Technical Report 620

CMilitary Enlistments:

In What Can We Learn

from

Geographic Variation?

I.,

Charles Brown

University of Maryland and National Bureau of Economic Research

Manpower and Personnel Policy Research Group

Manpower and Personnel Research Laboratory

<DTIC Af ELECT E

MAR 2 5 1986

U. S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

February 1984

.Aoproved for Public release; distribution unlimited.

, '

" :,.",, ","."t .. y ,' ;;% " " , .v , '., , " ., ". " -,,' ".," " " -, ', . . . "." -" -,. -- ',. ""
U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

L. NEALE COSBY

EDGAR M. JOHNSON Colonel, IN

Technical Director Commander

Research accomplished under contract

for the Department of the Army

University of Maryland ATISs GRA&I

DTIC TAB

UnrInnouflced

justification- ------

Technical review by ,_ ---------

Curtis L. Gilroy Di

Charles Dale Codes

Avail , .itF Codes

DI t:,.[ l'.

,?UA Lr

NOT ICES

DISTRIBUTION: Primary distribution of this report has been made by ARI.

Please address correspondence concerning distribution of reports to: U.S.

Army Research institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, ATTN:

PERI-POT, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333.

FINAL DISPOSITION: This roport may be destroyed when It Is no longer

needed. Please do not return It to the U.S. Army Research Institute for

the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

NOTE: The findings In "ils report are not to be construed as an official

Department of the Army !...Ition, unless so designated by other authorized

documents. V

j, %:

', ", " ",-' " .. .. • " " 'A-" ",-:"S L' .::'.<?.""""" <--4 :",.'<4-""''.. "
UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE ("aWen Date Fnte, rd)

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE tREAD INSTRUCTIONS

BEFORE COMPLETING FORM

I. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO. ECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

ARI Technical Report 620

4. TITLE (and Subtitle) S . TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED

MILITARY ENLISTMENTS: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM Final Report

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION? Feb 1983 to Sept 3983 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

7. AUTHOR(s) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(.)

Charles Brown DAAG29-81-D-0100

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT, TASK AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS

University of Maryland

National Bureau of Economic Research 2Q263731A792

II. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral February 1984

and Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Ave., 13. NUMBER OF PAGES

Alexandria, VA 22333-5600 45 14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & ADDRESS(IQ different from Controlllng Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of this report)

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral Unclassified

and Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Ave.,

, Alexandria, VA 22333-5600 ISe. DECLASSIFICATION/DOWNGRADING

SCHEDULE

* 16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abe trct entered In Block 20. If different from Report)

18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reveree side If necessary and identify by block number)

.Enlistments. Unemployment Recruiting. • Kickers.

Economics, Mental category, GI Bill

Educational benefits, Pay VEAPQVP, r. , (I t. [ ,( Ai

All-Volunteer Force Benefits, Ultra-VEAP

20. AST'RACt (owhfme - reverse sfi m n e amd idntlfyr by block number)

!'Continued success of the all-volunteer force depends upon the ability of the

military services to meet their enlistment goals consistently. 'This 1p5pr'" , measures the effects of economic factors on Army enlistments of nonpriorservice high school graduates. The author uses a multiple-regression, pooled

cross-section/time-series model to measure Army enlistments by mental cateogry.

He concludes that unemployment, pay, and the number of Army recruiters are

important variables in the enlistment decision .

DD t 1473 EinoN JAN73JTNrT OF I NOV 45 It OmSOLETE JkSq TF"TI n

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAr1E (When Del Entered)

1 %
Technical Report 620

Military Enlistments:

What Can We Learn

from

Geographic Variation?

Charles Brown

University of Maryland and National Bureau of Economic Research

Submitted by

Curtis L. Gilroy, Chief

Manpower and Personnel Policy Research Group

Approved as technically adequate

and submitted for publication by

Joyce L. Shields, Director

Manpower and Personnel Research

Laboratory

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333

Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army

February 1984

Army Project Number Manpower and Personnel

20263731A792

APPvowd for public relm ; distribution unlifiusd.

iii
AR! Research Reports and Technical Reports are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings ready

for implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part

of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

i

".4

• I.-.
FOREWORD

The Manpower and Personnel Policy Research Group (MPPRG) of the Army

Research Institute performs research in the economics of manpower, personnel,

and training issues of particular significance to the U.S. Army. One of

these issues is the ability of the Army to attract the desired quantity of

recruits to man the force of the 1980s and 1990s.

Since its inception in 1973, the All-Volunteer Force has required the

military to compete in the labor market for a declining pool of militaryeligible youth. To be competitive, the Army must understand more precisely

the effects of certain factors such as unemployment, pay, educational

incentives, and recruiting resources on the propensity of individuals to

enlist. This report was prepared as part of ARI's continuing support for

the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, including the U.S.

Army Recruiting Command.

The research presented in this report helps to quantify several of the

factors thought to affect enlistment and contributes to the ongoing theoretical

and empirical discussion of military manpower modeling.

EDG M. JOH ON

Technical Director

i°'.

'.4v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I have benefited from help with data sources and/or comments on a previous

draft from George Abrahams, Bernard Bell, Ed Byerly, Michael Cimini, Charles

Dale, Curtis Gilroy, Daniel Hamermesh, CPT Philip Knorr, Walter Oi, Thomas

Schneider, Marvin Trautwein, and members of the NBER Labor Workshop. Cheryl

Hansen provided very careful research assistance. Any remaining inadequacies

are my doing. This study was financed by the U.S. Army Research Institute.

The judgments expressed are mine, and should not be interpreted as reflecting

the position of ARI, the Department of the Army, or the Department of Defense.

*1

vi

%
MILITARY ENLISTMENTS: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION?

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Requirement:

The U.S. Army Research Institute conducts research on manpower, personnel,

and training issues of particular significance and interest to the U.S. Army.

Recently, economic issues in recruitment have become extremely important as

the Army faces increased competition from the private sector for a declining

pool of qualified manpower. The author has examined some economic variables

that affect enlistment decisions and therefore affect the continued success

of the All-Volunteer Force.

Procedure:

The author uses a multiple regression, pooled cross-section/time-series

model over the 1975-82 period, including pay, unemployment, educational benefits,

and recruiting resources as independent variables. This work represents a

significant improvement over earlier time-series research because the author

has the requisite data across Army recruiting districts to concentrate his

empirical research on the period since the inception of the All-Volunteer Force.

Findings:

.1

For high-quality enlistees, defined as those with test scores in the top half of the population or top-scoring individuals who are also high school

graduates, a 10-percent increase in military pay raises the supply of enlistees

by roughly 10 percent. A 10-percent increase in the unemployment rate (e.g.,

from 7 to 7.7 percent) increases the number of high-quality enlistees by about

6 percent. Recruiting resources have the expected effects: Army recruiters

increase and other services' recruiters reduce Army enlistments. Advertising

(both national and local) does not have consistently positive effects. Results

are similar for high school graduates, except that the effect of military compensation depends crucially on how it is measured. Estimates of the supply of

enlistees of all qualities are weaker still: estimates of compensation effects

vary widely, and estimated effects of recruiters and advertising are less

plausible. Unemployment effects are smaller than for high-quality recruits

but hardly negligible.

A tentative explanation for the weaker results of the latter two groups

is that the number of such enlistees is not merely supply-determined but

reflects demand constraints as well. Further work is needed to determine how

standards for enlistees vary in each recruiting district in response to both

national and local fluctuations in recruit supply.

vii

No. -",-
Utilization of findings:

The present work shows that high-quality enlistees are especially affected

by compensation and the state of the economy. These findings have implications

for military-civilian pay comparability and attractive educational benefits

in the continued success of the all-volunteer force.

viii
MILITARY ENLISTMENTS: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM GEOGRPAHIC VARIATION?

