U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic 

Characteristics for Headwater Streams in 

the Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region of 

Southern West Virginia, 2000–01

By KATHERINE S. PAYBINS

Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4300

In cooperation with the 

U.S. Office of Surface Mining and the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Charleston, West Virginia

2003
U.S. Department of the Interior

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

The use of trade or product names in this report is for identification 

purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

--------------------

For additional information write to: Copies of this report can be purchased from:

Chief, West Virginia District U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey Branch of Information Services

11 Dunbar Street Box 25286

Charleston, WV 25301 Denver, CO 80225-0286
Contents III

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Purpose and Scope ...................................................................................................................................................... 2

Description of Study Area........................................................................................................................................... 2

Definitions of Perennial, Intermittent, and Ephemeral Streams.................................................................................. 6

Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................................................... 7

Study Design and Data Collection ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Characteristics of Headwater Streams................................................................................................................................... 12

Drainage Areas with Intermittent Flow....................................................................................................................... 12

Drainage Areas with Perennial Flow........................................................................................................................... 15

Temporal Variability in Intermittent and Perennial Drainage Areas........................................................................... 15

Summary and Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................... 18

References Cited ................................................................................................................................................................... 19

FIGURES

1. Map showing the locations of the study-area groups of sampling sites in the headwater streams

of the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01 ....................................................... 3

2. Graph showing observed median monthly water levels for 1999–2001 and monthly water-level

statistics for 1976–2001 at U.S. Geological Survey monitoring well WYO-0148 in Twin Falls

State Park, Wyoming County, West Virginia......................................................................................................... 5

3. Sketch showing ephemeral-, intermittent-, and perennial-flow patterns typical for the mountaintop

coal-mining region of southern West Virginia....................................................................................................... 6

4. Graphs showing streamflow and precipitation for the streamflow-gaging station (03204210) on a

small stream near Mud, in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia

during (A) a spring 2000 precipitation event, and (B) an autumn 2000 precipitation event.................................. 11

5. Boxplots showing distribution of (A) elevation, (B) drainage area, and (C) median basin slope for

intermittent and perennial points in headwater streams of the mountaintop coal-mining region

of southern West Virginia, 2000–01 ...................................................................................................................... 14

TABLES

1. Precipitation data for long term National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration monitoring

sites within and adjacent to headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of

southern West Virginia, 2000–01 ............................................................................................................................. 4

2. Location and drainage area of intermittent and perennial points in headwater streams in the

mountaintop coal-mining region, 2000–01 .............................................................................................................. 9

3. Selected drainage-area and hydrologic characteristics of intermittent points used in data analysis for

headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region, 2000–01...................................................................... 13

4. Selected drainage area and hydrologic characteristics of perennial points used in data analysis of

headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region, 2000–01...................................................................... 16

5. Differences in drainage area between intermittent and perennial points in 2000 and 2001 for headwater

streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region ....................................................................................................... 17

CONTENTS
IV Contents

CONVERSION FACTORS, DATUMS, WATER-QUALITY ABBREVIATIONS,

AND ACRONYMS

CONVERSION FACTORS

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) can be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F), and conversely,

by the following equations:

°F = (1.8)°C + 32 °C = (°F-32)/1.8

Water year is calculated from October of calendar year one through September of calendar year two.

DATUMS

In this report, vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of

1988 (NAVD 88), and horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum

of 1983 (NAD 83). Historical data collected and stored as National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929

have been converted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) for this publication. 

WATER-QUALITY ABBREVIATIONS

Specific conductance of water is expressed in microsiemens per centimeter at 25°C (μS/cm). This

unit is equivalent to micromhos per centimeter at 25°C (μmho/cm), formerly used by the U. S.

Geological Survey.

ACRONYMS

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

MTRM EIS Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining Environmental Impact Statement

OSM U.S. Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation

SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

WVDEP West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection

Multiply By To obtain

acre 0.00404686 square kilometer

cubic feet per second(ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter

foot per mile (ft/mi) 0.1894 meter per kilometer

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter
Abstract 1

Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic 

Characteristics for Headwater Streams in the 

Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region of Southern

West Virginia, 2000–01

By Katherine S. Paybins

Abstract

Characteristics of perennial and intermittent 

headwater streams were documented in the mountaintop removal coal-mining region of southern 

West Virginia in 2000–01. The perennial-flow 

origin points were identified in autumn during low 

base-flow conditions. The intermittent-flow origin 

points were identified in late winter and early 

spring during high base-flow conditions. 

Results of this investigation indicate that the 

median drainage area upstream of the origin of 

intermittent flow was 14.5 acres, and varied by an 

absolute median of 3.4 acres between the late 

winter measurements of 2000 and early spring 

measurements of 2001. Median drainage area in 

the northeastern part of the study unit was generally larger (20.4 acres), with a lower median basin 

slope (322 feet per mile) than the southwestern 

part of the study unit (12.9 acres and 465 feet per 

mile, respectively). Both of the seasons preceding 

the annual intermittent flow visits were much drier 

than normal. The West Virginia Department of 

Environmental Protection reports that the median 

size of permitted valley fills in southern West Virginia is 12.0 acres, which is comparable to the 

median drainage area upstream of the ephemeralintermittent flow point (14.5 acres). The maximum 

size of permitted fills (480 acres), however, is 

more than 10 times the observed maximum drainage area upstream of the ephemeral-intermittent 

flow point (45.3 acres), although a single valley 

fill may cover more than one drainage area. 

The median drainage area upstream of the 

origin of perennial flow was 40.8 acres, and varied 

by an absolute median of 18.0 acres between two 

annual autumn measurements. Only basins underlain with mostly sandstone bedrock produced 

perennial flow. Perennial points in the northeast 

part of the study unit had a larger median drainage 

area (70.0 acres) and a smaller median basin slope 

(416 feet per mile) than perennial points in the 

southwest part of the study unit (35.5 acres and 

567 feet per mile, respectively). Some streams 

were totally dry for one or both of the annual 

October visits. Both of the seasons preceding the 

October visits had near normal to higher than 

normal precipitation. These dry streams were adjacent to perennial streams draining similarly sized 

areas, suggesting that local conditions at a firstorder-stream scale determine whether or not there 

will be perennial flow.

Headwater-flow rates varied little from year 

to year, but there was some variation between late 

winter and early spring and autumn. Flow rates at 

intermittent points of flow origin ranged from 

0.001 to 0.032 cubic feet per second, with a 

median of 0.017 cubic feet per second. Flow rates 

at perennial points of flow origin ranged from 

0.001 to 0.14 cubic feet per second, with a median 

of 0.003 cubic feet per second.
2 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

INTRODUCTION

The surface mining of coal by means of mountaintop removal results in excess rock material (spoil), 

some of which is placed in headwater valleys adjacent 

to the mined area. The Code of Federal Regulations, 

crafted by the U.S. Office of Surface Mining and 

Reclamation (OSM), describes conditions for the 

placement of excess spoil in headwater valleys (valley 

fills) (Legal Information Institute, 2002a, 2002b). The 

1999 and 2002 U.S. District court rulings interpret Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) 

and Clean Water Act regulations to allow the placement of valley fill material only in ephemeral streams 

and not within 100 feet of intermittent and perennial 

streams, unless the post-mining land use is designated 

as development (U.S. District Court for the Southern 

District of West Virginia, 1999). Coal-mining interests 

and some government leaders are concerned that if this 

rule is enforced, mountaintop-removal mining will 

cease to be feasible in West Virginia. 

