'VF

Technical Report 631

. oMilitary Leadership

Job and Skill Requirements:

LD An Annotated Bibliography

Melvin J. Kimmel and Richard H. Balzer

Personnel Utilization Technical Area

'C- Manpower and Personnel Research Laboratory

Researc U S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

June 1984 ELECTE - MAY 7 ,985

IA .Approved fo ulcrelease.,dsrbto unlimited. 7 18

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al U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

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Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

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EDGAR M. JOHNSON Colonel. IN

Technical Director Commander

I Technical review by Accession For

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1. REPORr NUMIER ' . GOVT ACCESSC0I No III IPIFNT'$ CATALOG NUM&bE

ARI Technical Report 631 J

4. TITLE (end Svubtl0e) TYP PS. OF REPORT A PgftRl-0 COVERED

MILITARY LEADERSHIP JOB AND SKILL REQUIREMEN iS: Technical Report

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 4. PERFORMING ORG. RMPORT NUMBER

7. AUTmOR4(e) 4. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(,)

Melvin J. Kimmel

Richard H. Balzer

P. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADORESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBER$

and Social Sciences

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22333-5600 2Q263743A794

It. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE

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53

'14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & ADDRE'SS(I diffeent ima" Controlling ODI'.Me) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of thie repot)

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences Unclassified

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IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

19. KEY WORDS (Con*lnue in ro'evsr side if necessary and identify by block mamber)

Job requirements Military leadership

Job analysis ,. Noncommissioned officers

Task analysis Commissioned officers

Leadership skills Officer personnel

20. ATRACT (QIwa 4m reoarso sie~ Hf neasy md Identify by block .subet) ii -- A literature search was performed to compile and organize military leadership job and skill requirements references. Eighty-seven references were

annotated and orgrnized alphabetically within two sections: (1) "Job/Skill

Requirements References" containing research-based literature, and (2) "General References," which annotates references that provided an overview of

the field. The "Job/Skills Requirements" section was classified further

according to subject matter (job and/or skill requirements) and the grade

level of the target population. The "General References" were\ (Continued)

DD I JAN 1473 EDITION OF I NOV 65 IS ORSOLETE U S •?1UNCLASSIFIED -

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UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(Whai Date Entertd)

ARI Technical Report 631

20. (Continued)

categorized according to the nature of the report (methodological contributions, conceptual pieces, and/or review reports) in addition to classification by subject matter. /1 1

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UNCLASSIFIED

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Technical Report 631

Military Leadership

Job and Skill Requirements:

An Annotated Bibliography

Melvin J. Kimmel and Richard H. Balzer

Submitted by

Paul A. Gade, Chief

Personnel Utilization Technical Area

Approved as technically adequate

"and submitted for publication by

Joyce L. Shields, Director

Manpower and Personnel

Research Laboratory

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600

Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army

June 1984

Army Project Number Education and Training

DLs 20263743A794

L Approved for public relesae; distribution unlimited.

V
g ARI Research Repots and Technical Reports are intended for spons. rs (f

R&D ta-ks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings r.eay

for implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part

of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recom

mendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

"a-Z

i iv

N•m S.. .. m mm • u mmm m mwum~m~m m~~pm m m mm
FOREWORD

A major goal of the Army Research Inbtitute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences (ARI) is to provide the militar!/ with research-based information on

factor3 that are known to impact significantly on force readiness and competency. Quality leadership is one such factor. ARI and othe r militar-y agencies

have performed a great deal of research over the years to identify leadership

job ana skill requirements. This annotated bibliography compiles and organizes

this literature. It is intended as a resource for all researchers, course designers, instructors, and military leaders concerned with leadership training

and development requirements.

EDGAR M. JOHNSON

U-Z Technical Director

p

UIi-

[_v
MILITARY JOB AND SKILL REQUIREMENTS: AN ANNOTATED BIB.IOGRAPHY

EXECUTIVE 3UMMARY

Requirement:

To compile and organize the existing literature on military leader job

and ski.l requirements.

Procedure:

Literature on the role of the military leader was compiled through com-

"puter literature searches and consultations with military agencies concerned

with leadership job requirements. Published and unpublished manuscripts were

reviewed for their relevance to the required functions and competence of military leaders, and relevant contributions were abstracted. An initial set of

references was reviewed by two agency directors at the U.S. Army Soldier Support Center, and the bibliography was revised in accordance with their suggestions. The resulting set of 87 references was arranged alphabetically

within two sections: "Job/Skill Requirements References," which lists the

research-based literature on leadership job anid skill requirements; and "General References," containing literature that provides a general framework for

the field. Within the two sections, each reference was classified according

to its content area. Literature in the "Job/Skill Requirement3" section was

categorized according to subject matter (i.e., focus on leadership skills

and/or job requirements) and the grade level of the target population (noncommissioned officers, company grade officers, and/or field grade officers).

"General References" were organized according to the nature of the report

(i.e., methodological, conceptual, and/or review references) as well as by

subject matter (leadership skills and/or job requirements).

Findings:

(1) Of the 87 contributions abstracted, 63 items were research-based,

and 24 provided a general overview of the field.

(2) The research literature contained 38 reports describing job analysis

results, 21 items concentrating on leadership skill requirements, and 4 items

are concerned with both job and skill requirements.

(3) Commissioned officers were studied in 58 of the research efforts,

while noncommissioned office-s (NCOs) were included in the target population

of i6 referencec items. Ten o. the commissioned officer research contributions focused on staff rather than command level positions. Of these, three

r described the job requirements of staff officers at all grade levels, five

focused on battalion staff officers, one discussed the job requirements of the

General Staff, and one focused on skill requirements of junior officer staff

- .- positions.

pz vii

itM
(4) With respect to the "General References," 14 focused on methodological issues, 4 provided conceptualframeworks, and 5 summarized past research. U • Thirteen of the "General References" focused on leader job requirements, 8

concentrated on skill requirements, and 3 dealt with both elements.

Utilization of Findings:

* The bibliography will be of immediate value to researchers, course designers, instructors, and military leaders concerned with leadership training

and development requirements.

v

A"

11o

4 vi
Military Leadership Job and Skill Requireme .cs: An Annotated Bibliography

p CONTENTS

page

Introduction .................................................... ..... 1

Job/Skill Requirements References ..................................... 3

General References ..... ........................................... ... 33

List of Tables

Table 4. Military Agencies from Which References Were Requested ....... 2

Table 2. Descriptive Contents of Job/Skill Requirements References.... 4

Table 3. Descriptive Contents of General References ................... 34

aix

!a

Lg

t.

L'• ,

E4
l •MILITARY JOB AND SKILL REQUIREMENTS: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The Armed Forces recognize the need for competent leaders at all command

- levels to accomplish their missions effectively and efficiently. To develop

and train competent leaders requires a thorough analysis of the job require-

* m mentr of individuals in leadership positions and a clear understandirq of the

persoal characteristics, knowledges, abilities, and behaviors necessary to

carry out these requirements. The military has engaged in a great deal of re-

* search over the years in an attempt to identify these requirements, but the

-. literature remains largely disorganized. This annotated bibliography is an

attempt to compile and organize this literature in the hope that it will help

researchers, course designers, instructors, and military leaders to better

understand the leadership process and develop competent leaders.

To identify relevant contributions, computer literature searches were

performed using a number of data bank sources, including the Defense Research

On-L4 '- (DROLES), the National Technical Information System (NTIS), the

Educational Research Information Center (ERIC), and PSYCINFO (formally, Psy-

* chological Abstracts). Descriptors used in the search process included "Job

Analysis," "Task Analysis," "Job Requirements," "Job Performance," "Military

. ' Leadership," "Leadership Training," "Leadership Skills," "Soft Skills," "Noncommissioned Officers," "Commissioned Officers," and "Officer Personnel." In

addition to computer searches, relevant contributions were solicited from S various military agencies concerned with job/skill requirements. Table 1

provides a listing of these agencies.

Table 1

Military Agencies From Which References Were Requested

United States Air Force

U.S. Air Force Academy, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership

U.S. Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

U.S. Air Force Leadership and Management Development Center

. U.S. Air Force Military Personnel Center

U.S. Air Force Occupational Measurement Center

United States Army

U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Center for the Study of

Leadership and Ethics

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral ant Social Sciences

U.S. Army Soldier Support Center, Occupational Survey Division

U.S. Army TraJning and Doctrine Command, Training Development Institute

"United States Navy

r U.S. Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, Manpower and

Personnel Laboratory

U.S. Navy Occupational Data Division

-1

r .
The search process yielded literally hundreds of references. Each was

evaluated and those specifically concerned with military leader job and/or

skill requirements were annotated. A preliminary set of annotated references

was reviewed for completeness and accuracy by U.S. Army Soldier Support Center,

"and additional annotations were developed in line with their suggestions.

The majority of listings in Section I describe research efforts aimed

at identifying job and/or skill requirements of leaders at the various grade

levels. The Section II references provide a more general methodological and

conceptual framework. Included in this section are literature review articles, bibliographies, items discussing procedures for studying job/skill requirements, and articles of a theoretical nature.

The listings are arranged alphabetically within each section. Each section is preceded by a brief introduction, which includes a table that categorizes the various references according to their subject matter and focus. To

further help the reader organize this material, related contributions are crossreferenced, where applicable.

The bibliography does not claim to include all the relevant literature

on the subject. For example, much of the job/skill requirements literature for

leaders at the more senior levels (06 and above) has been omitted since this

literature has already been compiled (Kimmel, 1981) and reviewed (Haythorn,

Kimmel, and Steinberg, 1983). The present bibliography presents annotations

of these two references in Section II.

The vast body of leadership literature from nonmilitary sources also has E• been omitted. In the past, the military has repeatedly used theories and research findings from the private sector to develop its leadership training programs. However, some have questioned the similarity between the two sectors

and argue that the military should increase its own research output. In sympathy to this viewpoint, we have decided to annotate only references directly

bearing on military leadership requirements.

"Although the bibliography is not exhaustive, we have attempted to include

as many of the truly significant items as could be found, read, and evaluated.

"However, it would not be surprising to learn that relevant contributions have

been omitted. Should the reader note such omissions, a phone call or letter

would be sincerely appreciated.

