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##  Spirituality in Adult and Higher Education. ERIC Digest.                     

"The spiritual awakening that is slowly taking place                            counterculturally will become more of a daily norm as we all                    willingly break mainstream cultural taboos that silence or erase our            passion for spiritual practice" (hooks 2000, p. 82). Spirituality is            a hot topic. Bookstores are filled with many popular titles related             to it, from Western religions to traditions of the East to new-age              philosophies. What are adult and higher education practitioners to              make of this new emphasis on spirituality? On the one hand, many of             us might resonate with hooks' observation that spirituality has a               role in breaking the silence that erases our passion as well as a               place in higher and adult education. On the other, we may also                  wonder, as Wuthnow (1998) observes, "whether 'spiritual' has become             synonymous with 'flaky'" (p. 1). This Digest provides a summary of              the recent literature related to spirituality as it relates to adult            learning. It begins with an overview of the more general literature             on spirituality in adult and higher education. Next is a                        consideration of some of the literature related to spiritual                    development. In the last section is a consideration of spirituality             and emancipatory education. GENERAL DISCUSSIONS OF                            SPIRITUALITYUntil very recently, with the exception of adult                religious education, spirituality has been given little attention in            mainstream academic adult education. This may be because                        spirituality is difficult to define and can sometimes be confused               with religion. For many of us, our adult spirituality is clearly                informed by how we were socialized both religiously and culturally.             Yet, spirituality is not the same as religion; religion is an                   organized community of faith that has written codes of regulatory               behavior, whereas spirituality is more about one's personal belief              and experience of a higher power or higher purpose. In seeking to               define "spirituality" (as opposed to "religion"), Hamilton and                  Jackson (1998) conducted a qualitative study of the conceptions of              spirituality among women in the helping professions. Participants'              definitions centered on three main themes: the further development              of self-awareness, a sense of interconnectedness, and a relationship            to a higher power. Although this definition does give a sense of the            psychological aspects of spirituality as broadly related to                     meaning-making, it does not get at the relationship of cultural                 experience and spirituality or the connection between spirituality              and a commitment to social justice education and community work, an             important area of educational activity for many adult educators.                Nevertheless, these three themes of spirituality appear to be common            aspects of what spirituality is for most who consider it an                     important meaning-making aspect of their life. 
Most recent                    discussions in adult and higher education specifically focus on the             role of spirituality in teaching and learning. A number of new                  edited books focus on its role specifically in adult                            education (English and Gillen 2000), and in education more generally            as the construction of knowledge (Glazer 1999) or in dealing with               religious pluralism in higher education settings (Kazanjian and                 Laurence 2000). A common theme is the focus on meaning-making in                adult learning as intricately related to the spiritual quest of                 adults (Hunt et al. 2001). Vella (2000) suggests that attending to              the spiritual dimension of adult learning is part of honoring the               learner as "subject," and thus the author of her/his own life in the            quest for meaning-making. 
Attending to spirituality in learning               doesn't necessarily mean that one needs to discuss it directly in               classes or learning activities, although there may be occasions for             drawing it into course content. Dirkx (1997) has suggested that our             interest is not so much to teach soulwork, or spirituality, but                 rather to nurture soul, i.e., "to recognize what is already inherent            within our relationships and experiences, to acknowledge its                    presence with the teaching and learning environment, to respect its             sacred message" (p. 83). In a similar vein, Palmer (1998) discusses             the importance of attending to paradox, sacredness, and graced                  moments in teaching and learning, in developing a spirituality of               education. Lerner (2000) presents an approach to spirituality that              he calls an "emancipatory spirituality." An emancipatory                        spirituality, in contrast to a "reactionary spirituality" (p. 174),             recognizes the value of pluralism and the many manifestations of                spirit within different cultures, religions, and traditions. He                 discusses how spirituality might inform work in education, law,                 medicine, and environmental issues without pushing a religious                  agenda. Eck (2001) also addresses how to deal with issues of                    religious pluralism in a way that opens up dialogue between and                 among groups and honors their spirituality and religious traditions             without pushing a religious agenda. 
