Forest Soil Disturbance

Monitoring Protocol

Volume I: Rapid Assessment

By Deborah S. Page-Dumroese,

Ann M. Abbott, and Thomas M. Rice

Schematics from Napper et al. (N.d.)

United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Gen. Tech. Report WO-82a

September 2009
Disclaimer

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provider and employer.
Volume I iii Rapid Assessment

Contents

Acknowledgments........................................................................iv

General Summary.........................................................................iv

Introduction .................................................................................. 1

Objective ...................................................................................... 2

Rapid Assessment Steps ............................................................. 3

Transect Options.......................................................................... 3

How Many Monitoring Points Do I Need?.................................... 4

What Is a Monitoring Point?......................................................... 4

Unique Monitoring Strategies....................................................... 7

Soil Disturbance Classes.............................................................. 7

Safety ........................................................................................... 8

What Data Should I Collect? ........................................................ 8

Data To Collect While in the Office.......................................... 8

Step-by-Step Field Survey Method......................................... 9

Filling Out the Field Form ...................................................... 15

Site Descriptors and Soil Indicators........................................... 16

Machine Traffic Disturbances................................................ 16

Surface Organic Matter ......................................................... 18

Displacement......................................................................... 18

Point Attributes...................................................................... 20

Erosion................................................................................... 20

Prescribed Fire and Pile Burning........................................... 20

Assigning a Disturbance Class................................................... 21

Literature Cited........................................................................... 22

Appendix A. Safety of Hazard Analysis...................................... 23
Volume I iv Rapid Assessment

Acknowledgments

The monitoring approach and methods in volume I and volume II 

are the result of extensive collaboration between the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture National Forest System and 

Research and Development. The Forest Service Rocky Mountain 

Research Station in cooperation with the Northern Region led 

the effort. Although the development of this protocol has been 

guided by suggestions from a large number of regional soil 

program leaders, forest soil scientists, research soil scientists, 

university professors, and British Columbia Ministry of Forests 

and Range soil scientists, we particularly want to acknowledge 

the input and guidance from Sharon DeHart1

, Sue Farley2, and 

Randy Davis3

. Countless reviewers, workshop participants, 

students, and technicians have tested this protocol and offered 

input on how to make it more user friendly. Their input has been 

extraordinarily beneficial.

1

 Former Soil Program Leader, Northern Region, Missoula, MT.

2

 Forest Soil Scientist, Helena National Forest, Helena, MT.

3

 National Soil Program Leader, Washington Office, Washington, DC. 

General Summary

This document—Volume I: Rapid Assessment—outlines a framework for monitoring soil disturbances from forest management 

preactivity and postactivity. Volume II: Supplementary Methods, 

Statistics, and Data Collection defines key terms, explains the 

development of a statistically sound data collection method, 

and describes how data should be stored. Volume III: Scientific 

Background for Soil Monitoring on National Forests and Rangelands includes the proceedings from a workshop held to define 

the state of the science. This volume outlines the step-by-step 

field protocols to get a rapid assessment of the disturbance 

characteristics before and after land management.
Volume I 1 Rapid Assessment

Introduction

This volume of the Forest Soil Disturbance Monitoring Protocol 

(FSDMP) describes how to monitor forest sites before and after 

ground disturbing management activities for physical attributes 

that could influence site resilience and long-term sustainability. 

The attributes describe surface conditions that affect site sustainability and hydrologic function. Monitoring the attributes of 

surface cover, ruts, compaction, and platy structure can also be 

used to generate best management practices that help maintain 

site productivity. 

Key Monitoring Points

The Forest Soil Disturbance Monitoring Protocol describes surface 

conditions that affect—

•	 Site sustainability.

•	 Hydrologic function.

•	 Site productivity.

This protocol is intended to be used by field soil scientists and 

watershed specialists when evaluating physical soil disturbance 

in a forested setting. This rapid assessment tool can also be useful, however, for timber sale administrators, logging contractors, 

hydrologists, and the general public to help them understand 

how to monitor soil disturbance using standardized visual 

disturbance classes. Monitoring soil disturbance preactivity and 

postactivity enables the Forest Service to assess the success of 

management activities in meeting legal, regulatory, and policy 

objectives. By using a consistent monitoring approach, forests in 

every Forest Service region can build soil resource programs to 

meet their specific requirements in accord with their soil quality 

standards and guidelines. Table 1 provides common definitions 

of frequently used soil descriptors.
Volume I 2 Rapid Assessment

Forest floor impacted Forest floor material includes all organic horizons 

above the mineral soil surface. 

Topsoil displacement The surface mineral soil primarily includes the 

A horizons, but if the A horizon is shallow or 

undeveloped, it may include other horizons. This 

disturbance is usually due to machinery but does 

not include “rutting” described below.

Rutting Ruts vary in depth but are primarily the result 

of equipment movement. Ruts are defined 

as machine-generated soil displacement or 

compression. Often soil puddling is also present 

within the rut. 

Burning (light, 

moderate, severe) 

severity

Burn severity includes only effects on the forest 

floor and mineral soil, not on above-ground 

vegetation.

Compaction Compaction by equipment results in either a 

compression of the soil profile or increased 

resistance to penetration.

Platy structure/

massive/puddled 

Flat-lying or tabular structure in the mineral 

soil. “Massive” indicates no structural units are 

present and soil material is a coherent mass. 

Puddled soil is often found after wet weather 

harvest operations. Soil pores are usually 

smeared and prevent water infiltration.

Table 1.—Visual indicators and their definitions.

Objective

The FSDMP defines indicators that can be measured consistently, 

efficiently, and economically. It is intended for use in any forested 

activity area to set the stage to address and report project 

effects. The FSDMP provides estimates of soil disturbance and 

confidence intervals around the monitoring results. The estimates 

are based on sample sizes calculated from the onsite variability 

estimated from the first 30 monitoring points in the sample and 

a predetermined confidence level. The following chart shows the 

rapid assessment steps.
Volume I 3 Rapid Assessment

Rapid Assessment Steps

Steps

Define the monitoring objective (preactivity, postactivity, short-term 

monitoring, long-term monitoring, etc.).

Gather the necessary background information—soil survey, maps, 

photos, etc.—and determine if the site should be stratified. Enter site 

description data on FSDMPSoLo worksheet #1 (SoLo Info).

Decide on confidence level (FSDMP worksheet #3 – Data Entry), 

transect design, and indicators needed (FSDMP worksheet #2 – Variable 

Selection).

Describe site management, slope, soil texture, soil depth, aspect, 

landform or topography, and elevation (FSDMP worksheet #1 – Data 

Entry).

Begin monitoring (FSDMP worksheet #3 – Data Entry).

Summarize results (FSDMP worksheet #4 - Results).

Transect Options

Option 1. Randomly Oriented Transects
Volume I 4 Rapid Assessment

In this option transects are laid out randomly on a site map 

before going to the field. Monitoring points can be collected 

along these randomly established transects to collect the 

minimum number of points needed. At each intersection, a 30 m 

(~100 ft) transect is established. The attributes are then noted at 

monitoring points located along each transect.