2
1. JOB/SKILL REQUIREMENTS REFERENCES

I The 63 items in this section describe research efforts to identify job

and/or skill requirements of military leaders. Table 2 categorizes each

contribution according to its subject matter and the military grade level of the

target population. Thirty-elght of the research reports describe job analyses

n"' results, 21 concentrate on leadership skill requirements, and four are concerned

with both job and skill requirements.

Commissioned officers were studied in 58 of the 63 research efforts.

Seventeen deal solely with company grade officers, 16 discuss the leadership

requirements of only field grade officers, while 25 include both company and

f-eld grade officers in their target population. Thirteen of the items deal

with th( noncommissioned officer (NCO). Of these, five studied only the NCO,

while the remaining eight used both NCO and commissioned officers in their

-amples. Of the five that focus on NCO job/skill requirements, one concentrates

on the junior NCO (Showel, 1958), one discusses the role of the E9 (Connor,

,1975), and three look at E5-E8 job/skill requirements (Department of the Army,

-- 1977b; Hebein et al., 1983; U.S. Army Sergeants Major Academy, 1979).

While the majority of items focus on command positions, 10 were included

tnat discuss staff officer requirements. Three describe the job requirements of

staff officers at all grade levela (Baker, 1970; Department of the Army, 1976;

Department of tho Army, 1977a); five focus on battalion staff officers (Human

Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4, 1970a, 1970b, 1970c, 1970d;

Powers & DeLuca, 1972); one discusses the job requirements of officers attached

to the general staff (Rossow, 1976); and one identifies the interpersonal,

problem-solving and decision-making requirements of junior officers in

- administrative, nontactical support, and staff jobs (Olmstead & Elder, 1978).

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American institutes for Research. (1 975a) Duty module methodology for officer

management system development. (Research Note 79-33). Alexandria, VA: US

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A08I

267)

One of a nine volume series describing the American Institutes for Research

program to develop officer duty modules, a personnel management system

* concept to cluster tasks statistically and logically. This document

provides an index of the duty module tasks catalogued in Davis et al.

(1975).

Related references: Hadley (4975). ("General References" section).

American Institutes for Research (0975b); Davis et al. (41975); Gilbert

(4975); Korotkin & Davis (0975a, 1975b); Korotkin et al. (1976); Sitterson

et al. (0974); Sitterson & Wintersteen (1974); Stephensen et al. (0973).

("Job/Skill Requirements References" section)

American Institutes for Research (4975b). Duty module methodology for officer

career management system development: Task data bank, task list. (Tesearch

Note 79-34). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences. AD A081 268)

One of a nine volume series describing the American Institutes for Research

program to develop officer duty modules, a personnel management system

concept to cluster tasks statistically and logically. This report lists all

the tasks comprising the 464 duty modules catalogued in Davis et P-1. (1975).

Related references: Hadley (1975). ("General References" section).

"American Institutes for Research (.975a); Davis et al. (1975); Korotkin &

Davis (1975a, 1975b); Korotkin et al. (4976); Sitterson et al. (1974);

Sitterson & Wintersteen (0974). ("Job/Skill Requirements References"

section).

Ammerman, H.L. (4965). A model of junior officer jobs for use in developing

task inventories (Tech. Rep. No. 65-40). Washington, DC: George

Washington University, Human Resources Research Office.

A job description procedure, based on a model of officer job behavior, was

developed to identify janior officer tasks. The model was developed from

existing job descriptions, job information typically provided by interviews

with officers, and an information-processing view of purposive behavior.

Application of the description technique yielded 816 tasks covering troop

leadership and unit management as well as tactical and technical functions.

General statements of work were subdivided into task-level statements of job

activities.

8
Anderson, C.H., Mahnen, H.A., Papajohn, C. & Waldkoetter, R.0. '4970). Officer

Rank Determination By Evaluative Ratings (ORDER) (Technical Research Study

No. 444). Indianapolis, IN: US Army Enlisted Evaluation Center. (NTIS No.

TjedAD708885 )

The objective of this research was to develop a mathematical model which, S•_ when used in conjunction with existing methods of job evaluation, would

assist grade assignments for commissioned officer duty positions (lieutenant

"through colonel). From a criterion sample of 200 officer duty positions,

with descriptions provided by the incumbents, a representative sample of 250

lieutenant colonels and colonels rated these 200 duty positions. Each

officer rated 45 duty positions on four overall factors: (1) Varying Leoels

of Organizational Setting, (2) Positional Responsibility and/or Authority,

(3) Criticality to Organization Mission, and (4) Skilla ard Knowledge Job

Requirements.

Baker, R.A. (4970). Combat job requirements for principal staff personnel:

Division, brigade, and battalion (Tech. Rep. No. 70-23. Ailexandria, VA:

Human Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD722248)

Lists of job requirements for commanders and staff officers at division,

"brigade, and battalion levels were prepared on the basis of interviews with

Sexperienced job incumbents. The preliminary lists were reviewed by job

incumbents and by command and instructor personnel at th, U.S. Command and

General Staff College, the U.S. Army Armor and Infantry Schools, and the

U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC). The lists were revised to take the

review comments into account to reflect the consensus obtained through

school staff conferences on the materials.

Berkowitz, L. (0953). An exploratory study of the roles of aircraft commanders. US Air Force Human Resources Center Bulletin, 53-65, 1-27.

This study explored the behavior and role requirements of aircraft commanders. Commander roles were determined from responses of 50 14-person

B-29 crews in training at Randolph AFB to a 43 item questionnaire. A factor

analysis of the questionnaire responses yielded four factors: Maintaining

"Performance Standards; Behaving in a Nurturant Manner; Acting Upon and

Awareness of Situational Needs; and Maintaining Crew Coordination and

Teamwork.

9
Buchanan, W.J.; Layton, R.H. & Schaefer, R.L. (4978). Company level management

study. Fort Hood, TX: Department of the Army, Headquarters 2nd Armored

Division.

This study sought to identify and describe managerial problems at company

level in terms of the capabilities of the typical unit commander to respond

and comply with the totality of his/her administrative training, logistics,

and personnel responsibilities. Two time-management surveys were

administered within the 2nd Armored Division eliciting information on the

time commanders actually spend and believe they should spend on different

* m•- activities and functions, and a questionnaire was administered to 92 company

/- commanders to assess factors bearing on company level problems. Interviews

were then conducted with 44 company-level commanders on the basis of the

"survey and questionnaire results. It was concluded that the inability to

execute prior planning due to top priority unprogrammed interruptions with

an unrealistic suspense date was the root cause of every negative response

to the questionnaire and the greatest problem of the company commander.

Other findings and related recommendations are presented.

Cavinesq, J.A. & Salter, J.A. (1970). Inventory and selection of leadership

[• tasks for training infantry officer candidates. Alexandria, VA: Human

Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD A026229)

This research was conducted to determine leadership functions ranked high in

priority for formal training by Officer Candidate School (OCS) graduates.

The task inventory, a combination of the Leadership Activity Questionnaire

and additional items, was developed to reflect specific observable behaviors

- required of job incumbents in a variety of distinctly different jobs. The

final inventory was based upon the responses of 200 junior officers in Troop

* Command, Troop Staff, Aviation, Instructor, and Special Forces slots and

-- subsequent sorting procedures by five experienced leaders according to the

importance of the tasks for training. The final instrument containing 63

* •items is presented.

Clement, S.D. & Ayres, D.B. (4976). A matrix of organizational leadership

dimensions. FT Benjamin Harrison, IN: US Army Administration Center.

(Leadership for the 4970s, Monograph No. 8).

** This monograph describes a taxonomy of nine management and leadership

- dimensions and the specific behaviors associated with eaqh according to rank

level (lutenant through general officer). The taxonomy was developed from

an analysis of the leadership and management literature, with special

emphasis on the behavioral studies in the Ohio State University and Michigan

traditions. The nine dimensions were: Communication, Human Relations,

Counseling, Supervision, Technical, Management Science, Decision Making,

Planning, and Ethics. In describing these dimensions by rank level, the

10
authors suggest that there is less of a need for technical and leadership

skills (i.e. Human Relations, Counseling, and Supervision) and an increasing

7" need for ethics (Creating Codes of Behavior) and conceptual skills (Decision

Making, Planning) as one ascends the organizational hierarchy.

Communication skills remain eztremely important at all levels, while the

Management Science (i.e., admininstrative) skills are considered less

important for colonel/general officer than for mid-level positions.

Related references: Clement & Ayres (0971); How to Lead (1979).

("Job/Skill Requirements References" section).

"Clement, S.D. & Ayres, D.B. (1977). Organizational leadership tasks for Army

leadershiý training. FT Benjauin Harrison, IN: US Army Administration

Center. (Leadership for the 4970s, Monograph No. 9).

This monograph is an outgrowth of Monograph No. 8 of the "Leadership for the

1970s" seriws which identified nine skill components/dimensions and related

tasks of the leadership role. The objective of the present monograph was to

elaborate in a more detailed manner on the leadership activities presented

in Monograph No. 8 so curriculum developers could derive learning

"objectives. A modified Instructional System Design procedure was

* implemented. For each of four educational levels (Officer Basic, Officer

Advanced, Command and General Staff College, and War College), the nine

skill components were examined within the context of four catego;'ies

(Individual, Collective, Support, and Organizational Effectiveness Skills).

The components were explicated behaviorally through a deductive process of

clarifying components in terms of competencies, skills, subskilli, critical

tasks, and enabling tasks. Task listings are presented.

Related references: Clement & Ayres (4976). ("Job/Skill Requirement

References" section).

*• • Combined Arms Center (0982). (Lieutenants Leadership Task List). Unpublished

task list. FT Leavenworth, KS: Command and General Staff College.

The Lieutenants Leadership Task List (LLTL) is composed of 64 statements

which provides, in functional terms, what a lieutenant must be able to do as

a leader. An original list of 89 "competencies" was developed by Combined

Arms Center personnel based cn a search of the competency literature, and

the list was then distributed to MACOM and company level service school

personnel to determine the relative importance of each Vompetency. The list

was refined to 61 tasks for use in developing Officer Basic Course learning - objectives.

I• L

:211
SIConnor, J.E. (4'975). Occupational analysis: MOS OOZ, Command Sergeants Major.

Alexandria, VA: US Army Military Personnel Center.

