Flexible Residential Test Facility: 

Impact of Infiltration and 

Ventilation on Measured Cooling 

Season Energy and Moisture 

Levels

D. Parker, J. Kono, R. Vieira, P. Fairey III, 

J. Sherwin, C. Withers Jr., D. Hoak, and D. Beal

BA-PIRC

May 2014
NOTICE

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. 

Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, subcontractors, or 

affiliated partners makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the 

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or 

represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial 

product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily 

constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States government or any agency 

thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the 

United States government or any agency thereof.

Available electronically at http://www.osti.gov/scitech

Available for a processing fee to U.S. Department of Energy

and its contractors, in paper, from:

U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Scientific and Technical Information

P.O. Box 62

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-0062

phone: 865.576.8401

fax: 865.576.5728

email: mailto:reports@adonis.osti.gov

Available for sale to the public, in paper, from:

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

phone: 800.553.6847

fax: 703.605.6900

email: orders@ntis.fedworld.gov

online ordering: http://www.ntis.gov/ordering.htm

Printed on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 20% postconsumer waste
iii

Flexible Residential Test Facility:

Impact of Infiltration and Ventilation on Measured Cooling Season 

Energy and Moisture Levels

Prepared for: 

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

On behalf of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Building America Program

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 

15013 Denver West Parkway 

Golden, CO 80401 

NREL Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 

Prepared by: 

Danny S. Parker, Jamie E. Kono, Robin K. Vieira, Philip W. Fairey III, 

John S. Sherwin, Charles Withers Jr., David Hoak, and David Beal 

BA-PIRC/Florida Solar Energy Center 

1679 Clearlake Road, Cocoa, FL 32922 

NREL Technical Monitor: Stacey Rothgeb 

Prepared under Subcontract No. KNDJ-0-40339-03 

May 2014
iv

[This page left blank]
v 

Contents

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ vi

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................. vii

Definitions................................................................................................................................................. viii

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................................... ix

Executive Summary.................................................................................................................................... x

1 Background........................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Literature Search ..................................................................................................................1

2 Methods................................................................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Facility .................................................................................................................................3

2.2 Internal Gains .......................................................................................................................5

3 Experimental Methods ......................................................................................................................... 7

3.1 House Leakage Characteristics ............................................................................................7

3.2 Forced Ventilation ...............................................................................................................7

3.3 Data Collection Schedule .....................................................................................................7

3.4 Infiltration Measurements ....................................................................................................9

4 Mathematical and Modeling Methods............................................................................................... 10

4.1 Demand Profiles .................................................................................................................10

4.2 Tracer Gas Infiltration Measurements ...............................................................................10

5 Summer Infiltration and Ventilation Test Result ............................................................................. 11

5.1 Measured Outdoor and Indoor Temperature and Moisture Conditions .............................11

5.2 Energy Comparison ...........................................................................................................14

5.3 Evaluation During Individual Test Periods ........................................................................15

5.3.1 Test Period I: May 10 to June 21, 2012 .................................................................15

5.3.2 Test Period II: June 23 to July 31, 2012 ................................................................18

5.3.3 Test Period III: September 1–13, 2012 ..................................................................21

5.3.4 Test Period IV: October 2–8, 2012 ........................................................................24

5.3.5 Test Period V: October 10–20, 2012 .....................................................................27

5.3.6 Test Period VI: October 25 to November 8, 2012 .................................................30

5.4 Tracer Gas Testing of Real-Time Building Infiltration and Ventilation Rates .................32

6 Discussion........................................................................................................................................... 34

6.1 Moisture Control ................................................................................................................34

6.1.1 No Mechanical Ventilation ....................................................................................34

6.1.2 Mechanical Ventilation ..........................................................................................35

6.2 Air Conditioning Energy Use ............................................................................................36

6.3 Tracer Gas Testing .............................................................................................................36

7 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................ 37

7.1 Key Findings/Lessons Learned ..........................................................................................38

7.2 Future Work .......................................................................................................................39

References................................................................................................................................................. 40
vi 

List of Figures

Figure 1. Completed flexible residential test structures on FSEC campus.......................................... 3

Figure 2. Ceiling penetration for planned leakage (left); attic view of hole that diffuses airflow 

(right) ..................................................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 3. Metal stand-off shims used to add vertical plane leakage to the east building ................... 4

Figure 4. Daily load schedule for both homes ......................................................................................... 6

Figure 5. Outdoor ambient air temperature and interior temperature by the interior thermostat 

in the two test buildings during the entire summer........................................................................ 11

Figure 6. Measured indoor RH by the thermostat in the two test buildings during the entire 

summer................................................................................................................................................ 12

Figure 7. Measured indoor and outdoor dew point temperatures in the two test buildings 

during the entire summer.................................................................................................................. 13

Figure 8. Measured air conditioner condensate in the two test buildings during the entire 

summer................................................................................................................................................ 13

Figure 9. Measured air conditioner and ventilation system power in the two test buildings 

over the entire summer...................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 10. AC energy use, May 10 to June 21, 2012: natural infiltration, low moisture release....... 16

Figure 11. Comparative RH, May 10 to June 21, 2012: natural infiltration, low moisture release .... 17

Figure 12. Comparative dew point temperatures, May 10 to June 21, 2012: natural infiltration, 

low moisture release .......................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 13. Comparative condensate removal, May 10 to June 21, 2012: natural infiltration, low 

moisture release ................................................................................................................................. 18

Figure 14. AC energy use, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, standard moisture 

release ................................................................................................................................................. 19

Figure 15. Comparative RH, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, standard moisture 

release ................................................................................................................................................. 20

Figure 16. Comparative dew point temperatures, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, 

standard moisture release................................................................................................................. 20

Figure 17. Comparative condensate removal, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, 

standard moisture release................................................................................................................. 21

Figure 18. AC energy use, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated..................................................... 22

Figure 19. Comparative RH, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated.................................................. 23

Figure 20. Comparative dew point temperatures, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated .............. 23

Figure 21. Comparative condensate removal, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated .................... 24

Figure 22. AC energy use, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building goes to high 

leakage................................................................................................................................................. 25

Figure 23. Comparative RH, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building goes to high 

leakage................................................................................................................................................. 26

Figure 24. Comparative dew point temperatures, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east 

building goes to high leakage........................................................................................................... 26

Figure 25. Comparative condensate removal, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building 

goes to high leakage .......................................................................................................................... 27

Figure 26. AC energy use, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented ..................................................... 28

Figure 27. Comparative RH, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented .................................................. 28

Figure 28. Comparative dew point temperatures, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented............... 29

Figure 29. Comparative condensate removal, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented..................... 29

Figure 30. AC energy use, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation...................................... 30

Figure 31. Comparative RH, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation ................................... 31

Figure 32. Comparative dew point temperatures, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no 

ventilation............................................................................................................................................ 31

Figure 33. Comparative condensate removal, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation ..... 32

Figure 34. Measured infiltration rate by CO2 tracer, mechanical ventilation in west building ......... 33

Figure 35. Measured infiltration rate by CO2 tracer, infiltration only in both buildings .................... 33

Unless otherwise noted, all figures were created by BA-PIRC.
vii 

List of Tables

Table 1. Building Tightness Comparison of Tight House Configuration (Tight Duct System)........... 5

Table 2. Building Tightness Comparison of Leaky House Configuration (Tight Duct System) ......... 5

Table 3. Leakage Measurements in FRTF for Experiment...................................................................... 7

Table 4. Summer 2012 Infiltration/Ventilation Testing Schedule ........................................................... 8

Table 5. May 10 to June 21, 2012 (Natural Air Infiltration, Low Moisture Generation)....................... 16

Table 6. June 23 to July 31, 2012 (Natural Air Infiltration, Standard Moisture Generation).............. 19

Table 7. September 1–13, 2012 (West Unit Vented)............................................................................... 22

Table 8. October 2–8, 2012 (No Ventilation, East Building Goes to High Leakage)........................... 25

Table 9. October 10–20, 2012 (West Unit Vented).................................................................................. 27

Table 10. October 25 to November 8, 2012 (No Ventilation)................................................................. 30

Unless otherwise noted, all tables were created by BA-PIRC.
viii

Definitions

AC Air conditioning

ACH50 Air changes per hour (at 50 Pascals between inside and outside)

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

C Air leakage coefficient

CFM Cubic feet per minute

CO2 Carbon dioxide

ELA Effective leakage area

EqLa Equivalent leakage area

FRTF Flexible Residential Test Facility

FSEC Florida Solar Energy Center

n the exponent in the building leakage curve defined by the equation: Q = C ×

Pn where Q is airflow into the building (in CFM), C is the Coefficient, and P is 

the pressure difference between inside and outside

Qn Normalized air distribution system leakage 

RH Relative humidity
ix

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency 

and Renewable Energy, which sponsored this work under the Building America Program.