Option 2. Systematic Grid Points

In this option the protocol calls for establishing a systematic grid 

of monitoring points arrayed on a map or aerial photograph of the 

activity area to be monitored. The entire grid is randomly located 

and oriented, and the distance between monitoring points is 

constructed to provide a sample size that meets precision 

requirements or cost limitations specified in the objectives for 

monitoring. Each grid intersection locates a monitoring point that 

radiates in a random chosen direction and distance from the grid 

point (Howes 2006).
Volume I 5 Rapid Assessment

Option 3. A Random Transect

In this option the protocol calls for randomly locating a start point 

and traversing a transect that covers the entire unit so that the 

first 30 monitoring points (the minimum required) are spaced to 

provide an adequate assessment of the site. The entire transect 

is randomly located and oriented, and the distance between 

monitoring points is constructed to provide a sample size that 

meets precision requirements or cost limitations specified in 

the objectives for monitoring. Turning points are usually located 

within the activity area so that the last monitoring point before a 

turn is not within an area of influence of the surrounding stand 

(usually the height of the tallest trees). Additional transects at 

random directions are often needed to reach the appropriate 

sample size. If the transect begins to follow a skid road, either 

offset from the skid road or start a new random transect. Record 

offset or new direction.

How Many Monitoring Points Do I Need?

The minimum number of monitoring points is 30. This minimum 

number is required to get site-specific variability for statistically 

valid sample size, and these 30 points should be conducted as 

a rapid assessment using the soil indicators selected. Only when 

the variability within the site is very small will the minimum of 
Volume I 6 Rapid Assessment

30 be the final number of monitoring points. As the variability in 

disturbance within the site increases, so does the sample size 

required to achieve a confidence interval using a predetermined 

confidence level and interval width. If fewer than 30 monitoring 

points are taken, the sample sizes and confidence intervals calculated in the spreadsheet may be incorrect. The consequence 

of using more than 30 samples, but fewer than the number that 

the spreadsheet recommends, is that the confidence interval 

will be wider than the predetermined width, as indicated by the 

“Lower Bound” and “Upper Bound” values on the spreadsheet. 

Volume II addresses details of the formulas used for calculating 

sample size, the available confidence levels, and alternatives for 

varying sampling intensity. 

We strongly recommend entering the data into the electronic 

spreadsheet rather than using the paper data collection form, 

because calculation of the intervals by hand is tedious and error 

prone. Summary levels of disturbance classes are also provided 

in the electronic Results worksheet (see appendix C-4 in volume 

II). Because disturbance class is an ordinal variable (meaning 

that levels of this variable are ordered categories), confidence 

intervals are not calculated.

For details on how to stratify sample points within a project area 

or about stratifying the number of project areas to sample, see 

volume II.

What Is a Monitoring Point?

For the FSDMP, a monitoring point is defined as a 15-cm (6-in) 

diameter circular area around the end of your toe. The presence 

or absence of each disturbance indicator at the point is noted. 

The visual disturbance class of each sample point is determined 

using the most limiting visual indicator at the point (table 2). 

Areas outside the monitoring point can be used for determining 

the general context of the disturbance but should not be used 

to decide the class of the point. Using the surrounding areas to 

determine the disturbance class would bias the sample system, 

especially if applied differently to different visual attributes. 
Volume I 7 Rapid Assessment

Soil disturbance class 0 

Soil surface:

•	 No evidence of compaction; i.e.,

past equipment operation, ruts, 

skid trails.

•	 No depressions or wheel tracks

evident.

•	 Forest floor layers present and

intact.

•	 No soil displacement evident.

•	 No management-generated soil

erosion.

•	 Litter and duff layers not burned.

No soil char. Water repellency 

may be present.

Table 2.—Soil disturbance classes used in the Forest Soil Disturbance 

Monitoring Protocol. Soil disturbance classes increase in severity of impact 

from class 0 to class 3. (1 of 2)

Soil disturbance class 1 

Soil surface:

•	 Faint wheel tracks or slight

depressions evident and are 

<5 cm deep.

•	 Forest floor layers present and

intact.

•	 Surface soil has not been

displaced and shows minimal 

mixing with subsoil.

•	 Burning light: Depth of char 

<1 cm. Accessory*: Litter 

charred or consumed. Duff 

largely intact. Water repellency 

is similar to preburn conditions. 

 Soil compaction:

•	 Compaction in the surface soil

is slightly greater than observed 

under natural conditions. 

•	 Concentrated from 0 to 10 cm

deep.

Observations of soil physical 

conditions:

•	 Change in soil structure from

crumb or granular structure 

to massive or platy structure;

restricted to the surface 0 to 

10 cm.

•	 Platy structure is noncontinuous.

•	 Fine, medium, and large roots

can penetrate or grow around 

the platy structure. No “J” 

rooting observed.

•	 Erosion is slight.
Volume I 8 Rapid Assessment

Table 2.—Soil disturbance classes used in the Forest Soil Disturbance 

Monitoring Protocol. Soil disturbance classes increase in severity of impact 

from class 0 to class 3. (2 of 2)

Soil disturbance class 2 

Soil surface:

•	 Wheel tracks or depressions are

5 to 10 cm deep.

•	 Accessory*: Forest floor layers 

partially intact or missing.

•	 Surface soil partially intact and

may be mixed with subsoil.

•	 Burning moderate: Depth of

char is 1 to 5 cm. Accessory*: 

Duff deeply charred or consumed. Surface soil water 

repellency increased compared 

with the preburn condition. 

Soil compaction:

•	 Increased compaction is

present from 10 to 30 cm deep.

Observation of soil physical 

condition:

•	 Change in soil structure from

crumb or granular structure 

to massive or platy structure;

restricted to the surface, 10 to 

30 cm.

•	 Platy structure is generally

continuous.

•	 Accessory*: Large roots may 

penetrate the platy structure, 

but fine and medium roots may 

not.

•	 Erosion is moderate.	

Soil disturbance class 3 

Soil surface:

•	 Wheel tracks and depressions

highly evident with depth >10 

cm.

•	 Accessory*: Forest floor layers 

missing.

•	 Evidence of surface soil removal,

gouging, and piling.

•	 Most surface soil displaced.

Surface soil may be mixed with 

subsoil. Subsoil partially or 

totally exposed.

•	 Burning severe: Depth of char

is >5 cm. Accessory*: Duff and 

litter layer completely consumed. 

Surface soil is water repellent. 

Surface is reddish or orange in 

places. 

Soil compaction:

• Increased compaction is deep in

the soil profile (>30 cm deep).

Observations of soil physical 

conditions:

•	 Change in soil structure from

granular structure to massive or 

platy structure extends beyond 

30 cm deep.

•	 Platy structure is continuous.

•	 Accessory*: Roots do not 

penetrate the platy structure.

•	 Erosion is severe and has

produced deep gullies or rills.

