~LEVEL j Technicl Repoit 422 

"

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERCULTURAL

AWARENESS AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES

0 IN INTERRACIAL ENCOUNTERS

0 Oliver C. S. Tzeng and Dan Landis

Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis

ARI FIELD UNIT AT PRESIDIO OF MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA

, DTIC

SELECTEf APR 9 t980D

II

R a st f U. S. Army

Research institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

,October :-- 1979

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

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Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

WILLIAM L. HAUSER

JOSEPH ZEIDNER Colonel, U S Army Technical Director Commander

Research accomplished under contract

for the Department of the Army

Center for Apj lied Research and Evaluation

Indiana University--Purdue University at Indianapolis

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19. KEY WORDS (Conltinue on rveses aids it necesay and identify by block rnumber)

Personality Least-preferred coworkers

Intercultural awareness Group atmosphere scale

Machiavellianism Cultural assimilator I 20, AMYrCT M.911macu oMd N iWefm .. "i tdostiF b black numbr)

The present study was conducted in order to investigate the relationships

between an individual's personality characteristics and his or her understanding of the dynamics involved in potential inter-racial conflicts and controversies in the Army institution. Data collected from 78 Army personnel, with

about equal proportions of both blacks and whites, and of both officers and

enlisted men, included the ratings on four measures: (a) a set of predeveloped intercultural awareness (IA) questions, (b) the Machiavellianism scale,

(Continued)

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jSECUmNTY CLAWSIFICATtOM OF THIS P A4E (W1100 D4aa Ent0040
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Item 20 (Continued)

(c) the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale, and (d) the group atmosphere

scale. Within-measure analyses of the last three scales revealed interesting results of inter-race and/or inter-rank differences in attribution of

various personality traits inherent in the measures. Between-measure

analyses in using the IA Scale as a dependent variable yielded two important principles in inter-racial relations: (a) intercultural awareness

is directly related to an individual's personality and cognitive style

characteristics, and (b) elevation of an individual's cultural awareness

level will definitely improve one's attitudes, values, and behavioral

dispositions toward the members of another culture, and thus decrease the

intercultural gaps and/or conflicts in interracial encounters. Finally,

the paper examines an important theoretical framework along wifh five

determinants that should be considered for an effective intercult ral

training program in the future.

Unclassified

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Technial Report 422

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERCULTURAL

AWARENESS AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES

IN INTERRACIAL ENCOUNTERS

Oliver C. S. Tzeng and Dan Landis

Indiana University--Purdue University at Indianapolis

James A. Thomas, Teamn Leader

Submitted by: Jack J. Sternberg, Chief

ARI FIELD UNIT AT PRESIDIO OF MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA

Approved by:

E. Ralph Dusek, Director

PERSONNEL AND TRAINING

RESEARCH LA13ORATORY

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCF0.

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333

Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army

October 1979

Army Project Number Intercultural 11e1lations

20161 102974F

APtovwd for public release; distribution unlimited.

Ml
ARI Research Reports and Technical Reports are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings ready

for implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part

of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

!I

ll
FOREWORD

Since 1972, the Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and

Social Sciences (ARI) has been active in research on the policy, operational problems, and programs of the Army's Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Program. In 1973, ARI initiated research designed to explore

alternative or supplementary race relations training techniques. This

included exploratory research designed to determine the feasibility of

using the Cultural Assimilator as a race relations training technique.

The early research is reported in ARI Technical Paper 310, Use of a

Black "Culture Assimilator" to Increase Racial Understanding, and ARI

Technical Paper 314, Cultural Assimilator for Training Army Personnel

in Racial Understanding. Because of limited time constraints established for the data collection under the second research project it

was necessary to omit the administration of the personality measures

after data were collected at the first installation.

This Technical Paper is based upon the small sample of 76 Army

personnel obtained at the first installation and seeks to establish

the relationship between selected personality variables and intercultural awareness as measured by a Cultural Assimilator. This analysis

was accomplished as part of contract DAHC 19-77-C-0056 with Indiana

University/Purdue University at Indianapolis, Ind., under Army Project

2Q161102B74F, Personnel Performance and Training.

ical Director

4 CWOMN for

White Sactot

WBuff W"tiee3

VNLWN0UNCEM

JUSTFICAMIN

U Di. m

V LA I J~TI.11.O
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERCULTURAL AWARENESS AND PERSONALITY

VARIABLES IN INTERRACIAL ENCOUNTERS

BRIEF

Requirement:

To investigate the relationships between an individual's personality characteristics and his or her understanding of the dynamics involved in potential interracial conflicts and controversies in the Army.

Procedure:

Data collected in 1974 from 78 U.S. Army personnel, with about

equal proportions of both blacks and whites, and of both officers and

enlisted men, included the ratings on four measures: (a) a set of predeveloped intercultural awareness (IA) questions, (b) the Machiavellianism scale, (c) the Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale, and (d) the

group atmosphere scale.

Findings:

Analyses using the IA Scale as a dependent variable yielded two

important principles in interracial relations: (a) intercultural awareness is directly related to an individual's personality and cognitive

style characteristics, and (b) elevation of an individual's cultural

awareness level will definitely improve one's attitudes, values, and

behavioral dispositions toward the members of another culture, and

thus decrease the intercultural gaps and/or conflicts in interracial

encounters. Analyses of the last three scales revealed interesting

results of interrace and/or interrank differences in attribution of

various personality traits inherent in the measures.

Utilization:

The paper presents an important theoretical framework along with

five determinants that should be considered for an effective intercultural training program in the future.

