RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT:

A RENEWED CALL TO ACTION

The	White	House	Council	on	Women	and	Girls

January	2014
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page ii

   

President Barack Obama signs S. 47, the “Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013,” (VAWA) in

the Sidney R. Yates Auditorium at the U.S. Department of Interior in Washington, D.C., March 7, 2013.

(Official White House Photo by Chuck Kennedy)

It is up to all of us to ensure victims of sexual violence are

not left to face these trials alone. Too often, survivors suffer

in silence, fearing retribution, lack of support, or that the

criminal justice system will fail to bring the perpetrator to

justice. We must do more to raise awareness about the

realities of sexual assault; confront and change insensitive

attitudes wherever they persist; enhance training and

education in the criminal justice system; and expand access

to critical health, legal, and protection services for

survivors.  

President Barack Obama, April 2012
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page iii

This report was prepared by the White House Council on Women

and Girls and the Office of the Vice President.  
Table of Contents

Executive Summary .................................................................................................1

Introduction ..............................................................................................................7

An Overview of the Problem .................................................................................9

The Impacts of Rape and Sexual Assault...........................................................12

Campus Sexual Assault: A Particular Problem .................................................14

The Economic Costs...............................................................................................15

The Criminal Justice Response ............................................................................16

Taking Action to Break the Cycle of Violence...................................................19

Conclusion ...............................................................................................................33

   
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 1

Executive Summary

This report analyzes the most recent, reliable data about rape and sexual assault in our 

country. It identifies those most at risk of being victims of these crimes, examines the 

cost of this violence (both to survivors and our communities), and describes the response, 

too often inadequate, of the criminal justice system. The report catalogues steps this 

Administration has taken to combat rape and sexual assault, and identifies areas for 

further action. 

An overview of the problem: 

 Women and girls are the vast majority of victims: nearly 1 in 5 women – or 

nearly 22 million – have been raped in their lifetimes.1

 Men and boys, however, are also at risk: 1 in 71 men – or almost 1.6 million – 

have been raped during their lives. 

 Women of all races are targeted, but some are more vulnerable than others:

33.5% of multiracial women have been raped, as have 27% of American Indian 

and Alaska Native women, compared to 15% of Hispanic, 22% of Black, and 

19% of White women. 

 Most victims know their assailants. 

 The vast majority (nearly 98%) of perpetrators are male.

 Young people are especially at risk: nearly half of female survivors were raped 

before they were 18, and over one-quarter of male survivors were raped before 

they were 10. College students are particularly vulnerable: 1 in 5 women has 

been sexually assaulted while in college. 

 Repeat victimization is common: over a third of women who were raped as 

minors were also raped as adults. 

Other populations are also at higher risk of being raped or sexually assaulted, including 

people with disabilities, the LGBT community, prison inmates (of both genders), and the 

homeless. Undocumented immigrants face unique challenges, because their abusers 

often threaten to have them deported if they try to get help. 

                                                            

1 Black, M.C., Basile, K.C., Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Walters, M.L., Merrick, M.T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M.R. (2011). The National

Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and

Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

In calculating the prevalence of rape, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) counts completed forced penetration,

attempted forced penetration, or alcohol/drug facilitated completed penetration.  Like other researchers, the CDC considers

attempted forced penetration to fall within the definition of “rape” because that crime can be just as traumatizing for victims.  As

the CDC further explains, the most common form of rape victimization experienced by women was completed forced

penetration:  12.3% of women in the United States were victims of completed forced penetration; 8% were victims of alcohol/drug‐

facilitated completed penetration, and 5.2% were victims of attempted forced penetration.   These are lifetime estimates and a

victim might have experienced multiple forms of these subtypes of rape in her lifetime.   
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 2

The Impacts of Rape and Sexual Assault. Rape and sexual assault survivors often suffer 

from a wide range of physical and mental health problems that can follow them for life – 

including depression, chronic pain, diabetes, anxiety, eating disorders, and post-traumatic 

stress disorder. They are also more likely than non-victims to attempt or consider 

suicide. 

The Economic Costs. Although hard to quantify, several studies have calculated the 

economic costs of a rape, accounting for medical and victim services, loss of 

productivity, decreased quality of life, and law enforcement resources. Each used a 

slightly different methodology, but all found the costs to be significant: ranging from 

$87,000 to $240,776 per rape. 

Campus Sexual Assault: A Particular Problem. As noted, 1 in 5 women has been 

sexually assaulted while she’s in college. The dynamics of college life appear to fuel the 

problem, as many victims are abused while they’re drunk, under the influence of drugs, 

passed out, or otherwise incapacitated. Most college victims are assaulted by someone 

they know – and parties are often the site of these crimes. Notably, campus assailants are 

often serial offenders: one study found that of the men who admitted to committing rape 

or attempted rape, some 63% said they committed an average of six rapes each. College 

sexual assault survivors suffer from high levels of mental health problems (like 

depression and PTSD) and drug and alcohol abuse. Reporting rates are also particularly 

low. 

The Criminal Justice Response. Despite the prevalence of rape and sexual assault, many 

offenders are neither arrested nor prosecuted. A number of factors may contribute to low 

arrest rates – but police biases (e.g., believing that many victims falsely claim rape to get 

attention, or that only those who’ve been physically injured are telling the truth) persist, 

and may account for some officers’ unwillingness to make an arrest. Also, the trauma 

that often accompanies a sexual assault can leave a victim’s memory and verbal skills 

impaired – and without trauma-sensitive interviewing techniques, a women’s initial 

account can sometimes seem fragmented. 

Even when arrests are made, prosecutors are often reluctant to take on rape and sexual 

assault cases – and, in some jurisdictions, the backlog of untested rape kits can also be a 

factor in low prosecution rates. Rape kits – which collect forensic evidence of a rape or 

sexual assault, including the perpetrator’s DNA – can be vital to successful prosecutions. 

Once tested, an offender’s DNA can be matched with other offender samples in the FBI’s 

national database, thus identifying assailants and linking crimes together. Unfortunately, 

however, many rape kits are still sitting on the shelves, either ignored or waiting to be 

tested. 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 3

Breaking the Cycle of Violence

Responding to the President’s 2010 call to action, the Administration is aggressively 

working to combat rape and sexual assault on many fronts. For example: 

 Last year, the President signed the third reauthorization of the Violence Against 

Women Act – the backbone of our nation’s response to violence against women, 

authored and pioneered by then-Senator Joe Biden – which commits unprecedented 

resources to breaking the cycle of sexual violence. Among other measures, VAWA 

2013: 

o Includes set-aside funding for multidisciplinary sexual assault teams; these are 

specially trained units of detectives, prosecutors, healthcare providers and 

victim advocates, all working together to support sexual assault survivors and 

increase the odds of successful prosecutions. These teams have a proven track 

record of winning convictions and helping survivors get back on their feet. 

o Provides new funding for sexual assault nurse examiners (SANEs), who are 

specially trained to provide respectful and supportive care while collecting 

forensic evidence after a rape or sexual assault. Here, too, research shows that 

the work of these nurses both improves victim care and increases rates of 

successful prosecutions. 

o Funds specialized training for law enforcement officers and prosecutors – so 

they can learn how to conduct trauma-informed interviews and investigations, 

and more effectively bring offenders to justice. 

o Includes new protections for LGBT, immigrant, and Native American victims, 

as well as for those who live in low-income or subsidized housing. 

The Administration has also: 

 Undertaken a major effort to make our colleges and universities safer – by issuing 

guidance to help schools understand their obligations to prevent and respond to 

campus sexual assault, and by stepping up federal compliance and enforcement 

actions. 

 Adopted a series of Executive Actions to address sexual assault in the military – 

including measures to improve command accountability, expand victims’ rights 

within the military justice system, increase training across the ranks, and provide new 

support for victims. Notably, Secretary Hagel directed each service to provide all 

victims of sexual assault with legal counsel, who will be at a victim’s side at every 

step of the process. 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 4

 Successfully called on Congress to double funding for VAWA’s Sexual Assault 

Services Program (SASP), the first funding stream to focus specifically on rape and 

sexual assault. SASP provides for a wide array of services, such as crisis 

intervention, counseling, rape crisis centers, medical and social services, 24-hour 

sexual assault hotlines, and medical and legal advocacy. 

 Launched the 1 is 2 Many Campaign to focus on teen and young-adult sexual 

violence. Among a number of other initiatives, the Campaign inspired creation of the 

“Circle of 6” app – which puts a group of friends instantly in touch with each other, 

so someone in trouble can send a “come and get me” message, complete with a GPS 

location map. The Campaign also developed best-practices resources on teen dating 

violence for schools, and convened a series of forums to enlist men in the effort to 

end violence against women. 

 Secured funding for the National Dating Abuse Helpline to expand to digital services, 

which lets teens and young adults reach out for help in a way that they are most 

comfortable – via text messaging and online “chats.” 

 Modernized the definition of “rape” for nationwide data collection, ensuring a more 

accurate account of the crime. 

 Developed a national, best-practices protocol for conducting sexual assault forensic 

examinations. 

 Developed a five-year strategic plan to address the tragedy of human trafficking, 

especially as it impacts runaway, homeless and LGBT youth. 

 Funded projects to reduce the rape kit backlog, with some impressive results. 

 Directed all federal agencies to develop polices to address domestic violence, sexual 

assault and stalking in the federal workforce. 

 Implemented a series of major initiatives to protect American Indian and Alaska 

Native Women, including more resources for tribal law enforcement, court systems, 

and victim services; new penalties for spouse and intimate-partner violence; and 

expanded jurisdiction to allow both federal and tribal authorities to hold domestic 

abusers, whether Indian or non-Indian, accountable. 

 Developed a 56-point action agenda for federal agencies to address the link between 

violence against women and HIV/AIDS. 

 

 Promulgated new guidelines requiring prisons and other detention facilities to 

prevent, detect, and respond to sexual assault.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 5

A Renewed Call for Action

The Administration is committed to redoubling the work it is already doing. At the same 

time, it is also exploring new frontiers. 