R Five hundred ninety-nine Command Sergeants Major rated 462 tasks on a

relative time spent scale. Respondents were also requested to assess and

comment on the job and training requirements. Comparisons were made between

2; othe five duty positions of the Military Occupational Specialty and between

unit types. In general, there were few differences between duty position

groups or unit type. A description of the Command Sergeant Major job is

- presented from the tabulated data supplied by the MOS OOZ incumbents. It

was recommended that the Command Sergeant Major job be clearly defined and

that the job description be included in all officer training courses.

Cory, B.H.; Johnson, C.D.; Korotkin, A.L. & Stephenson, R.W. (4979). Duty

modules: An approach to the identification and classification of personnel

resources and requirements (Tech. Rep. No.-367). Washington, DC: American

Institutes for Research. (AD A073 745)

Expezimental sets of dut3 modules for officers and enlisted personnel were

r •developed, field tested, and revised. Task inventories based on tentative

4 duty modules were administered to 334 enlisted infantry company personnel

and 5,18 Infantry and Quartermaster Branch officers. The task inventories

queried respondents on the applicability, percent of total time spent on,

and criticality of the duty modules as well as the level of their

involvement in the tasks. Modules were evaluated by preparing unit

capability tables in which the relationships between duty modules and the U mission stttements for organizational units were indicated. The

relationship between duty module performance and unit test scores was

examined within ?5 platoons, and 34 enlisted and 93 officer job content

modules were developed. It was concluded that while the duty module

approach offers promise for personnel selection, assignment, training, and

performance evaluation, methods for weighting the importance and criticality

of module subelements should be developed for broad implementation.

'- Crumpton, A.T. 0.975). The U_.US".7_• rect •A~Mv2Am manager.. _A job analysis model (Student Project Report No. 75-2). FT Belvior, VA: Defense Systems

4 Management School. (NTIS No. ADA026981)

F This study was performed to develop a model of the U.S. Arm, Project Manager

position and to use the model to conduct an analysis of the tasks and

subtasks performed by the Project Manager. A review of pertinent literature

was used to guide the development of the model, which was based on the U.S.

Army Life Cycle Management Model. The job analysis model included

interacting subsystems of the person, job, and environment. A job analysis

ý_ -" task inventory containing 408 action/object statements organized according

to life cycle phases is presented.

L

r1
Davis, W.P.; Hadley, H.o.; Conmy, J.B. Jr.; Marsh, C.N. Jr. & Wallis, M.R.

(1975). Duty module methodolcgy for officer management syem development:

Catalogue of Amy officer duty modules (Research Note 79-32). Alexandria,

* VA: US Army rResearch Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD

* A084 266)

One of a nine volume series describing the American Ins ,itutes for Research

*' program to develop officer duty modules, a personnel management system

concept to cluster tasks statistically and logically. This document

- catalogues 464 duty modules according to 28 functional dimensions (e.g.

Personnel, Intelligence, Operations, and Plans) and lists tasks associated

with each module.

Related references: Hadley (1975). '"General References" section).

b "American Institates for Research (01975a, 1975b); Korotkin & Davis (0975a,

41975b); Korotkin et al. (0976); Sitterson et al. (0974); Sitterson &

Wintersteen (1974). ("Job/Skill Requirements References" section).

"DeLuca, A.L. & Powers, T.R. (097.1). Identification of knowlt ge and skills and

investigation of thought processing. Alexandria, VA. Human Resources

Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD 734305)

This document reports research conducted to identify the knowledge, skills

and thought processes of battalion commanders by six types of maneuver

battalions (Infantry, Lt. Infantry, Mechanical, Airborne, Airmobile, ana

Armored). An inventory was developed and mailed to 80 percent of all

worldwide maneuver battalions to develop a data base on the personal

backgrounds of battalion commanders and their principal staff officers;

functional areas of command (Personnel, Intelligence, Operations, Logistics,

Training, Management, Decision-Making and Leadership); and command-related

topics. Inventory respondents assessed each item in light of current time

spent. Results are presented within each of the eight functional areas.

Related references: Powers & DeLuca (1972). ("Job/Skill Requi4.'ements

References" section).

Department of the Army. (0976). Organizational technical, and logistic data

(Unclassified data) (Field Manual 104-1O-1 ). Washington, DC: US Government

Printing Office.

-. This manual, for use as a planning guide, provides general planning data for

staff officers of all echelons. Data pertaining to Tables of Organization

; •" end Equipment are limited to division, brigade, and armored cavalry

regiments as of November 1975.

41 13
Related references: Department of the Army (1977a). ("Job/Skill

Requirements References" section).

"Department of the Army (4977a). Organizational, technical, and logistic data:

i1 •• Extracts of nondivisional Tables of Organization and Equipment*. (Field

Manual 401-40-2). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

This manual is a planning guide to provide general troop planning data for

staff officers of all echelons in nondivisional units. Each Table of

Organization and Equipment (TOE) extract lists the mission, assignment,

capabilities, basis of cllocation, category, and mobility. Component

elements are listed, where apii.icable.

Related references: Department of the Army (0976). ("Job/Skill

Requirements References" section).

Department of the Army. (4 977b). Soldier's manual of common tasks (Field

Manual 22-2). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

This manual describes tasks required to be performed by all enlisted

a personnel regardless of Military Occupational Specialty. The tasks are

distinguished according to Skill Level and divided into functional areas

(e.g., First Aid,-Communications, Leadership, Training, etc.).

Department of the Army, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

0(967). Study of Signal, Transportation, Ordnance, Ch3mical and

Quartermaster Corps: Interim report phase I. Washington, DC: US Government

Printing Office (NTIS No. AD 848700)

This report examines the Signal, Transportation, Ordnance, Chemical, and

Quartermaster (STOCQ) Corps to determine the functions to te performed by

the officers in those corps in the light of the Army's requirements for

functional specialists, logistics generalists, weapons systems managers,

material managers, and commodity specialists appropriate from 1967 through

1975. Inventories and findings of studies pertaining to the Officer

Personnel Management System are presented, statements of roles and missions

for the branches are developed, and recommendations of the Board of Inquiry

on the Army Logistics System are addressed. The findings of this study were

intended to be used to develop officer personnel management programs. The

major conclusions were: (4) The Army requires officers who are functional

specialists, commodity specialists, and logistics generafists; (2) most

officer positions in the Army are identified by the function to be

performed; and (3) STOCQ branches should be realigned on a functional basis.

14
Elliot, M.P.; Harden, J.T.; Geisler, R.W.; Scott, A.C. & Euske N. (1980). The .,. process and procedures used for jo preparation: Field Artillery and

Infantr fOficers and NCOs (Research Rep. No. 4314). Alenandria, VA: US

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A.109

995)

An extensive list of garrison/administrative tasks was compiled and

administered to 15 officers and 91 noncommissioned officers to obtain

information on the relative time required to perform each task, the

job-holder's estimate of the relative importance )f each responsibility, and

the kind of job preparation needed for effective performance. Training

*m sources for garrison/administrative job prepara-.ion were identified and

compared with the job responsibilities. This information served as a basis

for recommended modifications of the job preparation process for

non-commissioned officers and company and battery officers.

Geisler, R.W.; Harden, J.T.; Best, P.R. & Elliot, M.P. (1979). Missions,

responsibilites, duties, and tRzks of infantry companies and field artillery

batteries. (Research Rep. No. 1288) Alexandria, VA: US Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A099 989)

This report provides a description of the official missions and activities

of Infantry and Artillery units along with individual job responsibilities

and tasks according to official documents. The long range goal was to

design and implement a job preparatory and operational management system to

c " optimize combat efficiency through collective and individual skills

training. The 55 positions selected to identify specific tasks were

believed to be the most common jobs across different Artillery and Infantry

units and considered to be key positions for supervisory, training, and

management responsibilities. The job analyses resulted in the specification

of 127 unit missions, 162 individual activities, and 592 specific job tasks.

The information derived from this report was used to construct job task

inventories for officer and noncommissioned officer duty positions and to

prepare structured interview and observation guidelines.

Gilbert, A.C.F. (1975). Dimensions of certain Arm officer positions derived by

factor analysis (Tech. Rep. No. 269). Alexandria, VA: US Army Reeearch

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A019 002)

•This - research effort attempted to determine the underlying dimensions of

Infantry and Quartermaster officer duty positions described in terms of duty

moduleýs. Task analysis data were collected from 403 Infantry officers and

- 74 Quartermaster officers in representative duty positions described by 93

. •duty modules. The field survey data reflected duties under actual and

simulated combat and garrison conditions. Subjects were grouped by grade,

position title, type of organization and Military Occupational Specialty.

V.
The data were factor analyzed, and the following six factors were obtained:

Unit Command; Operations and Training; Manpower and Personnel; Logistics;

Intelligence; and Troop Welfare. These six factors accounted for 67.43% of

the common variance under combat conditions and 57.19% under garrison

conditions. It was concluded that the duty module concept is an effective

9 strategy for defining Army officer duty positions and identifying

relationships among duty positions, and that training and assignment

decisions could be facilitated through its use.

Hebein, J.; Kaplan, A.; Olmstead, J. & Sharon, B. (0983). NCO leader tasks,

competencies and skills. Manuscript submitted for publication. Alexandria,

VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

The study identified the performance frequency, importance, and difficulty

level of nontechnical tasks for squad leader, E6/E7 section chief, platoon

sergeant, and first sergeant positions. Skills associated with these tasks

were also identified using a modified critical incidents approach. All four

task lists were modified versions of a 1979 first sergeant task list

developed by the US Army Sergeants Major Academy. The lists were

administered to approximately 500 Combat Arms, Combat Service, and Combat

Service Support job incumbents in USAREUR. The report includes descriptive

statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, etc.) for each task according

to rank and branch type.

"Relatea references: US Army Sergeants Major Academy (1979). ("Job/Skill

Requirements References" section).

lHelme, W.H.; Willemin, L.P. & Grafton, F.C. (1971). Dimensions of leadership in

a simulated combat situation (Tech. Rep. No. 1172). Arlington, VA:: US

Army Behavior and Systems Research Laboratory. (NTIS No. AD 734325)

A sample of 900 lieutenants who had taken the Differential Officer Battery

* (DOB) and had one to two years of active duty performed five combat, five

technical, and five administrative simulated exercises. Two thousand single

behavioral observations were coded for each subject and factor analyzed.

