Gasohol

September 1979

NTIS order #PB80-105885
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-600170

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock No. 052-()()3 -0()706-1
PREFACE

The Office of Technology Assessment is currently preparing an assessment

of energy from biological processes. In the course of this study we have carried

out an extensive analysis of alcohol fuels from agricultural products. This technical memorandum presents these findings in response to congressional interest

in synthetic fuels. The purpose of the memorandum is to illuminate the technical and non-technical issues surrounding the development of gasohol. It discusses the resource base, production technologies, and economics of gasohol,

and its use as a transportation fuel. The report also contains a discussion of the

environmental problems and benefits of producing and using gasohol, and the

social and institutional issues about using agricultural products for energy.

While the memorandum does not present an analysis of policy issues, it

does provide estimates of how much gasohol can be used at what cost, and the

long-term prospects for ethanol production. All are important to the current

congressional debate over development of a gasohol policy.

The final report on energy from biological processes is scheduled for delivery to Congress in January 1980 and will contain an analysis of policy options

about gasohol as well as other bioenergy technologies such as wood and methanol production.
Advisory Panel

Energy From Biological Processes

Dr. Thomas Ratchford, Chairman Mr. Ralph Kienker

Associate Executive Director Monsanto Company

American Association for the St. Louis, Missouri

Advancement of Science

Washington, D.C. .

Dr. Henry Art

Center for Environmental Studies

Williams College

Williamstown, Massachusetts

Dr. Stanley Barber

Department of Agronomy

Purdue University

West Lafayette, Indiana

Dr. John Benemann

Sanitary Engineering Laboratory

University of California

Richmond Field Station

Richmond, California

Dr. Paul F. Bente, Jr.

Executive Director

The Bio-Energy Council

Washington, D.C.

Mr. Calvin Burwell

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Dr. Robert Hirsch

EXXON Research and Engineering

Company

Florham Park, New Jersey

Mr. Robert Hodam

California Energy Commission

Sacramento, California

Mr. Kip Hewlett

Georgia Pacific

Washington, D.C.

Mr. Dean Kleckner

President, Iowa Farm Bureau

Federation

West Des Moines, Iowa

Mr. Kevin Markey

Friends of the Earth

Denver, Colorado

Mr. Jacques Maroni

Energy Planning Manager

Ford Motor Company

Dearborn, Michigan

Dr. Michael Neushul

Marine Science Institute

University of California at

Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara, California

Dr. William Scheller

Department of Chemical

Engineering

University of Nebraska

Lincoln, Nebraska

Mr. Kenneth Smith

Office of Appropriate Technology

Sacramento, California

Dr. Wallace Tyner

Department of Agricultural

Economics

Purdue University

West Lafayette, Indiana

NOTE: The Advisory Panel provides advice and comment throughout the assessment, but

the members do not necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse the report for which

OTA assumes full responsibility.
ENERGY FROM BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES STAFF

Lionel S. Johns, Assistant Director

Energy, Materials, and Global Security Division

Richard E. Rowberg, Energy Group Manager

Thomas E. Bull, Project Director

A. Jenifer Robison, Assistant Project Director

Mark Gibson, Federal Programs

Steven Plotkin, Environmental Issues

Richard Thoreson, Economic Issues

Lisa Jacobson Lillian Quigg Yvonne White

SUPPLEMENTS TO STAFF

Stanley Clark

Robert Vernon
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document was prepared in conjunction with OTA’S

assessment of Energy from Biological Processes. In addition to reviews by

the members of the Advisory Panel for Energy from Biological Processes, this

technical memorandum has also been reviewed by the following people, but they

do not necessarily approve, disapprove or endorse the report.

Mr. Weldon Barton Prof. Ronald Lacewell

Office of Energy Departwnt of Agricultural Economics

U.S. Department of Agriculture Texas A&M University

Washington, D.C. College Station, TX

Prof. Carroll Bottum Dr. Edward Lipinsky

Department of Agricultural Economics Battelle Columbus Laboratories

Purdue University Columbus, OH

West Lafayette, IN

Prof. Otto Doering

Department of Agricultural Economics

Purdue University

West Lafayette, IN

Prof. Irving Goldstein

Department of Wood and Paper Science

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

Mr. Sanford Harris

Chief, Biomass Branch

Division of Solar Technology

Department of Energy

Washington, D.C.

Ms. Marilyn Herman

Chairperson, Alcohol Fuels Policy Review

Office of Policy and Evaluation .

Department of Energy

Washington, D.C.

Prof. Edward Hiler

Department of Agricultural Engineering

Texas A&M University

College Station, TX

Prof. Arthur Humphrey

Department of Chemical and

Biochemical Engineering

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, PA

Dr. Dwight Miller

Assistant Center Director

Northern Regional Research Center

USDA

Peoria, IL

Mr. Edward Noland

General Electric Company

Philadelphia, PA

Prof. Richard Pefley

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Santa Clara University

Santa Clara, CA

Prof. Roy Sachs

College of Agricultural and

Environmental Sciences

University of California

Davis, CA

Dr. Frank Sprow

EXXON Research and Engineering Co.

Florham Park, NJ

Dr. R. Thomas Van Arsdall

Office of Energy

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Washington, D.C.

. .
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Issues and Findings i

Introduction 1

Chapter I TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF GASOHOL 2

Ethanol Production

Commercial Distillation

On-Farm Distillation

3

3

6

Gasohol as an Automobile Fuel

Fuel Stability

Automobile Performance

Octane

Mileage

10

10

10

11

12

Energy Balance 13

Chapter II GASOHOL ECONOMICS 18

Ethanol Costs

Value of Ethanol in Gasohol

Sources of Ethanol

Competition Between Food and Fuel

Competition with Other Liquid Fuels

19

24

27

31

34

Chapter III ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 37

38

44

47

48

Obtaining the Feedstock

Ethanol Production

Gasohol Use

Global Effects of the Gasohol Fuel Cycle

Chapter IV

Chapter VI

SOCIAL IMPACTS 50

Local Impacts

National and International Implications

51

54

CURRENT FEDERAL PROGRAMS AND POLICIES 59

Introduction

USDA Policy

USDA R&D

DOE policy

DOE R&D

Interrelationship Between DOE and USDA

Research and Development Needs

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

References 69
Issues and Findings

Gasohol is a mixture of one part ethanol (commonly known as grain

alcohol” or beverage alcohol) and nine parts unleaded gasoline. The ethanol

can be produced from several types of plant material using technology that

is currently available, and in most cases gasohol can be substituted for

gasoline with only minor changes in mileage and performance. Another type

of gasohol can be produced with one part methanol (“wood alcohol” or methyl

alcohol) and nineteen parts gasoline. Although a consideration of this fuel

is not included here, methanol fuel will be included in the later report on

Energy from Biological Processes.

This memorandum addresses the major technical, economic, environmental

and social factors related to gasohol production and use. It also contains

a summary of the current federal gasohol programs and policies but does not

include an analysis of policy options. The most important points developed

in this report are summarized below as brief discussions of crucial

questions.

o WILL USING GASOHOL SAVE GASOLINE?

The amount of premium fuels (oil and natural gas) displaced by

ethanol depends critically on the boiler fuel used at the ethanol distillery

and the way the ethanol is used in gasohol. The distillery producing most

of the fuel ethanol today uses natural gas as a boiler fuel and the ethanol

is used to produce a high octane gasohol. Because local conditions enable

this distillery to be particularly energy efficient, the use of gasohol made

this way currently saves 1/3 gallon of gasoline and natural gas energy

51-718 0 - 79 - 2
i i

equivalent for every gallon of ethanol (i.e., for every ten gallons of—

gasohol). Less energy efficient distilleries fueled with premium fuels,

however, could result in a net increase in premium fuel usage with gasohol

production.

If distilleries are fueled with coal and solar energy (including

biomass), and the ethanol is used to produce a “regular’’-grade gasohol,

however, the energy balance is far more attractive. Under these more

optimum conditions, gasohol use may save nearly one gallon of gasoline and

natural gas equivalent for every gallon of ethanol used.

o HOW MUCH GASOHOL CAN BE PRODUCED?

In the 1980's there is the physical - though not necessarily

economic - possibility of producing at least 5-10 billion gallons of ethanol

per year, mostly from increased crops devoted to ethanol production. (This

corresponds to 325,000-650,000 bbl./day or 4.5-9% of the current gasoline

consumption of 110 billion gallons per year.) In the 1990’s, however, the

available land for energy crops could drop to a point where only about one

third this amount could be produced. In addition, using conversion

technologies currently under development, there is the physical possibility

of producing 5 billion gallons of ethanol per year from crop residues, 10-20

billion gallons per year from increased forage grass production, and

considerably more from wood. Due to a variety of factors, however,

gasohol’s practical potential will undoubtedly be considerably less than

that which is physically possible.
i i i

Gasohol’s practical potential depends on the time frame. In the

next 3-5 years, domestic gasohol production will be limited primarily by the

rate that new distilleries are built and idle capacitv converted.

Conversion should bring the fuel ethanol capacity to an estimated 40-90

million gallons per year by the end of 1980. This would yield 400-900

million gallons of gasohol per year compared to the current levels of

150-200 million gallons.

If gasohol is produced using coal or other non-premium fuels to supply

energy for the distillation plant and marketed as a “regular’’-grade

transportation fuel, currently planned ethanol capacity could save 35-80

million gallons of gasoline and natural gas energy equivalent per year by

the end of 1980 (2,300-5,200 bbl./day or 0.03-0.07% of current gasoline

consumption.>

In addition to domestic production, there are plans to import 120

million gallons of ethanol per year from Brazil which would displace about

95 million gallons per year (6,000 bbl./day or 0.09% of current consumption)

of gasoline. These imports would also increase the annual U.S. trade

deficit by at least $50 million.

Because there is a 2 year lead time for distillery construction and

start-up, the capacity that will come on line in 1981 depends on the current

rate of investment in new distilleries. Although the available information

is incomplete, there are at least 50-70 million gallons per year of new

capacity which are under study or have been ordered.

Within the next decade, gasohol production could be limited by
feedstock supply.

The longer term future of gasohol is still less assured. Future

production costs are highly uncertain, due to uncertainties in future farm

commodity prices, feedstock availability, and the cost of conversion

processes using alternative feedstocks such as crop residues, grasses, wood

and municipal solid waste. In addition, the development of less expensive

octane boosters, or engine improvements which reduce the need for high

octane fuels, could jeopardize the utility of ethanol as an octane booster.

This would alter the economics of fuel ethanol use and could reduce the

demand.

These and other uncertainties may limit investment in ethanol

distilleries to a total production level below that which is physically

possible and can be sold profitably in the 1980’s. It is equally possible

that federal and state incentives may encourage the development of a large

scale ethanol industry whose output may be difficult to market in the

1990’s0

For these reasons, both the level of fuel ethanol production that

will be achieved and the long term stability of price and demand are highly

uncertain.

o WILL GASOHOL PRODUCTION COMPETE WITH FOOD AND FEED PRODUCTION?

There are numerous sources of ethanol feedstocks, including food

processing wastes, spoiled grain, and various substitutions among

agricultural products which can free land for energy crop production. 1-2

billion gallons of ethanol per year (l-2% of current gasoline consumption)
v

can probably be produced without a significant impact on food and feed

, prices. Beyond this ethanol production level, new cropland would have to be

brought into production, and the farm commodity prices necessary to induce

this land conversion are highly uncertain. Consequently, ethanol production

levels significantly larger than 1-2 billion gallons per year if derived

from food cropland, could lead to strong inflationary trends in food and

feed markets, which would be a substantial indirect cost of ethanol

Production.

In the 1990’s however. ethanol may be able to be Produced

competitively from cellulosic feedstocks (e.g., crop residues and wood),

which would have little impact on food prices.

o WHAT ARE THE COSTS?

Depending on the method of financing, distilleries should be able

to sell ethanol (from $2.50/bu. corn) at between $0.91 and $1-11 per gallon

plus delivery (currently $.10 to $.30 per gallon for stations outside the

distillery’s immediate locale). Due to the strong demand created by federal

and state subsidies (totalling $0.40-$1.10 per gallon or $16.80-$46.20 per

bbl. of ethanol) and intangible factors, ethanol was being sold for as much

as $1.70 per gallon (F.O.B. the distillery) in June and July, 1979.

Gasohol wodd be competitive with gasoline costing the service

station owner $070/gallon (i.e., retail gasoline at about $0.99/gallon) if

the ethanol costs $0.90-$1.00/gallon. With only the federal subsidy

($.04/gallon of gasohol or $16.80/bbl. of ethanol), gasohol can now compete
$1.30-$1.40 per gallon.

The current federal subsidy is adequate (although marginally so in

some cases) to allow gasohol to compete with gasoline at today’s ethanol

production costs and gasoline prices.

It should be noted that current gasohol subsidies apply to imported

as well as domestic ethanol, and the state plus federal subsidies on the

planned imports of ethanol (120 million gallons per year) would amount to

$50-$130 million per year.

o CAN FARMERS PRODUCE THEIR OWN FUEL ON-FARM?

