terminal, is a cost-effective tryout

system. For more expense, the computer can control the videotape. For trying out a manual program, the restriction to

linear sequences of video pages is not serious. The nuisance

in locating the next video page after a motion senuence can be

endured.

'A
84

Tryouts of an intelligent videodisc program can be accomplished

using the 3/4" tape and CAI terminal by having the computer program place on the screen the words, "'GO TO PAME ." Manual

branching to that SMPTE code is a more serious de!Eciency in the

tryout since it interferes with the learning. A computer-controlled tape is better. With computer controls, the computer

program specifies the frame, which is then automatically and

quickly located on the videotape and displayed on the television

screen.

Using the mockup system, actual edits are made to the source

tapes, so that the author and the students can see the final

sequence before the edit list is sent to the studio to make

the final tape. The output of an off-line edit or mockup is

an edit list (either paper and pencil or machine-readable)

which is sent to the post-production studio to drive the studio

computer editor. As used here, "mockup" does not refer to

the production of new materials, but only to the development

of an edited version of source tapes.

Revisiro

This step is used only for materials which fail to validate at

tryouts or which have other serious deficiencies. The cost of

revision increases dramatically as more of the production is

accomplished. Individual tryouts are conducted with paper versions of theinstruction for this reason. It is-expected

that some revisions will be required prior to post-production

and final eoiting. A reasonable expectation is to spend one

hour in the post-production television studio for each final

minute on the videodisc. At $170 to $300 per hour in the

studio, there is considerable incentive not to have to re-edit

the final videotape.

Postproductinn (Final Editing)

When all component materials have been completed, they must be

edited together onto a final master tape or film. Postproduction

is the process of producing a final, correct, high-quality videotape (or film) master which is used in the mastering studio to

produce the glass master disc. This final editing is done

following the exact sequence that was specified in the edit list.

A master tape or film is thus produced with the proper motion

sequences and still frames in the specified sequence.

In general, this editing step involves the standard process of

tape or film editing. The inclusion of individual still frames

makes this process somewhat more difficult, but certainly possible

with existing computer editing systems. In addition to the regular

editing process, videodisc programs often require the addition of

NI
85

special codes for automatic chapter stops, if any. This is

usually done at the mastering studio according to directions

from the client.

Since videodisc mastering and replication is expensive, it

is important that the final master tape or film be carefully

reviewed prior to mastering so that any errors may be corrected

at that time. If no such checkina procedure is Possible, then

the tape must be mastered onto disc and one or more replicates

produced for review purposes. If errors and then discovered, the entire mastering and replication procedures must

be repeated, adding expense to the disc production.

The output of post-production on videotape is a 1" or 2" master

tape, ready to go to the mastering studio. The digital maqnetically stored computer program is ready for duplication on 2

other magnetic discs as soon as the disc is mastered and videodisc

frame numbers are known (they are not the same as the SMPTE code

numbers). In the future the programs will be mastered onto he

videodisc itself.

Post-production need not be close to other components. Postproduction requires broadcast quality tape players, either 2"

or i", mixers and switchers to mix video and audio inputs and

to switch between video inputs in editing a master tape, and

some kind of editing console, often computer controlled, that

controls the edits that are made in the production of a master

tape. Some studios also have film chains and Slo-Mo discs

available.

It is possible to tie a video/character generator directly

into the editor. Text frames could thus be edited directly

from the character/graphics generator onto the master tape.

This implies, of course, that either the text frames were originally created in the studio on that character/graphics

generator itself, or the frames were created on an identical

character/graphics generator off-site. It is possible to

use an off-site character/graphics generator to create and

store the frames on a magnetic disc and then to carry the

disc to the studio to be read by the character/graphics

generator there.

Mastering and Replication

Optical videodisc mastering is a central manufacturing operation

in which the aster tape controls a laser which etches a photo

resist covered glass plate. The plate is then used to create

stampers. During replication, the stampers create plastic

replicates which are given a protective coating (depending on

the manufacturer) and distributed.

S. .• .- • .. T •.... . ....... ...... .-- .
86

Summary: Three Levels of VAP Systems

The above alternatives provide a large number of possibilities

for authoring and production systems. From these, three systems have been chosen to exemplify the choices.