CONTENTS

Page

I. Introduction ............. ......................... 1

II. Theory and Estimation Issues ........ ................. 2

" III. Data....................................1 III Dat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

IV. Results ........................... 13

V. Conclusions .......... ......................... 19

Footnotes ............. .......................... 25

References ........... .......................... 27

Data Appendix, with references ..... ................ 31

List of Tables

TABLE

1. Key Variables by Region by Fiscal Year ... ............ 21

2. Recruitment Equations ....... .................... 22

3. Recruitment Equations with Additional Recruitment Variables 23

ix

1. -
4

I. Introduction

The decision to end the draft in 1973 and return to reliance on voluntary

enlistments can be seen as a commitment, an experiment, or (perhaps most accurately) a

commitment to an experiment. Given the size of the force considered necessary and a

__ limit to the political willingness to pay for the All-Volunteer Force (AVF), the number of

volunteers who could be attracted at politically realistic wages has been a key question.

This supply issue has arisen often in the brief history of the most recent AVF --

first when the end of conscription was being planned, and later when renorming of the

entrance test (Armed Forces Vocational Aptitude Battery) showed a decline in the

mental abilities of recruits. The more satisfactory recent recruiting experience has been

attributed by some to uncommonly high unemployment and by others to the pay increases

which occurred at about the same time.

It is difficult to summarize the results of previous econometric work on the supply

of enlistees because t6e supply measure has been defined in so many ways. Some studies

analyze total Defense Department enlistments, while others look at enlistments in

particular services - Most focus on high-quality recruits, though 'high quality' is defined

in different ways. Estimates of the elasticity of enlistments with respect to military

compensation center a bit below 1.0. Most elasticities with respect to unemployment are

much smaller; Morey and McCann's (1983) survey's range of 0.2 to 0.5 is representative.

The strongest statement of the unimportance of unemployment is Ash, Udis, and

McNown's (1983, p. 147) conclusion that 'The evidence on the lack of unemployment

effects on accessions is overwhelming.'

The purpose of this paper is to examine the supply of enlistees with a different

empirical strategy -- pooling cross-section and time-series data from the all-volunteer

period. In Section II, the analytic issues raised by previous studies are considered. One

conclusion which motivates the remainder of the paper is the difficulty of learning about
"l

q--

the supply of volunteers to a peacetime army from information about enlistments over a

period which includes the Vietnam War, the draft, and the post war experience. In

Section III, the data for studying determinants of Army enlistments in fiscal years

1976-82 are described. The major results appear in Section IV. While the response of

-' enlistments to compensation is quite complicated, the effect of unemployment on

enlistments is unambiguous and larger than typically estimated in previous studies.

Conclusions are presented in Section V.

- I. Theory and Estimation Issues

The economic theory of voluntary military enlistments was outlined by Oi (1967)

and Fisher (1969), and succeeding papers have been (at least implicitly) based on their

-- approach. They introduced a taste variable, d, defined for each individual so that 1+d

times the civilian wage Wc is the wage at which the individual is just indifferent between

military and civilian employment. Enlistments then depend on the joint distribution of

Wc and d, as well as the military wage Win. To illustrate the main issues involved, Fisher

assumed In(Wc) and In(l+d) were jointly normal. He noted that if In(Wc) and ln(ld) are

independent, and the mean of ln(l+d) and the variances of ln(lid) and In(Wc) are

constant, enlistments depend on the ratio of Wm to the geometric1 mean of W c, or

In(Wm) minus the mean of In(Wc). This proportionality restriction is often convenient in

theoretical (Friedman, 1976, pp. 239-40) as well as empirical work on occupational

choice. Variations in ln(l+d) can be handled easily if suitable proxies (e.g., a time trend)

are available. However, if ln(l+d) and In(Wc) are correlated, the justification for

restricting In(Wm) and the mean of ln(Wc) to have equal and opposite effects on

enlistments breaks down.

Fisher noted that observed civilian wages do not include the best opportunity

(perhaps zero) open to those unemployed. Thus, the unemployment rate (or some similar

*2

I.%
measure) is typically included in enlistment supply functions.

Since Fisher's paper, there have been relatively few theoretical developments in

modelling enlistment behavior. Rather, most of the attention has been directed toward

correctly estimating the determinants of the supply of volunteers.

One important point which was recognized in Fisher's original paper is that the

* Armed Forces are neither pure price takers nor pure quantity takers. Rather, they

attempt to fill a predetermined number of positions at a predetermined wage, with

recruit quality varying to equate supply and demand (DeVany and Saving, 1982). Thus,

the number of high-quality enlistees is supply determined, but the total number of

enlistees reflects both supply and demand forces (or demand alone if targets are always

exactly fulfilled). High-quality enlistees are taken to be those with superior mental-test

scores (Altman and Fechter, 1967; Fisher, 1969; Fechter, 1979), high school graduates

(Dale and Gilroy, 1983) or high-scoring high school graduates (Cooper, 1977; Grissmer,

1979; Jehn and Shugart, 1979). One recent study of total enlistments cautions that

demand constraints may be important (Ash, Udis, and McNown, 1983, pp. 147, 154).

Focusing on high-scoring graduates is probably the best strategy if one's goal is to

isolate supply behavior. Studying either high scorers or graduates may reduce but not

eliminate the problem of demand-side constraints. Because both test scores and high

*school graduation are desired attributes, a change in standards for either attribute will

*" change the number of enlistees possessing the other attribute, even if supply conditions

and the target number of enlistees is constant. For example, in 1981 the Army restricted

enlistments of those with low test scores, leading to a drop in the proportion of enlistees

who were high school graduates (Huck, Kusmin, and Shepard, 1982, p. 5) as higher-scoring

nongraduates replaced low-scoring graduates. Periodic Congressional pressure to reduce

the number of nongraduates may have analogous negative effects on the "supply' of

high-scoring enlistees. An unintended experiment in the late 1970s may also have

3

F' X"
.

distorted apparent supply. An error was made in norming the entrance exam, leading to

a substantial increase in the proportion of low-scoring enlistees (Office of the Assistant

Secretary of Defense, 1982, pp. 17-19) and more enlistments than would have occurred

otherwise at the announced wage and intended quality standards. Presumably, the error

led to a real increase in the number of high-school graduate enlistees (as some with low

'true" scores were mistakenly accepted) and an apparent increase in the number of

high-scoring enlistees (unless one uses the corrected score data).

A second issue is the usefulness of pooling data from years in which there was both

a war and a draft with data from the peacetime all-volunteer period. The existence of a

draft stimulates draft-encouraged volunteers, who enlist 'voluntarily' because the

prospect of being drafted interferes with civilian employment (0i, 1967, p. 60), or to

secure preferred assignments, or just to avoid being drafted later. Nearly 40 percent of

those who volunteered in the period before the 1967 Vietnam buildup were draft

motivated (Altman and Fechter, 1967, p. 23). On the other hand, some of those who

would have eventually volunteered are drafted, reducing the supply of volunteers. There

are two strategies for dealing with the effects of the draft. Some studies (e.g., Fisher,

1969; Grissmer, 1979; Ash, Udis, and McNown, 1983) include a variable which measures

the probability of being drafted;2 other studies (e.g., Cooper, 1977) try to determine the

number of 'true' volunteers during the draft period. Cooper used the enlistment

behavior of those with high draft-lottery numbers, who presumably faced little threat of

being drafted, to gauge the supply of true volunteers during the lottery phase of the

draft.

Each of these strategies has its problems. One difficulty with using a draft

pressure variable is that the probability of induction for 'high-quality' individuals (the

population being studied) would vary with omitted factors like selective service

regulations as well as with the level of overall inductions. The alternative strategy of

1 4

%. f~ %~ 5*5 ,- - . *-. -- . V -
.4

inferring true volunteers from enlistments by those with high lottery numbers risks some

error because it requires mhaking assumptions about who perceived themselves to be

draft-safe (Cooper, 1977, p. 194). This is particularly chancy during the early history of

the lottery when the eventual probabilities were not well known. Because the draft

period was, by design, a period of low military pay and, by accident, a period of low

unemployment, errors in holding constant the effect of the draft are likely to bias the

remaining coefficients.