Continuing to Focus on Campus Sexual Assault. To make our campuses safer, change 

still needs to come from many quarters: schools must adopt better policies and practices 

to prevent these crimes and to more effectively respond when they happen. And federal 

agencies must ensure that schools are living up to their obligations. To accomplish these 

and other goals, the President today is establishing a White House Task Force to Protect 

Students from Sexual Assault. The Task Force will: 

 Provide educational institutions with best practices for preventing and responding 

to rape and sexual assault. 

 Build on the federal government’s enforcement efforts to ensure that educational 

institutions comply fully with their legal obligations. 

 Improve transparency of the government’s enforcement activities. 

 Increase the public’s awareness of an institution’s track record in addressing rape 

and sexual assault. 

 Enhance coordination among federal agencies to hold schools accountable if they 

do not confront sexual violence on their campuses. 

Increasing Arrest, Prosecution and Conviction Rates. Across all demographics, rapists 

and sex offenders are too often not made to pay for their crimes, and remain free to 

assault again. Arrest rates are low and meritorious cases are still being dropped – many 

times because law enforcement officers and prosecutors are not fully trained on the 

nature of these crimes or how best to investigate and prosecute them. Many new and 

promising interviewing, investigative and prosecution protocols are being developed, 

with cutting-edge science about victim trauma informing the enterprise. We need to 

further develop these best practices and help get them out to the field. 

We can also help local jurisdictions move rape kits off the shelves and into crime labs for 

testing – so more rapists can be identified through DNA and brought to justice. 

Committing Vital Resources. This Administration has made an unparalleled 

commitment to getting victims and survivors the many services they need – from crisis 

intervention, counseling, legal advocacy, medical help, social services, and job and 

housing assistance – and with a special eye on particularly vulnerable populations. We 

cannot retreat, but must recommit to getting these vital resources to those who need them. 

Changing the Culture. Sexual assault is pervasive because our culture still allows it to 

persist. According to the experts, violence prevention can’t just focus on the perpetrators 

and the survivors. It has to involve everyone. And in order to put an end to this violence, 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 6

we as a nation must see it for what it is: a crime. Not a misunderstanding, not a private 

matter, not anyone’s right or any woman’s fault. And bystanders must be taught and 

emboldened to step in to stop it. We can only stem the tide of violence if we all do our 

part. 

   
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 7

Introduction

The numbers alone are stunning: nearly 1 in 5 women – or almost 22 million – have been 

raped in their lifetimes. 

And the numbers don’t begin to tell the whole story. They don’t tell of the physical, 

emotional and psychological scars that a victim can carry for life. They don’t speak to 

the betrayal and broken trust when the attacker is a friend, a trusted colleague, or a family 

member. And they don’t give voice to the courage of survivors who work every day to 

put their lives back together. 

Twenty years ago, then-Senator Joe Biden authored the Violence Against Women Act 

(VAWA) to bring the problem of domestic violence and sexual assault out from the 

shadows and into the national spotlight. In the intervening decades, help has come: rape 

crisis centers have been built; hotlines are up and running; dedicated activists, advocates 

and service providers have more resources; states have passed tough new laws; and more 

abusers and sex offenders have been put behind bars. 

In 2010, President Obama called upon all federal agencies to make domestic and sexual 

violence a priority. And in March 7, 2013, he signed the third reauthorization of VAWA, 

which provides states, tribes, and local communities with unprecedented resources to 

combat sexual assault. This and other federal programs put federal dollars where they are 

most needed and effective: for crisis intervention, counseling, criminal justice advocacy, 

forensic evidence-gathering, medical and social services, law enforcement training and 

prosecutorial resources. In 2012, President Obama directed federal agencies to develop 

policies to address domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking in the federal 

workplace. 

Federal agencies have heeded the President’s call to action in many innovative and wideranging ways. Among other initiatives, the Administration has issued new guidance to 

help schools, colleges and universities better understand their obligations to prevent and 

respond to sexual assault on their campuses; promulgated a series of executive actions to 

better protect our service members from military sexual assault; developed a national, 

best-practices protocol for conducting sexual assault forensic examinations; modernized 

the definition of “rape” for nationwide data collection, ensuring a more accurate 

accounting of the crime; launched new technologically-advanced ways for young women 

to get help; and enlisted men and boys to take an active stand against sexual violence. 

And today, the President is establishing a White House Task Force to Protect Students 

from Sexual Assault – which will go even further to make our schools safer for all 

students. 

 

More of the Administration’s efforts are catalogued in this report – and they are making a 

real difference. 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 8

But despite all the progress, too many of our friends, wives, sisters, daughters and sons 

are still raped or sexually assaulted every day. 

A new generation of anti-rape activists, both women and men, are having a national 

conversation about rape and sexual assault – and about attitudes toward victims and the 

role of the criminal justice system in holding offenders accountable. 

This report aims to be part of that conversation. It provides an overview of the scope of 

the problem, identifies those most at risk, describes the costs of this violence (both to 

survivors and society as a whole), and takes a look at the response of the criminal justice 

system. The report discusses steps this Administration has taken to address rape and 

sexual assault, and identifies challenging new fronts on which we should set our sights.2

 

   

                                                            

2 The terms “survivor” and “victim” are both used to describe individuals who have been raped or sexually assaulted.  Many of these

individuals and the advocates who work with them have come to prefer “survivor,” as they regard the term as more

empowering.  The term “victim,” however, is still in widespread use in research studies and in the criminal justice context.  In this

report, the terms are used interchangeably and always with respect for those who have suffered from these crimes.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 9

An Overview of the Problem

Anyone can be a victim of rape or sexual assault. But some are more at risk than others: 

 Women and girls are the vast majority of victims: as noted, nearly 1 in 5 women has 

been raped in her lifetime.3

 Men and boys, however, are also at risk: 1 in 71 men – or almost 1.6 million – have 

been raped during their lives.4

 

 Women of all races are targeted, but some are more vulnerable than others: 33.5% 

of multiracial women have been raped, as have 27% of American Indian and Alaska 

Native women, compared to 15% of Hispanic, 22% of Black, and 19% of White women.5

 Most victims know their perpetrators: 51% of female victims were raped by a current 

or former intimate partner, and 41% were raped by an acquaintance. Stranger rape, in 

contrast, accounts for 14% of the total.6

 Of men and boys, 52% report being raped by an 

acquaintance and 15% by a stranger.7

 Repeat victimization is common: over a third of women who were raped as minors 

were also raped as adults.8

 The majority of perpetrators are male: 98% of female and 93% of male rape 

survivors report that their assailants were male.9

 Young people are especially at risk: nearly half of female survivors were raped before 

they were 18, and over one-quarter of male survivors were raped before they were 10.10

                                                            

3 Black, M.C., Basile, K.C., Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Walters, M.L., Merrick, M.T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M.R. (2011). The National

Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and

Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [Hereafter cited as NISVS (2010)]   In calculating the prevalence of rape, The

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) counts completed forced penetration, attempted forced penetration, or

alcohol/drug facilitated completed penetration.  Like other researchers, the CDC considers attempted forced penetration to fall

within the definition of “rape” because that crime can be just as traumatizing for victims.  As the CDC further explains, the most

common form of rape victimization experienced by women was completed forced penetration:  12.3% of women in the United

States were victims of completed forced penetration; 8% were victims of alcohol/drug‐facilitated completed penetration, and 5.2%

were victims of attempted forced penetration.   These are lifetime estimates and a victim might have experienced multiple forms of

these subtypes of rape in her lifetime.   4 NISVS (2010) 5 NISVS (2010); Asian or Pacific Islander (API) women are also assaulted. However, the NISVS does not report the prevalence of

sexual violence for API women due to a high standard error or low number of responses. 6 Some women are raped by multiple perpetrators in different relationships. Because a woman may be raped both by an intimate

partner and a stranger, the overall percentages do not sum to 100.   7 NISVS (2010) 8 NISVS (2010) 9 NISVS (2010) 10 NISVS (2010)
A Closer Look at the Demographics   

Teens and young adults.  The majority of 

rape and sexual assault victims are young 

– between the ages of 16 and 24. The 

Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention (CDC) reports that 80% of 

female victims were raped before they 

turned 25, and almost half were raped 

before they were 18.11 Among men, 28% 

were raped before they were 10.12

Some 12% of high school girls report 

having been forced to have sexual 

intercourse.13 And up to 38% of runaway 

teens say that sexual abuse is one of the 

reasons they left home.14 

College students are especially at risk: 

1 in 5 women has been sexually assaulted while in college.15 

People with disabilities.  People with physical or mental disabilities may also be at 

increased risk. A study found that in the mid-1990s, women with severe disabilities were 

four times more likely to be sexually assaulted than women with no disability.16 A more 

recent study made similar findings, reporting that individuals with a disability were three 

times more likely to be raped or sexually assaulted than individuals without a disability.17

LGBT community.  People who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) 

are also uniquely vulnerable. One study found that 13.2% of bisexual men and 11.6% of 

gay men were raped in adulthood, compared to 1.6% of heterosexual men.18 According 

to the CDC, 46% of bisexual women have been raped, compared to 13% of lesbians and

                                                            

11 NISVS (2010) 12 NISVS (2010); “Age at first rape (females)” chart is derived from NISVS (2010). A comparable breakdown for males is not available

because NIVIS (2010) does not report any age categories for males, other than “under 10.” 13 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance. (2011). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services.

14 Greene, J., & Sanchez, R. (2002). Sexual Abuse Among Homeless Adolescents: Prevalence, Correlates and Sequelea. The

Administration on Children, Youth and Families. 15 Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (221153).

Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. [Hereafter cited as CSA (2007)].;  Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C.