*Accessory items are those descriptors that may help identify individual 

severity classes.
Volume I 9 Rapid Assessment

Unique Monitoring Strategies

Volume II outlines the details of unique monitoring strategies. 

These strategies provide a standardized protocol for assessing 

large and small units; determining how many activity areas to

monitor; and deciding how to count rocks, roots, downed wood,

stumps, fallen trees, slash piles (containing tree tops, branches, 

brush, etc.) and so on that fall on a sample point. Volume II also 

standardizes descriptions of how to assess prescribed fire and 

wildfire areas and defines landings and temporary and permanent roads that fall within the scope of the FSDMP.

Soil Disturbance Classes

Table 2 shows a four-level soil disturbance classification system. 

Disturbance classes used in the FSDMP are defined primarily 

by morphological (visual) attributes, not quantitative measures. 

In this visual class system, an increased severity of soil surface 

disturbance indicates a change in the disturbance class. Some 

changes (such as compaction and rutting), however, are linked 

to an increase in that property at depth. Evidence of deep soil 

compaction (e.g., deep ruts) is often present but not always. A 

shovel or metal probe may be needed if deep soil compaction is 

questionable. Because the results of management activities on 

soil productivity vary by soil type (Fleming et al. 2006, Gomez 

et al. 2002, Page-Dumroese et al. 2000, Page-Dumroese et al. 

2006, Powers et al. 1998), this document does not prescribe any 

disturbance class as detrimental soil disturbance. Each Forest 

Service administrative region should determine where and when 

a detrimental call should be made based on local knowledge, 

research, and experience. Often, the definition of detrimental disturbance is tied to existing soil quality standards and guidelines. 

After the determination of detrimental disturbance is defined and 

noted, then this FSDMP can be used to calculate the amount of 

detrimental disturbance (e.g., if 5 out of 100 sample points are 

considered in a detrimental condition, then 5 percent of the area 

has been detrimentally disturbed).

As the activity area is walked, each monitoring point is placed 

in one of the predefined classes. The monitoring point may 

represent soil indicators from more than one soil disturbance 
Volume I 10 Rapid Assessment

class, and the soil scientist or other observer must decide which 

disturbance class best describes the monitoring point. 

Local, forest-level class descriptors can be added to table 2, but 

the core descriptors outlined in this volume cannot be removed. 

For classes to remain consistent among administrative units, 

core descriptors cannot be changed. If a core classification 

descriptor is found to be lacking applicability across many 

forests, the classification descriptor will undergo a regional and 

research review and the protocol will be updated if needed. (See 

volume II for information about change management.)

Safety

A sample job hazard analysis has been included in this volume as 

appendix A. Each national forest is encouraged to modify the job 

hazard analysis to suit local conditions and safety concerns.

What Data Should I Collect?

Data To Collect While in the Office

Before starting a field evaluation of soil disturbance on an activity 

area, study available existing information sources and record 

applicable information in the SoLo Info electronic worksheet 

(see appendix C-1 in volume II and additional details in appendix 

G in volume II). Having information on soil texture, landform, 

aspect, and so on will provide a context for the data and provide 

information for long-term monitoring (if needed). In general, the 

following steps should be followed before going into the field: 

1. Consult the most current subsection map (McNab et al. 2007) 

and available landtype association maps for general site 

characteristics. The SoLo database may require some of this 

information, which can help stratify the area for sampling. It is 

important to note, however, that such broad-scale maps are 

not appropriate for the more detailed site information needed 

to assess soil quality.
Volume I 11 Rapid Assessment

2. Consult available soil surveys and terrestrial ecological unit 

inventories (TEUIs) for more detailed site information and for 

the description and morphology of the soils that occur in the 

project area. Soil surveys may have been done by the Forest 

Service or by the Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(NRCS) and may be referred to as soil resource inventories, 

TEUIs, or landtype inventories. This information can help 

establish soil reference conditions for the activity area. It is 

critical, however, to confirm the actual soil type after you are 

in the field.

3. Check previous field review and soil monitoring reports and 

use available data.

4. For postharvest assessments, consult the harvest plan and 

contract information to determine where existing skid trails, landings, or changes in harvest operations may have occurred.

Step-by-Step Field Survey Method

Before starting field work, ensure that the SoLo Info worksheet 

(see appendix C-1 in volume II) is as complete as possible, 

then determine the intensity of sampling (confidence level and 

interval width) with input from a line officer. As noted earlier, 

the area for the visual assessment is a 15-cm (6-in) diameter 

circular area around the monitoring point. Continuous variables 

such as ruts, skid trails, or landings can be measured (using a 

tape measure, laser measure, etc.) and the total area and areal 

extent of the disturbance can be calculated using the “ONSITE” 

feature of the database. If a survey of skid trails, landings, or 

ruts indicates excess (based on regional soil quality standards 

and guidelines) detrimental soil disturbance, then it is likely that 

further assessment is not necessary because the applicable soil 

quality standard has already been exceeded. If the large features 

do not exceed the maximum area for disturbance, however, the 

FSDMP assessment may be warranted. If no large features are in 

the activity area, a rapid assessment may be sufficient on some 

activity areas to confirm that the applicable soil quality standards 

have been met. 

Choose the visual disturbance category by selecting the one best 

fitting the monitoring point. This protocol is to be used in cases 

in which activity areas are defined and discrete. For assessment 
Volume I 12 Rapid Assessment

of areas in a watershed context, without defined and discrete 

activity units, see this volume’s section titled “Unique Monitoring 

Strategies.” 

Baseline (Preactivity) Assessment

Step 1. Prework—Determine why you are monitoring (goals) and 

if the FSDMP is the most efficient method for accomplishing 

those goals. As noted in the section titled “Data To Collect While 

in the Office,” fill out as much of the electronic or paper form as 

possible using existing documentation and interviews with other 

team members (see also appendix G in volume II). Inspection 

of topographic maps and areal photography can reveal basic 

landform information, such as slope and drainage patterns that 

affect soil productivity or hydrologic function. Select the variables 

you want to use for monitoring the activity area (Variable Selection worksheet, appendix C-2 in volume II). Determine the size 

of the activity area. Determine which option for monitoring point 

layout will work best for your site (see appendix A in volume II). If 

choosing a random transect, select the length of transect needed 

and the distance between points. If choosing a grid point survey, 

select a random orientation for the grid points. If using an electronic portable data recorder, predetermine grid point locations 

and save them onto the recorder.