Vii
Table of Contents

Page

Introduction .... 1I............ I Culture Assimilator...................2 Personality Variables and Intercultural Awareness..... . . 4

Purposes of the present study ...... ... .. ....... 4

Method and Procedure ...... .. ....................... 5

Scales ..... ... ... ............................ 5

Subjects ..... .... ........................... 6

Results and Discussion .... ..................... 12

Intercultural Awareness (IA) Scalesi ............. 12

Machiavellianism Scale ....... .................... 12

Group Atmosphere Scale ....... .................... 21

Conclusions and Implications ...... .................. 21

References ............. ......................... 27

Reference Notes ... .. .... ......................... 28

List of Figures

Figure

1 Group Mean Profile on Five Factor Markers and Three Other

Significant Scales of LPC ... ............... .20

List of Tables

Table

1 Subject distribution: race by six other variables ....... 7

2 Salient factor loadings of the Machiavellianism scales. . . 8

3 Correlation coefficients among IA and eight Mach dimensions 14

4 Factor structures of LPC and their relations with intercultural awareness ...... ... ............ 17

6 Summary of group means and MANOVA on LPC .......... .. 18

7 Summary of group means and MANOVA of GAS .......... .. 22

ix

'It 4F
Introduction

ithin the world population, the diversity and complexity of

inter-c tural means of dealing with the social political and natural

envirome ts have increased significantly in recent years. The

difficultieexperienced by most societies in both inter- and intranational inteactions are mainly due to inter-group heterogeneities with

respect to two aspects of the cultures -- objective and subjective. The

objective cultures represent observable social indicators such as

ethnicity, sex, age, education, economic background, living conditions,

crime rate, and drug abuse statistics, etc. The subjective cultures on

the other hand represent such internal indicators as feelings, believing,

conceiving, judging, hoping, fearing, and meaning (Tzeng and Osgood, 1976)".

Interaction between these two types of systems determine the consequence

of social movements toward inter-group (or inter-racial) harmony and

integration on the one hand, and the prospect of an individual's

subjective well being, or life satisfaction on the other hand. Therefore,

research in such relationships seems to be one of the most urgent and

important tasks in contemporary social and political sciences.

Within the United States, there exist numerous heterogeneous subgroups of individuals who differ from each other not only in some

objective aspects of culture (race, sex, age, religion, etc.) but in

some subjective aspects of culture (e.g., value systems, attitudes,

stereotyping, etc.) as well. The development of an integrated theory,

method, and procedure for the exploration of the issues on intersubcultural understanding within such a culturally pluralistic society

would seem necessary as a prerequisite to the planning and implementation

of various social and institutional programs. Psychologically, this is

due to the fact that in dealing with people outside of the realm of one's

own indigenous cultures, each individual brings with him certain

expectations of how other people are supposed to act. Any relationship that might develop for a transcultural cross-culturally oriented person

can be successful or suffer the debilitating effects of misunderstanding, depending on the etiology that one attributes to any accultural behavior

encountered. Therefore, many neutral incidents may cause unnecessary conflicts due to misunderstanding, wrong assumptions and differences

based on subjective cultures that are unrelated to the actual situation.

For example, in inter-racial encounters, difficulties may easily arise

from an ignorance of what is rewarding to the other person (Triandis, 1976)2.

Because effective inter-racial and inter-cultural relations require what

Triandis called "isomorphic attributions" of the contents of interactions

and the perceived meanings of the counterpart, correct inferences about

what behavior is likely to be reinforced, to what extent, and under what

conditions, etc. would definitely enhance the ability of transcultural

ITzeng, O.C.S. & Osgood, C.E. Validity tests for componential

analysis of conceptual domains: A cross-cultural study in methodology.

Behavioral Science, 1976, 21, 69-85.

ZTriandis, H.C. (Ed.) Variations in black and white perceptions of

the social environment. Urbana: UniversiityoT-IM is-Wess,1975.

4

'.4
2

persons to reinforce the behavior of others.

Furthermore, in a given highly structured organization in which

individuals with different objective and subjective backgrounds are

required to pursur' and achieve some common goal set for the institution,

within-group heterogeneities may provide a potential- threat to not only

the understanding and harmony among the personnel but also to the

efficiency and ev en survival of the institution itself. Therefore, it

is essential for the organizational administration to develop some form

of effective orientation and/or training program that would enable all

new members to appreciate the nature and contributions of both the

subjective and objective cultures of their colleagues within the

organization.

In the particular institution of the United States Army, individuals

with more diversed backgrounds in ethnicity, religion, economics, social

status, education, vocation and life experience are required to perform

highly unitary missions that demand the complete agreement on the tasks

and the highest efficiency of their actions. Under such circumstances,

one of the major concerns in Army training routines should include the

training of new personnel to accomplish the following objectives:

(1) help trainees clarify their feelings about other ethnic groups, and

the concept of cultural pluralism and related social issues. (2) provide

information about ethnicity, about the nature and conditions of various

subjective cultures of other ethnic groups, and about the processes

through which groups adapt and change. (3) develop skills for more

effective inter-personal communication with persons of diverse ethnic

backgrounds and of different ranks and job assignments. (4) develop

attitudes and techniques for dealing with controversial issues and

situations that may arise in some inter-racial encounters.

Cultural Assimilator

One method for training members of a given ethnic culture to make

accurate isomorphic attributions with respect to the behavior of members

of another (target) culture is known as the cultural assimilator

(Landis, et al, 1976)3. In essence, this training technique presents the

trainee wt~h- series of "critical incidents" (episodes) in which

conflicts arise through misunderstanding between a member of an ethnic

culture and a member of the target culture. After reading each episode,

the trainee is asked to select an answer from several prespecified

alternatives in explanations of the behaviors of the target culture member.

The trainee is then provided with feedback concerning the accuracy of

the answer and the reasons behind it. The goals of this inter-cultural

training, as recommended by Triandis (1976), are as follows: (1) to

familiarize the students of one culture with the situations and/or

dimensions that make a difference in interpersonal relationships with

individuals of other ethnic groups, (2) to employ the principle of

tLandis, 1), Day, H.R., McGrew, P.L., Thomas, J.A. & Miller, A.B.