H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L (2009) College Women’s Experiences with Physically Forced, Alcohol‐ or Other Drug‐

Enabled, and Drug‐Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since Entering College. Journal of American College Health, 57(6), 639‐647. 16 Casteel, C., Martin, S. L., Smith, J. B., Gurka, K. K., & Kupper, L. L. (2008). National study of physical and sexual assault among

women with disabilities. Injury Prevention, 14(2), 87‐90.   17 Harrell, E. (2012). Crime Against Persons with Disabilities, 2009‐2011 – Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.

Department of Justice. 18 Balsam, K. F., Beauchaine, T. P., & Rothblum, E. D. (2005). Victimization over the life span: A comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual,

and heterosexual siblings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 477‐487. [Hereafter cited as Balsam (2005)]

Under 10

12%

11 to 17

30%

18 to 24

38%

25 to 34

14%

35 to 44

4%

Over 45

2%

Age at first rape (females)
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 11

17% of heterosexual women.19 Another study found that more than 25% of transgender 

individuals had been sexually assaulted after the age of 13.20  

Incarcerated individuals. Sexual assault is a problem in our nation’s prisons. Among 

former state prisoners, 14% of females and 4% of males were sexually assaulted by 

another prisoner. Incarcerated gay and bisexual men are at particular risk: 34% of 

bisexual males and 39% of gay males report being sexually assaulted by another prisoner, 

compared to 3.5% of heterosexual males.21

Undocumented immigrants. While numbers are difficult to estimate, undocumented 

immigrants face unique difficulties. Abusers often threaten to have their victims 

deported if they try to seek help, making immigrant survivors less likely to report these 

crimes.22 Immigrant survivors may also be unaware or confused by the services that are 

available, particularly if service providers lack linguistically or culturally appropriate 

resources.23

People who are homeless. There’s a correlation between homelessness and sexual 

violence. One study found that 13% of homeless women had been raped in the previous 

year, and half of these women were raped at least twice.24 This compares to 1% of 

women nationally who reported being raped in the previous year.25 Additionally, up to 

43% of homeless women were abused as children.26 

 

                                                            

19 Walters, M.L., Chen, J., & Breiding, M.J. (2013). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Findings

on Victimization by Sexual Orientation. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention.

20 Testa, R. J., Sciacca, L. M., Wang, F., Hendricks, M. L., Goldblum, P., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). Effects of Violence on

Transgender People. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 452‐459.   21 Beck, A.J. & Johnson, C. (2012). Sexual Victimization Reported by Former State Prisoners, 2008. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.

Department of Justice. Retrieved from

http://www.prearesourcecenter.org/sites/default/files/library/sexualvictimizationreportedbyformerstateprisoners2008.pdf. 22 Orloff, L.E. & Dave, N. (1997) Identifying Barriers: Survey of Immigrant Women and Domestic Violence in the D.C. Metropolitan

Area. Poverty and Race. 6(4) 9‐10   23 Mindlin, J., Orloff, J.E., Pochiraju, S., Baran, A., & Echavarria, E. (2013).Dynamics of sexual assault and the implications for

immigrant women. National Immigrant Women’s Advocacy Project. Retrieved from: http://niwaplibrary.wcl.american.edu/cultural‐

competency/dynamics‐of‐violence‐against‐immigrant‐women. 24 Wenzel, S.L., Leake, B.D., Gelberg, L. (2000). Health of homeless women with recent experiences of rape. Journal of General

Internal Medicine, 15(4).265‐269. 25 NISVS (2010) 26 The National Center on Family Homelessness (2007). Violence in the lives of homeless women. Retrieved from:

http://www.councilofcollaboratives.org/files/fact_violence.pdf.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 12

The Impacts of Rape and Sexual Assault

Rape and sexual assault can take a profound toll on survivors, who often suffer from a 

wide range of physical and mental health problems that can be long-lasting.

Physical Health  

According to the National Crime Victimization Survey, between 2005-2010, 58% of all 

female victims of sexual assault sustained an injury.27 Women who are raped or stalked 

by any perpetrator or physically assaulted by an intimate partner are more likely to have 

asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and diabetes, and are also more likely to suffer from 

chronic pain, frequent headaches, and difficulty sleeping than non-victims.28 A study of 

women in North Carolina indicated that survivors of sexual assault were more likely to 

smoke, to have high cholesterol and hypertension, and to be obese.29 African American 

women ages 18-24 who are sexually assaulted are nearly five times more likely to test 

positive for a high-risk HPV infection. Also, survivors of intimate partner rape or sexual 

assault are more likely than non-victims to contract sexually-transmitted infections, and 

are also more likely to report HIV risk factors, such as unprotected sex, injection drug use 

and alcohol abuse.30 

Mental Health  

Survivors also suffer from a wide range of mental health problems, including depression, 

anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).31 One study found that over half of 

survivors who were forcibly raped while under the influence of alcohol or drugs 

developed lifetime PTSD. These victims were also almost five times more likely to have 

lifetime major depressive episodes than non-victims.32 

                                                            

27 Planty, M., Berzofsky, M., Krebs, C., Langton, L., & Smiley‐McDonald, H. (2013). Female victims of sexual violence, 1994‐2010.

Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. [Hereafter cited as Planty (2013)] 28 NISVS (2010) 29 Cloutier, S., Martin, S. L., & Poole, C. (2002). Sexual assault among North Carolina women: prevalence and health risk factors.

Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56(4), 265‐271.   30 Wingood, G. M., Seth, P., DiClemente, R. J., & Robinson, L. S. (2009). Association of sexual abuse with incident high‐risk human

papilloma‐ virus infection among young African‐American women. Sexually Transmitted Disease, 36(12), 784‐786.; Bauer, H. M.,

Gibson, P., Hernandez, M., Kent, C., Klausner, K., & Bolan, G. (2002). Intimate partner violence and high‐risk sexual behaviors among

female patients with sexually transmitted diseases. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29(7), 411‐416.; Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention. (2008) Adverse Health Conditions and Health Risk Behaviors Associated with Intimate Partner Violence ‐‐‐ United States,

2005. MMWR. 57(5): 113‐7. Retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5705a1.htm; Lang, D.L., et al.

(2011) Rape victimization and high risk sexual behaviors: longitudinal study of African‐American adolescent females. Western

Journal of Emergency Medicine. 12(3), 333‐342. 31 Many people with PTSD have flashbacks, repeatedly reliving the traumatic event in their thoughts or sleep. People with PTSD also

may startle easily, lose interest in things they used to enjoy, or become more aggressive. National Council on Disability (n.d.). Section

3: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Retrieved from

http://www.ncd.gov/publications/2009/March042009/section3; National Institute of Mental Health (n.d.). Anxiety Disorders.

Retrieved from http://http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety‐disorders/index.shtml 32 Zinzow, H., Resnick, H., Amstadter, A., McCauley, M., Ruggiero, K., & Kilpatrick, D. (2012). Prevalence and risk of psychiatric

disorders as a function of variant rape histories: Results from a national survey of women. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric

Epidemiology, 47(6), 893‐902. [Hereafter cited as Zinzow (2012)]
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 13

 

Survivors of sexual assault are also more likely than non-victims to engage in risky 

behavior – such as substance and alcohol abuse, smoking, and high-risk HIV behavior.33 

Experts believe these are a means of coping with the trauma, or that victims are otherwise 

self-medicating. One study found that when controlling for previous substance abuse 

history, sexual assault survivors were more likely to abuse alcohol than women who were 

not assaulted.34 Another study found that female veterans who experienced sexual 

trauma in the military were twice as likely to report substance abuse, PTSD, and anxiety 

than female veterans who were not assaulted.35

Sexual assault survivors are also more prone to developing eating disorders: one survey 

of undergraduates found that victims were seven times more likely to vomit or use 

laxatives to lose weight than non-victims.36

Survivors of rape and sexual assault are also more likely to attempt or consider suicide. 

Research has found that men who were sexually abused in childhood are twice as likely 

as non-victims to attempt suicide.37 One study found that high school students who were 

raped were more likely to report suicidal ideation in the past 12 months than their nonvictimized counterparts.38 Another study reported that almost half of female veterans 

who were sexually assaulted in the military report suicide ideation.39 

Today, victims may be further traumatized by social media – through which the details of 

an assault can “go viral.” While this is an unresearched issue, a number of high profile 

sexual assault cases have drawn attention to this relatively new and disturbing dynamic. 

                                                            

33 Cloutier, S., Martin, S. L., & Poole, C. (2002). Sexual assault among North Carolina women: prevalence and health risk factors.

Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56(4), 265‐271.; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Adverse Health

Conditions and Health Risk Behaviors Associated with Intimate Partner Violence ‐‐‐ United States, 2005. MMWR. 2008; 57(5): 113‐7.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5705a1.htm; Lang, D.L., et al. Rape victimization and high risk

sexual behaviors: longitudinal study of African‐American adolescent females. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2011; 12(3).;

Kilpatrick, D.G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Sounders, B.E., Best, C.L. (1997). A 2‐Year Longitudinal Analysis of the Relationships Between

Violent Assault and Substance Use in Women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 834‐847. 34 Kilpatrick, D.G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Sounders, B.E., Best, C.L. (1997). A 2‐Year Longitudinal Analysis of the Relationships

Between Violent Assault and Substance Use in Women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 834‐847. 35 Kimerling, R., Street, A., Pavao, J., Smith, M., Cronkite, R. C., Holmes, T. H., & Frayne, S. (2010). Military‐related sexual trauma

among veterans health administration patients returning from Afghanistan and Iraq. American Journal of Public Health, 100(8),

1409–1412.