Controlling for the effect of the draft, however, is not enough -- supply behavior

might be expected to differ in periods of war (or threat of war) and peace, apart from

the draft per se, because of *taste' factors such as wishing to be patriotic, or liking or

disliking combat. Even the direction of these taste shifts may change as the period of

danger wears on. For example, there is evidence of increased voluntary enlistments

during the Berlin crisis (Altman and Fechter, 1967, p. 20), but it is not clear that such

positive responses continued throughout the prolonged conflict in Vietnam. Fisher (1969),

Cooper (1977), Grissmer (1979), and Ash, Udis, and McNown (1983) do not attempt to

distinguish observations according to degree of military involvement, leaving the

draft-pressure variable and perhaps the time trend to perform this chore as well.

A third estimation Issue is lags in the response of enlistments to changes in military

pay and civilian alternatives. In general, previous studies have short lags in these

responses (one quarter for both relative pay and unemployment in Fisher, 1969; no lags in

Cooper, 1977; six quarters for unemployment but none for relative pay in Fechter, 1979;

six months for relative pay and two months for unemployment in Grissmer, 1979; one

quarter for relative pay and none for unemployment in Ash, Udis, and McNown, 1983).

These lags are either assumed or found to fit better than no lags; longer lags seem

not to have been considered. The short lags are consistent with the lag between contract

signing and begining service which is sometimes offered as a justification (e.g., Grissmer,

,-5

,.0% ~~IX
1979, pp. 107-108). It is difficult to say much about the lag between contract signing and

beginning of active duty because *enlistment' seems to mean contract signing in some

studies (e.g., Devany and Saving, 1982) and beginning of active duty in others (Grissmer,

1979). It is less clear whether they are consistent with their alternative justification-- a

desire to avoid reverse causation running from enlistments to the rate of unemployment

or the level of civilian pay. In the first place, both unemployment and wages are

influenced by the stock of military-age individuals in the armed forces; a quarter's

fluctuation in the flow of enlistments cannot have a very large effect on this stock (and

hence on civilian wages or unemployment). Nor is it clear that a one-quarter lag would

be sufficient to avoid any simultaneity that exits if errors in the enlistment equation are

serially correlated (Ash, Udis, and McNown's equation for Army enlistments suggests a

correlation of about .35 between errors for semiannual observations) or if the previously

mentioned lag between a decision to join the armed forces and beginning active duty

leads to labor force withdrawal during this interval. In any case, the possibility that

enlistments are dependent on alternatives expected over a three-year term of

enlistment, and that these expectations are based on lagged values of the unemployment

rate and level of wages, suggests that the possibility of somewhat longer lags ought to be

considered. Of course, the age of the enlistees (typically in their late teens) argues

against a very long lag that might be appropriate in other markets.

Dale and Gilroy (1983) follow earlier papers in lagging the unemployment rate, but

use the military/civilian compensation ratio with a four-month lead. The lead is justified

largely on goodness-of-fit grounds. Given that military pay is usually changed only at the

start of the new fiscal year, that the change is usually known in advance, and that their

dependent variable Is the number of contracts signed (rather than the number beginning

active duty), a short lead Is not implausible. 3

A final issue which has become important since the expiration of the .I Bill for

V.- 6
new recruits in January 1977 is the appropriate way of incorporating changes in

educational benefits into one's measure of military compensation. The GI Bill was

" replaced by VEAP (Veterans' Educational Assistance Program) which both offered lower

benefits and required that the enlistee contribute one dollar for every two dollars the

, government provided. This was modified in fiscal year 1979 by the introduction of

" Ultra-VEAP (or the 'Kicker'), under which the enlistee received an additional

educational benefit for entering hard-to-fill occupations, typically in the combat arms

(Military Manpower Task Force, 1982, Chapter V). Unlike the GI Bill and VEAP, the

Kicker is available only to Army recruits. While maximum VEAP benefits have remained

fixed at $5400 for a three year enlistment, the maximum Kicker grew from $4UUO to

$12000. Although the matching requirement of VEAP and the limited availability of the

Kicker suggest that these dollar values overstate their importance, variations in these

benefits are very large relative to the limited variation in other components of military

compensation in the post-draft period.

Previous work has had limited success in estimating the effect of these benefits on

recruitment. Ash, Udis, and McNown's (1983) military compensation variable ignores the

switch from the GI Bill to VEAP and the introduction of modest Kicker payments (their

sample ends before the sharp fiscal-year 1982 increase in the Kicker). Dale and Gilroy

(1983) treat the GI Bill, VEAP, and the Kicker as separate variables with some success

(all are significant in their Army-recruiting equation) but several puzzling results emerge

(VEAP is more effective per dollar of benefits than the less restrictive 61 Bill for Army,

Navy, and Marine Corps recruiting, and neither helps Air Force recruiting).

Thus far, the analysis has concentrated on time-series estimates, which are more

common in the literature than are cross-section studies. Viewed in comparison with the

time-series approach, the cross-section strategy (e.g., ,Fisher, 19b9; Jehn and Shugart,

1979; Daula, Fagan, and Smith, 1982) offers both advantages and disadvantages. The

7

-
.%

main advantage is that one can obtain reasonably-sized samples without including

observations which are burdened by draft-era complications. A second feature, which

4

may be both an advantage and a disadvantage, is that there is no variation in military

pay across observations. If one is hesitant to accept the relative-pay restriction in the

supply function, this isa serious limitation. If one is willing to accept this assumption, at

least as an approximation, the lack of pay variation can become an advantage. Without

such variation, there is no need to worry about the more complicated forms which such

variation can take over time, e.g., the various educational benefits mentioned above.

The major disadvantage of the cross-section approach is the danger that

unmeasured taste and ability factors will be correlated with civilian compensation. To

cite the simplest example, the historically greater propensity to enlist in the South may

be due to lower civilian wage opportunities or to differences in 'cultural' attitudes

toward the military. To the extent that such attitudes differ only between the South and

the North (somehow defined) a dummy variable would solve the problem. But to the

extent that both earnings and attitudes differ within regions (New Hampshire and

Massachusetts come to mind), the problem is not so easily solved.

Failure to control for differences in entrance test scores across areas can also bias

cross-section estimates. Ideally, one might want to study the proportion of high mental

ability high school graduates who choose to enlist. In practice, one knows the ratio of

high mental ability graduates who enlist to total graduates (or, even worse, total

population) in the enlistment-prone age group. Thus, the dependent variable will be

affected by differences in the proportion of high school graduates who score well on

standardized tests, as well as differences in properly defined supply behavior. One might

conjecture that test scores among high school graduates would be positively related to

civilian pay; on this conjecture, the estimated effect of civilian pay would be less

negative than its true effect. The estimated value could even be positive, though this

8
does not appear to happen in practice (Fisher, 1969; Jehn and Shugart, 1979; Daula,

Fagan, and Smith, 1982. 5

A related omitted-variable issue is the dispersion of earnings. As Fisher noted, this

is usually taken as constant in time-series work. But the variance of earnings does differ

geographically, so that its omission might be important in cross-section work.

When one considers the strengths and weaknesses of the time-series and

cross-section approaches, pooling cross-section data over the all-volunteer period

emerges as an alternative worth considering. The cross-sectional dimension allows us to

'p" avoid worrying about holding constant the effects of the draft and the Vietnam War, and

gives a good deal of variation in unemployment rates and some variation in civilian

earnings. Pooling several cross-sections allows one to introduce state-specific dummy

variables to deal with state-specific differences in tastes and ability. It also provides

some variation in military compensation, though obviously less than would be available in

longer time series.

Pooling several cross-sections and adding state-specific intercepts changes the

interpretation of the coefficients from that usually offered in purely cross-sectional

work. It is often argued that, if there are lags in responses to the independent variables,

cross-section studies estimate long-run impacts. This is because differences across

states will be primarily "permanent' rather than "transitory' differences, and responses

to these permanent differences will be more or less complete. With individual-specific

intercepts, variations around state means for each of the variables over the sample

period is what is identifying the coefficients, and so a shorter-run response is being

captured. Of course, if one believes that such lags are really important, estimating the

pattern of response over time would be desirable.

