----

##  Social and Emotional Distress among American Indian and Alaska                  Native Students: Research Findings. ERIC Digest.                             

Many American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) youth are repeatedly             exposed to opportunities to participate in self destructive and                 illegal behaviors. This Digest examines risk factors associated with            the four contexts within which AI/AN students grow and develop: peer            groups, families, schools, and communities. PEER GROUPS AND                   RISK-TAKING BEHAVIORSA 2001 study by the U.S. Department of                 Health and Human Services (USDHHS) reported the following rates of              participation in a variety of high-risk behaviors among AI/AN youth             aged 12 to 17 years in 1999-2000: (1) 
* "Illicit drug use" was                more than twice as high (22.2%) as the national                                 average (9.7%). 
* "Binge alcohol use" was higher (13.8%) than the             national average (10.3%). 
* "Heavy alcohol use" was higher (3.8%)             than the national average (2.5%). 
* "Driving under the influence              of illicit drugs or alcohol in the past year" was slightly                      lower (10%) than the national average (11.2%). 
* "Use of                      cigarettes" was more than twice as high (27.2%) as the national                 average (13.4%). 
* "Getting into at least one serious fight at                school or work in the past year" was higher (22.1%) than the                    national average (19.9%). 
* "Taking part in at least one                      group-against-group fight in the past year" was higher (22.4%) than             the national average (16.1%). 
* "Carrying a handgun at least once             in the past year" was about the same (3.3%) as the national                     average (3.2%). 
As these figures demonstrate, illicit drug use                among AI/AN youth continues to be far more common than among their              non-Indian peers. Beauvais reported in 1996 that, although overall              drug use decreased from its high levels of the 1970s, about 20% of              Indian adolescents continued to be heavily involved with drugs--a               proportion that had remained steady since 1980. Alcohol use varies              considerably across reservations and tribes. Overall, however,                  alcohol use appears to be a less severe problem than illicit drug               use, and while still a cause for concern, is not as severely out of             sync with the national average as is the rate of drug use. However,             aggregated data can disguise acute problems in some locations by                balancing them with successes in others. 
Data point to a pattern              of reckless living among youth in Indian Country. Motor vehicle and             other accidents are the leading cause of death among AI/AN persons              aged 15-24, whose rate of death due to accidents is almost three                times higher than the rate for the total U.S. population (USDHHS,               1999). Among youth attending Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools,            there is lower-than-average usage of seatbelts, motorcycle helmets,             and bicycle helmets (Shaughnessy, Branum, & Everett-Jones,                      2001). 
Data also indicate the presence of despair. Suicide is the             second leading cause of death for AI/AN youth in the 15-24 age                  group; currently the suicide rate is 2.5 times higher for AI/AN                 people than the combined rate for all races in the United                       States (USDHHS, 1999). In the BIA study, 19% of AI/AN high school               youth had seriously considered suicide during the preceding year.               Although still a strong cause for concern, this statistic does                  represent an improvement over the 29% reported in the 1994                      survey (Shaughnessy, Branum, & Everett-Jones, 2001). National                   studies show homicide and legal intervention are the third leading              cause of death for Indian youth (ages 15-24); the homicide rate                 among American Indians is 1.2 times that of the general U.S.                    population (USDHHS, 1999). 
While there is considerable anecdotal              evidence of increasing gang activity among AI/AN students, no                   national studies provide reliable data about levels of                          participation. In a study based on a convenience sample of nearly               14,000 youth in 50 tribes located in 12 states, 15% of reservation              American Indian youth reported some level of gang activity, with                younger teens participating at higher levels than older                         teens (Children, Youth and Family Consortium, 1992). A more recent              study conducted on the Navajo Reservation concluded there was wide              variability among youth who identified themselves as gang members.              Some gangs were simply street-corner groups while others had                    hardened. Sociodemographic conditions were a strong factor in                   creating a context for gang formation around a small number of                  antisocial individuals. The researchers concluded that "gang                    prevention is not simply, or even fundamentally, a law enforcement              issue. It is a public health issue in the broadest                              sense" (Henderson, Kunitz, & Levy, 1999, p. 258). 