It is technically quite simple to produce ethanol containing 5% or

more water on-farm. This alcohol could be used as a supplement to diesel

fuel in retrofitted diesel engines, but even under favorable conditions the

cost of the ethanol is about twice the current cost of the diesel fuel it

would displace. Cost estimates significantly below this have been popular,

but are based on questionable

With slightly more

for use in gasohol could be

assumptions.

sophisticated equipment, dry ethanol suitable

produced. On-farm production of dry ethanol

could become competitive with commercially distilled ethanol if relatively

automatic and inexpensive mass produced distilleries were available and if

farmers charge little for their labor. As an economically profitable

venture, however, on-farm ethanol production is, at best, marginal under

present conditions.

For some farmers the cost and/or labor required to produce dry or
vii

wet ethanol may be of secondary importance. The value of some degree of

energy self-sufficiency and the ability to divert limited quantities of corn

and other grains when the price is low may outweigh the inconvenience and

cost. As evidence, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms expects to

receive over 5000 applications for on-farm distillation permits this year.

o WHAT ARE THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS?

All components of a gasohol “fuel-cycle” - growing and

harvesting the biomass feedstock, converting it to alcohol, and using the

gasoline/alcohol blend in automobiles - have significant environmental

effects.

The choice of ethanol feedstock is the most critical factor

determining the environmental impact of gasohol. As ethanol production

grows beyond the feedstock capacity of surplus and waste materials, new land

may be placed into intensive cultivation to provide additional feedstocks.

If corn is the primary gasohol feedstock, the result will be a substantial

increase in soil loss as well as fertilizer and pesticide use as millions of

additional acres are put into production. The choice of other feedstocks

will drastically alter these impacts; for example, using perennial grasses

would considerably decrease erosion damages.

The major impact of alcohol distilleries -- potential degradation

of water quality from the waste stillage” -- can be prevented by byproduct

recovery or waste treatment.

Despite claims of strong air quality benefits, gasohol use in

automobiles appears to have a very mixed effect on automotive pollution. It
viii

is difficult to categorize the overall effect as either positive or

negative, although carefully programmed use in selected locations (e.g.,

areas with high carbon monoxide concentration but no smog) or in selected

segments of the automobile fleet (e.g., very richly tuned fleets in areas

where hydrocarbons are more of a problem than oxides of nitrogen) may have

unambiguousl y

o WHAT

positive results.

ARE THE SOCIAL IMPACTS?

The predominant social and economic impacts of gasohol production

are the potential for new on-farm and other rural employment opportunities

and the possibilities of conflicts between food and energy uses of cropland.

The pace of development and the quantity of ethanol produced will be

critical determinants of the social impacts. If the demand for fuel ethanol

increases beyond the supply of feedstocks, competition between energy and

food uses of land could result in more rapidly rising food prices and,

eventually, more rapidly rising land prices. This would benefit landowners,

but would hurt farmers who rent their land or who want to expand their

holdings. Low and middle income groups would bear the greatest share of

these costs. Although farming groups have supported gasohol initiatives in

the hope that increased demand for corn would raise prices, historic

experience indicates that rising land prices would absorb much of the

profit.

If the demand for gasohol rises gradually and market imbalances are

avoided, the overall social and economic impacts of fuel ethanol production

could be strongly positive. On-farm and distillery employment could

stabilize those rural communities which are currently experiencing

unemployment problems.
INTRODUCTION

The development of near- to mid-term

dependence on imported oil and natural gas

strategies

is a major

for reducing our

energy need of the

United States. Displacing such imports with renewable domestic energy

sources is a strategy that has generated significant popular and legislative

interest. Gasohol in particular has become a focus of national attention,

and it is to this subject that this report is addressed.

Gasohol is a mixture of one part ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and nine parts

unleaded gasoline. Although automobiles could be designed to operate on

alcohol alone, for the forseeable future the most economic use of ethanol is

as an octane booster in gasoline. And of the synthetic liquid fuels from

biomass, only ethanol can be produced with technology that is commercially

available in the United States.

Although ethanol cannot by itself solve our energy problems, it may

contribute to what must be a combination of national energy strategies.

This report will place this contribution in perspective and clarify the role

that gasohol may be expected to play in our energy future. Methanol has not

been included because the technology for producing it from biomass is not

commercially available at present and an adequate consideration of the

resource base for methanol production would greatly expand the scope and

complexity of the report. Methanol fuel, however, will be included in a

later report on Energy from Biological Processes.

In this report, references are given as numbers in parentheses, with a

full reference list at the end of the report. With the exception of the

contractor report on Federal Bioenergy Programs, the various OTA contractor

reports cited in the reference list will not be available for public

distribution until the final report on Energy from Biological Processes has

been released.

51-718 0 - 79 - 3
I. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF GASOHOL
ETHANOL PRODUCTION

Commercial Distillation — .

The production of gasohol requires the integration of a number of

factors, two of which are considered in this section -- ethanol distillation

facilities and their feedstocks. Although ethanol can be produced from any

feedstock capable of being reduced to the proper sugars, present U.S.

production technologies rely on sugar and starch feedstocks. Suitable

ethanol crops include corn, wheat, grain sorghum, sugarcane, sugarbeets,

sweet sorghum, and Jerusalem artichokes. There is, however, no “best”

ethanol crop, since different crops will be superior for ethanol production

in different soil types and regions of the country. Current research into

sugar and starch feedstock alternatives to corn are likely to produce

strains that will outperform corn under some circumstances.

In addition to primary crop production, there are numerous sources of

spoiled grain and food processing wastes that can be used to produce

ethanol, but their total potential is small (1,2). Other processes are

under development that will permit the commercial distillation of ethanol

from cellulosic (cellulose containing) feedstocks such as crop residues,

.

grasses, wood, and the paper contained in municipal solid waste.

The ethanol conversion process consists of four basic steps. First,

the feedstock is treated to produce a sugar solution. The sugar is then

converted in a separate step to ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeast or

bacteria in a process called fermentation. The ethanol is removed by a

distillation process which yields a solution of ethanol and water that

cannot exceed 95.6% ethanol (at normal pressures) due to the physical
4

properties of the ethanol-water mixture. In the final step the water is

removed to produce dry ethanol. This is accomplished by adding to the

solution a chemical that changes these physical properties and by distilling

once again.

The material remaining in the water solution after the ethanol

distilled away, called stillage,” contains some dead yeast or bacteria

is

and

the material in the feedstock which was not starch or sugar. Grain

feedstocks, for example, produce a high protein stillage (called distillers’

grain) which can be used as an animal feed* while sugar and cellulose

feedstocks produce a stillage with little protein and less feed value.

At the present time 15-20 million gallons of fuel ethanol per year are

being produced commercially in the U.S., and domestic capacity sho~d

increase to 40-90 million gallons per year by the end of 1980.(3) New

distilleries (e.g. , 50 million gallons per year) can be brought on stream in

only two years, and idle capacity can often be converted in one year or

less. Beyond 1980 the information is sketchy, but there is at least 50-70

million gallons per year of new capacity which 1S under study or has been

ordered and which can be in production in 1981.(3) In addition to domestic

production, American Gasohol (Mineola, N.Y.) is planning to import 120

million gallons of ethanol per year from Brazil.(4)

* The exact nutritional value of distillers’ grain in its various

still uncertain (e.g., the amounts that can be used in animal feed

effect of using wet stillage as a feed). This is a subject

currently being researched.

forms is

and the

that is
5

Looking towards the future, there are several processes uncle r

development which will be able to use cellulosic feeds tocks as sources of

sugar for ethanol production. til of the processes require higher capital

investments (2-3 times higher than conventional processes)(5) because of

expensive pretreatments, and this limits their present applicability.

There are, however, a number of approaches to cellulose conversion which can

improve its competitiveness by lowering the production costs of ethanol.

These include lower capital charges through favorable financing, substantial

credits for byproduct chemicals, improved ethanol yields (gallons per ton of

feedstock), and process innovations. A process developed by Gulf Oil

Chemicals Co., for example, uses municipal waste paper, and municipal bond

financing would make the distillery competitive with conventional processes.

(Because of the higher capital investment, special financing lowers the

ethanol cost more than for grain distilleries.) Another cellulose process,

developed in the U.S. during World War II and used commercially in the USSR,

produces ethanol from wood. The process has recently been reevaluated(6) as

a source of ethanol and byproduct chemical feedstocks (e.g., phenol and

furfural). Although the capital investment for the distillery is three

times that of a corn distillery, the byproduct credits are of sufficient

value to make the ethanol competitive. The chemical industry, however, is

unlikely to make the commitment to these feedstocks that would be necessary

to support a large ethanol program until more information is available on

the relative merits of biomass and coal derived chemical feedstocks. (7)

Aside from special financing or large byproduct credits, the key to

making cellulosic feedstocks competitive is to achieve high ethanol yields

without the use of expensive equipment, excessive loss of process chemicals,
6

or the production of toxic wastes. At present there are no processes which

fulfill all of these criteria. Current research and development efforts,

however, could lead to significant results in 3-5 years, and commercial

facilities could be available by the late 1980’s.

Another way to reduce the costs of ethanol from cellulose is through

process innovation. There are several possibilities for improvements,

including minor changes which take advantage of the low purity requirements

for fuel ethanol, and major process innovations for concentrating

the ethanol. An additional possibility involves a fundamentally

process for ethanol production. Rapidly heating cellulosic

and drying

different

materials

produces a gas which contains ethylene, a chemical that can be converted to

ethanol with commercially available technology. Although this process is

still at the laboratory stage, preliminary calculations indicate that the

costs and yields could compare favorably to fermentation, and the process

would require less energy. (8) It is unlikely, however, that the entire

process could be made commercially available before the 1990’s.

On-Farm Distillation

Apart from commercial distilleries, there has been interest expressed

in the role which individual farmers can play in ethanol production.

Producing ethanol on the farm, however, faces a number of limitations which

may severely restrict its widespread practice.
7

On site distillation of ethanol for farm use may be possible at a cost

of $1.00/gallon of 95% ethanol plus labor. * If it is used as a fuel

supplement for

to diesel fuel

therefore have

subsidies.

retrofitted diesel driven tractors this would be equivalent

costing $1.70 per gallon. (9) Current diesel prices would

to double for ethanol production to be competitive without

cost estimates significantly below this are apparently based on

ignoring equipment

animal feed that

producing ethanol

above.

and/or fuel costs, assigning a credit for the byproduct

is significantly higher than its market value, and/or

containing significantly more water than the 5% assumed

If the purpose of on-farm distillation is to develop a degree of energy

self-sufficiency, the higher cost of ethanol may be acceptable. Due to

technical limitations, however, ethanol can displace only 35% of the diesel

fuel used in retrofitted diesel engines. (9)

Limitations also apply where distillation is viewed as a process for

diverting significant quantities of grain produced on the farm. A typical

farm of 500 acres could produce 50,000 bu. of corn, of which 1,000 bu., or

2%, would provide as much ethanol (2,500 gallons) as could

* While equipment costs will vary considerably depending

reasonably be

upon how automatic

they are, $1 for each gallon per year of capacity is plausible. Assuming

this equipment cost, the costs per gallon of ethanol are: $0.58 for net

feedstock cost, $0.20 for equipment costs (operated at 75% of capacity),

$0.20 for fuel (assuming $3/MMBTu and 67,000 BTU/gallon) and $0.05 for

enzymes and chemicals, resulting in $1.03/gallon of ethanol or $0.98/gallon

of 95% ethanol.

51-718 0 - 79 - I+
8

used as a diesel fuel substitute in retrofitted diesel engines. (9, 10)

Converting 20% of the crop to ethanol would produce 25,000 gallons, far more

than could be used on the farm, and would require a significant investment

of probably $25,000 or more.

The quality of the ethanol most easily produced on farms across the

nation is likely to limit the uses for which it would be appropriate. As a

gasoline additive, for example, ethanol must be free of water in order to

avoid operating problems. (9, 11) Not only would producing dry ethanol

change the economics of on-farm distillation, but the current drying

processes involve the use of dangerous chemicals. Alternate processes using

drying agents, or desiccants, can probably be developed, but the costs are

uncertain. (12)

On-farm production of dry ethanol could become competitive with

commercially distilled ethanol if relatively automatic mass-produced

distilleries could be sold for less than $1 for each gallon per year of

capacity and if farmers charge little for their labor. Although 150,000

gallon per year package distilleries producing 95% ethanol can be bought for

prices approaching this value (13), OTA is not aware of any farm size (1,000

- 10,000 gallon per year) package distilleries for producing either 95% or

dry ethanol. The price goal for automatic, on-farm, dry ethanol production

is not unrealistic, but it will probably require process innovations,

particularly in the drying step, and could well involve the use of small,

inexpensive computers for monitoring the process.

Other concerns about on-farm distilleries involve the fuel used to

operate them and the possible diversion of the alcohol produced. As with

large distilleries, abundant or renewable domestic energy sources should be

used to fuel the on-farm distilleries, the most appropriate of which may be

crop residues (using gasifiers currently under development). Another
9

possibility is the use of solar powered distilleries, but the costs are

uncertain. * Obtaining appropriate energy sources for distilleries need not

be a problem, but it is something that should be considered in legislation

designed to encourage on-farm distillation.

The ethanol produced with most processes can easily be converted to

beverage alcohol.** Although ethanol can be denatured to render it unfit

for consumption, regulations will be difficult to administer.