Thanks for the kind review from Eric Martin at the Florida Solar Energy Center. Wanda Dutton 

helped prepare the original manuscript and Danielle Daniel provided careful review and edit. 
x 

Executive Summary

Air infiltration and ventilation in residential buildings are a very large part of the heating loads, 

but empirical data regarding the impact on space cooling have been lacking. Moreover, there 

have been few data on how building tightness might relate to building interior moisture levels in 

homes in a hot-humid climate. To address this need, Building America has conducted research in 

two identical laboratory homes in Central Florida to measure specific impacts.

To assess the moisture and cooling load impacts of airtightness and mechanical ventilation in 

homes in hot-humid climates over the summer, two identical laboratory homes designed to 

model existing Florida building stock were sealed and tested to 2.2 ACH50. One lab was made 

leaky with leakage through the attic and windows to a tested value of approximately 8 ACH50. 

The other lab was held tight and equipped with a mechanical ventilation system to meet 

minimum ventilation airflow rates recommended for the American Society of Heating, 

Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 62-2. Testing was conducted 

over the summer of 2012 to evaluate the energy and moisture effects of differing building 

leakage rates. The testing also examined the impact of mechanical ventilation according to 

ASHRAE Standard 62-2-2010 in the tighter building by alternating 2-week periods of 

mechanical ventilation and no ventilation for a portion of the summer.

The comparative summer testing showed that tighter buildings, exemplified by the west 

structure, had little if any air conditioning (AC) energy savings and only modest differences in 

moisture content under natural infiltration. The lack of energy savings in the tighter home was 

largely because the outdoor temperature was nearly as often below as above the desired 

thermostat set point. Thus, increased air infiltration during nighttime hours when the temperature 

outside is lower than the desired cooling set point actually reduces the AC load. The less airtight 

east house showed only a mild increase in moisture levels in the home, likely due to increasing

AC runtime that quickly removed any excess moisture from increased infiltration. This occurs 

because vapor compression AC equipment removes more moisture as runtime increases. There is 

also an impact on the machine sensible heat ratio; as the internal level of absolute moisture 

increases (the wet bulb), the machine's operating sensible heat ratio drops.

Unlike natural infiltration, mechanical supply ventilation revealed much more significant 

changes to energy use and moisture levels when added to the tight home. Cooling energy 

increased by 20%–38% or about 4 kWh/day. Part of this increase resulted from the mechanical 

ventilation system fan itself, which added 1.8 kWh/day of energy use to the cooling system 

energy use.1

 The power use of the ventilation equipment was approximately 75 Watts. While this 

is a commercially available unit, there is equipment that might have system power that is less 

than half of this level with a more modest impact on fan energy use. The mechanical ventilation 

system also elevated building moisture levels—interior relative humidities (RHs) were modestly 

increased by 2%–5%. 

The interior moisture data collected suggest that leaky residential buildings (as exemplified by 

the loose building) will not result in as large an increase in moisture levels as when ASHRAE 

 

1 Given equipment coefficient of performance, we would estimate that cooling energy would likely be increased by 

~0.5 kWh/day from the heat of added fan energy.
xi 

Standard 62-2 levels of ventilation are provided in a tight building in Central Florida without 

enthalpy recovery. In the leaky building, average RH usually did not exceed 50%, except toward 

the end of the season when the sensible cooling load declined. However, even with mechanical 

ventilation during periods with high cooling loads, interior RH usually stayed below 60%. This 

means that while interior moisture levels were increased by mechanical supply ventilation, they 

were generally in an acceptable range. They did, however, increase cooling energy use. 

However, moisture-related results in winter were quite different. The 2011–2012 winter 

infiltration study found significant moisture problems in an older Florida home with a very tight 

envelope at 2.2 ACH50 (Vieira and Sherwin 2012). This study provides additional evidence that 

many of the moisture problems in residences in Central Florida likely occur during winter when 

there are no sensible cooling loads and no humidity removal. 

Later in the test period, we used a carbon dioxide tracer gas technique to examine the evenness 

and sufficiency of airflows into the two buildings relative to ASHRAE Standard 62-2. Without 

mechanical ventilation, both buildings showed much lower than recommended effective 

ventilation rates—particularly the tight building where average observed air change rate was 

only 0.04 ACH. However, even the leaky building (with 0.27 ACH) experienced long periods 

where the interior flow rates were half what would be recommended by Standard 62. 

The summer 2012 testing at the Flexible Residential Testing Facility (FRTF) suggests that 

further experimentation should be done in the future to examine likely interactions with duct 

system leakage as well as the potential of enthalpy recovery ventilation systems, which may help 

address moisture issues while providing more comparable energy performance.

By providing specific data on infiltration and ventilation impacts in a hot and humid climate, this 

study reveals the impact on AC energy and interior moisture levels. While building airtightness 

was found to only slightly influence space cooling and interior moisture levels, mechanical 

ventilation had a more pronounced impact, suggesting that enthalpy recovery ventilation systems 

could be valuable. The results of this study provides important input to designers, homeowners, 

the air conditioning industry, utilities, and policy makers when determining cost-effective and 

comfortable energy efficiency improvements for homes in hot-humid climates.
1 

1 Background 

1.1 Literature Search

Early assessments of the impacts of air infiltration in buildings have estimated that air leakage 

was responsible for a third of heating and cooling loads (Sherman et al. 1980; Hekmat et al. 

1986). However, these studies largely concentrated on heating loads, which are known to 

strongly depend on building air leakage. Very few studies have attempted to measure the impact 

of air infiltration or ventilation on cooling loads alone. Another very detailed simulation study of 

office buildings in climates around the United States (Emmerich et al. 2005) found that while air 

infiltration and ventilation were responsible for 33% of the heating loads, they actually reduced 

cooling loads by 3.3%. Although these were commercial buildings and not residences, this 

finding was true even in cooling-dominated climates such as Savannah, Georgia and Tucson, 

Arizona. Part of this stems from the fact that nighttime temperatures are often lower than the 

cooling thermostat set point—an attribute sometimes advocated to reduce cooling by the use of 

forced ventilation (an economizer cycle) during these periods (Blondeau et al. 1997). 

Data from Japan suggest that occupants can have a large influence on building ventilation rates 

due to opening of windows during nighttime hours (Iwashita and Akasaka 1997). In Central 

Florida, Cummings and Tooley (1989) used simulation to show that an increase in the infiltration 

rate from 0.10 to 0.90 ACH could increase space cooling by 31%, but without data to know what 

the realistic range of air change rates prevailing in homes might be. In the same study, the 

authors also found that space heating was much more sensitive to infiltration rate, increasing by 

127% over the same range. 

Studies of the impact of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning 

Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 62.2 (ASHRAE 2010) and associated mechanical ventilation in 

homes on cooling loads are even more limited. Wray et al. (2000) estimated impacts via 

simulation, showing the largest impacts of mechanical ventilation in extreme climates, which 

included humid ones. Although indicated energy penalties were small and were based on 

simulation, not measurement, they were not inconsequential, and the indicated benefits relied on 

base building infiltration rates that were not verified. Other relevant simulation estimates were 

made by Robertson et al. (1998), who found that, depending on the strategy used for compliance, 

heating and cooling loads in Houston, Texas could be increased by up to four times that of the 

most effective strategy (balanced enthalpy recovery). No specific empirical studies could be 

located in our literature search, nor those of earlier investigators (Barley 2001).

One concern of added ventilation in humid climates is the increase of interior moisture levels. As 

such, it is useful to examine work that investigates how increased relative humidity (RH) may 

influence occupant health. For instance, Arundel et al. (1986) and Fisk et al. (2010) show that 

higher interior RH is associated with the incidence of allergies, prevalence of dust mites, and 

upper respiratory infections. Moreover, Baughmann and Arens (1996) suggest the same as well, 

indicating that problems with non-biotic agents such as formaldehyde were adversely increased. 

Most of the studies identify levels exceeding 60% RH as being problematic. 

There are also some questions about the existing calculation methods to estimate the impact of 

infiltration or ventilation. Infiltration is customarily assumed to increase the heating and cooling 

loads of a building by an amount equal to the mass flow rate of the infiltration times the enthalpy 
2 

difference between the inside and outside air, with the latent portion of the enthalpy difference 

sometimes neglected. However, the situation in real buildings may be more complex. Some 

research has suggested that natural air infiltration in buildings can behave very differently from 

mechanical ventilation, where the building may function as a heat exchanger. For instance, 

Claridge and Bhattacharyya (1990) conducted calorimetric measurements on a small test cell 

with measured amounts of infiltration introduced under a variety of conditions. The 

measurements showed that infiltration can lead to a much smaller change in the energy load than 

is customarily calculated; changes as small as 20% of the calculated value have been measured 

in the cell. The data also suggest that the phenomenon occurs in full-sized houses. However, 

other work on this same phenomenon was done by Walker and Sherman (2003), who showed 

that the effect was only about 1% for well-insulated buildings, although potentially much larger 

for poorly-insulated structures. In any case, the impact of natural air infiltration may be 

somewhat different from the impact of mechanical ventilation air of a similar quantity.

The summer Flexible Residential Test Facility (FRTF) study on infiltration and mechanical 

ventilation focused on the following research questions:

• How does the airtightness of a home affect its moisture levels, temperature, and air 

conditioning (AC) loads during the cooling season? 