Five Federal and State agencies began 

cooperation on a Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining 

Environmental Impact Statement (MTRM EIS) in 1999 

as a voluntary response to the court challenge dealing 

with SMCRA and the Clean Water Act mountaintopremoval enforcement issues. 

Part of the MTRM EIS will assess the environmental effects on waters of the United States and on 

biota (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999). 

In support of this objective, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), in cooperation with OSM and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), reported the point 

of flow origins for perennial and intermittent headwater 

streams in the coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, and studied their hydrologic and drainage-area 

characteristics. 

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the hydrologic and drainage area characteristics of intermittent and perennial 

headwater streams in southern West Virginia that were 

not affected by mining. The streams were examined in 

late winter or early spring (February through April), 

when the water table is at its highest elevation, and in 

autumn (October), when the water table is at its lowest 

elevation. The origin of continuous base flow was identified in 36 unmined headwater streams in southern 

West Virginia in February–April and October of both 

2000 and 2001. Methods were developed to identify the 

origin of continuous base flow in hydrologic terms, and 

drainage-area characteristics were determined, including variations in drainage-area sizes upstream of floworigin points over time. A better understanding of the 

relations between ephemeral, intermittent, and perennial headwater streams and their drainage-area characteristics will help regulators make sound decisions on 

valley-fill permits in West Virginia and adjacent states 

with similar issues. 

Description of Study Area

Fifteen percent of the Nation’s coal produced in 

2000 was mined in West Virginia, and West Virginia 

leads the United States in coal exports (West Virginia 

Office of Miners' Health, Safety and Training, 2000). 

Coal is mined by means of both underground and 

surface methods. In recent years, it has become both 

economically and technologically possible to remove 

entirely multiple, thin layers of coal near the tops of the 

mountains. This type of mining is called mountaintopremoval mining. Large-scale mountaintop-removal 

mines generate excess fragmented rock material in the 

mining process that cannot be replaced at the top of the 

mountain once the coal is removed. This excess spoil is 

placed in valleys adjacent to the surface mines. West 

Virginia has approximately 1,700 valley fills ranging in 

size from less than 1 acre to 480 acres and with a 

median size of 12.0 acres (West Virginia Department of 

Environmental Protection, 2002). The streams in the 

study described here are within the region of mountaintop-removal mining, but had not yet been filled at the 

start of this work.

The 36 first-order stream sites are grouped 

within five study areas in the Appalachian Plateaus 

Physiographic Province in southern West Virginia 

(fig. 1), which is characterized by mountainous terrain 

(Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman and Johnson, 1946). 

The streams of the Appalachian Plateaus have eroded 

sedimentary rocks into steeply sloping hills and narrow 

valleys. A thin layer of regolith commonly overlies 

interbedded sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone, 

shale, coal, limestone, and dolomite rocks, all of which
Introduction 3

Figure 1. Locations of the study-area groups of sampling sites in the headwater streams of the mountaintop coal- mining 

region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01.

MAP

AREA

SHOWN
4 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

dip gently to the northwest across the region. Resistant 

bedrock exposed at the highest elevations (headwater 

regions) is most commonly sandstone or shale, but 

the thickness of this cap-rock layer is variable 

(Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman and Johnson, 1946; and 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1970). Most ground water 

flows along the valley walls through a series of 

fractures composed of joints, faults, and bedding 

planes, and in slump fractures (Wyrick and Borchers, 

1981). 

The climate of West Virginia is continental, with 

four distinct seasons and a large temperature variation 

between summer and winter (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1960; Messinger and Hughes, 2000). Mean 

monthly summer temperatures are about 65-75°F, 

while mean monthly winter temperatures are about 

25-40 °F; these temperatures depend on elevation. 

Prevailing winds move generally from west to east. 

Due to local orographic uplift, the heaviest precipitation falls on the windward (southwest and western) 

sides of mountains, which have rain shadows on their 

leeward (northeast and eastern) sides. Throughout the 

warmer months, the region is affected by northeastmoving, moisture-laden maritime tropical air that 

produces spatially discrete showers and thunderstorm 

cells (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1960). In the 

colder part of the year, large low-pressure storms 

deliver precipitation over broader regions, but less total 

precipitation than warm-weather storms. 

In general, the 2000 water year was drier than 

average, and the 2001 water year was an average year 

for precipitation and ground-water levels (Ward and 

others, 2001, 2002) (fig. 2). The October–March periods in both 2000 and 2001 were much drier than the 

30-year average at all examined precipitation stations 

in southwestern West Virginia (U.S. Department of 

Commerce, 2000, 2001, and 2002a) (table 1). Precipitation at various stations in the period (April–September) preceding the October 2000 field work range from 

about 4 to 11 in. above normal. In the period preceding 

the October 2001 field work, precipitation was below 

normal at Dunlow and Madison (3.9 in. and 2.11 in., 

respectively), and 0.2–5.8 in. above normal at the other 

stations. In the northeast part of the study area, average 

annual precipitation is 1.8 in. greater than in the southwest part of the study area. 

Table 1. Precipitation data for long-term National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration monitoring sites within and adjacent 

to headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01

[Group of sites closest to precipitation station: See figure 1 for site locations and names. Normal monthly precipitation: Totals calculated from U.S. 

Department of Commerce data from 1971–2000; precipitation data are in inches]

Precipitation

station

Group of sites

closest to

precipitation

station

October 

1999 

through 

March 2000

April 2000 

through 

September 

2000

October 

2000 

through 

March

2001

April 2001 

through 

September 

2001

Normal monthly

precipitation Normal

annual

October– precipitation

March

April–

September

Dunlow 1 SW............ LB, WF 10.06 29.69 14.83 20.96 20.86 24.85 45.71

Hamlin....................... HC, LB, WF 19.56 27.95 18.96 24.47 20.14 24.26 44.40

London Locks ........... FF 15.85 36.30 12.38 29.19 19.76 25.50 45.26

Madison 3 NNW ....... HC 12.55 31.76 110.18 125.00 20.73 27.11 47.84
Introduction 5

1One to nine days of precipitation data are missing for at least one month during the given time interval.

Oak Hill..................... FF 11.95 33.86 11.25 30.69 20.62 25.59 46.21

Summersville Lake ... RN 12.94 36.93 12.10 32.61 20.65 26.83 47.48

Table 1. Precipitation data for long-term National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration monitoring sites within and adjacent 

to headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01

[Group of sites closest to precipitation station: See figure 1 for site locations and names. Normal monthly precipitation: Totals calculated from U.S. 