The subject of spirituality is            currently a theme in workplace and human resource development                   literature. Bolman and Deal (1995), among others, have discussed its            role in leadership development. Fenwick and Lange (1998) reviewed               the literature on spirituality and the workplace in human resource              development circles, suggesting that it has an emphasis on                      individual needs and organizational development rather than a focus             on social justice or the common good. However, some writers do                  discuss the role of spirituality in work related to a more just                 global economy. Fox (1995), for example, examines the connection                between spirituality as "inner work" and the revisioning of                     our "outer work" and the importance of ritual and celebration in the            creation of a new cosmology as the great paradigm shift of our time.            Haroutiounian et al. (2000) discuss the learning that took place in             a class on spirituality and work, largely because of the diversity              of the participants. Barnett, Krell, and Sendry (2000) also address             how to approach the subject of spirituality in management education             classes. SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENTGiven the connection between                adult learning and adult development, discussions of spiritual                  development are relevant to concerns in adult education. Most                   developmental theorists who write about spiritual development                   connect it with other aspects of development. Most often cited is               James Fowler (1981) who developed a stage theory of faith                       development based on a study of 359 adults. Fowler ties faith                   development strongly to cognitive and moral development and draws               heavily on the work of Piaget and Kohlberg. Yet he takes issue with             them for "their restrictive understanding of the role of imagination            in knowing, their neglect of symbolic processes generally and the               related lack of attention to unconscious structuring processes other            than those constituting reasoning" (p. 103). Despite some                       limitations of Fowler's study (e.g., a sample that is almost                    entirely White and Judeo-Christian), it contributes to our                      understanding of how people construct knowledge through image and               symbol, an area that has been ignored by most development and                   learning theorists. 
Many writers draw on Fowler's work, but focus             on spiritual development at particular points in the life cycle. For            example, Parks' (2000) focus is on young adults, whereas                        Loder (1998) discusses it from a theological perspective in                     adolescence, young adulthood, the middle years, and after age 65.               Wuthnow (1998) presents a study of how those who have grown up                  religious have negotiated an adult spirituality. Terkel's (2001) new            book is a discussion of how people's spirituality influences their              view of death. Borysenko (1999) considers women's spiritual                     development more from the perspective of salient themes, such as                naming a sense of mystery, spiritual identity and healing, and the              role of ritual and prayer in development; she offers suggestions for            how women might develop their spirituality. 
Whether or not                    spiritual development unfolds in a series of linear stages is a                 matter of some debate and, as Wilber (2000) observes, depends on how            one defines spirituality. Writing from a cultural evolutionary                  perspective, Wilber discusses how, over time, cultures as well as               individuals develop spiritually. He suggests that spiritual                     development unfolds in overlapping and interweaving                             levels "resulting in a meshwork or dynamic spiral of consciousness              unfolding" (p. 7). Each level includes and expands on the                       development of earlier stages and moves to greater integration. This            move to greater integration reflects an important theme of spiritual            development: the ongoing development of identity. In my study of                women emancipatory educators (Tisdell 2000), several referred to it             as related to the development of their more "authentic identity."               But this authentic identity always develops in a cultural and                   gendered context. This is why it is important to consider the                   cultural dimensions of spiritual development, an area that most                 developmental theorists have given little attention                             to. SPIRITUALITY, CULTURE, AND EMANCIPATORY EDUCATIONThe role             of spirituality in culturally relevant education and emancipatory               education efforts is being addressed. Clearly, spirituality played a            large role in the engagement of people's passion in the civil rights            movement. Further, both Horton and Freire (1990) were clear about               the influence of spirituality on their own work. Walters and                    Manicom (1996) discuss the importance of spirituality among                     grassroots emancipatory adult educators working with women in an                international context. They note that spirituality "is a theme that             is increasingly significant in popular education practice as                    culturally distinct groups, women recovering 'womanist' traditions              and ethnic collectives, draw on cultural and spiritual symbols in               healing and transformative education" (p. 13). 