9
p

IlL Data

The dependent variables used in this study are ratios of the number of contracts

signed by male nonprior-service Army enlistees to the enlistment-age population. 6

Contracts cross-tabulated by high school graduation and mental-test category by state

for fiscal years 1976-82 were made available by the Defense Manpower Data Center

(DMDC). The mental-test categories have been corrected when necessary by UL)MC for

the norming error mentioned in Section II. Four types of recruits were analyzed: total,

high school graduates, those in the top half of the test-score distribution (mental

categories (CAT) I-IlA) and high school graduate CAT I-IIIA's. For total and high test

score contracts, the dependent variable is expressed as the ratio of contracts to

population 18-20 years of age; the population data are from the U.S. Census Bureau

(1980, 1982, 1983). For high school graduates and high scoring graduates, the dependent

variable is the ratio of contracts to the number of high school graduates in the past three

years; the latter series is published by state each year by the National Center for

Educational Statistics. Because the numerator of the dependent variable is the number

of contracts signed in the quarter, rather than the number of enlistees beginning active

duty, the lag between decision to enlist and beginning military service mentioned above

is not relevant.

Military pay is most often measured by basic military compensation (bMC) which is

a weighted average of basic pay, basic allowance for subsistence, basic allowance for

quarters, and the federal income tax advantage. The level of OMC for first-year

enlistees was obtained from the Army Research Institute, which also provided data on

benefits under the various educational benefit programs mentioned above.

An attempt was made to combine basic military compensation and educational

benfits into an overall compensation measure. For various reasons -- the fact that such

benefits are received in the future, the possibility that the benefits will not be used at

10
all, and the reluctance of many VEAP participants to contribute the maximum amount --

these benefits are thought-to be 'worth' less to the recruit than their stated value.

Huck, Kusmin, and Shepard (1982) calculated a range of estimates of the value of each

type of educational benefit to the recruit. Using the average of the high and low

* estimate, and taking account of the fact that the Kicker is available to only about half

the high-scoring graduates recruited by the Army, the various educational benefits are

combined into a single variable. If total compensation equals BMC plus ED (the value of

the educational benefits) then

In(total compensation) = In(BMC) + ln(l+ED/BMC)

7 = In(BMC) + ED/BMC

Civilian earnings W are measured by the quarterly average (by state) of monthly

c

earnings of private workers, based on Unemployment Insurance (UI) records. Almost all

private employment is covered, apart from railroad workers, domestics, agricultural

workers, and some employees of small nonprofit organizations. The reported earnings

are total earnings, not just the portion of earnings subject to UI taxes.

Current-dollar figures such as those mentioned above require deflation for .

economy-wide changes in prices; the Consumer Price Index was used for this purpose. A

further deflation may be necessary to compare data from different states at one point in

time.7 The value of one dollar of military compensation is, arguably, worth the same to

a prospective recruit no matter what state he is currently living in, since his ultimate

assignment will bear little relationship to his current residence. However, this is not

true for civilian alternatives -- a dollar earned in Massachusetts will (apart from

occasional tax-evading runs to New Hampshire package stores) be spent in

Massachusetts, so its real value depends on the cost of living in Massachusetts. The

regional Consumer Price Indices published along with the National CPI are not the

appropriate deflator, since the base year takes a value of 100 in each location. Instead,

11
data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' (BLS) Urban Family Budget series for a

low-income family of 4 (a budget of about $14,000 in 1981) were used. The index created

V for each state reflected the BLS budget indices for urban and nonurban areas of the

region to which the state belongs, weighted by the share of the state's population which

resides in urban and nonurban areas.

The unemployment rates used in this study are quarterly averages of monthly

unemployment rates tabulated from the Current Population Survey (CPS). These were

* provided by the BLS, though they emphasize that the monthly CPS tabulations are

"official' unemployment rate estimates only for the 10 largest states. Even these

unofficial tabulations were not available for about 20 of the smallest states prior to

January 1976; the missing values were imputed from regression equations using 1976-82

data, which related the state unemployment rate to the national rate, the state and

national employment-population ratio, and a time trend.

Because military compensation is not the only tool available to the Army to

influence the supply of volunteers, controlling for other dimensions of the recruitment

effort is desirable. Data on the number of Army recruiters were available for the

1976-82 period. Other relevant variables were available for the slightly shorter period

from 1976:4 through 1982:2. These included the ratio of Army to Defense Department

recruiters and local and national media advertising expenditures. Each of these series

except national media advertising vary by state as well as over time. The four variables

used in the estimation were REC, the logarithm of the number of Army recruiters

divided by the military-age population; DoD, defined similarly for Defense Department

(i.e., all four services) recruiters; NADV and LAUV, the logarithms of real national and

local media advertising expenditures respectively, divided by the military-age population.

The desire to build a quarterly file of data by state led to the use of statewide

series on civilian earnings and unemployment, rather than the youth-specific variables

12

'..
which appear in several other studies. Particularly for forecasting purposes, this is not a

very serious loss since forecasted values of young workers' wages and unemployment

rates would, apart from trend, be very closely related to all workers' wages and

unemployment rates. Moreover, the civilian prospects of high school graduates with

above-average abilities may be captured as well by the mean values for all workers as by

means for 'youth' not stratified by high school graduation or mental ability. Finally, the

all-worker variables would be even less subject to reverse causation running from

enlistment to civilian wages and earnings than would the youth-specific variables. 8

0IV. Results

Before turning to the regression results, it is useful to obtain an impression of the

* -. extent of regional variation over time in the most important variables. Regional

patterns of the unemployment rate, civilian earnings, and two measures of recruiting

success are shown in Table 1. Each variable is expressed as an index number, with the

national average in each fiscal year equal to 100. Thus, in the first panel of Table 1, the

unemployment rate in the Northeast was 121.7 percent of the national unemployment

rate in fiscal year 1976, and declined to 93.0 percent of the national unemployment rate

in fiscal year 1982.

The well-known increase in unemployment in the Midwest appears quite clearly in

the table, with the unemployment rate there rising from 89 percent of the national

average in 1976 to 114 percent in 1982. Relative unemployment is roughly constant in

the South (with the index increasing by 4.5 percentage points), and decreases

significantly in the Northeast and West.

Civilian earnings show less regional variation. T'.ere is a modest rise in the South,

a modest decline in the West, and very gentle U and inverted-U patterns in the Northeast

and Midwest.

13

-qv
I The regional pattern of the two recruiting measures mirrors the regional

Sunemployment variations. -Both measures show a sharp drop in the Northeast, where

."" (relative) unemployment unemployment was soaring. rates Indeed, were falling, byt and recruiting a striking measure, increase in Mi the Midwest, st replaced where

uneplymet assoain. ndedbyeither rcutnmesethe Midwest rpae

, the South as the dominant supplier of recruits to the Volunteer Army. Relative

recruiting rates declined in the West, along with the relative unemployment rate. The

one exception to the otherwise-regular pattern is the South, where modest declines in the

recruiting index accompanied modest increases in relative unemployment.

Regional variations in civilian earnings are, as noted above, more modest and it is

4 hard to find a clear relationship between them and changes in recruiting success. Thus,

in contrast to unemployment effects (where we have a natural 'experiment' which

provides enormous geographic differences in patterns over time), the pooled

cross-sections seem, at least at this level of aggregation, to provide a less promising

basis for estimating relative-earnings effects.