For some farmers the cost and/or labor required to produce ethanol may

be of secondary importance. The value of some degree of energy

self-sufficiency and the ability to divert limited amounts of corn and other

grains when the market price is low may outweigh the inconvenience and/or

costs. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms has received over 2,800

applications for on-farm distillation

end of the year. (14) As a profitable

of ethanol is, at best, marginal.

permits and they expect 5,000 by the

venture, however, on-farm production

* The key problem is that concentrating a 10% ethanol solution to 95%

ethanol requires a theoretical minimum of 25 evaporation-condensation

cycles. Since a solar powered water distillery only produces one

evaporation-condensation cycle, the ethanol solution would have to be put

through a still of this type many times in order to concentrate the ethanol.

Designs better suited to ethanol concentration, however, can probably be

developed.

** Dilute to 50% with water and filter through activated charcoal.
10

GASOHOL AS AN AUTOMOBILE

Between 150-200 million gallons of gasohol

FUEL

per year are being sold in

over 800 service stations in at least 28 states, and the major U.S.

automobile manufacturers have extended their warrantee to permit the use of

gasohol. (2, 15) Despite its increasing acceptability and use, however,

there are several technical aspects which merit

include fuel stability, drivability, octane boosting

and mileage with

Fuel Stability

Only minute

the addition of

containing more

gasohol. These points are considered

consideration. These

properties of ethanol,

below.

quantities of water will dissolve in gasoline and although

ethanol increases the water volubility somewhat, gasohol

than 0.3% water can separate into two phases, or layers,

which can cause automobiles to stall. Although some additives designed to

prevent phase separation with 95%

to be fully satisfactory. (9)

(anhydrous) ethanol, and storage

ethanol have

Consequently,

and transport

been tested, none has proven

gasohol blends require dry

tanks must be kept free of

moisture. Although there have been occurrences of phase separation in a few

service stations, if dry ethanol is used and due care taken, this should not

be a significant problem.

Automobile Performance

For most automobiles,

indistinguishable from that with a

unknown fraction of the existing

performance with gasohol should be

,

gasoline of the same octane. A small but

automobile fleet, however, will experience

surging, hesitation, and/or stalling with gasohol, due to a variety of

causes.* (9) But these problems should disappear with time as gasohol use

* The leaning effect of gasohol, damage

and dislodging of deposits in the fuel

fuel filter and/or carburetor.

to gaskets, pump diaphragms, etc.,

system leading to clogging in the
11

becomes more widespread and the automobile fleet is replaced with new cars

manufactured to accept gasohol.

Octane

An important advantage of gasohol is that its octane* is higher than

the gasoline to which the ethanol has been added. The exact increase will

depend on the octane and composition of the gasoline and can vary from an

increase of 0.8 to 5 or more octane numbers. (16) For “average” gasolines

the increase is about 3-4 octane numbers.

Raising the octane of motor fuels would enable automobile manufacturers

to increase the efficiency of automobile engines, but this is unlikely to

occur unless gasohol is widely available. Alternatively, the octane of the

gasoline blended to gasohol can be lowered to exactly compensate for the

octane boosting properties of the ethanol. If this is done, there iS an

energy savings at the refinery of 88,000-150,000 BTU per barrel of oil

refined. (9, 16, 17) If these energy savings are attributed solely to the

ethanol, a savings of 0.27-0.45 gallons of gasoline equivalent can be

achieved for each gallon of ethanol used.** Achieving this savings,

however, will require the cooperation of oil refiners and distributors.

*

Average of motor and research octane.

** The median energy savings is 118,000 BTU per barrel of crude oil refined

(higher heat content). Since an average of 55% of a barrel of crude oil is

turned into gasoline, and this gasoline iS mixed with one ninth as much

ethanol, then the 118,000 BTU savi-ngs is attributed to about 2,6 gallons of

ethanol. With a higher heat content of 125,000 BTU/gallon for gasoline>

this results in 0.36 gallons of gasoline per gallon of ethanol.
12

In order to realize the energy savings of ethanol it is

car owners use a fuel with the correct octane. If drivers

essential that

buy a higher

octane

of its

Mileage

gasohol than

superiority,

their cars require, based perhaps on advertising claims

the energy savings would be negated.

Ethanol contains less energy per gallon than gasoline, and a gallon of

gasohol contains 3.8%* less energy than a gallon of gasoline. If all other

factors were equal, this would result in 3.8% lower mileage (miles per

gallon ). The gasohol, however, also “leans” the fuel mixture (i. e., moves

the air-fuel mixture to an effective value that contains less fuel and more

air) which increases the thermal efficiency (miles per BTU) in many cars,

but lowers it in a few.

The mileage measured for gasohol varies considerably from test to test,

but road tests have

tests. The results

often registered better mileage

of the road tests, however, are

averages than

less accurate

laboratory

than

* The lower heat content of ethanol and gasoline are about 76,000 BTU/gallon

and 117,000 BTU/gallon, respectively. In addition 0.9 gallon of gasoline

plus 0.1 gallon of ethanol results in 1.002 gallons of gasohol. Blending

the alcohol result in a 3.6% drop and the expansion an additional 0.2%0

This number, however, can vary somewhat for different gasoline compositions.
13

laboratory tests* and have sometimes been conducted on vehicles which are

not representative

the mileage (miles

than for gasoline.

of the U.S automobile fleet. Based on laboratory data,

per gallon) for gasohol is expected to average O-4% less

ENERGY BALANCE

The energy objective of an ethanol fuel program is the displacement of

foreign oil and gas with a domestic synthetic fuel. The impact of such a

program depends upon the energy balance of growing the feedstock, converting

it to ethanol, and using the ethanol as fuel. The fuels used in the

conversion process must also be considered.

For each gallon of ethanol derived from corn, farming and grain drying

consume, on the average, the energy equivalent of 0.29 gallons of gasoline

* The data available from the 2 million mile gasohol test, (18) for

example, have been analyzed by OTA. Using a standard statistical test (“t”

test) reveals that the spread in data points (standard deviation) is so

large that the mileage difference between gasohol and regular unleaded would

have to be more than 30% (2 times the standard deviation) before OTA would

consider that the test had demonstrated a difference in mileage. While more

sophisticated statistical tests might indicate that the measured difference

in mileage is meaningful, the validity of these statistical methods is

predicated on all the errors being strictly random; and the assumption of

random errors is suspect unless the number of vehicles in the test fleet is

orders of magnitude larger than any tests conducted to date.
14

in the form of oil (for fuel and petrochemicals) and natural gas (for

nitrogen fertilizers). (10) The exact amount, however, will vary with

farming practices (e.g., irrigation) and yields. Although corn is often

cited as an energy intensive crop (due to the high energy inputs per acre

cultivated), the energy used per ton of corn grain produced is comparable to

results achieved with other grains. (lo) In general, however, the energy

input per gallon of ethanol produced will increase when the farmland is of

poorer quality (e.g., set-aside acreage) and/or in dryer or colder climates

(i.e., most of the western half of the country, excluding Hawaii).

The fuel used in the distillation process is perhaps the most important

factor in determining the displacement potential of ethanol. Even under the

most favorable circumstances, distillery energy consumption is significant.

Although the distillery producing most of the fuel ethanol used today

reportedly consumes 0.25 gallon of gasoline equivalent (0.24 in the form of

natural gas) per gallon of ethanol, (14) the derivation of this number

involves some arbitrary decisions about what energy inputs should be

attributed to the facility’s food processing operations, and various factors

probably would make the process unsuitable* for extensive use in fuel

ethanol production. Energy

 1) The distillery probably uses waste heat from an adjacent byproduct

processing plant which consumes nearly as much energy as the distillery but

is not included in the energy balance cited here, 2) acetaldehyde is left in

the ethanol which increases evaporative emissions and the possibility of

vapor lock in automobiles, and 3) the economics are predicated on credits

for byproducts (e.g., corn oil), whose markets could be saturated.
15

efficient stand alone fuel ethanol distilleries would consume the equivalent

of 0.4-0.6 gallon of gasoline per gallon of ethanol. (5, 20) To maximize

the displacement potential of ethanol it iS therefore essential that

distilleries use abundant or renewable domestic energy sources such as coal,

biomass, and/or solar heat. As shown in the following table, reliance on

these fuels would reduce the total use of oil and gas at the distillery to

insignificant levels.

The amount of petroleum displaced by ethanol fuel also depends on the

manner in which it is used. AS an additive in gasohol, each gallon of

ethanol displaces about 0.8 gallons of gasoline. If the oil refinery

produces a lower grade of gasoline to take advantage of the octane boosting

properties of ethanol, an additional 0.36 gallon of gasoline equivalent can

be saved in refinery processing energy, as described on page 11.

Additional energy savings are achieved by using the byproduct

distillers’ grain as an animal feed. To the extent that crop production is

displaced by

grow the feed

In all,

this animal feed substitute, the farming energy required to

crop is displaced.

the total displacement of imported fuels achieved per gallon of

ethanol can be increased by a factor of 2.5 by requiring that 1) petrolem

and natural gas not be used to fuel ethanol distilleries and 2) lower octane

gasoline be used in gasohol blends.

Table 1 summarizes the

entire gasohol fuel cycle.

gasoline equivalent for each

oil and natural gas used and displaced for the

The quantities are expressed as gallons o f

gallon of ethanol produced and used

51-718 0 - 79 - 5
.

16

Table 1 Energy Balance of Gasohol from Corn

Oil and Natural Gas Used (+) and Displaced (-)

(in gallons of gasoline equivalent per

a) gallon of ethanol produced and used )

Set Aside and Potential Cropland

Coal Fired

Present Distillery

Farming 0.29 o.35b)

Distillery 0.24 @

Distillery

Byproduct -o.09d

) -OJ19°

Automobile -0.80 -0.80

Oil Refinery

Coal Fired

Distillery

* & Lowering of

Gasoline Octane

o.35b)

@

-o.09d)

-0.80

-0.36

Total -0.j6(~0.3) -o.54(fo.3) -o.90(q).3)

a Lower heat content of gasoline and ethanol taken to be 117,000 BTU/gallon

and 76,000 BTU/gallon, respectively.

b Estimated uncertainty of ~o.ls.

c 50~_0UL1-?f1,00o BTU of coal per gallon of

d Assumed that distillers’ grain replaces

Source: OTA

ethanol.

corn grown on average cropland.
17

in gasohol. The three cases presented correspond to (1) the present

situation, (2) future production of ethanol from the less productive land

that can be brought into crop production and using coal as a distillery

fuel, and (3) the same as (2) except that the octane of the gasoline is

lowered to exactly compensate for ethanol’s octane boosting properties.

These cases result in net displacements of (1) slightly more than 1/3

gallon, (2) slightly more than 1/2 gallon and (3) slightly less than 1

gallon of gasoline

It should be

distillery boiler

consuming slightly

situation that is

and natural gas equivalent per gallon of ethanol used.

noted, however, that if oil or natural gas is used as a

fuel, the second case could result in the fuel cycle

more oil and natural gas than is displaced. This is the

alluded to in most debates over gasohol’s energy balance,

but it is a situation that can be avoided with appropriate legislation.

In the most favorable case (case (3) above) and with an energy

efficient distillery, however, the ratio of total energy displaced to total

energy consumed is 1.5 (+0.4), i.e., the energy balance is positive (a ratio —

greater than 1). And if the feedstocks are derived from more productive

farmland, or local conditions allow energy savings at the distillery (e.g.,

not having to dry the distillers’ grain), then the balance is even more

favorable. Alternatively, an energy credit could be taken for the crop

residues,

approach

values of

The

gasoline

which would also improve the calculated balances This general

to the energy balance, however, does not consider the different

liquid versus solid fuels.

uncertainty factor in Table 1 of plus or minus 0.3 gallons of

per gallon of ethanol is due primarily to inherent errors in fuel

efficiency measurements, differences in farming practices and yields, and

the magnifying effect on these errors of the low (10%) ethanol content of

gasohol. These factors make it.unlikely that more precise estimates can be

made in the near-term.
11, GASOHOL ECONOMICS
ETHANOL COSTS

Ethanol costs* are influenced by the capital investment in and

financing of the distillery, the distillery operating costs, and the

byproduct credits. The cost of an ethanol distillery for starch and sugar

feedstocks is about $1.00-$2.00 for each gallon per year of capacity.

Distilleries that rely upon sugar feedstocks are more expensive than those

using starch due to the equipment needed to handle the feedstock and to

concentrate

distilleries

the costs of

the

are

coal

sugar solution to a syrup

more expensive than oil or gas

handling and pollution control

for storage. Coal-fired

fueled distilleries, due to

equipment.

For a coal-fired 50 million gallon per year distillery using starch

feedstock, the capital related charges are about $0.35-$0.45 per gallon of

ethanol, assuming 100% private equity financing and a 13% after tax return

on investment. The comparable figure for 100% debt financing with favorable

terms is $0.15-$0.25 per gallon. These charges, however, can vary

significantly with depreciation allowances, tax credits and other economic

incentives.

The major operating expenses are the fuel and feedstock costs. The

coal ($30/ton) would cost about $0.10/gallon of ethanol, which iS

sufficiently less than oil or natural gas to compensate for the added costs

of the coal boiler and handling and pollution control equipment Although

increased demand could raise coal prices, the effect on the ethanol costs

would be relatively small.