• How does supply mechanical ventilation, meeting ASHRAE Standard 62.2, affect a 

home’s moisture levels, temperature, and AC loads during the cooling season? 

• How does air infiltration from natural infiltration compare to the ASHRAE Standard 62.2 

ventilation requirements? 

Additionally, the following research question was developed during the study: 

• How does the level of moisture generation within a home affect its moisture levels and 

AC loads? 
3 

2 Methods

2.1 Facility

The state of Florida provided funding for the design and construction of two reconfigurable, 

geometrically identical, full-scale, side-by-side residential building energy research facilities at 

the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), as shown in Figure 1. The Building America 

Partnership for Improved Residential Construction has instrumented these flexible research 

homes and will monitor them to conduct research on advanced building energy efficiency 

technologies under controlled conditions. 

Figure 1. Completed flexible residential test structures on FSEC campus

The purpose of the FRTF is to provide a controlled research environment that serves two main 

purposes. First, it is used to research and evaluate advanced energy-efficiency technologies and 

operational strategies. Second, it serves as a venue to help validate building simulation programs 

and algorithms. Details of the 1,536-ft2

 single-story buildings (volume = 13,050 ft3) and their 

instrumentation are provided in the “Flexible Residential Test Facility Instrumentation Plan” 

(Vieira and Sherwin 2012). 

Of particular significance to this report is the substantial effort that went into creating equal air

leakiness in the buildings. Initial construction created reasonably tight buildings (3.62 and 3.82 

ACH50), but FSEC staff further sealed leakage points until they were each able to achieve 2.2 

ACH50. The air distribution systems were very tight: 13 CFM25/100 ft2 (Qn = 0.013) in each 

home. Each home was then configured with controllable duct leakage and air leakage. The air 

leakage was designed to create the type of distribution and diffusion of air leakage represented in 

a number of Southern slab-on-grade homes: 

• Both homes were configured with four controllable ceiling leakage sites providing ~70% 

of leakage area needed to achieve ~8 ACH50 (see Figure 2). Seventy percent through the 

ceiling was able to be verified using calibrated flow hood to measure air through ceiling 

leak sites when the house was at –50 Pascals with reference to outside.

• The remaining 30% of leakage area was achieved using metal shims at all windows 

(Figure 3). 
4 

Figure 2. Ceiling penetration for planned leakage (left); 

attic view of hole that diffuses airflow (right) 

Figure 3. Metal stand-off shims used to add vertical plane leakage to the east building

FSEC staff experimented with different configurations of holes and air pathway restrictions until 

we were able to achieve an “n” or flow exponent value in a range from 0.6 to 0.7 while bringing 

in 30% of the air through the windows and obtaining an ACH50 value near 8. An “n” value 

between 0.6 and 0.7 was established because this is the typical range found in measurements in 

homes across the United States (Sherman et al. 1986). Once the air leakage design was 

established in the first home, the same design was copied in the second home to obtain matched 

leakage results. 

Airtightness testing was repeated on both homes in the tightest house envelope configuration and 

in the leakiest house envelope configuration at 9 ACH50. The detailed test results are 

summarized in Table 1 and Table 2. These tests were done with a very tight duct system having 

only Qn = 0.013 (0.013 CFM25 leakage to outside/100 ft2 of conditioned space).
5 

It is noted that having leakage concentrated in the ceiling plane can have large influences on the 

resulting infiltration dynamics because the building is shielded from most wind-related effects 

(Walker and Wilson 1998). However, the authors believe this arrangement is very typical of 

homes in the Southeast where slab-on-grade floors have no leakage and windows and doors are 

relatively well-sealed, but ceiling penetrations for recessed light cans and bathroom and kitchen 

fans make the ceiling a major site for building leakage.

Table 1. Building Tightness Comparison of Tight House Configuration (Tight Duct System)

ACH50 CFM50 C n EqLa ELA

East Lab 

Tight 2.26 540

(± 0.7%)

36.0 

(± 8.6%)

0.692 

(± 0.023)

55.8 

(± 3.5%)

29.6 

(± 5.5%)

West Lab 

Tight 2.18 520

(± 0.6%)

36.0 

(± 8.9%)

0.683 

(± 0.023)

53.7

(± 3.7%)

28.5

(± 5.8%)

Notes: Values in parentheses are the 95% confidence limits on the estimates; C, air leakage coefficient; n, 

exponent in the building leakage curve defined by the equation: Q = C × Pn; EqLa, equivalent leakage area

Table 2. Building Tightness Comparison of Leaky House Configuration (Tight Duct System)

ACH50 CFM50 C n EqLa ELA

East Lab 

Leaky 7.99 1909

(± 1.8%)

177.3 

(± 15.4%)

0.607 

(± 0.047)

197.1 

(± 5.9%)

104.8 

(± 9.6%)

West Lab 

Leaky 8.06 1926

(± 1.1%)

182.3 

(± 11.3%)

0.603 

(± 0.031)

198.8

(± 4.3%)

105.7

(± 7.1%)

Notes: Values in parentheses are the 95% confidence limits on the estimates.

During the tests, the west lab building was in the tight configuration (2.18 ACH50), and the east 

building was nominally in the leaky configuration (7.99 ACH50). However, it is important to 

note that because of miscommunication, the window shims that create the vertical plane leakage 

in the building were not in place during the majority of the cooling season. In this configuration, 

the building had a tested leakage of 6.01 ACH50, although with 94% of its leakage in the ceiling 

plane.2

 On October 1, 2012, the window shims were reinstalled, and the east building reverted to 

the original intention of 7.99 ACH50 for the duration of the experiment. 

2.2 Internal Gains

Due to the shoulder months of the extended cooling season in Central Florida, internal gains 

substantially increase cooling loads during periods when the outside conditions are otherwise 

moderate. This is particularly true in newer, tighter homes. Furthermore, internal moisture 

generation in a tight home without ventilation will lead to high moisture levels. The laboratories 

have automated (computer controlled) heat and moisture loads scheduled by time of day based 

on the Residential Energy Services Network lighting, appliance, and miscellaneous energy usage 

amendment schedule (Lighting, Appliance and Miscellaneous Energy Usage Profile Amendment 

2011). The schedules approximate Building America benchmark hourly schedules (Fang et al. 

2011) as shown in Figure 4. 

 

2 This has the likely effect of generally reducing the experienced building infiltration rate for a given absolute 

leakage. However, this configuration is not unlikely in the real world where much of the leakage in Florida buildings 

is concentrated in the ceiling plane from recessed can lights and bathroom and kitchen fans.
6 

Figure 4. Daily load schedule for both homes

For this experiment, the latent load was lowered to 6.05 lb/day of moisture, half of the latent load 

used during the winter time frame. As internal moisture generation rate in real homes is 

uncertain, this was done as a parametric exercise to see how internal moisture generation level 

might influence results. However, beginning on June 22, the moisture level was brought back to 

11 lb/day in accordance with the Building America Benchmark-computed level for moisture 

generation in a home of this size and configuration. 

Some of the internal sensible heat gains were produced by the house’s oven. Due to variability in 

stove elements, the west home oven produced more heat from the same automation schedule, 

resulting in slightly higher internal loads.
7 

3 Experimental Methods

3.1 House Leakage Characteristics

For the infiltration test, the west laboratory home served as the tight home and had the leakage 

sealed off at the ceiling plane. The leaky east laboratory home used the ceiling penetrations and 

window shims to obtain the results shown in Table 3. 

Table 3. Leakage Measurements in FRTF for Experiment

Leakage Parameter Leaky Home East Tight Home West

CFM50 1909 520 

ACH50 7.99 2.18 

C 177.3 36.0 

n 0.607 0.683 

ELA* (in.

2

) 104.8 28.5

Specific Leakage Area 0.00053 0.000119 

*effective leakage area

The west home served as the tight home, with a tested ACH50 of 2.2. The west home alternated 

every 2 weeks between having no mechanical ventilation and having mechanical ventilation in 

order to compare the energy savings and moisture impact of a tight home with and without 

ventilation. 

3.2 Forced Ventilation

Forced ventilation was also evaluated as an option for providing adequate air turnover in tight 

homes. In mid-August, an energy recovery ventilation system (Honeywell ER-200) was installed 

in the west building, allowing the west home to have whole-house ventilation. However, the 

enthalpy recovery section of the unit was deactivated, and it operated as a supply fan only. The 

exhaust fan was not operated, so the system was supply only and unbalanced. 

When in use, the system provides 63 (± 3) CFM of outdoor air into the space continuously, 

which was verified using a calibrated flow measurement setup. Measured power use of the 

ventilation system was 74 (± 2) Watts continuous or 1.77 kWh/day. After installation, the west 

home alternated between continuous ventilation from the whole-house ventilation system and no 

ventilation. 

3.3 Data Collection Schedule

Temperatures and RHs inside the laboratory buildings were extensively monitored with more 

than 100 channels of temperature and humidity measurements as well as the condensate removed 

by the air conditioner. Power uses of both the air handler and compressor were also recorded. 

During October, carbon dioxide (CO2) was released and monitored inside the homes to estimate 

infiltration rates.

