United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry FS-862 April 2014

Passing the Baton

From the Taínos

to Tomorrow

Forest Conservation in Puerto Rico
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Passing the Baton

From the Taínos to Tomorrow

Forest Conservation in Puerto Rico

Passing the Baton

From the Taínos to 

Tomorrow

Forest Conservation in Puerto Rico

Edited by

Kathryn Robinson, Jerry Bauer, and Ariel E. Lugo

USDA Forest Service • International Institute of Tropical Forestry
El Yunque National Forest

The region was known as Yukiyu in Pre-Columbian time 

before 1500.

1876 to 1898—The forests of Sierra de Luquillo were 

managed as a Forest Reserve by the Inspección de Montes 

de Puerto Rico under the jurisdiction of the Government 

of Spain. The Forest Reserve had multiple locations and 

names within the Luquillo Mountains.

1903 to 1907—Luquillo Forest Reserve

1907 to 1935—Luquillo National Forest

1935 to 2007—Caribbean National Forest

1956 to present: The national forest was designated the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest in its entirety.

2007 to present—El Yunque National Forest*

Official Names and dates when they were used for what today is known as the El Yunque National Forest; the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service; and the International Institute of Tropical Forestry. These names and 

dates were compiled from many sources, including personal communications with Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, Peter 

Weaver, and Frank Wadsworth.

*Well before its formal designation as El Yunque National Forest, Puerto Ricans nicknamed the forest “El Yunque” after the peak of the same name.

USDA Forest Service

1881 to June 1901—Division of Forestry

July 1901 to January 1905—Bureau of Forestry

1905 to present—USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

1939—Tropical Forest Experimental Station

1955—Tropical Forest Research Center

1961—Institute of Tropical Forestry

1992—International Institute of Tropical Forestry

4
Acknowledgments 7

Preface 9

Introduction 11

The Pre-Columbian Era to 1508 13

Chapter I The Prehistoric Island to 1508 15

The Spanish Era 1508 to 1898 29

Chapter II The Early Centuries 1508 to 1823 31

Chapter III Conservation Concerns 1824 to 1898 47

The U.S. Era 1898 to present 65

Chapter IV Organizing the Forests 1898 to 1917 67

Chapter V Managing the Forests 1918 to 1952 83

Chapter VI Analyzing the Forests/Training the Foresters 1953 to 1969 107

Chapter VII Rethinking the USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico 1970 to 1985 131

Chapter VIII The USDA Forest Service Today 1986 to present 147

Conclusion The Next Hundred Years: What the Future Might Hold 183

Recommended Reading List 193

Literature Cited 195

Photography Credits 196

CONTENTS

5
6
We thank the many people who contributed to making this book 

possible (in alphabetical order):

Mildred Alayón for coordination and editing.

Wayne J. Arendt for technical review and suggestions.

Helen Cortés for administrative support.

Doris M. Diaz and Maritza Acevedo, U.S. National Park Service, 

San Juan National Historic Site for assistance with historic graphics 

and photography search and facilitating use of Park Service archives 

for research.

George Albert Gerhart family for lending personal photographs and 

mementos of Puerto Rico.

Richard Guldin for helping the International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry contact the Gerhart family. 

Jafet Vélez-Valentín for access to Iguaca Aviary.

This publication was developed in collaboration with the University 

of Puerto Rico.

Acknowledgments

7
8
Preface At the start of the new millennium, in anticipation of the U.S. Deparment of Agriculture (USDA), 

Forest Service’s century anniversary in Puerto Rico in 2005, the staffs of the International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry and the Caribbean National Forest (see table on page 4) researched a timeline 

about forests, forestry, and the USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico. The chart began with the 

Pre-Columbian Era, before 1508, when aboriginal groups settled the island; continued with the 

Spanish Era, from 1508 to 1898; and concentrated in greater depth on the U.S. Era, from 1898 to 

the present, and the work of the USDA Forest Service on the island. When completed, it wrapped 

around a room at El Portal Rainforest Center in El Yunque National Forest (see table on page 4), 

fascinating thousands of forest visitors. After it was taken down, many thought the timeline should 

be made permanent in a publication, and the idea behind this book took shape.

Passing the Baton From the Taínos to Tomorrow: Forest Conservation in Puerto Rico fleshes out the 

work done for the original timeline, which is presented along the outer margins of the book’s pages. 

The book was written to appeal to a general audience interested in conservation in general and 

the outstanding conservation efforts carried out in Puerto Rico, particularly in the past century. 

To many islanders, the USDA Forest Service is “the agency up north” in charge of maintaining 

El Yunque National Forest. It is that, but it is also much more, and its existence on the island 

has been instrumental in making Puerto Rico one of the few places on our planet that has more 

forested land now than it had a century ago.