* Ml dollar figures quoted here are for 1978 and are in 1978 dollars.
20

The largest cost in ethanol production is the net feedstock cost, or

the feedstock cost less the byproduct credit. With corn at $2.50 per

bushel, the corn grain costs $0.96 per gallon of ethanol and the byproduct

credit is about $0.38 per gallon, resulting in a net feedstock cost of $0.58

per gallon. Since farm commodity prices are extremely volatile, the net

feedstock and resultant ethanol cost are also variable. A $0.50/bu.

increase in corn grain prices (and a proportionate increase in the byproduct

credit), for example, would raise the ethanol cost by $0.12 per gallon.

Distilleries which rely on grain feedstocks depend for their byproduct

credit on the cost of distillers’ grain as an animal feed supplement. There

is uncertainty, however, regarding the amounts of distillers grain which

can profitably be added to animal feeds. USDA and others have estimated

that byproduct credits could begin to drop due to saturation of the domestic

feed market at about 2 billion gallons of ethanol production per year (0.13

million bbl./day of ethanol or about 1.8% of the present gasoline

consumption). (10, 21, 22) At significantly higher levels of production,

new markets for distillers’ grain (e.g., exports, protein extracts) would

have to be developed or distillers could lose the byproduct credit,

increasing the ethanol cost by $0.38 per gallon.

The costs for ethanol produced from various feedstocks are shown in

Tables 2 and 3. Although the costs will vary depending on the size of the

distillery, ethanol can be produced from corn ($2.50/bu.) in a coal fired 50

million gallon per year distillery for $1.11 (+$0.10) per gallon with 100% —

private equity financing (including a 13% return on investment) and $0.91

(~$0.10) per gallon with 100% debt financing.* About $0.10-$0.30 per gallon

* Details are given in note d of Table 2.
TABLE 2

Late 1978 Production Costs for Ethanol

From Grain and Sugar Crops

In a 50 Million Gallon Per Year Distillery

Graina

) Sugarb)

Fixed Capital

Working Capital (10% of F.C.)

Total Investment

$59 million $100 million

$5.9 million $10 million

$64.9 million $110 million

Operating Costs:

$/gallon of 99.6% ethanol

Labor

Chemicals

Water

Coal ($30/ton)

Sub total

0.04 0.05

0.01 0.01

0.01 0.01

c)

0009 - — 0.00

0.15 0.07

Capital Charges:

15%-30% of Total Investment per yeard) 0018 - 0.38 0.33 - 0.66

Total 0.33- 0.53 0.40 - 0.73

a) Includes drying of distillers’ grain

b, Includes equipment for extracting the sugar from the feedstock

concentrating it to a syrup for storage.

c) Bagasse fueled distillery appropriate for sweet sorghum and sugarcane.

d) There are many, often complex formulae to compute actual capital costs.

Economic factors considered include debt/equity ratio, depreciation

schedule, income tax credit, rate of- inflation, terms of debt repayment,

operating capital requirements, and investment lifetime. However, a

realistic range of possibilities for annual capital costs would lie between

15% and 30% of total capital investment.

The upper extreme of 30% may be obtained assuming 100% equity finance

and a 13% after tax rate of return on investment. The lower extreme of 15%

may be obtained assuming 100% debt financing at a 9% rate of interest. Both

calculations assume constant dollars, a 20 year project lifetime, and

include a charge for local taxes and insurance equal to 3% of fixed capital

costs. For a more detailed treatment of capital costs see OTA, Application

of Solar Technology to Today's Energy Needs, Vol. 11, Chapter 1.

Source: OTA and Reference 20.

51-718 0 - 79 - 6
TABLE 3

Cost of Ethanol From Various Sources

Net Feedstock

Cos tb)

Feedstock Pricea) ($/gallon ethanol)

Corn $2 .44/bu 0.57

Wheat $3.07-4 .04/bud) O ● 73-1 .08d)

Grain Sorghum $2.23/bu 0049

Oats $1.42/bu 0.59

Sweet Sorghum $15.00/tone) 0.79

Sugar Cane $17003/tonf) 1.26

Ethanol

cost

($/gallon)

0.90-1.10

1.06-1.61

0.82-1.02

0.92-1.1 2

1.19-1.52

1.66 - 1099

a) Average of 1974-77 seasonal average prices.

b) The difference in feedstock costs might not hold over the longer term due

to equilibration of prices through large scale ethanol production.

c) Average of 1974-1977 national average yieldsd) Range due to different prices for different types of wheats

e) Assuming 20 fresh Wight tons/acre yield, $300/acre production costf) Excludes 1974 data due to the anomalously high sugar prices that Year.

Yieldc

)

(gallons

of ethanol

per acre)

220

85

130

75

3 8 0

e

)

520

SOURCE: USDA, Agricultural Statistics, 1978 and OTA.
23

should be added to these costs for deliveries of

distillery. (The ethanol is currently delivered

up to 1,000 miles from the

in tank trucks, but as the

production

shipments,

cost to as

volume grows other forms of transportation, such as barge

rail tank cars, and petroleum product pipelines, * could lower the

low as $0.03 - $0.05 per gallon under favorable circumstances.)

* Various strategies can be used to eliminate potential problems with the

water sometimes found in petroleum pipelines. If ethanol is being

transported, the total volume of ethanol in the batch can be kept large

enough so that the percentage of water in the delivered ethanol is within

tolerable limits. If gasohol is transported, it can be preceded by a few

hundred bbl. of ethanol which will absorb any water found in the pipeline,

thereby keeping the gasohol dry. Other strategies also exist or can be

developed. (23)
VALUE OF ETHANOL IN GASOHOL

For the purpose of

ethanol is competitive

this report, value is defined as the price at which

as a gasoline additive. Calculated simply on the

basis of its energy content, ethanol costing $1.10/gal. is equivalent to

gasoline selling at the refinery gate for $1.70/gal. (2.5 times the present

price), or $44/bbl. crude oil.*

The value of ethanol in gasohol, however, is primarily determined by

its octane boosting properties. Although this varies considerably depending

on the gasoline and other specifics,

times the average crude oil acquisition

details).

OTA estimates the value at 1.9-2.5

price (see box on page 26 for the

Without subsidies, ethanol presently (July, 1979) has a value of

$0.75-$1.00 per gallon. With the federal subsidy of $0.40 per gallon of

ethanol ($16.80/bbl. of ethanol or $0.04 per gallon of gasohol), the value

is $1.15-$1040 per gallon; and with some state subsidies of $0.40-$0.70 per

gallon ($16.80-$29.40/bbl. ) of ethanol, the value is $1.55-$2.10 per gallon.

Ethanol distilled from corn ($2.50/bu.) can be produced in a 50 million

gallon per year coal fired distillery and delivered to a service station for

$1.20-$1.40 per gallon, making it competitive with the federal subsidy alone

if the gasohol is blended at the service station. At this price ethanol

* Assuming the current

price of unleaded regular

value of 1.64 for the ratio of the refinery gate

to the crude oil acquisition price. (24)
25

would be competitive without subsidies when U.S. refineries

crude oil price of $20-$ 31/bbl. , or when retail unleaded

about $1.10-$1.60 per gallon* on the average.

pay an average

gasoline costs

Several factors, however, can change the estimated value of ethanol.

If a special, low octane, low vapor pressure gasoline is sold for blending

with ethanol, at low sales volumes the wholesaler might assign a larger

overhead charge per gallon sold. Also, the refinery removes relatively

inexpensive gasoline components in order to lower the vapor pressure** of

the gasoline, and this increases its cost. On the other hand, in areas

where gasohol is popular, the large sales volumes lower service station

overhead per gallon of gasohol, thus raising ethanol’s value. These factors

can change the value of ethanol by as much as $.40 per gallon in either

direction; and the pricing policies of oil refiners and distributors will,

to a large extent,

an octane boosting

determine whether ethanol is economically attractive as

additive.

* Assuming cost relationships, as follows: Refinery gate price equal to 1.64

times crude oil prices plus delivery and retail mark-ups and taxes totalling

$0.30-$0.40/gallon. (23)

** The more volatile components of gasoline (e.g., butanes) may be removed

to decrease evaporative emissions and reduce the possibility of vapor lock.

Although these components can be used as fuel, removing them decreases the

quantity of gasoline and the octane boost achieved by the ethanol.

Consequently, the advantages of having a less volatile gasoline must be

weighed against the resultant decrease in the gasoline quantity and the

value of the ethanol. Further research is needed to help resolve the

dilemma.
26

— . .

Two Ways to Calculate the Value of Ethanol

Two different values for ethanol can be derived, depending upon where

the ethanol is blended to form gasohol.

At the oil refinery, each gallon of ethanol used as an octane booster

saves the refinery the equivalent of 0.36 gallons of gasoline by allowing

the production of a lower octane gasoline (see section on octane under

Technical Aspects of Gasohol). In addition, the gallon of ethanol displaces

0.8 gallons of gasoline directly (2% mileage decrease with gasohol), leading

to a total displacement of 1.16 gallons of gasoline per gallon of ethanol.

At the refinery gate, unleaded regular costs about 1.64 times the crude oil

price, so the ethanol is valued at 1.16 x 1.64 = 1.9 times the crude oil

price.

If the gasoline retailer blends the gasohol, the value of the ethanol

is somewhat different. Gasoline retailers buy regular unleaded gasoline for

about $0.70 per gallon (24) and sell gasohol for a rough average of $0.03

per gallon more than regular unleaded. (9) (The difference between this and

the retail price of gasoline is due to taxes and service station mark up,

which total about $0.29/gallon. (24) One tenth gallon of ethanol displaces

$0.07 worth of gasoline and the mixture sells for $0.03 per gallon more.

Therefore, 0.1 gallon of ethanol is valued at $O*1O or $1.00/gallon. This

is 2.5 times the July, 1979 average crude oil price of $0.40 per gallon.

Both of these estimates are approximate, and changing price relations

between crude oil and gasoline can change the estimates.
27

SOURCES OF ETHANOL

In the course of developing a large-scale gasohol program, ethanol

supplies could be increased by taking advantage of such sources, methods or

strategies as the following:

o

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

spoiled and substandard grain

food processing wastes

direct imports of ethanol

reduction of grain exports

cultivation on set-aside and diverted cropland

substitution among crops

substitution of forage for ethanol feedstock crops

in livestock rations

cellulose feedstocks after the late 19801s.

Spoiled and substandard grains and food processing wastes can be

utilized to produce ethanol totaling somewhat less than 1% of current

gasoline consumption.(1, 2) In some cases, however, they are an unreliable

source of supply, or are locally available only in small quantities.

Realizing their full production potential will probably involve using them

as feedstock supplements for distilleries relying on other sources.

Ethanol can be imported from Brazil for prices lower than it is being

produced domestically. Since the imported ethanol costs a minimum of $0.42

per gallon more than the crude oil it could displace, the planned level of

imports (120 million gallons per year) would increase our trade deficit by
28

at least $50 million,* and federal plus state subsidies totalling $50

million to $130 million would be paid in the process.

Policies intended to limit the export of grains, or policies which

effectively reduce exports by deliberately raising the price of exported

grains (e.g., by fixing the price of

in additional feedstocks for ethanol

been 70-80 million metric tons/year.

corn to that of crude oil), can result

production. Recent grain exports have

These exports could produce about 6-9

billion gallons of ethanol per year, displacing approximately $3-5 billion

in imported crude oil. The loss of $10-12 billion in grain export revenues,

however, would

With corn

result in a $5-9 billion net increase in the trade deficit.

at $2.50 bu., imported crude oil would have to cost about

$32-$40/bbl. before it would decrease the trade deficit to curtail corn

exports to increase the supply of ethanol feedstocks.** When economic

forces (e.g., rising prices) reduce the level of grain exports, however, the

situation is more subtle. Increasing the prices of grain would decrease the

volume of exports, but it might initially increase slightly the gross income

from exports. As grain prices continued to rise, however, the gross income

from exports would eventually drop.

* According to the importer, American Gasohol, the import price is at least

$1.00/gallon. (4) Each gallon of ethanol, as it iS used nOW, displaces less

than 0.8 gallons of crude oil at $0.50/gallon ($21/bbl). If the octane

boosting properties of ethanol are exploited, the displacement is less than

1.16 gallons of crude oil per gallon of ethanol. Therefore $1 worth of

ethanol would displace less than $0.58 worth of crude oil, resulting in a

net increase in the trade deficit of at least $50 million.

** me situation is more favorable if the distillers’ grain byproduct can be

exported instead of the corn. In this case, there would be no net change in

the trade deficit with the current prices of corn and distillers’ grain and

with crude oil at $20-$25/bbl. , which is near the current price. Pursuing

this strategy, however, would increase the international price of corn and

decrease the international price of distillers’ grain. Consequently, crude

oil prices would have to be somewhat higher than $20-$25/bbl. for the,

strategy to decrease the trade deficit.
29

Cultivation on set aside and diverted acreage is often mentioned as a

possible source of ethanol feedstocks. In 1978 there were 18.2 million

acres in these categories and the 1979 total is about 11.2 million

acres.(25) Although the majority of this land is not suitable for corn

production, sufficient feedstocks could have been produced in 1978 and 1979

for about two and one billion gallons of ethanol, respectively. The quantity

of set-aside and diverted acreage, however, will vary significantly from

year to year and there is no assurance that this land will continue to be

available for energy production.