Regression results are presented in Table 2. These regressions are based on 28

quarterly observations (1975:4 through 1982:3) for 50 states and the District of

Columbia. The dependent variables are those discussed in section III; each is entered in

logarithmic form. Basic military compensation, civilian earnings, and the

14 recruiter/population ratio are also entered logarithmically, so that their coefficients can

be interpreted as elasticities. Given the variation in unemployment rates noted above,

there seemed reason to hope that the unemployment response could be estimated with

considerable precision; hence a quadratic specification was adopted. The unemployment

rate is in percent, and coefficients of the quadratic unemployment term have been

multiplied by 100. The remaining columns of the table are the coefficient of the time

trend (which runs from 1 to 28), the standard error (s.e.) of the equation, and the

elastici.v of the recruiting measure with respect to the unemployment rate at the

14

S

. . . . . .
sample-mean unemployment rate of 7 percent (T ). Not shown are dummy variables for

individual states and quarter of the year. All equations were weighted by the militaryage population (i.e., number of 18-20 year olds).

The first three lines of Table 2 present three specifications for the most clearly

supply-determined measure of recruiting success: the ratio of contracts signed by CAT

I-lIlA high school graduates to total high school graduates (Dep. Var. = A). Presenting

three specifications is a reaction to the difficulty of properly measuring military

compensation. The first specification is appropriate if we are confident that our method

of combining the various educational benefits into the single variable ED is correct, and

that the ratio of total military compensation to civilian compensation is what matters.

*b' In this case, the logarithm of the total compensation ratio equals ln(BMC/W ) *

c

ED/BMC. The coefficient of BMC/W is reasonable and significant, but the coefficient

c

of ED/BMC is much larger. Thus, as measured, a dollar of EL) is worth much more than

(rather than as much as) a dollar of BMC. In thinking about these results, note that the

coefficient of BMC gives the response to a change in BMC holding EL/BMC constant --

i.e., the response to a proportionate change in both BMC and Eu.

One might still believe that, while our ED variable undervalues educational

benefits, it does so for each of the various benefit programs and by about the same

proportion. In this case, the first specification is correct if the ratio of total military

compensation to civilian pay is what matters, while the second specification does not

impose the relative-pay restriction. The estimated coefficients for In(BMC) and In(W

are opposite in sign and neither is very different from the .64 value in the constrained

equation. Indeed, one cannot reject the constraint at the 5 percent level of significance.

The third specification reflects a more pessimistic view of our ability to measure

military compensation, but it assumes that it is the ratio of such compensation to civilian

earnings that matters in recruiting. In this specification, a set of fiscal-year dummies

15

'V

r". ,. _.''. -" '. "- ". "' - " -" '" ' '."' " ' '" . -' , .' ." "" - " . '.," " , .' ''- ",,.*. -. ,, . - . -*".'-...-.. ' '. 
are included to hold constant the effect of changes in military compensation; if it is

really relative compensation which matters, the coefficient of ln(Wc) Is an estimate of

(minus) the ,lasticity of recruiting success with respect to relative pay. It is reassuring

that one can afford such agnosticism -- the relative compensation elasticity of .97 is not

terribly different from the previous estimates.

The estimated effects of the unemployment rate are not at all sensitive to

imposing the relative-pay constraint when ED is entered separately; when dummy

variables replace the pay variables, the point-of-means elasticity falls from .3 to .b5.

Given the difficulty of estimating unemployment effects with any precision with

4 time-series data (Ash, Udis, and McNown, 1983), the significance of these estimates is

worth underlining.

The effect of recruiters on enlistments is positive and significant in the first two

specifications. When fiscal-year dummies are added, however, the estimated effect is

nearly zero and not statistically significant.

The second three lines of Table 2 report estimates for the same three

specifications, but using the ratio of CAT I-1lIA contracts to total military-age

population as the measure of recruiting success (Dep. Var. = B). The estimated

compensation elasticities are a bit higher, the unemployment elasticities are a bit lower,

but the results are generally similar to those in the first three lines. Perhaps the most

important qualitative difference is that while using the fiscal-year dummies reduces the

estimated impact of recruiters, a non-trivial positive impact remains.

p, When recruitment success is measured by the ratio of high school graduate

contracts to total high school graduates (in the last three years), the compensation

elasticities are less satisfactory (Dep. Var. C). Taken at face value, the first two

specifications suggest that educational benefits significantly increase recruitment, but

increased BMC reduces it. The third specification shows quite clearly, however, that

16

-', . , *, . o •. 
recruitment success Is inversely related to civlian alternatives, and the estimated

elasticity (-1.11) is fairly sizeable. The effect of military compensation is just not very

reliably estimated in this set of equations. Nor is there much evidence that recruiters

have an important effect on the supply of high school graduate enlistees.

Estimated unemployment elasticities, however, remain significant in both a

statistical and practical 2ense. Moreover, they are not very sensitive to the choice of

military-pay specification.

-The difficulties of estimating the effect of compensation on the ratio of total

contracts to population is very similar to that encountered in analyzing the high-school

graduate measure (Dep. Var. = D). Neither of the estimates based on explicit measures

of military compensation (first two lines of this set) are plausible. The compensation

elasticity of 2.16 implied by the last specification has the correct sign and is quite large.

Although the estimated effects of unemployment on total contracts ace smaller

than for the other dependent variables, they are once again statistically significant and

consistent across the three specifications. Given the relatively large percentage changes

in unemployment rates that have occurred in the past decade, an elasticity of 1/3 implies

non-trivial percentage changes in the number of recruits. For example, at a 10 percent

unemployment rate, predicted contracts are 12 percent higher than they would be at the

sample-mean rate of 7 percent.

An unavoidable question is why the compensation elasticities are more satisfactory

for the first two supply measures than for the last two. While the difficulties of

measuring such compensation are certainly important, the rough similarity among the

'- ~ alternative estimates for each of the first two measures suggests that this is an unlikely

explanation for why the last two measures do not exhibit such stability. A more plausible

explanation Is that the number of CAT I-IlA enlistees is supply determined, but the

number of total enlistees is largely demand determined. The simplest story along these

17
lines -- that changes in standards offset any changes in the supply of enlistees -- would

* predict that estimated effects would be smaller than real ones, perhaps even zero, but

would not lead one to expect wrong-signed *effects." This would seem to require that

the total number of recruits demanded be negatively related to the offered wage. While

military manpower demands are not usually thought of as having a significant demand

elasticity in the short run, such a negative correlation could arise either by chance

(recall there are only seven fiscal years of data) or because higher military compensation

reduces the demand for new recruits by improving retention. If in a period of excess

supply recruitment standards are raised uniformly, one might expect that those variables

with significant geographic variation would determine how the demand-limited total of

enlistments would be distributed across the country. Thus, demand constraints might be

consistent not only with wrong-signed estimates for military pay, but right-signed

estimates of the impacts of civilian pay and unemployment. While LVeVany and Saving

have modelled the way In which discrepancies between the supply of enlistees of the

desired quality and the desired number of such enlistees is reconciled at the national

level, there seems to be little available research on how demand constraints make

themselves felt locally.

Table 3 presents estimates for a slightly shorter sample period (1976:4 through

1982:2), for which the additional measures of recruitment effort were available. For

those variables which were included in the regressions in Table 2, the results in Table 3

are broadly similar; where they differ, the differences are more the product of the

reduced sample than of the added variables. The major exception is the civilian wage

coefficient in equations with fiscal year dummy variables. Here, the estimated

coefficients are reduced in absolute value by the additional variables.

For the first three measures of high-quality recruit supply, the recruiter variables

tell a generally sensible story. Additional Army recrui.-.s (NEC) increase enlistments,

14

18

L. -. . "*'." ----.. - -. - -- " - ." --- .. ."-. - '.' "- ....:: '." -.""" .- "'''' ."'.-.- - . -_'.". .. . - ."- ... .. -..
but increases in other services' recruiters (DoD), holding REC constant, reduces them.

Increasing both Army and other service recruiters by 10 percent, for example, would

increase both REC and DoD by .10, and increase enlistments by .10 times the sum of the

coefficients of REC and DoD. Since this sum is positive, proportional increases in all

services' recruiters increase Army enlistments. National media advertising sometimes

has a positive effect, but this is unstable across specifications. Local media advertising,

on the other hand, seems to have no detectable positive effect on recruitment. One

interpretation is that such advertising is concentrated on areas where enlistments are

below expectations, but the limited available evidence seems inconsistent with this

explanation (Morey and McCann, 1983).