Step 2. Select the Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in 

volume II). If past ground-disturbing activities (e.g., stumps, skid 

trails, roads, differences in vegetation age or composition, or 

trash) are evident, continue to use the FSDMP for a quantitative 

estimate of the amount and extent of disturbance. Often, aerial 

photos and other maps can be used to determine the extent of 

effects. Field verification of compaction, displacement, or change 

in hydrologic state is necessary on sites with legacy effects. From 

preactivity assessments, determination of cumulative effects may 

be facilitated. Conversely, if records of previous management 

resulted in minimal soil disturbance and the activity area has similar 

soils, vegetation, aspect, and slope throughout the unit, then space 

a minimum of 30 monitoring points to cover the entire unit. When 

using the sample size calculator and appropriate confidence 

level, more points may be necessary. Take note of preactivity 

forest floor depth and composition, mineral soil horizon depth(s), 

and depth to bedrock (if applicable).
Volume I 13 Rapid Assessment

Step 3. Document a preactivity starting point using a Global Positioning System or other method of precise point location documentation. Using the sampling scheme selected from step 1, start 

sampling 5 m (~15 ft) inside the unit to avoid edge effects. If using 

a portable data recorder (see appendix F in volume II), upload a 

map of the site and add predetermined monitoring point locations 

before going into the field. Predetermining monitoring point locations can also be done with paper copies of available maps.

Step 4. After locating the starting point within the activity area, 

calculate the distance between points based on activity area size. 

To avoid bias, sample point distances must be predetermined 

and documented before starting. Points must be evenly spaced 

to cover the entire activity area. For instance, if the activity area is 

~1,000 m (3,300 ft) long and you need to take 30 sample points, 

points should be at least 35 m (110 ft) apart along the random 

transect. If the transect (or point grid) does not adequately cover 

the range of variability, then take more transects (or grid points) 

to confirm the presence or absence of dispersed disturbance and 

the nature of the dispersed disturbance. 

Step 5. Walk to the first point and assess the soil surface condition 

using the Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in volume II). 

On the data form, record a “1” if the indicator is present and a 

“0” if the indicator or statement is absent, ending with a general 

Soil Disturbance Class (using table 3). For assistance with visual 

class determinations, use the Soil Disturbance Field Guide

Napper et al. N.d.). Continue collecting data at each monitoring 

point along the transect (grid). When you reach the edge of the 

activity area, select another transect direction (a predetermined 

grid point sampling scheme should be placed entirely within the 

activity area boundary) at an appropriate angle (toward the inside 

of the activity area) from the previous transect and continue data 

collection on the same spreadsheet. Note that, as you make 

observations at each monitoring point, the required sample size 

will likely change as the estimated variability changes. 

Step 6. Continue the assessment until you reach the appropriate 

sample size. On the data form, record a “1” if the indicator is 

present and a “0” if the indicator or statement is absent, ending 

with a general soil disturbance class (table 2). Take AT LEAST 30 

monitoring points in the activity area that has disturbance. Use 

aerial photos, ONSITE, or activity area maps to measure tempo-
Volume I 14 Rapid Assessment

rary roads and landings within or contiguous to the activity area, 

but take additional notes. Estimate disturbance on temporary 

roads or landings not in the activity area separately and manually 

add after completing this method.

Step 7. Use the comment field at the bottom of each column (or 

a field notebook) to document noteworthy existing disturbance. 

Use these comments to document unusual spatial features 

related to the disturbances or to record the type and severity of 

erosion features.

Step 8. In the last row of the Data Entry worksheet (see appendix 

C-3 in volume II) indicate if the soil disturbance is detrimental. 

This row of information is based on the professional judgment of 

a qualified soil scientist, literature, or other local studies. 

Disturbance 

type

Severity class

0 1 2 3

Equipment

impacts

Past 

operation

None. Dispersed. Faint. Obvious.

Wheel 

tracks or 

depressions

None. Faint wheel 

tracks or slight 

depressions 

evident (<5 cm 

deep).

Wheel 

tracks or 

depressions 

are >5 cm 

deep.

Wheel tracks 

or depressions 

highly evident 

with a depth 

being >10 cm.

Equipment 

trails from 

more than 

two passes

None. Faintly evident. Evident, but 

not heavily 

trafficked.

Main trails that 

are heavily used.

Excavated 

and bladed 

trails1

None. None. None. Present.

Table 3.—Examples of soil visual indicators and management activities. (1 of 3)
Volume I 15 Rapid Assessment

Disturbance 

type

Severity class

0 1 2 3

Table 3.—Examples of soil visual indicators and management activities. (2 of 3)

Penetration 

and 

resistance2

Natural 

conditions.

Resistance 

of surface 

soils may be 

slightly greater 

than observed 

under natural 

conditions. 

Increased 

resistance is 

concentrated 

in the surface 

(10 cm).

Increased 

resistance 

is present 

throughout 

the top 30 

cm of soil.

Increased 

resistance is 

deep into the soil 

profile (>30 cm).

Soil physical 

condition

Natural 

conditions.

Change in 

soil structure 

from crumb 

or granular 

structure to 

massive or 

platy structure 

in the surface 

(10 cm).

Change in 

soil structure 

in the surface 

(30 cm). Platy 

(or massive) 

structure is 

generally 

continuous. 

On older 

sites, large 

roots may 

penetrate 

the platy 

structure, 

but fine and 

medium 

roots may 

not.

Change in soil 

structure extends 

beyond the top 

30 cm. Platy (or 

massive) structure 

is continuous. On 

older sites, roots 

do not penetrate 

the platy 

structure.

Displacement

Forest floor None. Forest floor 

layers present 

and intact.

Forest 

floor layers 

partially 

intact or 

missing.

Forest floor 

layers missing.
Volume I 16 Rapid Assessment

Disturbance 

type

Severity class

0 1 2 3

Table 3.—Examples of soil visual indicators and management activities. (3 of 3)

Mineral soil None. Soil surface 

has not been 

displaced and 

shows minimal 

mixing with 

subsoil.

Mineral 

topsoil 

partially 

intact and 

may be 

mixed with 

subsoil.

Evidence of 

topsoil removal, 

gouging, and 

piling. Soil 

displacement has 

removed most of 

the surface soil. 

Surface soil may 

be mixed with 

subsoil or subsoil 

may be partially 

or totally exposed.

Erosion None. Slight erosion 

evident 

(i.e., sheet 

erosion3

).

Moderate 

amount 

of erosion 

evident (i.e., 

sheet and rill 

erosion3

).

Substantial 

amount of erosion 

evident. Gullies, 

pedestals, and 

rills noticeable. 

Burning None. Fire impacts 

are light. 

Forest floor is 

charred but 

intact. Gray 

ash becomes 

inconspicuous 

and surface 

appears 

lightly charred 

to black. 

Soil surface 

structure 

intact.

Fire 

impacts are 

moderate. 

Litter layer is 

consumed 

and humus 

layer is 

charred or 

consumed. 

Mineral soil 

not visibly 

altered, but 

soil organic 

matter (OM) 

has been 

partially 

charred.

Fire impacts 

are deep. The 

entire forest floor 

is consumed 

and top layer of 

mineral soil is 

visibly altered. 

Surface mineral 

structure and 

texture are 

altered. Mineral 

soil is black due 

to charred or 

deposited OM or 

is orange from 

burning.

1 Evaluate on main trails but not necessarily for wheel tracks or 

depressions.

2 Soil resistance to penetration with a tile spade or probe is best done 

when the soil is not moist or wet.