While levels of             risk-taking behaviors continue to be higher than the general                    population and a cause for serious concern, long-term trends in the             BIA study of high school youth show some improvement, and as AI/AN              youth mature, their participation in such behaviors tends to                    diminish (Shaughnessy, Branum, & Everett-Jones,                                 2001). FAMILYSeveral studies have provided evidence that                  families with strong traditional values positively impact the                   academic success of AI/AN students (for a review, see Demmert,                  2001). However, for many AI/AN families, the interruption in the                intergenerational transmission of traditional culture imposed by the            Indian boarding school era--which separated generations of American             Indian children from their tribes and families--continues to have               effects today. Many American Indian women missed out on role models             for nurturing and child rearing (Ing, 1992). Further, some families             continue to feel alienated from mainstream educational purposes and             institutions, which reduces their involvement in their children's               educations (Cummins, 1989). A final family factor affecting                     educational outcomes of AI/AN students is the high incidence of                 Indian households headed by women (45%), 42% of whom were younger               than 20 when they had their first child (LaFromboise, Choney,                   James, & Running Wolf, 1995). These factors not only contribute to              the incidence of poverty in AI/AN families but also increase the                demands on female heads of households, who may lack time and                    resources for active involvement in the education of their                      children. SCHOOLWhile there are no recent data about AI/AN                drop-out rates, national studies from a decade ago indicated that               Native student rates were higher than other groups in                           America (Hillabrant, Romano, Stang, & Charleston, 1991). It is                  important to look beyond the youth themselves and examine conditions            in the schools they attend. Bowker (1993) reports that students who             drop out cite several school-related problems: failure or inability             to get along with teachers, dislike of school, inability to get                 along with other students, boredom, feelings of not belonging, and              suspension. According to Caine and Caine (1997), students who are               confronted with racist threats on a regular basis often lose a                  positive sense of cultural identity and begin a process                         of "downshifting," which eventually leads to dropping out.                      Similarly, Irvine (1990) suggests that when there is a cultural                 incongruity between the school and the student, miscommunication and            confrontation often occur among students, teachers, and families,               resulting in hostility, alienation, and eventual dropping                       out. COMMUNITYMany AI/AN youth live in communities that                   continue to experience long-term economic and social distress. High             rates of alcoholism, drug abuse, domestic abuse, child neglect,                 substandard housing, and lack of job opportunities are common                   conditions in Indian communities. Violence on Indian reservations is            often regarded as the norm. The dimensions of this phenomenon are               described in a recent Department of Justice study, "American Indians            and Crime" (Greenfield & Smith, 1999), which reported that the rate             of violence in Indian Country is well above that for all other                  ethnic groups and more than twice the national average. 
Multiple              studies have shown the adverse effects of chronic exposure to                   violence on a child's ability to learn (see Massey, 1998, for a                 concise review). Massey, reporting research by Prothrow-Stith and               Quaday (1995), points out that 
Learning itself is an essential                tool for violence prevention. Children who achieve in school and                develop important reading, critical thinking, problem solving, and              communication skills are better able to cope with stressful and                 perhaps dangerous situations. Also, academic achievement enhances               the development of a positive self-esteem and self-efficacy, both of            which are necessary for children to experience emotional well-being             and to achieve success. (p. 2) 
Unemployment, which is often                   associated with high levels of crime and substance abuse, is high in            Indian communities, ranging up to 85% on some reservations (U.S.                Department of the Interior, 1999). Nearly a third (31.6%) of Indian             people live below the poverty level, compared to 13.1% of the                   general population (USDHHS, 1999). Apple (1996) refers to situations            of high unemployment and poverty as "a reality of crisis, an economy            that increases the gap between rich and poor" (p. 71) and points out            that in poor communities, schools are poorer and less able to                   motivate students and their parents. CONCLUSIONSAddressing                root causes of conditions that put AI/AN students at risk is the                best long-term solution to challenges facing youth and communities.             However, even in communities where dangers remain pervasive and                 severe, measures can be taken to protect children exposed to                    community and family distress. Research on resiliency has shown the             importance of individuals and organizations in providing protection             and hope to young people, while helping them to "find the good path"            and lead fulfilling lives (Benard, 1997; Bergstrom, Cleary, &                   Peacock, 2002). These protective individuals and organizations can              be associated with any or all of the four domains just                          discussed--peer groups, families, schools, or communities. 
(1) The            statistics cited here are means for the years 1999 and 2000                     combined. REFERENCESApple, M. W. (1996). Cultural politics and            education. The John Dewey Lecture Series. New York: Teachers College            Press. 
Beauvais, F. (1996). Trends in drug use among American                 Indian students and dropouts, 1975-1994. American Journal of Public             Health, 86(11), 1594-1598. 
Benard, B. (1997). Turning it around               for all youth: From risk to resilience (ERIC/CUE Digest No. 126).               New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. (ERIC Document                 Reproduction Service No. ED412309) 
Bergstrom, A., Cleary, L. M., &            Peacock, T. (2002). The seventh generation: Native students speak               about finding the good path. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on              Rural Education and Small Schools. 