Department of Commerce data from 1971–2000; precipitation data are in inches]

Precipitation

station

Group of sites

closest to

precipitation

station

October 

1999 

through 

March 2000

April 2000 

through 

September 

2000

October 

2000 

through 

March

2001

April 2001 

through 

September 

2001

Normal monthly

precipitation Normal

annual

October– precipitation

March

April–

September

MONTH AND YEAR

52

50

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

MEDIAN MONTHLY WATER-LEVEL 

DEPTH BELOW LAND SURFACE, IN FEET

J FM AM J J A S OND

J

FM AM J J A S OND

J

FM AM J J A S OND

1999 2000 2001

EXPLANATION
6 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

Definitions of Perennial, Intermittent, and 

Ephemeral Streams

Water in the environment is available in the air, 

in precipitation, in the ground, and on the land surface. 

The interface where the ground-water table intersects 

the land surface and becomes streamflow in a headwater channel is the point of flow origin. Streamflow 

derived from ground water alone is called base flow. 

Overland and near-surface flow contributing to streamflow are called surface and subsurface storm runoff 

(Black, 1991). When a stream receives base flow yearround, it is considered to be a perennial stream (fig. 3). 

Intermittent flow indicates a seasonal lowering of the 

water table during the summer and early autumn, as 

base-flow contributions to the channel cease. If a channel does not intersect the water table at any time of 

year, it is considered to be an ephemeral channel. 

Given the natural hydrologic cycle, three basic 

types of definitions for perennial, intermittent, and 

ephemeral streamflow exist. Descriptive definitions are 

often obtained from cartographers, whose maps are 

used frequently in a legal and regulatory environment. 

Hydrologic definitions are based on observations and 

measurements of hydrologic phenomena, such as the 

relations between stormwater flow and ground water, 

and have recently been relied on more often in regulations. Biologic definitions combine the existence or 

absence of indicator species of benthic invertebrates 

with hydrologic phenomena.

Much research has focused on the stream-type, 

blue-line symbol on USGS maps at the 1:24,000 scale, 

in spite of the fact that the line symbol on these maps is 

not based on hydrologic criteria (Leopold, 1994). Even 

so, many state and local laws specifically state that this 

map series should be used when making any regulatory 

decisions. Specific topographic instructions to past 

USGS cartographers (U.S. Geological Survey, 1980) 

state that: 

1. “...all perennial streams are published regardless of 

length.” 

2. “All intermittent streams are published that are 

longer than 2,000 feet” and 

3. “In general, headwater drainage shown on the 

published map should terminate no higher than 

about 1,000 feet from the divide, or at the upper 

confluence of streams, whichever appears most 

appropriate.”

Figure 3. Ephemeral-, intermittent-, and perennial-flow 

patterns typical for the mountaintop coal-mining region of 

southern West Virginia.

These instructions indicate that headwater limits 

of blue lines on maps do not reflect actual field conditions. Generally, a far larger number of actual channels 

can be identified on the ground than are visible on a 

published map (Leopold, 1994). For instance, the topographic maps used in this study showed that only 12 of 

the headwater drainage areas had intermittent streams; 

but in this study, 36 headwater drainage areas were 

identified that had intermittent or perennial streams. 

Twelve of those 36 streams had intermittent flow, but 

no perennial flow in 2000 or 2001.

Hydrologic definitions of perennial, intermittent, 

or ephemeral streamflow in the eastern U.S. are based 

on the relations between stormwater and ground water, 

the timing and duration of continuous base flow, drainage area, channel characteristics, and presence or 

EPHEMERAL-FLOW REACH

INTERMITTENT-FLOW REACH

PERENNIAL-FLOW REACH

DRAINAGE-BASIN BOUNDARY

EXPLANATION
Study Design and Data Collection 7

absence of substrate bedforms indicative of flowing 

waters (Hewlett, 1982; Stefania Shamet, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3, written commun., 

1999). A basic hydrologic definition, and the one used 

in this study, is modified from Langbein and Iseri 

(1960). A perennial stream is one that flows continuously, and thus has flow from both ground-water discharge and surface runoff. An intermittent stream flows 

only at certain times in the year, when it receives both 

ground-water discharge and storm runoff. Ephemeral 

streams flow only in direct response to surface runoff 

of precipitation or melting snow, and their channels are 

at all times above the water table. The West Virginia 

Department of Environmental Protection (WVDEP), 

Water Quality Standard CSR 46-1-1-2.9, defines intermittent streams as “streams which have no flow during 

sustained periods of no precipitation, and which do not 

support aquatic life whose life history requires residence in flowing water for a continuous period of at 

least 6 months”. OSM regulations define an intermittent stream as a “stream or part of a stream that flows 

continuously for at least 1 month of the calendar year 

as a result of ground-water discharge or surface runoff; 

the term does not include a stream that flows for less 

than one month of a calendar year, and then only in 

direct response to precipitation in the immediate drainage area and whose channel bottom is always above the 

local water table.” (Legal Information Institute, 2002a). 

Pennsylvania regulation 25 Pa. Code φ 87.1 includes a 

reference to channel substrate indicative of flowing 

water, or lack thereof, to further differentiate ephemeral 

from intermittent streams (Stefania Shamet, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3, written commun., 1999). 

Biologic interpretations of perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral streams are changing with 

increasing knowledge of benthic invertebrates and 

water-obligate fauna in headwater environments. Some 

taxa that are now known to be present in intermittent 

streams are currently used as indicators of continuous 

(perennial) flow (M.E. Passmore, U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Region 3, written commun., 2002). 

A growing body of literature indicates that intermittent 

flows can support a diverse and abundant invertebrate 

and salamander assemblage (Feminella, 1996; Williams, 1996; Dietrich and Anderson, 2000; M.E. 

Passmore, written commun., 2002).

Acknowledgments

The author thanks USGS and OSM colleagues 

for their contributions to the field work and reviews. 

The USGS appreciates the time given and knowledge 

of the study area shared by Randall Maggard (Pen Coal 

Inc.), John McDaniel (Arch Coal, Inc.), Francis Meadows (Alex Energy, Inc.), Frank Rose (Pittston/Appalachian Co.), and Roger Wolfe (formerly of Mid-Vol 

Leasing, Inc.). The USGS is also grateful to David 

Vandelinde of the WVDEP for his assistance in securing contacts at the research sites.

STUDY DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

A multi-agency group, including the WVDEP, 

USGS, and OSM, selected 43 headwater streams for 

investigation from mountaintop-removal-mine permit 

maps. At each of these first-order streams, permits 

for filling with excess mining spoil were either pending 

or approved. Although 12 of the 43 drainage areas were 

shown on USGS 1:24,000-scale topographic maps 

as including intermittent streams, field inspections 

during this study showed that 36 of these drainage 

areas included intermittent or perennial streams. The 

36 of 43 headwater streams evaluated for this study 

are in unmined drainage areas in Boone, Fayette, 

Lincoln, and Nicholas Counties, in the heart of the 

surface coal-mining region of southern West Virginia 

(fig. 1). Surface-mining activities precluded further 

visits to some basins. Some sites were not visited 

due to clearing of most vegetation in preparation for 

filling. Clearcutting significantly alters the hydrologic 

regime of a watershed by decreasing evapotranspiration 

and increasing surface and subsurface runoff (Helvey 

and Patric, 1965; Black, 1991; Fitzpatrick and others, 

1998). 