3 See USDA NRCS (1993).
Volume I 17 Rapid Assessment

Postactivity Assessment

Step 1. Before starting work in an activity area, examine the soil 

in a nearby undisturbed unit for forest floor thickness, composition, 

mineral soil horizon depth(s), and depth to bedrock (if applicable). 

If baseline data have been collected (as in baseline assessment 

step 2), then this examination procedure may not be necessary. 

Examining an undisturbed area is essential, however, if one observer 

recorded the preactivity data and another observer is collecting 

the postactivity data. If an undisturbed site is not available, examine 

the undisturbed soil around stumps to become familiar with 

uncompacted soil conditions. Decide on the type of monitoring 

transect needed and locate a starting point using a method similar to that used for the preactivity assessment. It is not necessary 

to replicate transect locations from the previous assessment. 

The required sample size is likely to be different because of 

the increased variability of the site postactivity. It is better to 

complete two different assessments within the activity area.

Step 2. Using the procedure described for preactivity assessments, determine the soil surface disturbance. Record data 

points until you have taken enough monitoring points to reach 

the sample size calculated by the electronic spreadsheet or 

shown on the paper sample size table. 

As in steps 7 and 8 (in the preactivity assessment), indicate 

the disturbance class for each point and indicate which points 

are considered detrimentally disturbed and would affect longterm site sustainability.

Filling Out the Field Form

The worksheet forms for the FSDMP provide for a core set 

of attributes that are important for linking soil disturbance to 

changes in site productivity. Although these forms represent 

a core data set, however, on some sites they may not be an 

expected attribute of the site. The soil indicators may also 

represent a more intense sampling scheme than is required for 

the monitoring objectives. By varying the sampling intensity and 

turning some attributes “off,” you can still collect some of the 

soil indicators but be more efficient at data collection. The forms 

were designed so that a rapid assessment of soil disturbance 

would consistently look at a standard set of soil disturbance 
Volume I 18 Rapid Assessment

indicators; collecting this standard set of data is the reason why

you must fill out each column completely before moving on to the 

next monitoring point. Do not modify the soil indicators on either 

the electronic or paper forms; the forms were designed to make

data entry into the SoLo database quick and easy.

Site Descriptors and Soil Indicators

Each monitored activity area must have the required site 

descriptors included on the reports. These descriptors and their 

definitions are located in appendix G of volume II.

Detailed definitions about soil indicators used in the FSDMP 

appear in volume II. Table 3 illustrates the visually recognizable 

attributes of each indicator. When assessing soil indicators, each 

indicator can place the monitoring point into a different soil disturbance class. You must decide which feature is the overriding 

concern (based on soil texture, expected vegetative response, or 

site sensitivity) and to which soil disturbance class the monitoring 

point will be assigned. 

Machine Traffic Disturbances

Use the ONSITE worksheet to calculate large features and determine the areal extent of skid trails, ruts, and landings. If the areal 

extent of these features is over the regional limit for detrimental 

disturbance, additional monitoring may or may not be needed. 

Compaction

The Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in volume II) 

has three rows that list compaction (by depth). Determine the 

maximum extent of compaction and record a “1” (present) in 

the appropriate cell for that monitoring point. Record a “0” in 

each of the other two rows. If compaction occurs throughout 

the profile (not at one depth), then place a “1” in each cell for 

compaction. Visual indicators of change in compaction level are 

past operations (from aerial photos or databases), wheel tracks 

or depressions (ruts), equipment trails (e.g., from more than two 

passes), excavated or bladed trails, penetration resistance, and a 

change in structure.
Volume I 19 Rapid Assessment

Insert a metal rod or shovel into the ground to determine changes 

in the compaction level of a monitoring point. This surrogate for 

bulk density sampling can be effective if undisturbed soils are 

nearby to calibrate this “push” test. You must calibrate yourself 

to the physical resistance of each soil type. Although a change 

in compaction is often measured by pushing a rod or spade into 

the soil (or taking a bulk density core), the visual attributes listed 

previously (wheel tracks, equipment trails, etc.) may be all that is 

necessary to determine a change in surface disturbance. 

Placing compaction into a soil disturbance class (disturbance 

class 1, 2, or 3) is based on depth of compaction change into the 

mineral soil. Because of this depth relationship, it is important to 

know the undisturbed condition (at depths) of the soil preactivity.

Rutting and/or Wheel Track Impressions

The Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in volume II) has 

three rows in which ruts are listed (by depth). Determine the 

maximum extent of the rut and record a “1” (present) in the 

cell for that monitoring point. Record a “0” in each of the other 

two rows. To measure the depth of the rut, you may need to 

determine where the approximate surface of the undisturbed 

soil is (or was). As mentioned previously, you can measure these 

physical features for area (length multiplied by the average width) 

and enter them into ONSITE to determine areal extent.

Wheel tracks or ruts (impressions in the soil caused by heavy 

equipment) vary in depth and width. On sites that have a high 

compaction hazard (e.g., fine-textured soils, steep slopes), a 

shallow rut may cause degradation in site quality by altering 

the flow of water and gasses in the soil and/or increasing soil 

penetration resistance. On sites that have a low compaction 

hazard (e.g., coarse-textured soils), deeper ruts may not cause 

a detrimental change to water and gas flow but may represent 

displacement of fertile topsoil layers. Regardless of texture, however, wheel tracks and ruts can cause water to be routed off a 

site, making it unavailable for plant growth. Within a rut or wheel 

track could also be altered soil structure, increased soil density, 

puddling, compacted deposits of forest floor, fine slash, and 

woody debris (not readily excavated with a shovel). Placing ruts 

and wheel tracks into a soil disturbance category (disturbance 

class 1, 2, or 3) is based on their depth on the soil surface and 

their extension into the mineral soil profile.
Volume I 20 Rapid Assessment

Soil Structure

Record massive/platy/puddled soil on the Data Entry worksheet 

(see appendix C-3 in volume II). Determination of a change in 

structure is by depth and can sometimes be linked to the change 

in compaction level at the same depth. Determine the maximum 

extent of the change in structure and record a “1” (present) in the 

cell for that monitoring point. Record a “0” in each of the other 

two rows, unless these structural changes extend beyond one 

depth. In that case, record a 1 in each field.

Massive, platy, and puddled structures are indicators of a change 

in soil structure and a reduction in pore sizes that will change 

pore size distribution. Massive soil can be naturally occurring 

or can be caused by management activities. Massive structure 

means structural units are not present and the soil is a coherent 

mass. Platy structure can also be naturally occurring, but coarseplaty structure that has flat or tabular-like (dinner plate) units 

within the profile is usually caused by harvesting equipment. 

Puddled soils occur when equipment operates when the soil is 

too wet; soil is smeared along a wheel track or rut and causes

water to pond on the surface. The change in soil physical conditions and their depth into the mineral soil profile will determine in 

which soil disturbance category (severity class) you will place it.