36 Fischer, S., Stojek, M., & Hartzell, E. (2010). Effects of multiple forms of childhood abuse and adult sexual assault on current eating

disorder symptoms. Eating Behaviors, 11(3), 190‐192.; Gidycz, C. A., Orchowski, L. M., King, C. R., & Rich, C. L. (2008). Sexual

Victimization and Health‐Risk Behaviors. A Prospective Analysis of College Women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(6), 744‐763.   37 Dube, Shanta R. (2005). Long‐Term Consequences of Childhood Sexual Abuse by Gender of Victim. American Journal of Preventive

Medicine, 28(5), 430 ‐ 438‐438.   38 Basile, Lynberg, Simon, Arias, Brener, & Saltzman (2006). The Association between self reported lifetime history of forced sexual

intercourse and recent health risk behaviors: Findings from the 2003 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of Adolescent

Health, 39(5), 752.e1‐752.e7 (available on‐line only). 39 Surís, A., Link‐Malcolm, J., & North, C. S. (2011). Predictors of suicidal ideation in veterans with PTSD related to military sexual

trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(5), 605‐608.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 14

Campus Sexual Assault: A Particular Problem

Sexual assault is a particular problem on college campuses: 1 in 5 women has been 

sexually assaulted while in college.40 The dynamics of college life appear to fuel the 

problem, as many survivors are victims of what’s called “incapacitated assault”: they are 

sexually abused while drunk, under the influence of drugs, passed out, or otherwise 

incapacitated.41 Perpetrators often prey on incapacitated women, and sometimes 

surreptitiously provide their victims with drugs or alcohol.42 Perpetrators who drink prior 

to an assault are more likely to believe that alcohol increases their sex drive – and are 

also more likely to think that a woman’s drinking itself signals that she’s interested in 

sex.43

Most college victims are assaulted by someone they know, especially in incapacitated 

assaults.44 And parties are often the site of the crime: a 2007 study found that 58% of 

incapacitated rapes and 28% of forced rapes took place at a party.45 Notably, campus 

perpetrators are often serial offenders. One study found that 7% of college men admitted 

to committing rape or attempted rape, and 63% of these men admitted to committing 

multiple offenses, averaging six rapes each.46 

College survivors suffer high rates of PTSD, depression, and drug or alcohol abuse, 

which can hamper their ability to succeed in school.47 Depression and anxiety are linked 

to higher college dropout rates, as is substance abuse.48

Reporting rates for campus sexual assault are also very low: on average only 12% of 

student victims report the assault to law enforcement.49 

                                                            

40 The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (2007); The Campus Sexual Assault Study was conducted by RTI International and funded

by the National Institute of Justice. Data were collected using a web‐based survey from undergraduate students (5,466 women and

1,375 men) at two large, public universities.; Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L (2009) College

Women’s Experiences with Physically Forced, Alcohol‐ or Other Drug‐Enabled, and Drug‐Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since

Entering College. Journal of American College Health, 57(6), 639‐647. 41 Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Ruggiero, K. J., Conoscenti, L.  M., & McCauley, J. (2007). Drug facilitated, incapacitated, and

forcible rape: A national study (NCJ 219181). Charleston, SC: Medical University of South Carolina, National Crime Victims Research

& Treatment Center.[Hereafter cited as Kilpatrick (2007)]   42 Ibid. 43 Zawacki, T., Abbey, A., Buck, P. O., McAuslan, P., & Clinton‐Sherrod, A. M. (2003). Perpetrators of alcohol‐involved sexual assaults:

How do they differ from other sexual assault perpetrators and nonperpetrators? Aggressive Behavior, 29(4), 366‐380.   44 The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (2007) 45 The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (2007).   46 Lisak, D., & Miller, P. M. (2002). Repeat Rape and Multiple Offending Among Undetected Rapists. Violence and Victims, 17(1), 73‐

84. [Hereafter cited as Lisak (2002)] 47 Kilpatrick (2007) 48 Eisenberg, D., Golberstein, E., & Hunt, J. B. (2009). Mental Health and Academic Success in College. B E Journal of Economic

Analysis & Policy, 9(1), 1‐35.; Arria, A. M., Garnier‐Dykstra, L. M., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., Winick, E. R., & O'Grady, K. E. (2013).

Drug use patterns and continuous enrollment in college: results from a longitudinal study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs,

74(1), 71‐83.   49 Kilpatrick (2007)  
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 15

The Economic Costs  

Although the economic costs of rape and sexual assault are hard to quantify and the data 

is limited, the existing research indicates that the costs are great. Various research studies 

have examined the quantifiable cost per rape, accounting for such costs as medical and 

victim services, loss of productivity, and law enforcement resources. Researchers also 

generally agree that intangible costs, such as decreased quality of life, though difficult to 

monetize, are also a necessary part of the cost calculus for sexual assault. (Many 

researches, in fact, believe the intangible costs are especially high in cases of sexual 

assault, due to the serious physical and mental health consequences for survivors.) Each 

of the studies we examined used a somewhat different methodology, but all found the 

costs to be significant – ranging from $87,000 to $240,776 per rape.50 

In another study, the National Crime Victimization Survey found that between 2005-

2010, 58% of female sexual assault victims were injured, 35% of whom received medical 

treatment.51 For women who are raped by an intimate partner, about 36.2% are 

physically injured and, of those, 31% receive some type of medical care.52 The injuries 

for intimate-partner rapes range from scratches, bruises, or welts to lacerations, broken 

bones, dislocated joints, head or spinal cord injuries, chipped or broken teeth, or internal 

injuries.53 Nearly 80% of those who receive medical care are treated in a hospital, and 

43.6% of those victims spend one or more nights there.54 

A 2003 CDC report on the costs of intimate partner violence found that the average 

medical cost for victims who received treatment was $2,084 per victimization. In half of 

these cases, private or group health insurers were the primary source of payment; 

survivors bore most of the financial burden one-fourth of the time.55 Many survivors 

incur at least some out-of-pocket costs for their medical care. 

Also among intimate-partner rape survivors, more than one-fifth lose time from paid 

work, with an average loss of 8.1 days. Additionally, over one-eighth report losing time 

from household chores, with an average of 13.5 days lost. Nationally, rape survivors lose 

an estimated 1.1 million days of activity each year.56 

                                                            

50 Miller, T.R., Cohen, M.A., & Wiersema, B. (1996). Victim costs and consequences: A new look. National Institute of Justice.

https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/victcost.pdf; Delisi, M. (2010). Murder by numbers: Monetary costs imposed by a sample of

homicide offenders. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 21, 501‐513.; Cohen, M. A., and Piquero, A.R. (2009) “New

Evidence on the Monetary Value of Saving a High Risk Youth,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 25(1), 25–49. French, Michael T.,

Kathryn E. McCollister, and David Reznik (2010) The Cost of Crime to Society: New Crime‐Specific Estimates for Policy and Program

Evaluation. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 108(1‐2), 98‐109. 51 Planty (2013) 52 NCIPC (2003). Costs of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the United States. Department of Health and Human Services,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, March 2003.  [hereafter referred to as NCIPC (2013)]. 53 NCIPC (2003)   54 NCIPC (2003)   55 NCIPC (2003)   56 NCIPC (2003)
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 16

The Criminal Justice Response

According to the National Crime Victimization Survey, between 2005-2010, only 36% of 

rapes or sexual assaults were reported to the police.57 Male survivors report their assault 

at even lower rates than women.58 But even when sexual assaults are reported, many 

assailants are not arrested and many cases are not prosecuted. 

Arrests

Arrest rates for sexual assault cases are low. According to the National Crime 

Victimization Survey, approximately 12% of the 283,200 annual rape or sexual assault 

victimizations between 2005-2010 resulted in an arrest at the scene or during a follow-up 

investigation.59 

Many factors may contribute to low arrest rates, and these cases can be challenging to 

investigate. However, research shows that some police officers still believe certain rape 

myths (e.g., that many women falsely claim rape to get attention), which may help 

account for the low rates.60 Similarly, if victims do not behave the way some police 

officers expect (e.g., crying) an officer may believe she is making a false report61 – when, 

in reality, only 2-10% of reported rapes are false.62

Sexual assault cases can also be difficult to investigate because of the effects of the 

trauma itself. Victims of rape and sexual assault sometimes have difficulty recalling the 

event, and scientific research has found that the trauma after a crime like rape can 

damage the parts of the brain that control memory.63 As a result, a victim may have 

impaired verbal skills, short term memory loss, memory fragmentation, and delayed 

recall.64 

                                                            

57 Planty (2013) 58 Hart TC, Rennison CM. (2003). Reporting crime to the police: 1992‐2000. Washington DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.

Department of Justice.   59 Planty (2013); The National Crime Victimization Survey is an annual survey of 90,000 households, comprising nearly 160,000

people. Respondents are asked about the frequency, characteristics, and consequences of criminal victimizations. For more

information, visit www.bjs.gov. 60 Page, A. D. (2008). Judging Women and Defining Crime: Police Officers’ Attitudes Toward Women and Rape. Sociological

Spectrum, 28(4), 389‐411.   61 Bollingmo, Guri C. (2008). Credibility of the emotional witness: A study of ratings by police investigators. Psychology, Crime & Law,

14(1), 29‐40. 62 Lisak, D., Gardinier, L., Nicksa, S. C., & Cote, A. M. (2010). False allegation of sexual assault: An analysis of ten years of reported

cases. Violence Against Women, 16(12), 1318‐1334.   63 Bremner, J.D., Elzinga, B., Schmahl, C., & Vermetten, E. (2008). Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in

posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Brain Research. 167(1), 171‐186. 64 Nixon, R. D., Nishith, P., & Resick, P. A. (2004). The Accumulative Effect of Trauma Exposure on Short‐Term and Delayed Verbal

Memory in a Treatment‐Seeking Sample of Female Rape Victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(1), 31‐35.  
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 17

Trauma-related memory loss can also mean cases get dropped: preliminary evidence 

suggests that victims who viewed themselves as giving incoherent accounts to law 

enforcement were less likely to proceed with their cases.65

Whatever the reasons, many victims have lost faith in the system, and believe they were 

ill-treated by those who should be on their side. Some victims report that law 

enforcement officers actively discouraged them from reporting, asked questions about 

their sexual history and dress, and overemphasized prosecution for false reports.66

Survivors who encounter victim-blaming responses from officials have significantly 

higher levels of post-traumatic stress than those who do not.67

Prosecutions

While national prosecution data is not available, some research suggests that prosecution 

rates remain low in many jurisdictions. 