The resulting factors were: (0) Combat Leadership, (2) Technical Managerial

Leadership, (3) Team Leadership vs. Personal Resourcefulness, (4) Command of

"Men vs. Individual Technical Effectiveness, (5) Mission Persistence, (6)

Executive Direction, (7) Tactical Staff Skills, and (8) Technical Staff

Skills. The first two factors were the most general and encompassed both

-.• cognitive and noncognitive aspects of leadership activity: It was concluded

that combat aptitudes can be assessed reliably in specific simulated

situations and that DOB adaptations can be effective management tools.

Related references: Helme et al. (1974). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section).

16
Helme, W.H.; Willemin, L.P. & Grafton, F.C. (4974). Prediction of officer

behavior in a simulated combat situation (Research Rep. No..T--2.

Arlington, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences. (AD 779 445)

This report examined the extent to which Differential Officer Battery (DOB)

score& were associated with differential performance in the Officer

Evaluation Center (OEC) simulated exercise and success in combat and

technical administrative assignments. Of the 4,000 junior officers who took

the DOB at entry on active duty, 900 participated in the OEC exercise one to

two years later performing five combat, five technical and five

administrative tasks. Factor scores on the DOB representing major

dimensions of officer characteristics were correlated with officer

performance in the OEC exercise. Officer characteristics, as measured by

the DOB, were differentially predictive of officer behavior in situations

representative of the two major leadership dimensions (Combat and

Technical/Managerial Leadership). The DOB Combat Leadership factor

K. predicted 0EC combat leadership performance. The DOB Scientific Potential

and General Knowledge factors predicted OEC technical/managerial leadership

performance.

ra Related references: Helme et al. (.197-1). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section)

Henriksen, K.F.; Jones, D.R.; Hannam, D.L.; Wylie, P.B.; Shriver, E.L.; Hamill,

B.W. & Sulzen, R.H. (.1980). Identification of combat unit leader skills and

leader-group interaction processes Tech. Rep. No. 440-. Alexandria, VA:

Kinton, Inc. (AD A084 977)

The present research svught to identify those leader skills and leader-group

interactive processes having potential influence on unit performance in

tactical situations. On the basis of an hist• ical review of the leadership

research literature, historical Engagement Simulation (ES) data (i.e. battle

narratives, audio tapes, and net control sheets collected at tactical

engagement simulation exercises), and research staff ES/combat experience, a

listing of leader skill categories was developed. The five skill categories

identified were: (0t) Management, (2) Communication, (3) Problem Solving,

(4) Tactical and (5) Technical. It was suggested that the taxonomy

developed for leader skills and leader-group interaction processes be

utilized to observe and measure behavior during unit tactical performance.

How To Lead: TRADOC Leadership Conference. (1979) FT Benning, GA: US Army

Infantry School.

The TRADOC Leadership Conference was conducted to develop an overall plan

for leadership training and development within the U.S. Army. Eighty

S17
noncommissioned and commissioned officers (E6 through 06) participated in

the development of separate task lists for each grade level, and a small

group of subject matter experts and training development tasks writers

edited the resulting lists. This document presents the ten task lists, each

organized according to the eight leadership dimensions developed by Clements

and Ayres (1976).

Related references: Clement & Ayres (01976). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section).

U

Human Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4. (0970a). Knowledge and

skills inventory, the adjutant S-1 combat arms maneuver battalion (Tech.

Rep. No. D4-70-2). Alexandria, VA: Author. (NTIS No. AD738188)

One of four volumes that describes the knowledge and skill requirements of

the four principal battalion staff officers (S-1, Personnel Officer; S-2,

Intelligence Officer; S-3, Operations/Training Officer; S-4, Logistics

Officer) of six types of maneuver battalions (Infantry, Lt Infantry,

Mechanized, Airborne, Airmobile, and Armored). This report describes S-1

functions. A task inventory covering 48 object areas and 317 related

actions was administered to the staff officers from over 80% of all combat

maneuver battalions worldwide. The staff officers indicated the relative

frequencies, time requirements, difficulty level, and importance of a

variety of tasks within each object area. Results are presented by object

area.

Related references: Human Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4

(0970b, i1970c, .197Od); Powers & DeLuca (1972). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section).

Human Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4. (1970b). Knowledge and

Sskill inventory: The intelligence officer S-2 combat maneuver battalion

(Tech. Rep. No. D4-70-3). Alexandria, VA: Author. (NTIS No. AD738159)

%-2 The second of four reports describing the functions and required skills of

S-- the four principal staff officers. This report describes the requirements

of the Intelligence Officer (S-2) by presenting results of a task inventory

-_ requesting relative frequency, time requirements, importance, and difficulty

level of information for tasks from 48 object areas (e.g., Feeder Reports;

Company Daily Strength Messages; Daily Status Report) thet was administered

to over 80% of all combat maneuver battalions worldwide.

Related references: Human Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4

(•1970a, .1970b, 1970d); Powers & DeLuca (1972). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section).

-18
Human Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4. (1970c). Knowledge and

skills inventory: The operations/training officer S-3 combat arms maneuver

battalion (Tech. Rep. No. D4-70-4). Alexandria, VA: Author. TNTIS No.

AD7381 60)

The third of four reports describing the functions and required skills of

the four principal staff officers. This report describes the requirements

of the Operations/Training Officer (S-3) by presenting results of a task

inventory requesting relative frequency, time requirements, importance, and

OF difficulty level of information for tasks from 48 object areas (e.g., Feeder

Reports; Company Daily Strength Messages; Daily Status Report) that was

administered to over 80% of all combat maneuver battalions worldwide.

Related references: Human Resources Research Organization (097Oa, 1970b,

".1970d); Powers & DeLuca (1972). ("Job/Skill Requirements references"

section).

Human Resources Research Organization, Division No. 4 (0970d). Knowledge and

skills inventory: The lo istics officer S-4 combat arms maneuver battalion

(Tech. Rep. No. D4-70-5). Alexandria, VA: Author. 7NTIS No. AD738161)

The fourth of four reports describing the functions and required skills of

the four principal staff officers. This report describes the requirements

of Logistics Officer (S-4) by presenting results of a task inventory

requesting relative frequency, time requirements, importance, and difficulty

level of information for tasks from 48 object areas (e.g., Feeder Reports;

Company Ddily Strength Messages; Daily Status Report) that was administered

to over 80% of all combat maneuver battalions worldwide.

Related references: Human Resources Research Organization (1970a, 1970b,

4t970c); Powers & DeLuca (0972). ("Job/Skill Requirements References"

section).

Johnson, C.A.; Tokunaga, H.T. & Hiller, J. (1980). Validation of a job

analysis questionnaire against extensive observation. Proceedings of the

22nd Annual Conference of the Military Testing Association. Toronto,

Canada: Canadian Forces Personnel Applied Research Unit.

The authors of this research effort emphasize the importance of using

observational data to validate subjective self-report meabures of job

activity and the advantages of absolute over relative time spent scales.

-;. Ninety-eight noncommissioned and commissioned Infantry officers responded to

a job task inventory designed to elicit accurate absolute time estimates for

each job task, while 56 noncommissioned and commissioned officers from the

same division were observed at work. Significant positive correlations were

obtained between inventory responses and observational data.

119
44, Klemp, G.O., Jr.; Munger, M.T. & Spencer, L.M., Jr. (0977). Analysis of

leadership and management competencies of commissioned and non-commissioned

naval officers in the Pacific and Atlantic Fleets. Boston, MA: McBer and

Company.

This study attempted to identify skills/competencies of naval officers in

the Pacific and Atlantic Fleets using a modified critical incident

Interviews were conducted with 48 commissioned and 52

-noncommissioned officers, yielding approximately 800 critical incidents.

Commanding officers' ratings were obtained to distinguish superior from

average performers. Twenty-seven competencies were identified and factor

analyzed into five basic clusters: Task Achievement, Skillful Use of

Influence, Advising and Counseling, Management Control, and Coercion.

Korotkin, A.L. & Davis, W.P. 0 975a). Duty module relationship to training and

experience requirements in career development and alternate specialty

selections (Research Note 79-37). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A081 229)

This report is one of a series concerned with the duty module concept.

4 •Representative duty module coverage was developed in each of 46 different

Officer Personnel Management System (OPMS) specialties. A matrix was

developed reflecting 174 modules over 46 specialties in order to demonstrate

task clusters common or unique to OPMS specialties. A survey involving 440

respondents, representing 46 OPMS specialties in grade 04-06 was

administered to gather data regarding specialty training. Data were

gathered on duty module and task applicability, percentage of time spent,

and criticality. A quantitative measure of duty module commonality across

"positions and specialties was developed reflecting the ratio of common

modules to total modules within a pair of specialties or positions. An

example of the utility of an index of commonality for OPMS career development

efforts is presented.

Related references: Hadley (41975). ("General References" section).

American Institutes for Research (1975a, 1975b) Davis et al. (1975);

Korotkin & Davis (1975b); Korotkin et al. (1976); Sitterson et al. (1974);

3 Sitterson & Wintersteen (1974). ("Job/Skill Requirements References"

section).

Korotkin, A.L. & Davis, W.P. (1975b). Design and validatio•p of additional dut

modules for Eagineer and Ordnance officer positions (Research Note 79-38).

Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

SSciences. (AD A033 794)

This report is one of a series of nine companion volumes on duty modules.

The present research developed 41 duty modules for use in describing

, -20
positions held by Engineer and Ordnance officers in both Modified Table of

"Organization and Equipment (MTOE) and Table of Distribution Allocations

(TDA) types of organizations. A job analysis was performed using

observation/interview techniques for 50 positions held by Ordance officers

and 50 positions held by Engineer officers. Position descriptions were then

prepared as a basis for new duty modules. A survey which assessed officer

perceptions of the relative applicability, time spent on, and criticality of

various duty modules was then administered to 442 officers in both 1.!OE and

TDA types of organizations to validate duty module descript_.:zo of their

* positions. Three different survey methodologies were used to determine the

most suitable procedure for future surveys.

Related references: Hadley (0975). ("General References" section).

"American Institutes for Research (1975a, 4975b); Davis et al. (1975);

"Korotkin & Davis (1975a); Korotkin et al. (1976); Sitterson et al. (1974);

Sitterson & Wintersteen (0974). ("Job/Skill Requirements References"

Ssection).