Educators and                  cultural workers are beginning to break the silence about the                   connection between spirituality and education and about its role in             emancipatory education efforts. As the cultural fabric of North                 America is changing, there is a greater emphasis on creating                    culturally relevant programs for specific population groups. When               spirituality is integral to the fabric of a community, it makes                 sense that educators might attend to it. But there are also greater             numbers of people of color represented both in higher education                 classrooms and among adult educators working in community settings              or higher education. This is beginning to displace the strict focus             on rationality, particularly from a Eurocentric perspective, as the             only valid form of knowledge. Many scholars doing cultural work in              communities or in the reformation of the academy have worldviews                deeply embedded in the spiritual. "The heretofore silencing of the              spiritual voice through privileging the academic voice is                       increasingly being drowned out by the emphatic chorus of those whose            underlying versions of truth cry out 'We are a spiritual                        people!'" (Dillard et al. 2000, p. 448). 
This is why some writers             have discussed the spiritual development of members of different                cultural groups; e.g., African American women--Wade-Gayles (1995),              Cannon (1996), Williams (1993); American Indian                                 communities--Allen (1992), Deloria (1993); and                                  Latinos--Abalos (1998). Berry (1999) speaks of spiritual development            as being foundational to our ecological survival, and Welch (1998)              notes its role in developing approaches to multicultural education.             Tisdell et al. (2001) recently discussed its role in developing                 culturally relevant and transformative approaches in adult and                  higher education settings. 
Spirituality is one of the ways people             construct knowledge and meaning. It works in consort with the                   affective, the rational or cognitive, and the unconscious and                   symbolic domains. To ignore it, particularly in how it relates to               teaching for personal and social transformation, is to ignore an                important aspect of human experience and avenue of learning and                 meaning-making. This is why spirituality is important to the work of            adult learning. REFERENCESAbalos, D. LA COMMUNIDAD LATINA IN              THE UNITED STATES. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998. Allen, P. G. The                Sacred Hoop. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992. 
Barnett, C. K.; Krell, T.            C.; and Sendry, J. "Learning to Learn about Spirituality." JOURNAL              OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION 24 , no. 5 (October 2000): 562-579. 
Berry,            T. THE GREAT WORK: OUR WAY INTO THE FUTURE. New York: Bell Tower,               1999. 
Bolman, L. G., and Deal, T. E. LEADING WITH SOUL. San                   Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995. 
Borysenko, J. A WOMAN'S JOURNEY TO              GOD. New York: Riverhead Books, 1999. 
Cannon, K. G. KATIE'S CANON:            WOMANISM AND THE SOUL OF THE BLACK COMMUNITY. New York: Continuum,              1996. 
Deloria, V., Jr. GOD IS RED. 2D ED. Golden, CO: North                   American Press, 1992. 
Dillard, C. B.; Abdur-Rashid, D.; and Tyson,            C. A. "My Soul Is a Witness." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF QUALITATIVE              STUDIES IN EDUCATION 13, no. 5 (September 2000): 447-462. 
Dirkx,              J. M. "Nurturing Soul in Adult Learning." In TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING            IN ACTION. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION NO. 74,            edited by P. Cranton, pp. 79-88. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,                    1997. 
Eck, D. A NEW RELIGIOUS AMERICA. San Francisco: Harper,                 2001. 
English, L., and Gillen, M., eds. ADDRESSING THE SPIRITUAL              DIMENSIONS OF ADULT LEARNING. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND                      CONTINUING EDUCATION, NO. 85. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,                       2000. 
Fenwick, T. J., and Lange, E. "Spirituality in the                      Workplace: The New Frontier of HRD." CANADIAN JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY             OF ADULT EDUCATION 12, no. 1 (May 1998): 63-87. 
Fowler, J. STAGES             OF FAITH. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1981. 
Fox, M. THE                    REINVENTION OF WORK. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1995. 
Glazer,             S., ed. THE HEART OF LEARNING: SPIRITUALITY IN EDUCATION. New York:             Putnam, 1999. 
