Air University

Style

Guide

for

Writers and Editors

January 2001

Air University Press

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Foreword

The faculty, staff, and students of Air University have always been productive members of the academic community, writing incisively and prolifically for a diverse audience. The Air University Style Guide is designed to

unify their writing stylistically.

Rapid expansion in the field of electronic media—especially the

Internet—is bringing increased access to AU research and writing. For that

reason, we should assure that our efforts are sound—not only substantively

but stylistically. Based on recognized but forward-looking principles of

standard English usage, the Air University Style Guide provides reliable

guidance on such matters as punctuation, capitalization, abbreviation, documentation, numbers, spelling, and much more. Following the advice found

in this guide will make AU publications stylistically consistent and acceptable. I commend it to your use.

LANCE W. LORD

Lieutenant General, USAF

Commander, Air University

iii
Preface

The world is full of stylebooks, style guides, and style manuals. Every

publishing house, news agency, major newspaper, magazine, and journal has

its own. Style guides are available at every bookstore and library, and every

serious writer or editor owns at least one. Why then should Air University

develop still another?

Writing for publication in the Air Force is different in many ways from

writing for commercial publication or writing for a newspaper or a scholarly journal. Air University people—and Air Force people in general—do

write for all of those outlets and more. Specifically, they write reviews, articles, monographs, theses, and books on Air Force special topics and instructional materials for Air Force professional military education courses—both

for conventional and electronic publication. The basic tenets of English

usage are the same for Air Force writers as for writers “on the outside,” of

course, but audiences are different, terminology is specialized, and Air Force

readers are attuned to their own language and its rhythms. In light of these

differences and similarities, and faced with the proliferation of style manuals—many of them giving conflicting instruction—Air Force writers and

editors should welcome a single, authoritative style reference specifically

tailored to offer detailed guidance and information.

This publication won’t teach you how to write or edit, but it will give you

a coherent, consistent, stylistic base for writing and editing. It’s a kind of

road map around some of the obstacles to readable writing. It prescribes

simple rules for the most common problems facing the Air Force writer,

combining what are considered the best practices, as outlined in a wide number of sourcebooks (see bibliography). Using this guide will free the writer

and editor from juggling one stylebook against another and trying to remember which book is approved for which area of style. It will also bring some

stylistic consistency to writing produced through Air University.

The Air University Style Guide attempts to clarify and simplify matters

for the writer by removing the most common obstacles to readability in Air

Force writing: overuse of capitalization, of acronyms and other forms of

abbreviation, and of passive voice. The key word here is overuse, for we

realize that all of these forms have their proper functions and do not impede

the reader when used in moderation. Similarly, we prefer an open-punctuation

style, which discourages the overuse of commas, colons, and semicolons

and the use of periods in abbreviations. In our opinion, open punctuation—

like direct writing—is easier to read, and that is all to the good. Punctuation

marks should enhance clarity of expression; if they don’t, we say leave them

out.

v
For easy reference, the guide is arranged in dictionary style. The user

need only look up the topic alphabetically without having to consult an

index or a table of contents. Extensive cross-references enhance the guide’s

usefulness.

The guide by no means covers every problem that faces writers and editors. Where it is insufficient for your needs, we recommend the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style, on which much of this guide relies for

principles and examples. For spellings and definitions, we use Webster’s

Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged,

and the current edition of its chief abridgement, Merriam-Webster’s

Collegiate Dictionary. In this guide, the term dictionary refers to either one

or both of these sources. For grammar, we follow the guidance of the current edition of Writer’s Guide and Index to English by Wilma R. and David

R. Ebbitt.

This guide is just that—a guide. It is meant to remove obstacles to good

writing, not to become one. The ultimate proof of the guide’s worth is its

utility to Air Force writers and editors. On that basis, it should prove valuable indeed.

vi
Acknowledgments

The Air University Style Guide is a comprehensive reference book compiled primarily for use by people who write and edit within Air University.

It is flavored, however, by its “informal coordination” with a number of

respected writers, style arbiters, and friends outside Air University; and it

has proved useful to many Air Force writers.

The guide reflects growth brought on by years of use in its former incarnation as the Air University Press Style Guide. It includes added material,

adjustments made in the interest of simplicity and consistency, and a more

direct approach, while retaining the spirit of the original document. We

expect the development of the guide to continue, with periodic revisions to

accommodate appropriate additions and changes.

We thank all of the people who reviewed the manuscript and gave their

thoughtful suggestions for its improvement. We invite interested writers and

editors to send their comments and suggestions for later editions to Dr.

Marvin Bassett, the editor of the Style Guide. He can be reached at Air

University Press, 131 West Shumacher Avenue, Maxwell AFB, Alabama

36112-6615 or by E-mail at marvin.bassett@maxwell.af.mil.

Dr. Shirley B. Laseter

Director

Air University Library/Air University Press

vii
a/an. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds: a historical event, not an historical event. Since an acronym is usually read as

a series of letters or as a word, choose the indefinite article in accordance with the pronunciation of the first letter (an NCA decision) or

the pronunciation of the word (a NATO meeting).

AB (air base). Cite a first reference to a specific air base as follows: RheinMain Air Base (AB), Germany. Subsequent references: Rhein-Main

AB, Germany; the air base; the base. See also AFB.

abbreviations and acronyms. Use abbreviations and acronyms sparingly:

don’t abbreviate words and phrases merely for the sake of doing so

when brevity is not of the essence, and don’t saturate writing with

abbreviations and acronyms to the detriment of reader comprehension.

Avoid using abbreviations and acronyms in headings unless the

spelled-out term would make the heading unwieldy. You may, however,

begin or end a sentence with an abbreviation or acronym.

Spell out the name of an agency, organization, and so forth, the first

time you use it, and follow it with the acronym or abbreviation in

parentheses; you may use the acronym or abbreviation (without periods) thereafter (if you are certain that your audience is familiar with a

particular acronym or abbreviation [e.g., USAF], you may dispense

with defining it on first usage):

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Air Command and Staff College (ACSC)

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

Cable News Network (CNN)

program evaluation review technique (PERT)

professional military education (PME)

As a reminder to the reader, you may want to spell out acronyms or

abbreviations that you have identified previously—especially when

you haven’t used them in a long time. You do not have to include the

acronym or abbreviation again in parentheses.

Although a term may be plural or possessive, do not make the acronym

or abbreviation plural or possessive on first usage: cluster bomb units

(CBU); low noise amplifiers (LNA); commander in chief’s (CINC). Use

the plural or possessive form for subsequent occurrences of the acronym

or abbreviation, when appropriate: CBUs, LNAs, CINC’s.

Even though an acronym may stand for a plural term (e.g., precision-guided munitions [PGM]), consider the acronym itself a singular

noun: PGMs (plural), PGM’s (possessive), PGM is (not are).

Spell out the names of countries in text (you may use USSR [Union

of Soviet Socialist Republics] to refer to the country as it existed

1
between 1917 and 1991). You may abbreviate the names of countries

in tables and figures, if necessary. See also Commonwealth of

Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR; US; USSR.

United States

United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom

Republic of South Africa

Commonwealth of Independent States

Abbreviate civilian and military titles or ranks that precede a person’s full name. Do not use periods with military ranks. Spell out titles

or ranks that precede a person’s last name (see also military titles

before names):

Adm Chester W. Nimitz Admiral Nimitz

Vice Adm John Smith Admiral Smith

Rear Adm Michael Wiggins Admiral Wiggins

Lt Comdr (or Cmdr) Price Commander Price

Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris Marshal Harris

Gen Robert E. Lee General Lee

Brig Gen James Stewart General Stewart

Lt Col Martin L. Green Colonel Green

Maj Frank T. Boothe Major Boothe

Capt Donald D. Martin Captain Martin

1st Lt Peter N. Cushing Lieutenant Cushing

2d Lt Boyd D. Yeats Lieutenant Yeats

Wing Comdr David Schubert Commander Schubert

CMSgt Robert Patterson Chief Patterson

MSgt Walter Austin Sergeant Austin

A1C K. L. Jones Airman Jones

Sen. Richard Shelby (R-Ala.) Senator Shelby

Rep. Terry Everett (R-Ala.) Representative Everett

Cong. Robert Cramer (D-Ala.) Congressman Cramer

Spell out a unit of measure on first usage, follow it with the abbreviation (no periods) in parentheses, and use the abbreviation thereafter.

Capitalize abbreviations for terms derived from proper names (e.g.,

Hz). Singular and plural abbreviated forms for units of measure are the

same. See also numbers. 

gallon gal

hertz Hz

kilogram kg

miles per hour mph

degrees Celsius 70° C

revolutions per minute rpm

kilometer km

millimeter mm

pounds per square inch psi

nautical miles NM

2
Spell out the names of states, territories, and possessions of the

United States in textual material. When the names appear in lists, tabular matter, notes, bibliographies, and indexes, use the following

abbreviations:

Ala. Kans. Ohio

Alaska Ky. Okla.

Amer. Samoa La. Oreg. or Ore.

Ariz. Maine Pa.

Ark. Md. P.R.

Calif. Mass. R.I.

C.Z. Mich. S.C.

Colo. Minn. S.Dak.

Conn. Miss. Tenn.

Del. Mo. Tex.

D.C. Mont. Utah

Fla. Nebr. Vt.

Ga. Nev. Va.

Guam N.H. V.I.

Hawaii N.J. Wash.

Idaho N.Mex. W.Va.

Ill. N.Y. Wis. or Wisc.

Ind. N.C. Wyo.

Iowa N.Dak.

In notes, bibliographies, and reference lists, you may use abbreviations freely, but be consistent. You may also use abbreviated forms in

parenthetical references. Use the following terms: vol. 1, bk. 1, pt. 2,

no. 2, chap. 2, fig. 4, art. 3, sec. 4, par. 5, col. 6, p. 7, n.d. (no date). The

plurals are vols., bks., pts., nos., chaps., figs., arts., secs., pars., cols.,

pp.

above. Can be used to refer to information higher on the same page or on a

preceding page:

There are flaws in the above interpretation.

academic courses. Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

DS 613-Strategic Force Employment

CL 6362-Air Staff Familiarization

academic degrees and titles. Abbreviate academic degrees and titles (no

periods) after a personal name. See also bachelor’s degree; master’s

degree.

BA

MA

PhD

LLD

MD

DDS

JP (justice of the peace)

MP (member of Parliament)

3
active Air Force

active duty (n., adj.)

active voice. When the grammatical subject performs the action represented

by the verb, the verb is in active voice.

The congregation sang “Abide with Me.”

Mr. Conrad gave his son a car.

The police caught the thieves. 

See also passive voice.

acts, amendments, bills, and laws. Capitalize the full title (formal or popular) of an act or a law, but lowercase all shortened forms: Atomic

Energy Act, the act; Sherman Antitrust Law, the antitrust law, the law;

Article 6, the article.

A legislative measure is a bill until it is enacted; it then becomes an

act or a law. Lowercase the names of bills and proposed constitutional

amendments not yet enacted into law: equal rights amendment, food

stamp bill.

Capitalize the formal title of an enacted and ratified amendment to

the United States Constitution (including the number): the Fifth

Amendment, the 18th Amendment. But lowercase informal titles of

amendments: the income tax amendment.

A.D. (anno Domini). Small caps, precedes the year: A.D. 107. See also B.C. 

administration. Capitalize as part of the proper name of an agency: General

Services Administration. Lowercase as part of the name of a political

organization: Nixon administration.

AFB (Air Force base). First reference to a specific Air Force base: Maxwell

Air Force Base (AFB), Alabama. Subsequent references: Maxwell

AFB, Alabama; the Air Force base; the base. In notes and bibliographies, abbreviate the name of the state: Maxwell AFB, Ala.

AFRES (Air Force Reserve). See also Reserve(s).

African-American (n., adj.)

Afro-American (n., adj.)

AFROTC (Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps)

4
agency. Capitalize in proper names, but lowercase the shortened form:

Federal Security Agency, the agency.

aiming point

aircraft. Do not italicize the class designation and class name of aircraft: F-15

Eagle, SR-71 Blackbird, Boeing 747. Italicize the name of a particular

aircraft: Spirit of St. Louis, Enola Gay. Show model designations by

adding the letter without a space: F-4C, B-52H. Form plurals by

adding an s (no apostrophe): F-15s, SR-71s, F-4Cs, B-52Hs. See also

apostrophe; italics.

aircrew

air division (now defunct). Capitalize in proper names: 2d Air Division.

Generically: air division.

airdrop (n.)

air-drop (v.)

air-droppable (adj.)

airfield

air force. Spell out either as a noun or an adjective. Use initial capitals when

you refer to the US service: United States Air Force, Air Force. Use

lowercase letters for an air force in general.

Capitalize when part of the official name of a foreign air force:

Royal Air Force. Use lowercase letters for subsequent references:

British air force.

For a numbered US air force, spell out and capitalize the ordinal

number: Fifth Air Force, Fourteenth Air Force. Use arabic numbers to

refer to units below the level of numbered air forces: 502d Air Base

Wing, 2d Aircraft Delivery Group. See also capitalization.

Air Force abbreviations. See Joint Pub 1-02, Department of Defense

Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.

Air Force One (the president’s aircraft)

Air Force–wide (adj., adv.) Use an en dash (see dash) in this compound.

airframe 

5
airland (v., adj.)

AirLand Battle

airlift (n., v.)

airman

airpower. But land power, sea power, space power.

airspace

Air Staff

air strike (n.)

allied, allies. Capitalize in the context of World War I and World War II.

all-weather fighter

A.M. (ante meridiem [before noon]). Small caps.

amendments. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

ampersand (&). Change in original titles to and: Aviation Week and Space

Technology. Use either the ampersand or and as it appears in company

names in notes, bibliographies, lists, and parenthetical references

(Harper & Row, Harper and Row), but be consistent. The ampersand

also occurs in some abbreviations: R&D.

and/or. Acceptable, but don’t overuse.

ANG (Air National Guard). Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard, but

guardsman.

anti-. Words formed with this prefix are usually solid: antiaircraft, antisubmarine. See also compound words.

apostrophe. Form the possessive of singular nouns by adding an apostrophe

and an s, and the possessive of plural nouns (except for irregular plurals) by adding an apostrophe only: the student’s book, the oxen’s tails,

the libraries’ directors, the United States’s policy. However, if the addition of ’s to a singular noun causes difficulty in pronunciation, add the

apostrophe only: for righteousness’ sake.

6
Show joint possession by using the possessive form for the second

noun only: Bill and Judy’s home. Show individual possession by using

the possessive form for both nouns: our dog’s and cat’s toys. Form

expressions of duration in the same way you do possessives: an hour’s

delay, three weeks’ worth.

You can apply the general rule to most proper nouns, including most

names ending in sibilants: Burns’s poems, Marx’s theories, Jefferson

Davis’s home (but Aristophanes’ play), the Rosses’ and the Williamses’

lands.

Form the possessive of nouns ending in silent s according to the

general rule: corps’s.

To show possession for compound nouns, add an apostrophe s to the

final word: secretary-treasurer’s, mother-in-law’s, mothers-in-law’s.

To show possession for indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and

an s to the last component of the pronoun: someone’s car, somebody

else’s books.

Do not use apostrophes in plurals of decades identified by century:

1960s, 1980s.

Do not use apostrophes to show plurals of letters and figures unless

such punctuation is necessary to avoid confusion: Bs and Cs; 1s, 2s,

and 3s; B-52s and F-15s; but A’s, a’s, i’s, and u’s.

appendix. Capitalize as a document title: Appendix A, Appendix B,

Appendix C. Lowercase in textual references (see appendix A). If you

wish to include a document such as an Air Force instruction as an

appendix to your study, reproduce that document verbatim.

armed forces

army. Capitalize when you refer to the US service: United States Army,

Army. Lowercase when you refer to an army in general. 

Capitalize when part of the official name of a foreign army: Red

Army. Use lowercase letters for subsequent references: Soviet army.

See also capitalization.

ARNG (Army National Guard). Shortened form: the Guard.

art, artwork. See illustration.

article (part of a document). See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

AWACS (airborne warning and control system)

7
bachelor’s degree. Also Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science. See also

academic degrees and titles.

back matter. Elements following the main text of a book. In order, they

include appendix(es), glossary, bibliography, list of contributors, and

index(es).

base. See AB; AFB.

battalion. Capitalize in proper names: 3d Battalion, 10th Battalion.

battle. Capitalize in proper names (you may lowercase to indicate the location where the battle took place): Battle of the Bulge, Battle (or battle)

of Bunker Hill.

battle line

battle space (n.)

battle-space (adj.)

B.C. (before Christ). Small caps, follows the year: 240 B.C. See also A.D.

below. Can be used to refer to information lower on the same page or on a

following page:

These exercises, discussed below, are important to a unit’s training. 

Berlin airlift

Berlin Wall

biannual, biennial. Biannual and semiannual mean twice a year; biennial

means every two years. For clarity, use twice a year or every two years.

bibliography. A list of books, articles, and other works used in preparing a

manuscript. It immediately precedes the index and may be arranged

alphabetically or divided into the kinds of materials used (books, theses and papers, government publications, periodicals, etc.). It may

include only selected titles that may or may not be annotated.

An alphabetical list is the most common type of bibliography.

Arrange all sources alphabetically by the last names of the authors, in

a single list. When no author is given, use the first word of the title

9
(other than an article, a coordinating conjunction, or a preposition) as

the key word for alphabetizing.

In a lengthy bibliography, you may divide the references into kinds

of sources (books, articles, newspapers, depositories, or collections).

Whatever the arrangement, do not list any source more than once.

You may annotate the bibliography to direct the reader to other

works or to briefly explain the contents, relevance, or value of specific

sections of the book.

Invert the names of authors (i.e., last name first) and separate the

various components of information with periods.

Examples of citations in bibliographic format:

AFDD 1. Air Force Basic Doctrine, 1 September 1997. 

AFPD 36-4. Air Force Civilian Training and Education, 26 July 1994. 

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and

Peter Paret. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976. 

Cressey, George B. China’s Geographic Foundations: A Survey of the Land and

Its People. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934. 

Cuskey, Walter R., Arnold William Klein, and William Krasner. Drug-Trip

Abroad: American Drug-Refugees in Amsterdam and London. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972. 

Drew, Col Dennis M. “Joint Operations: The World Looks Different from

10,000 Feet.” Airpower Journal 2, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 4–16. [provide page

numbers inclusive for journal articles] 

Fairbank, John K. “The People’s Middle Kingdom.” Foreign Affairs 58 (June

1964): 943–68. 

Schurman, Franz. China Today. New York: Vintage Books, 1970. 

———. [same author as in the immediately preceding entry] Imperial China:

The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the Origins of Modern China. New

York: Vintage Books, 1967. 

Spencer, Scott. “Childhood’s End.” Harper’s, May 1979, 16–19. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government. Austin, Tex.:

University of Texas Press, 1984.

See appendix B and page 137 of this guide, as well as the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style for more examples and specific

rules for developing a bibliography.

bills. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

bimonthly. Every two months; semimonthly means twice a month. For clarity, use every two months or twice a month.

biplane

biweekly. Can mean every two weeks or twice a week. For clarity, use every

two weeks or twice a week.

black. Use black (or Black) officer, black (or Black) people, blacks (or

Blacks). See also African-American; Afro-American; Negro, Negroes.

10
block quotations. For passages easily set apart from the text, 10 or more

typed lines, or exceeding one paragraph. Indent from both sides and

single-space. Do not use quotation marks to enclose the block quotation, and do not indent its paragraphs. Use double quotation marks to

enclose a direct quotation within a block quotation. Skip a line

between paragraphs. The block quotation should reflect the paragraphing of the original. See also direct quotations; ellipses; quotations.

In volume one of AFM 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United

States Air Force (March 1992), Gen Merrill A. McPeak remarks,

The guidance this manual provides will be valuable to those in

field units and to those in headquarters, to those in operations and

to those in support areas, to those who understand air and space

power and to those who are just learning. In short, this manual will

be valuable to the entire force.

I expect every airman and, in particular, every noncommissioned

and commissioned officer to read, study, and understand volume I

and to become fully conversant with volume II. The contents of

these two volumes are at the heart of the profession of arms for airmen. (Page v)

board. Capitalize when part of a proper name: National Labor Relations

Board. Lowercase for generic references. See also capitalization.

brackets. Use to enclose editorial interpolations within quoted material (to

clarify references and make corrections) or in place of parentheses

within parentheses.