Korotkin, A.L.; Hadley, H.I.; Davis, W.P. & Marsh, C.N. (1976). Duty module

methodology for officer career management system. (Research Note 79-39).

Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences. (AD A081 157)

One of a nine volume series describing the American Institutes for Research

program to develop officer duty modules, a personnel management system

concept to cluster tasks statistically and logically. This report provides

a summary of earlier research on duty module development for Ordnance,

Quartermaster and Engineer branches. In addition, a duty module system for

the Armor specialty was developed to expand the generalizability of the

officer management development system.

Related references: Hadley (1975). ("General References" section).

* American Institutes for Research (1975a, .1975b); Davis et al. (.1975);

Korotkin & Davis (0975a, u1975b); Sitterson et al. (0974); Sitterson &

Wintersteen (1974). ("Job/Skill Requirements References" section).

Lange, C.J.; Campbell, V.; Katter, R.V. & Shanley, F.J. (1958). A study of

leadership in Army Infantry platoons (Research Rep. No. 1). George

Washington University, Human Resources Research Office.

The purpose of this study was to obtain information about the on-the-job

"leadership behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective infantry

platoon leaders. Source of data included: (a) Interviews with 281 platoon

members to provide detailed descriptions of leader behaviors in specific

situations, (b) a questionnaire in which platoon members rated platoons and

platoon leaders, (c) ratings of platoon leaders by company commanders, and

21
(d) tests of intelligence and military information given to platoon leaders.

Considerable agreement existed between subordinate and superior ratings. The effective leader was found to: Emphasize performance as the basis of

reward and punishment; use punishment instructively and for motivational

failures; and provide precise information about needed improvement when

reacting to below-standard performance.

?Mohr, S.E. & Helme, W.H. (0975). An analysis of 30 scales of leadership in a

simulated combat situation (Research Memorandum 75-6). Alexandria, VA: US

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD AC76 -f•784)

This report deals with data obtained from 726 lieutenants performing combat,

technical, and administrative tasks during a three-day exercise in a

simulated combat situation. A factor analysis of the original data yielded eight interpretable factors. The purpose of the present research was to

assess the consistency of these eight derived leadership dimensions. A

five-factor solution was found to be most appropriate. These factors were:

iCompleted Staff Work; Quantitative Staff Organization; Combat Mission

Requirements; Effective Team Leadership; and Combat vs. Technical

q •Persistence.

Norris, J.R. & Robbins, J.R. (1977) A feasibility study: The application of duty modules to a front-end analysis of the Command and General Staff College Regular Course. (Unpublished masters thesis). FT Leavenworth, KS: US Army

Command and General Staff College.

This study examined the feasibility and usefulness of applying duty module

methodology in a front-end analysis of the Regular Course, US Army Command

and General Staff College (CGSC). A front-end analysis model using duty modules and the ISD process was developed and applied to structuring the

CGSC curriculum. Comparisons of this hypothetical curriculum and the

current one are discussed. The authors suggest the following: A front-end

analysis of the curriculum following the ISD model; revision of the duty module catalogue; and construction of a "g-oup" duty module for

"command/staff actions.

Olmstead, J.A.; Baranick, M.J. & Elder, B.L. (4978). Research on training for

brigade command groups: Factors contributing to unit combat readiness

(Tech. Rep. No. 78-A18). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research

Organization. (NTIS No. AD A056054)

SThis r' research was performed to identify factors of organizational behavior .•.within brigade command groups which contribute to effective unit

performance. Measures of brigade unit effectiveness were obtained from 11

22
- 7-W 7

I-" CONUS and Hawaii brigades based on unit performance in Computer Assisted Map

Maneuver System (CAMMS) exercises. After the exercises, all players rated

the brigade on various dimensions of organizational processes, supervision,

and control. Brigades whose command groups performed the Army Training and

Evaluation Program (ARTEP) tasks effectively were characterized as

exhibiting control and supervision activities which relate to the

performance of a number of critical organizational processes that had been

'found previously to contribute to unit combat effectiveness.

Related references: Olmstead et al. (0975). ("Job/Skills Requirements

-- References" section).

Olmstead, J.A.; Cleary, F.K.; Lackey, L.I. & Salter, J.A. (.1973). Development

of leadership assessment simulations (Tech. Rep. No. 73-21). Alexandria,

VA: Human Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD 772990)

This report describes the development of three leadership assessment

simulations for use in the Noncommissioned Officer Educational System,

Infantry Officer Advanced Course, Infantry Officer Basic Course, and Officer

Candidate Course for personnel assessment purposes. The simulations were

developed to assess three levels of military personnel on 11 leadership

dimensions. Pilot tests were conducted of the full assessment processes for

each simulation with six naive subjects from appropriate populations. It

was concluded that organizational simulations contribute an aspect to

assessment centers not obtainable through other techniques and can

effectively create an environment that is characteristic of complex

hierarchial organizations.

Olmstead, J.A.; Cleary, F.K. & Salter, J.A. (1975). Functions of battalion

command groups (Tech. Rep. No. 75-14). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources

Research Organization.

This research attempted to identify the functions and associated actions

,- served by battalion command groups related to execution of effective combat

performance to facilitate mc-e efficient training and evaluation. A model

"of command group functioning in combat operations was developed after

"reviewing previous HumRRO projects and making field observations. Candidate

functions for the attack operation selected from the literature were

reviewed and revised by experts. A similar procedure was performed for

defense, delay, and road movements operations. After the four combat

operations were compared to determine commonalities and differences, 23

combat-experienced soldiers rated each function on an importance scale for

each operation separately. Sixteen functions, 75 tasks, and 492 activities

critical to combat performance were identified.

23
r

Related reference: Olmstead et al. (1978). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section).

U Olmstead, J.A. & Elder, B.L. (-978). The use of management games for developin

Amy officers in administrative and staff jobs (Tech. Rep. No. 78-A2).

Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences. (AD A054 994)

A task analysis was undertaken to identify the interpersonal,

problem-solving and decision-making requirements of junior officers working

in administrative, nontactical support, and staff jobs. This information

along with previous literature on management games was used to develop: (4)

a descriptive model of the processes and parameters involved in management

games and (2) a methodology to evaluate the utility of management games for

training and assessment of junior officers in the focal jobs. A framework

and guidance for constructing games and simulations was also developed.

Olmstead, J.A.; Lackey, L.L. & Christensen, E.E. (1971). Leadership actions as

evaluated by experienced company-grade officers (Tech. Rep. No. 71-11).

r •Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization.

This study attempted to determine (a) the desirability of certain leader

* actions for battalion commanders, company commanders, and platoon leaders,

and (b) possible effects of source of commission (ROTC and OCS) and branch

specialty (Infantry, Armor, and Army Aviation) upon the judged desirability

of leader actions. A random sample of 454 experienced officers attending

the Officer Advanced Courses of the U.S. Army Infantry and Armor Schools

rated 36 leader actions categorized into four functional areas (Task

Centralized, Task Decentralized, Social-Emotional Positive Actions, and

Social-Emotional Negative Actions) on desirability for the three command

levels. No differences were found between groups differentiated by source

* •of commission and branch specialty. Differences were found in the

desirability ratings of leader behavior for the three command levels with

decentralization viewed as more important at higher command levels. The

results confirmed the value of emphasizing leader actions rather than

personal attributes in understanding components of effective leadership.

Penner, D.D.; Malone, D.M.; Coughlin, T.M. & Herz, J.A. (1974). Field grad

officer leadership. FT Benjamin Harrison, IN: US Army-Administration Center. (Leadership for the 4970s, Monograph No. 6).

This monograph summarizes the most important leadership behaviors of field

grade officers (major through colonel) as perceived by the field grade

officers, their superiors, and subordinates. While a number of differences

-', •*. existed among the three sets of ratings, there was substantial agreement on

24

41.
• , . • r. . • .•. -• • p• * - - *l • -• . -• • ÷ " ; ;•. _ ' '• n '•• *rW . -. •  ̧ .. ÷ •. . ' .

the most important field grade officer behaviors: Awareness of unit morale,

technical competence, effective communication with subordinates, knowledge

of men and their capabilities, and the establishment of high performance

standards. Field grade officers emphasized making their desires and

expectations known to their subordinates, superiors were concerned with the

., field grade officers' attitude toward their job and with the ethical issue

-of distorting reports, and subcrdinates emphasized field grade officer

personal characteristics. All three groups perceived the field grade

officer as establishing and maintaining too high a level of discipline.

• Powers, T.R. & DeLuca, A.J. (0972). Knowledge, skills and thought processing of

the battalion commander and principal staff officers. (Tech. Rep. No.

72-20). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No.

AD748832)

This report summarizes previous research on knowledge and skill requirements

of the four principal staff officers (SI, S2, S3, S4) from 474 combat

maneuver battalions and commanders of 4164 battalions worldwide. In

addition, a theoretical model of thought processing was generated and tested

using a simulated command post exercise (CPX) with battalion commanders and

4 their staffs. The authors conclude from the results of this program that

0() job analysis techniques are effective in identifying knowledge and skill

requirements of leaders at battalion level, (2) the resulting information

can be used to develop and validate course curriculae, and (3) a simulated

battalion CPX is useful for studying the thought processing of battalion

*" commanders and their staffs.

Related references: DeLuca & Powers (1971); Human Resources Research

Organization (1970a, 4970b, 1970c, ,1970d). ("Job/Skill Requirements

References" section).

r • Reaser, J.M.; Vaughan, M.R. & Kriner, R.E. (0974). Military leadership in the

seventies: A closer look at dimensions of military leader bihavior (T`ech".

Rep. No. 4-13-3-UT.lexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization.

The objective of this research was to develop a survey instrument to assess

Army leader behavior. Six criterion scales were included measuring

performance and satisfaction. The 1800 returned questionnaires covered the

ranks of E2-E9, Warrant Officer, and 04-07. Final item selection was based

on factor analysis results which yielded four interpretable dimensions of

leader behavior: (0) Task Professionalism, (2) Task-oriented Consideration,

(3) People-oriented Consideration, and (4) Personal Interpersonal

Professionalism. The four dimensions of leader behavior were used as

* independent variables in a stepwise mult4.ple regression procedure with the

satisfaction and six outcome measures. It was concluded that leader

Y) •behavior is highly related to performance and satisfaction ratings. A

25
two-dimensional paradigm is presented to interpret the dimensions. This

conceptual model differentiates between task and socio-emotional types of

leadership behavior on one dimension and between types of demands placed on 3 •the leader on the second dimension.