In addition to set-aside and diverted cropland, OTA estimates that at

least 30 million acres of potential cropland and cropland pasture can be

used for the production of ethanol feedstocks in the 1980?s over and above

the land required for

sufficient to produce

food, feed, and fiber production.

5-7 billion gallons of ethanol per

(26) This would be

year.

Crop yields for this land, however, are likely to be more sensitive to

*

weather variations than the land currently under cultivation.

Consequently, a heavy reliance on this land for grain production is likely

to increase the year to year variability in grain supplies. This could lead

to greater fluctuations in farm commodity prices and could require a larger

grain buffer stock to stabilize prices. The required size of the buffer

stock, and its added costs, are unknown, but increasing the buffer stock by

10% of the additional grain produced would cost about $0.01 per gallon of

ethanol in federal grain storage subsidies ($0.25/bushel year).

* An often cited reason that this land is not now in production is that the

soil does not retain moisture well or is prone to periodic flooding.

Consequently the crop growth could be very sensitive to the rainfall pattern

and could vary significantly from year to year.
—

30

The cost of converting this land to crop production varies from

negligible amounts to perhaps $600/acre for some forested land. (26)

Although federal grants could eliminate the one time cost of conversion, it

is not known how much land would actually be brought into production at any

given level of farm commodity prices (see next section). Consequently, the

full cost of utilizing this land is unknown.

As the demand for ethanol feedstocks increases and more distillers’

grain becomes available several types of market induced substitutions can

occur. The distillers’ grain can substitute for soybean meal in animal

feed, which could result in less soybean production. Land which is

presently in soybeans could then be used for

production. In addition, some feed corn

combination of forage grass and distillers’

additional ethanol feedstock

could be replaced with a

grain. There are numerous

uncertainties, however, about how much substitution actually will take

place* and how much distillers’ grain can profitbly be fed to animals.

Assuming these substitutions occur, the total quantity of ethanol could

possibly be raised from the 5-7 billion gallons per year from potential

cropland and cropland pasture to as much as 10 billion gallons per year.

In the 1990’s, the quantity of land available for energy crop

production beyond the needs for food, feed and fiber will probably drop and

ethanol producers may have to convert to cellulosic feedstocks. The

potential ethanol production from these sources** is over S billion gallons

* The soybean meal industry, for example, may continue to buy soybeans and

attempt to export the meal. The major customer, however, would probably be

the EEC, which might impose import restrictions in order to protect its

indigenous soybean mal industry. As a result there could be severe

competition between distillers’ grain and soybean meal, and the outcome is

uncertain.

** Assuming potential yields of 100 gallons of ethanol per ton of feedstock.
per year from

from increased

31

crop residues, an additional 10-20 billion gallons per year

forage grass production, and considerably more from wood.

And based on OTA’S assessment of municipal solid waste, (27) an additional

3-4 billion gallons per

source.

With the potential

ethanol in the next 3-5

distilleries are built.

of 7-10 billion gallons

year could be obtained from paper derived from this

availability of grain feedstocks, the production of

years will be limited primarily by the rate that new

Although production could conceivably reach a level

per year by the 1990’s, expanding the total capacity

to a level above 1-2 billion gallons per year would make ethanol production

compete increasingly with other uses for farm commodities. In the mid- to

long-term this competition may be severe, and to maintain or expand a fuel

ethanol industry, distilleries may have to turn to cellulosic materials for

their feedstocks.

COMPETITION BETWEEN FOOD AND FUEL

At this early stage in the development of the ethanol fuel industry,

the cost of feedstock is tied directly to the value of farm commodities as

food. As the ethanol industry expands, however, this relationship could

reverse itself. A combination of ethanol subsidies and rising crude oil

prices could drive up the price of farm commodities and ultimtely the price

of food. ‘L’he extent to which this will happen depends critically upon how

much additional cropland can be brought into production in response to

rising food prices and, eventually, on the cost of producing ethanol from

cellulosic feedstocks. These and other major uncertainties, such as future
32

weather and crop yields, make it impossible to predict the full economic

impact of a large fuel ethanol program.

The relatively low demand for fuel ethanol feedstocks currently exerts

negligible pressure on farm commodity prices. As long as fuel ethanol

production is sufficiently profitable, however, new distilleries will be

built and feedstock purchases will expand. The increased demand will drive

corn prices up

the price for

consumers would

toward the distillery break even point and thereby increase

all purchasers of corn. Under these circumstances food

be indirectly subsidizing the consumption of fuel.

This indirect subsidy is illustrated in the following example. If the

price at which ethanol is competitive increases by $0.12 per gallon, due to

increased subsidies or a $2.50/bbl. increase in crude

prices would eventually increase by $0.50/bu. Domestic

billion bushels of feed corn (1976-1977) would cost

billion. Although there would be a number of market

oil prices, corn

consumption of 4

an additional $2

adjustments, the

increased corn cost would eventually appear as higher prices for meat and

other food products. Excluding downstream markups, U.S. food expenditures

could increase by more than 1%. Farm income, however, could increase by

more than 3.5%.

The cost of this indirect subsidy per gallon of ethanol would depend on

the supply response to increased corn prices. If ethanol production

increased 500 million

production) in response

ethanol is competitive,

gallons (about 25 times the current fuel ethanol

to a $0.12 per gallon increase in the price at which

the indirect subsidy would still be more than $4 per
—

33

gallon of ethanol. If the supply response were ten times larger, 5 billion

gallons, the indirect subsidy could be more than $0.4.O/gallon.

The previous example is perhaps an oversimplification -- actual impacts

on feedstock prices and consumer food expenditures may be larger or smaller,

depending on a complex of economic factors. Economic forces, however, will

tend to couple the prices of food and fuel and transfer instabilities from

one sector to the other. Although rising fuel prices will increase farm

commodity prices in any case, a large fuel ethanol program could involve

significant indirect costs and increase the inflationary impact of rising

fuel prices, unless the program is designed to restrain the purchase of

ethanol feedstocks in times of short supply. This would of course greatly

increase the financial risks for ethanol producers and make the supply of

ethanol uncertain.
— —————

34

COMPETITION WITH OTHER LIQUID FUELS

Whether or not ethanol is worth its cost, including both direct and

indirect subsidies depends upon the cost and availability of other liquid

fuels and the cost of energy conservation. Ethanol shares an advantage with

existing conservation technologies in that it uses current technology and

thus it may be an important fuel during the 1980’s

expensive synfuels and newer or improved conservation

before possibly less

technologies can be

made available. Table 4 permits cost comparisons among some alternative

fuel sources.

As an octane boosting additive, ethanol is nearly competitive today.

The development of less expensive octane boosters or automobile engines

which do not require high octane fuels, however, could seriously curtail the

market for ethanol as an octane booster. In this case, ethanol would have

to be marketed on its fuel value alone.

As a stand alone fuel, ethanol is unlikely to be competitive with

methanol from coal, but it might be competitive as a fuel additive to the

more expensive synfuels. The cost uncertainties, however, are too great to

reliably predict whether a strong demand for fuel ethanol will continue into

the 1990ts.

The long-term viability of the fuel ethanol industry, will depend not

only on sustained market demand, but also on the costs of conversion

processes utilizing cellulosic feestocks. A major constraint may be the

availability of capital for the large investments that are likely to be

needed to convert distilleries to the cellulosic processes. These

investments, for example, could be as large or larger than the cost of new
35

TABLE 4

ESTIMATED COSTS IN 1978 DOLLARS OF ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FUELS1)

Fuel Source $/MMBTU $/MMBTU 1990

(RaW Liquid) (Refined Motor Fue12) ) Potent ial

(000 bbl./day)

Fuels Requiring No Automobile Modification

Imported Crude 3.40 6.20 4500 - 8500

Enhanced Oil

Recovery 1.70 - 5.90 3.10 - 10.90 300 - 1500

Oil Shale 4.20 - 6.80 8.90 - 14.103) 30 - 300

Syncrude

Coal

Methanol

Coal

Methanol

from

4.70 - 7.60 10.30 - 16.204

) 50 - 500

Fuels Requiring Automobile Modifications If Used as Stand-Alone Fuels

from

5.50 - 7.90 50 - 5005)

from

Biomass 8.20 - 14.60 50 - 500

Ethanol From

Biomass 10.70 - 17.80 50 - 500

1) Cost estimtes for synfuels may be low because commercial scale plants

have not yet been built. The values given encompass currently accepted best

estimates.

2) In order to compare refined liquids (e.g., methanol and ethanol) with

unrefined liquids (e.g., crude oil, shale oil, and syncrude), the following

methodology is used. Where necessary (shale oil and syncrude), upgrading

costs are added to the raw liquid costs. The cost per gallon of refined

liquids is then assumed to be 1.64 times the cost per gallon of the upgraded

raw liquid, which is the current ratio of the cost of refinery gate regular

unleaded gasoline and the average crude oil acquisition cost.

3) Raw liquid cost of $25 - $40/bbl. plUS $3.50 - $5.00/bbl. for upgrading4) Raw liquid cost of $28 - $45/bbl. plus $S.00 - $7.00/bbl. for upgrading.

5) This is not additive to the potential of syncrude from coal.

SOURCE: OTA, K.A. Rogers and R.F. Hill, Coal Conversion Comparison, prepared

for U.S. Department of Energy under contract EF-77-C-01-2468, and Coal

Liquids and Shale Oil as Transportation Fuels, A Discussion Paper of the

Automotive Transportation Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette,

Indiana, July 6, 1979.
36

oil shale or coal liquification plants of comparable capacity. And

comparable

conservation

liquid fuel.

investments

and enhanced

Although

conducted, these are

or subsidies designed

oil recovery could yield

to encourage increased

much larger supplies of

an assessment of the alternatives has not been

important questions which can influence the

desirability of fuel ethanol production in the 1990ts.

Although synfuels from coal and shale are expected to be produced

during the 1990’s, atmospheric build-up of C02 could alter these plans. If

C02 becomes an overriding concern, ethanol from crop residues and wood would

become much more attractive.

Until the uncertainties are resolved, however, investment in ethanol

distilleries is likely to be limited to total production levels below that

which is physically possible and economically viable in the 1980’s.
111. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Perceptions about the environmental benefits and costs of gasohol have

focused on the potential air quality effects of emissions from

gasohol-powered automobiles. Each stage of the gasohol “fuel cycle” has

significant environmental effects, however, and the most important effects

are likely to be the result of growing and harvesting the ethanol

“feedstocks” - starch and sugar crops, crop residues, grasses and wood.

OBTAINING THE FEEDSTOCK

Starch and sugar crops would be the most likely near-term candidates

for the ethanol feedstocks of a large-scale gasohol program; proven

conversion technologies exist for these crops, and large acreages suitable

for conversion to intensive agriculture are currently available. At the

present time, pressure to promote gasohol is stressing the use of surplus

and distressed crops as well as food wastes, but supplies of these

feedstocks are limited. A commitment to produce quantities of gasohol

greater than these sources can provide (i.e., more than a few hundred

million gallons of ethanol per year) must involve additional crop production

through more intensive cultivation of present cropland and the development

of “potential” cropland currently in forest, range or pasture. A commitment

to produce enough gasohol to supply most U.S. automotive requirements could

involve putting approximately 30-70 million additional acres into intensive

crop production. Assuming the acreage was actually available, this new crop

production would accelerate erosion and sedimentation, increase pesticide

and fertilizer use, replace unmanaged with managed ecosystems, and aggravate

other environmental damages associated with American agriculture.

Soil erosion and its subsequent impact on land and water quality will

be a significant impact of an expansion of intensive agricultural
39

production. Current agricultural production is the primary cause of soil

erosion in the U.S.: between 2 and 3 billion tons of soil from American

farms enter the nationts surface waters each year. (28) The soil particles

cause turbidity, fill reservoirs and lakes, obstruct irrigation canals, and

damage or destroy aquatic habitats. In addition, they transport other water

pollutants including nitrogen, phosphorus, pesticides, and bacteria. (28)

Although the extent of the damage to aquatic ecosystems is unknown, yearly

material damage from sedimentation has been esttiated at over S1

billion. Aside from damages

allowing a sustained soil loss

eventually will rob the land of

intensively managed croplands

associated with these water impacts,

of more than about 5 tons/acre year

its topsoil. Average erosion rates on

currently exceed these levels by a

considerable margin. For example, sheet and rill erosion alone on

intensively managed croplands averages 6.3 tons/acre year nationally and 7.3

tons/acre year in the Corn Belt. (30) These high rates of erosion are

allowed to persist because in all but the most severe cases the loss of

valuable topsoil is slow. A net loss of 10 tons/acre year leads to a loss

of only an inch of topsoil in 15 years. Depending on the depth of the

topsoil and the depth and quality of the subsoil, the loss in productive

potential over this length of time may be significant or negligible. Even a

significant loss may go unnoticed, because it is masked in the short term by

productivity improvements resulting from improvements in other farming

practices or more intensive use of agricultural chemicals. Eventually,

however, continuing losses in productive potential could cause a leveling

off and even a decline in U.S. farmland productivity.
— —

40

Erosion from current production appears to be a reasonable model on

which to base evaluations of future erosion potential from ethanol crop

production. An examination of Soil Conservation Service land capability

data indicates that the lands most likely to be shifted to intensive ethanol

feedstock production are somewhat more erosive than land that is currently

being cultivated, but not excessively so. On a national basis, 48% of the

land

most

data

the

in intensive crops is erosive compared to 53-60% of the land

likely to be shifted to intensive production. (30) Although

are not available, the land currently set aside probably would

first to be used and the most erosive of the land base for

that is

precise

be both

biomass

energy crops.