How that came about is part of the story behind this book. It is not intended to be a technical 

“how-to” for foresters or scientists and is not meant as the definitive book on forestry in Puerto 

Rico. It does offer an overview of the rich history found in Puerto Rico’s forests and the untiring efforts of foresters and scientists in shaping island conservation up to the present and into the 

future. Interspersed within the text, highlighted in green, are sidebars of interest about related 

flora and fauna, biographies, anecdotes, and events. The first edition of Passing the Baton is being 

published in English so that others in the USDA Forest Service and outside Puerto Rico can learn 

about what is happening here in the tropics; later, it will be translated into Spanish. To learn more 

about Puerto Rico’s forests and forest conservation, please refer to the recommended reading list at 

the end of the book.

As the book was being prepared for publication, the official name of the Caribbean National Forest 

was changed to El Yunque National Forest in 2007. The former name, used for most of the 20th 

century, has been kept when referring to that time period. See the table on page 4 for a list of the 

official names that have been used for the USDA Forest Service, El Yunque National Forest, and 

the International Institute of Tropical Forestry. The table also lists the dates the names were changed.

9
10
Introduction

Ariel E. Lugo, Director, International

Institute of Tropical Forestry

This book contains a brief history of the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA), Forest Service in Puerto Rico. We wrote the book to celebrate 

the centennial of the agency and to draw attention to the role of the 

USDA Forest Service in the conservation of natural resources in the tropics. To tell the story in its proper historical context, we begin in prehistory, because El Yunque, now under the custodianship of the USDA Forest 

Service, has awed and influenced even the earliest of the island’s inhabitants. The story also takes us to an overview of some 400 years of Spanish 

rule that ended in the 19th century, when numerous conservation actions 

were implemented by the Spanish authorities. USDA Forest Service 

activities on the island actually date back more than 100 years. Foresters 

from the Bureau of Forestry were active in Puerto Rico since just before 

the turn of the 20th century, and the national forest was proclaimed in 

1903, before the USDA Forest Service was created in 1905.

The activities of the USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico mirror those 

of the agency in the mainland United States, but with two important 

differences: Puerto Rico is tropical and Hispanic. New conservation 

methods had to be developed and implemented in a culture and physical 

environment different from those the agency was accustomed to on the 

mainland. It took people of great wisdom, character, and vision to adapt 

USDA Forest Service stewardship principles to the tropics. Today, those 

of us responsible for carrying on the mission of the USDA Forest Service 

in a new century are inspired by what our predecessors were able to do 

under the most difficult of circumstances. For this reason, we dedicate 

this book to all USDA Forest Service employees who dedicated their productive lives to “caring for the land and serving people” in Puerto Rico.

11
12
Pre-Columbian

Era

The

to 1508

13
14
Chapter I

The Prehistoric 

Island

to 1508

15
16
Chapter I

The Prehistoric 

Island

to 1508

Jeff Walker, Archaeologist, El Yunque

National Forest

Recent archaeological discoveries suggest that as early as 5,000 years 

ago humans began to settle the island of Puerto Rico. The earliest 

groups may have come from Florida or Central America. They lived 

a nomadic, communal life, hunting and gathering the resources 

around them. By the start of the first millennium, Indian groups 

from South America were traveling around the Caribbean islands in 

long, dug-out canoes. These Indians were farmers, stoneworkers, 

and potters. In Puerto Rico, three distinct phases of pre-Columbian 

culture evolved. The most advanced, that of the Taínos, appeared 

around 1100 A.D. The Taínos built thatched huts, slept in hammocks, 

spoke a common language, and participated in a common social 

and political system. These were the Indians Columbus glimpsed 

when he first landed in Puerto Rico, then called Borinkén, in 1493.

17
Untouched

When we look within today’s political boundary of the Caribbean 

National Forest for signs of pre-Columbian cultures, we discover 

a curious pattern. Five recorded pre-Columbian petroglyph sites 

are within the forest, and probably dozens more are yet to be 

discovered. Sporadic evidence exists of prehistoric use of the lower 

rain forest, but not one single site has been recorded where Indians 

actually lived within the entire forest boundary. In the lower, drier 

valleys and foothills of the Luquillo Mountains are dozens of 

prehistoric habitation sites and many more petroglyph sites.

Why were these mountains never settled?

n 5000 B.C.–300 B.C.

Archaic Culture

The first people to reach Puerto 

Rico were the Chiboney or 

Archaic groups; they may have 

arrived as early as 5000 B.C. 

from Central America. Materials 

left by these indigenous groups, 

consisting of stone artifacts, 

such as chips and scrapers, and 

food remains, such as shells and 

bird and fish bones, indicate 

their livelihood was based on 

fishing, gathering, and hunting. 