Surface Organic Matter

The Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in volume II) has a 

row for recording the depth of the forest floor (all surface organic 

horizons combined). Forest floor depth can be used to determine 

loss of nutrients from the organic layers. If the organic layers 

are piled and burned, nutrients are lost from the site. PageDumroese et al. (2000) describe how to use the NRCS soil data 

to determine approximate nutrient amounts and potential losses. 

Depending on site variability, you can collect this value for some 

(e.g., every 10 points) or all of the points. Measure the forest floor 

depth with a pocket ruler.

Displacement

Forest Floor

Record if the forest floor is impacted (e.g., if the surface organic 

matter has been moved from one place to another) on the Data 
Volume I 21 Rapid Assessment

Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in volume II). The item reads 

“forest floor impacted.” Record either a “0” (forest floor is not 

impacted) or a “1” (forest floor is impacted) in this row for each 

monitoring point. Large areas of displaced forest floor can lead to 

changes in nutrient cycling or erosion. Changes in the distribution 

and depth of the forest floor will change the soil disturbance 

severity rating. If the area of forest floor displacement is large, 

measure the area (length times average width) and enter the result 

into the ONSITE portion of the database to determine areal extent.

Mineral Soil

Record removal of the top mineral soil under “topsoil displacement.” Record either a “0” (displacement is absent) or a “1” 

(displacement is present) in this row for each monitoring point. 

Mineral top soil displacement and gouging can result in degradation of site quality by exposing unfavorable subsoil material 

(e.g., denser, lower in nutrients, less organic matter, calcareous), 

altering slope hydrology, and causing excessive erosion and, 

therefore, a loss of nutrients. Displacement that has removed 

most of the surface soil and exposed the subsoil is considered 

severity class 3. The impacts of mineral soil displacement on 

long-term productivity are governed by slope gradient, slope 

complexity, and subsoil conditions. 

Changes in the soil disturbance categories are based on mixing 

of topsoil with the subsoil, topsoil removal, and evidence of 

gouging and piling. This attribute is the only one specifically 

linked to an areal extent in most regional soil quality standards 

and guidelines. Document the areal extent used by individuals 

before monitoring and list it in the comment field. Because the 

electronic field form is used to calculate ongoing sample size 

using “0s” and “1s,” areal extent size must be listed elsewhere. 

For example, if the regional soil quality standards lists an areal 

extent (e.g., >1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter), then use that areal extent 

for counting mineral soil displacement (counted as “1” [present] 

on the worksheet). In addition, if areas of mineral soil displacement are extraordinarily large, measure them for area (length 

multiplied by the average width) and enter the result into the 

ONSITE calculator.
Volume I 22 Rapid Assessment

Point Attributes

After recording information about forest floor impacted, use the 

section on the Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 in volume 

II) that asks for information about live plants, invasive species, 

fine woody material, coarse woody material, bare soil, and rock. 

These attributes are meant to help describe site conditions that 

may indicate a change in site sustainability or erosion potential. 

These attributes are not automatically included in the sample size 

calculation on the Variable Selection worksheet (see appendix C-2). 

If these attributes are important for particular sites, however, they 

may be included in the sample size calculation.

Erosion 

Record erosion in the Data Entry worksheet (see appendix C-3 

in volume II) under “erosion.” Record either a “0” (absent) or a 

“1” (present) in this row for each monitoring point. Soil erosion 

is the movement of soil by water and wind. Accelerated erosion 

(erosion caused by human activity that is more than the historic 

erosion rate) causes both onsite (soil loss, nutrient loss, lower 

productivity, shallower mineral soil) and offsite (reduced stream 

water quality, increased sedimentation, loss of aquatic habitat) 

impacts. 

Erosion noted in the FSDMP is for surface soils within an activity 

area. It is not designed for roads, ditches, or places where the 

subsoil is exposed. The degree and extent (slight, moderate, 

or severe) of erosion will place this attribute into different soil 

disturbance (severity) categories. 

Prescribed Fire and Pile Burning

Record fire severity on the Data Entry worksheet (see appendix 

C-3 in volume II) in the three rows that list fire severity (light, 

moderate, and severe). Determine the fire severity of the monitoring point and record a “1” (present) in the cell for that point. 

Record a “0” in each of the other two rows.

Broadcast Burning

Broadcast burns across the activity area will likely create a 

mosaic of site conditions. Low-severity burns will likely not alter 
Volume I 23 Rapid Assessment

soil processes for an extensive period of time. Hotter burns may 

impact both the forest floor and mineral soil material. As burn 

severity increases, the soil disturbance class (1, 2, or 3) also 

increases. 

Pile Burning

Piles of waste logging materials, brush, or tree tops (slash) that 

remain after harvest activities are often burned in the activity 

area or on landings and skid trails. It may be difficult to describe 

conditions under the burned area if substantial slash remains, but 

it is critical to assess the size (width multiplied by the length or 

diameter) of the area. Use ONSITE to help calculate the size of 

these features. Because monitoring points may land on different 

piles, assess them independently for severity. Assess burn piles 

similarly to broadcast burning severity. 

Although wildfires are not considered as part of the FSDMP, 

record the impacts of fire on the soil resource during preactivity 

assessments to help determine if mitigation measures may be 

necessary.

Assigning a Disturbance Class

Soil disturbance classes are assigned using visual surface 

characteristics and they are recorded for each monitoring point 

in the survey. The disturbance classes are defined in the previous 

sections and table 2. Table 3 also provides a list of the visual 

attributes of each soil indicator and some potential managementinduced changes. Data collected at each monitoring point provide a representative sample of the activity area. The percentage 

of the activity area in each soil disturbance class is automatically 

calculated in the electronic worksheets and the results are 

displayed on the Results worksheet (see appendix C-4 in volume 

II). Reliability is estimated from the variance among estimated 

point proportions of each condition class. At some points, there 

may be a variety of soil disturbances. The observer must evaluate 

these overlapping indicators so that the soil disturbance class 

best represents the point.
Volume I 24 Rapid Assessment

Literature Cited

Fleming, R.L.; Powers, R.F.; Foster, N.W. et al. 2006. Effects

of organic matter removal, soil compaction, and vegetation 

control on 5-year seedling performance: a regional comparison 

of Long-Term Soil Productivity sites. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 36: 5429–5450.

Gomez, A.; Powers, R.F.; Singer, M.J. et al. 2002 Soil compaction effects on growth of young ponderosa pine following litter 

removal in California’s Sierra Nevada. Soil Science Society of 

America Journal. 66: 1334–1343.

McNab, W.H.; Cleland, D.T.; Freeouf, J.A. et al., comps. 2007.

Description of ecological subregions: sections of the conterminous 

United States [CD-ROM]. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-76B. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 80 p.

Napper, C.; Howes, S.; Page-Dumroese, D. et al. [N.d.]. Soil

disturbance field guide. Manuscript in preparation. 0820 1815-

SDTDC. San Dimas, CA: San Dimas Technology Center.

Page-Dumroese, D.; Jurgensen, M.; Elliot, W. et al. 2000. Soil

quality standards and guidelines for forest sustainability in 

northwestern North America. Forest Ecology and Management. 