Level 1. At this level, authors produce the instructional

program in manuscript form using paper authoring guides. They receive back a 3/4" tape with visual SMPTE code and still frames

repeated for at least one second. The authors review this tape, and write out in longhand the edit sequence, which then guides the post-production technicians who make the final edit. Since

there is no computer control of the 3/4" tape player, branching

can be laborious. This level is not well suited to the intelligent vidE-jdisc.

Level 2. At this level authors can choose to input their text

directly at a computer authoring station or they can oive the

text entry to a packager (a specially trained typist). The U authoring station includes a text editor and author prompting, and uses a high resolution CRT. The text portions of the program must be converted to NTSC standard video using a separate

character generator.

Level 3. This level permits the author or packager td use a

computerized authoring station with an integral television

character generator, so that the author sees just what the

student will see. No transformations are required for the text. SEditing utilizes a computer-controlled videotape rlayer. The comnuter

program not only drives the player, but also keeos track of the

edit sequence and produces a machine-readable edit list. This

edit list drives the post-production studio's computer editor.

These three levels portray from the author's viewpoint, the

kind of systems which are likely to emerge.

Film-Based Videodisc Authori~ng and Production Systems

This section briefly presents the major steps in film-based videodisc production in terms of changes or differences with

tape pro,.ction. For the reasons detailed above, film is not

a particularly easy medium to use for videodisc work.

Mendenhall (1979) presents a more technical discussion of some

of the production alterritives described here. The paper covers

both tape- and film-base%' roduction systems, but emphasizes manual videodisc VAPS. I. includes estimated costs.

Authoring. Text is prepared as described for viueotape. If

existing film is used, a good source outside the Army is

Encyclovideo. This is a computer index of video clips from

Encyc pedla Brittanica films, which cost $216 per minute when

used for national distribution.
87

Media Production. Figure 14 presented the media flow chart for

film. Since filmn will eventually be transferred to videotape

f or videodisc mastering, some extra planning is necessary. Stills.

must be shot using the television aspect ratio and safe title

area (the area in the center of the screen where even poorly

tuned receivers will be relatively sharp). High quality film

should be used (either 35mm of 16mm Xenon-base film) to maintai~n

image resolution and to limtit the color noise caused by film

graininess. Likewise developing and printing should be handled

by a top quality lab to minimize color shifts between batches.

If slides are used, they should be in pin-registered mounts to

limit their shifting and misalignment with other text or graphics.

Media Transfers. During the media transfer step the following

occur: (a) e~xisting or new film must be copied and divided into

A and B rolls for edit, (b) board art and typeset text must be

transferred to Kodalith copies, the background color and highlighting added, overlays burned through, and the final slide

made, and (c) character generator screen images must be transferred to slides. Usually a production group would need to t ~make some but not all of these transfers.I'

Off-Line Edits and Tryouts. Slide editing is simply a matter of

rearranging slide sequences and motion sequences off-line (i.e., f ~withnut an expensive flat bed) and is best done with a slide I

proj ;tor, a still frame film projector and a splicer, using

copies of the original films so that the originals will not be

scratched. During tryouts the slides can be easily accessed so

long as the computer branching stays within an 80 frame limit

(the capacity of the slide tray on a standard Kodak RA960

random access projector). Beyond that, some tray changing is

required. Motion sequences on roll film cannot be randomly

accessed, but can be placed in a rough order and oni several

reels to facilitate searching the film durincy tryouts. The-ed~t

list for film is in terms of feet and frames for motion segments

and slide numbers for stills. The list guides final editing at

the studio.

Errors in technical production or in content should be revised

before post-production. It is reasonable to assume that each

manually-produced text frame will be redone once, and each text

with graphics overlay will be redone twice, on the average.

Post Production. As with tape, po3t production is best done

using professional equipment to handle audio and film editing.

* Slides are transferred to roll film using an optical printer,

* then the motion sequences on A and B rolls are combined with

the' still frames on a C roll to produce the final film. The

a. .io is edited separately, then the visuals and audio are

*1 synced. At the completion of the edit, a copy of the orig.4nal

should be made for review.
Review. During review with film, it is possible to examine

Fmotion sequences and individual still frames, but not to

observe the effects of branching, since random access is not

readily available.