Can a black "culture assimilator" increase racial understanding?.

Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32, 2, 169-183.
transfer of learning to other inter-racial conflict situations, and

(3) to present the learner with the norm values, role structures, general

intentions, self concepts, and value systems of members of other cultures.

This form of training, initially suggested by Osgood (Note 3)4, was

first developed by Fiedler and Triandis in a research project in which

these psychologists worked conjointly. An account of their studies are

reported by Fiedler, Mitchell, and Triandis (1971)5, and Mitchell,

Dosett, Fiedler and Triandis (1971 )6. In recent years, this

technique was also explored in several Army personnel training programs.

For example, a study was conducted to test the effect of such a cultural

assimilator training program on the awareness of black cultures among

white junior grade officers at four U.S. Army posts (Landis, Day, fvtGrew,

Thomas, and Miller, 1976). The result, indicated a steady increase in

correct responses as the trainees progressed through the training.

Similar results were also substantiated among black junior grade

officers in learning the cultures of white army colleagues (Day, Landis,

and McGrew, Note 1)".

Weldom, Carlston, Rissman, Slobodin and Triandis (1975) also

conducted a laboratory study of white male college students assessing

the effect of the culture assimilator on their relations with black

students. Measuring the ability of these white students in making

isomorphic attributions, the subjects with culture assimilator training

scored significantly higher than did the untrained. For female students,

Randolph, Landis and Tzeng (1977) obtained a congruent result in a culture

assimilator experiment on as few as 40 items. That is, white female

college students who received training showed significant improvement

over untrained subjects in the ability to make isomorphic attributions

concerning the behavior of the members of the target (black American)

culture. In addition, they found that the anxiety level of trained

subjects, that were aroused during the initial contacts with the target

members decreased systematically over time, while the level of anxiety of

untrained subjects remained constant.

The above empirical evidence suggests that the cultural assimilator

is an effective training technique that may be used to enhance an

individual's knowledge and appreciation of the cultures of other ethnic

groups and hence to facilitate better communications and enjoyment of

inter-racial interactions.

4Osgood, C.E., Speculation on the structure of intejpersonal

intentions. (Tech. Rep.)roa:-niversity oI lliinois, 1966.

Fiedler, F.E., Mitchell, T.R., & Triandis, H.C. The cultural

assimilator: An approach to cross-cultural training. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 1971, 55, 95-102.

-Mitchell, T.R., Dossett, D.L., Fiedler, F.E., & Triandis, H.C.,

Validation evidence for the culture assimilator. (Tech. Rep. 71-82).

Urbana: University oT-Iinois, 197l. 7

Day, H.R., Landis, D. & McGrew, P.L., Exploration in cultural understanding (CSD T]R 75-8). Philadelphia: Cenlter for social

Development, 1975.

7 Piladephi: enter or
14

Personality Variables and Intercultural Awareness

In order to develop and implement a cultural assimilator or other

training programs within any institution, it is important to identify in

advance the characteristics of the antecedent variables of the

prospective trainees' objective as well as subjective cultures that are

directly related to inter-racial encountering situations. This implies

that due to potential individual differences among a "homogeneous"

group of subjects across different institutions, the context and

procedures of the training program should be designed in such a way that

they will maximally cope with the environmental realities of the

institution under consideration. Therefore, a program that proved to

be effective in an industrial-civilian setting may not necessarily be so

in an Army unit. Under such circumstances, knowledge of all major

antecedent variables involved in inter-racial communications and

interactions should be a prerequisite for successful development and

implementation of a cultural assimilator program.

Within the Army, the following variables would seem to have most

direct relevancy to the planning of a cultural assimilator training

program: (a) an individual's prior knowledge and/or sensitivity of the

subjective -ultures of other ethnic groups, (b) various salient

situations and/or issues that are potentially controversial among

individuals from different ethnic backgrounds, (c) an individual's

beliefs and confidence about the possibility of being (or not being)

manipulated and/or deceived in the army living and working situations,

and (d) an individual's preferences for the personality characteristics

of co-workers and the preference for group atmosphere in the working and

living environment. Due to the inevitable conditions of individual

differences among Army personnel in various objective indicators, e.g.,

ranks, ages, assignments, prior experiences with other cultures,

childhood residencies, formal educational history, etc., there should be

some significant individual differences in their attributions to these

four antecedent variables. Therefore, for future development of a

comprehensive cultural assimilator (or other) training program, it is

necessary to characterize the nature of these subjective variables and

their relationships with various objective indicators within a prospective

subject training population in the Army.

Purposes of the present study:

On the basis of the above considerations, the present study was

designed as part of the preparation for a cultural assimilator and

training research program to investigate the relations of various

personality characteristics with different levels of intercultural

awareness. This involves the following five specific objectives:

(a) measurement of intercultural awareness, IA, and formulation of a

composite score for each respondent, (b) identification of underlying

dimensions inherent in the Machiavellianism scales when they were used

for measuring individuals' cohortability and persuadability within the

Army institution, (c) measurements of perceived characteristics of the

lease preferred co-worker and the perceived group atmosphere of each

individual, (d) identification of underlying constructs involved in

the above measures and their effects on individual differences among

fad i lt li i & , m a i
5

personnel with different objective cultural backgrounds in race and

rank, and (e) identification of relationships between the intercultural

awareness measures and the three personality variables. For the first

four purposes, pertinent voting scales were adopted from the literature

as the measurement instruments.

The above five purposes are centered at the major theme of

identifying the characteristics and dynamics of intercultural relationships

and ccmunuications in military environment. While the first four

purposes are designed for establishing the constructs and/or effects of

each measurement domain, the last purpose focuses on between-domain

comparisons and integrations.