“In April [actually July] 1943, Jones published his first novel.”

Gen Charles Horner controlled coalition air assets during the Gulf War

(specifically, he was the joint force air component commander [JFACC]).

Brookings Institution

building names. Capitalize the names of governmental buildings, churches,

office buildings, hotels, and specially designated rooms: the Capitol

(state or national), Criminal Courts Building, First Presbyterian

Church, Empire State Building, Oak Room.

buildup (n.)

build up (v.)

bullets. See display dots.

11
bureau. Capitalize when part of a proper name but not in reference to a

newspaper’s news bureau: Bureau of Indian Affairs, Newspaper

Advertising Bureau, Washington bureau of the New York Times. See

also capitalization.

by-product

12
caliber (of weapons). Use whole numbers or decimals, depending on the

type of weapon: .38-caliber revolver, 9 mm automatic (no hyphen

between a numeral and an abbreviation), 105 mm howitzer, 12-gauge

shotgun.

capitalization. Use as few capital letters as possible, and avoid capitalizing

anytime you are in doubt. The following conventions will help you

decide whether capital letters are appropriate.

Capitalize civil, military, religious, and professional titles and titles

of nobility when they immediately precede someone’s name:

President Clinton General Lord

Secretary of Defense Cohen Sergeant Mann

Queen Caroline Professor Elliott

Cardinal Richelieu Colonel Allen

Capitalize titles associated with more than one person:

Generals Grant and Lee 

Lowercase titles that follow someone’s name or that stand alone:

Bill Clinton, president the president

of the United States

William Cohen, secretary the secretary

of defense

Richard Shelby, senator the senator

from Alabama

Gen Michael E. Ryan, the chief of staff

Air Force chief of staff

Lt Gen Lance W. Lord, the commander

Air University commander

Lowercase titles used in apposition to a name:

Montgomery mayor Bobby Bright

Air Force general John W. Handy

Capitalize the names of buildings, monuments, and so forth:

the White House the Eiffel Tower

the Israeli Embassy the Tomb of the Unknowns

Capitalize the full and (oftentimes) the shortened names of national

governmental and military bodies:

US Congress Congress

Department of Defense Defense Department,

the department

13
Department of State State Department,

the department

US Air Force Air Force

US Army Army

US Marine Corps Marine Corps, Marines

US Navy Navy

Montgomery City Council the city council

Capitalize the full names of boards, committees, organizations, and

bureaus:

National Labor Relations Board

Committee on Foreign Affairs

Organization of American States

Bureau of Census

Veterans Administration

Do not capitalize shortened forms of the full titles for departments,

directorates, centers, and similar organizations:

Department of Labor the department

Directorate of Data Processing the directorate

Center for Strategic Studies the center

Special Plans Division the division

Air University Press the press

Design Branch the branch

Capitalize the full titles of treaties, laws, acts, bills, amendments,

and similar documents, but lowercase their shortened forms (see also

acts, amendments, bills, and laws):

Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces the treaty

(INF) Treaty

Conventional Forces in Europe the treaty

(CFE) Treaty

Treaty of Verdun the treaty

National Labor Relations Act the labor act, the act

First Amendment the amendment

(to the US Constitution)

Capitalize the full names of judicial bodies; lowercase shortened

forms and adjective derivatives (see also Supreme Court):

California Supreme Court, state supreme court

Circuit Court of Calhoun County, county court, circuit court

traffic court, juvenile court

Capitalize the names of national and international organizations,

movements, alliances, and members of political parties, but do not capitalize the words movement, platform, bloc, and so forth, as part of

organizational terms. 

14
Bolshevik, Bolshevist, Bolshevik movement, Bolshevism, bolshevist

(generic), bolshevism (generic)

Communist Party (or party), the party, Communist(s), Communist bloc,

Communism, communist (generic), communism (generic)

Communist Party USA (CPUSA)

Common Market

Democratic Party (or party), Democrat, democracy, democrat (general

advocate of democracy)

Eastern bloc

Fascist Party (or party), Fascist(s), fascist (generic), fascism (generic)

Federalist Party (or party), Federalist(s), federalist (generic)

Holy Alliance, the alliance

Marxism-Leninism, Marxist-Leninist, marxism (generic), marxist (generic)

right wing, right-winger, leftist, the Right, the Left

Socialist Party (or party), socialism (generic), socialist (generic)

Capitalize the names of generally accepted historical or cultural

epochs:

Dark Ages

Jazz Age

Middle Ages

Reformation

Roaring Twenties 

but

information age

Capitalize the full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets, regiments, battalions, companies, corps, and so forth. Lowercase the words

army, navy, air force, and so forth when they are not part of an official

title (except when they refer to US forces). Similarly, capitalize the

official names of foreign military forces, but lowercase subsequent references to those forces:

Allied armies

Army of Northern Virginia

Axis powers

Continental army (American Revolution)

Eighth Air Force

Fifth Army, the Fifth, the army

1st Battalion, 178th Infantry; the battalion, the 178th

French foreign legion

Israeli Air Force, the air force

the 187th Fighter Group (Air National Guard), the group

People’s Liberation Army, Red China’s army, the army

Royal Air Force, British air force, the air force

Royal Navy, British navy, the navy

Royal Scots Fusiliers, the fusiliers

Seventh Fleet, the fleet

3d Infantry Division, the division, the infantry

15
Union army (American Civil War)

United States Army, the Army, the American Army, the armed forces

United States Coast Guard, the Coast Guard

United States Marine Corps, the Marine Corps, the US Marines,

Fleet Marine Corps

United States Signal Corps, the Signal Corps

Capitalize the full titles of wars but lowercase the words war and

battle when used alone:

American Civil War, the Civil War, the war

American Revolution, the Revolution, the Revolutionary War

Battle (or battle) of Bunker Hill

Battle of the Bulge, the bulge

European theater of operations

Falklands War

Gulf War

Korean conflict

Korean War

Operation Overlord

Seven Years’ War

Spanish Civil War

Tet offensive

Vietnam War

western front (World War I)

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the war, the two world wars

World War II (or 2), the Second World War

Capitalize the names of medals and awards:

Distinguished Flying Cross

Medal of Honor, congressional medal

Purple Heart

Victoria Cross

Croix de Guerre

Capitalize but don’t italicize the designations of make, names of

planes, and names of space programs (see also italics):

Boeing 747 Project Apollo

Concorde Trident Missile

Nike U-boat

Do not capitalize or italicize generic types of vessels, aircraft, and

so forth:

aircraft carrier

space shuttle

submarine

16
Capitalize the titles of official documents, instructions, directives,

letters, standard forms, and shortened forms of titles, but don’t capitalize common nouns that refer to them:

AFMAN 2-8, Electronic Combat the manual

Operations

AFPAM 51-45, Electronic Combat the pamphlet

Principles

AFPD 10-1, Mission Directives the policy directive

AFI 63-101, Acquisition System the instruction

Capitalize such words as empire, state, county, and so forth, that

designate political divisions of the world, when they are part of a proper

name. Lowercase these terms when they are not part of a proper name

or when they stand alone:

Montgomery County, the county

11th Congressional District, the congressional district, the district

Fifth Ward, the ward

Indiana Territory, the territory of Indiana, the territory

New England states

New York City, the city of New York, the city

Roman Empire, the empire

Washington State, the state of Washington

the British colonies

Capitalize all principal words in titles and subheadings. See also

titles of works.

Capitalize proper names that designate parts of the world or specific

regions:

Central America North American continent

central Europe, but Central Europe North Pole

(political division of World War I) the South, southern, Southerner

the Continent (Europe), the (Civil War context)

European continent Southern Hemisphere

the East, easterner, eastern South Pacific, southern Pacific

seaboard the Southwest (US)

eastern Europe, but Eastern tropic of Cancer

Europe (political division) West Coast

Far East western Europe, but Western

Far West Europe (political division)

the Gulf, Persian Gulf region Western world

the North, northerner, Northerner Southeast Asia

(Civil War context)

North Africa, northern Africa

Lowercase the names of the four seasons (unless personified):

spring, summer, fall, winter

In April, Spring sends her showers to pierce the drought of March.

17
Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

DS 613-Strategic Force Employment, CL 6362-Air Staff Familiarization

Capitalize registered trademark names:

Coca-Cola (but cola drink) Levi’s

Kleenex (but tissue) Ping-Pong (but table tennis)

Band-Aid Xerox

Capitalize signs, notices, and mottoes in text (see also mottoes):

The company had a No Entrance sign at the gate.

The cry of the French Revolution was Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

caption. Never a complete sentence, provides information about an illustration. Table titles are also captions. See also legend. 

Figure 50. Restructuring Air Force Intelligence

CAS (close air support)

cease-fire (n., adj.)

centuries and decades. Spell out (in lowercase letters) references to particular centuries: eighth century, twentieth century. Use figures if decades

are identified by their century: the 1880s and 1890s. See also numbers.

chapter. Lowercase and spell out in text. Abbreviate in parenthetical references (chap. 5). Use arabic figures for chapter numbers, even if the

chapter numbers in the work cited are spelled out or in roman numerals. The same principle holds true for other divisions of a book: part 1,

section 3, book 7, volume 2.

chief of staff. See capitalization.

choke point

CINC (commander in chief). See also capitalization.

citizen-soldier

civil service

clauses. See comma; that, which; which.

CNO (chief of naval operations)

coalition forces

18
code name (n.)

code-name (v.)

cold war or Cold War. Lowercased in references to an ideological conflict

in general; often uppercased in references to the ideological conflict

between the United States and the Soviet Union.

colon. Indicates a break in a sentence (of the same degree as one indicated

by a semicolon). Also signals some sort of relationship between the

separated elements. The second element may illustrate or amplify the

first:

Music is more than a collection of notes: it conveys deep feelings and emotions.

Use a colon to introduce a list or a series. If you use namely, for

example, or that is to introduce the list or series, do not use a colon

unless the list or series consists of one or more complete clauses:

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period:

Byron, Shelley, and Keats.

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period,

namely, Byron, Shelley, and Keats.

Use a colon after as follows or the following to enumerate several

items:

Test scores were as follows: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

The class made the following test scores: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

Use a capital letter after a colon when the following material consists of more than one sentence or is a formal statement or quotation:

He had two reasons for not attending the awards ceremony: First, he was shy.

Second, he had nothing appropriate to wear.

Beneath the surface, however, is the less tangible question of values: Are the

old truths true?

Do not use a colon between an introductory statement and its complement or object:

NOT 

My three immediate goals are: to survive midyear exams, to get to Colorado,

and to ski until my legs wear out. 

BUT 

My three immediate goals are to survive midyear exams. . . . 

19
NOT

His friend accused him of: wiggling in his seat, talking during the lecture, and

not remembering what was said. 

BUT 

His friend accused him of wiggling in his seat. . . .

Place a colon outside quotation marks:

Will had one objection to the poem “Altarwise by Owl Light at the Halfway

House”: it was incomprehensible.

comma. Use a comma as follows:

• to set off nonrestrictive clauses—those you could omit without

changing the meaning of the main clause:

Ebeneezer Scrooge, who lived alone, refused to celebrate Christmas.

• after long introductory phrases:

After reading the letter from the manufacturer, Mary decided to sue the company.

• before and or or in a series of three or more elements:

Thomas Hobbes said life in the Middle Ages was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,

and short.

• to set off addresses and place-names:

The harmless drudge lives at 108 Deerfield Drive, Troy, Alabama.

They moved from Paris, Texas, to Rome, Georgia, in 1987. (Note commas

before and after the name of the state.)

• to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence:

Dr. Lopez criticized the report, and he asked the committee to revise it.

• to separate adjectives that modify the same noun:

Most people consider her a generous, outgoing person.

• to separate groups of three digits in numbers of 1,000 or more

(except page numbers):

2,100

465,230

5,722,465

• When a comma is needed at the end of material enclosed in quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets, place the comma inside

20
the quotation mark (whether single or double) but outside the

closing parenthesis or bracket:

Tom commented, “The remark ‘I mean what I say,’ ” used by a character in

Alice in Wonderland, provoked a heated discussion.”

Although the speaker appeared nervous (he stammered quite a bit), he managed to finish his speech.

When the great ship sailed in 1911 [actually 1912], nobody suspected what

lay ahead.

Do not use a comma in the following situations:

• to set off restrictive clauses—those you could not omit without

changing the meaning of the main clause:

The notion that all men are created equal was a radical one.

• after a short introductory phrase:

By 1865 the Confederacy was clearly doomed. 

• to set off the year in military-date style:

They signed the order on 26 July 1947 in Washington. 

• to separate compound predicates in a simple sentence:

Patsy graduated in May and went to work in June.

• to separate adjectives when the first modifies the combined idea

of the second plus the noun:

The estate is surrounded by an old stone wall.

The professor was a little old man. 

• to set off Jr., Sr., or a roman numeral from a name:

Adlai E. Stevenson III (but see example in bibliography entry) 

Harry Connick Jr. plays piano and sings.

commander in chief

committee. See congressional committees and subcommittees.

Commonwealth of Independent States. Free association of sovereign

states formed in 1991, comprising Russia and 11 other republics formerly part of the Soviet Union. See also Soviet(s), Soviet Union,

USSR.

communism. See capitalization.

communist. See capitalization.

21
Communist bloc. See capitalization.

Communist Party (or party). See capitalization.

compound words. Three types: open (air brake), solid (aircrew), and

hyphenated (air-cooled). Compounds are either permanent (found in

the dictionary) or temporary (not found in the dictionary). Use the dictionary’s spelling of permanent compounds. For help in spelling temporary compounds, refer to the “Spelling Guide for Compound Words

and Words with Prefixes and Suffixes,” in the current edition of The

Chicago Manual of Style. When in doubt, use open spelling for a temporary compound (e.g., war fighter). See also “The Writing of

Compounds” in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the

English Language, Unabridged.

Words formed with prefixes like non-, pre-, and re- are usually

solid: nonnuclear, prearrange, reenlist.

Words with the suffix -like are often used to form new compounds

and are generally solid: childlike, businesslike, lifelike; but bull-like,

Faulkner-like.

Words combined with the suffix -fold are solid unless they are

formed with numerals: threefold, multifold, 20-fold.

A few noun compounds are always open: those beginning with relationship words, such as Mother Nature, fellow traveler, sister ship, parent

company, and most compounds ending with general, such as attorney

general, adjutant general, and comptroller general (but governor-general).

Adjective compounds consisting of adverbs ending in -ly plus participle or adjective are left open: poorly written story, rapidly developing area. Compounds formed from unhyphenated proper names are left

open: Methodist Episcopal Church, Southeast Asian country. Chemical

names are open: carbon monoxide poisoning, hydrochloric acid bottle.

Words naming colors are open: sea green gown, grayish blue car. See

also hyphenated compound words.

Congress. Capitalize when referring to the US Congress.

congressional. Lowercase except when part of a title or office:

Congressional Record, Congressional Budget Office, congressional

district.

congressional committees and subcommittees. Capitalize when part of a

full title: Committee on Foreign Affairs, the committee; Subcommittee

on Energy and the Environment, the subcommittee.

congressman, congresswoman. Lowercase except when they precede a

person’s name. Capitalize senator and representative when they precede a person’s name: Congresswoman Lowey, the congresswoman

22
from New York; Senator Shelby, the senator from Alabama. See also

abbreviations.

constitutional amendments. Capitalize the full titles of amendments to the

US Constitution: Fifth Amendment, 18th Amendment, the amendment.

See also acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

copilot

copyright. See appendix C of this guide.

cost-effective (adj.)

cost-effectiveness (n.)

counter-. Compound words with this prefix are usually solid: counterair,

countermeasure, counterblow, counterclockwise. See also compound

words.

countries. Spell out the names of countries in text. See also abbreviations;

United States; US; USSR.

court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

coworkers

credit line. See illustration; legend.

crew member

cross-train (v.)

Cuban missile crisis

currency. See money; numbers.

23
dangling modifier. A verbal phrase at the beginning of a sentence dangles

when the word it should modify is not present:

Running along the street, my nose felt frozen. 

Here, running along the street seems to modify nose. Correct this problem by adding a word that the verbal phrase can logically modify:

Running along the street, I felt as if my nose were frozen. 

dash. The most common dashes are the em dash (sometimes typed as two

hyphens) and the en dash (sometimes typed as a hyphen).

Use an em dash or a pair of em dashes to indicate a sudden break or

abrupt change in thought:

My world and the real world—what a contrast!

He asked—no, demanded—that the door be opened. 

to set off interrupting or clarifying elements:

These are shore deposits—gravel, sand, and clay—but marine deposits underlie them.

to introduce a final statement that summarizes a series of ideas:

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, freedom from

fear—these are the fundamentals of moral world order.

to set off a word or phrase in the main clause that emphasizes or

explains:

George worked several days on the system—a system that was designed to

increase production in the department.

If text set off by a pair of dashes requires a question mark or exclamation point, place it before the second dash:

Suddenly, Richard—had he lost his senses?—threw his plate across the room.

Do not use more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.

The en dash is one-half the length of an em dash and is longer than

a hyphen. Use an en dash to connect continuing or inclusive numbers

such as dates, time, or reference numbers:

25
1957–63

February–March 1971

pages 12–15

The en dash is also used in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective, one element of which consists of two words or a hyphenated

word:

New York–London flight

Air Force–wide changes

quasi-public–quasi-judicial body

data. Singular or plural. Choose one, and use it consistently. Be sure that

verbs and qualifiers agree with the number that you choose:

The data is now in, but we have not examined much of it.

The data are now in, but we have not examined many of them.

database

data link (n.)

data-link (v., adj.)

dates. Write in day-month-year sequence without internal punctuation: 11

March 1950. See also numbers.

daytime

D.C. (District of Columbia)

D day

decades. Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the 1880s

and 1890s. Spell out or use figures and apostrophes for particular

decades: the eighties, the ’80s. See also numbers.

decision maker (n.)

decision making (n.)

decision-making (adj.)

de-emphasize

Democratic Party (or party), Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party),

democracy. See also capitalization.

department. See capitalization.

26
directions (north, south, east, west, north-northwest [NNW], northnortheast [NNE], south-southwest [SSW], south-southeast [SSE]).

See also capitalization.

director, directorate. See capitalization.

direct quotations. Certain rules apply when you quote directly from the

work of other writers. You should credit your source by identifying it

in an endnote. If you quote at length from a copyrighted work, you

should obtain written permission from the holder of the copyright (see

also appendix C of this guide). Reproduce the passage verbatim,

including original spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation,

with the following exceptions:

1. You may change single quotation marks to double quotation

marks and vice versa, if necessary.

2. You may change the initial letter to a capital or lowercase letter.

3. You may omit the final period or change it to a comma, and you

may omit punctuation marks where you insert ellipsis points.

4. You should usually omit original note-reference marks in a short

quotation from a scholarly work. You may insert note references of

your own within quotations.

5. You may correct an obvious typographical error in a passage

quoted from a modern source, but you should usually preserve idiosyncratic spellings in a passage from an older work or manuscript

source unless doing so would impair clarity. You should inform the

reader of any such alterations, usually in a note.

See also notes; plagiarism; quotations.

display dots. Typographical devices used to emphasize specific items; they

are not organizational devices used to subordinate textual elements.

Use them when one item is not more important than the others or when

the items do not show a sequence. Entries may be either complete or

incomplete sentences but should be parallel in grammatical structure

and no longer than two or three sentences. Since display dots are used

primarily for emphasis, use them sparingly, and keep the information

as short as possible. Indent each entry, and align run-over lines with the

first word after the dot.

A special court-martial tries intermediate noncapital offenses. It may be convened

by any of the following:

• Any person who may convene a general court-martial.

• A commander empowered by the secretary of the Air Force unless otherwise directed.

27
• A commander of a wing, group, or separate squadron of the Air Force

unless otherwise directed.

Specifically, the Office of Antiterrorism is charged with the following measures:

• Helping the newly formed Air Force Antiterrorism Council keep pace with

related developments. Members of the council include senior officers of

various deputy and assistant chiefs of staff, the Office of Security Police,

the Office of the Judge Advocate General, and other agencies.

• Developing policy and guidance concerning security measures and precautions.

• Monitoring terrorist trends and providing information on such matters to

interested agencies and commands.

The Camp David accords provide a process to facilitate the implementation of

Resolution 242:

• a five-year transitional period for the West Bank and Gaza, providing full

autonomy to the inhabitants;

• negotiations on the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and on a peace

treaty between Jordan and Israel, to begin no later than three years into the

transitional period;

• a framework for peace negotiations between Israel and Egypt; and

• principles for peace treaties between Israel and its other neighboring states.