One study indicated that two-thirds of survivors have had their legal cases dismissed, and 

more than 80% of the time, this contradicted her desire to prosecute.68 According to 

another study of 526 cases in two large cities where sexual assault arrests were made, 

only about half were prosecuted.69 Prosecutors were more likely to file charges when 

physical evidence connecting the suspect to the crime was present, if the suspect had a 

prior criminal record, and if there were no questions about the survivor’s character or 

behavior.70

Rape kit testing.  In some jurisdictions, the backlog of untested rape kits may also factor 

into low prosecution rates. After an assault, victims may seek a forensic exam – called a 

rape kit – that includes the collection of the perpetrator’s DNA and documentation of 

injuries or other evidence of rape or sexual assault. Although there is not reliable 

national data, in recent years, media reports have revealed that thousands of rape kits 

have either not been forwarded to crime labs or are backlogged at the labs waiting to be 

tested. 

                                                            

65 Hardy, A., Young, K., & Holmes, E. A. (2009). Does trauma memory play a role in the experience of reporting sexual assault during

police interviews? An exploratory study. Memory, 17(8), 783‐788.   66 Campbell, R. (2006). Rape Survivors' Experiences With the Legal and Medical Systems: Do Rape Victim Advocates Make a

Difference? Violence Against Women, 12(1), 30‐45. [Hereafter cited as Campbell (2006)]; Logan, T., Evans, L., Stevenson, E., &

Jordan, C. E. (2005). Barriers to Services for Rural and Urban Survivors of Rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(5), 591‐616.   67 Campbell, R., & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female veterans: Help‐seeking experiences in

military and civilian social systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 97–106. 68 Campbell, R., Wasco, S.M., Ahrens, C.E., Sefl, T., & Barnes, H.E. (2001). Preventing the “Second Rape”: Rape Survivors’ Experiences

with Community Service Providers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(12).; Campbell, R. (1998). The community response to rape:

Victims’experiences with the legal, medical, and mental health systems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(3), 355‐379. 69 Spohn, C. & Holleran, D. (2004). Prosecuting sexual assault: A comparison of charging decisions in sexual assault cases involving

strangers, acquaintances, and intimate partners (NCJ 199720). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of

Justice.

70 Ibid.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 18

Testing of rape kits can be vital for the prosecution of cases. When a rape kit is tested, a 

unique DNA profile can often be identified and submitted to the FBI’s Combined DNA 

Index System (CODIS). This software platform includes nationwide DNA samples from 

crime scenes, convicted offenders, and arrestees. In this way, crimes like rape and sexual 

assault can be matched to other samples in the database, identifying assailants and linking 

crimes together. 

Law enforcement policies governing which kits should be prioritized for testing are 

inconsistent. In a survey of over 2,000 law enforcement agencies, 44% reported that one 

reason they did not send forensic evidence to a laboratory was because the suspect had 

not been identified; 15% said they did not submit the evidence because a prosecutor 

didn’t request it, and 11% cited the lab’s inability to produce timely results.71 Even when 

law enforcement submits the kit to a crime lab, in some jurisdictions, the evidence 

remains untested for many months. 

Crime labs have struggled over the past decade to meet the demand for DNA testing for 

all types of crimes. And while labs were able to process 10% more cases in 2011 than in 

2009, they also received 16.4% more requests for DNA testing.72 And with demand 

continuing to outpace capacity, the rape kit backlog may continue to grow. 

   

                                                            

71 Ritter, N. (2011). The road ahead : unanalyzed evidence in sexual assault cases. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of

Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. [Hereafter referred to as Ritter (2011)] 72 Nelson, M ,et. al. (2013). Making Sense of DNA Backlogs: Myths Vs. Reality. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, Office of

Justice Programs, U.S. Dept. of Justice.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 19

Taking Action to Break the Cycle of Violence  

On October 27, 2010, the White House Council on Women and Girls and the Office of 

the Vice President held the first national roundtable on sexual assault. Advocates, 

researchers, survivors, and federal officials came together to discuss the problem and the 

federal government’s role in helping bring an end to this violence. As a result of the 

roundtable, federal agencies have undertaken unprecedented efforts to address rape and 

sexual assault. 

The White House Council on Women and Girls and the Office of the Vice President also 

co-host an interagency working group on violence against women. This is a first-of-its 

kind forum for collaboration and information-sharing among key federal agencies about 

best practices to prevent sexual assault and to provide support for victims. This 

interagency group formulated recommendations for reauthorization of the Violence 

Against Women Act and developed other initiatives to respond to President Obama’s call 

for action. 

The Violence Against Women Act

The Violence Against Women Act forms the backbone of our nation’s response to 

domestic violence, dating violence, rape, sexual assault and stalking. Authored by thenSenator Biden, and first enacted in 1994, VAWA addresses the problem on multiple 

fronts: among its many original provisions, VAWA created new, tough penalties for 

abusers, sex offenders and stalkers (and prompted many states to revise their codes); 

strengthened victims’ abilities to get and enforce protection orders; provided incentives

Vice President Joe Biden speaks at the National Domestic Violence Hotline, in

Austin, Texas, Oct. 30, 2013. (Official White House Photo by David Lienemann)  
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 20

for more arrests, investigations and prosecutions of these crimes; gave survivors new 

access to legal representation; encouraged communities to develop special 

multidisciplinary domestic violence response teams; and provided unprecedented 

resources to states, local, and tribal governments and non-profit organizations to provide 

services for survivors. Since passage of VAWA, annual rates of domestic violence have 

dropped by 64%.73 

In recent years, VAWA has expanded to focus even more particularly on sexual assault. 

In 2005, VAWA created the Sexual Assault Services Program (SASP), the first funding 

stream to focus specifically on direct services and advocacy for victims of rape and 

sexual assault. And in March 2013, President Obama signed the third reauthorization of 

VAWA, which made additional changes in the law, and brought new resources to bear on 

the problem. 

VAWA 2013 includes set-aside funding and new purpose areas for multidisciplinary 

sexual assault response teams, sexual assault nurse examiner programs (SANE), 

specialized law enforcement units, and training for criminal justice professionals. This 

new focus will encourage states and local law enforcement agencies to adopt practices 

that have proven effective in holding sexual assault offenders accountable. The Justice 

Department provides technical assistance and support to states as they work to scale up 

these practices. 

The Obama Administration also worked with Congress to ensure that VAWA addresses 

the needs of victims who have historically been overlooked. VAWA 2013 included new 

protections for LGBT victims and encourages states to develop services for LGBT 

communities. Despite opposition from some in Congress, the Administration also 

successfully fought to protect the U visa program that allows immigrant victims to safely 

report crimes, including sexual assault. VAWA 2013 also included a landmark provision 

recognizing the authority of tribes to prosecute domestic violence crimes committed on 

tribal lands regardless of the race of the perpetrator. 

To address the link between violence and housing instability, VAWA 2013 included new 

protections for sexual assault survivors in public and other subsidized housing. Among 

other housing protections, the law requires that survivors of domestic violence, dating 

violence, sexual assault and stalking be permitted to transfer to other available housing if 

necessary. Since most sexual assaults occur in or near the survivor’s residence, this 

provision can be essential to helping survivors reestablish a sense of safety and security. 

The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has issued a notice to 

                                                            

73 Catalano, S. (2012). Intimate Partner Violence, 1993‐2010. U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics.; Additionally,

VAWA has reduced crimes and the subsequent costs to the criminal justice and health care systems. One study found that VAWA

saved an estimated $12.6 billion in net averted social costs in its first 6 years alone. Clark, K. A, Biddle, A., & Martin, S. (2002). A cost‐

benefit analysis of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994. Violence Against Women, 8(4), 417‐428; Erratum. Violence Against

Women, 9(1), 136.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 21

housing providers participating in HUD programs covered by VAWA about these new 

protections and is engaged in rule-making to implement them. 

VAWA 2013 also recognized that certain populations – notably teens and Native 

American women – are particularly vulnerable to sex trafficking, and authorizes funds to 

serve these victims.

Supporting Victims/Survivors

Over the past four years, and at the Administration’s urging, Congress doubled funding 

for VAWA’s Sexual Assault Services Program (SASP). Under SASP, and among other 

services, local rape crisis centers, mental health professionals, and social service 

providers help survivors navigate the criminal justice system. This approach is supported 

by research: survivors who have assistance from an advocate are more likely to have 

police reports taken and less likely to be treated poorly by officers.74 Survivors also 

report less distress after contact with the legal system and upon receiving medical care.75 

SASP also reaches well beyond the criminal justice system – for its grantees serve 

victims whether or not they choose to report a crime. Even at its best, the criminal justice 

system is a limited remedy for the harm many victims have suffered. Thus, SASP 

grantees also provide the emotional and practical support survivors need to rebuild their 

lives – such as crisis intervention, counseling, 24-hour sexual assault hotlines, and 

advocacy at various steps of the road to recovery. Notably, a growing number of 

survivors served by this program are adults who were victimized as children and who are 

only now able to disclose what happened to them and find help. 

Local rape crisis centers report that the current demand for services is outpacing their 

ability to serve those in need. According to the National Alliance to End Sexual 

Violence, one-third of rape crisis centers have waiting lists for counseling services, and in 

some cases the wait is as long as two months.76 

With VAWA funding, DOJ’s Office on Violence Against Women (OVW) has launched 

the Sexual Assault Demonstration Initiative in six sites to improve victim services in 

areas where there is not a specialized rape crisis center. By 2015, this project is expected 

to provide lessons and models that can be replicated in other communities. 