Method and Procedure

Scales

Four types of scales were employed in the present study: the

intercultural awareness (IA) scale, the Machiavelianism scale, the

measures of the least preferred co-workers (LPC), and the group

atmosphere (GAS) scale. A brief description of these scales is given

as follows:

The Intercultural Awareness (A) Scale. This measure consists of

a set of107 assimilator items in test format, except for the feedback

elements being deleted. Each item represents a critical incident or

scenario of an incident involving potential inter-racial and inter-rank

conflict or misunderstanding in the U.S. Army. The entire incidents

were constructed on the basis of extensive taped interviews with

representative personnel with different backgrounds in rank, ethnicity

and job assignment. Specifically, these items dealt predominantly with

the cultural backgrounds and perspectives of black enlisted men, but

many items also focused on black officers and white enlisted men as

the basis for illustrating various critical problems in inter-racial

relations. Detailed descriptions about the development of these

items are referred to Landis et al, (1976).

At the end of each item, a question was added regarding the behavior

or the probable attitude of one of the "antagonists". Four possible

explanations (alternatives) were given: among them, one was "correct"

in using relevant information and knowledge about the cultures of the

target group in the incident, and the other three alternatives were

"incorrect" in using information which was either faulty, incomplete,

or stereotyping in nature. Therefore, the "incorrect" alternatives were

representative of prevailing misconceptions, stereotyping and/or other

prejudice. In addition, each item was also rated on a seven-step

familiarity scale ranging from very unfamiliar to very familiar.

Machiavellianisn Scale. Seventy nine items of the Maciavellianism

scale (Christie and Geis, 1770)8 were used to measure each individual's

8Christie, R. & Geis, F.L. Studies in Machiavellianism, New York:

Academic Press, 1970.
6

cohortability, persuadability and degrees of concerns with conventional

morality and ideological committments. For example, the subjects were

asked to indicate their degrees of agreement on the item ' bnesty is

the best policy" against a five step agree/disagree continuum. For

identification of underlying constructs (dimensions) that determined the

inter-item relationships in Mach measures for the Army personnel, factor

analysis was performed on subject responses. Factor scores on the

resultant dimensions were then used for identifying individual differences.

Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale. The LPC Scale, developed

by Fiedl-d (onsisted of-16-5 emantic differential eight-step

bipolar adjectives which, according to Fiedler and others (cf., Rice,

1978)10, were assumed to measure the style and effectiveness of leaderships

in an organization. In taking the LPC scale, each respondent described

his or her least preferred co-worker, defined as "the person with whom

you had the most difficulty in getting a job done", on each SD item

(e.g.,pleasant-unpleasant). The favorable pole of each item (e.g., pleasant,

efficie, Vriendy, etc.) was scored as 8 and the unfavorable pole was

scored as 17Tie total LPC score was calculated by sumning the scores

for all items. In the LPC literature, such a total score has been

interpreted in at least four different ways with respect to the following

psychological propositions: social distance, motivations and needs,

cognitive complexity, and motivational hierarchy. For example, a leader

who scored high on the scale may be considered as having a favorable,

affective relationship with other members of the group. In the present

study, 16 items in the LPC scale were used to measure an individual's

preferences for the personality characteristics of their fellow Army

personnel having different subjective as well as objective culture

backgrounds. In addition, instead of computing a single LPC score for

each respondent, the major focus in this study was to identify inter-race

and inter-rank differences as well as similarities in individual items

and their relationships with other measures.

Group Amosphere Scale (GAS). This scale consisted of 10 semantic

differential bipolar items: pleasant/unpleasant, friendly/unfriendly,

good/bad, valuable/worthless, close/distant, warm/cold, harmonious/

quarrelsome, self-assured/hesitant efficient/iinefficient, and cheerful/

gloom. These items, scored from 1 to 8 as for the LPC scale, were

used to differentiate inter-race and inter-rank differences in the

perceived group atmosphere within the same Army institution.

Subjects

The subjects whose results were reported in this study were 78 male

U.S. Army personnel stationed at Fort Eustis, Virginia, when the data

were gathered in 1974. Table 1 presents the frequency distribution

of these subjects with regard to race, rank (enlisted men, vs. officers),

9Fiedler, F.E. A theory of leadership effectiveness, New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1967.

10Rice, R.W. Construct validity of the least preferred co-worker

score. Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 85(6), 1199-1237.

~~A
Table 1

Subject Distribution: Race by six other variables

VARIABLE RACE

Total

White Black

1. Rank Enlisted 17 23 40

Officers 22 16 38

2. Cultural none 14 13 27

Exposure___________________________

yes 25 26 51

3. Childhood Rural 18 25 43

Residence

Urban 21 14 35

4. Geograph- NonSouthTcal Locale east 26 16 42

of Childhod

5 Southeast 13 23 36

5. Socio-econ. Middle &

Background Upper 29 25 54

Lower 10 14 24

6. Education High

School 15 17 32

Beyond

High

School 24 22 46

Total 39 39 78

n. I

9 ...
Table 2

Salient Factor Loadings of the Machiavellianism Scales

Statement Loadings

Dimension 1 (28.8%) MORALITY

61. Honesty is the best policy. .77

28. To hate people for the things they stand for. -.57

76. Terminally ill people should have the choice of

being put to death. -.52

65. To be humble and honest is more important than

being important and dishonest. .51

60. Take action only when morally certain. .51

73. It is impossible to be good in all respects. .47

16. Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. .40

9. The lottery system is an equitable means of obtaining a national army. .39

66. Give the real reason for asking a favor of someone

rather than a more weighty, false reason. .38

39. There are two kinds of people, those for the truth

and those against it. .36

Dimension 2 (14.9%) PATRIOTISM & ETHNOCENTRISM

50. Patriotism and loyalty are the most important

requirements of a good citizen. .64

38. A group which tolerates too many differences of

opinion among its members can't exist long. .63

14. It is natural that a person has a better acquaintance with ideas that he believes in rather than

those that he opposes. .63

57. The Russians and Chinese are racially war minded and must be wiped out or controlled. .50

30. Life becomes meaningful only if a person devotes

himself to a cause or an ideal. .47 l ;
Table 2 (Continued)

Statements Loadings

Dimension 2 (cont.)