The following engineering data support centers have been established:

• The Cryptologic Equipment Engineering Data Support Center

• The Nuclear Ordnance Engineering Data Support Center

• The Aerospace Guidance and Metrological Engineering Data Support

Center

• Communications-Electronics Engineering Data Support Center

In classified reports, material emphasized by display dots is considered part of the paragraph that introduced it, not as a separate paragraph.

District of Columbia (D.C.)

dive-bomb (v.)

dive-bomber (n.)

division. See capitalization.

doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy

directives. On first usage, spell out the name of the publication and

28
include the abbreviation in parentheses; use the abbreviation and number for subsequent references. Italicize the title of the publication: Air

Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 2-4.3, Education and Training,

AFDD 2-4.3; Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-201, Inspector General

Activities, AFI 90-201; Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 10-206,

Operational Reporting, AFMAN 10-206; Army Field Manual (FM)

27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, FM 27-10; Air Force Pamphlet

(AFPAM) 36-2705, Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, AFPAM

36-2705; Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-4, Air Force Civilian

Training and Education, AFPD 36-4.

documentation. See bibliography; notes; appendixes A and B of this guide.

DOD (Department of Defense)

dollars. See money; numbers.

Dr. (doctor). Use a period with the abbreviation. See also Mr., Mrs., Mme,

Ms.

29
earth. Lowercase except when you refer to it as one of the bodies in the

solar system. The same principle applies to sun and moon. In this context, use the with sun and moon but not with earth: Mars has a diameter halfway between those of the Moon and Earth.

earth satellites. Use arabic numerals in designations of artificial satellites:

Skylab 2, Voyager 2. Earlier spacecraft used roman numerals: Gemini

II. Specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites are italicized.

See also spacecraft.

earth station

East Berlin, East Germany. Use the full phrase, not Berlin or Germany

alone, in references to the city and country when they were divided.

e.g. (for example). Avoid using in text; use for example instead. Use the

abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in parenthetical references or

tabular matter.

ellipses. Indicate the omission of a word, phrase, line, or paragraph from a

quoted passage. Ellipsis points come in threes; are set on the line like

periods; and are separated from each other, from the text, and from any

contiguous punctuation by one space.

Use three ellipsis points to indicate an omission in the middle of a

quoted sentence: “The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor . . .

has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.”

Indicate the omission of the last part of a sentence by a period and

three ellipsis points (assuming that more quoted material follows).

Leave no space between the period and the preceding word: “The

Soviets also have research programs under way on kinetic energy

weapons. . . . These programs have been highly successful.” (If space

so dictates, you may leave the period at the end of a line and begin the

next line with three ellipsis points.) If the sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation point, retain that punctuation and follow it

with three ellipsis points: “What is the major strength of the Soviet

space program? . . . ” Remember that ellipsis points are seldom used at

the beginning or end of a quoted passage.

Indicate the omission of one or more paragraphs in a long block

quotation by three ellipsis points following the period at the end of the

paragraph preceding the omitted paragraph. If a paragraph in the block

quotation—other than the first paragraph—begins with a sentence that

does not open the paragraph in the original, it should be preceded by

three ellipsis points:

31
Such a tremendous increase in capability exceeds their future civil and scientific requirements. The gap between what we perceive to be Soviet launch

requirements and launch capabilities is of great concern to us. . . . 

. . . this system will expand the current US ICBM field coverage to include

US submarine-launched ballistic missiles. . . .

Brackets obviate ellipses (i.e., when you replace part of a quoted

passage with different wording, enclose the new term[s] with square

brackets, but do not use ellipsis points to show that the original wording has been omitted):

The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor deployed around Moscow has

an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] deployed around Moscow has an

inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

However, if bracketed material is next to ellipsis points which show

that part of a quoted passage has been omitted (and not replaced with

different wording), retain the ellipsis points:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] . . . has an inherent ASAT capability

against low-altitude satellites.

Do not use ellipsis points if the quotation begins with an incomplete

sentence that completes a sentence in the text:

For example, we now know that the Soviets “are currently producing about 50

SL-4/SL-6-type vehicles each year—a rate of nearly one a week.”

See also brackets.

E-mail (n., v.)

emphasis. If you use italics to emphasize a word or words in a quotation,

indicate that you have done so by adding a phrase such as “emphasis

added” or “italics added” in parentheses following the quotation, as in

this block quotation:

Today we know that in wartime, even in a conventional war

of limited duration, the two superpowers would fight a battle of attrition in space until one side or other had wrested

control. And the winner would use the surviving space system to decide the contests on land and sea. (Emphasis

added)7

Similarly, you may use an appropriate phrase to show that an italicized part of a quotation is not your doing but appears in the original,

as in this run-in quotation:

32
Gen Muir S. Fairchild noted that “each nation differs from

all other nations, not only in its degree of vulnerability to air

attack, but also in the kind of vulnerability” (emphasis in

original).21

In a quotation with a mixture of original and added italics, use

bracketed phrases immediately following the italicized passages to differentiate between them:

Whether the means of protecting satellites will be adequate

to ensure the survivability [emphasis added] of particular

space-based BMD systems will depend in part on the kinds

of systems deployed and in part on future Soviet antisatellite capabilities. Insufficient information is now available to

resolve the survivability question [emphasis in original].24

empire. See capitalization.

endgame

endnotes. See notes.

end state (n.)

end-state (adj.)

en masse

en route

ensure. To make sure or certain, guarantee. See also insure.

entitle, title (v.). Used interchangeably in the sense of designating or calling

by a title: A book entitled [or titled] Roderick Random was on the list

of required readings.

EO (executive order). Lowercase and spell out when the number of the

order is not given. Always capitalize when using the number, but

abbreviate with the number only after spelling out on first reference:

Executive Order (EO) 1654, EO 1654, the executive order.

epigraph. A pertinent quotation that may be used at the head of a chapter.

Do not enclose an epigraph in quotation marks. Set the epigraph in italics in the same sized type as the text or in roman a size smaller. Identify

the source of the quotation on the following line. Cite only the author’s

name (sometimes preceded by a dash) and usually the title of the work.

33
If the author is well known, you may cite the last name only. Do not

footnote an epigraph.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines.

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Essays, First Series: Self-Reliance

et al. (and others). Follows the full name of the first author listed in a citation of a work by more than three authors:

1. Jaroslav Pelikan et al., Religion and the University, York University

Invitation Lecture Series (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 109.

etc. (et cetera, and so forth). Use only in lists, tables, and parenthetical references. Set off by commas.

exercises. Capitalize only the initial letter(s) of the name of the exercise

unless the name is an acronym: Desert Strike, REFORGER (return of

forces to Germany). See also operations.

34
fact-finding (n., adj.)

federal, federal government

feedback

field test (n.)

field-test (v.)

fighter-bomber

fighter pilot

figures. See numbers or illustration, as appropriate.

firearm; firebomb (n., v.); firepower

first, firstly. Use firstly, secondly, and so forth; or first, second, and so forth.

Do not mix the two: first, secondly.

first person. See I, we.

flight crew

flight line (n.)

flight-line (adj.)

flight path

floor leader. Lowercase, whether preceding or following the name:

Republican floor leader Hugh L. Brown

Rep. Hugh L. Brown, the Republican floor leader

follow-on (n., adj.)

follow-up (n., adj.)

follow up (v.)

footnotes. See notes.

35
force mix (n.)

foreign military services. See capitalization.

foreign terms. See italics.

foreword. Part of the front matter of a book, appearing before the preface

(not forward). Usually two to four pages long and written by someone

other than the author of the book. The name of the person who wrote

the foreword appears at the end of the foreword. See also front matter.

forms (titles of). See italics.

fort. Spell out and capitalize when part of a proper name: Fort Hood.

fractions. See numbers.

free world or Free World

frequencies. See abbreviations.

front line (n.)

frontline (adj.)

front matter. Elements preceding the main text of a book. In order, they

include the title page, copyright notice, dedication, table of contents,

list of illustrations and list of tables (if not part of table of contents),

foreword, preface, acknowledgments (if not part of preface), and introduction (if not part of text). Use lowercase roman numerals to number

the pages of the front matter.

full time (n.)

full-time (adj., adv.)

FY (fiscal year)

36
Gadhafi, Mu‘ammar

general (military rank). See abbreviations; capitalization; military titles

and offices.

Geneva convention(s)

geo-. Most compounds with this prefix are solid: geomagnetic, geonavigation, geopolitics, but geo-economic. 

G force, G suit, G turns

glossary. Include if you use a number of unfamiliar or technical terms in

your text. Arrange the words, abbreviations, or acronyms and their definitions in the glossary in alphabetical order, and place it before the

bibliography. See also back matter.

GO (general order). Lowercase and spell out when referring in general to

the official numbered and dated publication. Capitalize when you use

the term with the number, but abbreviate with the number only after

spelling out on first reference: General Order (GO) 6-325, GO 6-325,

the general order.

government, federal government, US government

GPS (Global Positioning System)

group. Capitalize when part of a proper name: 42d Medical Group, the

group.

Gulf War. See also capitalization; Persian Gulf War.

37
half-. Most adjective compounds with this prefix are hyphenated; a few are

closed: half-cocked, half-blooded, half-witted, halfhearted, halfway.

See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

half century

he, him, his. See sexist language.

headings. See subheadings.

headquarters. Spell out and capitalize when referring to Air Force headquarters and headquarters of major commands: Headquarters USAF,

Headquarters ACC, but the headquarters.

HF (high frequency)

high-. Most adjective compounds with this prefix are hyphenated before the

noun: high-level meeting. After the noun, write them open (but

hyphenate after the noun to prevent ambiguity). Some compounds with

this prefix are closed: highbrow, highfalutin, highland. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

highway. Capitalize in proper names, but lowercase the shortened form:

Alcan Highway, the highway. Use arabic numerals to designate state,

federal, and interstate highways: Interstate 85, Alabama 41.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

home page

house. Capitalize when referring to the House of Representatives, in full or

shortened form: the House. Lowercase in other contexts: the lower

house of Congress.

hundreds. See numbers.

hyphen. Use when dividing a word at the end of a line and in some compound words. See also hyphenated compound words; word division.

hyphenated compound words. Words joined by a hyphen or hyphens, such

as many-sided, ill-fated, and mother-in-law. There is no all-inclusive

rule for hyphenating compound words. If you are not sure about a particular compound, look it up in the dictionary or the current edition of

39
The Chicago Manual of Style or refer to “The Writing of Compounds”

in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged. The following are a few general principles:

Use a hyphen to prevent ambiguity. For example, slow moving van

could mean a moving van that is slow (no hyphen necessary) or a van

that is moving slowly: slow-moving van. Although adjective compounds traditionally are hyphenated before the noun they modify and

are written open after the noun, you may omit the hyphen in all cases

if there is no chance of ambiguity or misreading: smoke filled room,

red hot iron. This principle holds true even if the compound is hyphenated in the dictionary. Do not hyphenate an adjective compound consisting of an adverb ending in -ly plus a participle or an adjective (highly

developed organism).

Hyphenate adjective compounds beginning with well, ill, better,

best, little, lesser, and least when they precede the noun, and leave

them open after the noun: well-dressed man (but the man is well

dressed); best-known work (but the work is best known); ill-advised

action (but the action is ill advised). Leave such compounds open when

they are modified by an adverb: very well dressed man. If you enclose

an adjective compound that you would normally hyphenate in quotation marks, you may omit the hyphen: “well dressed” man. See also

well.

Measurement compounds are also hyphenated: six-inch-wide board,

three-mile limit, 24-gallon tank. If you abbreviate the unit of measure,

omit the hyphen: 24 gal tank.

Compounds consisting of numerals and the word percent are left

open: 25 percent decrease.

Hyphenate when the second element of a compound is capitalized

or is a number: mid-Atlantic tempest, post-1980 developments.

Hyphenate when spelling the word solid creates a homonym, as in remark (mark again) versus remark (say).

Hyphenate some compounds in which the last letter of the prefix is

the same as the first letter of the word following: anti-intellectual, antiinflammatory.

Use a “suspension” hyphen to carry the force of a modifier to a later

noun: second- or third-rate powers; second-, third-, and fourth-grade

students.

Some noun compounds are always hyphenated: relative words with

great and in-law, such as great-uncle, great-great-grandmother, sisterin-law; noun plus noun, expressing two different but equally important

functions, such as secretary-treasurer; two-word compounds ending in

elect, such as governor-elect (but probate judge elect); some multipleword compounds including a preposition and describing someone or

something, such as jack-of-all-trades (but flash in the pan). Some permanent compounds beginning with vice are hyphenated, such as vice40
chancellor, but not vice admiral or vice president or viceroy. See also

vice-.

Do not hyphenate capitalized geographical terms used as adjectives:

Southeast Asian country, Mobile Bay cruise. See also compound

words; titles of works.

41
I, we. You may use these pronouns occasionally in the text rather than the

formal “the author(s).”

ibid. See notes.

i.e. (that is). Avoid using in text; use that is instead. Use the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in parenthetical references or tabular matter.

ill-. See hyphenated compound words.

illustration. May be a chart, map, line drawing, photograph, painting, or

graph. Tables are not considered illustrations (figures). See also tables.

Number your illustrations consecutively throughout the text, and

refer to them by their numbers, either parenthetically (fig. 8) or as part

of the text:

The totals shown in figure 3 are rounded off to the nearest dollar.

If each chapter in a book is written by a different author, the numbering of figures and tables restarts with each new chapter. For precise

identification of figures and tables, use a combination of chapter number, a period, and figure/table number: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, and so forth.

Identify the source of an illustration with a credit line, either at the

end of the legend or caption, usually in parentheses, or parallel to the

lower edge of the illustration. Before using an illustration from a copyrighted source, obtain a formal (written) release from the copyright

owner. See also caption; copyright; legend; tables.

important, importantly. Use either word as a sentence modifier. Choose

one, and use it consistently.

More important, the truth will prevail.

More importantly, the truth will prevail.

inbrief (v.)

inbriefing (n., v.)

in-depth (adj., adv.)

index. Helps the reader find details about particular subjects. Meaningful

entries direct the reader to pertinent references in the text but not to

merely passing remarks. Consult the current edition of The Chicago

Manual of Style for information about the preparation of an index.

43
information age

insure. Often synonymous with ensure (i.e., to make certain by taking necessary measures and precautions). Insure also carries the distinctive

sense of providing or obtaining insurance. See also ensure.

inter-. This prefix nearly always occurs in solid compounds: interrelated,

interaction, international. Hyphenate when the second element is capitalized: inter-American. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

international date line

Internet (the global network of computers)

in-theater (adj., adv.)

iron curtain. Often capitalized when referring to a barrier that isolates an

area under Soviet control.

it. Used to refer to inanimate objects and some living things; also used in

impersonal statements and idioms:

The couple bought a house but did not like it.

The newborn baby kept its eyes shut tightly.

It has been three hours since it began to rain.

We will have to play it by ear.

Using it rather than an appropriate personal pronoun or noun can

make writing stilted: use I believe, the Air Force believes, and so forth,

instead of it is believed.

italics. Italicize titles and subtitles of published books, periodicals, pamphlets,

manuals, proceedings and collections, newspapers, and sections of newspapers published separately (The Art of War, Fortune 500, etc.). If you are

marking a manuscript by hand, use underlining to indicate italics.

Italicize titles of motion pictures, continuing television and radio

series, long poems and musical compositions, and plays. Put titles of

TV shows, songs, and radio programs in roman type and enclose them

in quotation marks:

Casablanca Handel’s Messiah

public television’s Masterpiece Theater N.Y.P.D. Blue

public radio’s All Things Considered “In the Mood”

Paradise Lost radio’s “Christmas ‘99

at the Kennedy Center”

44
If you use the names of newspapers, titles of books, or other italicized names in the plural, set the ending in roman type: There were five

Journals and two Tribunes on the shelf.

Punctuation marks should be in the same style or font of type as the

word, letter, character, or symbol immediately preceding them, as is

the case with the following question mark, semicolon, and colon:

What is meant by random selection?

Luke 4:16a;

Point: one-twelfth of a pica

However, when a proper name is set in italics, the possessive ending

(including the apostrophe) should be in roman:

the Pueblo’s captain

A question mark or exclamation point that immediately follows an

italicized title and that is not part of the title should be set in roman to

avoid misreading:

When did she write Together Again?

but

After she wrote What Next? 

Parentheses and brackets that enclose italicized text may also be set

in italics:

[continued]

(An exception is [sic].) However, if only one end of the enclosed text

is italicized, the parentheses or brackets should be roman:

(he objected to the term handicapped) 

Italicize the proper names of specific ships and submarines but not the

accompanying abbreviations SS or HMS: HMS Shannon, SS United

States, CSS Alabama, Kiev-class submarine. Capitalize but do not italicize make of aircraft and ships and names of space programs: Boeing

707, Project Apollo, ICBM, U-boat, DC-3. See also aircraft; spacecraft.

Do not italicize titles of forms or put them in quotation marks.

Instead, capitalize the main words: AF Form 673, Request to Issue

Publication; AU Form 107, Request for Loan.

Italicize terms singled out as terms, and words referred to as words

(see also quotation marks):

45
The standard meaning of the term leftist is an adherent of the left wing of a

party or movement.

Gladys cringed whenever anyone said ain’t.

Italicize terms from languages other than English: Leutnant, sic

transit gloria mundi, aux armes. However, if foreign terms are included

in the main listing of a standard English dictionary, do not italicize

them: weltschmerz, schadenfreude, ad hoc, fin de siècle, blitzkrieg,

détente, déjà vu, perestroika, raison d’être, vis-à-vis.

Isolated foreign proper nouns are not italicized, even when cited as

foreign terms:

Moscow (in Russian, Moskva) has been the capital of the Russian national

state since the late fourteenth century.

Italicize the names of legal cases; v. (versus) may be roman or italic

(but be consistent):

Brown v. Board of Education

King v. City of Los Angeles

Italicize the shortened case name:

Miranda or the Miranda case 

You may occasionally use italics (not boldface) to emphasize a

point:

Effective intelligence is essential to military operations.

This device should be used sparingly. If your text is well written, the

reader should have no problem determining what you consider important.

See also emphasis.

IW (information warfare)

46
JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff). Capitalize the spelled-out term as an official

title, but use joint chiefs as the shortened form. See also capitalization.

jeep. Lowercase when referring to a military vehicle. Capitalize when referring to the trademark of the civilian vehicle.

JFACC (joint force air component commander)

Joint Staff

journals. Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize the

full title: Journal of Political and Military Sociology. See also italics;

titles of works.

Jr. Use with a period; do not set off with commas. See also comma. 

James Adair Jr. is the mayor.

JSTARS (joint surveillance, target attack radar system).

judicial branch. See capitalization.

47
-keeper. Compound words with this suffix are usually written solid: bookkeeper, scorekeeper, timekeeper, hotelkeeper; but tollgate keeper. See

also compound words.

Korean conflict

Korean War

49
landmass

land power

latitude, longitude. Spell out these terms in text or standing alone: longitude 80 degrees east; the polar latitudes, from 20° 50′ north latitude to

20° 50′ south latitude. In tables you may abbreviate as follows:

lat. 41°15′40′′ N

long. 90°18′30′′ W 

laws. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

legal cases. See italics.

legend. An explanation of an illustration (figure), a legend consists of one or

more complete sentences. Technically, if the explanation is not a complete sentence, it is a caption (see also caption). You may use a mixture

of legends and captions to identify your figures. The legend follows the

figure number on a line parallel to the bottom line of the illustration.

Place a period at the end of a legend. Use headline-style capitalization

or sentence-style capitalization for a caption. See also titles of works.

Do not use a period at the end of a caption, unless you run a caption

and legend together. 

Figure 1. Carrier Air Wing. As the Air Force assembles composite wings, it

would do well to study how the Navy operates its carrier air wings. The composite nature of the carrier air wing is evident from this deck photo of the USS

Theodore Roosevelt and its complement of aircraft.

Figure 2. System Flowchart Applied to Mission Accomplishment

Identify the source of the illustration with a credit line. Run it parallel to the lower edge of the illustration, above the legend/caption. Or

place it at the end of the legend/caption, in parentheses:

Source: Maj Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World Order,”

Airpower Journal 6, no. 3 (Fall 1992): 51.