The summer 2012 infiltration and ventilation testing was divided into several test periods, as

summarized in Table 4. 
8 

Table 4. Summer 2012 Infiltration/Ventilation Testing Schedule

Period Dates

West East Moisture 

Loading

Level

Good 

Data

Quality? Infiltration Mechanical 

Ventilation? Infiltration Mechanical Ventilation?

I 5/10–6/21 Tight No Moderate3 No Low Yes

II 6/23–7/31 Tight No Moderate No Normal Yes

– 8/16–8/31 Tight Yes Moderate No Normal No

III 9/1–9/13 Tight Yes Moderate No Normal Yes

– 9/14–9/30 Tight Yes Moderate No Normal No

IV 10/2-10/8 Tight No Normal No Normal Yes

V 10/10–10/20 Tight Yes Normal No Normal Yes

VI 10/25–11/8 Tight No Normal No Normal Yes

The homes began cooling-related testing on April 17, 2012, when the AC systems were both set 

to 77°F. However, official data collection did not start until May 10, after thermostat calibrations 

were performed, key measurement thermocouples were installed, and a condensate collection 

system was installed. 

From May 10 to August 15, the buildings were operated with no supplemental ventilation. 

During period I, from May 10 to June 21, the internal moisture release level was half that 

estimated (6 lb/day released) to examine how reduced internal moisture gain would influence 

cooling season performance. 

During period II, June 23 to July 31, the released moisture level was increased back to the 

normal level of 11 lb/day. As the exact level of internal moisture in Florida residential buildings 

remains uncertain, this variation likely spans the possible variation in moisture generation due to 

lower occupancy. 

Beginning August 16, the tighter west building began an alternating schedule of forced 

ventilation and no ventilation. However, installation and debugging of the ventilation system and 

the CO2 tracer gas dosing systems caused the August data to be unreliable.

During period III, September 1–13, the west building operated with continuous forced 

ventilation. During the second half of September, it was intended for the west building to operate 

without ventilation. However, the ventilation system was somehow triggered on for 4 days 

inadvertently during this period, making the data from this period largely unusable. 

On October 1, the error with the vertical plane leakage rate in the east building was altered to the 

intended configuration with the leakage in the vertical sides of the building restored. This had a 

large impact in the resulting building air leakage and air change rate. 

During periods IV and VI, October 2–8 and October 25 to November 8, the west home was 

unvented. During period V, October 10–20, the west home operated with forced ventilation. 

 

3 Moderate leakage is 6.8 ACH50 (1,436 CFM50; n = 0.621) with 94% of the leakage located in the ceiling plane; 

Normal leakage for the east unit is 8.0 ACH50 (1,909 CFM50; n = 0.607) with 71% of the leakage located in the 

ceiling.
9 

3.4 Infiltration Measurements

CO2 dosing and measurement equipment was installed during August to measure infiltration in 

the two homes. The dosing equipment (Dakota Instruments, INC model 6AGC1AL5-09CA2) 

consisted of two parallel CO2 tanks located in the garage and precisely metered on their release 

by digital flow meters that are recorded by instrumentation (the calibrated accuracy of the dosing 

equipment was 0.4%). Measurements came from Velaire CO2 transmitters (Ventostat 8000) with 

a stated full-range accuracy of ± 7%. However, a secondary calibration was performed with the 

result that the instrument was responding within an accuracy of ± 2%. A single interior 

transmitter was located at the center of each building. Type-T copper-constantan thermocouples 

are used to measure temperatures against a platinum reference junction on the Campbell data 

logger. Full range accuracy of the differential measurements is +0.2°F. Humidity measurements 

are made using Vaisala HMP50 transmitters with a stated accuracy of + 3% from 0%–90% RH. 

Power is measured by WattNode WNB-3D-240P Watt hour transmitters using revenue-grade 

current transducers with an accuracy of 0.5%. Texas Instruments TR-525i tipping buckets are 

utilized to introduce interior moisture as well as to measure air conditioner condensate with a 1% 

volumetric accuracy. Instruments were scanned each 10 s with integrated averages obtained 

every 15 minutes. 

Ambient outdoor CO2 sensors were also installed. Because the buildings are unoccupied, it is 

possible to measure the building infiltration rate using a known CO2 gas emission rate as a tracer 

gas. The rise in the concentration of indoor CO2 can be used to then estimate the building 

infiltration and ventilation rates with outdoor air based on calculated dilution to produce the 

observed concentration. An initial problem with this setup was experienced when it became 

apparent that the outdoor CO2 sensor had to be quite remote from the homes to prevent the 

effluent CO2 from the leaking buildings from corrupting the reference outdoor CO2

measurement. This was corrected by moving the sensor 20 ft away at a height of 10 ft.

The dosing and monitoring equipment was installed during August, and because of issues with 

the monitoring and ventilation equipment, reliable CO2 data were not available until October 1. 
10 

4 Mathematical and Modeling Methods

4.1 Demand Profiles

A key method of analyzing data in this study uses demand profiles of the performance indices, 

such as temperature or energy use. To create a demand profile, the average value for each hour is 

compiled for a data period. For example, the thermostat temperature each day at 10:00 a.m. is 

recorded and calculated to obtain an average value for 10:00 a.m. This process produces a 24-h 

profile of the data measured, allowing trends in the data to be identified. 

4.2 Tracer Gas Infiltration Measurements

Starting in October, CO2 tracer gas dosing began in the two homes, allowing for the estimation 

of infiltration into the homes. The building infiltration is calculated using the following relation, 

which comes from ASTM Standard E741-11 (American Society of Testing and Materials 2011): 

building infiltration [cfm] = ṁ CO2,release ∗ 28.31684 ∗ CCO2,indoor − 106

CCO2,outdoor − CCO2,indoor

Where:

ṁ CO2,release = release rate [L/min]

CCO2,indoor = measured indoor CO2 concentration [ppm]

CCO2,outdoor = measured outdoor ambient CO2 concentration [ppm]

The net ACH can then be calculated using the building’s net interior volume of 13,100 ft3: 

ACH = building infiltration [cfm] ∗ 60

building volume [ft3]
11 

5 Summer Infiltration and Ventilation Test Result

5.1 Measured Outdoor and Indoor Temperature and Moisture Conditions

Figure 5 through Figure 9 show the time series data of the hourly observations taken at the FRTF 

during the entire summer. Dashed vertical lines divide the period into the various test periods 

that are summarized in greater detail below.

Figure 5 shows the hourly dry bulb outdoor temperatures superimposed against the measured 

interior temperatures at the thermostat in each building. The x-axis is the Julian date during the 

period stretching from day 131 (May 10) to 313 (November 8). Note that the temperatures 

maintained at the thermostat remained very close to the target of 78°F with the exception of the 

cooler period at the end of the summer period in early November. It is also noteworthy that even 

during the hottest part of summer, the ambient air temperature is often lower than the thermostat 

set point temperature during evening hours—a fact with ramifications for the impact of 

infiltration and ventilation in Florida’s climate.

Figure 5. Outdoor ambient air temperature and interior temperature by the interior thermostat in 

the two test buildings during the entire summer

Figure 6 shows the same description of the summer period, but indicates the indoor RH in the 

two test buildings. It is readily seen that the indoor RH with ongoing AC of the buildings was 

typically 38%–51% during the time before forced ventilation was added. However, it is clear 

from the data that the indoor RH approached 60% beginning in August in the west building when 

63 CFM of outdoor air was introduced. The RH becomes much higher in early November (65% 

or more) when the need for AC ends. 
12 

Figure 6. Measured indoor RH by the thermostat in the two test buildings 

during the entire summer

Figure 7 shows the dew point temperature outdoors and indoors in the two buildings during the 

summer monitoring period. Unlike the RH values shown in Figure 6, the dew point temperatures 

indicate the absolute moisture content of the air. As before, we see little influence of the lower or 

standard interior moisture loads on the achieved interior dew points, which are demonstrably 

much lower in moisture content than that seen outdoors. This is because the vapor compression 

AC system largely removes the additional moisture, as shown in Figure 8 where condensate flow 

rates were considerably elevated at the higher internal moisture release rate. Thus, the interior air 

and cooling machine characteristics reach equilibrium with the interior absolute moisture level 

by operating longer with slightly longer runtimes. This is consistent with published research on 

the operation characteristics of unitary air conditioners (Henderson and Rengarahan 1996). 
13 

Figure 7. Measured indoor and outdoor dew point temperatures in the two test buildings 

during the entire summer

Figure 8. Measured air conditioner condensate in the two test buildings during the entire summer
14 

However, we also see a pronounced impact from the addition of forced ventilation in the west 

building beginning in mid-August. The interior dew points are typically elevated by 3°F or more. 

Later in October, we can see that during a no-vent period, the tighter west building has lower 

interior moisture than the east home during a period with heavy rainfall. On the other hand, at the 

end of the monitoring period in early November, when the outdoor dew points are much lower 

than those indoors and there is no longer much need for AC, the leakier east test building 

achieves lower interior moisture levels by its greater air infiltration during this period.