138: 445–462.

Page-Dumroese, D.S.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Tiarks, A.E. et al. 2006.

Soil physical property changes at North American Long-Term 

Soil Productivity study sites: 1 and 5 years after compaction. 

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36: 551–564.

Powers, R.F.; Tiarks, A.E.; Boyle, J.R. 1998. Assessing soil

quality: practical standards for sustainable forest productivity in 

the United States. In: Adams, M.B.; Ramakrishna, K.; Davidson,

E., eds. The contribution of soil science to the development and 

implementation of criteria and indicators of sustainable forest 

management. SSSA Spec. Publ. 53. Madison, WI: Soil Science 

Society of America: 53–80.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service (USDA NRCS). 1993. Soil survey manual. Rev. Agricultural 

handbook 18. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff. 437 p.
Volume I 25 Rapid Assessment

Appendix A. Safety of Hazard Analysis

1. Work 

Project/

Activity

2. Location

Soil Quality 

Monitoring

4. Name of 

Analyst

5. Job Title

8. Hazards 9. Abatement Actions

Engineering Controls • Substitution • 

Administrative Controls • PPE

Communication 

breakdown

Never travel or work alone in isolated areas without 

preparing and discussing a detailed JHA that 

includes emergency evacuation procedures and a 

communication plan.

Talk to each other. Let other crew members know 

when you see a hazard. Avoid working near known 

hazard trees. Yell “ROCK!” if you see one start to

roll down the hill. Always know the whereabouts 

of fellow crew members. Review emergency 

evacuation procedures (see below).

Carry a radio and spare batteries. Ensure that 

local frequencies and repeaters are programmed 

in radios. Contact local districts or resource 

areas prior to field work to determine appropriate 

communication protocols.

If going to a remote area alone, let someone know 

specifically where you will be; be sure someone

knows you have returned. 

Overdue, 

no contact, 

missing

File itinerary of planned routes of travel, destination, 

ETD/ETA, employee names, emergency phone 

numbers/communication system and contact 

points, and checkin/checkout system. 

Falling down, 

twisted ankles 

and knees, poor 

footing, and 

general slips, 

trips, and falls

Always watch your footing. Slow down and use 

extra caution around logs, rocks, and animal holes. 

Steep slopes (>20%) can be hazardous under wet 

or dry conditions. Wear laced boots with nonskid, 

Vibram®-type soles for ankle support and traction. 

Stretch before hiking.
Volume I 26 Rapid Assessment

Crossing creeks, 

seeps, bogs, wet 

logs, wet rocks, 

wet vegetation 

slopes, and wet 

ash slopes

Watch where you walk in streams, expect rocks 

to be slippery, and do not cross if you feel unsafe. 

Cross facing upstream so knees do not buckle;

use a stick for extra balance. Expect mud and 

vegetation-covered water to be deeper than it 

appears. Expect logs to be slippery, especially 

when the bark is worn off. Expect trails in wet 

areas to give way to pressure near toe slopes. 

Keep limber and alert at all times. Be aware in

areas of wet ash, loose rocks, and unstable slopes. 

Slopes with wet vegetation are frequently slick and 

hazardous.

Stobs, sharp 

limbs, and 

other puncturing 

objects

Long pants, good boots, and cautious attention 

will mitigate the danger of possible punctures and 

tears associated from stobs. Puncture wounds are 

particularly difficult to clean completely in the field;

monitor closely for swelling and throbbing. Obtain 

medical treatment if these conditions persist. 

Always expect hidden stobs in dense vegetation. 

Learn to roll; do not use arms to break a fall. As

an option, cutting pant legs may reduce falls 

associated with stobs.

Falling objects When applicable, wear a hardhat for protection 

from falling limbs and pinecones and from tools 

and equipment carried by other crew members. 

Always wear a hardhat in burned areas, high snag 

density areas, falling rock areas, and high wind 

situations. Try to stay out of the woods during 

extremely high winds. 

Damage to eyes Watch where you walk, especially around trees 

and brush with limbs sticking out. Exercise caution 

when clearing limbs from tree trunks. Wear eye 

protection.

Bee and wasp 

stings

Watch for respiratory problems. Notify dispatcher/

other crew members/supervisor and get person 

to a doctor immediately if he/she has trouble 

breathing. Always know where the first aid kit is. 

Gently scrape stinger off if one is present. Apply 

analgesic swab and cold pack, if possible, and 

watch for infection. Flag the location of any known 

nests and inform other crew members.

Carry antihistamine and asthma inhaler for bee 

stings. If known allergy, carry proper medication 

and instruct co-workers in administration.
Volume I 27 Rapid Assessment

Ticks and 

infected 

mosquitoes

Wear long-sleeved shirts. Tuck pants into socks/

boots. 

Visually check each other for ticks while in the 

field. Check yourself carefully at home at day’s 

end. Use repellent at your discretion. 

If a tick is imbedded in you:

•	 Gently pull the tick out with tweezers or

fingernails, using a quick tug.

•	 Ensure tick head is removed.

•	 Wash the infected area and monitor for a red

rash.

•	 Monitor the tick bite for inflammation, color

alteration, or swelling.

See a doctor if problems present themselves.

Heat stress Remain constantly aware of the four basic 

factors that determine the degree of heat stress 

(air temperature, humidity, air movement, and 

heat radiation) relative to the surrounding work 

environmental heat load.

Drink enough water or sports drinks to keep 

hydrated and prevent heat exhaustion or heat 

stroke (at least 2 quarts in summer). Consumption 

of caffeine and alcohol greatly increase 

susceptibility to dehydration. Limit these intakes 

before and during exposure to heat stress.

Know the signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion,

heat cramps, and heat stroke. Heat stroke is a 

true medical emergency requiring immediate 

emergency response action.

NOTE: The severity of the effects of a given 

environmental heat stress is decreased by 

reducing the work load, increasing the frequency 

and/or duration of rest periods, and introducing 

measures that will protect employees from hot 

environments. 

Cold extremes Cover all exposed skin and be aware of frostbite. 

Although cold air will not freeze the tissues of 

the lungs, slow down and use a mask or scarf to 

minimize the effect of cold air on air passages.

Additional measures to take to avoid cold weather 

problems—

a. Dress in layers with wicking garments (those 

that carry moisture away from the body) and 

a weatherproof slicker. A wool or breathable 

synthetic outer garment is recommended.
Volume I 28 Rapid Assessment

b. Take layers off as you heat up; put them on as

you cool down.

c. Wear head protection that provides adequate 

insulation and protects the ears.

d. Maintain your energy level. Avoid exhaustion 

and overexertion, which causes sweating, 

dampens clothing, and accelerates loss of body 

heat and increases the potential for hypothermia 

(the lowering of the body’s core temperature).

e. Acclimate to the cold climate to minimize 

discomfort.

f. Maintain adequate water/fluid intake to avoid 

dehydration.