Bowker, A. (aka Ardy SixKiller             Clarke). (1993). Sisters in the blood: The education of women in                Native America. Newton, MA: WEEA Publishing Center. 
Caine, R.                 N., & Caine, G. (1997). Education on the edge of possibility.                   Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum                      Development. 
Children, Youth and Family Consortium. (1992). The               state of Native American youth health. Minneapolis: University of               Minnesota Health Center, Division of General Pediatrics and                     Adolescent Health. Retrieved January 18, 2002, from                             http://www.cyfc.umn.edu/Diversity/nativeamer.html 
Cummins,                    J. (1989). Empowering minority students. Sacramento, CA: California             Association for Bilingual Education. 
Demmert, W. G., Jr. (2001).              Improving academic performance among Native American students: A                review of the research literature [Electronic version]. Charleston,             WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small                             Schools. 
Greenfield, L. A., & Smith, S. K. (1999). American                   Indians and crime. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,                  Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved January 18, 2002, from                  http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/aic.pdf 
Henderson, E.,                   Kunitz, S. J., & Levy, J. E. (1999). The origins of Navajo youth                gangs. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 23(3),                     243-264. 
Hillabrant, W., Romano, M., Stang, D., & Charleston, G.              M. (1991). Native American education at a turning point: Current                demographics and trends. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of                     Education. Indian Nations at Risk Task Force. (ERIC Document                    Reproduction Service No. ED343756) 
Ing, N. R. (1991). The effects             of residential schools on Native child-rearing practices. Canadian              Journal of Native Education, 18(Suppl.), 65-118. 
Irvine, J.                   J. (1990). Black students and school failure: Policies, practices               and prescriptions. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 
LaFromboise, T.             D., Choney, S. B., James, A., & Running Wolf, P. R. (1995). American            Indian women and psychology. In H. Landrine (Ed.), Bringing cultural            diversity to feminist psychology: Theory, research, and                         practice (pp. 197-349). Washington, DC: American Psychological                  Association. 
Massey, M. S. (1998). Early childhood violence                   prevention (ERIC Digest). Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on                  Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC Document                        Reproduction Service No. ED424032) 
Prothrow-Stith, D., & Quaday,              S. (1995). Hidden casualties: The relationship between violence and             learning. Washington, DC: National Health & Education                           Consortium. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.                             ED390552) 
Shaughnessy, L., Branum, C., & Everett-Jones, S. (2001).            2001 youth risk behavior survey of high school students attending               Bureau funded schools. Washington, DC: Bureau of Indian Affairs                 Office of Indian Education Programs. 
U.S. Department of Health and            Human Services. (1999). 1998-99 trends in Indian health. Washington,            DC: Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Legislation, Indian Health              Service. Retrieved January 25, 2002, from                                       http://www.ihs.gov/PublicInfo/Publications/trends98/trends98.asp                
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Substance Abuse and             Mental Health Services Administration. (2001). Summary of findings              from the 2000 national household survey on drug abuse. Rockville,               MD: Author. Retrieved January 15, 2002, from                                    http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/NHSDA/2kNHSDA/2kNHSDA.htm 
U.S.                      Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of                 Tribal Services. (1999). Indian labor force report, 1999.                       Washington, DC: Author. 
----- 
Ardy SixKiller Clarke is a                    professor of educational leadership and the Director of the Center              for Bilingual/Multicultural Education at Montana State                          University-Bozeman and is currently involved in research that                   examines the influence of violence on learning. 
This publication              was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research               and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no.               ED-99-CO-0027. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily                 reflect the positions or policies of OERI, the Department, or AEL.           **Title:** Social and Emotional Distress among American Indian and Alaska                  Native Students: Research Findings. ERIC Digest.                             **Note:** Online version contains an annotated reference list with links to               full-text documents.                                                         **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC/CRESS, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348. Tel:                      800-624-9120 (Toll Free). For full text:                                        http://www.indianeduresearch.net/edorc01-11.htm.                             **Descriptors:** Academic Achievement,  Adolescent Behavior, Adolescents, Alaska                 Natives, American Indian Education, American Indians,  Community                Influence, Disadvantaged Youth, Elementary Secondary Education,                 Family Environment,  Family Influence,  High Risk Students, Risk,               Social Environment,  Student School Relationship, Substance Abuse,              Violence, Youth Problems                                                     **Identifiers:**  American Indian Students, ERIC Digests,  Risk Taking Behavior               
###
[Return to ERIC Digest Search Page]