In addition to VAWA funding, the Administration makes important investments in direct 

services for victims under the Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) Victim Assistance and 

Victim Compensation programs. These funds support delivery of crisis intervention, 

counseling, criminal justice advocacy, and compensation for victims of many types of 

                                                            

74 Campbell (2006) 75 Ibid. 76 "2013 Rape Crisis Center Survey." National Alliance to End Sexual Violence. Accessed from: http://endsexualviolence.org/where‐

we‐stand/2013‐rape‐crisis‐center‐survey.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 22

crimes, including rape and sexual assault. The Justice Department’s Office of Victims of 

Crime (OVC) prioritizes sexual assault, and approximately 15% of VOCA Victim 

Assistance funding supports direct services to sexual assault victims. 

Improving the Criminal Justice System

To reduce rape and sexual assault, offenders must be held accountable. Otherwise, a 

broad cycle of violence continues: perpetrators of sexual assault are commonly repeat 

offenders, who commit both multiple rapes and other crimes.77 The strongest predictor of 

sexual assault is a previous sexual assault, which makes rape a particularly crucial crime 

to prosecute.78 

Among other measures, the Department of Justice is working to increase arrest and 

conviction rates by supporting multidisciplinary sexual assault teams; these are specially 

trained law enforcement officers, detectives, prosecutors, healthcare providers and victim 

advocates, all working together to support survivors and increase the odds of successful 

prosecutions. These specialized units have proven effective in combatting domestic 

violence and are a promising model for addressing sexual assault. The evidence collected 

by specialized units is more likely to be useful for prosecution, leading to higher rates of 

prosecution, conviction, and sentencing.79 In VAWA-funded specialized units, sexual 

assault conviction rates are much higher than average, from 60-80%. 

Specialized training for law enforcement and prosecutors. The trauma caused by a 

sexual assault can affect a victim’s ability to interact with law enforcement, recall events, 

and manage emotions. When law enforcement officers understand the physiological 

effects of trauma, they can better elicit information from victims and understand their 

behavior. OVW is partnering with the International Association of Chiefs of Police 

(IACP) to provide training for law enforcement agencies on how to conduct traumainformed sexual assault interviews and investigations. 

Training for prosecutors is equally important. Through a cooperative agreement with the 

organization AEquitas (“The Prosecutors’ Resource on Violence Against Women”), 

OVW supports a range of technical assistance and training to help prosecutors better take 

on sexual assault cases. AEquitas hosts several national training events, conducts legal 

research, and provides prosecutors with around-the-clock case consultation. 

                                                            

77 Abbey, A., Parkhill, M., Clinton‐Sherrod, A. M., Zawacki, T. (2007). A Comparison of Men Who Committed Different Types of Sexual

Assault in a Community Sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(12), 1567‐580.; Lisak, D., & Miller, P (2002). Repeat Rape and

Multiple Offending Among Undetected Rapists. Violence and Victims, 17, 73‐84. 78 Loh, C., Gidycz, C., Lobo, T., Luthra, R. (2005). A Prospective Analysis of Sexual Assault Perpetration Risk Factors Related to

Perpetrator Characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(10), 1325‐348.    79 Jolin, A., Feyerherm, W., Fountain, R., & Friedman, S. (1998). Beyond arrest: The Portland, Oregon domestic violence experiment,

final report (No. NCJRS 179968). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 23

Sexual assault forensic evidence. A key factor in improving prosecution rates for rape 

and sexual assault is the proper collection of forensic evidence – and the Administration 

has made significant advances on several fronts. 

In April 2013, the Justice Department released a revised version of the National Protocol 

for Sexual Assault Medical Forensic Examinations (SAFE Protocol, 2d). The SAFE 

Protocol provides a best-practices guide to conducting medical forensic examinations and 

promotes high-quality, sensitive, and supportive exams for survivors of rape and sexual 

assault. The updated SAFE Protocol includes information on assisting populations with 

special needs such as survivors with limited English proficiency; survivors with 

disabilities; American Indian and Alaska Native victims; military personnel; and lesbian, 

gay, bisexual, or transgender victims. The SAFE Protocol is available at the National 

Criminal Justice Reference Service website at: 

https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ovw/241903.pdf. 

Sexual Assault Nurse Examiners (SANEs) can also be key to effective evidence 

collection. These nurse examiners are trained to provide respectful and supportive care 

while collecting forensic evidence after a rape or sexual assault. In addition to improving 

victim care, SANE programs (like those funded by OVW’s STOP Program) enhance the 

quality of forensic evidence, improve law enforcement’s ability to collect information 

and file charges, and increase rates of successful prosecutions.80 VAWA rural grants are 

also funding SANEs to conduct forensic exams, collect evidence, and provide health care 

to victims in rural communities. 

The Justice Department is also using telemedicine technology to improve the collection 

of evidence. Its Office for Victims of Crime partnered with the National Institute of 

Justice to establish a National Sexual Assault TeleNursing Center at the Massachusetts 

Department of Public Health. The Center will provide 24/7, year-round remote expert 

consultation by SANEs to clinicians caring for adult and adolescent sexual assault 

patients. The three-year cooperative agreement will establish pilot projects at two 

military medical facilities to perform telemedicine consultation during sexual assault 

forensic exams. The Center is expected to be fully operational in 2015, and the project 

will be expanded to include telemedicine sites in Indian country, rural communities, and 

prisons. 

Rape kit backlog. Once forensic evidence has been collected, it needs to be tested for 

DNA – and this Administration has worked proactively to address the nation’s backlog of 

rape kits. 

                                                            

80 Campbell, R., Patterson, D., & Bybee, D. (2011). Using mixed methods to evaluate a community intervention for sexual assault

survivors: A methodological tale. Violence Against Women, 17(3), 376–388.; Campbell, R., Bybee, D., Ford, J., & Patterson, D. (2008).

Systems change analysis of SANE programs: Identifying the mediating mechanisms of criminal justice system impact (No. NCJRS

226497). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.; Nugent‐Borakove, E., Fanflik, P., Johnson, N., Burgess, A., & O’Connor, A. L.

(2006). Testing the efficacy of SANE/SART programs: Do they make a difference in sexual assault arrest and prosecution outcomes?

Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 24

Through its DNA Backlog Reduction Program, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) 

funds 120 state and local crime labs to conduct DNA testing from crime scenes and 

convicted offenders. Rape kits are included in this testing program, but, as noted, law 

enforcement investigators sometimes don’t prioritize these kits for forwarding to a lab. 

Time has shown, however, that DNA is a powerful tool to link crimes together and create 

new investigative leads in rape cases. 

In 2011, NIJ funded pilot projects in Detroit and Houston to inventory their untested kits 

and develop protocols for submitting these kits to crime labs. Final reports are due later 

this year, but preliminary results from Detroit show what can happen when old rape kits 

are tested: from a sample of 569 kits, 32 serial offenders were identified and five 

prosecutions initiated. One of the lessons from this project, however, is that testing alone 

is not enough; when jurisdictions test large volumes of rape kits, they also need the 

resources to follow-up on the leads – which means having trained detectives, victim 

advocates, and prosecutors available and working together to successfully pursue the new 

cases. 

Other cities have taken on their untested kits with mixed results, and NIJ continues to 

study the causes of backlogs and effectiveness of testing programs. NIJ is examining the 

value of testing rape kits from various types of crimes, including stranger, acquaintance, 

and intimate partner rapes. In some of these circumstances, the DNA evidence may not 

be the key to solving that specific crime, but it can create new investigative leads in cold 

cases and help identify serial offenders. The NIJ research projects are designed to 

examine the efficacy and criminal justice outcomes of testing rape kits from various types 

of assaults. 

Another lesson learned from the pilot projects is that survivors have different feelings 

about having their rape kits tested. Survivors have often worked hard to overcome the 

effects of a rape and put their lives back together. The prospect of having an old kit 

tested can bring a flood of emotion: some survivors may still be interested in pursuing 

justice, while others find the toll of reopening old wounds too high. NIJ and OVW are 

researching and exploring approaches to reducing rape kit backlogs that account for 

survivors' rights, needs, and preferences – and specifically, how to notify survivors and 

involve them in the criminal justice process. 

Combating Sexual Assault on Campus

The Federal Government enforces several laws that oblige educational institutions to 

combat campus sexual assault. Title IX requires schools receiving federal funding to take 

necessary steps to prevent sexual assault on their campuses, and to respond quickly and 

effectively when an assault occurs. The Clery Act requires colleges and universities that 

participate in federal financial aid programs to report annual statistics on crime on or near 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 25

their campuses, to develop and disseminate prevention policies, and to ensure victims 

their basic rights.81 

This Administration has undertaken a major effort to better enforce the laws addressing 

rape and sexual assault at educational institutions. In 2011, Vice President Biden and 

Education Secretary Duncan announced new guidance to help schools, colleges and 

universities understand their obligations under Title IX. As a result of the guidance, 

students also have a better understanding about their schools’ responsibilities – and, not 

coincidentally, Title IX complaints are on the rise and student activists are increasingly 

holding schools more accountable. 

The Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) is charged with 

administratively enforcing Title IX in schools. OCR may initiate an investigation either 

proactively or based on a student’s formal complaint. If schools are found to violate Title 

IX, they can be denied federal funds – although OCR must first seek to voluntarily 

resolve the non-compliance before terminating funds. Through this voluntary resolution 

process, OCR has entered into agreements that require schools to develop, among other 

things: 

 Comprehensive plans for educating students and employees about sexual assault; 

 Policies and practices for responding to allegations of sexual violence; 

 Adequate training for school officials charged with responding to complaints; and 

 Policies to ensure that survivors are given the remedies and resources they need to 

continue their educations. 

The Department of Justice, upon referrals from other agencies, can initiate litigation to 

require schools to better address campus sexual assaults. As noted, the Department has a 

number of tools in its toolbox – including Title IX, Title IV of the Civil Rights Act, and 

the Safe Streets Act – that it can use to bring all facets of a school, as well as local police 

departments, into compliance with the law. 