Wind Windchill greatly affects heat lose. Avoid working 

in old, decomposed timber, especially hardwoods, 

during periods of high winds due to snag 

hazards. Wind also exacerbates the likelihood of 

hypothermia. Always carry appropriate rain gear 

(both jacket and pants), because rain gear greatly 

mitigates the effects of windchill.

Rain Always carry appropriate rain gear (both jacket 

and pants). Hypothermia is much more likely when 

moisture is directly on or near the skin. 

Sun rays Ultraviolet light from the sun can be damaging 

to the eyes; look for sunglasses that specify

significant protection from UV-A and UV-B 

radiation.

Ultraviolet light from the sun can be damaging to 

the skin and lead to sunburn or skin cancer; on

bright, sunny days and overcast days, always carry 

and apply to exposed skin, SPF 15-rated sun block 

lotion, a wide-brimmed hat, long-sleeved shirt, and 

pants to mitigate harmful light rays on the skin.

Lightning Check weather report; stay off ridge tops and

open slopes during lightning storms. If stuck in 

open, keep radio and metallic objects away from 

you, squat down with only feet on ground using 

insulating pad if possible, and keep as much of 

your body off the ground as possible. Never use 

radios or cell phones in lightning. Stay away from 

large trees that may act as lighting rods. Look 

for cover in even-aged tree stands. Above all 

else, stay out of streams during lighting activity, 

and do not carry stadia rods or other survey 

tools—graphite, fiberglass, aluminum, and wood 

can all attract lighting, especially when wet. Never 

use any electronic devices during lightning activity.
Volume I 29 Rapid Assessment

Environmental 

hazards

Choose campsites that are free of snags and 

leaning green trees and that have no danger of 

rolling rocks, slides, and flash floods.

Animal problems Do not camp in areas with known animal problems. 

Hang food and follow food and cooking guidelines 

when in bear country. Keep a clean camp, do not

leave food out, and clean up spills. 

Ecological 

impacts

Follow “leave no trace” guidelines to minimize 

impacts from camping.

Giardia 

cryptosporidium

and other 

parasites

Drink filtered or tap water at all times. Boil water if 

you do not have a filter or access to clear potable 

tap water, or use iodine tablets. 

Fatigue, 

carelessness

Get plenty of sleep at night.

Be careful and do the job right the first time, safely.

Wounds, scrapes, 

bruises, sprains, 

rashes, burns, 

infections, and 

general ailments

Carefully clean all cuts, punctures, scrapes, and 

such with antiseptic. Dress with clean bandages, 

replacing as necessary. Closely monitor all 

wounds, taking caution not to worsen them by 

continued physical activity. If ill, do not continue 

exertion and worsen the ailment. Take special care 

not to pass contagious ailments to fellow workers. 

Notify other crew members and immediate 

supervisor of all accidents, illnesses, and wounds, 

including those obtained before going on a tour. 

If applicable, this notification should take place 

before departing into the backcountry.

Toilet paper and 

feminine hygiene 

waste materials

These items, when used or unused, and if scented, 

must be considered attractants for animals, but 

carry the added weight of being considered 

biohazardous waste when used. Handle disposal 

of these items in one of two ways: (1) pack it in, 

pack it out—dedicate two plastic zipping or Ziploc®

bags for this method or (2) dig a 4-in by 6-in cat 

hole to bury items along with waste.

Blisters and other 

foot injuries

These wounds are quite common in the backcountry and should be planned for. Plenty of clean, 

dry socks should be on hand (two for each day 

if you are prone to blisters). Regular changing of 

socks prevents blisters and reduces infection of 

existing ones. In addition, thick moisture-wicking 

socks with thin, nylon liners are quite useful for 

preventing blisters. Break in boots before the start 

of the field season as well. Proper-fitting boots are 

essential. Always carry moleskin, rubbing alcohol, 

and duct tape for mitigating these problems.
Volume I 30 Rapid Assessment

Trash The survey crew will pack out all trash. Treat all 

food-oriented trash the same as food in terms of 

wildlife attraction.

Other trash, left 

by other people

It is encouraged to pick up other trash found 

during surveys, but exercise extreme caution when 

doing so. Broken glass and the edges of tin cans 

can be hazardous. There are reports of bottles 

fermenting in the sun and building pressure, only 

to shatter and send glass fragments flying when 

disturbed by trash collection. Thus, gloves, eye 

protection, and long-sleeved shirt and pants are 

good ideas when handling trash.

Methamphetamine 

remains

It has come to the attention of law enforcement 

that many illegal drug producers are using national 

forests as ground upon which to make illegal 

drugs. Specifically, methamphetamine, also known 

as crystal meth, remains or trash have been found 

on a much more frequent basis. Thus, any trash 

that may appear suspicious or that emits toxic 

odors should be avoided and located on the 

map. A report to the local LEO is in order for such 

suspicious trash. The Forest Service course on 

recognizing and dealing with methamphetamine 

hazards is recommended.

Marijuana Forest Service employees are advised, when 

encountering marijuana growing on national forest 

property, to leave the vicinity carefully, cautiously, 

and immediately. In some cases, these areas have 

been known to be guarded and/or booby-trapped. 

Notify local LEO immediately.

Communication For cases in which evacuation is needed, 

communication procedures are essential. Know

how to use the radio and who to contact in an 

emergency.

Medical 

evacuation

For cases in which injury, illness, or accident 

initiates the need to evacuate a person, the first 

priority is to contact other crews in the area for 

assistance, and then contact emergency crews 

from the district office or supervisor’s office. If 

the wounded person is mobile, the crew should 

calmly and steadily proceed by the most direct 

and easy route to the vehicles in an effort to get to 

professional medical care. If the hurt crew member 

is not mobile, make preparations for backcountry 

extraction by a search and rescue team. In either 

case, if there is no radio contact, a crew member 

should be dedicated to hiking to the ridge to get
Volume I 31 Rapid Assessment

a radio signal out. If search and rescue must 

intervene, be prepared with GPS coordinates and 

legal description of the location. Also plan to send 

a healthy crew member to the vehicles to assist 

search and rescue in locating the wounded crew 

member. Always remember your backcountry 

safety training during these times, and remember 

to think cool, calm, and collected. The atmosphere 

of the accident often instills shock, so mitigate 

shock by providing a relaxed, attentive, and wellthought-out atmosphere.

Danger 

evacuation

If weather, wildlife, human, or other dangers 

cause a need for evacuation, the group should 

stay together and proceed to safe quarters. Use 

your safety briefings about shelter areas and 

communication in case of these events; you will be

trained for such occasion.

Once to the 

vehicle

Look at additional evacuation measures regarding 

vehicle safety, but always remember that driving 

should be cautious, even in the face of an accident 

or dangerous situation.

10. LINE 

OFFICER 

SIGNATURE

11. TITLE

ETA = estimated time of arrival. ETD = estimated time of departure. 

GPS = Global Positioning System. JHA = job hazard analysis. LEO = law 

enforcement organization. SPF = sun protection factor.