Evidence suggests they also 

used a wide variety of cultigens, 

including maize.

The begonia flower, commonly found in humid areas, is native to the Luquillo 

Mountains (2005).

Skyline of the Luquillo Mountains in eastern Puerto Rico and a zoomorph cemi from the Taíno culture, showing the similarities between the land formation and the Taíno artifact (2006).

18
Taíno petroglyph, Río Espíritu Santo (2006).

Petroglyph Patterns

n The petroglyphs found in the Luquillo Mountains are 

primarily anthropomorphic, although most of the motifs 

are not realistic portrayals of humans. The most common 

motif, with perhaps hundreds of them at sites in the region, 

is a simple circular face with round pits representing the 

mouth and eyes. Less common motifs are complex faces 

with detailed eyes, mouth, and face treatment and with 

elaborate crowns, ear pools, and “beards.” Also widespread 

throughout the region are perhaps a dozen glyphs of the 

“wrapped ancestor” motif, consisting of a face atop an 

elongated cross-hatched body. Geometric patterns, such as 

spirals, are represented at only a very few sites, and zoomorphic representations, such as frogs and a sea turtle, are 

the least commonly represented.

n 1430 B.C.–250 B.C.

La Hueca Culture

The Hueca culture, which 

probably originated in the 

Andean regions of Bolivia 

and Peru, was the first phase 

of the island’s settlement by 

groups of farmers-potters. 

Their subsistence revolved 

around fishing, hunting small 

animals, and agriculture. The 

cultivation of root crops, such 

as yuca (manioc), allowed 

them to establish villages, 

which remained inhabited for 

hundreds of years.

n 430 B.C.–800 A.D.

Saladoid Culture

Another early group of farmerspotters to arrive in Puerto Rico 

was the Saladoid culture (also 

known as Igneri culture). This 

indigenous culture, originally 

linked to the Arawaks, migrated 

from the Orinoco-Amazon area 

of South America. They mostly 

settled along the coastal plains, 

near mangrove forests and 

estuaries. They established an 

extensive network of villages 

characterized by bohíos (large 

collective huts).

19
n 460 A.D.–1000 A.D.

Ostiones Culture

During the time of the Ostiones 

culture, a significant growth in 

towns and villages occurred. 

Settlements spread along the 

coastline and also into the 

mountains and interior valleys 

of Puerto Rico. The Ostiones 

made extensive use of shells 

and other marine remains 

to manufacture hatchets, 

chisels, plates, spoons, and 

personal ornaments. This 

transitional culture showed 

the first elements that later 

characterized the Taíno culture, 

elements such as stone cemís

(mythico-religious effigies), 

bateyes (ball courts), larger 

settlements, and intensified 

agriculture.

Settlements

Archaeologists classify the Taínos and the Indians who came before 

them as agriculturalists, but their survival also depended on fishing, 

hunting, and shellfish gathering. The primary staple of the Taíno 

diet was yuca (manioc)(Manihot esculenta), a root crop brought 

to the Antilles from South America. It was usually consumed as 

cassava, unleavened bread that involves a complicated preparation 

process to extract toxins. According to the Spanish chroniclers, the 

Taínos also grew corn, beans, squash, sweet potatoes, peppers, peanuts, pineapple, calabash, cotton, tobacco, and tubers. It is unclear 

to what extent they cultivated native fruit trees.

For the most part, the Taínos relied on hunting, fishing, and collecting fresh sources of animal protein. They did not produce much 

protein by rearing domestic animals nor by growing many proteinrich plants. It was essential that they actively hunt birds, turtles, 

lizards, and snakes from the forests and exploit crab, sea turtle, 

shellfish, and fish from the island’s streams and rivers, mangroves 

and estuaries, and seashores and reefs.

In addition to serving as vital sources of protein, the forests provided 

the Taínos with logs for canoes, all of their house-building materials, 

and most of the material for their tools and furnishings. The forests 

also provided incidental and seasonal sources of fruits, nuts, and 

edible and medicinal plants.

Many of the Taíno settlements were strategically located on the 

coastal plain, a short distance from the essential maritime resources 

and the equally essential forest resources. The larger settlements 

Modern-day interpretation of Taíno culture during the Indigenous Festival of Jayuya, an annual event held in a small mountain village in central Puerto Rico (2006).

20
were located along major rivers or on the coast at the mouths of 

rivers, which provided an essential supply of fresh water and other 

river resources.

Because the Taínos relied heavily on the forest, we must assume 

their knowledge of and relationship to the rain forest was comprehensive and profound.