VAWA 2013 amended the Clery Act to mandate that schools develop new initiatives to 

respond to domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault and stalking. The new law 

also strengthens existing provisions in the Clery Act, requiring institutions to bolster 

prevention education programs for students and employees, and to establish procedures 

for responding to incidents of sexual violence on campus. To implement these changes, 

the Department of Education is engaging in negotiated rule-making with the goal of 

publishing a final rule by November 2014. The Department is committed to transparency 

in the rule-making process, and has included advocacy groups and educational 

associations in this endeavor. 

                                                            

81 Several other laws also authorize the Justice Department to investigate campus sexual assaults and to help schools adopt

comprehensive policies and practices to address the problem.  These include Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; the Violent Crime

Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, 42 U.S.C. § 14141 (“Section 14141”); and the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act

of 1968, 42 U.S.C.  3789d (“Safe Streets Act”).
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 26

The Department of Education’s Federal Student Aid (FSA) office is responsible for 

enforcing the Clery Act, and conducts on-site reviews to ensure schools’ compliance with 

the Act. If an institution is found to have violated the Clery Act, FSA directs it to take 

steps to come into compliance and can impose fines for violations. 

The Justice Department’s Office on Violence Against Women administers VAWA grants 

that help colleges and universities create holistic responses to sexual assault on campus, 

including offering victim services, implementing prevention programs, training campus 

law enforcement, and working with school administrators to improve the student 

disciplinary process. 

Because campus sexual assault is the subject of intersecting federal laws, policies, and 

grant programs, it is a key area for improved interagency collaboration. And it is in that 

spirit that, on January 22, 2014, President Obama created the White House Task Force to 

Protect Students from Sexual Assault. The objectives of the task force are to: 

 Provide educational institutions with best practices for preventing and responding 

to rape and sexual assault. 

 Build on the federal government’s enforcement efforts to ensure that educational 

institutions comply fully with their legal obligations. 

 Improve transparency of the government’s enforcement activities. 

 Increase the public’s awareness of an institution’s track record in addressing rape 

and sexual assault. 

 Enhance coordination among federal agencies to hold schools accountable if they 

do not confront sexual violence on their campuses. 

Reaching Teens and Young Adults

In 2011, Vice President Biden developed the 1 is 2 Many Campaign to focus on dating 

violence and sexual assault suffered by teens and young women. As part of this 

initiative, the Vice President solicited ideas from college students nationwide about how 

to prevent violence on campus. An overwhelming number of respondents said one thing: 

get men involved. Consequently, in a series of regional forums, federal agencies and 

communities came together to engage men in the effort to end violence against women. 

The 1 is 2 Many Campaign also recognizes that technology can be a powerful tool to 

help prevent dating violence and sexual assault. In 2011, Vice President Biden and 

Health and Human Services Secretary Sebelius issued an “app challenge” that inspired 

two award-winning mobile apps especially geared toward young people. One of these 

apps – Circle of 6 – puts a group of friends instantly in touch with each other – so 

someone in trouble can send a “come and get me” message, complete with a GPS map to 

show her exact location. This app has been downloaded in 27 countries and was recently 

adapted for use in India. 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 27

Also in 2011, in response to the Vice President’s call to action, the Justice Department 

funded the National Dating Abuse Helpline, which gives teens and young adults access to 

services (such as counseling and information about where to turn) in a way that they are 

most comfortable – via text messaging and online “chats.” The Justice Department 

continues to support these digital services. 

Working with schools. As part of 1 is 2 Many, Vice President Biden also convened 

parents, teachers, educational associations, youth groups, and school counselors to raise 

awareness about teen dating violence and sexual assault. These groups were eager to 

help, but asked for additional guidance on what schools could do. In response, the 

Department of Education sent a “Dear Colleague” letter in 2013 to school districts across 

the country, urging them to address gender-based violence, including sexual assault, and 

to provide training to school personnel – from bus drivers to school nurses – who may 

witness such violence. The letter included a resource packet on teen dating violence with 

information on school-based policies and practices that have proven effective. New 

research has found that school and classroom-based intervention programs can reduce the 

incidence of teen dating violence and sexual harassment by up to 50 percent.82  

Working with men to change social norms. Social norms research reveals that men often 

overestimate other men’s acceptance of abusive behavior towards women and 

underestimate other men’s willingness to intervene when a woman is in trouble.83 When 

men and boys believe that their peers accept sexist and abusive behavior, they are much 

less likely to help. That, in turn, can lead perpetrators to think their actions are 

acceptable – which, of course, perpetuates the violence. Research additionally shows that 

peer attitudes toward sexual aggression have a significant influence on men’s willingness 

to intervene – which means that when men speak out against abuse, other men are more 

likely to step in to neutralize a risky situation and prevent an assault.84

Bystander intervention training seeks to engage men and boys as allies rather than wouldbe perpetrators. It acknowledges that most men are not assailants and that everyone can 

help stop the violence. This sort of training also builds men’s confidence and ability to 

take action – like preventing or interrupting an assault; speaking out against rape 

acceptance myths (e.g., women want to be raped and “ask for it”); and supporting 

survivors. Bystander intervention is integrated throughout the U.S. military’s prevention 

activities, and is also increasingly being taught on college campuses. 

The CDC’s Rape Prevention and Education (RPE) program also funds efforts by states 

and territories to prevent sexual assault. RPE grantees are currently engaged in a range of 

                                                            

82 Taylor, B, Stein, N.D., Woods, D., Mumford, E. (2011) Shifting Boundaries: Final Report on an Experimental Evaluation of a Youth

Dating Violence Prevention Program in New York City Middle Schools  No. NCJRS 236175). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Justice.

83 Berkowitz, A.D. (2010) “Fostering Healthy Norms to Prevent Violence and Abuse: The Social Norms Approach.” Accessed from:

http://www.alanberkowitz.com/articles/Preventing%20Sexual%20Violence%20Chapter%20‐%20Revision.pdf 84 Brown, A.L. & Messman‐Moore, T.L. (2010) Personal and Perceived Peer Attitudes Supporting Sexual Aggression as Predictors of

Male College Students’ Willingness to Intervene Against Sexual Aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(3) 503‐517.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 28

activities, including implementing culturally relevant prevention strategies based on best 

practices, conducting training, and expanding the prevention message through creative 

partnerships. Grantees are working with coaches, boys, men, and the entertainment 

industry to develop innovative prevention strategies. CDC is also funding research grants 

to rigorously evaluate promising practices, strategies, and policies for their impact on 

rates of sexual violence. 

In 2011, the Department of Justice launched the VAWA Engaging Men in Preventing 

Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence program – which funds multi-faceted strategies to 

engage men as allies and influencers of other men. Using social media combined with 

hands-on mentorship, the program aims to develop new male leaders willing to speak up 

about violence against women and girls. 

Addressing sex trafficking. Yong people are among those most vulnerable to human 

trafficking, and runaway, homeless, and LGBT youth are at particular risk.85 In January 

2014, the Administration released the Federal Strategic Action Plan on Services for 

Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States. This five-year plan lays a path for 

further coordination, collaboration, and capacity across governmental and 

nongovernmental entities to support survivors of human trafficking, including youth. 

The Federal Strategic Action Plan is available here: 

http://www.ovc.gov/pubs/FederalHumanTraffickingStrategicPlan.pdf

Addressing the intersection between HIV/AIDS, violence against women, and

gender‐related health disparities.   

Over half of women living with HIV in the United States have been raped, assaulted, or 

stalked by an intimate partner – which is considerably higher than the national rate 

among women overall (56% vs. 36%).86 Recognizing that violence against women and 

girls is a driving factor in the domestic HIV/AIDS epidemic, President Obama created an 

interagency Federal Working Group in 2012 to study this issue, as well as gender-related 

health disparities. Co-chaired by the White House Advisor on Violence Against Women 

and the Director of the Office of National AIDS Policy, the Working Group developed 56 

action items for agencies across the Federal government – including ways for agencies to 

better respond to the health needs of women who have been raped or sexually assaulted, 

and linking primary prevention strategies for intimate partner violence with efforts to 

prevent the transmission of HIV. The Working Group Report can be accessed here: 

http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/vawhiv_working_group_report_final_-_9-6--2013.pdf

                                                            

85 Clawson, H.J., Dutch, M., Solomon, A., & Goldblatt Grace, L. (2009). Human Trafficking Into and Within the United States: A Review

of the Literature. Washington, DC.: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE), U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services. 86 Machtinger, E.L., et al. Psychological trauma and PTSD in HIV‐positive women: a meta‐analysis. AIDS Behavior. 2012; 16(8): 2091‐

2100. ; NISVS (2010)
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 29

Responding to Sexual Assault in the Military

Our military members continue to face the threat of sexual assault within their ranks and 

the Administration bears a unique responsibility to protect the women and men in 

uniform who dedicate their lives to protecting our nation. The President is committed to 

addressing this corrosive problem, which destroys trust among our troops and undermines 

our readiness. Over the past year, the Department of Defense (DOD), in collaboration 

with the White House, has developed a set of executive actions, legislative proposals, and 

training programs to more effectively prevent and respond to sexual assault in the 

military. 

Secretary Hagel has directed a series of executive actions that will improve command 

accountability, expand victims’ rights within the military justice system, and improve 

victim treatment by their peers, co-workers, and chains of command. Most notably, 

Secretary Hagel directed each service to provide legal counsel for all victims of sexual 

assault. This landmark reform will ensure that victims are provided with personalized 

legal advice and representation throughout the legal process. DOD has also developed a 

new curriculum for sexual assault prevention and response training. This training is 

being provided to new recruits, officers preparing to assume command, and senior 

enlisted personnel, and is now expanding to reach all members of the force. 

DOD developed and submitted to Congress two legislative proposals aimed at reforming 

the Uniform Code of Military Justice. These proposals – which were included in the 

National Defense Reauthorization Act – will limit the ability of commanders to overturn 

court-martial findings and reform the pre-trial investigation process to provide greater 

protections for victims. 