Each of the headwater streams was visited in 

February 2000, October 2000, March-April 2001, and 

October 2001 in order to identify the point of origin of 

continuous surface flow. Multi-agency teams made the 

February 2000 visit, while a USGS team made the next 

three visits. The point where base flow begins in the 

late winter or early spring corresponds to the highest 

water-table elevation, and is the point of intermittentflow origin, or the boundary between ephemeral and 

intermittent flow (called the intermittent point). The 

point where base flow begins in the late summer and 

early autumn corresponds to the lowest water-table 
8 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

elevation, and is the point of perennial flow origin, or 

the boundary between intermittent and perennial flow 

(called the perennial point).

The field work done in February–April was 

timed to coincide with the wettest part of the year, with 

little evapotranspiration before leaf-out begins, and a 

ground-water table normally at its highest annual elevation in the region (fig. 2). The February–April field 

work thus documented the point of origin of continuous intermittent base flow (intermittent point) under 

conditions of no rainfall and subsequent storm runoff. 

Many streams throughout West Virginia have minimum 

base flows in late summer through early autumn, and 

maximum base flows in late winter or early spring 

(Ward and others, 2002). Different teams with different 

equipment visited each group of sites (FF, HC, LB, RN, 

WF) in February 2000. The accuracy of some of the 

global-positioning-systems (GPS receivers) varied 

between each group, and a few intermittent-point designations were mapped approximately for some sites, 

which may have introduced an immeasurable error for 

a few intermittent points. Project-planning complications delayed the 2001 site visits, and some understory 

plants were already leafed out during the April visits. 

The evapotranspiration from these plants probably had 

some effect on the measured variables. 

October field work was timed before leaf-off to 

coincide with the dry conditions and the lowest watertable elevations generally observed in early autumn in 

the region (fig. 2). October field work thus documented 

the point of origin of continuous perennial base flow 

(perennial point), under conditions of no rainfall and 

subsequent storm runoff. There was no base flow in 20 

headwater streams in October of either 2000 or 2001, 

and 12 streams contained no perennial flow in either 

2000 or 2001 (table 2). 

For each site, the field crew walked the full 

length of the stream channel to determine the location 

of the upstream limit of continuous surface flow. The 

geographic coordinates of the point or zone where 

streamflow was observed to be continuous in the channel and no flow was upstream were identified with a 

Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR). The 

error in horizontal location for the PLGR system is 13 

ft. If the GPS could not acquire a location for the 

upstream flow limit, a Bushnell rangefinder, with an 

error of 3 ft, was used to estimate the distance from a 

point where a GPS reading was acquired. 

All visits included measurements of streamflow, 

water temperature, and specific conductance, except 

for the February 2000 visits (they were not included in 

the original study design). Streamflow was measured 

within 15 ft downstream of the flow origin point with 

one of three methods. A pygmy meter was used to measure flow velocity across a defined channel width when 

the channel was wide and deep enough for the meter. 

Floatable material was timed over a set distance to 

measure velocity when the channel was not deep 

enough to use the pygmy meter. The flow at a few sites 

was measured by timing the filling of a bucket of 

known volume. Water temperature was measured to 

help determine whether or not surface water contributed in a major way to the flow. (Surface-water temperature is generally higher than ground-water 

temperature in summer and lower in winter.) For 

autumn visits, when warmer water temperatures indicated possible upstream flow through channel sand or 

gravel deposits, the point of flow origin was reevaluated by hiking upstream to verify that no surface flow 

existed. Specific conductance was measured as a possible indicator of mine-water discharge, which generally 

has higher specific conductance than natural ground 

water. Conductance values measured in the field differed widely, however, despite the absence of coal 

mining upstream of the study sites. 

To avoid the effects of stormwater runoff, 

streams were evaluated only if precipitation exceeding 

0.1 in. was not recorded for at least 1 day prior to the 

visit (table 2). A continuous streamflow-gaging station 

(03204210) was operated during this study on a small, 

unmined headwater-stream site on Spring Branch near 

Mud, WV. The record from that station indicates that in 

both the spring and autumn of 2000, stormwater flow 

in a headwater basin (0.53 mi2) generally passed the 

stream-gaging station within 24 hours of a precipitation 

event of less than 0.6 in. (fig. 4). 

The drainage areas for the headwater-stream 

sites were assumed to be forested and previously undisturbed by deep or surface coal-mining activity. Because 

it was later discovered that surface mining likely had 

affected 7 of the original 43 headwater streams, they 

are not included in the following analysis of 36 sites 

(table 2). Six of the streams in McDowell County were 

accessible from a bench of a 1970s contour mine. 

The origin of flow for all six streams for all visits was 

at or near the base of the rubble pile downgradient from 

the mine bench. One Nicholas County headwater 

stream was dry during all visits, and there was no
Study Design and Data Collection 9

Table 2. Location and drainage area of intermittent and perennial points in headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of 

2000–01

Sampling 

site

2000 Intermittent point 2001 Intermittent point 2000 Perennial point 2

Drainage 

area, in 

acres

Latitude Longi- tude

Minimum 

number 

of days 

since rain

Drainage 

area, in 

acres

Latitude Longi- tude

Minimum 

number 

of days 

since rain

Drainage 

area, in 

acres

Latitude Longi- tude

Minimum 

number 

of days 

since rain

Drainage 

area, in 

acres

FF1 19.4 38.1686 81.2498 4 8.1 38.1675 81.2495 2 * -- -- 5 ** FF1a *** -- -- -- 18.3 38.1786 81.2559 2 * -- -- 5 ** FF3 10.8 38.1829 81.2434 5 19.0 38.1833 81.2440 2 65.0 38.1852 81.2490 5 122.3 FF4 45.3 38.1898 81.2390 5 52.5 38.1889 81.2402 2 *** -- -- 5 98.2 HC1a 12.0 38.1415 81.8027 1 15.0 38.1415 81.8029 1 54.0 38.1406 81.8056 2 28.5 HC1b 24.4 38.1390 81.8037 1 31.8 38.1394 81.8041 1 40.7 38.1402 81.8055 2 35.3 HC2 26.5 38.1418 81.8126 1 22.2 38.1420 81.8121 1 47.3 38.1406 81.8136 2 19.7 HC3a *** -- -- -- 24.2 38.1438 81.8185 1 23.4 38.1439 81.8183 2 24.1 HC3b 13.8 38.1420 81.8173 1 * -- -- 1 40.8 38.1436 81.8183 2 22.8 HC4 **** -- -- --   -- -- -- ** ** -- -- -- 23.0  HC4a 8.4 38.1486 81.8194 1 7.7 38.1486 81.8193 1 10.4 38.1484 81.8197 2 *****  HC4b 9.2 38.1478 81.8197 1 7.7 38.1478 81.8195 1 * -- -- 2 ***** HC5 9.6 38.1532 81.8167 1 * -- -- 1 * -- -- 2 * HC6a 16.4 38.1476 81.8130 1 19.7 38.1481 81.8130 1 * -- -- -- 20.7 HC6b 18.0 38.1487 81.8134 1 17.9 38.1488 81.8137 1 * -- -- -- 18.0 LB1 *** -- -- -- 10.8 37.9766 82.2724 1 * -- -- 10 * LB2 *** -- -- -- 12.7 37.9734 82.2670 1 * -- -- 10 * LB3 *** -- -- -- 17.7 37.9748 82.2632 2 52.0 37.9723 82.2622 10 * LB4 7.9 37.9722 82.2589 3 10.1 37.9721 82.2585 2 * -- -- 10 * LB5 *** -- -- -- 13.1 37.9760 82.2586 1 34.0 37.9749 82.2570 10 34.8 RNB 11.3 38.3304 80.9854 2 ** -- -- -- ** -- -- -- ** RNC 40.6 38.3298 80.9981 1 *** -- -- -- 44.2 38.3296 80.9983 4 66.5 RND 8.9 38.3293 81.0051 <1 13.3 38.3293 81.0057 2 * -- -- 4 * RNE 30.6 38.3329 81.0106 1 43.2 38.3331 81.0127 2 * -- -- 2 66.1 RNF 19.4 38.3326 80.9920 1 23.2 38.3331 80.9920 8 41.9 38.3341 80.9922 2 * 