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs

or

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs (From Maj

Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World Order,” Airpower

Journal 6, no. 3 [Fall 1992]: 51)

51
If you use words such as left, right, top, bottom, or left to right to

identify individual subjects within the illustration, put them in italics,

preceding the subjects they identify. See also caption. 

Figure 1. Left to right: George Jones, Henry Johnson, and Ben Hopkins

Figure 3. Upper left, B-1; upper right, F-15; lower left, C-5; center, XV-3; lower

right, XV-15

If your table of contents includes a list of illustrations, do not simply reprint the captions and legends as they appear in the text. A short

caption is appropriate for your list, but you should shorten long captions and legends.

legislative bodies, legislative branch. See capitalization.

LEO (low earth orbit)

LF (low frequency)

LGB (laser-guided bomb)

LIC (low intensity conflict)

lists. Run lists into the text or set them apart in a vertical enumeration. Use

arabic numerals in both styles.

For a run-in enumeration, enclose the numbers in parentheses without a period. Use a comma to separate items in a simple series if there

is little or no punctuation within the items; otherwise, use a semicolon:

Plain English standards include the following: (1) present material in a logical,

orderly sequence, (2) write in a clear, uncluttered style, and (3) write in active

voice.

Note that the items in the series should be grammatically parallel.

For a vertical enumeration, use numbers with periods but no parentheses. If each element in the list is a complete sentence, use a period

at the end of each. Set the list flush with the text or indent. Align

runover lines with the first word after the numeral.

The following steps increase your effectiveness as a communicator:

1. Use English that is alive. 

2. Analyze the purpose and audience, taking care to select a subject that will be 

of interest to the audience. 

3. Conduct the research. 

4. Support your ideas.

52
You may put in vertical form a list that completes a sentence begun in

an introductory element; punctuate it as if it had been a continuous part

of the sentence:

The loan office told Richard to

1. fill out the application forms,

2. make a copy for himself, and 

3. return all paperwork in one week.

Or you may omit the punctuation after all such items (choose either

style, and use it consistently):

The five categories of research sources are

1. abstracts of student papers

2. Air Force sources

3. DOD sources

4. periodicals

5. other sources

LOC (lines of communications)

localities and regions. Capitalize the popular names of specific localities

and regions: East Side, Sun Belt, Twin Cities. See also capitalization.

loc. cit. (loco citato). In the place cited. Use a shortened reference instead.

See notes.

logistic or logistical (adj.)

logistics (n.). May take either a singular or plural verb. Choose one, and use

it consistently.

long term (n.)

long-term (adj.)

Luftwaffe. No italics.

53
magazines. See italics; journals.

man-. Occurs in solid, hyphenated, and open compound words: mankind,

man-hour(s), man jack. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words; sexist language; work hour(s).

man-hour(s) (n.). See also sexist language; work hour(s).

Marine Corps, Marine(s), marine. Capitalize as a synonym for the US

Marine Corps: Jim enlisted in the Marines; a Marine landing; but three

marines, a company of marines. Shortened title: Marine Corps, but the

corps. As a guide to capitalization, apply the following test: If the word

soldier or soldiers would fit logically in place of marine or marines,

use m. If Army, Navy, or Air Force can be substituted logically for

Marines, use M.

Marshall Plan, the plan

master’s degree. Also Master of Arts, Master of Science. See also academic

degrees and titles.

material, materiel. Material refers to any matter or substance from which

something is made. Materiel refers more specifically to apparatus or

equipment (e.g., military supplies).

measurements. Use numerals with abbreviations for units of measure:

3 mi 50 lb

55 mph 35 mm film

See also abbreviations; hyphenated compound words; numbers.

medals. Capitalize specific names of medals and awards:

Medal of Honor; congressional medal

Distinguished Flying Cross

Legion of Merit

See also capitalization.

media. The plural of medium. Use with a plural verb. Although the term is

used in the singular in references to agencies of mass communications,

that usage is not well established. See also data.

55
Messrs., Mmes. Messrs. is the plural of Mr.; use a period: Messrs. Bailey,

Bryant, and Richardson. Mmes is the plural of madam or madame or

Mrs.; no period: Mmes Clark, Mathis, O’Neal, and Terrell.

microcomputer

mid-. Adjective compounds with this prefix are usually solid, unless the second element begins with a capital letter: midair collision, mid-Atlantic

tempest. Noun compounds with this prefix are usually solid; if the second word is a proper noun, the compound may be open or hyphenated:

midsummer, mid Atlantic, mid-Victorian, mid-1944. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

Middle Ages

MiG(s). Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed by the

design bureau of Gen Artem Mikoyan and Gen Mikhail Gurevich.

military establishment

military-industrial complex

military rank. See military titles and offices.

military terms. Capitalize proper names of armies, navies, air forces, fleets,

regiments, battalions, companies, corps, and so forth. Lowercase the

words army, navy, air force, and so forth, standing alone or when they

are not part of a proper name (except when they refer to US forces):

When questioned about a separate air force, the general saw it as a matter for

the Army to decide.

See also capitalization.

military time. Measured in hours numbered zero to 23 (e.g., 0100, 0800,

1600, 2300), from one midnight to the next; midnight is 0000, not

2400. No internal punctuation. See also numbers.

military titles and offices. Capitalize and abbreviate titles that precede full

names; capitalize and spell out titles that precede surnames only.

Lowercase and spell out titles following a personal name or used alone

in place of a name:

Gen Ulysses S. Grant, commander in chief of the Union army; General Grant;

the commander in chief; the general

Gen Curtis E. LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command; General LeMay;

the general

56
but

General of the Army Douglas MacArthur; Douglas MacArthur, general of the

Army; General MacArthur; the general

Sgt Phyllis Forsman; a noncommissioned officer (NCO); Sergeant Forsman; the

sergeant

Adm Chester W. Nimitz; Admiral Nimitz, commander of the Pacific Fleet; the

fleet admiral

Col (Brig Gen-select) Peter D. Haynes

Generals Eisenhower and Montgomery (but Army generals Patton and Bradley)

See also abbreviations; capitalization.

military units. Air Force units. Use arabic numerals to designate units up to

and including air divisions (now defunct). Spell out the names of numbered air forces:

2d Aircraft Delivery Group

31st Combat Support Group

22d Fighter Wing

834th Air Division

Twenty-Third Air Force

Army units. Use arabic numerals to designate units up to and including divisions. Write corps names with roman numerals, and designate

Army groups with arabic numerals. Spell out the names of numbered

armies:

2d Armored Cavalry Regiment

210th Field Artillery Brigade

82d Airborne Division

XVIII Airborne Corps

3d Army Group

First Army 

Navy units. Use arabic numerals to designate the number of task

forces; spell out fleet numbers:

Task Force 58

Fifth Fleet

Marine Corps units. Use the same designations as Army units.

militia (sing.), militias (pl.)

mind-set

minelayer (n.)

57
mine laying (n.)

mine-laying (adj.)

minesweeper (n.)

minesweeping (n., adj.)

MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle) (n.,v.). MIRVed,

MIRVing.

missileman

MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research

Corporation)

MOA (memorandum of agreement)

money. Use a dollar sign and numerals to express large sums of money. See

also numbers.

Both companies agreed on a price of $2 million.

moon. See earth.

mottoes. Enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation marks, capitalize them as if they were titles, or capitalize the first word only:

“A penny saved is a penny earned” was his favorite maxim.

The flag bore the motto Don’t Tread on Me.

He was fond of the motto All for one and one for all.

MOU (memorandum of understanding)

mph. See abbreviations.

Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. Use a period with all except Mme. Spell out “Mister”

when it connotes military rank: Mister Roberts. See also Messrs.,

Mmes.

multi-. Words with this prefix are usually solid: multibreak, multicylinder,

multiengine. See also compound words.

58
nation-state (n.)

naval forces. Lowercase naval forces, but use Navy forces to refer to the US

Navy.

naval station. Capitalize only in proper names: Norfolk Naval Station, the

naval station, the station. Use Navy station to refer to the US Navy.

Navy. Capitalize to refer to the US Navy. For foreign naval forces, see capitalization.

NCA (National Command Authorities)

near real time (n.)

near-real-time (adj.)

near term (n.)

near-term (adj.)

Negro, Negroes. Use black(s) or Black(s), African-American(s), and AfroAmerican(s). Use of Negro(es) is appropriate in certain historical citations: “In October 1940, the War Department announced . . . that Negro

Aviation Units would be organized as soon as the necessary personnel

were trained.”

newspapers. Italicize the names of newspapers: Christian Science Monitor,

Chicago Sun-Times. In text, lowercase the and set it in roman type:

John read the Wall Street Journal religiously. Omit the definite article

in note references to newspapers. See also italics.

nicknames. Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when it accompanies

the full name:

George Herman “Babe” Ruth 

Omit the quotation marks when a nickname is used as part of or in

place of a personal name:

Stonewall Jackson

the Iron Duke

nighttime

59
no. Use a period after the abbreviation for number.

non-. Words with this prefix are usually solid: nonviolent, nonoperating,

nonnegotiable, nonparty. See also compound words.

none (pro.) Singular or plural. Choose one, and use it consistently.

None of those accused was really responsible.

None of those accused were really responsible.

notes. Use the numbered endnote system of documentation. Number the

notes consecutively—beginning with 1—throughout a chapter and

throughout the list of notes at the end of the chapter. Do not footnote

epigraphs or subheadings. In text, put a superior numeral at the end of

a sentence or at least at the end of a clause, following any punctuation

marks (except a dash) or a closing parenthesis. 

Strategic considerations were often discussed, and Arnold urged abandonment

of the “old ‘island to island’ theory.”6

(When General Powell gave Bush a probable number of casualties, the president

approved the attack.)8

Include the following items in a reference to a book: (1) author’s or

editor’s full name (as it appears on the title page), first name first,

including military rank or academic title if included on title page, or

name of institution responsible for writing the book (alternatively, the

editor’s name may follow the title of the book [see no. 3]); (2) title of

the book, including subtitle, in italics; (3) editor, compiler, or translator, if any; (4) edition, if not the first; (5) number of volumes (if referring to a multivolume work as a whole); (6) volume number of multivolume work; (7) title of volume, if applicable; (8) series, if any, and

number in the series; (9) facts of publication—city where published,

publisher, and date of publication, all in parentheses; (10) volume

number (if citing a multivolume work, all of whose volumes have the

same title); (11) page number(s) of the specific citation. 

1. Winston Burdett, Encounter with the Middle East (New York: Viking

Press, 1981), 90.

Include the following items in a reference to an article in a periodical: (1) author’s full name, first name first, including military rank or

academic title if included in byline of article; (2) title of the article in

quotation marks; (3) title of the periodical in italics; (4) volume (and

issue number) of the periodical; (5) date of the volume or of the issue;

and (6) page number(s) of the particular citation. 

2. Maj Michael L. Mosier, “Getting a Grip on Careerism,” Airpower Journal

2, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 55.

60
You may shorten subsequent references to a source. For a shortened

form, use only the last name of the author, followed by a comma and

the page number of the reference. Later on in the list of notes, if you

include a full citation to a different work by the same author, subsequent references to any cited work by that author should include a short

title of the work after the author’s last name to distinguish between

them. The word ibid. (ibidem, “in the same place”) refers to a single

work cited in the note immediately preceding. Never use ibid. if more

than one work is cited in the preceding note. Do not italicize this abbreviation in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere citato, “in the work

cited”) or loc. cit. (loco citato, “in the place cited”). Instead, use the

shortened form of the citation. Use a full reference, not a shortened

form, the first time a work is cited in a chapter’s endnotes even though

a full citation for that work has appeared in a previous chapter.

Always use arabic figures for volume numbers even when they

appear as roman numerals in the book or journal itself.

Examples of full and shortened references:

3. Franz Schurman, Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the

Origins of Modern China (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 206–8.

4. John K. Fairbank, “The People’s Middle Kingdom,” Foreign Affairs 58

(1964): 943–68.

5. Capt Gerald G. O’Rourke, “Our Peaceful Navy,” US Naval Institute

Proceedings, April 1989, 79–83.

6. Franz Schurman, Japan Today (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 97–100.

7. Schurman, Imperial China, 174. [Shortened form of note 3 with different

page number.]

8. Ibid., 176. [All information the same as in the preceding note except page

number.]

9. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter

Paret (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 25.

10. James N. Stevens, The Foundations of Communist China, 2 vols.

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), 1:150.

11. Ibid., 2:96. [All information the same as in the preceding note except volume number and page number.]

12. Ibid., 147. [The same volume number as in the preceding note.]

13. Ibid. [The same page number as in the preceding note.] 

See appendix A of this guide or the current edition of The Chicago

Manual of Style for citations of public documents and unpublished

materials.

nuclear triad

numbered air force. Spell out names of numbered air forces: Eighth Air

Force, Twenty-Third Air Force. Use figures for a smaller unit: 15th Air

Group. See also military units.

61
numbers. Spell out whole numbers one through nine. Use figures for numbers greater than nine:

Katie read three books in two months.

The convention center can hold 5,000 people.

You may use figures followed by million, billion, and so forth to

express large numbers:

China has more than one (or 1) billion people.

By the end of the year, the corporation was in debt by $2.3 million.

If a sentence contains several numbers, some of them 10 or above,

follow the basic rule:

We are authorized six officers, 39 enlisted personnel, and three civilians in our

two squadrons.

The general rule for spelling numbers also applies to ordinal numbers (use d alone, not nd and rd, for second and third):

Sergeant Adams conducted the 92d through 103d hours of the drill.

Spell out any number that starts a sentence:

Twelve people applied for the job. 

Apply the rules for spelling out whole numbers one through nine

and for large numbers to adjective modifiers:

four-mile hike 11-mile hike

five-day week 40-hour week

five-ton truck 9,000-ton ship

two (or 2)-million-member union 10-million-vote margin

four-year-old boy

In mathematical, statistical, technical, or scientific texts, express

physical quantities such as distances, lengths, areas, volumes, pressures, and so forth in figures:

60 miles 110 volts

15 yards 10 tons

40 acres 3 meters

3 1/3 cubic feet 45 pounds

In ordinary textual matter, apply the basic rule for the spelling of

numbers:

Doris lost five pounds in a week.

John’s car can barely go 60 miles an hour.

62
Spell out common fractions in textual matter:

More than one-third of the class failed the exam.

My brothers and I live within three and one-half miles of each other.

Use figures to express a combination of mixed numbers and whole

numbers:

He typed the report on 81⁄

2-by-11-inch paper.

If you abbreviate a unit of measure, express the quantity with a figure:

9 mi 35 mm

30 lb 20 km

Use figures with symbols:

51⁄

2" 8 ̊ F

Use figures for decimal fractions:

He multiplied the number by 3.17. 

In textual matter, use the word percent preceded by figures; in a

table or chart, or in scientific or statistical text, you may use the symbol %:

1 percent

50 percent

Spell out or use figures for amounts of money in US currency in

accordance with the basic rule. If you spell out the number, spell out

the unit of currency; if you use figures, use the symbols $ or ¢:

The commission raised the tax four cents.

The club raised a total of $425.

Use a dollar sign, figures, and units of millions or billions to express

large sums of money:

Jim signed with the Atlanta Falcons for $3 million. 

Use figures for fractional amounts over one dollar, like other decimal fractions. When you use whole-dollar amounts in the same context

with fractional amounts, set the whole-dollar amounts with zeros after

the decimal point:

The music store sold CDs for $12.00 to $15.98. 

63
Always write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year. Use figures for the day, spell out the month, and use a four-digit year. Do not

use internal punctuation:

7 December 1941 

In textual matter, indicate inclusive years as follows: 1968–72 or

from 1968 to 1972 (never from 1968–72). In endnotes, use 1968–1972.

Spell out references to particular centuries; spell out or use figures

and apostrophes for references to decades:

the twentieth century

during the sixties and seventies

the ’60s and ’70s 

If you identify decades by their century, use figures:

the 1880s and 1890s 

Spell out times of day in even, half, and quarter hours:

We went to the theater at a quarter after seven.

The service starts at five o’clock. 

Use figures to emphasize an exact time:

The program is televised at 8:35 in the morning. 

If you use the 24-hour system, do not punctuate between the hours

and minutes (see also military time):

The officers’ club opens at 0815.

Our duty hours are from 0730 to 1100 and from 1130 to 1600.

Use the following style for inclusive page numbers:

First Number Second Number Examples

Less than 100 Use all digits 3–10, 71–72, 96–117

100 or multiple of 100 Use all digits 100–104, 600–613,

1100–1123

101 through 109 (in Use changed part 107–8, 505–17,

multiples of 100) only, omitting 1002–6

unneeded zeros

110 through 199 (in Use two digits, or 321–25, 415–32,

multiples of 100) more if needed 1536–38, 1496–504,

14325–28,

11564–78,

13792–803

64
Use an initial ordinal number (spelled out if ninth or less) to designate particular dynasties, governments, and governing bodies:

First Continental Congress 98th Congress

Third Reich 18th Dynasty

Sixth International Fifth Republic

Use ordinal numbers to designate political divisions. The rule for

spelling out numbers applies:

Fifth Congressional District

12th Precinct

Second Election District

Form the plurals of spelled-out numbers just as you would form the

plurals of other nouns; add s (no apostrophe) to form the plurals of figures:

Hickock’s hand contained two pairs: aces and eights.

The grades for the class were six 98s, three 100s, and the rest below 89.

In figures of one thousand or more (except page numbers), use a

comma to set off groups of three digits, counting from the right:

2,000 34,000

In spelled-out fractional numbers, connect the numerator and the

denominator with a hyphen unless either contains a hyphen:

three-fourths

six and seven-eighths

four and one-half years

seven and twenty-one thirty-seconds

65
officials, government. See capitalization.

off-line (adj., adv.)

off-load (v.)

omissions. See ellipses.

on board (adv.). Aboard. He is on board the ship.

onboard (adj.). An onboard computer.

ongoing (adj.)

on-line (adj., adv.)

onload (v.)

on station (adv.)

on-station (adj.)

op. cit. (opere citato). In the work cited. Use a shortened reference instead.

See notes.

operations, names of. Write the names of operations with initial capital letters: Operation Haylift, Operation Torch, Operation Crossroad,

Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.

organizations. See capitalization.

outbrief (v.)

outbriefing (n., v.)

over-. Compound words with this prefix are usually solid: overage, overproduction, overeager, override. See also compound words.

67
page numbers. You may either use the abbreviations p. and pp. to designate

page numbers, or you may omit them—as long as you are consistent:

2. Brig Gen Stuart R. Boyd, “Leadership and High Technology,” Airpower

Journal 3, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 8 [or p. 8]. 

pamphlets. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and

policy directives.

panzer

parentheses. Use parentheses when material inserted in a sentence is so

loosely connected with the main thought of the sentence that commas

would not be adequate. Such insertions may be explanatory, amplifying, or digressive:

Another illustration reflects a much more recent instance of a doctrinal notion

(table 4).

This manual (issued to all students) covers the fundamental problems.

The funeral for her brother (she misses him terribly) was a sad affair.

If a comma is necessary, place it after the second parenthesis, not

before the first. If the parenthetical element within a sentence is itself

a sentence, omit the period but retain a question mark or exclamation

point:

As the machine gunner opened fire (it was a .50-caliber gun), all movement

ceased.

As the machine gunner opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement

ceased.

If parentheses enclose a freestanding sentence, place the period

inside the second parenthesis:

Albert convinced me to go back to college. (I always found his logic irresistible.)

Use parentheses to enclose enumerating letters or numerals (without

periods) within a sentence:

He wanted to (1) consolidate the position, (2) establish contact with guerrillas,

and (3) regain control over the inhabitants.

part-time (adj., adv.)

party (political). See capitalization.

69
passive voice. Passive voice is a verbal construction consisting of a past participle and some form of the verb be; all other forms are active.

When the subject of a verb receives the action, the verb is in the passive voice:

“Abide with Me” was sung by the congregation.

Jimmy was given a car by his father.

The pit was dug fully eight feet deep.

They had been caught.

Characteristics of passive voice:

1. The receiver of the verb’s action comes before the verb.

2. The verb has two parts: some form of the verb be plus the past participle of

a main verb (most of them end in -en or -ed).

3. If the doer appears at all, it follows the verb and is usually the object of the

preposition by.

Use passive voice sparingly because too much of it can make your

writing wordy and flabby. But passive voice has several important

uses.

In the writer’s mind, the object may have more importance than the

doer:

The bill was passed without opposition.