In December 2013, President Obama instructed Secretary Hagel and Joint Chiefs of Staff 

Chairman Dempsey to continue their intensive focus on this issue and directed them to 

conduct a full-scale review of their progress by December 2014. Based on the results of 

this report, the President and DOD will consider additional reforms that may be required 

to eliminate this crime from the ranks and protect the men and women who serve our 

nation. 

Protecting American Indian and Alaska Native Women

President Obama is committed to improving safety in Indian country. In 2009, the 

Department of Justice launched a new effort to reduce the high rates of crime on Indian 

reservations, with a particular focus on violence against women. In July 2010, the 

President signed the Tribal Law and Order Act, bringing new resources to build 

infrastructure for tribal court systems and encouraging the hiring of more law 

enforcement officers for Indian lands. Also, the law enhances tribes’ authority to 

prosecute and punish criminals, and authorizes new guidelines for handling sexual assault 

and domestic violence crimes, from training for law enforcement and court officers, to 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 30

boosting conviction rates through better evidence collection, to providing better and more 

comprehensive services to victims. 

Prosecuting crimes in Indian country. The Tribal Law and Order Act also encourages 

United States Attorney’s Offices (USAOs) to designate tribal prosecutors as Special 

Assistant U.S. Attorneys (SAUSA). As a result, many USAOs with Indian country 

responsibility now have tribal SAUSAs who may prosecute cases in federal court. And 

in 2012, OVW launched a Tribal Special Assistant United States Attorney Pilot Project, 

funding eligible tribal prosecutors to pursue violence against women cases in both tribal 

and federal courts and to enhance collaboration between tribal officials and federal 

prosecutors. Tailored to meet the particular needs of each participating tribe, this pilot 

project is designed to improve the quality of cases, the coordination of resources, and the 

communication of priorities both within and between the various law enforcement 

agencies working in these jurisdictions. The Justice Department’s prioritization of Indian 

country crime has made a difference: from FY2009-FY2012, prosecutions have increased 

nearly 54 percent.87

VAWA protections. VAWA 2013 also contains provisions that significantly improve the 

safety of Native women by, among other things, giving federal and tribal law 

enforcement agencies more authority to hold perpetrators of domestic violence 

accountable. The tribal provisions in VAWA closed three significant legal gaps by: (1) 

recognizing certain tribes’ power to exercise concurrent criminal jurisdiction over 

domestic violence cases, regardless of whether the defendant is Indian or non-Indian; (2) 

clarifying that tribal courts have full civil jurisdiction to issue and enforce protection 

orders involving any person, Indian or non-Indian; and (3) creating new federal laws to 

address crimes of violence, such as strangulation, committed against a spouse or intimate 

partner and providing more robust federal sentences for certain acts of domestic violence 

in Indian Country. 

Leading by Example in the Workplace

For some survivors, the effects of sexual assault can follow them to their jobs. If the 

perpetrator was a co-worker or the assault occurred near the workplace, the survivor may 

have ongoing safety concerns. Survivors may need time off from work to attend court 

hearings, go to counseling, or address other issues related to the assault. Employers can 

help by developing policies that address safety, use of leave, and other assistance that 

survivors may need to get their lives back on track. 

In April 2012, President Obama directed federal agencies to develop policies to assist 

victims of domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking in the federal workforce. Led by 

the Office of Personnel Management (OPM), an interagency workgroup evaluated how 

sexual assault affects victims in the workplace, and worked closely with agencies to 

                                                            

87 www.justice.gov/tribal/tloa‐report‐cy‐2011‐2012.pdf
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 31

develop responsive policies. In February 2013, OPM issued “Guidance for AgencySpecific Domestic Violence, Sexual Assault, and Stalking Policies,” which provides 

agencies with guidance to fulfill the goals identified by the President.88 

Reducing Rape in Prisons

In accordance with the Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003 (PREA), the Department of 

Justice released a final rule in May 2012 that requires prisons and other detention 

facilities to prevent, detect, and respond to sexual assault. Four types of facilities are 

covered: adult prisons and jails, lockups, community confinement facilities, and juvenile 

facilities. This regulation is the first federal effort to set standards for all facilities at the 

local, state, and federal levels to protect incarcerated individuals from sexual abuse. 

Facilities must develop and maintain zero-tolerance policies regarding sexual abuse, and 

must also make sure that at-risk populations, including youth, LGBT, and female 

prisoners, are protected. The Justice Department also released a protocol to improve 

responses to sexual assault in prisons and other correctional facilities, which is available 

at: http://ovw.usdoj.gov/docs/confinement-safe-protocol.pdf. 

Improving Data Collection

Collecting data on sensitive issues like rape and sexual assault can be challenging. 

Language, definitions, and survey methods all make a difference in how individuals 

understand and disclose what has happened to them. The federal government uses 

various measures to capture the extent of rape and sexual assault, and each takes a 

different approach. The Administration has been working for several years to enhance 

and improve data collection in this area. 

Uniform Crime Report. The FBI collects data on rapes that are reported to law 

enforcement through the Uniform Crime Report. Until recently, the definition of rape 

used to collect this data was very narrow and outdated, and covered only forcible male 

penile penetration of a female vagina. Nearly all criminal codes have broader definitions, 

but states have only been required to report crimes meeting this narrow definition. In 

2012, the Justice Department modernized its definition to include the various forms of 

assault now understood to be rape. Among other things, the new definition covers 

instances where a victim is incapable of consent (e.g., because of drugs or alcohol), is not 

gender-specific, and includes oral and anal penetration. Because the new definition is 

more inclusive, reported crimes of rape are likely to rise in future years. As Vice 

President Biden noted at the time: “Rape is a devastating crime and we can’t solve it 

unless we know the full extent of it.” 

                                                            

88 Office of Personnel Management, Guidance for Agency‐Specific Domestic Violence, Sexual Assault, and Stalking Policies,”Retrieved

from: http://www.opm.gov/policy‐data‐oversight/worklife/reference‐materials/guidance‐for‐agency‐specific‐dvsas‐policies.pdf.
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 32

National Crime Victimization Survey. A second measure of rape comes from the National 

Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Through in-person interviews and follow-up 

phone calls, this survey collects information about various types of crimes the 

participants may have experienced in the prior six months. Official estimates of rape in 

the NCVS have typically been lower than estimates from other governmental surveys and 

academic research. A panel of experts recently studied NCVS and identified possible 

reasons for this, including lack of privacy for interviews and the fact that questions are 

framed in terms of criminal acts rather than behaviors. 

The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which has responsibility for NCVS, has 

committed to a multiyear project to better understand the possible reasons for the 

underestimation of rape and sexual assault in the NCVS. Toward that end, BJS is 

undertaking a major effort to develop and test survey designs for collecting data on rape 

and sexual assault. This study of 18,100 respondents will compare methods for 

collecting data about rape and sexual assault on the phone, in-person, and by computer. 

Data collection will begin in July 2014 and the project is expected to be completed by 

December 2015. 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey. In 2010, CDC launched the 

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS). This random-digit-dial 

survey uses a public health approach in which respondents are asked about specific 

behaviors they may have experienced in their lifetimes and over the past year. The 

survey collects lifetime and 12-month prevalence data on sexual violence, stalking, and 

intimate partner violence. In addition, the survey collects information on the age at the 

time of the first victimization, demographic characteristics of respondents, demographic 

characteristics of perpetrators (age, sex, race/ethnicity) and detailed information about the 

patterns and impact of the violence by specific perpetrators. The survey also gathers 

information on long-term physical and mental health consequences that may be 

associated with violence. 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 33

Conclusion

Despite the important and unprecedented work being done, there is much more to 

do. And the problems outlined in this report also provide a roadmap for further action. 

As noted, women at our nation’s colleges and universities are at particular risk of being 

sexually assaulted. To make our campuses safer, change needs to come from many 

quarters: schools must adopt better policies and practices to prevent these crimes and to 

more effectively respond when they happen – both by holding offenders accountable and 

giving victims the help they need to physically and emotionally recover. And federal 

agencies must better ensure that schools are living up to their obligations. 

Across all demographics, rapists and sex offenders are too often not made to pay for their 

crimes, and remain free to assault again. Arrest rates are low and meritorious cases are 

still being dropped – many times because law enforcement officers and prosecutors are 

not fully trained on the nature of these crimes or how best to investigate and prosecute 

them. Many new and promising interviewing, investigative and prosecution protocols are 

being developed, with cutting-edge science about victim trauma informing the 

enterprise. We need to further develop these best practices and help get them out to the 

field. 

We can also help local jurisdictions move rape kits off the shelves and into crime labs for 

testing – so more rapists can be identified through DNA and brought to justice. 

This Administration, as noted, has made an unparalleled commitment to getting victims 

and survivors the many services they need – from crisis intervention, counseling, legal 

advocacy, medical help, social services, and job and housing assistance – and with a 

special eye on particularly vulnerable populations. Even so, the demand for these 

services continues to outpace the supply. We cannot retreat, but must recommit to 

getting these vital resources to those who need them. 

And, of course, we must – and can – continue to change our nation’s attitudes about these 

crimes. Sexual assault is pervasive because our culture still allows it to persist. 

According to the experts, violence prevention can’t just focus on the perpetrators and the 

survivors. It has to involve everyone. And in order to put an end to this violence, we as a 

nation must see it for what it is: a crime. Not a misunderstanding, not a private matter, 

not anyone’s right or any woman’s fault. And bystanders must be taught and 

emboldened to step in to stop it. As then Senator Biden said when he was first drafting 

the Violence Against Women Act: 

“Through this process, I have become convinced that violence against women 

reflects as much a failure of our nation’s collective moral imagination as it does 

the failure of our nation’s laws and regulations. We are helpless to change the 
Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action | Page 34

course of this violence unless, and until, we achieve a national consensus that it 

deserves our profound public outrage.” 

The Vice President’s words ring as true today as they did then.