Figure 8 shows the measured air conditioner condensate volume measured each hour during the 

monitoring period. Here, we can see that when the internal moisture level is raised to 11 lb/day 

in late June, both air conditioners remove more moisture, which largely explains the fact that the 

measured interior dew points in Figure 7 were largely stable. However, we do clearly see that 

when forced ventilation begins in the west building in August, the measured condensate that is 

collected increases significantly. Further, during the non-ventilation period from October 2–8, 

when there were heavy rains, we see the leakier east building with greater removed condensate. 

Finally, we see the collected condensate drop dramatically in both buildings in the final test 

period at the end of the Central Florida cooling season in early November 2012. 

5.2 Energy Comparison

The measured air conditioner and air handler compressor power was continuously measured 

during the test period to evaluate how measured cooling energy use was influenced by building 

air leakage and mechanical ventilation. Average summer AC from May 1 to September 30 

averaged 23.4 kWh/day in the east building and 24.4 kWh/day in the west building. 

The final time series plots in Figure 9 show the measured hourly AC during the summer. The 

power consumption of the 74 Watt ventilation fan is plotted separately in blue. The nature of the 

“on-off” power consumption data of the single-speed air conditioner during this time makes it 

impossible to discern trends other than the fact that the needed cooling energy drops rapidly 

towards the end of summer. However, as shown in the tabular and graphical data summaries that 

follow for the various periods, it is possible to see some influences when the data are 

summarized as power demand profiles over the 24-hour time domain during each test period.
15 

Figure 9. Measured air conditioner and ventilation system power in the 

two test buildings over the entire summer

5.3 Evaluation During Individual Test Periods

From April 17 to August 16, and periodically from August 16 to October 24, the west home was 

operated with no mechanical ventilation to compare the performance of a very tight home to a 

leaky home. 

Beginning August 16 (roughly every other 2–3 weeks), the west home was ventilated using an 

energy recovery ventilation system to evaluate the energy and moisture impacts of forced 

ventilation in a tight home. However, due to a variety of issues (a CO2 tracer gas system was 

being installed in the building during August), the first consistently operated ventilation period 

was from September 1–13, 2012. The second valid period with ventilation was during the cooler 

period from October 9–23. The contrasting non-ventilated period was from October 25 to

November 13, at which point the cooling season experiments were declared over.

5.3.1 Test Period I: May 10 to June 21, 2012

Test data were taken during the first evaluation period of the summer (Table 5) with a lower

internal moisture release rate of 6 lb/day. As internal moisture rates are uncertain, this lower rate 

would represent the lowest rate of moisture generations associated with human respiration, 

bathing, and cooking. There was little difference observed between the east building with 

moderate leakage and the much tighter west building. Air conditioner power was very similar in 

the two buildings, as were the interior moisture indicators: RH averaged 42%–43% with interior 

dew points of about 53°F. The various summarized performance indices are shown in Figure 10 

through Figure 13. 
16 

Table 5. May 10 to June 21, 2012 (Natural Air Infiltration, Low Moisture Generation)

East West Δ %

Thermostat Temperature (°F) 77.5° 77.3° –0.2 –0.4

RH (%) 43.0% 42.4% –0.6 –1.4

Dew Point (°F) 53.3° 52.6° –0.7 –1.3

Condensate (L/day) 6.81 6.25 –0.56 –8.2

Air Conditioner Power (kWh/day) 19.70 21.00 +1.34 +6.8

Average Minimum Maximum

Ambient Temperature (°F) 77.4° 64.6° 90.7° –

Ambient RH (%) 72.9% 36.6% 95.0% –

Ambient Dew Point (°F) 67.3° 52.0° 75.8° –

Generally, the data showed that when AC is consistent, with the distribution of leakage in our 

test buildings, building tightness does not appear a large factor influencing either cooling energy 

use or interior moisture levels. This is not surprising, for as shown in Figure 10, the temperature 

outside in the May–June time frame is as often lower outside as it is higher for much of the day. 

This influence is seen graphically in Figure 10 where the energy use in the tighter west building 

is lower during the hottest part of the day, but higher during the cooler nighttime hours. Thus, 

greater building leakage is not likely a large factor in energy use. The only seen influence was 

that the interior RH in the looser east building was about 0.5% higher (statistically insignificant 

at the accuracy of the measurement), with about an 8.2% increase in the AC condensate 

collection during the period. 

Figure 10. AC energy use, May 10 to June 21, 2012: natural infiltration, low moisture release
17 

Figure 11. Comparative RH, May 10 to June 21, 2012: natural infiltration, low moisture release

Figure 12. Comparative dew point temperatures, May 10 to June 21, 2012: 

natural infiltration, low moisture release
18 

Figure 13. Comparative condensate removal, May 10 to June 21, 2012: 

natural infiltration, low moisture release

5.3.2 Test Period II: June 23 to July 31, 2012

The period from June 23 to July 31 (Table 6) included a higher internal moisture generation level 

for the two test buildings than the first test period (11 lb/day of moisture versus 6 lb/day in May). 

This rate is in general agreement with the recommended levels within the Building America field 

test protocol (Fang et al. 2011), although considerably lower than the design levels suggested by 

the ASHRAE 160 Standard (ASHRAE 2009). Even with the higher moisture loading, the data

showed similar interior temperatures, RHs, and dew points in the two test buildings. Collected 

condensate was also similar in the two structures, but considerably higher than the earlier May 

period by about 4 L/day. Air conditioner power use was also very similar in the structures with 

no significant differences within the period. 
19 

Table 6. June 23 to July 31, 2012 (Natural Air Infiltration, Standard Moisture Generation)

East West Δ %

Thermostat Temperature (°F) 77.7° 77.3° –0.4 –0.5

RH (%) 42.8% 42.6% –0.2 –0.4

Dew Point (°F) 53.2° 52.7° –0.5 –0.9

Condensate (L/day) 10.62 10.35 –0.27 –2.5

Air Conditioner Power (kWh/day) 27.64 28.30 +0.66 +2.4

Average Minimum Maximum

Ambient Temperature (°F) 80.7° 64.1° 92.8°

Ambient RH (%) 74.6% 36.7% 94.2%

Ambient Dew Point (°F) 71.2° 56.1° 76.8°

The key differences from the May test period were higher collected condensate and much higher 

air conditioner power—about 7 kWh (+40% and +35% in the east and west structures, 

respectively). A portion of the increase was due to the higher latent loads (approximately 9,000 

Btu/day), but most was due to the naturally increasing sensible loads during the hottest weather 

during test period II. The fact that the interior RHs and dew points did not change appreciably is 

coincidental and due to the approximately 40% longer runtimes seen during the latter period, 

which removed much more moisture as evidenced by the condensate differences. The various 

summarized performance indices are shown in Figure 14 through Figure 17. 

Figure 14. AC energy use, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, standard moisture release
20 

Figure 15. Comparative RH, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, standard moisture 

release

Figure 16. Comparative dew point temperatures, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, 

standard moisture release
21 

Figure 17. Comparative condensate removal, June 23 to July 31, 2012: natural infiltration, 

standard moisture release

5.3.3 Test Period III: September 1–13, 2012

The period from September 1–13 (Table 7) featured the first valid data collection period when 

the ventilation system was active in the tighter west building. While temperature conditions by 

the thermostat were similar, the ventilated west building experienced higher interior moisture

levels. This was evidenced by the interior RH, which averaged nearly 6% higher during the test 

period, and an interior dew point that was elevated by 3°F. The collected condensate moisture 

during the test was more than doubled in the ventilated building: 8.9 versus 24 L/day. This 

represents a latent heat of approximately 50,200 Btu/day or about 4.9 kWh/day at a coefficient of 

performance of 3.0. Closely mirroring these approximations, the air conditioner power was 

increased by 23% (5.2 kWh/day) and by 30% (7.0 kWh/day) when the power of the ventilation 

fan was included. This result is not surprising as simulation research on the moisture impacts of 

ASHRAE Standard 62-2004 (Walker and Sherman 2007) indicated that compliant mechanical 

ventilation systems would increase interior humidity levels by 5%–10% in homes in humid 

climates. Further, empirical research by Rudd and Henderson (2007) found that homes with 

mechanical ventilation in humid climates without supplement dehumidification experienced 

higher interior moisture levels. The various summarized performance indices are shown in 

Figure 18 through Figure 21. 
22 

Table 7. September 1–13, 2012 (West Unit Vented)

East West Δ %

Thermostat Temperature (°F) 77.8° 77.4° –0.4 –1.8

RH (%) 43.5% 49.2% +5.7 +13.1

Dew Point (°F) 53.8° 56.8° +3.0 +5.6

Condensate (L/day) 8.94 23.99 +15.06 +168.4

Air Conditioner Power (kWh/day) 22.90 kWh 29.88 kWh +7.00 +30.5

Average Minimum Maximum

Ambient Temperature (°F) 79.5° 70.6° 90.6°

Ambient RH (%) 74.9% 47.3% 94.5%

Ambient Dew Point (°F) 70.3° 64.0° 75.6°

Figure 18. AC energy use, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated
23 

Figure 19. Comparative RH, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated 

Figure 20. Comparative dew point temperatures, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated 
24 

Figure 21. Comparative condensate removal, September 1–13, 2012: west ventilated

5.3.4 Test Period IV: October 2–8, 20124

The test period the first week in October (Table 8) included the change back to the leaky 

configuration in the east test building, although with no forced ventilation in the tighter west 

building. The weather during this period was characterized by such heavy rainfall that the leakier 

east building actually had higher interior moisture, as indicated by RH, interior dew point, and 

collected condensate. Air conditioner power was nearly identical in the two buildings. The 

various summarized performance indices are shown in Figure 22 through Figure 25. 