11. Peace maintained without honor is no longer peace. .45

3z. A person enthusiastic about too many causes is

likely to be "wishy-washy". .43

Dimension 3 (12.4%) SOCIAL PRAGMATISM

12. U.S. and Russia have almost nothing in common. .56

33. Compromise with political opponents usually leads

to betrayal of our own side. .54

53. The main threat to American institutions is the

infiltration of foriegn ideas, doctrines, etc. .53

58. Never tell the real reason why you do something

unless it is useful to do so. .52

74. Barnum was wrong when he said that there's a sucker

born every day. .46

68. Anyone who completely trusts someone else is asking

for trouble. .36

Dimension 4 (10.5%) SUPREMACY OF NATIONAL INTEREST

54. Present treatment of draft evaders is too lenient.

They deserve more than just prison or work camp. .66

6. Anyone refusing to serve in the army doesn't deserve

to be called an American. .61

41. A person who thinks primarily of his own happiness

is beyond contempt. .49

40. My blood boils when a person refuses to admit that he

is wrong. .48

48. Many people with whom I've discussed social and

moral problems don't know what's going on. .42

56. There will always be wars due to races that grab more

than their share. .37

11. Peace maintained without honor is no longer peace. .36

~j~r 9
10

Table 2 (Continued)

Statement Loadings

Dimension 4 (cont.)

35. Nowadays, a person must be pretty selfish if he

considers primarily his own happiness. .35

Dimension 5 (9.5%) MILITARY ADVENTURISM

3. It was necessary for us to send troops to Cambodia. .62

23. Better a dead hero than a live coward. .55

44. Reserve judgement on what's going on until you have

a chance to hear the opinion of those you respect. .50

2. Everyone has an obligation to serve his country in

the military. .49

5. Our nation's peace and security can only be maintained through defensive military action. .45

Dimension 6 (8.5%) PHILOSOPHICAL CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

29. A man who hasn't believed in some great cause hasn't

lived. .63

27. Throughout history there have been only a few great

thinkers. .57

25. The main thing in life is to do something important. .52

49. Most people just don't know what's good for them. .49

69. The big difference between criminals and most people

is that criminals are stupid enough to get caught. .48

18. Most people just don't give a damn for others. .47

46. The present is all too full of unhappiness. Only

the future counts. .44

28. To hate people for the things they stand for. .43

19. I'd like to find someone to help me. solve my personal

problems. .40

43. We can know what's going on only through reliance

on truthful leaders and experts. .39

Ir
Table 2 (Continued) 11

Statements Loadings

Dimension 6 (cont.)

40. My blood boils when a person retuses to admit he's

wrong. .39

39. There are two kinds of people, those for the truth

and those against it. .36

Dimension 7 (8%) EXTRA-CULTURAL AWAFENESS

17. The world is a pretty lonesome place. .53

72. Most people are basically good and kind. -.46

48. Many people with whom I've discussed social and

moral problems don't know what's going on. .46

55. It would be a mistake to lower European immigration

quotas and allow them to flood the country. -.42

70. Most men are brave. -.39

34. Concerning differences of religious opinion, be

careful not to compromise with contrary beliefs .34

31. Of all the extant philosophies, probably only one

is correct. .31

Dimension 8 (7.3%) ATTITUDINAL RESTRAINT

78. Once I get wound up in a heated discussion I just

can't stop. .50

26. Given a chance, I would do something of great

benefit to the world. -.45

27. Throughout history, there have been just a few great

great thinkers. .38

71. It is wise to flatter important people. -.34

10. There has never been a just war. .34

67. Most people who get ahead in the world lead clean

moral lives. .33

20. It's natural for a person to be rather fearful of

the future. .32

aThe percentage of the cofmon variance accounted for by each

dimension.

Il
12

cross-cultural exposure (no prior traveling and service experience in

-a foreign country vs. yes), childhood residence (rural vs. urban),

geographic location of childhood (southeast states vs. non-south east

states), socio-economic background (lower vs. middle and upper), and

education (high school or lower vs. beyond high school). For each

bi-variable interaction with race, the subject frequencies were

proportionally distributed. Data were gathered from each subject

on all four measurement scales for inter-race as well as inter-rank

comparisons.

Results and Discussions

Intercultural Awareness (IA) Scales

In order to compute a global index of intercultural awareness

level for each subject involved in the present project, the "correct"

response alternatives of each assimilating item was rescaled with

values of 10, 8, 2, 1, in accordance with its rank order of being chosen

as the answer. Such arbitrary assignment of numbers was to differentiate

maximally the awareness (correct) responses from "naive" (incorrect)

responses. A composite score was then obtained for each individual across

all 107 items. Correlation coefficients were further computed for such

composite scores with five other variables -- rank, cultural exposure,

socio-economic background, education, and individuals' average familiarity

score computed across the same assimilating items. It is interesting to

note that among 15 bi-variate correlation coefficients, only three

intercorrelations between rank, education and IA variables were significant

beyond the .05 level. This seems to suggest that intersubcultural

understanding commensurates the individual's knowledge and actual career

experiences with the numbers of other cultures. Without active

participation in common life experiences, the barriers of intersubcultural

stereotypes will never be reduced. Specifically, within the highly

organized Army institution with multi-cultural constitutents, some sort

of effective education and training programs for intercultural awareness

and understanding would be necessary to accelerate the reduction rate of

tensions among enlisted individuals with lower educational backgrounds.