The extent of any erosion problem will depend on the type of crop s

grown. In general, annual crops are more erosive than perennials, and row

crop s more than close-grown crops. Thus, corn (an annual row crop), th e

most widely discussed gasohol crop, would be among the most erosive; forage

grasses (perennial close-grown crops) may be among the least.

A large expansion in intensively managed cropland will have important

impacts in addition to erosion damage . For example, pesticide use - -

currently at about one billion

expand somewhat proportionately

long-term effects of pesticides

(e.g., Aldrin, Dieldrin, Mirex)

pounds per year for the U.S. (29) -- will

to the expansion in acreage. Although the

are not well understood , some pesticides

have been banned from use because of their

potential to cause cancer or other damage -- and it is possible that other

widely-used pesticides will be discovered to be dangerous as more knowledge

accumulates. Public interest in pesticide dangers to human health --
whether proven or merely perceived -- appears to be sharply on the rise.

OTA considers it a strong possibility that public reaction to health damage s

reported to be linked to pesticide use ma y increase dramatically in th e

future . This may constrain both the continuing rise in pesticide usage and

the expansion of crop production for energy feedstocks.

Another important issue concerns the heavy use of fertilizers on new

cropland. Fertilizer application rates on this land probably will be high

because the payoff in increased yield is well established. Runoff and

leaching of nutrients to surface and groundwaters will cause premature aging

of streams and other damage to aquatic ecosystems. In addition, natural gas

must be used to produce nitrogen fertilizers for the new crops (or to

replace the nitrogen embodied in the residues removed). At current

application rates, 50 million acres of corn production would require ove r

100 billion cubic feet of gas per year, or over 1/2 of 1% of total U.S.

natural gas production .

The increase in cropland also would involve a transformation of

unmanaged or lightly managed ecosystems -- such as forests -- into

intensively managed systems. For example, approximately one quarter of the

land identified by USDA as having a high or medium potential to become

cropland is forest, (31) and the Forest Service considers this land --

especially in the Southeast -- as a prime target for conversion. A

full-scale national gasohol program could increase the pressure to clear as

many as 10 to 30 million acres of unmanaged or lightly managed forest.
42

All of the impacts associated with increased crop production are

functions not only of the type of crops grown but also of land capability,

production practices, improvements made to the land, and other factorsThere is enough freedom of choice in the system to significantly reduce

environmental impacts of a major gasohol program. Aside from choosing

land to be cultivated as well as the crop and tilling procedure, farmers

the

the

may

use a variety of environmental protection measures such as integrated pest

management procedures, soil analysis to minimize fertilizer applications,

and the development of disease-resistant crops to reduce impacts. The

Environmental Protection Agency (through its 208 areawide planning process

to control nonpoint sources of pollution) and the Department of Agriculture

(through the Soil Conservation Service programs) have made only limited

progress, however, in shifting farming practices toward more environmentally

benign and soil conserving methods. (32, 33) Also, there is considerable

controversy surrounding the net environmental effects and the potential

impacts on crop yields of some of the measures advocated as environmentally

beneficial. For example, conservation tillage, advocated as an extremely

effective erosion control, requires increased applications of herbicides and

insecticides (34) (the latter to combat insects that are sheltered by crop

residues left on the surface as a mulch). Loss of these pesticides to

surface waters will be slowed by lessening erosion, but increased

contamination of groundwater may still result. Similar ambiguities,

especially about the possibility of lowered net yields, surround measures

such as pest “scouting” (monitoring), organic farming procedures, and other

practices.
43

In light of farmer resistance to controls, the apparent lack of high

priority given to most agricultural environmental problems by the EPA, and

the possibility that certain environmental measures may replace one adverse

environmental impact with another (for example, conservation tillage

replacing erosion with increased herbicide use), OTA concludes that the

environmental effects of converting tens of millions of acres to intensive

production may be at least as great as the effects observed on similar

acreage today.

Although food crops currently may represent the most economic ethanol

feedstock, the potential for substantial increases in corn (and other

sugar/starch crop) prices and for improvements in conversion processes for

alternative feedstocks points to the eventual primacy of these alternative

feedstocks in ethanol production. The use of crop residues, forage grasses,

and other alternative feedstocks will have environmental consequences that

are substantially different from those caused by growing and harvesting

sugar/starch crops.

Crop residues may be used either as an ethanol feedstock or as a

distillery boiler fuel. Although leaving crop residues on the surface is an

important tool for erosion control, substantial quantities can be removed

from flatter, less erosive soils in some parts of the Corn Belt and

elsewhere without causing erosion

many farmers plow these residues

harboring crop pests or to allow

to exceed 5 tons/acre year. (35) Qso,

under in the fall to prevent them from

an earlier spring planting, thus losing

their protection anyway. Thus, the use of residues will cause additional

erosion only if they otherwise would have been left on the surface, and only
——

44

if they are removed from erosion-prone lands or in excessive quantities.

Unfortunately, conflicts between short-term profits and long-term land

protection could easily

institutional controls

lead to improper use of residues unless effective

or incentives for environmental protection can be

developed. Also, there is some concern (although little substantive

evidence) about possible harmful effects of reductions in soil organic

levels caused by residue removal.

The intensive cultivation of forage grasses would cause pollution

effects from fertilizers and pesticides, but could be expected to produce

far lower levels of erosion than food crops (as noted above).

The major factor controlling the impact of these alternative feedstocks

will probably be the efficiency with which they can be converted to ethanol.

A breakthrough in

production per ton

necessary to sustain

conversion efficiency could nearly double alcohol

of feedstock and halve the acreage -- and impacts --

the desired gasohol use.

ETHANOL PRODUCTION

Significant environmental effects of ethanol production are associated

with its substantial energy requirements and the disposal of distillation

wastes.

New energy efficient ethanol plants probably will require about

50,000-70,000 BTU per gallon of ethanol produced to power the distilling,

drying and other operations. Individual distilleries of 50 million

gallons/year capacity will use as much fuel as 50-70 MW powerplants; a 10
45

billion gallon per year ethanol industry will use about the same amount of

fuel as needed to supply 10,000-14,000 MW of electric power capacity.

New Source Performance Standards have not been formulated for

industrial combustion facilities, and the degree of control and subsequent

emissions are not predictable. The most likely fuels

be coal or biomass (crop residues), however, and thus

of problems will be their particulate emissions.

for these plants will

the most likely source

Coal and biomass

combustion sources of the size required for distilleries -- especially

distilleries designed to serve small local markets -- must be carefully

designed and operated to avoid high emission levels of unburned particulate

hydrocarbons (including polycyclic

distilleries will be located in

population exposure to any harmful

organic matter). (36) Fortunately, most

rural areas, and this will reduce total

pollutants.

The effluent from the initial distillation step -- called “stillage” --

is very high in biological and chemical oxygen demand and must be kept from

entering surface waters without treatment. The stillage from corn and other

grains is a valuable feed byproduct and it will be recovered, thus avoiding

this potential pollution problem. The stillage from some other ethanol

crops is less valuable, however, and may have to be strictly regulated to

avoid damage to waterways. Control techniques are available for the

required

If

range of

national

treatment.

fermentation and distillation technologies are available in a wide

sizes, small scale on-farm alcohol production may play a role in a

gasohol program. The scale of such operations may simplify water
46

effluent control by allowing land disposal of wastes. On the other hand,

environmental control may in some cases be more expensive because of the

loss of scale advantages. Also, the current technology for the final

distillation step, to produce anhydrous alcohol, uses reagents such as

cyclohexane and/or ether that could pose severe occupational danger at

inadequately operated or maintained distilleries. Although alternative (and

safer) dehydrating technologies may be developed, in the meantime special

care will have to be taken to ensure proper design, operation and

maintenance of these smaller plants.

The decentralization of energy processing and conversion facilities as

a rule has been viewed favorably by consumer and environmental interests.

Unfortunately, a Proliferation of many small ethanol plants may not provide

a favorable setting for careful

enforcement of environmental

authorities may expect to have

those they run into with other

attempts of the owners of late

control systems conceivably may

monitoring of environmental conditions and

protection requirements. Regulatory

problems with these facilities similar to

small pollution sources. For example, the

model automobiles

provide an analog

that might be expected from small distilleries

to circumvent pollution

to the kinds of problems

if their controls prove

expensive and/or inconvenient to operate. Congress should carefully weigh

the potential costs and benefits of centralized vs. decentralized

(“on-farm”) plants before providing incentives that might favor one over the

other.
47

GASOHOL USE

The effects of gasohol use on automotive emissions are dependent on

whether the engine is tuned to run fuel rich or lean and whether or not it

has a carburetor with a feedback control. Although some gasohol advocates

have claimed that the emissions effects are strongly positive, in fact it is

difficult to assign either a beneficial or detrimental net pollution effect

to gasohol use.

Gasohol use will have the following effects on most cars in today’s

automobile fleet (i.e., no carburetor modifications are made and fuel

“leaning” takes place): (9)

o increased evaporative emissions (although the new emissions are

not particularly reactive and should not contribute significantly

to photochemical smog)

o decreased emissions of carbon monoxide

o increased emissions of

conceivably may aggravate

o increased NOX emissions

aldehydes (which are reactive and

smog problems)

with decreased emissions of exhaust

hydrocarbons, or decreased NOX with increased HC (depending on

the state of engine tune).

The emissions effects on automobiles which are manually or automatically

adjusted to maintain constant air/fuel ratios (i.e., no “leaning” effect)

will be considerably less.
,—

48

This mixture of observed emissions reductions and increases, and the

lack of extensive and controlled emissions testing, does not justify making

a strong value judgement about the environmental effect of gasohol used in

the general automobile population (although the majority of analysts have

concluded that the net effect is unlikely to be significant). It may be

possible to engineer an unambiguously beneficial effect, however, by

channeling gasohol to certain urban areas with specific pollution problems

(for instance, high carbon monoxide concentrations but no smog problems) or

to vehicle fleets with engine characteristics that could maximize potential

benefits from gasohol. The federal government could stimulate this type of

use by initiating federal fleet use as an example, and by providing economic

or regulatory incentives to fleet operators or to areas that would benefit

from gasohol use.

GLOBAL EFFECTS OF THE GASOHOL FUEL CYCLE

The emission of carbon dioxide (C02) has become a major issue in the

debate over synthetic fuels production.

Net C02 emissions from the gasohol fuel cycle are dependent on th e

extent and nature of land conversion needed to grow the feedstock, the fue l

used to fire the distilleries, overall energy efficiency of the fuel cycle ,

and the type of fuel displaced (gasoline from natural crude or gasoline from

coal-derived synfuel). If a minimum of forested land is permanently cleared

for growin g ethanol crops, if the major distillery boiler fuel is cro p

residues or some other renewable fuel, and if the ethanol is efficientl y

used (as an octane booster), then universal use of gasohol will reduce
49

current C02 emissions from automobile travel by about 10%*.

It should be stressed, however, that even maximum use of alcohol fuels

in the U.S. can have only a small effect on total worldwide C02 emissions.

A combination of major changes in the current energy system and a

significant slowdown of deforestation, effected on a worldwide scale, would

probably be needed to put a brake on increasing atmospheric C02 levels.

* One uncertainty in this conclusion is the extent to which organic loss on

cultivated land is an important C02 source”
Iv ● SOCIAL IMPACTS
The widespread production and use of gasohol can be expected to have a

number of social and economic effects. These include impacts that are more

likely to be perceived as important at the local level (such as changes in

employment, demography, public services, and quality of life) as well as

impacts that can be national or international in scope (for example, changes

in the economy,

considerations).

only be discussed

land ownership, institutions and politics and ethical

Some of these impacts are quantifiable, while others can

qualitatively. It should be noted that the scope and

magnitude of these effects are highly uncertain because no reliable

methodology for predicting the social impacts of emerging technologies

exists and because the size and location of projects are unknown.

Consequently, this discussion will only be able to identify SO= of the

potential social changes that could occur if gasohol were used widely.

LOCAL IMPACTS

Increased production and consumption of gasohol would create a variety

of new jobs. Approximately 15-19 million additional hours of farm labor

would be required to produce 1.3 billion gallons of ethanol per year from

corn (0.1 quad/year). (37) (Comparable productivity estimates were not

available for feedstocks other than corn.) Additional employment

opportunities would arise in the transpoartation of feedstocks to

distilleries and of ethanol to refineries or gasohol distributors, as well

as in the manufacture and delivery of fertilizer, farm machinery, distillery

equipment, and in the construction and operation of distilleries. Estimates

of the number of distillery operating, maintenance, and supervisory

personnel required to produce 1.3 billion gallons of ethanol per year from

corn range from 1,200 to 4,000. (5, 20) Comparable figures were not
— .

52

available for distillery construction or for the manufacture of distillery

equipment.