Rossow, A.F. (1976) The relationship between the G-2 and the G-3: Should we

have both a G-2 and G-3? (Unpublished master's thesis). FT Leavenworth,

KS: US Army Command and General Staff College. (NTIS No. AD A029678)

Interviews were conducted with representatives of German, British and French

armies concerning the staff relationships in their respective countries to

examine relationships in foreign and US Army staffs and the functional

responsibilities of the G-2 and G-3. Additionally, an examination was made

of divisions today and the allocation of resourcea between the intelligence

and operations fields/staffs. The author suggests that resources for the

intelligence field should be drastically increased to achieve combat

readiness.

Salter, J.A. & Jacobs, T.O. (1973). Leadership instruction for Infantr officer

candidates: Terminal training objectives. (Tech. Rep. No. 73-66).

Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization.

The research was designed to assist in the systems engineering of the Army

Infantry officer candidate leadership program. A previously developed

leadership task list was refined by subject matter experts as the original

* broad and complex tasks were -,ubdivided into more easily trainable subtasks.

* Fifteen terminal training objectives also were developed.

Sebree, E.B. (.1961). Leadership at higher levels of command as viewed y senior

and experienced combat commanders Research Memorandum). Monterey, CA: US

Army Leadership Human Research Unit.

The objective of this research project was to obtain information on: (0)

characteristics of higher-level leadership in contrast to leadership below

* division level, (2) the knowledge of psychology or sociology required by

- "high commanders, (3) leader traits important to high-level leadership, and

(4) the impact of the group and situation upon the exercise of high-level

., leadership. More than 400 senior officers with command and/or staff

experience were questioned. This paper is a compilation~of information

obtained from this survey, supplemented by other material such as official

records and biographies.

Showel, M. & Peterson, G.W. (1958). A critical incident stud of Infantry,

Airborne,_ and Armored junior noncommissioned officers (Staff Memorandum Task

26
NCO I). Washington, DC: The George Washington University, Human Resources

Research Office.

This research was conducted to provide source material for the development

of a junior noncommissioned officer training program. Critical incidents

interviews were held with 135 subordinates and 435 superiors of junior

noncommissioned officers in infantry, airborne, and armored units, stationed

in Europe during the summer of 1957. Subjects described three successful

and three unsuccessful instances of squad leader performance. Analysis of

1600 critical incidents yielded 3,946 specific significant behaviors which

were classified into 26 sub-areas and then grouped into nine general areas.

The nine general areas identified were: Planning and Foresight; Information 

Teaching and Briefing; Supervising and Checking; Correcting and Rewarding or

Punishing; Manner of Dealing with Subordinates; Concern with Welfare of Men;

Attitude Toward Job; Deportment; and Technical Job Knowledge and Ability.

The nine general areas are described, and frequencies of successful and

unsuccessful behaviors assiciated with those categories are presented.

Sitterson, D.D. Jr.; Davis, W.P. & Korotkin, A.L. (1974). Development of

criteria dimension for evaluation of performance and career development of

G entry-level officers (ResearchRepj.No. 79-36). Alexandria, VA: US Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD AOSL 521)

One of a nine volume series describing the American Institutes for Research

program tu develop officer duty modules, a personnel management system

concept to cluster tasks statistically and logically. Job schedules of

lieutenant positions were examined; nine job performance dimensions were

developed that summarized the duties of entry-level officers, (e.g., Attends

to Administrative Details; Prepares Correspondence, Memoranda and Reports);

previously determined duty modules were categorized under each dimension;

and a matrix was developed of job dimensions by entry level positions,

arrayed by OPMS specialty.

Related references: Hadley (01975). ("General References" section).

American Institutes for Research (1975b); Davis et al. (1975); Korotkin &

* • Davis %(0975a, 4975b); Korotkin et al. (1976); Sitterson & Wintersteen

(1974). ("Job/Skill Re-uirements References" section).

Sitterson, J.D. Jr. & Wintersteen, J.O. (1974). Results of field survey to

evaluate an experimental set of officer duty modules TResearch Note 79-35).

Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

"Sciences. (AD A013 586)

4 This is one of a set of volumes on the duty module concept. Field surveys

were admininstered to 518 officers (lieutenants - colonels) from three

division headquarters, six Infantry battalions, and six Quartermaster

A2

4 27
companies. Distinctions were made for duty module applications in actual or

simulated combat operations and support and those in garrison. The relative

applicability, criticality, and time spent on the modules were tabulated.

Most modules were validated as 96% of the officers surveyed stated that

their test modules fit and reasonably described their duties. At lease 90%

stated that the duty modules accounted for a minimuAm of 80% of their total

working time. Modular profiles that depict "core" duty modules for 13

"positions are presented.

Related references:

Hadley (0975). ("General References" section). American Institutes for

Research (4975a, 1975b); Davis et al. (4975); Korotkin & Davis (1975a,

.1975b); Korotkin et al. (0976); Sitterson et al. (0974). ("Job/Skill

Requirements References" section).

Stephenson, R.W.; Hadley, I. & Davis, P. (0973). A comparison of officer job

content modules with activity groupings implicit in course design. Silver Spring, MD: American Institute for Research. (NTIS No. AD A043652)

The present study designed job content modules for Quartermaster and

Infantry officer jobs and assessed the modules' accountability for these

officers' work activities and activity groupings implicit in the design of

officer instructional courses. Eighty-nine job content modules were

designed. The job content modules accounted for a large proportion of

Infantry and Quartermaster officer positions sampled. The compatibility of

job content modules and course modules was found to depend upon the extent

to which course instruction was occupationally related.

Sterling, B.S. & Carnes, D. (1980). Perceptions of leadership in a USAREUR

brigade (Research Note 83-10). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institue

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A425 603)

The objective of this research was to develop an instrument to analyze

leadership behaviors at company level and below and to develop and validate

a model of company level leadership. Troops' and leaders' perceptions of

squad to company level leaders in a USARUER brigade were examined. A

leadership model at and below company level was developed through

-• unstructured interviews with USAREUR battalion personnel at various levels.

The model postulated that leaders must be proficient in three general areas:

"training, troop handling, and garrison activities. The leadership model was

used as a basis to construct survey instruments on leader behavior that were

"administered to 513 troops and 237 leaders from 45 companies. Leader

responses were analyzed by leaders' rai'k, position, time in position and

type of unit. Troop responses were analyzed by troops' time in location and

type of unit. In general, perceptions of leadership were positive. Specific results are presented and discussesd.

28
. . . . -.. . . . . . ~ +_ - _ - -

,. ,' Stewart, S.R.; Christie, C.I.; Jacobs, T.O. & Whittenberg, J.H. (0976).

Leadership tasks performed by US Army ccmpany commanders in Euro_ e (Research

"p Problem Review No. 76-16). Alexandria, VA: Human Resour-es Research

Organization. (NTIS No. AD A076649)

"The objective of the research was to identify the more significant tasks

involved in the company commander's job and to prioritize such tasks for

training. A sample of 267 company commanders from combat arms, combat

support, and combat service support units in Europe was administered the Job

Ra • Task Inventory Questionnaire (JTIQ). The JTIQ contained 402 command duty

tasks rated on the extent to which each task is a significant part of the

job and the amount of preparation needed for adequate task performance.

Nine major duty areas were tapped by the items (e.g. leadership, training,

"maintenance, etc.). It was concluded that the jobs of company commanders

from different branches of the Army are very similar and it would be

appropriate to develop a common core training curriculum.

"Training Development Institute, Occupational Research and Analysis Division.

0(t979). TRADOC Service Schools Reports 'Soft Skills Areas'. FT Monroe, VA:

Author. (NTIS No. AD A400404)

TRADOC Service Schools were asked to identify job performance dimensions and

associated tasks as a first step toward operationally defining the soft

skills area. This document provides the responses of 22 TRADOC service

schools to this request.

US Army Sergeants Major Academy, Training Directorate (1979). Front-end

analysis of first sergeants project. (Unpublished manuscript). FT Bliss,

TX.

Common tasks that comprise the first sergeant's duty position were

developed. A review of existing sources of information on first sergeant

tasks, interviews, and expert judgments yielded 298 task statements. A

pre-test survey was administered to 208 commanders and first sergeants and

"' the final instrument was admininstered world-wide to 1843 first sergeants

and 1788 commanders by Academy personnel to obtain information )n the

frequency, importance, skill and knowledge requirements, and training V adequacy of each task. Tasks requiring training and tasks not consistently

performed at mastery level also were identified.

K US Army Soldier Support Center, Occupational Survey Division (4981). (Company

and Field Grade Task Lists). Unpublished task lists.

A ,177-item company grade and a ,?25-item field grade common task list were

developed by the Soldier Support Center. Staff personnel (field grade

V4

29
officers) from five Army agencies were asked to list tasks that were common

to at least half of the officer specialties. The accumulated lists were

then refined by SSC personnel of field grade rank. A small pilot study on

two officer specialties was performed to obtain information of percent

performing and criticality of each task.

V US Army War College (11979). Senior service college position validation study.

(Unpublished manuscript). Carlisle Barracks, PA.

K •The research report was part of a multi-year effort to (4) determine skill

and knowledge requirements of general officer and colonel positions; (2)

correlate these skills and knowledges with the curriculum of the US Army War

"College (USAWC); and (3) assess which Army colonel positions justify being

occupied by Senior Service College graduates. Tne manuscript reptcrts

preliminary results of a senior officer job analysis. Using a self-report

questionnaire format, colonels snd general officers rated 73 skills (grouped

into the seven skills/knowledge areas taught at USAWC) on importance and

level of expertise required to accomplish their duties. The most important

perceived needs of both general officers and colonels were in the leadership

(Communication Skills and Personal Qualities Associated with Effectiveness)

and managerial skills areas (Decision-Making Techniques and Knowledge of

Organizational Systems and Procedures). Military Skills and Knowledge of

Domestic and International Issues were seen as more necessary for general

officers than colonels, but neither group considered them as important as

the leadership and management skills. While the rank ordering of these

skill categories on perceived importance and required expertise level were

the same at both senior officer levels, general officers reported requiring

a greater level of expertise in all subareas, especially in the Military

skills and Knowledge of Domestic and International Issues areas. Among

colonels, slight differences existed in the skill rankings as a function of

job type, particularly in the Military skills and Domestic and International

Knowledge domanins. The ratings on perceived importance and required skill level were fairly consistent among colonels, regardless of educational

background, source of commission, or type of position.