The Machiavellianism Scale

A principal component analysis was applied to all subjects'

responses on the 79 Mach scales for the purpose of identifying their

underlying constructs when applied to the present Army personnel. Eight

resulting dimensions, after being rotated via varimax criterion, yielded

meaningful psychological components. As given in Table 2, Dimension 1,

with high loadings from items regarding honesty, decency and sincerity

with respect to various roles in life, is identified as a Nbrality factor.

The second factor is apparently a Patriotism or EthnocentrismTimension.

It emphasizes the characteristics of an individual's loyalty, unity, and

devotion to citizenship and to their own beliefs. Dimension 3 has high

loadings from items regarding the social pragmatic nature of behavior

and beliefs and is called the Social Pragmatism dimension. Dimension 4

is dominated by two items regarding the issues of military service. The

other salient items emphasize the importance of esprit de corps.
13

Therefore, this dimension is called a Supremacy of National Interest

dimension. Dimension 5, referred to mirit aryad -nture and national

security, is called the Military Adventurism dimension. Dimension 6,

defined by items regarding the importance of philosophical consideration

and understanding of others in daily activities and life patterns, can

be tapped as a Philosophical Conscientiousness dimension. Dimension 7

has salient loadings from items associated with an individual's anxieties

and apprehensions involved in social interactions with others. The

negative attitude toward European immigrants seems to suggest that this

dimension deals more with extracultural than with indigenous cultural

relationships. Therefore, it will be characterized as an Extra-cultural

Awareness dimension. Dimension 8 is dominated by the items reflecting

the restrained status of internal attitudes and/or opinions about

individuals in military careers. Other items are all related to an

individual's judgments and values about the external environment. Therefore,

it will be identified as an Attitudinal Restraint dimension.

The relationship between these Wch dimensions and the IA level

were indexed by the correlation coefficients between an individual's

eight composite factor scores and the IA measure. As shown in Table 3,

the IA measure was negatively correlated, in order, with Social Pragmatism

(Dimension 3), Supremacy of National Interest (4), and Patriotism (2).

The multiple prediction of an individual's IA scores in terms of their

factor composites on the eight Mach dimensions yielded a multiple

correlation R of .45 which was significant beyond the .05 level. The

two most important predictors are Social Pragmatism and National Interest.

The converse relations between the IA and these two dimensions suggested

that those individuals who scored high on the IA scale would tend to

be more tolerant toward the opinion differences of others at both individual

and national levels.

Composite factor scores of all individuals were computed by

averaging their scores on the first five dominating items on each dimension.

The mean values of these composites are given in Table 4 (A) for four

groups of subjects catergorized by race and rank. In order to identify

inter-racial and inter-rank differences as well as similarities in the

resultant eight factors, a multivariate analysis of variance was performed

on the composite factor scores of all individuals. The results are

sunmarized in Table 4 (B). Among three sources of variation, only the

multivariate F value for the Rank variable is significant (P<.001). This

can be attributed to inter-rank differences from three univariate analyses

of the Mach scales. That is, the officers of both races have higher

values than the enlisted men on the dimensions of Patriotism, Social

Pragmatism and Supramacy of National Interest. Such results seem to be quite consistent with the general impression that the officers,

regardless of their ethnicity, have deeper beliefs than the enlisted men

in the importance of an individual's loyalty to national defense and security.

On inter-race comparisons, no overall significant differences were

observed across all eight Mach dimensions. However, dimension 5,

Military Adventurism, did show a significant difference between two

races. While the black personnel of both ranks tend to support such

attitudinal statements as "sending troups to Cambodia", 'better be a

dead hero than be a live coward", and "everyone ought to serve his

country in the military", etc., the white officers are less supportive.

In particular, white enlisted men tend to oppose these actions and
14

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The last factor, V, has high loadings from interesting, open, and

harmoneous on the positive side, and boring, guarded and quarrelsome on

the negatIve side. It is interesting to note that the familiarity

measure on the IA scale has the highest loading on this factor. Since

the familiarity measure only reflects the degree to which each individual

is aware of the existence of the intercultural, discrepant issues presented

in the assimilators, this dimension may suggest the level of willingness

in knowing or accepting the reality of co-working situations. Therefore,

it may be called an Approach/Withdrawal (or Curiosity) dimension.

It should be noted that in this psychosemantic space of perceived

co-workers, the composite IA measure is positively correlated with the

stressful pole of Dimension 2, thus indicating that these Army personnel

having a higher level of understanding of other cultures tend to view

their least preferred co-workers as being tense, guarded uncooperative,

rejecting and hostile. Conversely, other individuals, with a higher

understanding of other cultures would have a less amount of stress or

anxiety when they interacted with people of another culture and thus

would like to have co-workers being relaxed, open, cooperative, accepting,

and supporting. The fact that the IA measure loaded uniquely on this

dimension seems to suggest that an individual's cognitive understanding

of the subjective culture of another race would have no direct association

with such aspects or co-working relations as intimate interpersonal

friendships (dimension I), necessary personality characteristics for

the efficiency of job performance (dimension III), the assertiveness level

of co-workers (dimension IV), and the understanding of the existence of

intercultural discrepancies in interactions (dimension V). The above

results were confirmed by a multiple regression analysis in predicting an

individual's IA scores by their LPC measures with a resultant R of

.50 (p4.01). Two significant predictors were the scales relaxed and

interesting, both of which were markers of the LPC Stress and Curiosity

dimensions respectively.

In order to identify inter-race and inter-rank similarities and

differences on the personality characteristics of the least preferred

co-workers, MANOVA was performed on all 16 individual measures, rather

than on the resultant five factors. This is due to the fact that most

items had multiple salient loadings on the five resultant dimensions.