The well was drilled in solid rock.

Our house was painted last year.

Use passive voice if you do not want to name the person or thing

performing the action. For example:

President Reagan was elected in 1980.

The parts were shipped on 1 June.

Passive voice allows various degrees of emphasis by placing the

name of the act or the doer at the end:

Our house is being painted. (Active: They are painting our house.)

Our house was painted by Joe Mead and his brother. (Active: Joe Mead and his

brother painted our house.) 

“Abide with Me” was sung by the choir. (Active: The choir sang “Abide with

Me.”)

Since passive voice does not always show the doer, you may forget

to include important information. The result may be confusing:

70
Requests must be approved beforehand. (By whom?)

The commander must approve requests beforehand.

The figures were lost. (By whom?)

We lost the figures.

peacekeeper

peacekeeping (n., adj.)

peacemaker

peacemaking (n., adj.)

peacetime

per annum

per capita

percent. Always spell out in humanistic text, and precede it with arabic

numerals: a 10 percent increase. You may use the symbol % in tables

and in scientific or statistical text.

period. Place a period at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. If

you use a quotation at the end of a sentence, place the period within the

closing quotation mark. If you use a quotation before the end of a sentence, omit the period or replace it with a comma. When using parentheses or brackets to enclose a freestanding sentence, place the period

inside the final parenthesis or bracket. If the enclosed matter is part of

a sentence, place the period outside the final parenthesis or bracket:

The commander said, “You’re only half right.”

“One should always say, ‘I mean what I say.’ ”

“I’m sure I say what I mean,” said Alice.

The decision to keep the sentence or drop it is a judgment call. (Writing is hard

work precisely because it requires so many judgment calls.)

The driver glanced in his rearview mirror at the passenger (certainly an eccentric fellow).

See also lists; parentheses; quotation marks.

periodicals. See italics; journals.

Persian Gulf War. See also capitalization; Gulf War.

PGM (precision-guided munitions)

71
Philippines

plagiarism. Using someone else’s writing as if it were your own. This serious offense not only can lead to a lawsuit but also can bring about

severe professional repercussions for the plagiarist. If you use another

person’s wording or if you put another person’s idea into your own

words, you should identify the borrowed passage and credit the author

in a note.

Strategy [is] the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the

ends of policy.

—B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy

If you use Liddell Hart’s definition of strategy in your text with the

intention of leading readers to believe that it is your own, you are guilty

of plagiarism. Using another writer’s exact wording is permissible only

if you identify the passage in your text by enclosing it in quotation

marks and including an endnote:

Perhaps strategy is more properly defined as “the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy.”2

You should then credit your source by including a proper citation in

your list of notes:

2. B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick Praeger, Inc.,

1954), 335.

Similarly, you should identify and credit others’ writing that you put

in your own words (paraphrase). Paraphrasing, however, is not simply

a matter of changing or rearranging a few words here and there; you

must recast the passage:

unacceptable paraphrase:

Strategy is the art of applying and distributing military means to achieve the

objectives of policy.2

acceptable paraphrase:

B. H. Liddell Hart envisioned a country’s military as an instrument for carrying

out national policy. The purpose of strategy, then, is deciding how to use the

military toward this end.2

Ideally, you should introduce your paraphrase so that the reader has

no question about where your own commentary ends and where your

paraphrase begins, as is the case in the example above (i.e., mentioning the author’s name marks the beginning of the paraphrase, and the

endnote number shows where it ends). See also copyright; direct quotations; quotations.

72
P.M. (post meridiem [after noon]). Small caps.

policy directives. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives.

policy maker (n.)

policy making (n.)

policy-making (adj.)

possessive. See apostrophe.

post-. Compound words with this prefix are usually solid: postwar, postaxial,

postmortem, but post-cold-war world or post–Cold War world. See

also compound words.

POW (prisoner of war)

pre-. Compound words with this prefix are usually solid: preexisting, predetermined, prejudge, preempt. See also compound words.

preliminaries. See front matter.

president. Capitalize only when it precedes a person’s name; otherwise,

lowercase. Do not abbreviate. See also capitalization.

pro-. Compound words with this prefix are usually solid: progovernment,

proslavery. See also compound words.

problem solver (n.)

problem solving (n.)

problem-solving (adj.)

profanity. Do not use profanity in any of the writing you do under the aegis

of Air University. If you must use such language (e.g., to preserve the

tone of a passage), use a combination of initial letter(s) and hyphens:

The general, under tremendous pressure to implement an air campaign plan,

screamed at the colonel, “Your idea isn’t worth a sh- -!”

73
proofreaders’ marks. The following signs are used in marking manuscripts:

Delete Insert em dash

Delete and close up Insert en dash

Close up; delete space ; Insert semicolon

Insert space : Insert colon

Begin new paragraph . Insert period

Indent one em from left set ? Insert question mark

or right

Move to left ? Query to author––in

margin

Move to right sp Spell out

Center tr Transpose

Move down wf Wrong font––circle letter

Move up bf Set in boldface type

Insert marginal addition Rom Set in roman type

Straighten type; align ital Set in italic type––

horizontally underscore word

Align vertically cap Set in CAPITALS

Insert comma S C Set in SMALL CAPS

Insert apostrophe (or lc Set in lowercase

single quotation mark)

Insert quotation marks C&lc Caps and lowercase

subscript (H2O) L Lowercase letter

superscript (a2

) stet Let it stand; restore

words crossed out

Insert hyphen

NOTE: If you want to underline a word for emphasis, you must so indicate in

a marginal note to the printer. All words underscored in a typed manuscript without such a note will always appear in italics.

74

2

2
The following paragraph illustrates the use of proofreaders’ marks:

lc

HOW AN EDITOR MARKS A MANUSCRIPT

Editing a manuscipt from which type is to be set

requires a different method than that used in correcting

proof.1 A correction or an operational sign are inserted in

a line of type not in the margins as in proof reading.

Operators looks at every line of the manuscript as they

set type, so any editors change must be in it’s proper

place and clearly written.

For more information on proofreaders’ marks, see the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style.

PSYOP (psychological operations)

PSYWAR (psychological warfare)

punctuation. See apostrophe; brackets; colon; comma; dash; ellipses;

hyphen; parentheses; period; question mark; quotation marks; semicolon.

75

from

tr

?

is or above

rather than

follow each

stet ..............
quantities. See abbreviations; measurements; numbers.

question mark. Put a question mark at the end of a direct question within a

sentence:

How am I going to pass this test? was the question I kept asking myself.

As Mary asked herself, Why am I doing this for him? she glared balefully at

John.

Do not put a question mark at the end of an indirect question:

I asked him what he was doing.

How he had managed to fool me was the question no one could answer.

Put a question mark inside quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets only when it is part of the quoted or parenthetical matter:

The colonel asked, “Did you receive our inspection report?”

Did you say, “The base commander wants the report immediately”? 

Which of the concepts do you believe to be generally shared (at least by your

contemporaries)?

quotation marks. Enclose quoted words, phrases, and sentences in double

quotation marks. Use single quotation marks to enclose quotations

within quotations. Quotations within block quotations require double

quotation marks.

Enclose a conference title in quotation marks:

“American Writers in the 1930s,” a symposium held at the University of

Alabama, 15–16 September 1975

but

the 1994 State Conference on Writing across the Curriculum

Use quotation marks to enclose words used in an ironic sense, references to spoken language, and slang terms. Subsequent occurrences

need not include the quotation marks. See also italics. 

The “consultation” could be heard three blocks away.

In Elizabethan dialogue, a change from “you” to “thou” often implies studied

insult.

Jacob’s grandfather called his Adam’s apple his “go fetch it.”

77
Place a comma or a final period within quotation marks—single or

double. Put other punctuation marks within quotation marks only if

they are part of the quotation. See also period. 

He said, “I will go.”

He asked, “Shall we evacuate the area?”

“I am sure he used the word ‘moron.’ ”

If you enclose an adjective compound that you would normally

hyphenate in quotation marks, you may omit the hyphen:

“well dressed” man

Place a colon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

There is one problem with Whitman’s “O Captain, My Captain”: it is doggerel.

You may use quotation marks to refer to a word as a word (see also

italics):

The term “boy” has a pejorative sense in some contexts. 

Enclose in quotation marks the titles of articles in journals and

newspapers; chapter titles; the titles of draft versions of books and

other unpublished works; and the titles of short stories, short poems,

dissertations, theses, and essays. See also italics.

quotations. You may incorporate quotations in the text as part of a sentence

and enclose them in quotation marks or set them off from the text as a

block quotation. If the quoted matter is 10 or more lines, you should

usually set it off from the text. See also block quotations; direct quotations; ellipses.

Integrate short quotations into the text. When you use a quotation as

part of a sentence, lowercase the initial letter and omit or change the end

punctuation (if appropriate), even though the original is a complete sentence beginning with a capital letter. When the quotation is not dependent

on the rest of the sentence, capitalize the initial letter. If a quotation that

is only part of a sentence in the original forms a complete sentence as

quoted, you may change a lowercase letter to a capital.

Colonel Green emphasized that “the military plays an important role in the

political arena” (p. 7).

Colonel Green emphasized, “The military plays an important role in the political arena” (p. 7).

Colonel Green made the following statement: “Military [power] plays an important role in the political arena” (p. 7).

78
RAND or RAND Corporation.

rank. See military titles and offices.

rates of speed, frequencies, and so forth. See abbreviations; measurements; numbers.

re-. Compound words with this prefix are usually solid: reedit, reeducate,

reelect, reenlist, reequip, reexamine, reunify. See also compound

words.

real time (n.)

real-time (adj.)

real-world (adj.)

regiment. 2d Armored Cavalry Regiment, the regiment. See also capitalization; military units.

regions of the world. See capitalization.

regular. Capitalize when part of the name of a component: Regular Air

Force, Regular Army.

Republican Party (or party), Republican(s) (member[s] of the party).

See also capitalization.

Reserve(s). Capitalize if part of the name of a component: Air Force

Reserve, Ready Reserve, Standby Reserve. Capitalize as a synonym

for Air Force Reserve: the Reserve. But reserve component, the reserve

officer, the reservist(s). As a guide to capitalization, apply the following test: If the word airman would fit logically in place of reserve officer or reservist, use r. If Air Force Reserve can be logically substituted

for reserve, use R. The same rule applies to other military services.

retired military personnel. Use this form: Maj Ronald R. Dowdy, USAF,

retired.

risk taking (n.)

risk-taking (adj.)

ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps)

79
Russia, Russian. Use in referring to the nation before 1917; to the former

Russian Soviet Socialist Republic; to the independent state formed

after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991; and to the language and

the ethnological origin of the people of that state. See also

Commonwealth of Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union,

USSR.

80
Saint. As part of a proper name, spell out in text and either spell out or

abbreviate (St.) in notes, bibliographic entries, and parenthetical references (pick one and be consistent). When the word is part of someone’s

name, follow that person’s usage (e.g., as indicated in Webster’s New

Biographical Dictionary). 

Marco de Saint-Hilaire Barry St. Leger

satellites. See earth satellites.

SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative)

sea-lane

sea lift (n.)

sea-lift (v., adj.)

sea power

seasons. Do not capitalize the four seasons unless they are personified:

spring, summer, fall, winter. See also capitalization.

security classification. Capitalize only the initial letter of a term indicating

a specific security classification: Secret, Confidential.

see, see also. Italicize these terms in an index but not in documentation (e.g.,

endnotes). Capitalize only when they begin a sentence.

self-. Most self- compounds are hyphenated: self-reliant, self-sustaining, but

selfless, selfsame. See also hyphenated compound words.

semi-. Compound words with this prefix are usually spelled solid: semifinal,

semiofficial, but semi-indirect. See also compound words.

semiannual. Avoid this term; use twice a year instead.

semicolon. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses not connected

by a coordinating conjunction:

John stayed home for the holidays; he had nowhere else to go.

Use a semicolon (not a comma) before words such as however,

therefore, hence, consequently, moreover, nevertheless, and so forth,

81
when they connect two independent clauses. (Use a comma after these

words.) 

All such missions should remain secondary to the primary mission; however, all

commanders of flying Air Force units must prepare to fly such missions with

minimum notice.

You may want to use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunction

in a compound sentence whose independent clauses are long and contain internal punctuation:

Ishmael, the narrator, goes to sea, he says, “Whenever it is a damp, drizzly

November” in his soul; and Ahab, the captain of the ship, goes to sea because

of his obsession to hunt and kill the great albino whale, Moby Dick.

When items in a series are lengthy or contain internal punctuation,

separate them by semicolons:

Mark prepared for the exam by reading the material, which caused him great

difficulty; by studying with Tom, who knew less than he did; and by praying,

which he did frequently.

We will need the following supplies: pencils, three boxes; pens, five boxes;

paper, four reams; typewriter ribbons, 15; and staples, two boxes.

Place a semicolon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

Dan’s favorite poem is “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”; he reads it

whenever he feels troubled.

Sam gave his wife a toaster oven for her birthday (he was a very practical fellow); needless to say, she was overwhelmed.

Senate. Capitalize in references to the US Senate.

senator. Lowercase following a personal name or used alone in place of a

name. See also abbreviations; capitalization.

series. The number of commas separating items in a series should be one

fewer than the number of items in the series. Hence, three items in a

series should be separated by two commas: planes, boats, and trains.

See also comma.

service. Lowercase in references to one of a nation’s military forces (e.g., an

army or navy).

sexist language. The following guidance facilitates clarity of expression; it

does not pretend to resolve perceived problems of sexism in written

English.

82
Do not use terms that stereotype occupations by sex (e.g., by always

referring to a nurse as she or a pilot as he) or that exclude either sex

from positions of authority (e.g., a commander should brief his staff on

new policy). Otherwise, the following usages are acceptable: (1) words

that are sexually denotative but not clearly stigmatized, such as lady;

(2) masculine or feminine pronouns in reference to antecedents whose

sex is unspecified (e.g., every patient had her temperature checked)

unless the usage stereotypes occupations or positions (the phrase his or

her is acceptable, as are he or she and him or her in appropriate contexts, but these constructions are awkward and should be used sparingly); (3) she (and appropriate variants) in reference to nations, cities,

and ships (Britain must guard her traditions); (4) he (and appropriate

variants) in reference to military foes (The enemy had massed his

forces on the border); (5) substitution of a plural pronoun for a singular masculine or feminine pronoun if the antecedent is made plural

(e.g., all patients had their temperatures checked) but not if the

antecedent is an indefinite pronoun (e.g., NOT everyone had their temperature checked, BUT everyone had his [or her] temperature

checked); (6) generic man, whether freestanding or in compounds

(e.g., mankind, manpower); (7) compounds with person (as long as the

form is not ludicrous: chairperson but not personhole cover).

she, her, hers. See sexist language.

ships, names of. See italics; sexist language.

short-range (adj.)

short term (n.)

short-term (adj.)

show of force

sic (so; thus; in this manner). Use this term, italicized and bracketed, to

indicate misspelling or improper usage in the original:

The newscaster announced that “the pilot got out of his plane and laid [sic]

down on the ground after his harrowing flight.”

Signal Corps, the corps

SLOC (sea line of communication)

Smithsonian Institution

SO (special order). Lowercase and spell out in references to the official

numbered and dated publication. Capitalize when you use the term

83
with the number, but abbreviate with the number only after you spell it

out on first reference: Special Order (SO) T-013, SO T-013, the special

order.

so-called. Words following this term should not be enclosed in quotation

marks or italicized:

The so-called model citizen beat his wife regularly.

Socialist Party (or party), Socialist (member of the party), socialism,

socialist (advocate of socialism). See capitalization.

SOP (standing operating procedures)

source citation. See bibliography; notes.

source note. See illustration; legend.

South. Capitalize in references to a specific geographical region. See also

capitalization.

Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR. Use these terms instead of Russian(s) or

Russia in references to the people or the nation from 1917 to 1991. See

also Commonwealth of Independent States.

space-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated:

spaceman, spaceship, spaceflight, space suit, space station, space walk,

space age, space power, space shuttle, space-age (adj.), space-time. See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

spacecraft. Italicize specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites:

Gemini II, Apollo 11. Also italicize names of particular space vehicles

or components: Eagle (Apollo 11 lunar module), Columbia (Apollo 11

command module or space shuttle), and Friendship 7 (Alan Shepard’s

Mercury capsule). See also earth satellites.

space lift (n.)

space-lift (v., adj.)

space power

space programs. Capitalize but do not italicize the names of space programs: Project Apollo.

Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Speaker of the House, the

Speaker. Capitalize to avoid ambiguity.

84
spelling. Use Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged and the current edition of Merriam-Webster’s

Collegiate Dictionary as authoritative sources for the spelling of common words. These dictionaries often identify variations in spelling that

are still considered standard usage (e.g., toward or towards; adviser

also advisor; flyer variant of flier). Either spelling is acceptable. Select

the one you prefer, and use it consistently. For the spelling of placenames, refer to authoritative sources such as the Columbia Lippincott

Gazetteer of the World, Webster’s New Geographical Dictionary, and

the section on “Geographical Names” in Merriam-Webster’s

Collegiate Dictionary.

Spetsnaz. No italics.

sputnik. Lowercase except in references to a particular satellite: Sputnik II.

squadron. Capitalize in references to a numbered unit, but lowercase when

used alone: 732d Bomber Squadron, the squadron.

Sr. Use with a period; do not set off with commas:

M. H. Abrahms Sr. lives at the end of the street. 

standby (n., adj.). Capitalize in references to the Air Force Reserve: Standby

Reserve. See also Reserve(s).

standoff (n., adj.)

stand off (v.)

state of the art (n.)

state-of-the-art (adj.)

state names. See abbreviations.

stealth bomber, stealth technology

sub-. Compound words with this prefix are usually written solid: subcommittee, subcontract, substandard, but sub-Saharan Africa. See also

compound words.

subcommittee. See congressional committees and subcommittees.

subheadings. Use up to three levels of subheadings to divide text: centered,

flush and hang, and run-in (highest to lowest). Text should be divided

85
into at least two parts (i.e., at least two centered subheadings, at least

two flush-and-hang subheads, at least two run-in subheads). If at all

possible, do not “stack” headings (i.e., immediately follow one heading with another); rather, be sure that headings are separated by text.

Do not footnote subheadings; instead, find an appropriate place in the

running text for the note number.

Observations [centered]

Given this background, the key question remains, Does the

composite wing work in combat? The answer is obvious. . . .

Why the Composite Wing Worked So Well [flush and hang]

The composite training undergone by the wing’s personnel contributed to the successful completion of their mission. . . .

Evaluation and Inspection. [run-in] Tactical evaluations,

operational readiness inspections, and other exercises have created a

solid foundation of training in both units and individuals. . . .

subtitle. Use a colon to separate the main title from the subtitle. One space

follows the colon:

Skating on Thin Ice: A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning 

sun. See earth.

superpower

Supreme Court (of the United States). Shortened form: the Court.

86
tables. Tables permit the economical presentation of large amounts of

information. Number all tables and refer to them in the text by that

number, either directly or parenthetically. In referring to a table, don’t

just repeat the facts presented in the table. Most of the time, a simple

cross-reference is sufficient (e.g., see table 10). Number the tables

(with arabic numerals) in the order in which they appear in the text.

Numbering is continuous throughout the text. However, if a book consists of chapters by different authors, the numbering restarts with each

chapter (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, etc.). If a book has appendixes

with tables, table numbers should include the letter of the particular

appendix (A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, C.1, C.2, etc.).

Center the table number and title (caption) above the table, placing

the table number above the title. Alternatively, you may place these

elements flush left. (Further, you may place table number and title on

the same line, leaving more than normal word space between them.)

The title should identify the table and give facts rather than provide

discussion and comment:

Table 3

Improvement of Prediction of Peer

Leadership Characteristics

Not:

Table 3

Improvement of Prediction of Peer

Leadership Characteristics by Addition of Other

Managerial Leadership Characteristics

If the table continues to other pages, use a notation such as Table 3,

continued. You may include a subheading for your title; if so, enclose

it in parentheses and place it on a separate line. Do not type the title or

subheading in full caps. Instead, use headline style or sentence style.

Whichever style you use, be consistent throughout the text.