I

b

A

! ,V
89

NEW HARDWARE AND SOFTWAR~E NEEDED

In the course of preparing videotape material for disc mastering,

reviews and tryouts will be conducted using still frames and

random access. It is possible to use off-the-shelf. 3/4" videotape players to review still frames by repeating the frames 'N

nubrof thedpicaes wihn the tpsohaccuacy ofpterpayer (a typinaone

nubher ofpicties onithen tape sotatcuany opterpator ca(topionaone

3 to 15 frames). However such repetition is not possible on

the final tape, where still frames occur only once. The final

review, then, may be conducted either on a 1"' helical scan

studio tape machine or on a modified 3/4" player which is single

frame accurate.

Tryouts using the random access feature will be clumsy and slow

if much hand manipulation is required. If magnetic disk-stored

digital text is used for tryouts, the problem will be less

severe because the mag disk provides random access. However, if

the text is stored on videotape, a frame-accurate, computercontrolled L.andom access 3/4" videotape player will greatly

facilitate tryouts. Prototype versions have already been constructed, both by University and Commercial R & D groups. This

and other alternatives for videotape review and tryouts will be

explored the second year.

As part of the authoring system for this project, a number of

software features need to be developed. These include the I olowng1. A maxiacjement and tracking system to permit recording,

prediction, and c-ontrol of each item as it passes

through the production process.I

The system might include some of the features of the

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

Author Management System (O'Neal and O'Neal, in press).

Each lesson is tracked through the production process,

so that the manager can predict its completion, review

and tryout dates, and can allocate personnel accordingly.

The version used on this project should initially be

paper and pencil while it is being tested.

2. Author prompting and editing software for developing

videodisc instruction, as described in the section on

authoring. The same system can be used by the packagers.

3. An intelligent videodisc symbolic-address system, so

that arbitrary frame numbers can be used in authoring

and production, then converted to absolute videodisc

frame numbers aftcr mastering, when actual frame numbers

become known.
4. An edit conktrol file program which produces

computer-readable output to run the computer

video editor.

5. Formative evaluation software to record and

analyze student responses arnd paths through

the curriculum.

....)
91

CONCLUSION

Videodisc training delivery systems (VTDS) have a substantial

and important potential for use in Army training. There is a

variety of systems ranging from the inexpensive manual videodisc to the second-generation intelligent videodisc system. With increased capabilities comes increased complexity and

difficulty in Instructional Systems Development (ISD) for VTD

systems. The same ISD procedures may not be applicable for

all types of VTD systems.

It is important to recognize the diverse capabilities in Army

TASO's especially the diversity of available equipment at

these and other locations where videodisc authoring will be

done in the future. These constraints were discussed in

Part II. It is also important to recognize that microcomputer

and videodisc technologies are evolving rapidly. These rapid

developments in technology, coupled with the diversity at Army

authoring sites, makes it inadvisable to propose a single

videodisc authoring and production system (VAPS). It was concluded that the original conception of a single author mock-up

system conceived at the beginning of this project does not

appear viable in light of the diversity of existing hardware

at Army authoring sites, and rapid technological change.

Instead of a single VAPS hardware configuration, a range of

complexity in VAP systems ranging from simple and inexpensive

F to complex and computer-controlled was presented herein. It

was concluded that ISD procedures can be made applicable for

the variety of VAPS equipment configurations that will exist

as the Army begins serious videodisc authoring. Indeed, it

is necessary that they be made applicable.

The procedures presented in Part .II in connection with the

range of VAP systems represent in actuality a detailed modification to Phase III, block 4 "DEVELOP" of the Interservice

Procedures for Instructional Systems Development (TRADOC 350-30).

These procedures will be evaluated by using them in the production of Army videodisc materials, for administration on a

"brassboard" intelligent videodisc system during the second

year of this project.

Technological development is needed, both in the areas of

hardware (both VTDS and VAPS systems) and software. The

PLANIT software package as it stands is a good vehicle for

testing the proposed ISD procedures for videodisc development

and for delivering the completed packages. However, there

are software enhancements for both the delivery of interactive

videodisc programs and the authoring of programs for a range

of VTD sy~tems that could improve the cost-effectiveness
2!

of ISD and instructional delivery. These software enhancenients are described in both Part I and Part 11.