 

4 The prior test period from September 15–30 was intended to be a period when no forced ventilation was used. 

Unfortunately, the ventilation system was inadvertently activated for 4 days during this period, making it unsuitable 

for further analysis.
25 

Table 8. October 2–8, 2012 (No Ventilation, East Building Goes to High Leakage)

East West Δ %

Thermostat Temperature (°F) 77.8° 77.3° 0.5 –0.6

RH (%) 46.3% 43.8% –2.5 –5.3

Dew Point (°F) 55.5° 53.6° –1.9 –3.4

Condensate (L/day) 13.68 10.09 –3.59 –26.2

Air Conditioner Power (kWh/day) 22.22 23.28 +1.06 +4.7

Average Minimum Maximum

Ambient Temperature (°F) 79.0° 72.1° 87.0°

Ambient RH (%) 82.6% 60.1% 95.1%

Ambient Dew Point (°F) 73.0° 68.3° 77.1°

Figure 22. AC energy use, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building goes to high leakage
26 

Figure 23. Comparative RH, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building goes to high leakage

Figure 24. Comparative dew point temperatures, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building 

goes to high leakage
27 

Figure 25. Comparative condensate removal, October 2–8, 2012: no ventilation, east building goes 

to high leakage

5.3.5 Test Period V: October 10–20, 2012

The period from October 10–20 (Table 9) was during a weather pattern when cooling loads were 

dropping rapidly, while the ventilation system was operated in the tighter west building. While 

interior temperature conditions were similar in both buildings, the ventilated building had higher 

moisture levels: +2.2% RH, a 1°F higher interior dew point, and 60% higher condensate removal 

by the AC system. Combined AC and ventilation system power was 4.7 kWh/day higher than 

with the leakier east building—an increase of 27%. The various summarized performance 

indices are shown in Figure 26 through Figure 29. 

Table 9. October 10–20, 2012 (West Unit Vented) 

East West Δ %

Thermostat Temperature (°F) 77.6° 77.3° –0.3 –0.4

RH (%) 46.9% 49.1% +2.2 +4.7

Dew Point (°F) 55.7° 56.6° +1.1 +2.0

Condensate (L/day) 10.30 16.82 6.53 +63.4

Air Conditioner Power (kWh/day) 17.72 22.44 +4.72 +26.6

Average Minimum Maximum

Ambient Temperature (°F) 76.2° 62.2° 86.9°

Ambient RH (%) 72.0% 31.9% 95.2%

Ambient Dew Point (°F) 65.7° 47.4° 73.3°
28 

Figure 26. AC energy use, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented 

Figure 27. Comparative RH, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented
29 

Figure 28. Comparative dew point temperatures, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented

Figure 29. Comparative condensate removal, October 10–20, 2012: west unit vented
30 

5.3.6 Test Period VI: October 25 to November 8, 2012

The final test period came at the end of the cooling season in 2012 (Table 10) ending on 

November 8. The ventilation system in the tighter west building was off for the entire time, and 

AC averaged 1.5 to 1.7 kWh/day in the east and west buildings, respectively. The lower cooling 

use in the looser building is expected, as it was actually cooler outside than inside during the test. 

As seen in the testing in winter 2011–2012, the tighter unventilated building had much higher 

humidity levels: 59% versus 53% RH and a dew point of 60°F versus 57°F. Collected 

condensate was low, as the AC system seldom operated during this 14-day period. Because it 

was drier outside than inside, the leakier east building yielded lower internal moisture levels 

created by natural air infiltration. The summarized performance indices during the period are 

shown in Figure 30 through Figure 33. 

Table 10. October 25 to November 8, 2012 (No Ventilation) 

East West Δ %

Thermostat Temperature (°F) 75.8° 75.4° –0.4 NA

RH (%) 53.1% 59.0% +6.9 +11.1

Dew Point (°F) 57.3° 60.0° +2.7 +4.7

Condensate (L/day) 2.57 2.84 +0.27 +10.6

Air Conditioner Power (kWh/day) 2.92 3.46 +0.52 +18.5

Average Minimum Maximum

Ambient Temperature (°F) 65.4° 46.1° 81.9°

Ambient RH (%) 69.4% 26.7% 95.0%

Ambient Dew Point (°F) 54.0° 31.5° 70.9°

Figure 30. AC energy use, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation
31 

Figure 31. Comparative RH, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation

Figure 32. Comparative dew point temperatures, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation
32 

Figure 33. Comparative condensate removal, October 25 to November 8, 2012: no ventilation

5.4 Tracer Gas Testing of Real-Time Building Infiltration and Ventilation Rates

In October 2012, CO2 dosing and monitoring equipment began to measure CO2 levels for 

calculating building infiltration rates. 

The first plot in Figure 34 shows the measured outdoor airflow rates and resulting ACH for the 

second week of October 2012. For this test period, the looser east building is in its standard 

leakage configuration (8.9 ACH50). The tighter west building (2.2 ACH50) had the supply fan 

operating for the entire period. Note in the plot that the west building experiences a greater 

amount of outdoor air as well as a more consistent value. The effective ventilation rate for the 

east building is only about 40 CFM or 0.18 ACH. However, the west building with the 

ventilation system saw an average outdoor air introduction rate of 73 CFM or 0.33 ACH. For 

illustration, a dotted horizontal line is shown that represents the outdoor ventilation rate (63 

CFM) and satisfaction of the recommended ASHRAE Standard 62-2 air quality standard for a 

residence of this configuration. Note that if the 2 CFM/100 ft2 of default leakage assumed in the 

ASHRAE Standard 62 is included, the reference Standard 62-2 ventilation rate would be 94 

CFM for the test houses. Under this assumption, both the mechanically ventilated home and the 

leakier one without would significantly fall under the recommended effective ventilation level. 
33 

Figure 34. Measured infiltration rate by CO2 tracer, mechanical ventilation in west building

The second plot (Figure 35) shows similar data for an 8-day period when the buildings were in 

exactly the same configuration, but with the supply ventilation fan in the tighter west building 

turned off. The two periods show a dramatic difference in the achieved ventilation rate. Although 

the end of October and beginning of November were somewhat cooler and windier, the tighter 

west building showed very low ventilation rates from natural infiltration: an average 9 CFM or 

0.04 ACH. On the other hand, the leakier east building showed large response to weather as well 

as air handler operation (which serves to periodically depressurize the holes in the building 

shell). Some of the time, its achieved ventilation rate was high enough to satisfy Standard 62, 

while it was still too low during milder conditions. Average outdoor airflow rate was 58 CFM for 

an average air change rate of 0.27 ACH. 

Figure 35. Measured infiltration rate by CO2 tracer, infiltration only in both buildings 
34 

6 Discussion 

6.1 Moisture Control

Reviewing the data taken during the summer test periods, we can conclude the following about 

relative interior moisture impacts of internal moisture loads, leakage rates, and mechanical 

ventilation: 

6.1.1 No Mechanical Ventilation

• Greater internal moisture loads did not lead to significantly higher interior moisture levels 

when AC is in use and runtime is sufficient to remove the added moisture. As revealed by 

the comparative test periods in May–June and June–July, much of the possible impact of 

lower internal moisture generation rates is lost, as the AC equipment simply removes 

more moisture when the loads are high enough with greater runtime. This is shown by the 

consistent dew point temperatures during the two periods with much different moisture 

loading, while the condensate removed was much higher when the internal moisture 

generation was much higher in the July period. This resulted because the greater AC 

runtime in the midsummer period was able to effectively remove the added moisture. 

However, it is very likely that had the moisture generation rate been increased during a 

period when AC use was declining, the increase in interior moisture would have clearly 

been seen.

• Tighter envelope leakage with natural air infiltration in summer during AC had only 

modest impacts on internal moisture levels. Part of this may be due to the ceilingdominated distribution of leakage in the testing, which is consistent with residences in 

Florida, but may not be similar to other building foundation types. The low impact of 

building leakage on cooling was shown by comparing the data from May through July, 

when natural air infiltration only took place. Dew points were slightly lower in the tighter 

west building (~0.5°F), and collected air conditioner condensate was also slightly lower. 

Interior average RHs were low (42–43%), within 1% of each other, and were not 

significantly different. 

• An even higher building leakage rate does show some increase in interior moisture levels

in summer—particularly under rainy conditions. This is seen by comparing the data for 

the period from October 2–8, when the east building with higher building leakage had 

46% versus 44% RH, dew points of 56°F versus 54°F, and much greater collected AC 

condensate (13.7 L/day versus 10 L/day).