Warnick, W.L. & Baker, R.A. (.1964). Determination of combat ýob requirements

for armored cavalry platoon personnel (Tech. Rep. No. 92). Washington, DC:

George Washington University, Human Resources Research Office. (NTIS No.

AD455302)

The objectives of this study were to develop a description of job

requirements for armored cavalry platoon personnel and to determine the

importance of each job requirement in combat. Lists of job requirements for

armored cavalry platoon personnel were prepared after reviewing pertinent

literature and interviewing experienced officers and noncommissioned

"officers. The 14 lists developed encompassed the 14 types of jobs

k- 30
representing 5 armored cavalry platoon personnel MOS. Lists of essential

traits and abilities were also compiled. The lists were submitted to senior

platoon, squad and section leaders in 43 armored cavalry squadrons for

evaluation. A five-point scale was used for each respondent to indicate the

applicability of the job duties to his/her job and their importance to

combat performance. The final criterion lists contained the duties and

skills considered most important for effective combat performance.

Wellins, R.S.; Rumsey, M.G. & Gilbert A.C.F. (4980). Analysis of junior officer

training needs (Research Rep. No. .1236). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A096 034)

This thrr,.-phase research project sought to assess the training needs of

junior officers. In Phase I, approximately 600 soldiers (captain,

lieutenant, NCO and enlisted below the rank of E-4) were interviewed to

identify problems encountered by junior officers. Eight problem areas

t'll emerged (Officer/Superior Relationships; Officer/Subordinate Relationships;

Officer/NCO Relationships; Counseling; Discipline and Military Justice;

Command and Leadership; Overburden with Secondary Duties; and Skill

Deficiencies). Phase II involved the development and administration of a

questionnaire to 414 officers and 114 enlisted personnel to quantify and

validate the interview information. In Phase III, 931 newly commissioned

officers completed mailed surveys sampling their opinions on 40

"precommissioned subject areas pertaining to the value of their education.

The prevalent theme of the results was the importance of emphasizing

leadership and managerial skills in precommissioning training and the need

to provide training experiences dealing with realistic job-related problems.

1-7

31
II. GENERAL REFERENCES

The 24 items in Section II provide a general overview of the leadership

job/skill requirements field. Table 3 summarizes their content. Fourteen of

the listing focus on methodoligcal issues, four provide conceptual frameworks

of military leadership, and five summarize past research. Of the 14 [:• methodologically-oriented contributions, 1.1 are concerned largely with job

-2• analysis procedures, while the remaining three (Jacobs, 1973; Kopstein, Kingsley

& Siebold, 4978; Peterson & Rumsey, .19861) focus on skill requirements

• methodology and problems. With respect to the five conceptual pieces, one

k •£ discusses leadership performance requirements (Olmstead, .1969); one focuses on

the distinction between skill and job requirements (Ansbro & Hayes, 1981); one

'p is a military leadership field manual (Department of the Army, ,1984); and two

combine their conceptual frameworks with suggested procedures for studying the

"leader's role (Uhlaner, 1975; Whitmore & Fry, 4974).

Three of the summary reports are bibliographies and two present literature

reviews. Of the three bibliographies, one lists leadership literature largely

based on the personal viewpoints of military leaders (Miller, 1976); one is an

"annotated bibliography of the senior leader job and skill requirements

~ • literature (Kimmel, .1981); and one summarizes the job analyses literature

(Donahue, 1979). The two literature reviews are evaluative in nature. One

discusses the success of leadership training research and development programs

(Crawford, 4964), and the second critically reviews the senior leadership job

and skill r..u..•+mentS literature (Haythorn, Kimmel & Steinberg, 1983).

33
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Ansbro, T.M. & Hayes, W.A. (498&1). The job task analysis/skills and knowledge

marriage: Parts I and II. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the

Military Testing Association, Volume I (pp 103-408).

This paper discusses the distinction between job and skill requirements and

presents a description of a matrix of skill and knowledge components to

complement the front-end job/task analysis subsystem of the Naval Enlisted

.K Professional Development Information System (NEPDIS). It is noted that

presently the computer has aided in making some of the formerly judgmental

areas of tne front-end analysis more objective. However, subjectivity still

-• prevails in the process of identifying job skills and knowledges as

components of inventoried tasks. The authors suggest that although skill

statements often resemble task statements, distinctions should be maintained

between billet-specific task inventories and rating-specific skill

inventories. Alternatives are discussed representing NEPDIS efforts to

merge job task data with supporting skill and knowledge information.

Christal, R.D. (Ed.). (0974). Proceedings of the Division 19 Military

2 Psychology Symposium: Collecting, analyzing and reporting information

describing jobs and occupations (Tech. Rep. No. 74-19). Brooks Air Force

Base, TX: Air Force Human Resources Laboratory. (NTIS No. AD774575)

This report contains four papers presented at the 77th Annual American

Psychological Assocation Convention in 4969. Topics dealt with include

present and future job analysis in the Canadian Forces; the Military

Occupational Data Bank as a job analysis source; job analysis in the U.S.

Training and Employment Service; and job analysis procedures in the U.S. Air

Force. The volume also includes subject matter expert reactions to the

individual presentations and a concluding discussion by the program chair.

Crawford, M.P. (1964). A review of recent resea-ch and development on military

leadership, command, and team functions (Research Memorandum). Washington,

* lDC: The George Washington University, Human Resources Research Office.

Invited presentation for the ,964 Annual Convention of the American

Psychological Association that reviewed military training research and

development in the areas of interpersonal aspects of leadership and command;

organizational and technical aspects of command; and team training. The

author concludes that research has led to development of more effective

leadership training programs.

] I3
Department of the Army. (4975). Interservice procedures for instructional

systems develolpent. Phase I: Analyze. (TRADOC Pamphlet 350-30).

Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

This US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) pamphlet describes

procedures for performing a front-end analysis as a first step for

developing training curricula. This initial phase of the Instructional

Syste-ns Development (ISD) approach emphasizes the need for accurate

descriptions of duty positions and collective tasks and describes a

methodology to gather the necessary data for a valid job analyses.

Department of the Army. (4984). Military Leadership (rield Manual 22-?00).

Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

This field manual provides the basic doctrine for Army leadership at company

grade and below. It describes the four major leadership factors (Follower,

Leader, Communication and Situation) and details what a leader must "Be"

(Professionalism, Character) "Know" (Knowledge of Self, Job, Unit,

Leadership Principles and History) and "Do" (Provide Direction, Implement

and Motivate) to influence others and accomplish a mission. While the

manual is primarily concerned with company level leadership, the principles

and concepts presented are viewed as relevant for all levels of command.

Donahue, K.E., Medellin, A. & Loup, K. (1979) Bibliography: Occupation and

"Manpower Research Division, Air Force Human Resources Laboratory _01957-1979)

(Tech. Rep. No. 79-74). Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Air Force Human

Resources Laboratory.

This document presents a bibliography of technical reports and other

research publications conducted by the Occupation and Manpower Research

Division (OMRD), AFHRL over the period July, 1957 to July, 1979. The

S! bibliography includes research publications in the following areas: Methods

for collecting, analyzing, and retrieving occupational information;

structuring wnrk into jobs, specialties, career ladders, and broader

management categories; establishing grade, pay, training, education,

experience and other job requirements; orýganizational and management

analyses; measuring worker experience, performance, potential, and

4 - satisfaction; task-oriented criterion development; establishing career

programs; and reassignment systems.

37
Hadley, H.I. (4975). Army officer duty module manual (Research Note 79-31)..

"Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences. (AD A084 265)

's-. .This report describes the American Institutes for Research program to

develop officer duty modules, a personnel management system concept to

cluster tasks statistically and logically. The report defines the duty

module concept and serves as the manual for developing, reviewing, and

updating a duty module system.

K Related references: American Institutes for Research (0975a, 1975b); Davis

et al. (4975); Korotkin & Davis (4975a, 1975b); Korotkin et al. (41976);

Sitterson et al. (4974); Sitterson & Wintersteen (4974). ("Job/Skill

SRequirements References" section).

Haythorn, W.W.. Kimmel, M.J. & Steinberg, A.G. (0983). Senior leadership: A

review of the literature (Working Paper No. 83-2). Alexandria, VA: US-Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

This paper reviews the military as well as the public-private sector

literature on job and skill requirements of senior level positions. An

evaluation of this literature and suggesV ,ns for future research also are

discussed. The suggestions include a. need for consensus as to the most

crucial leadership variables and a greater emphasis on the study of decision

making and problem solving processes as they relate to the senior leader's

role.

Related reference: Kimmel (1981). ("General References" section).

Jacobs, T.O. (4973). The evaluation of leadership skills (Professional Paper

No. t14-73). Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization.

Problems in the development of leadership evaluation methods are discussed,

including the identification of "true experts", the general lack of clarity

5 in defining criterion measures, and the disjunctive nature of leadership

skills. The paper argues for the value of the behavioral scientist in soft

skills systems engineering and cautions against theoretical biases that may

lead to misdirected work and misconceptions due to lack of direct experience

as a leader.

38
Kimmel, M.J. (0a9). Senior leadership: An annotated bibliography of the

military and nonmilitary literature (Tech. Rep. No. 532). Alexandria, VA:

US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A445

* 890)

This document provides an annotated bibliography of literature on senior

leader job and skill requirements in the military (colonels and general

okficers) and public-private sectors (general managers, vice presidents and

presidents). One hundred forty references were annotated and categorized

itto three sections: Summary articles, research-based contributions and

c~nceptual pieces. Each contribution was categorized further according to

"organization type" (military, nnnmilitary or military-nonmilitary

% comparisons), "target population" (i.e., literature focusing solely on the

senior leader or literature comparing senior with lower level positions) and

"subject matter" (job and/or skill requirements).