Table 2. Location and drainage area of intermittent and perennial points in headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of s

2000–01

[ Sampling site: See figure 1 for site locations and names. *, No continuous flow identified in drainage area. **, Drainage area unavailable due to preparation for or actu

***, Drainage area not visited during field season.  , Intermittent or perennial point identified upstream in one or more tributary valleys. ** ***, Perennial point ident

tent tributaries. --, not applicable; <, actual value is less than value shown]
10 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01 RNG1 20.4 38.3329 80.9773 2 27.5 38.3331 80.9790 8 27.6 38.3332 80.9790 4 27.5 

RNG2 31.4 38.3345 80.9787 2 28.0 38.3349 80.9779 8 *** -- -- -- 28.4 RNG3 22.2 38.3329 80.9812 2 22.2 38.3329 80.9814 8 22.2 38.3329 80.9816 4 28.6 RNH *** -- -- -- 40.7 38.3396 80.9772 8 125.9 38.3428 80.9799 4 150.1 WF1a 14.5 37.9907 82.2377 3 24.7 37.9898 82.2368 8 * -- -- 10 * WF1b 6.3 37.9881 82.2408 3 10.1 37.9880 82.2399 8 * -- -- 10 * WF2a 10.7 37.9928 82.2347 3 10.7 37.9927 82.2348 8 * -- -- 10 * WF2b1 15.9 37.9937 82.2330 3 14.9 37.9938 82.2331 8 * -- -- 10 * WF2b2 22.2 37.9933 82.2344 3 21.2 37.9933 82.2346 8 * -- -- 10 * WF3a *** -- -- -- 7.9 37.9966 82.2388 8 * -- -- 10 * WF3b 10.9 37.9964 82.2394 3 12.1 37.9967 82.2393 8 * -- -- 10 * 

Table 2. Location and drainage area of intermittent and perennial points in headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of s

2000–01—Continued Sampling site 2000 Intermittent point 2001 Intermittent point 2000 Perennial point 20

Drainage area, in acres Lati- tude Longi- tude Minimum number of days since rain Drainage area, in acres Lati- tude Longi- tude Minimum number of days since rain Drainage area, in acres Lati- tude Longi- tude Minimum number of days since rain Drainage area, in acres 
11 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

Figure 4. Streamflow and precipitation for the streamflow-gaging station (03204210) on a small stream near Mud, 

in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia during (A) a spring 2000 precipitation event, and 

(B) an autumn 2000 precipitation event.

0

0.4

0.8

1.2

STREAM FLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

AVERAGE HOURLY PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

MEAN HOURLY PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

HOURLY PRECIPITATION

STREAMFLOW

HOURLY PRECIPITATION

STREAMFLOW

A. SPRING 2000

3/6 3/7 3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11

DATE

9/21 9/23 9/25 9/27 9/29

B. AUTUMN 2000
12 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

apparent channel to the receiving stream at the mouth 

of the drainage area at an elevation of approximately 

900 ft above sea level. A deep mine that dewaters some 

streams between approximately 900 and 1,200 ft above 

sea level, however, is suspected to be the cause of a 

lack of flow in that stream for most visits.

All collected data were put into spreadsheets, 

and all the intermittent- and perennial-point GPS 

locations were mapped digitally with ArcGIS 8.1 

software. The coordinates of points were verified by 

comparison to digital orthophoto quarter-quadrangle 

maps and digital raster graphics (DRGs). Most GPS 

locations obtained in the field were accurate with 

respect to these datasets. Drainage areas of intermittent 

and perennial points were digitized at the 1:24,000 

scale by use of the National Elevation Dataset (NED), 

which has a 30-meter horizontal accuracy (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). Characteristics such as drainage 

area, elevation of origin point, mean drainage-area 

slope, aspect directions, and areal percentage of the 

dominant rock type were calculated for the drainagearea coverages on the basis of NED data, DRGs, and 

the digital geologic map of West Virginia (West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, 1998). 

Mean drainage-area slope was calculated on the basis 

of the contour-band method of calculation (Horton, 

1932; Eash, 1994); drainage-area slope can affect infiltration, surface runoff, soil moisture, and, possibly 

ground-water discharge to streams (Eash, 1994). A correlation analysis was used to assess the influence of the 

measured characteristics on intermittent- or perennialpoint drainage area.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HEADWATER 

STREAMS

In the coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, intermittent points were identified for streams in 

35 of 36 drainage areas, and perennial points were 

identified for streams in 20 of 36 drainage areas (fig. 1, 

table 2). There was no flow in 20 of the drainage areas 

included in this study in at least one spring or autumn 

site visit. Additionally, 23 intermittent points and 

11 perennial points were visited 2 years in a row in 

order to give an indication of temporal variability of the 

origin of flow in response to climatic conditions. 

Drainage Areas with Intermittent Flow

The highest elevation of the water table and the 

beginning of intermittent base flow (intermittent point) 

was identified for 35 headwater streams in February 

2000 and March–April 2001 (table 2). For 27 sites visited in February 2000, the median drainage area was 

15.9 acres; and for 31 sites visited in March or April 

2001, the median drainage area was 17.9 acres. The 

smallest drainage area in either year upstream of an 

intermittent point was 6.3 acres, and the largest drainage area was 52.5 acres. 

If a site was visited more than once, the intermittent point with the smaller drainage area was used in 

the balance of this analysis, because the current 

SMCRA and Clean Water Act issue under scrutiny is 

whether or not fill material can be placed in intermittent and perennial streams. The median drainage area 

of this subset of intermittent points (table 3) is 14.5 

acres. The median basin slope of these drainage areas is 

388 ft/mi. All following analyses are based on this 

subset of the data because not all of the sites were visited two times.

The median area for the 1,782 permitted valley 

fills in southern West Virginia is 12.0 acres (West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, 2002), 

which is slightly smaller than the median intermittentpoint drainage area (14.5 acres). The maximum size of 

a permitted fill (480 acres) is more than 10 times the 

observed maximum intermittent-point drainage area of 

45.3 acres (table 3). Currently, some large fills cover 

more than one headwater drainage area.