• Against our inference from observation that air conditioner operation and 

dehumidification trump changes in natural air infiltration, it must be added that increased 

moisture loads during periods with a declining AC unit (such as the October data) will 

evidence greater moisture load impacts.

In summary, we found that building tightness, mechanical ventilation, and infiltration all operate 

in concert with the outdoor conditions and indoor moisture generation rates to produce indoor 

moisture conditions. Sometimes low infiltration lowered indoor moisture levels (during 

moist/rainy periods) and sometimes high infiltration, whether from a leaky envelope or 

mechanical venting, was beneficial (such as during periods with “free” cooling or 

dehumidification due to diurnal weather patterns). The issue then becomes, on balance, which 
35 

conditions predominate in a given climate and during which seasons. Also critical is how this 

interacts with AC operation, which can counteract most moisture variation, even doubling indoor 

moisture generation rates.

6.1.2 Mechanical Ventilation

• When 63 CFM of mechanical supply air ventilation was added to the tighter west 

building, it experienced higher interior moisture levels with AC. For instance, in the 

September 1–13 test period, the mechanically-ventilated building had 5% higher interior 

RH, a 3°F increase in the interior dew point, and a 15 L/day increase in the collected AC 

condensate. This is not a surprising finding, as earlier empirical research by Rudd and 

Henderson (2007) found that homes with mechanical ventilation in humid climates 

without supplement dehumidification experienced higher interior moisture levels. We 

note, however, that no specific moisture-related issues emerged in summer in the lab 

houses. This was quite different in the winter period when no AC-related 

dehumidification was available and moisture problems (condensation and mold) were 

seen.

• Even though the east building had higher building leakage levels, there was still evidence 

of somewhat higher interior moisture levels under mechanical ventilation. This was 

evident in the October 10–20 test period. Interior RH was 2% higher, dew points were 

1°F higher, and collected condensate was about 2 L/day higher in the west home. It 

should be noted, however, that these results were dependent on the prevailing weather 

when it was wetter outside than inside. In winter conditions in Central Florida, where it is 

often drier outside, the mechanical ventilation could be expected to result in lower 

interior moisture levels.

• Although slightly higher moisture and energy use were associated with mechanical 

ventilation, the CO2 tracer measured ventilation rates indicated that the leaky residential 

building still fell considerably short of the recommended ASHRAE Standard 62 

ventilation levels much of the time, and the tighter west building fell far below that rate 

(0.04 ACH). 

In summary, we saw that mechanical venting operates similarly to natural venting, in that under 

moist outdoor conditions it leads to higher indoor humidity, but this same effect in Florida’s 

winter would operate in reverse with drier outdoor air. We also saw indication that mechanical

venting seems to have a slightly different effect than natural ventilation to a similar rate, 

although such a hypothesis would need more rigorous experimentation. 

Another caution is that the evaluation does not include any duct leakage in either of the test 

buildings, an unusual configuration for a Florida building. It is nearly certain that there would be 

large interactions with duct system leakage during the summer, which should be investigated. 

These could easily lead to considerably higher internal moisture levels because running the AC

system would both remove and add outdoor moisture. This study also indicates a need for further 

testing on mechanical ventilation, including enthalpy recovery, to determine if part of the 

reduced moisture and energy performance of forced ventilation can be ameliorated. Finally, it 

has been suggested by project reviewers that an exhaust ventilation system might actually 

function better to address the observed moisture-related increases.
36 

6.2 Air Conditioning Energy Use

The measured air conditioner and air handler compressor power was continuously measured 

during the test period to evaluate how measured cooling energy use was influenced by building 

air leakage and mechanical ventilation. Average summer AC from May 1 through September 30 

averaged 11.7 kWh/day in the east building and 12.2 kWh/day in the west building. This 

compares to measured AC energy use in average Florida homes of 24.5 kWh/day over the same 

May–September summer time frame, according to monitoring studies from Florida Power and 

Light Company (Florida Power and Light Company 1999). 

The lower-than-average AC energy use is likely due to several factors. The thermostat settings 

may be somewhat high (78°F), and the air conditioners used in this study are newer and more 

efficient than the air conditioners in the Florida Power and Light study (seasonal energy 

efficiency ratio 13 Btu/Wh versus an average seasonal energy efficiency ratio 10 in the Florida 

Power and Light study). Additionally, the test buildings are operating with almost no duct 

leakage, which is atypical for existing Florida homes (e.g., Cummings et al. 1990). However, the 

purpose of this study is to examine the influences of infiltration and ventilation without the 

complications of duct system interactions.

6.3 Tracer Gas Testing

Tracer gas testing in October 2012 reinforced expectations regarding air infiltration and 

ventilation. It is noteworthy that the indicated ASHRAE Standard 62 ventilation rate for the lab 

buildings is 63 CFM of mechanical ventilation and 94 CFM overall, including the 2 CFM/ft2

allowance for air infiltration.

• Without mechanical ventilation, the tighter building had a much lower leakage rate than 

the loose one (0.04 ACH versus 0.27 ACH). Both buildings were far below the 

recommended ASHRAE Standard 62 ventilation rate (0.42 ACH). 

• When mechanical ventilation was added to the tighter building, it exhibited higher 

ventilation (73 CFM versus 40 CFM and 0.33 ACH versus 0.18 ACH). 

• A tighter building with mechanical ventilation tended to remain closer to the ventilation 

target and experience less amplitude in its variation relative to a loose building. The 62-2 

compliant target is 94 CFM of ventilation for the laboratory homes. The east structure, 

relying solely on natural ventilation saw an average ventilation rate of 39.7 CFM

(standard deviation = 8.2 CFM) over a weeklong test period with a range of 28–62 CFM

against an average for the tight west building with mechanical ventilation of 72.8 CFM

(standard deviation = 4.8 CFM) with a range of 58–86 CFM. 
37 

7 Conclusions

How does the airtightness of a home affect its moisture levels, temperature, and AC loads during 

the cooling season in a hot-humid climate? 

The comparative summer testing showed that the tighter buildings, exemplified by the west 

structure compared to the leakier east structure, exhibited little if any AC energy savings under 

natural infiltration. This was largely because the outdoor temperature was nearly as often below 

as above the desired thermostat set point (as examples, see Figure 11 and Figure 19). Thus, 

increased air infiltration during nighttime hours when the temperature outside is lower than the 

desired cooling set point actually reduces the AC load. The same is true of mechanical 

ventilation, which will act like an economizer during cooler nighttime hours. 

During the first part of the summer, the building moisture levels and temperature levels saw only 

minor changes between the tight and loose structures, mainly because the buildings were 

consistently air conditioned, and the AC promptly removed any excess heat or moisture.

The only measurable differences seen in increased infiltration between the homes occurred 

toward the end of the testing period. The first week of October, period V, featured heavy rainfall, 

while both homes operated with natural infiltration only. The humidity averaged 2.5% higher, 

and the dew point averaged nearly 2°F higher in the east (loose) home during this time period, 

while the AC energy was nearly the same. During the last testing period of the study, the AC

loads decreased, and the tight west house had much higher moisture levels, with an RH 6% 

higher and a dew point 2.7°F higher than the loose east house. 

How does mechanical ventilation at ASHRAE Standard 62-2 levels affect a home’s moisture 

levels, temperature, and AC loads during the cooling season? 

When mechanical ventilation was added to the airtight home, cooling energy use increased by 

27%–30%, or about 5–7 kWh/day when comparing to the nearby building with natural air 

infiltration only. Part of this came from the fact that the mechanical ventilation system fan itself 

added 1.8 kWh/day of energy use. Moreover, as shown in Sections 4.3.3 and 4.3.5, the operation 

of the mechanical ventilation system also appeared to result in measurable increases to the 

building moisture levels, whereas a leaky building envelope had only modest increases to interior 

moisture levels (Section 4.3.4). The reason for this disparity is likely because of low driving 

forces for air infiltration, as seen in the tracer gas testing, resulting in low overall airflow even in 

the building with substantial ceiling leakage. This means that the leaky building was resulting in 

less overall outside air being introduced, and hence less impact to energy and moisture levels. It 

is also possible there are differences due to enthalpy recovery through the building envelope 

components during natural air infiltration (e.g., Claridge and Bhattacharyya 1990) as opposed to 

mechanical ventilation. However, this would need further testing and evaluation. One important 

point to examine would be whether exhaust-only ventilation might exact less impact on energy 

and interior moisture conditions.
38 

How does air infiltration from natural infiltration compare to the ASHRAE Standard 62.2 

ventilation requirements? 

During periods with no mechanical ventilation, the tight west home showed very low infiltration 

rates, even on windy days—often less than 0.06 ACH. The leakier east home, however, exhibited 

much higher infiltration rates, and during windy periods, it proved comparable over a daily time 

period to the ventilation prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 62-2. This was not true during periods 

of low wind, however; the building experienced air changes rates considerably lower than 

recommended by Standard 62-2. Meanwhile, the tight building with mechanical ventilation 

experienced less variation in the effective ventilation rate. The east home had infiltration rates 

that satisfied Standard 62-2 for some of the time and had an average infiltration rate of 58 CFM

during a 9-day period, as shown in Section 4.4. 