The production of distillery fuels would also create employment

opportunities on farms or in coal mines. The use of crop residues and/or

cellulose crops to fire distillery boilers would require additional farm

labor, but not on the same scale as would the production of corn for ethanol

feedstocks. For example, harvesting corn residues requires 6-10 million

work-hours per 1.3 billion gallons of ethanol for a large round bale

system, or 3.5-4.5 million work-hours per 1.3 billion gallons of ethanol for

a large stack system. (lo ) Labor requirements for harvesting collectible

residues and moving them to the roadside are summarized in Table 5.

Additional labor would be required to transport the residues to a

distillery. Alternatively, if distilleries are fueled with coal,

approximately 375,000-600,000 underground coal mine worker shifts or

125,000-200,000 surface mine worker shifts would be required to produce 1.3

billion gallons of ethanol. (38)

TABLE 5

IABOR REQUIREMENTS FOR HARVESTING COLLECTIBLE RESIDUES

(million work-hours/l.3 billion gallons)

Large Round Bales Large Stacks

Corn 6.2-9.7 3.5-4.4

Small Grains 3.8-6.8 3.4-4.1

Sorghum 14.4-15.2 10.0-10.3

Rice 14.8

Sugar Cane 11.2

Source: Reference 10.
53

For the most part, the employment opportunities discussed above

represent the creation of new

agricultural and energy sector

the extent that current food

jobs rather than the transfer

employment to the production of

and feed production is used

of existing

gasohol. To

for ethanol,

however, new jobs are not created. In addition, use of corn stillage as

animal feed would compete directly with soybean meal and may reduce

employment in that industry. (10)

It should be noted that estimated labor requirements in agriculture ar e

very uncertain. Crop production is highly mechanized and labor requirements

have declined continuously since 1950 . If farm labor productivity continue s

to increase , the estimates given above are high . Other uncertainties ar e

introduced by the projected method of increasing production; more labo r

usually is required to expand the number of acres in production than t o

increase the output per

others . In addition,

harvesting, agricultural

acre, and some crops require more labor

during peak farm seasons such as planting

labor often is scarce. Emphasizing crops

than

and

that

require less intensive management and that are harvested at different times

of the year from conventional food and feed crops could alleviate this

problem.

The impacts of new employment opportunities

they arise and in part on whether they are

in-migrants. The

potential cropland.

ethanol feedstocks,

gasohol would arise

eastern half of the U.S. has

depend in part on where

filled by residents or

the greatest amount of

(31 Assuming that these lands are used to produce

most of the employment opportunities associated with

in these regions. Productivity on some of the lands in
54

the North, however, ultimately is limited by water availability, climate,

and other factors. Thus, increased production in the North probably will be

greatest in the Corn Belt and Lake States.

On-farm employment and new jobs asociated with distillery operation

(except for jobs requiring special skills) probably would involve long-term

rural residents. This could reduce off-farm migration, shift the age

distribution in rural areas to a younger population, revitalize small

fanning communities, and increase the demand for migratory workers during

harvest season. On the other hand, distillery construction is more likely

to involve temporary in-migrants or commuters. Rural agricultural areas are

not well equipped to accommodate in-migrants, and temporary shortages of

housing, education and medical facilities, and other public and private

sector goods and services could occur during construction. These impacts

will be minor, however, in comparison to those associated with energy

development in the West. Although a distillery would contribute significant

amounts to the local tax base, tax revenues usually do not begin to accrue

until a facility is in operation.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

In addition to increases in tax revenues, ethanol production could have

significant economic impacts on the price of food and farmland. Should the

demand for ethanol feedstocks increase more rapidly than the supply, the

result would be increases in farm commodity prices and farm income. Many

agricultural economists believe that this situation leads to increases in

farmland prices that permanently increase the cost of fating. Although

this would benefit the landowner, it also would threaten the viability of
55

farming on rented land by eliminating gains in farm income. In addition, it

could endanger small farmersl

ease of access into the market and accelerate

the trend toward large corporate holdings of farmland.

Increases

between energy

increased cost

in U.S. food

international

in the cost of farming and competition for ethanol feedstocks

and food markets could also increase the cost of food. This

falls disproportionately on the poor. In addition, increases

prices are likely to increase the cost of food on the

market. Some countries will not be able to afford food

imports, and others will export crops now used domestically for food. In

either case the net result would be to worsen the world food situation. It

is not known, however, at what level of increase in land and food prices

these effects will occur, and their final impact cannot be determined.

The institutional impacts of increased gasohol use include changes in

governmental and social structures and in attitudes and public opinion as

well as ethical considerations. Within the government, the principal

changes would occur in federal and state agencies. The use of farm

commodities “and currently unproductive cropland to produce ethanol would

require the Departments of Agriculture and Energy to cooperate on both

energy and agricultural policy. Changes in existing tax policy also may be

necessary to facilitate the production of ethanol for fuel, and to prevent

the loss of tax revenues that normally would accrue from sales of gasoline

and alcoholic beverages.

Changes in social institutions probably would evolve over longer

periods of time. Increases in employment on farms and in rural agricultural
56

areas would decrease the number of young people leaving these areas and

U1timately strengthen the rural fami1y and farming as a way of life. On the

other hand, significant population increases in rural areas with “one-crop*’

economies could result in impacts that would destroy long term residents’

sense of community and rural quality of life.

Favorable individual and group attitudes and general public opinion are

politically and practically necessary to large-scale production of ethanol.

Favorable public opinion is politically necessary for the funding and

implementation of government programs directed toward the supply of and

demand for gasohol. Favorable attitudes among farmers toward the conversion

of currently unproductive land to ethanol feedstock production are also

necessary if these programs are to be effective. Although the use of

agricultural lands for ethanol feedstocks is likely to be politically

popular among most non-agricultural groups, the conversion of non-productive

federal land (for example, Bureau of Land Management lands) to cropland

probably would be opposed by some interest groups, such as conservationists.

In addition, favorable attitudes in the farm sector toward the

production and use of ethanol fuels will be necessary to the success of

small on-farm systems. Recent research on the adoption of innovations in

agriculture suggests that the best predictors of the adoption of commrcial

(as opposed to environmental) innovations are above-average farm capital,

size and sales, as well as the farmer’s education. These findings were

correlated with traditional agricultural extension service strategies for

the voluntary adoption of innovations by farmers. (39) These strategies are

based on the well-documnted diffusion process of commercial practices, and
57

probably can be applied to the on-farm production and use of ethanol.

Finally, the increased use of gasohol can raise ethical considerations

related to the conflict between food and feed, on the one hand, and energy

on the other.

decade as both

resources have

This conflict has become increasingly prominent in the last

food shortages and the finiteness of conventional energy

become recognized as world problems. In the U.S., this

conflict historically has revolved around the use of

for surface and, to a lesser extent, underground

energy uses of

Increased

highlight this

food and feed

water in the arid regions of the West.

prime

coal

demand for farm commodities to be used for

agricultural land

mines, and around

domestic fuel will

conflict because fuel use will compete directly with U.S*

exports. If food exports are reduced significantly in order

to augment U.S. energy supplies, adverse foreign responses

The use of farm commodities for ethanol also will compete

domestic consumption of food and feed, and limits on the sale

could result.

directly with

of commodities

for energy could become necessary. In addition, if ethanol feedstock

suppliers are given long term guarantees in order to stimulate production of

gasohol, and if the demand for food continues to rise, Americans ultimately

could be forced to choose between relatively inexpensive

inexpensive fuel.

Of the social and economic impacts discussed above,

food and relatively

those that are most

likely to become problems include potential increases in farm commodity and

farmland prices, and potential conflicts between the use of commodities for

energy rather than food or feed. The timing and magnitude of increases in
58

the price of food and land cannot be determined, however, and their total

effect is uncertain. The production and pricing of ethanol feedstocks could

be integrated into overall U.S. agricultural and energy policy before these

impacts become severe. Other long-term social and economic impacts of

gasohol production and use -- revitalization of farm families and rural

communities, as well as increased domestic energy self-sufficiency -- would

be beneficial.
v . CURRENT FEDERAL PROGRAMS AND POLICIES
INTRODUCTION

The responsibility for gasohol development is spread among a number of

federal agencies having different duties as well as contrasting, and in some

instances conflicting, perspectives on gasohol. No clearly focused or

operational federal policy on gasohol development has appeared to exist. The

thrust of the federal government’s efforts has typically been to respond to

Congressional initiatives.

In FY 1979, OTA estimates that federal expenditures of between $13 and

$17 million directly supported the development of alcohol fuels from

biomass. In FY 1980 the Administrationfs research activities are expected

to be funded at a level between $18 and $25 million. Additional subsidies

include $40 million in loan guarantees, exemption of the federal excise tax

on gasohol (for domestic production and imports), eligibility of alcohol

fuels for entitlement awards, and an investment tax credit of 20% on alcohol

fuels facilities. Well over 90% of the federal governments cumulative

expenditures (since 1975) have accrued in the last year.

The Department of Energy is the lead agency responsible for formulating

energy policy and for the development of alcohol fuels technology. DOE’S

responsibilities overlap the Department of Agriculture’s responsibility to

administer food and fiber production programs, and although a number of

other agencies are involved (including the Departments of Commerce and

Treasury), DOE and USDA are the principal agencies with jurisdiction over

alcohol fuels development.
61

USDA POLICY

The USDA has been involved in agriculture policy since the Federal Farm

Board was established in 1929. The Department has typically relied on

carrot-and-stick combinations of supply control and price support programs

to insure market stability, income protection to producers, and food

security. These programs, together with extensive research and development

programs (USDA FY 1980 solar energy R&D expenditures total more than $27

million), place USDA in a unique position to develop biomass.

USDA policy towards gasohol development has historically lacked clear

or consistent direction. Many agencies and programs within the Department

have sometimes advocated conflicting or contradictory positions on gasohol.

The Department has characteristically been in the situation of reacting to

gasohol initiatives proposed by the Congress rather than developing or

implementing their own.

The current thrust of USDA gasohol policy is to take a wait-and-see

approach towards new or more energetic gasohol initiatives, other than those

already proposed and enacted by the Congress. The Agency has emphasized R&D

rather than implementation on the premise of resolving technical and policy

uncertainties before implementing broad-scale programs having many unknown

impacts. It is the view of USDA that Congress has already provided the

agency with sufficient authority, particularly in the 1977 and 1978

Agricultural Acts, to support alcohol fuels production. USDA does not

advocate further expansion of programs or policies until it is clear that

additional initiatives are warranted.(23)
62

USDA1 S cur rent stance toward alcohol fuels is that agricultural

policies and programs, and an alcohol fuels industry, can be mutually

supportive only in various incidental or accidental ways. USDA further

explains that (a) agriculture price support and stabilization policies

serve different functions than any alcohol fuels program, and therefore no

substitution and shifting of outlays is sensible; (b) due

uncertainty in cropland availability, any commitment to a

ethanol program should be restricted, in order to retain the

to extreme

grain-based

options of

foregoing further commitment, or of withdrawing completely, to minimize

unrecoverable costs.

USDA R&D

No agency in the federal government has more abundant resources or

greater administrative capability to research and implement biomass and

alcohol fuels than does the USDA. Alcohol fuels development is so

intertwined with food policies and the agricultural sector that in many

cases USDA’S role in its development is essential. Biomass energy R&D,

however, has a low overall priority in USDA’S research, in part because the

Agency has no real energy mandate. The agency has a tendency to avoid

burdening its (declining) research budget by funding work relating solely to

energy.

Although alcohol fuels R&D has been emphasized over

implementation-oriented activities, alcohol fuels have received relatively

little attention. In FY 1978, of the $6 million biomass budget, little

supported alcohol fuels development directly. In FY 1979, about $1 million
63

supported alcohol R&D (out of a total biomass budget of $9 million). In FY

1980, it is expected that somewhere between $4 million and $6 million will

be divided approximately equally between alcohol feedstock production and

advanced conversion systems

million). (The ranges in the

In determining expenditures.)

(of a total biomass budget of almost $24

budgets reflect the department’s uncertainty

Biomass and alcohol fuels R&D in the Department

with some exceptions, suffered from a lack of

coordination. For example, USDA has made it

of Agriculture have,

direction and poor

a goal to aid the

agriculture sector in becoming net-energy self-sufficient by 1990(41). The

Agency has not, however, developed any plans, nor is it following any

specific research strategies, to develop alcohol fuels or any other energy

applications in the agriculture sector. Although this is due in part to the

low emphasis given to alcohol fuels, it is also a reflection of USDA’S

highly decentralized management with historically well defined areas of

responsibility. A

resides in field

difficult to direct

great deal of management responsibility for research

offices and land-grant institutions, and it can be

R&D policy under these circumstances. Newly established

biomass/alcohol fuels programs in FY 1980 may alleviate these sorts of

difficulties, but they will not change fundamental management problems.

DOE POLICY

The Department of Energy is the lead agency responsible for developing

alcohol fuels technologies. In the past, DOE has focused its efforts in the

area of R&D; little emphasis was given to commercialization. Recently,
64

however, DOE has taken a somewhat more active role in supporting the

technology’s near-term development. Its role has been more aggresive than

that of USDA.