Your table must have at least two columns. At the top of the

columns, include headings that identify the material in the column. Do

not use vertical rules to separate the columns. Make the first column

heading singular in number (e.g., Party). The other headings may be

singular or plural (e.g., Votes, Seats Won). Use headline or sentence

style for the column headings, and either center successive lines or

place them flush left. If you include subheadings with the column

headings, enclose them in parentheses. You may use abbreviations in

the subheadings. Because the width of the column headings determines

the width of the table, keep the headings as brief as possible.

87
List the names of categories or individuals in the left-hand column

(stub) of your table, and put information about them in the other

columns. Be sure that items in the stub are grammatically parallel. Do

not number stub items, and do not use ditto marks in the stub. Indent

runover lines two spaces more than the regular indention. Write stub

items in sentence style, without a period at the end:

Computers

Zenith

Gateway

IBM

Printers

Hewlett-Packard

Epson

Star

If you use the word Total at the foot of the stub, indent it two spaces

more than the greatest indention above it.

Align a column of figures on the decimal points or commas. Also

align dollar signs and percentage signs. If all figures in a column are

the same kind, place the dollar signs and percentage signs only at the

top of the column and after any horizontal rule cutting across it. Omit

the signs if the table title or column head shows what the figures are.

In a column consisting of information expressed in words, center all

items if they are short, but flush them left if they are long.

If you wish to refer to specific parts of a table, use superior letters—

beginning with a—as reference marks. You may use them on column

headings, on stub items, and in the body of the table—but not on the

table number or title. Place the reference marks beginning at the upper

left and extending across the table and downward, row by row. If you

reproduce a table from another source, include a source note below the

body of the table, introduced by the word Source(s) (in italics or cap

and small caps). Do not footnote the table number or title and include

a note in the list of chapter notes.

88
Table 1

Sorties Flown in Operation Desert Storm

Total

Sortie Allies USAF Other US Coalition

AIa 4,600 24,000 11,900 40,500

OCAb 1,400 4,500 11,600 6,500

CASc 1,400 1,500 1,500 3,000

Total strike sortiesd 6,000 30,000 14,000 50,000

Aerial refueling 1,500 10,000 1,500 13,000

DCAe 4,100 3,200 2,700 10,000

SEADf 1,400 2,800 1,200 4,000

Tactical airlift 4,300 14,000 11,400 18,300

Otherg 1,100 6,000 7,900 15,000

Total nonstrike sorties 11,000 36,000 13,300 60,300

Approximate grand total of all Desert Storm sorties 110,300

Sources: Department of the Air Force, Air Force Performance in Desert Storm (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, April 1991); and author’s collation of published data.

a

Air interdiction—in this case a conflation of both strategic (against Iraqi installations) and operational (against Iraqi air, ground, and naval forces) bombing, including battlefield interdiction (against Iraqi forces behind the front).

b

Offensive counterair (i.e., attacks against Iraqi air force bases and related facilities).

c

Close air support (i.e., attacks against Iraqi ground forces at the front).

d

Strike as here defined includes all aircraft that penetrated hostile airspace in the

course of ground-attack missions, with or without ground-attack ordnance of their

own.

e

Defensive counterair (i.e., air defense patrols and intercepts).

f

Suppression of enemy air defenses (i.e., attacks against Iraqi antiaircraft missiles,

guns, and related radar and other facilities).

g

Airborne early warning, airborne electronic surveillance, electronic warfare, and

other.

89
TACAIR (tactical air)

takeoff (n., adj.)

take off (v.)

takeover (n.)

take over (v.)

temperature. See numbers.

TEMPEST (special shielding against electromagnetic radiation)

that, which. Clauses introduced by the relative pronouns that and which are

of two kinds: restrictive and nonrestrictive.

A clause is restrictive or defining when the information it provides

about something in the main clause is essential to the meaning of the

statement. It is generally preceded by the relative pronoun that:

I am looking for the book that I lost yesterday. 

A nonrestrictive clause is descriptive, can be set off from the rest of

the sentence by commas, must be self-contained, and is introduced

only by which:

My house, which is old and large, is located on Elm Street.

In some circumstances that can be omitted from restrictive clauses:

When it is the object of a verb: the songs (that) we used to sing. 

When it is the object of a preposition: the boy (that) we gave the apples to.

When it is the complement of some form of the verb be: He is not the man (that)

his father was. 

When it is technically the subject of the verb be but standing in the complement

position: We gave him all (that) there was.

In recent years, many Air Force writers have taken this option to the

extreme by omitting that altogether. Oftentimes, however, that must be

retained for clarity. For example, when a time element follows the

verb, the conjunction that is always needed to make clear whether the

time element applies to the material preceding or following:

Governor Siegelman announced today that he would sign the income tax bill. 

Here, if that is omitted, the sentence could mean either that the governor made the announcement today or that he would sign the bill today.

90
When a sentence with two parallel clauses requires the expression

and that in the second part, you must retain that in the first part of the

sentence for parallel construction:

The senator said that she would run next year and that James Corley would be

her campaign manager. 

After verbs like said or announced, you may omit that for conciseness: He said (that) he was tired. But if the subject of the clause following the verb can be mistaken for that verb’s direct object, that must

be retained:

He said that mere words could not express his feelings. 

See also which.

theater, theatre. Shortened form of theater of operations or theater of war.

Lowercase, as in European theater. Either spelling is acceptable;

choose one and use it consistently.

there is, there are. When there is the anticipatory subject, the verb should

agree in number with the “real” subject, which follows it: “There is a

lesson to be learned here, and there are many more lessons to be

learned.” However, like repeated use of it is . . . , repeated use of there

is . . . and there are . . . deprives the sentence of strong subject-verb

combinations. See also it.

third-. Compound words with this term occur in all three stylings: third

base, third baseman, third class (n.), third degree (n.), third grader,

thirdhand (adj. and adv.), third-class (adj.), third-degree (adj.). See also

compound words; hyphenated compound words.

third world or Third World (n., adj.)

this. Although criticized by some writers, using this to refer to the idea conveyed in a preceding sentence is acceptable if the reference is neither

confusing nor ambiguous:

John lost his job. This made his creditors uneasy. 

However, do not use this when it refers only to some part of an idea

or to an antecedent not actually expressed:

Because of inherited venereal disease, their population remains static. This worries the elders of the tribe. (Venereal disease? Static population? Both?)

The poet is widely admired, but it is difficult to make a living at this. (Writing

poetry, but not expressed in sentence.)

91
Do not use demonstrative this in place of personal pronouns:

We were much impressed by the tour director. This man (not this) is a capable

and well-informed person. 

time. See A.M.; military time; numbers; P.M.

titles of persons and offices. See capitalization; military titles and offices.

titles of works. Capitalize the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns,

adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions in titles and

subheadings. Lowercase articles (the, a, an), coordinating conjunctions

(and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so), and prepositions, unless they are the first

or last words of the title or subtitle. Lowercase to in infinitives. 

The Problem with Our Airpower Doctrine 

Always capitalize the first element of a hyphenated compound word

in a title; capitalize the other elements unless they are articles, prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions:

Eighteenth-Century Fiction

Over-the-Hill Gang

Fly-by-Night Businesses 

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated prefix unless

it is a proper noun or proper adjective:

Anti-inflationary Guidelines

Non-Christian Religions 

Capitalize the final element of a hyphenated compound at the end of

a title, unless it is a hyphenated prefix:

Avoiding a Run-In

Haven of Anti-intellectualism

See also italics. 

TO (technical order). Lowercase and spell out in references to publications

in the Air Force series: the technical order. Always capitalize the term

when you use it with the number, but abbreviate only after spelling out

on first reference: Technical Order (TO) 00-25-4, TO 00-25-4.

trademarks. The symbols ® and TM, which often accompany registered

trademark names on product packaging and in advertisements, need

not be used in running text.

92
trans-. Words formed with this prefix are generally closed: transship,

transcontinental, transoceanic. Compounds whose second element is a

capitalized word are hyphenated: trans-America, but transatlantic. See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

treaties, pacts, and plans. See capitalization.

tri-. Compound words with this prefix are usually closed: tricolor, trilingual,

tristate. See also compound words.

Truman, Harry S. (use a period with the initial)

93
UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice)

UHF (ultrahigh frequency)

ultra-. Most compounds with this prefix are solid: ultramodern, ultrasonic,

but ultra-atomic, ultra-German. See also hyphenated compound words.

un-. Most compounds with this prefix are solid: unbiased, unsolved, unused.

See also compound words.

UN (United Nations). The abbreviation can be used as either a noun or an

adjective.

under-. Most compounds with this term are solid: underbid, underdevelop,

underestimate, underground, undersea, underreport. See also compound words.

undersecretary

underway (adj.)

under way (adv.)

United States. Spell out in text. See also abbreviations; US.

United States Air Force, US Air Force, Air Force, USAF

United States Army, US Army, Army, USA

United States Code (USC)

United States Marine Corps, US Marine Corps, Marine Corps, USMC

United States Navy, US Navy, Navy, USN

units of measure. See measurements.

upon (prep.). May be used as a synonym of on: His salary depends upon his

performance.

US (United States). Use the abbreviation as an adjective only. See also

abbreviations.

USAF. Can be used either alone or in combination with other words (e.g.,

Headquarters USAF or as part of an official title).

USSBS (United States Strategic Bombing Survey) 

95
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Use in references to the country as it existed between 1917 and 1991. The abbreviation can be used

as either a noun or an adjective. See also Commonwealth of

Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

96
versus (v.). Use v. instead of vs. in names of court cases. You may omit the

period when you cite case names in endnotes. Otherwise, spell out. See

also italics.

VHF (very high frequency)

vice (prep.). In place of, replacing: John Doe was appointed postmaster vice

Richard Roe.

vice-. Compounds with this term can be open, solid, or hyphenated: vice

admiral, vice chief, vice commander, vice marshal, vice minister, vice

president, vice squad, viceroyalty, vice-chairman, vice-consul. See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

vice versa

Vietcong

Vietminh

Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.)

Vietnam War

viz. (videlicet; that is to say, namely)

97
walk-. Most compounds with this term are either hyphenated or solid:

walk-on (n.), walk-up (n.), walkout (n.), walkover (n.). See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

war-. Compounds with this term occur in all three stylings: war chest, war

power, war room, war zone, warlike, warpath, warplane, warship,

wartime, war-game (v.). See also compound words.

war fighter

war fighting (n.)

war-fighting (adj.)

war-game (v.) (e.g., war-gamed an invasion)

war game (n.)

war gamer (n.)

war-gaming (adj.)

war gaming (n.)

warhead

war making (n.)

war-making (adj.)

warplane

wars. Capitalize full titles of wars, but lowercase the shortened form:

Spanish-American War, the war; Korean War, the war; Vietnam War,

the war.

Warsaw Pact, Warsaw Pact nations

warship

wartime

99
Washington, D.C. Can be used in documentation with or without the abbreviation to identify the place of publication.

wavelength(s)

we. See I, we.

weapon (caliber of). See caliber.

weapon system(s) or weapons system(s). Choose one, and use it consistently.

Web, Web site, etc. See WWW.

weights and measurements. See measurements; numbers.

well-. Most compounds formed with this term are either hyphenated or

solid: well-being (n.), well-defined (adj.), well-grounded (adj.), wellintentioned (adj.), well-known (adj.), well-read (adj.), well-spoken

(adj.), well-timed (adj.), wellborn (adj.), wellness (n.).

Generally, you should hyphenate compounds with well before the

noun: A well-known man came to my house. Do not use the hyphen

when the expression carries a modifier: A very well known man made

an unexpected appearance at the party. Do not use the hyphen when the

compound follows the noun it modifies: She is well known for her

recipes. See also hyphenated compound words.

West Berlin, West Germany. Use the full phrase, not Berlin or Germany

alone, in references to the city and country when they were divided.

West(ern). Capitalize terms that include this word if they are considered

proper names; lowercase such terms if they are not considered proper

names or if they are merely directional: Western world, the West,

Midwest (US), Far West, but western, far western, western Pacific

Ocean. See also capitalization.

western front (World War I)

Western Hemisphere

whereas. See while.

whether. When this term introduces a complete or elliptical adverbial

clause, use or not after whether: Whether or not the car was in good

condition, he was determined to buy it. In noun clauses, you may use

the words or not with whether for emphasis, but they are not necessary:

100
Whether Tom goes to Birmingham today depends on the weather.

When the alternatives are fully expressed, the use of or not with

whether is redundant: Whether he lived inside or outside the city limits was irrelevant. You should repeat whether after or when the alternatives are long and complex (Whether . . . or whether . . .).

which. Normally, which introduces nonrestrictive clauses:

I read The Once and Future King, which is a retelling of Arthurian legend.

If you have already used the relative pronoun that in the sentence,

you may use which to avoid repetition:

They proposed an operational testing and evaluation method that was based on

an approach which evolved from their experiences during the testing of the

weapon system.

Which sometimes unambiguously refers to an entire preceding statement rather than to a single word:

She ignored him, which proved unwise. 

Sometimes, however, the antecedent of which may be in doubt:

Some people worry about overeating, which can be unhealthy. (Worrying?

Overeating?) 

Sometimes it is better to rewrite the sentence:

Worrying about overeating can be unhealthy.

while. You may use this term to mean “during the time that”:

Take a nap while I’m out. 

or “as long as”:

While there’s life, there’s hope. 

or “whereas”:

Skiing is easy for an expert, while it is dangerous for a novice. 

or “although”:

While respected, he is not liked. 

or “similarly and at the same time that”:

101
While the book will be welcomed by scholars, it will make an immediate appeal

to the general reader. 

white. Use white (or White) officer, white (or White) people, whites (or

Whites), European Americans.

white paper. Lowercase white paper unless it is part of a title:

The State Department summarized its findings in a white paper on terrorism. 

The State Department released its findings in a report, “A White Paper on

Terrorism.”

wide-. Compounds beginning with this term occur in all three stylings: wide

receiver (n.), widemouthed (adj.), widespread (adj.), wide-awake

(adj.), wide-eyed (adj.), wide-spreading (adj.). See also compound

words; hyphenated compound words.

-wide. Compounds ending in this term are written solid unless they are long

and cumbersome: countrywide, nationwide, servicewide, statewide,

theaterwide, worldwide, but university-wide, Air Force–wide. The

hyphenated forms are written open after the noun: The directive

applied Air Force wide. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

wing. Capitalize when part of a proper name: 42d Air Base Wing, but the

wing.

wingspan

wiretap (v., n.)

wiretapper (n.)

word division. Generally, you should follow the syllable division indicated

in the dictionary when you break words at the ends of lines. Note the

following prohibitions, however: do not carry over a final syllable

whose only vowel sound is that of a syllabic “l” (prin-ciples, not princi-ples); do not carry over a vowel that forms a syllable in the middle

of a word (preju-dice, not prej-udice); do not divide a word if doing so

would result in a one-letter division (e.g., again, idol, item, unite);

avoid carrying over two-letter endings (fully, not ful-ly); if possible, do

not break hyphenated compound words except at the hyphen (court-

/martial, not court-mar-/tial); words originally compounded of other

words but now spelled solid should be divided at the natural breaks

102
whenever possible (school-master is better than schoolmas-ter); also,

try to make a division after a prefix rather than dividing at any other

point in the word (dis-pleasure is better than displea-sure). Do not end

more than three succeeding lines in hyphens.

words. See compound words; hyphenated compound words; spelling.

words as words. Place words referred to as words in either italics or quotation marks: Tom wasn’t sure whether airpower was one word or two.

See also italics; quotation marks.

work-. Compounds with this term occur in all three stylings: work ethic,

workday, work-up (n.). See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

work-around (n.)

work around (v.)

workforce

work hour(s) (n.). See also man-hour(s).

workload

work order. Lowercase when used generically. Capitalize when part of a

title (e.g., of the standardized form Minor Maintenance Work Order

[AF Form 1827]).

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the Great War, the war, the

world war

World War II (or 2), the Second World War, the war, the world war

worldwide (adj., adv.)

WWW (World Wide Web). Use the shortened form Web (e.g., Web site,

Web page, etc.)

103
-XXerox. This term is a registered trademark. You can use the capitalized word

as a noun to mean a xerographic copier and the lowercased word as a

verb to mean to copy on a Xerox copier.

-Yyear. Use figures to designate specific years unless the sentence begins with

the year:

Nineteen forty-five was an eventful year. 

World War II ended in 1945. 

In informal contexts, you may abbreviate the full number of a particular year: the spirit of ’76.

If you use the month with the year, do not use internal punctuation:

The study began in May 1979. See also dates; numbers.

year-. Compounds beginning with this term occur in all three stylings: year

of grace, yearbook, year-end. See also compound words; hyphenated

compound words.

-Zzero, zeros (also zeroes). Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount instead of

using a dash or leaving the space blank.

zip or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code. In writing a mailing address,

do not use a comma before the ZIP code: Troy, AL 36081.

105
APPENDIX A

Examples of several categories of notes appear below. For other examples, see the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. Place notes at

the end of each chapter—not at the bottom of the page or at the end of the

book. For subsequent references, use ibid. or a shortened form of the note.

Use ibid. to refer to the note immediately preceding (do not use ibid. if that

note contains more than one citation). Otherwise, use the last name of the

author, followed by a comma and the page number(s) of the reference. If you

have cited more than one work by the same author, use a short title in addition to the author’s last name. Use a full reference, not a shortened form, the

first time a work is cited in a chapter’s endnotes even though a full citation

for that work has appeared in a previous chapter.

Books

One author

1. Gen William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday & Co., 1976), 112, 195–96. [Reproduce the author’s name as it

appears on the title page.]

Two authors

2. John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars:

Military Education and National Policy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton

University Press, 1957), 117–21. [List the authors’ names in the order in

which they appear on the title page.]

Three authors

3. Robert Strausz-Hupe, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony, A

Forward Strategy for America (New York: Harper & Bros., 1961), 117. [List

the authors’ names in the order in which they appear on the title page.]

More than three authors

4. Gerald Pomper et al., The Election of 1976 (New York: McKay, 1977),

61. [Give the name of the author listed first on the title page followed by “et

al.” or “and others.”]

5. Pomper et al., 60. [shortened form]

No author given

6. Soviet Military Power (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, 1983), 13–18. [Do not use Anonymous or Anon.]

107
Editor, compiler, or translator

7. Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force,

1907–1957 (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, 1957), 7. [Use the name of

the editor, compiler, or translator in place of the author when no author’s

name appears on the title page.]

8. J. P. Mayer, Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America, trans.

George Lawrence (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1969), 648. [When the

author’s name appears on the title page, place the name of the editor, compiler, or translator after the title, preceded by ed. (edited by), comp. (compiled by), or trans. (translated by).]

9. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter

Paret (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 145–47.

10. Marshal Foch, The Principles of War, trans. Hilaire Belloc (London:

Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1918), 7, 18–19.

Multivolume works and series

11. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces

in World War II, vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to

December 1943 (1949; new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force

History, 1983), 288–95. [One volume in the series.]

Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in

World War II, 7 vols. (1948–1958; new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of

Air Force History, 1983). [Entire series.]

12. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of

Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948), 521.

13. Warren A. Trest, Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past

Effects and Future Implications, CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future

of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

University Press, December 1991), 12.

Association or institution as author

14. Gates Commission, The Report of the President’s Commission on an

All-Volunteer Armed Force (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,

1970), 3–9.

15. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Work in America

(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1973), 104–6.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

16. Col John A. Warden III, “Air Theory for the Twenty-First Century,”

in Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns,

ed. Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,

August 1994), 320–21. [If you are citing the entire chapter or contribution,

include inclusive page numbers.]

108
17. Warden, 325. [shortened form]

18. Dr. Lewis B. Ware, “Regional Study 1: Conflict and Confrontation in

the Post-Cold-War Middle East,” in Challenge and Response, 49. [When

you cite a different chapter/contribution in the same book as previously

cited, include a shortened citation for that book.]

19. Capt John T. Folmar, “Desert Storm Chapstick,” in From the Line in

the Sand: Accounts of USAF Company Grade Officers in Support of Desert

Shield/Desert Storm, ed. Capt Michael P. Vriesenga (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air University Press, March 1994), 19–20.

Edition

20. John N. Hazard, The Soviet System of Government, 5th ed. (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980), 23–25.

21. Norbert Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and

Society, 2d ed. rev. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1951), 68–71.

22. Weiner, 74. [shortened form]

Reprint editions

23. Neil Harris, The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years,

1790–1860 (1966; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982),

43–44.

24. Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari (1942;

new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 67.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

25. “Congress Sends Nixon a Message,” Newsweek, 19 November 1973,

39.