The tight west home with mechanical ventilation showed a more consistent level of effective 

ventilation averaging 73 CFM over an 8-day testing period. This period was less windy than the 

previously mentioned period and saw the east building, dependent only on natural ventilation, at 

well below Standard 62-2 levels, with an average ventilation rate of 40 CFM. 

According to these data, a leaky home experiences a significant amount of infiltration for a home 

compared to ASHRAE Standard 62-2 levels of ventilation, especially during windy periods. 

During the mechanical ventilation period, the leaky home experienced more than half the 

infiltration than the mechanically-ventilated home experienced.5

How does the level of moisture generation within a home affect its moisture levels and AC loads? 

During summer months when a home’s air conditioner is running regularly, differences in 

moisture generation seemed to have little impact on interior moisture levels and only moderate 

impact on energy use. The two test periods used to compare a standard moisture generation level 

and a reduced moisture generation level showed little difference between internal temperatures, 

humidities, and air conditioner power consumption. However, real differences in the impact of 

moisture generation were likely masked by increased air conditioner runtime during the period 

with higher moisture release, as this time came during a hotter part of the summer with greater 

air conditioner operation and hence moisture removal. The major change seen in the data was an 

increase in condensate collection from around 6.5 L/day with lower moisture generation to 

approximately 10.5 L/day with standard moisture generation. In the future, this influence could 

be isolated by introducing more moisture during a series of flip-flop tests that would likely show 

evidence of larger effect.

7.1 Key Findings/Lessons Learned

Overall, this study found that natural air infiltration from a relatively leaky home (~8 ACH50) 

does not cause a significant increase in cooling energy, but can cause some increase in moisture 

levels near the end of the summer season when sensible loads fall. It must be added that these 

 

5 One caveat to the collected data is that the lab buildings, while similar to the distribution of leakage in most 

Florida buildings, may not be similar to other housing in the Southeast—particularly that with crawlspace floors. In 

Florida slab-on-grade homes, a majority of the leakage is shielded from the wind and located in the ceiling plane due 

to recessed lighting fixtures and bathroom and kitchen fans making up a preponderance of the leakage sites.
39 

results are true, however, in locations such as Central Florida where the interior to exterior 

temperature differences under cooling are low and outdoor moisture levels are high. Such results 

provide further evidence that much of the moisture problem in residences in Central Florida 

likely occurs during winter when there are no sensible cooling loads and no humidity removal. 

Unlike natural infiltration in leaky homes, forced ventilation at ASHRAE Standard 62-2 levels 

caused increases to both moisture and energy use in homes. Cooling energy use increased by 

27%–30% (5–7 kWh/day) and building moisture increased measurably, approaching and 

occasionally exceeding an interior RH of 60%. 

Consistent with past findings and simulation estimates, the introduction of mechanical 

ventilation will generally increase the energy usage of an airtight home and may affect indoor 

humidity. However, mechanical ventilation is still seen as necessary because of the highly 

variable and often insufficient air ventilation rate provided by even a fairly leaky home in a hothumid climate.

7.2 Future Work

The experience with the summer testing suggests that further experimentation be done in 2014 to

examine the potential of enthalpy recovery ventilation systems to address moisture issues and 

provide more comparable energy performance. Also, as the buildings do not have interior walls 

or normal furnishings, there are questions about how these factors may influence moisturerelated impacts. This should be examined in future testing.
40 

References 

American Society of Testing and Materials. (2011). ASTM E-741: Standard Test Method for 

Determining Air Change in a Single Zone by Means of a Tracer Gas Dilution. Philadelphia, PA: 

ASTM.

Arundel, A.; Sterling, E.; Biggin, J.; Sterling, T. (1986). “Indirect Health Effects of Relative 

Humidity in Indoor Environments.” Environmental Health Perspectives 65:351–361. 

ASHRAE Standard 62.2-2010: Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low Rise 

Residential Buildings. (2010). Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

ASHRAE Standard 160-2009. Criteria for Moisture-Control Design Analysis in Buildings. 

Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Barley, D. (2001). An Overview of Residential Ventilation Activities in the Building America 

Program. NREL/TP-550-30107. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 

Baughmann, A.; Arens, E. (1996). “Indoor Humidity and Human Health: Literature Review of 

Health Effects of Humidity Influenced Indoor Pollutants.” ASHRAE Transactions 102, Pt. 1. 

Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Blondeau, P.; Spérandio, M.; Allard, F. (1997). “Night Ventilation for Building Cooling in 

Summer.” Solar Energy 61(5):327–335. 

Claridge, D.; Bhattacharyya, S. (1990). “The Measured Energy Impact of Infiltration in a Test 

Cell.” Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 112. 

Cummings, J.; Tooley, J. (1989). “Infiltration and Pressure Differences Induced by Forced Air 

Systems in Florida Residences.” ASHRAE Transactions 95:2. 

Cummings, J.; Tooley, J.; Moyer, N.; Dunsmore, R. (1990). “Impacts of Duct Leakage on 

Infiltration Rates, Space Conditioning Energy Use, and Peak Electrical Demand in Florida 

Homes.” Proceedings of the ACEEE 1990 Summer Study, August 1990, Pacific Grove, CA. 

Emmerich, S.; Persily, A.; McDowell, T. (2005). “Impact of Infiltration on Heating and Cooling 

Loads in US Office Buildings.” Proceedings of the 26th IEA Conference of the Air Infiltration 

and Ventilation Center. 

Fang., X.; Christiansen, D.; Barker, G.; Hancock, E. (2011). Field Test Protocol: Standard 

Internal Load Generation for Unoccupied Test Homes. NREL/TP-550-51928. Golden, CO: 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 

Fisk, W.; Elisseeva, E.; Mendall, M. (2010). “Association of Residential Dampness and Mold 

with Respiratory Tract Infections and Bronchitis: A Meta Analysis.” Environmental Health 

Journal 9:72. 

Florida Power and Light Company. (1999). “Typical Customer Monthly Electricity Usage by 

DCA Climate and House Type,” FPL Gas Hot Water Research Project, Florida Power and Light 

Company, Miami, FL, May, 1999. 

Hekmat, D.; Feustel, H.; Modera, M. (1986). “Impacts of Ventilation Strategies on Energy 

Consumption and Indoor Air Quality in Single-family Residences.” Energy and Buildings

9:239–251. 
41 

Henderson, H.; Rengarahan, K. (1996). “A Model to Predict the Latent Capacity of Air 

Conditioners and Heat Pump at Part-Load Conditions with Constant Fan Operation.” ASHRAE 

Transactions 102(Pt. 1):266–274. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. 

Iwashita, G.; Akasaka, H. (1997). “The Effects of Human Behavior on Natural Ventilation Rate 

and Indoor Air Environment in Summer – A Field Study in Southern Japan.” Energy and 

Buildings 25(3):195–205. 

“Lighting, Appliance and Miscellaneous Energy Usage Profile Amendment.” (2011). RESNET. 

Accessed June 2013: www.resnet.us/standards/PropStdsRevision-01-11_Revised_FINAL.pdf. 

Robertson, J.; Brown, E.; Koomey, J.; Greenberg, S. (1998). Recommended Ventilation 

Strategies for Energy-Efficient Production Homes. LBNL-40478. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory. 

Rudd, A.; Henderson, H. (2007). “Monitored Interior Moisture and Temperature Conditions in 

Humid Climate Homes.” ASHRAE Transactions 113, Pt. 1. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Sherman, M.; Grimsrud, D.; Condon, P.; Smith, B. (1980). “Air infiltration Measurement 

Techniques.” First International Energy Agency Symposium of the Air Infiltration Center; 

October 1980, Windsor, England. LBNL-10705. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National 

Laboratory. 

Sherman, M.; Wilson, D.; Kiel, D. (1986). “Variability in Residential Air Leakage.” Measured 

Air Leakage of Buildings, ASTM STP 904, H.R. Trechsel and P.L. Lagus, Eds. American 

Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 349–364. 

Vieira, R.; Sherwin, J. (2012). Flexible Residential Test Facility Instrumentation Plan. Report to 

the Building America Building Technologies Program, Office of Energy Efficiency and 

Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy. 

Walker, I.; Sherman, M. (2003). Heat Recovery in Building Envelopes. LBNL-53484. Berkeley, 

CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

Walker, I.; Sherman, M. (2007). “Humidity Implications for Meeting Residential Ventilation 

Requirements.” ASHRAE Transactions 113, Pt. 1. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Walker, I.; Wilson, D. (1998), “Field Validation of Equations for Stack and Wind Driven Air 

Infiltration Calculations.” ASHRAE HVAC&R Research Journal 4(2):119–140. 

Wray, C.P.; Matson, N.E.; Sherman, M.H. (2000). “Selecting Whole House Ventilation 

Strategies to Meet Proposed ASHRAE Standard 62.2: Energy Cost Considerations.” ASHRAE 

Transactions 106, Part II. Also (1998) Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley, National Laboratory; 

LBNL-44479. 
DOE/GO-102014-4344 ▪ May 2014

Printed with a renewable-source ink on paper containing at 

least 50% wastepaper, including 10% post-consumer waste.

buildingamerica.gov