The estimates for all enlistees (last three lines of Table 3) seem only to reinforce

the conclusion that, however these enlistments are determined across geographic areas,

the simple supply model does not capture the process very well.

V. Conclusions

In order to achieve an adequate sample size without including draft-period

observations, and to take advantage of large regional differences in the path of

unemployment in recent years, various ratios of Army contracts signed to relevant

population groups were estimated from quarterly data by state for fiscal years 1976-82.

In sharp contrast to several previous papers, unemployment rates had quite strong effects

on recruitment success. For various categories of high quality recruits, the elasticity of

contracts signed with respect to the unemployment rate ranged from .4 to .8. For high

quality recruits defined as either those with scores in the top half of the distribution on

the military's entrance test or those with high scores and a high school degree, estimates

of the elasticity of contracts with respect to military compensation centered on roughly

1.0. For both total contracts and contracts signed by high school graduates (regardless of

19
test score) the compensation elasticity could not be estimated with any confidence. This

may be because the number-of such enlistments is demand constrained rather than supply

determined. There was, however, consistent evidence that the number of contracts was

inversely related to alternative (civilian) earnings.

Three quite different directions for future research seem desirable, given the

results of this paper. First, research on how recruiting standards respond to local or

national shortages or surpluses of recruits meeting a given standard would be very

useful. Second, the lag (if any) in the response of enlistments to military and civilian

compensation, unemployment, etc. deserves greater attention. Third, the estimates

presented here assume that, once state-specific fixed effects are held constant, the error

term for successive observations for any state are serially uncorrelated. Recent

unpublished research by Gary Solon provides a method for revising the estimates if this

assumption is violated. While this type of serial correlation would not bias estimated

coefficients, Solon's work suggests that one should be skeptical about the statistical

significance of marginally-significant coefficients.

- .

_ '. 20

, , * ,.)q ,,:_.. ...-. , . ,2*-. - -... ;..- - ,-- .--- - - - . - - .- - - . . . .
TABLE 1. KEY VARIABLES BY REGION BY FISCAL YEAR

(Index Numbers: National Average In Each Fiscal Year = 100)

Region 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

Unemployment Rate

Northeast 121.7 121.7 116.4 114.5 103.8 98.4 93.0

Midwest 88.6 85.8 88.5 92.4 111.8 113.8 114.4

South 88.5 89.8 93.4 93.6 89.8 92.3 93.0

West 112.3 114.0 109.9 106.1 97.5 96.6 100.6

Civilian Earnings

Northeast 101.1 100.0 99.6 100.0 100.9 101.4 101.3

M idwest 105.5 106.7 107.0 106.5 104.9 104.7 104.1

South 95.8 96.0 96.4 96.8 97.7 97.8 98.0

West 98.2 97.5 96.7 96.5 9b.4 96.1 96.b

Cont racts/Populat ion

Northeast 94.2 93.6 85.3 84.5 87.8 84.8 8b.9

Midwest 98.4 96.0 87.4 91.6 104.2 111.7 115.3

South 107.7 113.1 127.5 123.7 108.8 108.6 104.3

West 95.1 89.7 85.6 87.1 92.0 85.4 86.0

High Scoring Graduate Contracts/High School Graduates

Northeast 101.2 99.5 90.7 90.4 85.2 83.0 81.1

Midwest 90.6 95.5 90.5 98.4 109.9 116.0 114.4

South 105.0 103.3 114.4 106.6 96.0 95.6 99.4

West 106.3 102.8 104.5 104.7 110.2 103.8 102.4

21

-. " "...-.
TABLE 2. RECRUITMENT EQUATIONS

2

Dep. Var. BMC ED/BMC Wc REC UR UR TREND n.e. rlU

A .64 10.2 c .29 .16 -. 28 .018 .2338 .83

(2.9) (34.1) (4.9) (8.8) (2.7) (19.4)

A .60 10.2 -. 72 .28 .16 -. 28 .018 .2339 .83

(2.5) (33.9) (2.6) (4.6) (8.8) (2.7) (12.8)

A d d -. 97 .02 .10 -. 06 d .2465 .65

(3.3) (.3) (5.1) (.5)

B 1.04 8.5 c .30 .09 -. 09 .002 .2046 .57

(5.4) (32.5) (5.8) (5.9) (1.0) (2.7)

B .94 8.5 -1.19 .29 .09 -. 09 .001 .204b .57

(4.4) (32.3) (4.9) (5.3) (5.9) (1.0) (1.1)

B d d -1.50 .14 .07 -. 02 d .2311 .413

(5.5) (2.0) (3.8) (.2)

C -. 61 7.1 c .09 .10 -. 09 .014 .2143 .b4

(3.0) (26.0) (1.6) (6.3) (1.0) (15.6)

C -1.31 6.9 -. 55 -. 02 .11 -. 09 .007 .2100 .65

(6.0) (25.6) (2.2) (J3) (6.5) (0.9) (5.2)

%0 C d d -1.11 .03 .08 -. 007 d .2127 .55

(4.4) (.4) (4.7) (.07)

D -1.59 5.5 c .02 .02 .15 -. 009 .2211 .33

(7.6) (19.5) (.4) (1.4) (1.6) (10.6)

D -3.10 5.1 -. 95 -. 20 .03 .17 -. 025 .2004 .35

(14.9) (19.8) (4.0) (3.8) (1.7) (1.9) (20.6)

D d d -1.79 .09 .05 .03 d .2050 .36

(7.4) (1.4) (2.9) (.3)

Sample: 51 states, quarterly, from 1975:4 to 1982:3 1428 observations

Dependent Variables:

A - High Scoring Graduate Contracts/High School Graduates.

B - High Scoring Contracts/Population.

C - Graduate Contracts/High School Graduates.

D - Contracts/Population.

Notes:

c - Coefficient constrained to equal minus coefficient of RMC.

d - BMC ED/BMC, and TREND replaced by fiscal-year dummies.

t statist(cs are in parenthese below coefficients.

Each coefficient of the quadratic unemployment term is multiplied by 100.

22

a%
V

TABLE 3. RECRUITMENT EQUATIONS WITH ADDITIONAL RECRUITMENT VARIABLES

'S 2

Dep. Var. BMC ED/BMC W REC DoD NADV LADV UR UR TREND $.e. C

A 1.02 13.5 c .84 -. 27 -.07 -. 06 .12 -. 17 .012 .1987 .68

(4.5) (31.8) (8.7) (3.5) (3.7) (3.4) (7.0) (1.7) (10.b)

A .87 13.6 -1.41 .84 -. 29 -. 07 -.05 .12 -. 16 .010 .1984 .68

(3.6) (31.9) (4.6) (8.7) (3.7) (4.0) (3.1) (6.8) (1.b) (6.0)

A d d .20 .45 -. 29 .19 -3.0 .10 -.05 d .22b2 .b5

(.6) (3.6) (3.2) (9.8) (1.5) (4.9) (4)

B .94 9.4 c .79 -. 18 .08 -.07 .07 -.03 -. 00b .1571 .44

(5.2) (27.9) (10.3 (2.9) (5.7) (5.3) (4.9) (4) (7.0)

B .89 9.4 -1.08 .79 -. 19 .08 -. 07 .07 -.03 -. 007 .1572 .43

(4.7) (27.8) (4.4) (10.3) (3.0) (5.4) (5.1) (4.8) (.4) (5.5)

B d d -.04 .53 -. 15 .26 -. 06 .07 -.02 d .1935 .48

(.1) (5.0) (1.9) (15.6) (3.3) (4.1) (.2)

C -. 69 10.0 c .42 -. 05 .01 -. 04 .09 -.03 .006 .2019 .62

(3.0) (23.2) (4.2) (.7) (.5) (2.3) (5.2) (.3) (4.8)

C -1.45 10.5 -1.33 .42 -. 15 -.03 -.02 .08 .02 -.006 .1933 .57

(6.2) (25.2) (4.5) (4.4) (1.9) (1.4) (.9) (4.6) (.2) (3.7)

C d d -. 34 .31 -. 21 .17 -.02 .08 .005 d .2059 .58

(1.1) (2.7) (2.4) (10.0) (1.0) (4.4) (.05)

D -2.63 5.3 c .18 .20 .23 -. 08 .04 .09 -.023 .1973 .39

4 (11.7) (12.7) (1.8) (2.5) (12.6) (4.8) (2.4) (.9) (19.9)

D -4.1 6.3 -1.2 .18 .02 .16 -. 04 .02 .18 -. 044 .1637 .30

(20.6) (17.8) (4.6) (2.2) (.3) (10.5) (2.b) (1.1) (2.2) (32.6)

D d d -1.01 .31 -.01 .27 -. 07 .06 -. 01 d .1797 .39

(3.8) (3.1) (.1) (17.5) (4.2) (3.5) (.1)

Sample: S1 states, quarterly, from 1976:4 to 1982:2 - 1173 observations.