26. TSgt Jim Katzaman, “Basics of Bombing,” Airman, June 1986, 8–12.

27. “Unions Are Alien to Our Defense System,” The Retired Officer, May

1976, 25.

28. “Currents in the News,” U.S. News and World Report, 11 February

1980, 5.

29. Jay Finegan, “Struggling with Inflation,” Times Magazine (supplement to Air Force Times), 1 September 1980, 4.

Volume number shown

30. Col Richard F. Rosser, “American Civil-Military Relations in the

1980s,” Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): 14–15.

31. Donald S. Zagoria, “China’s Quiet Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 62,

no. 4 (Spring 1984): 879–904.

109
32. Philip Handler, “The American University Today,” American

Scientist 64, no. 3 (May–June 1976): 254–57.

33. Franklin D. Margiotta, “A Military Elite in Transition: Air Force

Leaders in the 1980s,” Armed Forces and Society 2, no. 2 (Winter 1976):

155–84.

34. Margiotta, 176. [shortened form]

Newspaper Items

Editorial

35. Editorial, Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986. [Omit the initial the

from titles of English language newpapers.]

News story

36. S. Fred Singer, “What Is Happening to World Oil?” Wall Street

Journal, 10 March 1982.

37. William Robbins, “Big Wheels: The Rotary Club at 75,” New York

Times, Sunday, 17 February 1980, sec. 3.

38. Lt Gen Murphy A. Cheaney, “Military’s Quality Medical Care for a

Healthy Army,” Washington Times, 16 December 1985, final edition.

Encyclopedia Articles

39. Encyclopedia Americana, 1974 ed., s.v. “prize courts and prize jurisdiction.” [Cite the item, preceded by s.v. (sub verbo, “under the word”).]

40. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1973 ed., s.v. “canning, commercial.”

41. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1966 ed., s.v. “deism.”

Historical Studies

42. Robert T. Finney, History of the Air Corps Tactical School,

1920–1940, USAF Historical Study 100 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF

Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 35–38.

43. R. Earl McClendon, Autonomy of the Air Arm (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Documentary Research Division, Air University, 1954), 16–21.

44. Chase C. Mooney and Martha E. Layman, Organization of Military

Aeronautics, 1907–1935, Army Air Forces Historical Study 25 (Washington,

D.C.: Army Air Forces Historical Division, 1944), 29–32.

45. Herman S. Wolk, USAF Plans and Policies: Logistics and Base

Construction in Southeast Asia, 1967 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Air

Force History, 1968), 36–39.

110
46. Thomas H. Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air

Arm, 1917–1941, USAF Historical Study 89 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF

Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 9–10.

Staff Studies

47. Evaluation Division, Air University, To Analyze the USAF

Publications System for Producing Manuals, staff study, 13 July 1948.

48. Col Herbert V. Staudenmaier, CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation

Study, staff study, 31 March 1983.

49. Col Charles G. Williamson, chief, Status of Operations Division,

Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, to Directorate

of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, Status of Operations

Report, staff study, 3 March 1943.

50. Williamson. [shortened form]

Unit and Staff Office Histories

51. History, Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of

Plans, Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958, 114, 163–64.

52. History, Research Studies Institute, July–December 1959, 1.

53. History of the Office of the Inspector General USAF, Directorate of

Special Investigations, 1 January–30 June 1963, 45–47.

54. History, Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953, 193–94.

Reports

Published

55. Management of Internet Names and Addresses, US Government

White Paper (Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce, June 1998), 2.

56. United States Department of State, The China White Paper, August

1949 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, [1967]), 7.

57. John Erickson, The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics,

USSI Report 73-3 (Washington, D.C.: United States Strategic Institute,

1973), 5.

58. Richard V. L. Cooper, Military Manpower and the All-Volunteer

Force, RAND Report R-1450-ARPA (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND,

September 1977), 86–94.

59. Comptroller General of the United States, Report to the Congress:

Student Attrition at the Five Federal Service Academies (Washington, D.C.:

General Accounting Office, 1976), 16–23.

111
60. Nancy Guinn, Identification of Service Irritants, AFHRL-TR-75-52

(Brooks AFB, Tex.: Air Force Systems Command, 1973).

61. James E. Dougherty and Diane K. Pfaltzgraff, Eurocommunism and

the Atlantic Alliance, special report (Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign

Policy Analysis, 1977), 6.

62. Department of Defense, Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense

and the Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy,

and Secretary of the Air Force, July 1, 1958 to June 30, 1959 (Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1960), 44.

63. Maj Mark A. Cochran, Unit-Level Automation for Air Force

Contingency Operations in Low-Intensity Conflict, Research Report no. AUARI-91-4 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, June 1992), 21.

Unpublished

64. Maj John B. Hungerford Jr., “Organization for Military Space: A

Historical Perspective,” Research Report no. 82-1235 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air Command and Staff College, 1982), 9–19.

65. Report of Air Corps Board, “Revision of Field Service Regulations,”

study no. 45, 15 November 1983, 2.

66. Report of the General Headquarters Air Force (Provisional) 1933, ca.

20 July 1933.

Unpublished Papers

67. Richard K. Betts, “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force:

American Military Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1976” (PhD diss.,

Harvard University, 1975), 78–86.

68. Betts, 80. [shortened form]

69. Dorothy Ross, “The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study

in Social Mobility” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.), 142–55.

70. P. Thomas, “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military” (paper

presented at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower, Santa Monica,

Calif., February 1976), 8.

71. Thomas, 7. [shortened form]

Public Documents

When you use an endnote citing congressional hearings and other public

documents, include the following information:

1. Author (name of house, committee, and subcommittee if any)

112
2. Title of document

3. Number of Congress and session number

4. Date of publication (year)

5. Part and number of report or document, if applicable

6. Page number(s)

Sometimes you may need to include additional information. Take all information from the title page of the document.

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

72. House, A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles

Purchased for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety

Standards, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, H.R. 1341, 1–4.

73. House, Organization and Management of Missile Programs,

Eleventh Report by the Committee on Government Operations, 86th Cong.,

1st sess., 1959, H.R. 1121, 154–56.

74. House, Organization and Management, 155. [shortened form]

75. House Committee on Education and Labor, White House Conference

on Aging: Report to Accompany S. J. Res. 117, 90th Cong., 2d sess., 1 May

1968, 5.

76. Senate, Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility

Corporations, 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935, S. Doc. 92, pt. 71A.

77. House, United States Defense Policies in 1958, 86th Cong., 1st sess.,

1959, H. Doc. 227, 114.

78. H.R. Report 871, 78th Cong., 1st sess., 1943, 49.

79. Senate, Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration

and Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, S. Doc. 18,

55–56.

80. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Foreign

Policy, 86th Cong., 2d sess., 1960, Committee Print, 1:729.

81. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Central America, 1981: Report

to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, prepared by Hon Gerry E. Studds, 97th

Cong., 1st sess., 1981, Committee Print, 31.

82. House Committee, Central America, 1981, 30. [shortened form]

83. Department of State, American Foreign Policy, Current Documents,

1958 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962), 1413.

Hearings

84. Senate, Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the

Air Force of the Committee on Armed Services, 84th Cong., 2d sess., 1956,

52.

85. Senate, Study of Air Power, 1727. [shortened form]

113
86. Senate, Investigation of Governmental Organization for Space

Activities: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Governmental Activities of

the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Science, 86th Cong., 1st sess.,

1959, 379–80.

87. House, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1954: Hearings

before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong.,

1st sess., 1953, 317.

88. House, DOD Appropriations for 1954, 289–91. [shortened form]

89. House, Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services:

Hearings before the Select Committee on Inquiry into Operations of the

United States Air Services, 69th Cong., 2d sess., 1925, pt. 4:2269–70.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Known as public laws or statutes, bills and resolutions first appear in the

Congressional Record, then in United States Statutes at Large, often in the

United States Code Annotated, and finally in the United States Code.

90. Food Security Act of 1985, 99th Cong., 1st sess., H.R. 2100.

91. Food Security Act of 1985, 99th Cong., 1st sess., H.R. 2100,

Congressional Record, 131, no. 132, daily ed. (8 October 1985): H8461–66.

92. H.R. 11818, 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1956, sec. 301(a).

93. S. Resolution 218, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1954.

94. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Public Law 585, 79th Cong., 2d sess. (1

August 1946), 12, 19.

95. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 767,

774. [Citations to the statutes are to volume, year, and page number.]

96. Declaratory Judgment Act, US Code, vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

[Citations to the code are always to section number, not page.]

97. Declaratory Judgment Act, secs. 2201–2. [shortened form] 

Executive department documents

98. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth: 1980

Administration of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

(Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense [Manpower,

Reserve Affairs and Logistics], March 1982), 19.

99. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth, 23. [shortened

form]

100. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve Manpower

Strengths and Statistics, Fiscal Year 1985 Summary (Washington, D.C.:

Assistant Secretary of Defense [Reserve Affairs], n.d.), 8.

101. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve, 16. [shortened

form] 

114
Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

102. President, Proclamation, “Supplemental Quota on Imports of LongStaple Cotton,” Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127, microfiche.

103. Executive Order 9877, Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July

1947.

104. EO 9877. [shortened form]

105. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D.

Eisenhower, 1957 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1958),

796.

106. Public Papers: Eisenhower, 274–90. [shortened form]

107. Statement of the president, 26 January 1968, in Weekly Compilation

of Presidential Documents 4, no. 4 (29 January 1968): 133.

108. UN General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI), “International

Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 20 December 1961. 

Classified Sources

Mark classified documents with the classification of the title (immediately

following the title) and with the overall classification of the document (at the

end of the publication data). If you take unclassified information from a

classified source, put a statement to that effect after the overall classification

marking. 

109. TAF SON 302-81, Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack

Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982. (Secret)

110. Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence, “Linebacker II: 18–29

December 72” (U), supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information

extracted is unclassified.

111. Robert L. Faloon, Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U)

(Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1983), 37. (Secret) Information

extracted is unclassified.

Declassified Sources

112. Central Intelligence Agency, National Intelligence Estimate

Number 11-5-57 (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1957), 62.

Document is now declassified.

Letters and Indorsements

113. Maj W. G. Kilner, executive, Office of Chief of Air Service, to commandant, Air Service Tactical School, letter, subject: Proposed Revision of

the Policy of the Army and Navy Relating to Aircraft, 12 April 1925.

115
114. Lt Col C. C. Culver to chief of Air Corps, letter, subject: Doctrine

of Employing an Aerial Force, 9 June 1928; 1st ind., Maj L. W. McIntosh,

executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps, to commandant, Air Corps

Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

115. The Adjutant General to commanding generals, all corps areas et

al., letter, subject: General Headquarters Air Force, 31 December 1934.

116. Capt Harry A. Johnson, Command and General Staff School, to

chief, Air Corps, letter, subject: Multiengine Fighter Aircraft, 18 January

1935; 2d ind., Lt Col H. A. Pratt, chief, Air Corps, Materiel Division, to

chief, Air Corps, 16 February 1935; 3d ind., Col A. G. Fisher, president, Air

Corps Board, to chief, Air Corps, 15 July 1945. 

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

117. Lt Col G. W. Bundy, War Plans Division, War Department General

Staff, memorandum to Lt Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division, subject: Ultimate Air Force Requirements, 18 July 1941.

118. Col William W. Momyer, deputy commandant for evaluation, Air

War College, memorandum to Maj Gen John DeF. Barker, deputy commanding general, Air University, subject: Progress of the Manual Program,

17 September 1952.

119. Momyer. [shortened form] 

Draft memorandum

120. Chief, Air Corps, draft memorandum to chief of staff, Army, subject: Additional Naval Air Bases, 28 March 1938. 

Memorandum of understanding

121. Secretary of the Army, memorandum of understanding with secretary of the Air Force, subject: Contractor Applications and Procedures, 2

October 1951. 

Memorandum for record

122. Gen Nathan F. Twining, vice chief of staff, US Air Force, memorandum for record, subject: Functions of Dr. Stearns, General Barcus, and

General White, 17 November 1950.

123. Maj Frank M. Johnson, memorandum for record, subject: Guided

Missiles Program, 22 August 1951. 

Messages

124. Message, TST-587, Joint Chiefs of Staff, to commanding general,

Strategic Air Command, 13 April 1949.

116
125. Message, AFCVC-51413, US Air Force to commanding general,

Far East Air Forces, 14 August 1950.

126. Message, 281415Z OCT 90, US Air Force to commanding general,

Far East Air Forces, 28 October 1990. 

Manuals, Instructions,

Directives, and Other Publications

127. Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine,

1 September 1997, 3.

128. AFDD 1, 5. [shortened form]

129. War Department, Field Service Regulations, United States Army

(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1924), 11, 21–24.

130. War Department Training Regulation (WDTR) 440-15,

Employment of the Air Forces of the Army, 15 October 1935.

131. WDTR 440-15. [shortened form]

132. Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-901, Operational Risk Management,

1 April 2000.

133. Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-106, Supervisor’s Records, 20

December 1993.

134. AFDD 2-5.3, Psychological Operations, 27 August 1999.

135. DOD Directive (DODD) 5015.2, DOD Records Management

Program, 6 March 2000.

136. Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 36-505, Skill Coding, 1 August 1996.

137. Maj Gary Ambrose, Staff Summary Sheet, Memorandum of

Agreement on USAF Air Refueling Support for Navy Operations, 13

December 1985.

138. Air Force Policy Letter for Commanders: Supplement, February

1970, 2–6. 

Source Cited/Quoted in Another Source

139. Quoted in George E. Lowe, The Age of Deterrence (Boston: Little

Brown & Co., 1964), 232.

140. Quoted in Lowe, 234. [shortened form]

141. Quoted in Samuel P. Huntington, “Democracy Fights a Limited

War: Korea, 1950–1953,” in Major Crises in American History:

Documentary Problems, ed. Merrill F. Peterson and Leonard W. Levy (New

York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962), 2:481.

142. Letter of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to Cong. Robert

Miller, 3 November 1961, in House, Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval

and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the Committee on

Armed Services, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, 2729–30.

117
143. Statement of Lt Gen Paul Gorman, director for plans and policy,

Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, in Senate, Department of Defense

Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1982: Hearings before the

Subcommittee on Sea Power and Force Projection of the Committee on

Armed Services, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981, pt. 4:89.

144. Statement of F. Trubee Davison in “U.S. President’s Air Policy

Commission,” unclassified testimony before the President’s Air Policy

Commission (Washington, D.C.: 1 December 1947, mimeographed),

6:2644–49.

145. Davison, 6:2648. [shortened form]

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries,

Digests, Notes, and So Forth

146. Diary of Fleet Adm William D. Leahy, 8 February 1946, William D.

Leahy Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

147. Minutes of the War Department Board of Ordnance and

Fortification, 24 October 1905, quoted in Jones Aviation Chronology,

1900–1906, 61.

148. Minutes of monthly meetings of Army Air Forces Board, 2 January

1945.

149. Minutes of the Patch Sword II Conference conducted at

Headquarters AFSC, Andrews AFB, Maryland, October 1981, 26.

150. Chronology, Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966), 252, 305,

373.

151. Air Staff Summary Sheet, Lt Col Andrew C. Barbee, Policy and

Plans Group, Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, 20 March 1967.

152. Daily Staff Digest, Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

153. Notes, Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

154. Briefing, 6127th Air Terminal Group, subject: Air Terminal

Detachments in Korea, 1 March 1951.

155. Brig Gen Mervin E. Gross, chief, Requirements Division, Aviation

Section, Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces,

record and routing (R&R) sheet, subject: Centralization of Certain

Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, 27 November 1944.

156. Gross, R&R sheet, 27 November 1944. [shortened form]

157. FM 90-14, “Rear Battle,” final draft, 19 November 1984, i. 

Lectures and Addresses

158. Maj Gen Mason M. Patrick, “The Army Air Service,” lecture, Army

War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 9 November 1925.

118
159. Patrick. [shortened form]

160. Gen Curtis E. LeMay, chief of staff, US Air Force, address to the Air

Force Association Convention, Philadelphia, Pa., 21 September 1961.

161. Gen Earle G. Wheeler, graduation address to the Industrial College

of the Armed Forces, Washington, D.C., 11 June 1963.

162. Sir Robert Saundby, “British Air Doctrine,” lecture, Air War

College, Maxwell AFB, Ala., 10 November 1953. 

Interviews

163. Jerry Gibson, MCI Communications Corp., interviewed by author,

7 March 1983.

164. Richard Voit, Warren Brasselle, and Kerry Deimer, interviewed by

author during visit to MCI Communications Corp., Southern Region,

Atlanta, Ga., 22 April 1983.

165. Maj Gen C. E. McKnight Jr., US Army Communications

Command, Fort Huachuca, Ariz., interviewed by author, 24 February 1983.

166. McKnight interview. [shortened form]

167. Lt Col Jerry A. Singleton, transcript of oral history interview by Dr.

James C. Hasdorff, 30 October 1992, 24, US Air Force Academy Library,

Colorado Springs, Colo. 

Video Recordings

168. Morris Massey, What You Are Is, CBS-Fox Video, 30 min., 1983,

videocassette.

169. Louis J. Mihalyi, Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa (Santa

Barbara, Calif.: Visual Education, 1975), slides. 

Translation Services

170. Sergey Agafonov, “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of

Tokyo to Open in Moscow,” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992, 7, in FBIS [Foreign

Broadcast Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia, FBIS-USR-92-

079, 29 June 1992, 4.

171. A. Boldinyuk, “The Karelian Issue: Does It Exist, and If So, in

What Form?” Pravda, 11 June 1992, 3, in FBIS-USR-92-079, 2. [subsequent reference to same FBIS issue]

172. Robert Minasov, “Gosznak Is Not Equal to the Task,” Rossiyskaya

Gazeta, 18 June 1992, 1, in FBIS-USR-92-080, 1 July 1992, 6. [subsequent

reference to different FBIS issue but same coverage (i.e., Central Eurasia)]

119
173. “Opposition Parties Oppose Election Postponement,” Korea Times,

25 June 1992, 2, in FBIS Daily Report: East Asia, FBIS-EAS-92-123, 25

June 1992, 23. 

Electronic Publications

CD-ROM

Include the following items in notes citing information published on CDROM:

Previously Printed Sources No Printed Source

1. Author’s name (if given) 1. Author’s name (if given)

2. Publication information for 2. Title of material accessed

printed source (including title (in quotation marks)

and date of print publication) 3. Date of material (if given)

3. Title of database (in italics) 4. Title of database (in italics)

4. Publication medium (CD-ROM) 5. Publication medium (CD5. Name of vendor ROM)

6. Date of electronic publication 6. Name of vendor

7. Date of electronic publication

174. Natalie Angier, “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for

You,” New York Times, 13 April 1993, late ed., C1, New York Times Ondisc,

CD-ROM, UMI-Proquest, October 1993.

175. Guidelines for Family Television Viewing (Urbana, Ill.: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990), ERIC,

CD-ROM, Silver Platter, June 1993.

176. Michelle Cash Russo, “Recovering from Bibliographic Instruction

Blahs,” RQ: Reference Quarterly 32 (1992): 178–83, Infotrac: Magazine

Index Plus, CD-ROM, Information Access, December 1993.

177. Shearson Lehman Brothers, Inc., “Reebok: Company Report,” 29

July 1993, General Business File, CD-ROM, Information Access, December

1993.

178. US Department of State, “Industrial Outlook for Petroleum and

Natural Gas,” 1992, National Trade Data Bank, CD-ROM, US Department

of Commerce, 1993.

179. Gen Crosbie E. Saint, “A CINC’s View of Operational Art,” Military

Review, September 1990, 70, Joint Electronic Library, “Research Papers,”

CD-ROM, OC Incorporated, May 1997.

180. Lorna S. Jaffe, The Development of the Base Force, 1989–1992

(Washington, D.C.: Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint

Chiefs of Staff, July 1993), 11, Joint Electronic Library, “History

Publications,” CD-ROM, OC Incorporated, May 1997.

120
Use the following form for CD-ROMs published a single time instead of

periodically, without plans for updates or revisions:

181. The CIA World Factbook, CD-ROM (Minneapolis: Quanta, 1992).

182. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., CD-ROM (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1992). 

Diskette

Include the following items in notes citing information published on

diskette:

1. Author’s name (if given)

2. Title of part of work, if relevant (in quotation marks)

3. Title of work (in italics)

4. Edition, release, or version, if relevant

5. Publication medium (diskette)

6. City of publication

7. Name of publisher

8. Year of publication 

183. Michael Joyce, Afternoon: A Story, diskette (Watertown, Conn.:

Eastgate, 1987).