As indicated in Table 6 (B), the main effect of Race is significant in

the multivariate test with obvious inter-race differences on two items:

helpful/frustrating and close/distant. The multivariate F values for

Rank and Rank-by-Race effects are not significant. But there are three

significant univariate F values in the main effect of Rank from the items

accepting/rejecting, relaxed/tense, and self-assured/hesitant. For

illustrations, within-group mean ratings on the five dominating markers -- each uniquely loaded on a dimension -- are depicted in Figure 1. Three

other items that were significant in the univariate tests are also included.

It is interesting to note that the enlisted men of Army personnel,

regardless of their races, tended to prefer to having a co-worker who

was more relaxed (i.e., on Stress dimension), more interesting (on Curiosity),

but not too self-assured (lower on Egocentrism). Similarly, the officers

reflected by statistically significant lower mean values. However, the

white officers group was an exception on Dimension IV in viewing hesitant

as a dominant personality trait of the least preferred co-worker. Results

on two sclaes frustratlng/helpful and distant/close revealed some

nw
17

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21

interesting intercultural and inter-rank differences in evaluating the

significance of interpersonal relationships in working situations. While

the white officers tended to be neutral about the importance of co-worker's

level at the bipolarities between frustrating and helpful and between

distant and close, the white enlisted men tended todislike those

frutratg ']epf ul and/or distant (not-close) co-workers. On the

other hand, all black personnel, particularly the black enlisted men,

emphasized the importance of close and helpful relationships with their

co-workers. The last column in gure 1 revealed the inter-rank difference

in perception of the least-preferred co-workers. That is, the enlisted

men of both races, especially the blacks tended to be quite conscientious

about their own condition as being rejected or acceted by their co-workers,

the officers on the other hand woulU disregard the importance of such a

condition. The preser~t results strongly suggest that the interpersonal

relation is indeed a critical factor in determining the morale among

co-working members and thus it would affect the stability and efficiency

of the group performance as a whole.

Group Atmosphere Scales (GA)

The group mean ratings on the 10 GAS items were distributed within

a relatively small range, from 4.21 to 6.38 as given in Table 7 (A).

Therefore, the MNOVA of these measures resulted in very few significant

F values as shown in Table 7 (B). This result suggests that all Army

personnel who participated in this study had similar feelings about their

working atmosphere as being pleasant, friendly, o and valuable,

along with other positive characteristicTs. e orgy possible exception to

this general trend is the below-neutral tendency displayed by the white

officers on the scales harmoneous/guarrelsome (mean = 4.32) and selfassured/hesitant (mean = 4.ZLJ. On the other hand, the black offiers

revealed favorable dispositions (i.e., with mean values greater than 4.50)

toward the positive poles of all ten measures. The reasons for such

inter-racial differences require a close examination of all situational

factors in order to determine whether such phenomena are temporary or

longitudinal, or specific in a region or general in the entire Army.

Relationships between the IA index and GAS scores were assessed in

terms of a multiple regression analysis. The resultant multiple

correlation (R = .313) and the 10 individual regression coefficients

were not statistically significant. However, their simple correlation

coefficients with the criterion IA measure were all positive, ranging

from .067 (for frierdly/unfriendly) to .232 (for valuable/worthless).

This suggests that the perceived group atmosphere in the Army is related

to the level of the personnel's understanding of the dynamics involved

in potential conflict issues and/or situations in inter-racial encounters.

Conclusions and Implications

For the purpose of identifying the psychological characteristics

and processes involved in the understanding and changing of an individual's

attitudes, dispositions, and/or some behaviors towards the persons of

another race/culture group in the Army institution, the present study

revealed the following important phenomena: (a) an understanding of the

dynamics involved in potential conflict issues in inter-racial encounters

Ii
I 22

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24

was significantly related to an individual's educational level and

service background in the Army; (b) the individual with a higher level

of such understanding would tend to be more tolerant toward the differences

of opinions of others not only on social issues but also in military

actions and national securities; (c) the increment of an individual's IA

level would significantly decrease one's stress (or anxiety) level in

inter-racial relationships in co-working conditions; (d) significant

inter-race and inter-rank differences were found regarding the preferences

of such personality characteristics of co-workers as rejectng vs.

accepting, distant vs. close, helpful vs. frustratin, etc., e) an

individual's familiarityf ointer-racial conflict issues would not

automatically increase his/her understanding of the dynamics of the

conflicts; and (f) the level of an individual's understanding of the

dynamics of potential inter-racial conflicts was positively related to

his/her feelings about the group anosphere in the working environments.

In sum, the above results suggested two important principles:

(1) intercultural awareness is directly related to an individual's

personality and cognitive style characteristics, and (2) elevation of

an individual's cultural awareness level will definitely improve one's

attitudes, values, and behavioral dispositions toward the members of

another race, and thus decrease intercultural gaps and/or conflicts

in inter-racial communications.

However, since the level of IA was found to be a function of an

individual's educational level and career experience (rank) in the Army,

the elevation of an individual's intercultural awareness will best be

achieved through some form of intercultural education and/or training

programs. In the literature of cross-cultural training, at least six

approaches have been explored (Triandis, 197711, Gudykunst, Hammer,

Wiseman, 197712): (a) the intellectual approach -- the trainees receive

information of another culture by cognitie-Tearning (Downs, 196913,

Fiedler, Mitchell and Triandis, 1971); (b) the area simulation approach --

the physical environment of the host culture is created or simulated

for the trainee's practice (Gudyhunst, Hammer and Wiseman, 1977),

(c) the self-awareness approach -- the individuals receive the training

on T-groupor "new culture groups" for better understanding of him/

herself in order to have better ability to adjust in another culture

(Downs, 1969); (d) the cultural awareness approach -- the trainees are

provided with general iniormation of the target culture (Downs, 1969),

4

*1

11Triandis, H.C. Theoretical framework for evaluating of cross-

*cultural training effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 1977, 1(4), 19-45.

Gudykunst, W.B., Hamer, M.R., & Wiseman, R.L. An analysis of

integrated approach to cross-cultural training. International Journal

of Intercultural Relations. 1977, 1(2), 99-110.