Related reference: Haythorn et al. (1983). ("General References" section).

Kopstein, F.F.; Kingsley, E.H. & Siebold, G.L. (4978). Quasi-algorithm methods

and techniques for specifying objective job/task performance requirements

(Research Note 80-20). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD AO0 435)

This report presents a method for describing job and task Terformance

requirements. The technique, quasi-algorithmic task specifications (TS),

consists of tables of sequential overt (observable) and covqrt (mental)

behaviors that are necessary and sufficient to accomplish a particular task.

An account is given of the development of and successful verification

procedures for quasi-algorithmic TS using task data from Field Artillery

Detection Centers; aets of quasi-algorithmic TS are discussed; and a

mathematical mode. for structuring TS is presented.

Merrill, M.D.; Reigeluth, C.; Branson, R.K.; Tarr, R. & Begland, R.R. (1981).

• - Extended Task Analysis Procedure (ETAP): Introduction to ETAP. Columbus,

OH: Battelle. (NTIS No. AD A098389)

Extended Task Analysis Procedure (ETAP) is a 12-step process designed to

analyze "soft skills" tasks and those that are primarily procedural in

nature. The Procedure includes three major types of task analyses

processes: Procedural Analysis, Factor-Transfer Analysis and

Principle-Transfer Analysis. This report presents training materials to

accompany a user's manual. ETAP was field tested with eight Military

Occupational Specialties in three Army Schools by soldiers assigned to task

analysis and by civilian analysts working wich Army subject matter experts.

I3
The 

efficiency 

authors claim that these field tests provided confirmation of the of ETAP, although no data are presented. Related reference: Reigeluth et al. (.1980). ("General References"

section).

Miller, L.L. Jr. (0976). Military leadership: A selected bibliography of z'8 20iodical articles. FT Sill, OK: US Army Field Artillery School Library. ýRTIS No.7 )fA-034t356)

One hundred fifty-six leadership articles are referenced from periodicals held by the Morris Swett Library, T'S Army Field Artillery School. The "majority of referenced articles provide personal viewpoints on military leadership requirements.

OleMtead, J.A. (4969). Requirements for organizational leadership Paper No. 26-69). Alexandria, (Professional VA: Human Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD 6930,10)

"This concept paper contends that leadership to generate favorable involves more than the capacity attitudes among personnel and steering organization by the the

performances required 

routine solution of everyday problems. Rather, the of military organizations and the distinctive are becoming more adaptive

develop and guide responsive 

quality of future leadership will be in the ability to

suggests that developing 

systems of decisions and actions. The author future leaders will require recognizing organizational the role of leadership and designing training programs specifically attuned to that role.

-. Peterson, G.W. & Rumsey, M.G. (4981, August). A methodolo officer o competence. for measuring

Psychological 

Paper presented at the meeting of the American Association. Los Angeles.

This paper presents a methodology for measuring officer job competence. postulates a common set of It generic conpetency skills that underlie 'uccessful performance the of most complex officer tasks. It was theorized a generic skills test could that be used to: identify identify top potential performers;

training 

individual 

effectiveness; 

skill areas in need of further development; evaluate and facilitate classification. included problem performance Identified skills

essential job tasks were 

measures of these skills from a set of

"development of experimental 

described. 

measures 

These procedures were applied to the to assess generic competency skills required of Army Military Police junior officers.

40
I •; Reigeluth, C.; Merrill, M.D.; Branson, R.K.; Begland, R.R. & Tarr, R. (.1980).

Extended Task Analysis Procedure (ETAP): User's Manual. Columbus, OH:

Battelle. (TIS No. AD A098354)

This manual describes the Extended Task Analysis Procedure (ETAP) Process.

ETAP is a 42-step design to analyze tasks that are primarily procedural in

nature and tasks that are usually called "Soft Skill" tasks. Four specific

task analysis procedures are used in ETAP: Process Analysis,

"Factor-Transfer Analysis, Principle-Transfer Analysis, and Knowledge

Analyses. These four procedures are combined with eight other action and

decision steps to form three general task analysis methods and are intended

to meet the needs of both task description and instructional design. The

report was designed to assist the analyst to do an ETAP.

" " Related reference: Merrill et al. (1981). ("General References" section).

Siebold, G.L. (.4980). Discriminant function job analysis in three Amy

technical MOS (Tech. Rep. No. 454). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A097 682)

"*" Job questionnaire data on tasks performed in three aviation maintenance

E Military Occupational Specialties (MOS) were gathered from installations in

the continental US, Germany, Korea, Alaska, and Hawaii. Job incumbents

rated MOS tasks they performed on a "relative time spent performing" scale

*. and supervisors rated all tasks in their MOS on four scales: Task Learning

Difficulty, Consequences of Inadequate Performance, Immediacy of Task

Performance, and Type of Training. The seven response categories for the

5 criterion, "type of training" scale were collapsed into two new categories

(tasks to be trained at local unit vs formal school setting) for the

discriminant analysis. The results indicated that the discriminant

Z' functions could classify tasks into the appropriate training category by

incorporating the mean ratings for each task on the four predictor scales.

These categorizations agreed with supervisor classifications on about 80

p percent of the classification.

Related reference: Staley. M.R. & Weismuller, JT.. (4981, October).

("General References" section).

. Staley, M.R. & Weismuller, J.J. (4981, October). Interrater reliability: The

development of an automated analysis tool. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual

* Conference of the Military Testing Association. Volume II pp. 14,1-1148).

This paper provides a historical sketch of the development and evolution of

interrater reliability procedures for the Comprehensive Occupational Data

Analysis Program (CODAP). CODAP provides analysis tools and procedures to

deal with occupational data. Its objective is to provide accurate task

information on jobs to improve classification structures, insure appropriate

training curriculum, and assess job skills. Current research streams,

41
potential applications, and the operational use of the programs are

discussed.

Uhianer, J.E. (0975). Management leadership in syte measurement beds (Tech.

Rep. No. S-3). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the

nehavioral and Social Sciences. (AD A024 888)

A conceptual framework of leadership is developed based on 30 years of

research carried out by the US Army Research Institute (ARI). Effective

leadership is seen as determined by a great many variables that may be

analyzed as parts of several distinct but interwoven systems. The most

basic system involves the distinction between cognitive (objective,

absolute, factual) and noncognitive (subjective, value-laden) aspects of

human performance. A second basic distinction is in the style of management

(authoritarian vs. participative) and its interaction with other factors.

Two primary domains of Army leadership are distinguished (combat and

technical/managerial) and subdivided into eight general leadership

dimensions. The author suggests the need for a system measurement test bed

to study selected interactions and their effect on leadership dimensions.

Vineberg, R. & Joyner, J.N. (4980). Instructional System Development (ISD) in

the Armed Services: Methodology and application Tech. Rep. No. 8it

Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD

A080347)

This study examined Instructional System Development (ISD) methodologies and Ii practices in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force during August,

4977-March, 4979. Findings were based on (t) analysis of the primary

guidance documents used in the Armed Services for conducting ISD; (2)

questionnaire survey of 209 training units, agencies and schools familiar

with the ISD approach; and (3) detailed interviews of training developers at

33 organizations. The authors conclude that the potential of ISD to insure

that training meets job requirements has not been realized. Since the

consequences of training occur in the operational units and training is

developed and evaluated within the training subsystem, it is recommended

"that operational commands be given a larger role in developing and

evaluating training.

Wal..on, B.L. (41979). Job and task analysis (TRADOC Regulation No. 354-4). FT

Monroe, VA: Training Development Institute. (NTIS No. AD A4103309)

This regulation defines US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)

policy, objectives and requirements for conducting job and task analysis

within the training development process. The minimum acceptable products to

support the TRADOC training developments process in the area of job/task

f42
analysis are specified. The general purpose of such guidelines was to

L• establish a systematic approach to gather and use job/task data in the

training development process to provide a base on which training is

designed. Procedural guides for implementing this regulation are to be

found in TRADOC Pamphlet 354-4(T).

Related reference: Walton & Begland (4979). ("General References"

section).

SWalton, B.L. & Begland, R.R. (4979). Job and task analysis handbook (TRADOC

K• Pamphlet No. 354-4(T)). FT Monroe, iA: Training Development Institute.

This handbook presents a methodology to accompany TRADOC Regulation 351-4,

"which defines the management requirements and procedures for performing job

and task analysis. The objective was to provide common guidelines for

conducting job and task analysis to facilitate the training development

process. The necessary steps for doing an analysis are specified, such as:

developing the task inventory, locating data sources, and selecting tasks

for training. Each chapter concludes with an outline summarizing the key

'- points. Auxiliary appendices are included describing processes associated

with job and task analysis such as site selection and job performance

measures.

Related references: Walton (4979). ("General References" section).

j Whitmore, P.G. (0973). Use of the job model concept to guide job description

procedures for Army officersTTech. Rep. No. 73-26). Alexandria, VA:

Human Resources Research Organization. (NTIS No. AD772993)

This report examines the job description procedures specified in CONARC

Regulation 350-400-4 (Systems Engineering of Training, February 4968), and

develops alternative procedures. The author contends that major

deficiencies in the job description process can be avoided by beginning with

the development of a job model having three najor sections: (1) broad job

functions derived from appropriate system characteristics; (2) general

behavioral science considerations appropriate to the analysis of each broad

job function; and (3) information categories, sources, and collection

procedures required to explicate each broad job function fully. A partial

model of Army officer jobs is presented as an example.

,43

L
I...

Whitmore, P.C. & Fry, J.P. (0974). Soft Skills: Definition, behavioral model

Analysis, training procedures (Professional Paper No. 3-74). Alexandria,

VA: Human Resources Research Organization.

Three papers concerned with soft skills analysis and training are presented.

"What are Soft Skills?" (Fry & Whitmore) develops a definition of soft

skills based on responses by representatives of CONARC Schools to

questionnaire designed to clarify the terms "hard" and "soft" skills; "The

Behavioral Model as a Tool for Analyzing 'Soft Skills'" (Whitmore) discusses

leadership and motivation job functions in terms of behavior modification

r7 principles: and "Procedures for Implementing Soft-Skill Training in CONARC

Schools" (Fry) describes the instructional approach used to redesign the

Chemical Schools C-22 Course.

r-i4

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