184. Richard D. Lanham, The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology,

and the Arts, diskette (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).

185. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Dejection: An Ode,” The Complete

Poetical Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Ernest Hartley Coleridge,

vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912), 362–68, diskette (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1993). 

Computer service

Include the following items in notes citing information available through

a computer service:

Previously Printed Sources No Printed Source

1. Author’s name (if given) 1. Author’s name (if given)

2. Publication information for 2. Title of material accessed

printed source (including title (in quotation marks)

and date of print publication) 3. Date of material (if given)

3. Title of database (in italics) 4. Title of database (in italics)

4. Publication medium (on-line) 5. Publication medium (on-line)

5. Name of computer service 6. Name of computer service

6. Date accessed 7. Date accessed 

186. Natalie Angier, “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for

You,” New York Times, 13 April 1993, late ed., C1, New York Times Online,

on-line, Nexis, 10 February 1994.

121
187. Guidelines for Family Television Viewing (Urbana, Ill.: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990), ERIC,

on-line, BRS, 22 November 1993.

188. “Comex Gold Contracts: Quotes from 4 Nov. 1992 to Dec. 1994,”

Dow Jones Futures and Index Quotes, on-line, Dow Jones News Retrieval,

6 December 1994.

189. “Middle Ages,” Academic American Encyclopedia, on-line,

Prodigy, 30 March 1992. 

Computer network

Include the following items in notes citing electronic journals, newsletters, and so forth, available through a computer network:

1. Author’s name (if given) 6. Number of pages or n.p.

2. Title of article or document (no pagination)

(in quotation marks) 7. Publication medium

3. Title of journal, newsletter, (on-line)

and so forth (in italics) 8. Name of computer network

4. Volume number, issue number, 9. Date accessed

or other identifying number 10. Electronic address

5. Date of publication (If you have to break the

address at the end of a line,

do so after punctuation

[e.g., / or .])

190. Capt Edward B. Westermann, “Contemporary Civil-Military

Relations: Is the Republic in Danger?” Airpower Journal, Summer 1995,

n.p., on-line, Internet, 14 February 1996, available from http://www.cdsar.af.

mil/apj/wester.html.

191. William Schipper, “Quirk and Wrenn Grammar,” AnSax-L, 22

February 1995, n.p., on-line, Internet, 10 December 1995, available from

http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth.

192. David Schorr, “New Technologies on War-Fighting Capabilities,”

Air Chronicles, 30 October 1995, n.p., on-line, Internet, 15 January 1995,

available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/ci/think/what14.html.

193. Tom Huntington, “Encore for an SST,” Air and Space Magazine, 30

October 1995, n.p., on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

http://www.airspacemag.com/articles/T144-on95/asm-t144-on95.html.

194. “Update on Cockpit Motion Facility,” Flight Simulation News,

February 1995, n.p., on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

http://ssb-www.larc.nasa.gov/fltsim/sn0295.html.

195. “Budget Cuts to Force Reduction in Serial Subscriptions by

Library,” AU [Auburn University] Report—Faculty and Staff Newsletter, 14

August 1995, n.p., on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

gopher://mallard.duc.auburn.edu:70/00/Info/AUReport/8-14-95/cuts.

122
196. Gen Crosbie E. Saint, “A CINC’s View of Operational Art,” Military

Review, September 1990, 70, Joint Electronic Library, “Research Papers,”

on-line, Internet, 7 October 1997, available from http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/

jel/research_pubs/p120.pdf.

197. Lorna S. Jaffe, The Development of the Base Force, 1989–1992

(Washington, D.C.: Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint

Chiefs of Staff, July 1993), 11, Joint Electronic Library, “History Publications,”

on-line, Internet, 7 October 1997, available from http://www.dtic. mil/doctrine/

jel/history/baseforc.pdf.

Use the following form to cite electronic texts (e.g., literary works and historical documents) available through computer networks:

198. Frances McSparran, ed., Octovian, Early English Text Society, no.

289 (London: Oxford University Press, 1986), on-line, Internet, 6 April

1994, available from ftp://etext.virginia.edu/pub/texts/octovian.txt.

123
APPENDIX B

Examples of several categories of bibliographic citations appear below.

For other examples, see the entry bibliography and page 137 of this guide,

as well as the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style.

Books

One author

Westmoreland, Gen William C. A Soldier Reports. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday & Co., 1976.

Two authors

Masland, John W., and Laurence I. Radway. Soldiers and Scholars: Military

Education and National Policy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University

Press, 1957.

Three authors

Strausz-Hupe, Robert; William R. Kintner; and Stefan T. Possony. A

Forward Strategy for America. New York: Harper & Bros., 1961.

More than three authors

Pomper, Gerald, et al. The Election of 1976. New York: McKay, 1977.

No author given

Soviet Military Power. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,

1983.

Editor, compiler, or translator

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and

Peter Paret. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Goldberg, Alfred, ed. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957.

Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, 1957.

Mayer, J. P. Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America. Translated by

George Lawrence. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1969.

Multivolume works and series

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in

World War II. 7 vols. 1948–1958. New imprint, Washington, D.C.:

Office of Air Force History, 1983.

125
Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in

World War II. Vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to

December 1943. 1949. New imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air

Force History, 1983.

Trest, Warren A. Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and

Future Implications. CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the

Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University

Press, December 1991.

Association or institution as author

Gates Commission. The Report of the President’s Commission on an AllVolunteer Armed Force. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, 1970.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

Warden, Col John A., III. “Air Theory for the Twenty-First Century.” In

Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns.

Edited by Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University

Press, August 1994.

Edition

Hazard, John N. The Soviet System of Government. 5th ed. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Reprint editions

Harris, Neil. The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years,

1790–1860. 1966. Reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1982.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

“Congress Sends Nixon a Message.” Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39.

Volume number shown

Rosser, Col Richard F. “American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s.”

Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): [first and last page

numbers of article (e.g., 14–20)].

126
Newspaper Items

Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986.

New York Times, 17 February–11 March 1996.

Encyclopedia Articles

Well-known reference books are usually not listed in bibliographies.

Historical Studies

Finney, Robert T. History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940.

USAF Historical Study 100. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF Historical

Division, Air University, 1955.

Staff Studies

Evaluation Division, Air University. To Analyze the USAF Publications

System for Producing Manuals. Staff study, 13 July 1948.

Staudenmaier, Col Herbert V. CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation Study. Staff

study, 31 March 1983.

Unit and Staff Office Histories

History. Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans,

Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958.

History. Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953.

Reports

Published

Erickson, John. The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics. USSI

Report 73-3. Washington, D.C.: United States Strategic Institute, 1973.

Management of Internet Names and Addresses. US Government White

Paper. Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce, June 1998.

Unpublished

Hungerford, Maj John B. Jr. “Organization for Military Space: A Historical

Perspective.” Research Report no. 82-1235. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

Command and Staff College, 1982.

127
Unpublished Papers

Betts, Richard K. “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force: American

Military Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1976.” PhD diss.,

Harvard University, 1975.

Ross, Dorothy. “The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in

Social Mobility.” Master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.

Thomas, P. “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military.” Paper presented at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower. Santa Monica,

Calif., February 1976.

Public Documents

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

US House. A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased

for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards.

86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959. H. R. 1341.

US Senate. Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and

Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963. S. Doc.

18.

US Senate. Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility

Corporations. 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935. S. Doc. 92.

Hearings

US Senate. Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the

Air Force of the Committee on Armed Services. 84th Cong., 2d sess.,

1956.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Public Law 585. 79th Cong., 2d sess., 1 August

1946.

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 755–75.

Declaratory Judgment Act. US Code. Vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

US House. Food Security Act of 1985. 99th Cong., 1st sess., H. R. 2100.

Congressional Record, 131, no. 132, daily ed. (8 October 1985):

H8461–66.

Executive department documents

US Department of Defense. Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration

of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Washington, D.C.:

128
Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve

Affairs and Logistics), March 1982.

Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:

Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, 1958.

Executive Order 9877. Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July 1947.

President. Proclamation. “Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple

Cotton.” Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127. Microfiche.

Classified Sources

Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence. “Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72”

(U). Supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted

is unclassified.

Faloon, Robert L. Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U). Maxwell AFB,

Ala.: Air University Press, 1983. (Secret) Information extracted is

unclassified.

TAF SON 302-81. Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack

Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982. (Secret)

Declassified Sources

Central Intelligence Agency. National Intelligence Estimate Number 11-5-

57. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1957. Document is

now declassified.

Letters and Indorsements

Culver, Lt Col C. C. To chief of Air Corps. Letter. Subject: Doctrine of

Employing an Aerial Force, 9 June 1928. 1st ind. Maj L. W. McIntosh,

executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps. To commandant, Air Corps

Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

Kilner, Maj W. G., executive, Office of Chief of Air Service. To commandant, Air Service Tactical School. Letter. Subject: Proposed Revision

of the Policy of the Army and Navy Relating to Aircraft, 12 April 1925.

129
Memorandums

Regular memorandum

Bundy, Lt Col G. W., War Plans Division, War Department General Staff.

Memorandum. To Lt Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division.

Subject: Ultimate Air Force Requirements, 18 July 1941.

Draft memorandum

Chief, Air Corps. Draft memorandum. To chief of staff, Army. Subject:

Additional Naval Air Bases, 28 March 1938.

Memorandum of understanding

Secretary of the Army. Memorandum of understanding with secretary of the

Air Force. Subject: Contractor Applications and Procedures, 2 October

1951.

Memorandum for record

Twining, Gen Nathan F., vice chief of staff, US Air Force. Memorandum for

record. Subject: Functions of Dr. Stearns, General Barcus, and General

White, 17 November 1950.

Messages

Message. 281415Z OCT 90. US Air Force. To commanding general, Far

East Air Forces, 28 October 1990.

Manuals, Instructions, Directives,

and Other Publications

Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1. Air Force Basic Doctrine, 1

September 1997.

Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-901. Operational Risk Management, 1 April

2000.

Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 36-505. Skill Coding, 1 August 1996.

Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-106. Supervisor’s Records, 20 December

1993.

Department of Defense (DOD) Directive 5015.2. DOD Records

Management Program, 6 March 2000.

130
Sources Cited/Quoted in Another Source

McNamara, Robert, secretary of defense. To Cong. Robert Miller. Letter, 3

November 1961. In US House. Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval

and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the Committee on

Armed Services. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries,

Digests, Notes, and So Forth

Barbee, Lt Col Andrew C., Policy and Plans Group. Air Staff Summary

Sheet. Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, 20 March 1967.

Briefing. 6127th Air Terminal Group. Subject: Air Terminal Detachments in

Korea, 1 March 1951.

Chronology. Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966).

Daily Staff Digest. Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

Field Manual (FM) 90-14. “Rear Battle.” Final draft, 19 November 1984.

Gross, Brig Gen Mervin E., chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section,

Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces.

Record and Routing (R&R) sheet. Subject: Centralization of Certain

Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, 27 November 1944.

Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. Diary. William D. Leahy Papers. Manuscript

Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Minutes. War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October

1905. In Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906.

Notes. Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

Lectures and Addresses

LeMay, Gen Curtis E., chief of staff, US Air Force. Address. Air Force

Association Convention, Philadelphia, Pa., 21 September 1961.

Patrick, Maj Gen Mason M. “The Army Air Service.” Lecture. Army War

College, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 9 November 1925.

Wheeler, Gen Earle G. Graduation address. Industrial College of the Armed

Forces, Washington, D.C., 11 June 1963.

Interviews

It is not necessary to include interviews in a bibliography.

131
Video Recordings

Massey, Morris. What You Are Is. CBS-Fox Video. 30 min., 1983.

Videocassette.

Mihalyi, Louis J. Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa. Santa Barbara,

Calif.: Visual Education, 1975. Slides.

Translation Services

Agafonov, Sergey. “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to

Open in Moscow.” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992. In FBIS [Foreign Broadcast

Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia. FBIS-USR-92-079, 29

June 1992.

Electronic Publications

CD-ROM

Angier, Natalie. “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You.” New

York Times, 13 April 1993. New York Times Ondisc. CD-ROM. UMIProquest, October 1993.

Guidelines for Family Television Viewing. Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse

on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990. ERIC. CDROM. Silver Platter, June 1993.

Jaffe, Lorna S. The Development of the Base Force, 1989–1992.

Washington, D.C.: Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1993. Joint Electronic Library. “History

Publications.” CD-ROM. OC Incorporated, May 1997.

The Oxford English Dictionary. 2d ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1992.

Russo, Michelle Cash. “Recovering from Bibliographic Instruction Blahs.”

RQ: Reference Quarterly 32 (1992): [first and last page numbers of

article (e.g., 178–83)]. Infotrac: Magazine Index Plus. CD-ROM.

Information Access, December 1993.

Saint, Gen Crosbie E. “A CINC’s View of Operational Art.” Military Review,

September 1990, 65–78. Joint Electronic Library. “Research Papers.”

CD-ROM. OC Incorporated, May 1997.

Shearson Lehman Brothers, Inc. “Reebok: Company Report,” 29 July 1993.

General Business File. CD-ROM. Information Access, December 1993.

Diskette

Joyce, Michael. Afternoon: A Story. Diskette. Watertown, Conn.: Eastgate,

1987.

132
Computer service

Angier, Natalie. “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You.” New

York Times, 13 April 1993. New York Times Online. On-line. Nexis, 10

February 1994.

“Comex Gold Contracts: Quotes from 4 Nov. 1992 to Dec. 1994.” Dow

Jones Futures and Index Quotes. On-line. Dow Jones News Retrieval,

6 December 1994.

Guidelines for Family Television Viewing. Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse

on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990. ERIC. On-line.

BRS, 22 November 1993.

Computer network

“Budget Cuts to Force Reduction in Serial Subscriptions by Library.” AU

[Auburn University] Report—Faculty and Staff Newsletter, 14 August

1995, n.p. [no pagination]. On-line. Internet, 15 February 1996.

Available from gopher://mallard.duc.auburn.edu:70/00/Info/AUReport/

8-14-95/cuts.

Huntington, Tom. “Encore for an SST.” Air and Space Magazine, 30

October 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 February 1996. Available from

http://www.airspacemag.com/articles/T144-on95/asm-t144-on95.

html.

Jaffe, Lorna S. The Development of the Base Force, 1989–1992.

Washington, D.C.: Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1993. Joint Electronic Library. “History

Publications.” On-line. Internet, 7 October 1997. Available from http://

www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/history/baseforc.pdf.

McSparran, Frances, ed. Octovian. Early English Text Society, no. 289.

London: Oxford University Press, 1986. On-line. Internet, 6 April

1994. Available from ftp://etext.virginia.edu/pub/texts/octovian.txt.

Saint, Gen Crosbie E. “A CINC’s View of Operational Art.” Military Review,

September 1990, 65–78. Joint Electronic Library. “Research Papers.”

On-line. Internet, 7 October 1997. Available from http://www.dtic.mil/

doctrine/jel/research_pubs/p120.pdf.

Schipper, William. “Quirk and Wrenn Grammar.” AnSax-L, 22 February

1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 10 December 1995. Available from http://

www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth.

Schorr, David. “New Technologies on War-Fighting Capabilities.” Air

Chronicles, 30 October 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 January 1995.

Available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/ci/think/what14.html.

133
“Update on Cockpit Motion Facility.” Flight Simulation News, February

1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 February 1996. Available from http://

ssb-www.larc.nasa.gov/fltsim/sn0295.html.

Westermann, Capt Edward B. “Contemporary Civil-Military Relations: Is

the Republic in Danger?” Airpower Journal, Summer 1995, n.p. Online. Internet, 14 February 1996. Available from http://www.cdsar.

af.mil/apj/wester.html.

134
APPENDIX C

Copyright

An “original work of authorship” is protected by the copyright laws of

the United States, regardless of whether or not the work is published and

whether or not it is registered with the Copyright Office. “Works of authorship” include written manuscripts and other literary works, as well as original graphic or pictorial material, visual art, audiovisual works, motion pictures, and sound recordings. The owner of a copyright has the exclusive

right of reproduction, adaptation, publication, performance, and display of

the work. For that reason, if you intend to use another person’s work (e.g.,

text, graphs, tables, photographs, paintings, film clips, music clips, etc.) in

a work of your own, you must obtain written permission from the copyright owner. Two important exceptions to this principle follow.

First, you need not obtain permission if the work is in the public

domain. Such works are considered public property and may be used

by anybody. A work of the United States government (defined as a

work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States government as part of that person’s official duties) is in the public domain, as

is a work whose copyright has expired. The duration of a copyright is

the life of the author plus 50 years (other time limits apply when the

author is unknown). If you have any doubts about the currency of a

work’s copyright, check with the Copyright Office. If 75 years have

passed since the year of publication in the United States and the

Copyright Office certifies that it has no information to the contrary,

you may safely assume that the work is in the public domain.

Second, you need not obtain permission if you use material in accordance with the doctrine of fair use. This doctrine allows you to use

another person’s work for purposes of criticism, comment, news

reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. For example, you may

quote passages of copyrighted material for purposes of critical analysis and review or for purposes of supporting your own work. You may

also reproduce copyrighted pictorial material for critical purposes

(e.g., use of a photograph to facilitate commentary on techniques of

photographic composition). In determining whether a use is fair, the

doctrine considers the following four factors:

1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use

is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes.

Commercial use generally is presumed to be unfair. On the other

hand, nonprofit educational use is not deemed automatically to be

fair, but it is more likely to be so treated, particularly if a public

benefit results from the use.

135
2. The nature of the copyrighted work. The use of creative works, as

opposed to informational ones, is less likely to be deemed fair use.

Fictional works are afforded more protection than factual ones.

3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to

the copyrighted work as a whole. The doctrine of fair use does

not specify a particular number of words, lines, graphs, and so

forth, that you may use without permission. A rule of reasonableness applies, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Generally

speaking, you cannot reproduce a work in its entirety—a poem,

an essay, a song, or an individually copyrighted article in a journal or magazine—without obtaining permission. Nor can you use

the “heart of the work” (i.e., the key or essential material) without obtaining permission.

4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the

copyrighted work. While all of the factors must be considered in

determining the applicability of the fair-use doctrine, this fourth

and final factor is the single most important element of the analysis. Commercial use is presumptively harmful to the future value

of the work used. Noncommercial use, however, requires a meaningful (and demonstrable) likelihood of future harm before the

use is considered unfair.

Whether or not you obtain permission from the copyright owner to

use part of a work, you should always credit the author and the source

of the borrowed material [see also plagiarism]. Merely acknowledging

the source does not substitute for obtaining permission if circumstances so dictate. If you do obtain permission, you should identify

your source, followed by a statement such as “Reprinted by permission

of the publisher.” An illustration should be accompanied by a note such

as “Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.”

The rapid expansion of electronic communications and the growth

of the Internet have given rise to complex legal issues that are as yet

unresolved. Pending legislation and ongoing litigation will no doubt

have an effect on how copyright laws are applied on-line. In the meantime, you would do well to assume that the same principles of copyright protection that apply to traditional written and pictorial material

apply to materials found on-line. That is, you should obtain permission

to use any text, photographs, artwork, and so forth that you find on-line

unless that material is in the public domain or you reproduce it in

accordance with the doctrine of fair use (and you should credit your

source in any case). Likewise, you should apply the same principles

that apply to materials you use in your printed writings to any materials you want to use in electronic or multimedia creations, such as

CD-ROMs.

136
Bibliography

Air War College. Handbook on Research and Writing. Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air University, 1982.

AU-12. Plain English, Please! Prepared by John Smith and Maj John R.

Grellman Jr. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University, 1982.

The Chicago Manual of Style. [current edition] Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Copperud, Roy H. American Usage and Style: The Consensus. New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980.

Ebbitt, Wilma R., and David R. Ebbitt. Writer’s Guide and Index to English.

[current edition] Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Co.

Evans, Bergen, and Cornelia Evans. A Dictionary of Contemporary

American Usage. New York: Random House, 1957.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New York:

Modern Language Association of America, 1999.

Heflin, Woodford Agee, ed. The United States Air Force Dictionary.

Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1956.

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, Mass.:

Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1989.

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. [current edition] Springfield,

Mass.: Merriam-Webster, Inc.

Siegal, Allan M. The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage. New York:

Times Books, 1999.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations. [current edition] Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

United States Government Printing Office: Style Manual. Washington, D.C.:

Government Printing Office, 1984.

Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language,

Unabridged. Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1981.

137