Dependent Variables and Notes: Same as those in Table 2.

23

4,L
FOOTNOT ES

1. The distinction between the arithmetic and geometric mean is often ignored in

subsequent empirical work.

2. More precisely, Fisher used the ratio of total accessions (volunteers plus

draftees) to population rather than the ratio of draftees to population. He argued that

with target levels of total accessions given, draft calls depend inversely on the number of

volunteers, so that the draft/population ratio used in other studies was endogenous.

3. There is a two-month lag between the announcement of the survey results on

private-sector pay on which federal pay increases are based and the beginning of the

fiscal year. However, pay increases which military personnel actually receive are not

automatically determined by the survey results. Therefore, the lag between the decision

S'.

on military pay and the start of the fiscal year is less than two months.

4. Daula, Fagan, and Smith (1982), using cross-section data on individuals, allow

the allowances and tax advantages of the military pay system to vary with marital status

and number of dependents, but this variation must be less than that contributed by

variations in civilian earnings.

5. Daula, Fagan, and Smith (1982) attempt to account for tastes and ability in a

two-equation model in which civilian earnings are determined by the usual factors and

the decision to enlist depends on relative pay and various taste factors. However, they

assume that several of the earnings determinants do not directly affect enlistments, but

operate only through their effect on civilian earnings. Thus, the decline in enlistment

propensity as people age Is attributed only to the effect of aging raising experience and,

hence, earnings; health problems are constrained to Increase the probability of enlisting,

since they lower earnings and are not allowed to directly affect enlistments.

6. The data and data sources are described In more detail in the Appendix.

25

.... A
7. The three cross-section studies cited earlier apparently did not deflate their

civilian-earnings measure to account for regional variations in the cost of living.

8. Ash, Udis, and McNown (1983) use the young-worker unemployment rate, but opt

for an instrumental-variable approach. However, apart from other exogenous variables,

their instruments are the overall unemployment rate and the minimum wage; the latter is

a relatively weak predictor of youth unemployment in other studies (Brown, Gilroy, and

Kohen, 1982).

-.
REFERENCES

Altman, Stuart H. and Fechter, Alan E. ' The Supply of Military Manpower in the

"1Absence of a Draft,* American Economic Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, May 1967, pp. 19-

S31.

Ash, Colin, Udis, Bernard, and McNown, Robert F. 'Enlistments in the All-volunteer

Force: A Military Personnel Supply Model and Its Forecasts,' American Economic

Review, Vol. 73, No. 1, March 1983, pp. 145-155.

Brown, Charles, Gilroy, Curtis, and Kohen, Andrew. 'The Effect of the Minimum Wage

on Employment and Unemployment,' journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 20, No. 2,

June 1982, pp. 487-528.

Cooper, Richard V.L. Military Manpower and the All-Volunteer Force (Santa Monica:

The Rand Corporation, September 1977).

Dale, Charles and Gilroy, Curtis. 'The Effects of the Business Cycle on the Size and

Composition of the U.S. Army,' Atlantic Economic journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, March

1983, pp.42-53.

Daula, Thomas V., Fagan, Thomas W., and Smith, D. Alton. 'A Microdata Model of

4, , Enlistment in the Armed Forces,' paper presented at the meeting of the

Econometric Society, June 1982.

.Devany, Arthur S. and Saving, Thomas R. 'Life Cycle job Choice and the Demand and

Supply of Entry-Level Jobs -- Some Evidence from the Air Force,' Review of

q -Economics and Statistics, Vol. 64, No. 3, August 1982, pp. 457-465.

.5. 27

-" I , -" , "% . - " "'" "'" """"% - "€"""""""" '" """"% , . . , . . ''% .
Fechter, Alan E. * The Supply of Enlisted Volunteers in the Post-Draft Environment: An

Evaluation Based on Pre-1972 Experience," in Richard V.L. Cooper, ed., Defense

Manpower Policy (Santa Monica: The Rand Corporation, 1979), pp. 87-99.

Fisher, Anthony. 'The Cost of the Draft and the Cost of Ending the Draft,' American

Economic Review, Vol. 59, No. 3, June 1969, pp. 239-254.

Friedman, Milton. Price Theory (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1976).

Grissmer, David W. 'The Supply of Enlisted Volunteers in the Post-Draft Environment:

An Analysis Based on Monthly Data, 1970-1975,0 in Richard V.L. Cooper, ed.,

Defense Manpower Policy (Santa Monica: The Rand Corporation, 1979), pp. 100-115.

Huck, Daniel, Kusmin, Lorin, and Shepard, Edwin, 'Improving Educational Benefits:

Effects on Costs, Recruiting, and Retention,' U.S. Congressional Budget Office,

March 1982.

Jehn, Christopher and Shugart, William F. "Modelling Recruiting District Performance,'

in Richard V.L. Cooper, ed., Defense Manpower Policy (Santa Monica: The Rand

Corporation, 1979), pp. 137-148.

Morey, Richard C. and McCann, John M. "Armed Services Recruiting Research: Issues,

Findings, and Needs,* unpublished paper, 1983.

Military Manpower Task Force. 'A Report to the President on the Status and Prospects

of the All-Volunteer Force,' (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,

November 1982 (revised)).

Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense. 'Profile of American Youth,'

mimeographed, March 1982.

28
Oi, Walter. 'The Economic Cost of the Draft,* American Economic Review, Vol. 77, No.

2, May 1967, pp. 39-62.

29
DATA APPENDIX

(1) Contracts - The number of contracts signed by Army recruits each month from

October 1975 to September 1982 were provided by CPT Philip Knorr of the Defense

Manpower Data Center. The number of contracts was crosstabulated by state, race, sex,

prior service, non-prior service, whether high school graduate, and mental category. To

maintain comparability with previous research, non-prior service males were studied in

this paper.

N (2) Population - Data on resident population by state by age are available from the U.S.

Census Bureau for 1970 and 1980 based on Census counts, and for intercensal years the

Census counts are updated to take into account the estimated effect of births, deaths,

and net migration. Data for April 1980 and July 1981-82 were taken from U.S. Census

Bureau (1983, Tables 1-3), and for April 1970 and July 1971-78 from U.S. Census Bureau

(1980, Tables 2-3). Unpublished intercensal estimates for 1979 and 1980 were provided

by Ed Byerly of the Census Bureau.

1980 Census population totals exceeded those predicted by the Intercensal updating

*, of 1970 Census population by about 2 percent (U.S. Census Bureau, 1982, Table A-i).

Thus, the official national estimates of population by age for 1971-79 have updated the

earlier estimates by assuming that this error in the intercensal estimates occurred

* "gradually between the Censuses. The analogous procedure was applied to the intercensal

. estimates by state for 1971-79. As a check, these updated intercensal estimates were

summed across states and compared with the offical national totals (U.S. Census Bureau,

1982, Table 1). Monthly population estimates were then interpolated from the resulting

annual estimates. Values for August-September 1982 are extrapolations based on the

1981 and 1982 values.