"Downs, J.F. Fable, fancies and failures in cross-cultural

training. Trends, 1969, 2, 3.
25

(e) the behavioral approach -- this approach will teach the trainees

specific behaviors that are used in the target culture (David, 197214,

Brislin and Pedersen, 197615); and (f) the interaction approach -- this

approach provides the trainees with actual interaction experiences with

the members of the target culture (Gudyhunst, Hanner and Wiseman, 1977).

It is clear that although these six approaches are somewhat different

with respect to the emphases and methods used in the actual training

processes, they are basically congruent in applying the same principle

of social psychosemantics -- i.e., the learning of all important

behavioral and cognitive components that govern the attitudes, perceptions

and behavioral dispositions of all individuals in inter-racial interactions.

In other words, in actual inter-racial interactions, not only should the

underlying components of the contexts of communications be isomorphic

between the counterparts of both cultures, but the attribution of such

components to the cross-cultural controversial issues or elements should

be completely understood by all individuals involved.

Therefore, in an ideal inter-cultural training program, the following

variables -- all of which play important roles in psychological processes

in formulating and/or changing each individual's affect, cognition, behavioral

dispositions, and habits -- should be incorporated in the planning of

the program: (1) The characteristics of individuals of both training

and tar et cultures - - the characterizti7oins should incl th objective

Ssubjective cultures of all individuals in the Army co-working

environment -- e.g., attitudes, motivation, values and job satisfaction.

Specifically, the emphasis should be on all individuals' implicit theories

of perceptions and stereotyping of intra- and inter-race persons,

(2) Representative situations and potential controversies exist in interrace relationships within the Ay's co-working environent. U les'I

contents and structures of such situations can be identified, the

training program will lose its focuses and substantive utilities, (3) The pschosemantic meanings of such situations perceived by the

indiviuals of both training and target culture groups. This analysis will

provide a thorough knowledge of the antecedent conditions of the controversies

in the minds of all encounterers, (4) Design of an integrated training

program that will take into consideration allthe inter-race similarities

and differences in both the characteristics of individuals and the

meanings (and structures) of the potential conflict issues and situations.

Under such circumstances the above six cross-cultural training approaches

will be assessed and integrated such that the contents, methods and

length of the training and the selection criteria of the trainers can be

well planned in order to yield the most effective solutions, (S) Scientific

evaluation of inter-cultural trainin effectiveness. The effects of an

inter-cultuirl training (or assimilator) program should be assessed with

respect to such important areas of concerns for the members of both

14David, K. Intercultural adjustment and applications of

reinforcement theory to problems of culture shock. Trends, 1972, 4, 3.

ISBrislin, R. 8 Pedersen, P. Cross-cultural orientation program,

New York: Gardner Press, 1976.
26

training and target cultures as the familiarity of other cultures,

knowledge of the dynamics of inter-cultural conflicts and controversies,

level of attitude and anxiety changes toward the members of another

race, and the achievement of effective inter-racial communications and

interactions. Finally, as far as the Army administration is concerned,

the evaluation should also include the accountability of the total cost

spent for the training operations in terms of their effects on the morale

of all personnel and the improvement of the accomplishment in job

assignents.

i -
27

REFERENCES

Brislin, R. & Pedersen, P. Cross-cultural orientation program,

New York: Gardner Press, 1976.

Christie, R. & Geis, F. L. Studies in Machiavellianism, New York:

Academic Press, 1970.

David, K. Intercultural adjustment and applications of reinforcement

theory to problns of culture shock. Trends, 1972, 4, 3.

Downs, J. F. Fables, fancies and failures in cross-cultural training.

Trends, 1969, 2, 3.

Fiedler, F. E. A theory of leadership effectiveness, New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1767-.

Fiedler, F.E., Mitchell, T.R., & Triandis, H.C. The cultural

assimilator: An approach to cross-cultural training. Journal

of Applied Psychology, 1971, 55, 95-102.

Gudykunst, W.B., Hamer, M.R., & Wiseman, R.L. An analysis of

integrated approach to cross-cultural training. International

Journal of Intercultural Relations. 1977, 1(2), 99-11D.

Landis, D., Day, H.R., McGrew, P.L., Thomas, J.A. & Miller, A.B.

Can a black "culture assimilator" increase racial understanding?.

Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32, 2, 169-183.

Randolph, G., Landis, D. & Tzeng, O.C.S. The effects of time and

practice upon culture assimilator training. International Journal

of Intercultural Relations, 1977, 1(4), 105-119-.

Rice, R.W. Construct validity of the least preferred co-worker score.

Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 85(6), 1199-1237.

Weldon, D., Carlston, D.C., Rissman, A.K., Slobodin, L., & Triandis, H.C.

A laboratory test of effects of culture assimilator training.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 300-310.

Triandis, H.C. (Ed.) Variations in black and white perceptions of the

social environment. Urbn :Uvy- o"P , .

Triandis, H.C. Theoretical framework for evaluating of cross-cultural

training effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 1977, 1(4), 19-45.

Tzeng, O.C.S. & Osgood, C.E. Validity tests for componential analysis

of conceptual domains: A cross-cultural study in methodology.

Behavioral Science, 1976, 21, 69-85.

T
28

REFERENCE NOTES

Day, H.R., Landis, D. & McGrew, P.L., Exploration in cultural

unvierstanding (CSD TR 75-8). Philadelphia: Center or SEial

Development, 1975.

Mitchell, T.R., Dossett, D.L., Fiedler, F.E., & Triandis, H.C.,

Validation evidence for the culture assimilator. (Tech. Rep. 71-82).

Urbana: Uhiversity IT S, 191.

Osgood, C.E., Speculation on the structure of interpersonal intentions.

(Tech. Rep. 39-J Urbana: " - o I ois, 1966.
29

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