In the northeastern part of the study area, mostly 

sandstone is exposed at the surface, intermittent-point 

elevations are higher (fig. 5A), and the average annual 

precipitation (approximately 47 in.) is generally 

greater. Intermittent points in the northeast had a 

median drainage area of 20.4 acres, and median basin 

slope of 322 ft/mi (table 3, figs. 5B, 5C). In the southwestern part of the study area, shale and sandstone are 

exposed at the surface, intermittent-point elevations are 

generally lower (fig. 5), and average annual precipitation (approximately 44 in.) is less. Intermittent points 

in the southwest had a median drainage area of 12.9 

acres, and median basin slope of 465 ft/mi (table 3, 

figs. 5B, 5C). 
Characteristics of Headwater Streams 13

Table 3. Selected drainage-area and hydrologic characteristics of intermittent points used in data analysis for headwater 

streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01

[Sampling site: See figure 1 for site locations and names. *, Data not collected in field season. **, Streamflow not measureable. ft, feet; ft/mi, feet per mile; 

ft3/s, cubic feet per second; μS/cm; microsiemens per centimeter]

Sampling 

site Region Year

Drainage area, 

in acres

Intermittent point 

elevation, 

in ft

Basin 

slope, 

in ft/mi

Drainage 

area 

aspect

Dominant 

rock type

Percentage dominant rock 

type

Temperature, in oC

Streamflow, in 

ft3/s

Conductance, in 

μS/cm

FF1 NE 2001 8.1 1,847 186 NW sandstone 100 7 0.008 110

FF1a NE 2001 18.3 1,493 338 SW sandstone 100 11.5 .016 214

FF3 NE 2000 10.8 1,709 223 NW sandstone 100 * * *

FF4 NE 2000 45.3 1,575 333 W-NW sandstone 100 * * *

RNB NE 2000 11.3 1,808 264 S sandstone 100 * * *

RNC NE 2000 40.6 1,595 416 SW sandstone 100 * * *

RND NE 2000 8.9 1,765 233 W-SW sandstone 100 * * *

RNE NE 2000 30.6 1,627 348 W sandstone 100 * * *

RNF NE 2000 19.4 1,732 275 N-NW sandstone 100 * * *

RNG1 NE 2000 20.4 1,811 350 W-NW sandstone 100 * * *

RNG2 NE 2001 28.0 1,791 322 W-SW sandstone 100 7.5 ** 27

RNG3 NE 2001 22.2 1,749 275 N-NW sandstone 100 7.5 .021 36

RNH NE 2001 40.7 1,601 433 NW sandstone 100 8.5 .001 40

HC1a SW 2000 12.0 1,076 393 SW sandstone 100 * * *

HC1b SW 2000 24.4 1,014 583 NW sandstone 100 * * *

HC2 SW 2001 22.2 1,011 596 SW sandstone 75 10 .018 283

HC3a SW 2001 24.2 978 552 S-SW sandstone 98 8 .032 534

HC3b SW 2000 13.8 978 587 N-NW sandstone 100 * *

HC4a SW 2001 7.7 1,086 310 W-SW sandstone 100 6.5 .022 616

HC4b SW 2001 7.7 984 485 W-NW sandstone 100 7 .002 349

HC5 SW 2000 9.6 971 488 W-NW sandstone 100 * * *

HC6a SW 2000 16.4 981 554 N sandstone 91 * * *

HC6b SW 2001 17.9 892 617 NE sandstone 100 7.5 .008 55

LB1 SW 2001 10.8 1,053 380 W shale 99 9 ** 22

LB2 SW 2001 12.7 1,056 315 S-SW shale 71 10.5 ** 36

LB3 SW 2001 17.7 1,034 408 S-SE sandstone 80 10 ** 39

LB4 SW 2000 7.9 1,027 323 S-SE sandstone 100 * * *

LB5 SW 2001 13.1 1,024 388 SE sandstone 73 10 ** 38

WF1a SW 2000 14.5 1,096 343 S-SE shale 67 * * *

WF1b SW 2000 6.3 1,040 505 E-NE shale 100 * * *

WF2a SW 2001 10.7 899 513 N-NE shale 51 9.5 .022 47

WF2b1 SW 2000 14.9 955 392 S-SE sandstone 78 * * *

WF2b2 SW 2001 21.2 922 490 E shale 92 7 .003 51

WF3a SW 2001 7.9 1,011 365 N-NW shale 99 5 .023 55

WF3b SW 2000 10.9 1,001 444 NE shale 100 * * *
14 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

Figure 5. Distribution of (A) elevation, (B) drainage area, and (C) median basin slope for intermittent and perennial 

points in headwater streams of the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01.

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

ELEVATION OF THE ORIGIN OF FLOW, 

IN FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL

0

50

100

150

200

DRAINAGE AREA, IN ACRES

200

100

300

400

500

600

700

MEDIAN BASIN SLOPE, IN FEET PER MILE

SITE TYPE AND REGION

A. ELEVATION

B. DRAINAGE AREA

C. MEDIAN BASIN SLOPE

NE SW NE SW

Intermittent points Perennial points

Data value less than

or equal to 1.5 times the interquartile 

range outside the quartile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

EXPLANATION
Characteristics of Headwater Streams 15

Intermittent-point drainage-area aspect, the general direction that water flows in a drainage area, varies 

from N to N-NW overall (table 3), and has a significant 

correlation with intermittent-point drainage area 

(R = 0.23, p < 0.05). Flow volume at intermittent points 

was small, with a median of 0.017 ft3/s, and a range of 

0.001 to 0.032 ft3/s (table 3). Specific conductance 

ranged from 22 to 616 μS/cm, with a median of 51

μS/cm. Water temperature ranged from 5–11.5°C, with 

a median of 8.0°C.

Drainage Areas with Perennial Flow

The lowest elevation of the water table, and 

beginning of continuous perennial base flow (perennial 

point), was identified for 20 headwater streams in 

October of 2000 or October 2001 (table 2). For all 

October 2000 sites, the median drainage area was 41.4 

acres, and for all October 2001 sites, the median drainage area was 28.5 acres. The 6-month period preceding 

the October 2000 visits to the perennial points was 

wetter than the period preceding the October 2001 

visits (table 1).

If a site was visited in both years, the larger 

perennial-point drainage area between the two years 

was used in the statistical analysis (table 4); the stream 

above the lower perennial point is assumed to be intermittent. Also included are four sites that produced 

perennial flow in 2001, but not in 2000. The median 

drainage area upstream of this subset of perennial 

points was 40.8 acres. The minimum perennial-point 

drainage area was 10.4 acres, while the maximum 

drainage area was 150.1 acres. Drainage areas of perennial points had a greater range in size across the study 

area than did intermittent-point drainage areas; this 

result suggests that low base flow in the autumn may be 

more sensitive to local differences in climatic and 

drainage-basin conditions than high base flow in late 

winter and early spring. All of the following analyses 

are based on this subset of the data (table 4) because 

not all of the sites were visited two times.

Headwater streams had perennial base flow only 

where more than 80 percent of the bedrock exposed at 

the surface is sandstone, regardless of location within 

the study unit (table 4). Median elevation of perennial 

points (1,503 ft) was higher in the northeastern part of 

the study area (fig. 5A); the median drainage area was 

66.1 acres and the median basin slope was 443 ft/mi 

(table 4, figs. 5B, 5C). Perennial points in the southwestern part of the study unit had a median elevation of 

919 ft, a median drainage area of 34.8 acres, and a 

median basin slope of 563 ft/mi (table 4, fig. 5). 