31

A'" ', - " "' " . , '-' '; . ,•- -'-""'. .- -' . ' -. ' ' ..-. ' . .- . o .,-.,. .:, ..- -. ' - - .-.
The estimates of population by state for non-Census years are made in fairly broad

age groups, with boundaries at age 5, 14, 18, 21, 45 and 65.

(3) High School Graduates - Numbers of graduates (of both private and public high

schools) by state by year are published by the National Center for Educational

4 Statistics. Tom Schneider kindly provided 1980-81 data prior to publication, and 1981-82

values were extrapolated from 1979-80 and 1980-81 values. Since contracts can be

signed by those still in school for active duty to begin after graduation, the new

graduates were assumed to be available for signing contracts in the second quarter (i.e.,

April-June) of their graduation year. No allowance was made for mid-year graduation.

(4) Unemployment Rates- Unemployment rates from the Current Population Survey

* (CPS) were provided on tape by the Local Area Unemployment Statistics Program of the

Bureau of Labor Statistics. For the 10 largest states, these are offical monthly

unemployment rates. For the remaining states they are not, and BLS is concerned that

they be taken as CPS tabulations rather than official BLS estimates. The official

monthly estimates combine CPS tabulations with other data, primarily establishment

survey employment figures and unemployment of those covered by unemployment

insurance (Norwood, 1977). However, reliable official estimates are not available prior

to 1976, except for the 10 largest states. For the period 1976-82 when both series are

available for all states, the unweighted correlation of quarterly averages was .85. (A

weighted correlation would be higher, since the two series are identical for the 10 largest

states). The official rate had a larger standard deviation (3.3 vs 2.9), which is surprising

since the introduction of non-CPS Information in the official-rate calculation is intended

to reduce sampling variation.

These tabulations were available for all states for 1976 and later years, but for only

29 states in 1974-75, 28 in 1973, and 16 in 1972. The missing-data states were the

32
A

I-.

smallest ones, weighted least heavily in the weighted regressions. To provide estimates

for these missing data, equations were estimated separately for each state over the

period 1976-82. The logarithm of the unemployment rate was a function of the logarithm

of the state and national employment/population ratio, a time trend, and month

'1 "(seasonal) dummies. The employment data were from the BLS series on nonagricultural

* employment (establishment survey) and the population data were the series on population

age 18 and older (as described above). The estimated coefficients were then used to

"backcast" the missing unemployment rates.

To check the accuracy of these imputations, the same method was applied to states

which did have CPS unemployment rates for 1972-75, and the fit between these values

and the predicted values was evaluated. For the 1972-75 period, the actual mean

unemployment rate in the states in question was 6.27, the mean of the predicted values

was 6.11, and the correlation between the two was .77. Results for 1975 alone were

similar.

(5) Civilian Earnings - Quarterly earnings of private workers covered by state

unemployment insurance laws by state by two-digit industry code were provided on tape

by Bernard Bell of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. In 1981, 90 percent of all civilian

employment was covered by the Unemployment Insurance (UI) and Unemployment

Compensation for Federal Employees (UCFE) programs, the principal exclusions being

railroad workers, most domestic workers, agricultural workers, and some employees of

OR small nonprofit organizations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1982a, p. 33). The state

by two-digit industry tape deleted *cells' with less than three reporting establishments,

leading to very minor discrepancies from published totals, judging from a comparison

with published 1980-81 annual averages (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1982b, Table 4).

33

.v V 
(6) Nonagricultural Employment - Monthly total nonagricultural employment levels by

state were taken from the BLS Establishment Survey file.

(7) Cost of Living - Indices of the cost of living relative to the national average were

taken from the BLS Urban Family Budget series, which provide estimates of the cost of

obtaining an appropriate market basket of goods in different geographic areas over

time. The market basket varies geographically, reflecting differences such as climaterelated allowances for utilities and clothing, but does not change over time. The lowest

of the three budgets for a family of four, representing expenditures of about $14,000 in

1981, was used.

Indices were published for 25 identified metropolitan areas throughout the period

" studied and for the nonmetropolitan parts of the four Census regions. An unweighted

average of the indentified metropolitan indices was calculated for each region. Each

state's index was defined as the weighted average of metropolitan and nonmetropolitan

indices for the state's region, with the weights based on the share of its 1980 population

in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. The latter was taken from U.S. Census

Bureau (1981, Table 3). Honolulu and Anchorage were assigned to Hawaii and Alaska

directly, rather than to the West region.

The Urban Family Budget program was discontinued after 1981. Indices for 1982

were calculated by using changes in the Consumer Price Index by region and size of

place.

The indices were originally based on data for 'autumn' of each year. We associated

autumn with the beginning of the fourth quarter of the calender year, and interpolated

other quarters.

(8) Military Pay and Benefits - The four quarterly compensation series used were those

found in Dale and Gilroy (1983): first-year basic military compensation, maximum

34

- *.* . - - .
monthly benefit for a GI Bill beneficiary, maximum benefit for a Veterans Educational

Assistance Program (VEAP) beneficiary, and maximum value of 'kicker' payments

offered to Army enlistees entering critical specialties.

These educational benefits are likely to be worth less than their stated dollar value

to potential recruits, particularly the post-GI-Bill program. A VEAP participant must

contribute to his VEAP account (the government matches that conribution on a 2-for-1

basis), and most participants do not make the maximum contribution. The benefits might

never be used, if the individual decides against going to college after the Army or

decides to stay in the Army. Finally, if they are received, the benefits must be

discounted. The average of the high and low estimates of discounted valuations from

V Huck, Kusmin and Shephard (1982, Table 4) were used to convert educational benefits to

current dollars, recognizing that these benefits are earned by three years of service. To

value the CI Bill, VEAP, and the Kicker, the values for 'Non Contributory Plan,*

"Contributory VEAP,' and 'Contributory VEAP with supplemental payment' minus

'Contributory VEAP' were used.

(9) Recruiters and Advertising Expenditures - A file containing the number of Army

recruiters on production, the ratio of Army to Defense Department recruiters, and local

and national media advertising expenditures was provided by Marvin Trautwein of the US

Army Recruiting Command. Quarterly data were available for fiscal years 1977-82. The

number of Army recruiters was available quarterly for fiscal 1976, and annually for

1974-75.

Except for national media advertising, the data were compiled by recruiting

districts which are aggregates of counties and often cross state lines. Data by district

were converted to data by state using number of persons 18-20 years old in each county

from the 1980 Census.

35

dkk.
APPENDIX REFERENCES

Dale, Charles and Gilroy, Curtis, 'The Effects of the Business Cycle on the Size and

Composition of the U.S. Army,' Atlantic Economic Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, March

* 1983, pp. 42-53.

*: Huck, Daniel, Kusmin, Lorin, and Shephard, Edwin, *Improving Education Benefits:

Effects on Costs, Recruiting and Retention,' Congressional Budget Office, March

1982.

Norwood, Janet L., 'Reshaping a Statistical Program to Meet Legislative Priorities,"

Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 100, No. 11, November 1977, pp. 6-11.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Autumn Urban Family Budgets and Comparative Indexes

for Selected Urban Areas,' mimeographed, various years.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, BLS Handbook of Methods, Volume I (Washington:

Government Printing Office, 1982a).

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 'Annual Average Pay by State and Industry,'

mimeographed, December 12, 1982b.

U.S. Census Bureau, 'Estimates of the Population of States, by Age: July 1, 1971 to

1979," Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 875, January 1980.

U.S. Census Bureau, 1980 Census of Population, Vol. 1, Characteristics of Population,

1981.

U.S. Census Bureau, 'Preliminary Estimates of the United States, by Age, Sex, and

Race: 1970 to 1981,' Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 917, July 1982.

36

* C it$ *f *o,** ".h 
,%

U.S. Census Bureau, 'Estimates of the Population of States by Age: July 1, 1981, and

1982,' Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 930, April 1983.

U.S. National Center for Educational Statistics, Digest of Educational Statistics

(Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, various years).

A.3

* 3

,l,;*