DOE’S current policy is designed to achieve low to moderate levels of

ethanol production in the near term. The Agency is relying predominantly on

two federal incentives: (1) exemption of the federal excise tax on gasohol

blends, worth $16.80/barrel, and (2) entitlement awards to alcohol fuels

worth 2 to 3 cents/gallon, or roughly $1.00/barrel. With these subsidies

DOE projects that ethanol production can reach 500 to 600 million gallons

annually by 1985 using wastes (e.g., cheese whey) rather than agricultura l

commodities. The Agency at this time does not support any significan t

expansion of programs or subsidies to further stimulate the production o f

gasohol. (It should be noted that the Administration has recently propose d

several syntheti c fuels initiatives that are projected to achieve ethano l

production levels of over 1 billion gallons annually. It is unclear at this

time , however, whethe r these levels can actually be reached with th e

initiatives proposed.)

DOE R&D

DOE has responsibility for molding the federal government’s alcohol

fuels research effort. In FY 1978, DOE expenditures for alcohol from

biomass R&D totaled almost $5.5 million. In EY 1979 and FY 1980, OTA

estimates that alcohol related expenditures will total $12 to $14 million

and $14 to $17 million respectively. During these years, 50% to 65% of

program funds supported conversion R&D, 25% to 35% supported end-use
65

studies, and 15% to 25% went towards production and collection research.

Overall, DOE1 S technology development efforts on conversion

technologies have been balanced and supportive of a range of promising lowto high-risk technical options. The same is true to some extent in the area

of biomass production and collection. OTA has found that DOE biomass

programs have supported a narrow range of long-term technological

applications, but this has not been the case in the specific area of

alcohol fuels development. Whereas OTA has determined that many DOE biomass

programs have been fragmented and administered ineffectively, management

problems do not appear to have substantially affected the Agency’s alcohol

fuels development efforts.

INTERELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DOE AND USDA

The Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency in bioenergy

R&D and as such has responsibility to integrate and coordinate alcohol fuels

technology development. At the same time, USDA iS responsible for

administering agricultural production policies, as well as R&D. Since

alcohol production and use is intertwined with the farm and energy sectors,

the success of an alcohol fuels development program is in part contingent

upon the implementation of complimentary production, conversion, and end-use

policies and research programs by the two agencies.

The agencies, however, have made few efforts to integrate agriculture

and energy policies. A comprehensive framework has not been established to

perform this role adequately, and inter-agency coordination has been poor.

In the area of research, the coordination of DOE and USDA biomass programs

has been improving. Inter-agency coordination of alcohol fuels programs has

not, however. If coordination is to improve, administrative and technical

differences between these two very different agencies must be resolved.
— —

66

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS

OTA has identified major areas where research and development seem

particularly important. The purpose of this section is to describe these

research needs and to indicate to what degree the federal research effort is

currently addressing them. It should be understood that not all possible

research areas should necessarily be addressed by the federal government.

Feedstocks

Develop feedstock crops with higher yields of ethanol per acre.

Comparative studies of starch and sugar crops, and high-yield hybrids,

which are candidate feedstocks. Regional studies should examine

productivity as a function of soil type, weather, etc. (The federal

government directly and indirectly, has supported a great deal of

research in this area. The research, however, has focused on food and

feed production rather than on energy production, and research is

needed to assimilate the existing data.)

Investigation of the effect of uncertainty and variability of prices

and supplies in the agriculture markets on the potential of producing

energy from agriculture. (The Federal government has supported a very

limited and narrow range of investigations in this area.)

Develop ethanol feedstock crops which are nitrogen fixing, so as to

reduce the energy inputs to farming. (USDA is supporting a significant

amount of research in this area.)

Investigate the feed value of distillers grain, particularly at high

levels in the feed and with large water content. (uSDA iS supporting

some research in this area.)

Develop nitrogen fixing bacteria which can be substituted for nitrogen

fertilizer. (This is a basic research area which NSF has supported to

some degree.)

Screening of unconventional plant types as candidate feedstocks. (The

federal government has supported little research in this area.)

Regional studies to evaluate the availability of residues. Detailed

evaluations need to be performed to determine how residue use can

alleviate and/or exacerbate environmental problems such as soil

erosion. Analyses of institutional constraints of residue use are also

needed. (USDA has supported research in this area. Institutional
.

67

issues, however, have not been addressed.)

Environmental effects of increased forage grass production. (The

federal government has sponsored little research in this area.)

Investigation of the environmental effects of pesticides, herbicides,

fertilizers, soil erosion, and other effects associated with increased

agricultural production. (USDA has supported a limited amount of

research in this area, but litle has been done regarding energy

production.)

Analysis of the availability and productivity of potential crop lands,

the costs of bringing this land into production, and its effect on

agriculture markets. (Little research has been done in this area.)

Impacts of protein (e.g., distillers’ dried grains) on conventional

(and non-conventional) domestic and international markets. (Little

research has been supported in this area.)

(There are many R&D problems associated with obtaining feedstocks from

the forest sector which are not mentioned here but which could greatly

influence feedstock availability.)

Conversion

Research into improving the yields of cellulose hydrolysis. (DOE and

NSF are supporting research in this area.)

Basic thermochemical research into rapid pyrolysis, particularly to

attain high ethylene yields. (The federal government has supported

little research in this area.)

Application of solar-thermal systems to distillation. (The federal

government is supporting little research in this area.)

Development of simple and less energy intensive nethods for

concentrating ethanol-water mixtures, e.g., phase separating salts,

vacuum distillation, absorption processes, desiccants, freeze

crystallization, membrane applications, and extraction. (The federal

government is supporting research in these areas to a very limited

degree.)

Develop low-cost methods to produce anhydrous ethanol in small-scale

applications. (The federal government has supported little or no

research in this area.)

Definition of the environmental effects of distilleries. (The federal

government has sponsored a limited amount of research in this area.

Little analysis, however, has been done on on-farm systems.)
68

Develop on-farm distilleries which are relatively automatic. (USDA and

DOE are beginning some research in this area. )

Develop continuous fermentation processes. (DOE is sponsoring research

in this area.)

Gasification of biomass as a source of hydrogen. (Present source of

hydrogen -- used to produce fertilizer -- is natural gas.) (The

federal government is sponsoring little research in this area.)

Examine energy and non-energy uses of liquid by-products. (A limited

amount of research is funded by NSF.)

Resarch on the conversion of hemicellulose to liquids.

(DOE is sponsoring a limited amount of research in this area.)

End-Use

Determine the thermal efficiency of gasohol, in terms of best fuel

blend. (DOE has recently begun work in this area.)

Develop emulsions and additives which can eliminate the need for using

dry ethanol. (The federal government has supported litle research in

this area.)

R&D on the use of pure alcohols (and applicable lubricants) in the

motor fleet. (DOE has work on-going in this area.)

Determine long-run effects on performance, efficiency, and materials

compatibility associated with the use of gasohol. (DOE has funded a

limited amount of work in this area.)

Study of the effect of net increased aldehyde concentrations on air

pollution. (DOE has begun some research in this area.)

Studies on the combustion chemistry of gasohol. (The federal

government has supported research in this area.)

Examination of the potential for using gasohol in specific regions

where its use may have unambiguously positive results. (The federal

government has sponsored no research in this area.)

Research various gasoline compositions to determine ways of effectively

using ethanol’s octane boosting properties while minimizing evaporative

emissions. (DOE has sponsored a limited amount of research in this

area.)

Field test phase-stability of gasohol in distribution systems. (Little

research has been done in this area.)

Evaluation of the long-run effects of using alcohol in diesels.

(Little research has been done in this area.)
— .

REFERENCES

1. OTA contractor report, Agriculture and Agricultural Product Processing

Wastes.

2 . The Report of the Alcohol Fuels Policy Review, Asst. Secretary for

Policy Evaluation, U.S. Department ot Energy, June 1979, Stock No.

061-000-00313-4, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

3 . Estimates based on conversations with Martin Andrias, President, Archer

Daniels Midland, Decatur, IL; Prof. Wm. Scheller, Univ. of Nebraska,

Lincoln, NE; U.S. Treasury and U.S. Department of Energy data; and others.

4 . George Lovelock, President, American Gasohol, 223 Gerico Turnpike,

Mineola, NY, private communication, August, 1979.

5 . OTA contractor report, Biological Production of Liquid Fuels and

Chemical Feedstocks.

6 . Raphael Katzen Associates, “Multiple Product Waste Hardwood Facility -

Ethanol, Furfural, Phenol”, in The Feasibility of Utilizing Forest Residues

for Energy and Chemicals, Report No. PB-258-630, Forest Products Laboratory,

Madison, WI, March 1976.

7 . Ralph Kienker, Monsanto Chemical co., Sto Louis, MO, private

communication, July 1979.

8 , OTA contractor reports, Engineering Aspects of Thermochemical

Conversion and Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass: The Scientific Aspects,

9 . OTA contractor report, End Use of Fluids from Biomass as Energy

Resources in Both Transportation and Non-Transportation Sectors.

10. OTA contractor report, The Potential of Producing Energy from

Agriculture.

11. Prof. Richard K. Pefley, Dept. of Mech. Eng., Santa Clara University,

Santa Clara, CA, private communication, 1979.

12. See for example M.R. Ladisch and K. Dyck, Science 205, p. 898 (1979)0

13. For example, Robert Chambers, President, ACR Process Corp., Urbanaj IL;

private communication, September 1979.

14. William Davis, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, U.S. Treasury,

Washington, DC, private communication, July 1979.

15. Mr. Jacques Maroni, Energy Planning Manager, Ford Motor Company,

Dearborn, MI, private communication, August 1979.

16. Dr. Robert Hirsch, EXXON Research and Engineering Company, Florham

Park, NJ, private communication, July 1979.

17. Federal Energy Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, contractor

report prepared by Gordian Assoc., Inc., Energy Conservation, The Data Base,
-70 -

The Potential for Energy Conservation in Nine Selected Industries, Vol. 2,

Petroleum Refineries, 19/5.

18. William A. Scheller. Nebraska 2 Million Mile Gasohol Road Test Pro~ram.

Sixth Progress Report, ~ April 1976 to 31 December 1976

.

Eng., University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, January 31, 1977.’

190 May 17, 1979 update of Domestic Crude Oil Entitlements,

Petroleum Substitutes, ERA-03, submitted to DOE by Archer

co., Decatur, IL.

Dept. of Chem~

Application for

Daniels Midland

20. Raphael Katzen Assoc., Grain Motor Fuel Alcohol, Technical and Economic

Assessment Study, December 1978 prepared for Asst. Secretary for Pollcy

Evaluation, U.S. Department of E’nergy, Washington, DC, published June, 1979;

Stock No. 061-000-00308-8, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, Dc.

21. Profse Carroll Bottum and Wallace Tyner, Dept. of Agricultural

Economics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, private communication;

19790

22. Statement by Bob Berglund, Secretary of Agriculture, before the

Committee on Science and Technology, Subcommittee on Energy Development and

Applications, U.S. House of Representatives, May 4, 1979.

23, L.J. Barbe, Jr., Manager of Oil Movements, EXXON Pipeline Co., Houston,

TX, private communication, August 1979.

24. Robert Reinstein, Energy Regulatory Administration, U.S. Depart~nt of

Energy, Washington, DC, private communication, August 1979.

25. Preliminary estimates of the current farm program provided by USDA

analysts.

26. OTA contractor report, Land Availability for Biomass Production.

27. OTA, Materials and Energy from Municipal Waste, Vol. 1, Stock No.

052-003-00692-8, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

28. U.S . Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Implications of

Trends in Agriculture and Silviculture. Volume I: Trend Identification and

Evaluation. EPA-600/3-17 -121, October, 19//.

29. Soil Conservation Service, Draft Impact Analysis Statement: Rural Clean

Water Program, June, 1978.

30. Based on computer runs conducted for OTA by the Soil Conservation

Service.

31. soil Conservation Service, 1977 National Erosion Inventorv -

Preliminary Estimates, Tables of Poten~~ropland, April

. —

1Y7Y ●

32. General Accounting Office, To Protect Tomorrow’s Food Supply, Soil

Conservation Needs Priority Attention, CED–i7–30, February, 19ii.

33* President’s Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality:
— —

-71-

Ninth Annual Report, December, 1978.

34. U.S. Environmental Protection A~encY. Environmental Implications of

Trends in Agriculture and Silviculture~ V~lume II Environment~l Effects of

Trends, EPA-600/3-78-102, December, 1978.

35. W.E. Larson, et al, “Plant Residues -- How

Paper No. 10585, Sci. Journal Series, SEA-AR/USDA,

36e No Dean Smith, “Organic Emissions from

Combusion Sources”, U.S. Environmental Protection

Park, N.C., August 1977.

Can They Be Used Best”,

1979.

Conventional Stationary

Agency, Research Triangle

37* USDA, Agricultural Statistics, 1978, Washington, DC: US Government

Printing Office.

38, OTA, The Direct Use of Coal. Washington, DC: US Government Printing

Office, 19?9.

39. Pampel, Fred, Jr., and J.C. van Es, Environmental Quality and Issues of

Adoption Research. Rural Sociology, 42, No. 1, p.>i (197/) ●

40. OTA contractor report, Federal Bioenergy Programs, prepared by Mark

Gibson, March 1979.

41. Statement of Weldon Barton, Director, Office of Energy, USDA, at the

Mid-American Biomass Energy Workshop, Purdue University, May, 1979.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1979 0 - 51-718