Hamilton, D. M., and Jackson, M. H. "Spiritual                  Development: Paths and Processes." JOURNAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL                     PSYCHOLOGY 25, no. 4 (December 1998): 262-270. 
Haroutiounian, A.              et al. "Learning and Being: Outcomes of a Class on Spirituality in              Work." JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION 24, no. 5 (October 2000):                662-681. 
hooks, b. ALL ABOUT LOVE. New York: William Morrow,                  2000. 
Horton, M., and Freire, P. WE MAKE THE ROAD BY WALKING.                 Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. 
Hunt, C. et al. "Is              Your Journey Really Necessary?" PROCEEDINGS OF THE 31ST ANNUAL                  STANDING CONFERENCE ON UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND RESEARCH IN THE                  EDUCATION OF ADULTS (SCUTREA), pp. 451-457. London, England:                    University of East London, 2001. 
Kazanjian, V. H., Jr., and                   Laurence, P. L., eds. EDUCATION AS TRANSFORMATION. New York: Peter              Lang, 2000. 
Lerner, M. SPIRIT MATTERS. Charlottesville, VA:                   Hampton Roads Publishing Company, 2000. 
Loder, J. E. THE LOGIC OF             THE SPIRIT. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998. 
Palmer, P. J. THE               COURAGE TO TEACH. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998. 
Parks, S. D.              BIG QUESTIONS, WORTHY DREAMS. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,                       2000. 
Terkel, S. WILL THE CIRCLE BE UNBROKEN? New York: New Press,            2001. 
Tisdell, E. J. "Spirituality and Emancipatory Adult                     Education in Women Adult Educators for Social Change." ADULT                    EDUCATION QUARTERLY 50, no. 4 (August 2000): 308-335. 
Tisdell, E.             J.; Tolliver, D.; and Villa, S. "Toward a Culturally Relevant and               Spiritually Grounded Theory of Teaching for Social Transformation               and Transformational Learning." PROCEEDINGS OF THE 42 ANNUAL ADULT              EDUCATION RESEARCH CONFERENCE. East Lansing: Michigan State                     University, 2001.                                                               http://www.edst.educ.ubc.ca/aerc/2001/2001tisdell.htm 
Vella, J. "A            Spirited Epistemology." In ADDRESSING THE SPIRITUAL DIMENSIONS OF               ADULT LEARNING. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION,              NO. 85, edited by L. English and M. Gillen, pp. 7-16. San Francisco:            Jossey-Bass, 2000. 
Wade-Gayles, G., ed. MY SOUL IS A WITNESS:                 AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN'S SPIRITUALITY. Boston: Beacon Press,                    1995. 
Walters, S., and Manicom, L., eds. GENDER IN POPULAR                    EDUCATION. London: Zed Press, 1996. 
Welch, S. D. SWEET DREAMS IN              AMERICA: MAKING ETHICS AND SPIRITUALITY WORK. New York: Routledge,              1999. 
Wilber, K. A THEORY OF EVERYTHING. Boston: Shambhala,                   2000. 
Williams, D. S. SISTERS IN THE WILDERNESS; THE CHALLENGE OF             WOMANIST GOD-TALK. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 1993. 
Wuthnow, R.              AFTER HEAVEN: SPIRITUALITY IN AMERICA SINCE THE 1950S. Berkeley:                University of California Press, 1998. 
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This project has                been funded at least in part with Federal funds from the U.S.                   Department of Education under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0013. The                   content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views              or policies of the U.S. Department of Education nor does mention of             trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement            by the U.S. Government. Digests may be freely reproduced and are                available at http://ericacve.org/digests.asp.                                **Title:** Spirituality in Adult and Higher Education. ERIC Digest.                     **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** For full text: http://www.ericacve.org/pubs.asp.                             **Descriptors:**  Adult Development,  Adult Education, Adult Learning,  Beliefs,                 Constructivism (Learning),  Culturally Relevant Education, Higher               Education, Human Resources, Labor Force Development, Philosophy,                Religious Education,  Spirituality, Values                                   **Identifiers:**  Emancipatory Education, ERIC Digests,  Spiritual Development                
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