This volume serves as a basis for the detailed discussion of

videodisc ISD in Volume II of this annual report and for the

discussion of graphics usage with VTD systems that is found

in Volume III.

I

a I
93

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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* 1978.

Bennion, Junius L., & Schneider, Edward W., Interactive Videodisc Systems, Journal of the SMPTE, 84, 1975.

Sennion, Junius L., Guide to Authoring for Videodiscs.

l3w York: WICAT Incorporated 1977 (first publiched for

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Booth, S. Imlementation of the PLANIT Computer Language on

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N

• • . . ... " i - '• I "tI I
94

Burton, R. R. and Brown, J, S. A tutoring and student moelinq

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I USA NP + CHEM SCHITNG CEN * FT. MCCLELLAN DIRS COMBAT DEVELOPMENT

I USA mP + CHEM SCHITNb CEN + FT. MCCLELLAN OIR; TRAINING DEVELOPMENT

I USA NP • CHEM bCH/TNG CEN # FT. MCCLELLAN ATTMN ATZN-MP-ACE

USA ANSTITUTE OF ADMINISTHATION ATTN: RESIDENT TRAINING MANAGEMENT

I USA PIELD ARTILLERY SCHOOL MORRIS SWETT LIBRARY

I USA ANSTITUTE OF ADMINISTRATION ACADEMIC LIBRARY

1 USA mAR COLLEGL ATTNI LIURARY

I USA tNGINEER SCHOOL LIbRARY'AND LEARNING RESOURCES CENTER

I USA-ARMOR SCHOOL (USARMS) ATTNI LIBRARY

1 US CuAST GUARD ACADEMY LIBRARY

1 USA TRANSPORTATIO' SCHOOL TRANSPORTATION SCHOOL LIBRARY

I ORAAeIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS CEN 4 SCA ATTN: L1BRARIAN

I US AWMY INTELLIGEWCL CENTER # SCHOOL ATTN: ATSI-TP

I US AWMY INTELLIGE4CE CENTtR # SCHOOL ATTN: ATSI-RM-M

I US AWMY INTELLIGE4CE CENTER o SCHOOL ATTN$ ATSI-ES

I US MARINE CORPS EDUCATION CENTER

I USA IIELO ARTILLERY SCHOOL UIRLCTORATE OF COURSE 0EV + TRAINING

I DEPAwTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE AIR UNIVERSITY LIBRAR¥ {ATC)

9,

.4.
I USA cHAPLAIN CENTER * SCHOOL ATTNI ATSC-TD-OU

I USA LMHAPLAIN CENTER • SCHOOL ATTNI ATSC-TO-ED

I USA LHAPLAIN CENTER • SCHOOL AITNI AfSC-TDfSF

I USA %,HAPLAIN C.NTER * SCHOOL ATTNI AT5C-UOS-LUC

I HQ TkADOC TRAINi14G DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE

SHRITiSH EMBASSY 3RITISH UEFENCL STAFF'

2 CANAUIAN JOINT STAFF

I COLS (W) LIBRARY

I FRENLH ARMY ATTACHE

I AUSTwIAN EMBASSY DEFENSE, MIl.ITARY AWU AIR ATTACHE

3 CANAUIAN DEFENCE LIAISON SIAFF ATTNI COUINSELLOR9 DEFENCE R AND 0

I ROYAL NETHERLANOS EMBASSY MILITARY ATTACHE

I CANAUIAN FORCES BASE CORNWALLIS ATTN8 PERSONNEL.SELECTION

2 CANAuIAN FORCES PERSONNEL APPL HSCH uNlr) I ARMY PERSONNEL RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT

6 LI8HNRY OF CONGRESS EXCHANGO AND GIFT DIV

I DEFENSE TECHNICAL INFORMATION CEN ATTNI UTIC-OOA-2

140 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS UNIT UOCUmENTS EXPEDITING PROJECT

i US GuVERNMENT PRITING OFC LIaRARYq PUBLIC DOCUMENTS DEPARTMENT

I US GOVERNMENT PH14TING OFC LIHRARY ALU STATUTORY, LIB DIV (SLL)

I THE ARMY LIBRAHY ATTNt AMMY STUUILS SLC

NUMRER uF ADORESSEES 208

TOTAL NUMBER OF COPIES 387

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