Drainage-area aspect for perennial points ranges 

from N to N-NW, with most basins facing SW, W-NW, 

and NW (table 4); drainage-area aspect was not significantly correlated to the drainage area of perennial 

points (R = 0.36, p > 0.05). Flow volume at perennial 

points varied little from site to site, with a range of 

0.001 to 0.014 ft3/s, and a median of 0.007 ft3/s. Specific conductance varied from 32 to 721 μS/cm, with a 

median of 73 μS/cm. Water temperature ranged from 

9.0 to 16.0°C, with a median of 12.8°C.

Of the 36 drainage areas evaluated during this 

study (table 2), six streams had no flow for only one 

visit and twelve streams were dry for both October visits. Half of these drainage areas contained at least 20 

percent shale bedrock. Over half of the drainage areas 

were adjacent to at least one other drainage area with 

intermittent flow. Drainage-area aspect was evenly distributed in all directions. These observations suggest 

that local climatic and drainage basin conditions determine whether or not there will be perennial flow in a 

first-order headwater stream. 

Temporal Variability in Intermittent and 

Perennial Drainage Areas

The point of flow origin for intermittent and 

perennial flow fluctuated over time, probably because 

of differences in environmental variables, including 

evapotranspiration, antecedent climatic conditions, and 

drainage basin conditions. This study quantified elevation, rock type, aspect, and basin slope for intermittentand perennial-point drainage areas for two years at 23 

and 11 sites, respectively.

The intermittent points were identified for 23 

sites in both February 2000 and March–April 2001 

(table 5). The intermittent-point drainage area varied by 

a median of 3.4 acres between these two periods overall. The regional pattern was evident in this analysis as 

well: northeastern intermittent-point drainage areas 

varied by a median of 7.0 acres, while southwestern 

drainage areas had a median variation of 1.9 acres. The 

drainage areas for intermittent points for February 

2000 and March–April 2001 were significantly correlated by linear regression (R = 0.87, p < 0.05). 
16 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

Regional late winter to early spring precipitation 

patterns can create small, local differences in the drainage areas of intermittent points, but there was no clear 

direction to the differences, regardless of location in the 

study area. The period (October–March) preceding the 

2000 field work was slightly wetter than the period preceding the 2001 field work (Ward and others, 2001, 

2002) (table 1), but only 57 percent (13 of 23) of 

intermittent-point drainage areas were larger in 2001 

than in 2000. Overall, October through March of both 

2000 and 2001 were significantly drier than normal, 

which may have had a cumulative affect on the drainage areas of the intermittent points. There is a significant relation between drainage areas for intermittent 

points in March–April 2001 and perennial points in 

October 2000 (R = 0.97, p < 0.05). 

The perennial points were identified for 11 sites 

in both October 2000 and October 2001. The drainage 

areas upstream of these perennial points varied by a 

median of 18.0 acres between 2000 and 2001 (table 5). 

The variation in drainage areas over time was much 

larger for perennial points (18.0 acres) than for intermittent points (3.4 acres), overall. Precipitation in the 

summer and early autumn in this region is delivered 

primarily by local convection thunderstorms, which 

can cause wide variability in water-table elevations 

across the region. Drainage areas of perennial points in 

October of 2001 were significantly correlated to drainage areas of perennial points in October 2000 

(R = 0.86, p < 0.05). 

There was a difference in the medians of the temporal variation in drainage areas for perennial points in 

the northern and southwestern regions. The median of 

the variation for the northeastern basins was 22.2 acres, 

and 11.7 acres for the southwestern basins. Perennial 

point drainage areas where the rock type is sandstone, 

which are distributed across the study area, varied by a 

median of 20.1 acres. Drainage areas with as much as

Table 4. Selected drainage-area and hydrologic characteristics of perennial points used in data analysis for headwater streams 

in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia, 2000–01

[Sampling site: See figure 1 for site locations and names. *, Data not collected in the October 2000 field season. ft, feet; ft/mi, feet per mile; ft3/s, cubic feet 

per second; μS/cm; microsiemens per centimeter]

Sampling 

site Region Year

Drainage 

area, in 

acres

Perennial 

point elevation, in 

ft

Basin 

slope, 

in ft/mi

Drainage 

area 

aspect

Dominant 

rock type

Percentage 

dominant 

rock type

Temperature, 

in οC

Streamflow, in ft3/s

Conductance, in 

μS/cm

FF3 NE 2001 122.3 1,244 539 NW sandstone 100 14 <0.003 90

FF4 NE 2001 98.2 1,457 443 W-NW sandstone 100 14 <.003 121

RNC NE 2001 66.5 1,503 491 SW sandstone 100 11 <.003 32

RNE NE 2001 66.1 1,227 480 W sandstone 100 12 <.002 44

RNF NE 2000 41.9 1,618 315 N sandstone 100 13 .011 43

RNG1 NE 2000 27.6 1,759 347 W-NW sandstone 100 12.5 .014 *

RNG2 NE 2001 28.4 1,791 230 W-SW sandstone 100 9 <.002 155

RNG3 NE 2001 28.6 1,706 301 N-NW sandstone 100 11.5 <.002 47

RNH NE 2001 150.1 1,270 600 NW sandstone 100 11 <.003 90

HC1a SW 2000 54.0 915 541 SW sandstone 100 12.5 <.005 73

HC1b SW 2000 40.7 945 596 NW sandstone 100 12 <.010 61

HC2 SW 2000 47.3 919 664 SW sandstone 82 13 .001 234

HC3a SW 2001 24.1 978 554 SW sandstone 98 16 <.003 360

HC3b SW 2000 40.8 902 615 NW sandstone 100 13 .003 195

HC4 SW 2001 23.0 879 589 W sandstone 100 14 .002 600

HC4a SW 2000 10.4 1,020 398 W sandstone 100 13 .012 721

HC6a SW 2001 20.7 873 563 N sandstone 93 16 <.005 67

HC6b SW 2001 18.0 892 620 NE sandstone 100 14 <.003 73

LB3 SW 2000 52.0 958 470 S-SE sandstone 88 11.8 <.003 62

LB5 SW 2001 34.8 968 453 SE sandstone 89 12.5 <.003 38
Characteristics of Headwater Streams 17

18 percent shale are in only the southwestern part of 

the study area, and had a median variation between 

years of only 0.8 acre.

Although the period (April–September) preceding October 2000 field work was wetter than the period 

preceding October 2001 field work, 36 percent (4 of 

11) of perennial points had larger drainage areas in 

2001, 36 percent (4 of 11) were larger in 2000, and 27 

percent (3 of 11) varied less than one acre. Six perennial points not included in the statistical comparison of 

11 sites did contain flow in 2001, but not in 2000 

(table 2). As noted earlier, only drainage areas composed of mostly sandstone produced perennial flow. 

The uncertainty in these results associated with 

GPS and mapping methods employed in this study is 

unknown, but the magnitude and significance of regression relations identified above suggest that the patterns 

identified here are robust for this small dataset. Variations in drainage-area size upstream of intermittent and 

perennial points over time probably are affected by 

antecedent climatic conditions and drainage basin 

Table 5. Differences in drainage area between intermittent and perennial points in 2000 and 2001 for headwater streams in the 

mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia

[Sampling site: See figure 1 for site locations and names. Dominant rock type: The rock type listed represents greater than 50 percent of the surface geology. Difference: 2000 value minus 2001 value. *, Intermittent or perennial point not visited in both years.]

Sampling 

site Region Dominant rock 

type

Intermittent-point drainage areas, in acres Perennial-point drainage area, in acres

2000 2001 Difference 2000 2001 Difference

FF1 NE sandstone 19.4 8.1 11.3 * * *

FF3 NE sandstone 10.8 19.0 -8.2 65.0 122.3 -57.3

FF4 NE sandstone 45.3 52.5 -7.2 * * *

RNC NE sandstone * * * 44.2 66.5 -22.2

RND NE sandstone 8.9 13.3 -4.4 * * *

RNE NE sandstone 30.6 43.2 -12.6 * * *

RNF NE sandstone 19.4 23.2 -3.8 * * *

RNG1 NE sandstone 20.4 27.5 -7.0 27.6 27.5 0.2

RNG2 NE sandstone 31.4 28.0 3.4 * * *

RNG3 NE sandstone 22.2 22.2 .0 22.2 28.6 -6.4

RNH NE sandstone * * * 125.9 150.1 -24.2

HC1a SW sandstone 12.0 15.0 -3.0 54.0 28.5 25.5

HC1b SW sandstone 24.4 31.8 -7.5 40.7 35.3 5.4

HC2 SW sandstone 26.5 22.2 4.3 47.3 19.7 27.6

HC3a SW sandstone * * * 23.4 24.1 -.7

HC3b SW sandstone * * * 40.8 22.8 18.0

HC4a SW sandstone 8.4 7.7 .6 * * *

HC4b SW sandstone 9.2 7.7 1.5 * * *

HC6a SW sandstone 16.4 19.7 -3.3 * * *

HC6b SW sandstone 18.0 17.9 .1 * * *

LB4 SW sandstone 7.9 10.1 -2.2 * * *

LB5 SW sandstone * * * 34.0 34.8 -.8

WF1a SW shale 14.5 24.7 -10.2 * * *

WF1b SW shale 6.3 10.1 -3.8 * * *

WF2a SW shale 10.7 10.7 .0 * * *

WF2b1 SW sandstone 15.9 14.9 1.0 * * *

WF2b2 SW shale 22.2 21.2 1.1 * * *

WF3b SW shale 10.9 12.1 -1.2 * * *
18 Flow Origin, Drainage Area, and Hydrologic Characteristics for Headwater Streams, Mountaintop Coal-Mining Region, Southern WV, 2000–01

conditions. However, the local conditions for small 

headwater basins are extremely variable, and relations 

of these conditions to intermittent and perennial points 

could not be defined with this limited study. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Characteristics of first-order perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral headwater streams in the mountaintop coal-mining region of southern West Virginia 

were measured and quantified in the late winter or early 

spring and autumn of 2000 and 2001. The origins of 

flow in headwater streams previously had not been 

examined in West Virginia, but are important to know 

because of the 1999 and 2002 U.S. District court rulings allowing the placement of valley-fill material only 

in ephemeral streams and not within 100 feet of intermittent and perennial streams. 

The point of continuous base flow in a stream, 

after no recent precipitation, can be identified and 

mapped as the surface expression of the water table. 

The time of year of field work is an important factor in 

this approach. Many streams throughout West Virginia 

have their lowest base flows in late summer or early 

autumn, and their highest base flows in late winter or 

early spring. The point where base flow begins in the 

late winter or early spring corresponds to the highest 

water-table elevation, and is the point of intermittentflow origin (intermittent point). The point where base 

flow begins in the late summer or early autumn corresponds to the lowest water-table elevation, and is the 

point of perennial-flow origin (perennial point).

The study area included 43 sites around the 

southern coal fields of West Virginia. Because previous 

coal mining affected 7 sites, only 36 sites were used in 

this study. For both intermittent and perennial streams 

in both years, flow at the point of origin was generally 

less than 0.01 ft3/s. Specific conductance varied from 

22–616 μS/cm for all sites and for all field seasons, and 

was not a good indicator of past mining history. Water 

temperature ranged from 5.0 to 11.5°C in the late 

winter or early spring, and from 9.0 to 16°C in the 

autumn. 

The median drainage area upstream of 34 intermittent points was 14.5 acres, and ranged from 6.3 to 

45.3 acres. The median size of permitted valley fills in 

southern West Virginia is 12.0 acres, which is comparable to the median area upstream of the intermittent 

point (14.5 acres). The maximum size of permitted fills 

(480 acres) is more than 10 times the observed maximum intermittent-point drainage area (45.3 acres). The 

intermittent points in the northeastern part of the study 

unit were underlain by sandstone bedrock, were higher 

in elevation, had higher antecedent precipitation totals, 

and had larger median drainage areas (20.4 acres) and 

less steep median basin slopes (322 ft/mi) than the 

southwestern intermittent points (12.9 acres; 465 ft/mi, 

respectively). 

The median drainage area for 20 perennial points 

was 40.8 acres, and ranged from 10.4 to 150.1 acres. 

Perennial-point basins in the northeastern part of the 

study unit had a median elevation of 1,503 ft, a median 

drainage area of 66.1 acres and a median basin slope of 

443 ft/mi. Perennial points in the southwestern part of 

the study unit had a median elevation of 919 ft, a 

median drainage area of 34.8 acres, and a median basin 

slope of 563 ft/mi. Only drainage areas underlain by

sandstone bedrock produced perennial flow, regardless 

of geographic location. 

Intermittent-point drainage areas varied over 

time by a median of 3.4 acres between two annual latewinter or early spring measurements for 23 sites. There 

was a regional pattern in this dataset: northeastern 

drainage areas for intermittent points varied by a 

median of 7.0 acres, while southwestern drainage areas 

for intermittent points varied by a median of 1.9 acres. 

The results indicate that local antecedent climatic conditions and drainage basin conditions control the location of the intermittent point.

Perennial-point drainage areas varied over time 

by a median of 18.0 acres between two annual autumn 

measurements for 11 sites. Perennial points in northeastern drainages varied over time by a median of 22.2 

acres, whereas those in the southwestern drainages 

varied over time by a median of 11.7 acres. This could 

be partially explained by rock types, as shale was 

present only in the southwestern drainage areas; only 

drainage areas composed of mostly sandstone produced perennial flow. The October 2001 perennialpoint drainage area was significantly correlated to the 

perennial-point drainage area of October 2000 

(R = 0.86, p < 0.05). Twenty streams had no flow for 

one or two annual October visits. These drainage areas 

were adjacent to similarly sized drainage areas that did 

produce perennial flow. These factors suggest that 

perennial flow in a stream is controlled by very local 

climatic and drainage basin conditions at a first-order 

stream scale.
References Cited 19

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