Secondary Forest

The question then becomes—“If the pre-Columbian inhabitants 

of the island interior were so dependent on a broad range of forest 

resources for their survival, why didn’t they live deep within the 

primary forests?”

The response is—“ At one time they did.” When the island was 

first colonized by small groups of nomadic, preceramic people, the 

coastal plains were most probably dense forests similar in many 

ways to the midslope forests of today. The archaeological record 

shows that these nonagricultural, coastal-oriented people minimally 

affected the forest vegetation. Their hunting practices, however, 

drastically affected the forests’ fauna, with ground-dwelling and 

ground-nesting bird populations being hardest hit.

The subsequent waves of pre-Columbian people who migrated 

to the island were agriculturalists. The earliest immigrants began 

settling coastal sites and, after several centuries of growing populations, they expanded inland to interior valleys and foothills. Most 

agricultural crops cannot thrive under dense forest canopy, so around 

each settlement these farmers cleared the forest. In regions with poor 

soils, crop productivity dropped off after several years, so it became 

necessary to clear more forest to create new agricultural plots. 

Eventually, they abandoned the original plantings. This practice 

ultimately must have felled much of the original forests. As forests 

slowly grew back, a pattern of staggered stages of forest succession 

surrounded each settlement. For more than 15 centuries, the Indian 

population grew and settlements expanded throughout the island. 

The practice of clearing forests to create agricultural plots in all 

probability resulted in most of the original forests on the island’s 

coastal plain being cut, leaving large tracts of secondary forest in 

various stages of growth. Modern-day participant in Puerto Rico’s Indigenous Festival of Jayuya (2006).

n 1100 A.D.–1500 A.D.

Taíno Culture

Taíno culture was the first 

indigenous group in the West 

Indies to come in contact with 

the Europeans. The Taínos 

(meaning “good”) were the 

most dominant cultural 

group inhabiting Puerto Rico, 

Hispaniola, and Cuba at the 

time of the Spanish conquest. 

The Taínos, hunter-gatherers, 

lived in small villages led by a 

cacique, or chief. Even though 

they had a limited knowledge 

of agriculture, they grew 

pineapples, manioc, and sweet 

potatoes and supplemented 

their diet with seafood. They 

called the island Borinkén, 

which means “The Land of the 

Mighty Lord.”

21
Lack of Settlements

An archaeological site known as Barrazas, located along the western 

edge of the Luquillo Mountains, is, at 100 meters, one of the highest 

elevation pre-Columbian habitation sites on record in the region. 

This contrasts markedly with the location of prehistoric sites in the 

mountainous interior of central Puerto Rico. In places like Jayuya, 

Utuado, and Cayey, settlements are common at well over 100 meters, 

with extreme examples as high as 800 meters above sea level.

Why did the Taínos establish settlements at higher elevations in the 

island’s Central Mountains while avoiding those same elevations in 

Luquillo?

Several reasons are possible. First, the midslopes and upper reaches 

of the Luquillo Mountains may have been too wet for habitation. 

Even on the lower slopes, rainfall is as great as or greater than elsewhere on the island. At higher elevations, precipitation exceeds the 

island’s other mountain regions by as much as 100 inches annually, 

almost double in some cases. In addition, the soils on the slopes 

of Luquillo are classified as some of the poorest agricultural soils 

possible. They are dense, with poor drainage, and full of rocks. The 

Taínos’ staple root crop of yuca is better adapted to drier, well-drained 

areas, which would have been a crucial factor in deciding where to 

live. Nevertheless, midslope areas deep within the Luquillo Mountains were inhabited and cultivated by subsistence farmers centuries 

later, and it is clear that at least some crops can be grown. At the 

highest, wettest, steepest elevations, no agricultural plots ever existed.

The Taínos may have preferred the lower forests and coastal forests 

because they were more diverse. The lower elevation forests of the 

Luquillo Mountains, particularly the forest where tabonuco trees 

were predominant, would have provided a much wider variety of 

plant and animal resources than the higher elevation forests. At the 

same time, the climate would have been more favorable and the 

forest itself would have been more open and, therefore, more “walkable” beneath the canopy. The advantages of the lower forests are 

particularly apparent when contrasted with the dense and impenetrable elfin woodland on the highest peaks.

A final possibility for the absence of prehistoric settlements high 

within the Luquillo Mountains is somewhat more conjectural but, 

nonetheless, a very strong possibility: The mountain range and its 

high peaks may have been sacred to the pre-Columbian people, and 

it may have been considered dangerous or forbidden to visit them.

n circa 1000 A.D.

This 1,000-year-old large stone 

celt (prehistoric axe) found in 

the lower forest was possibly 

used by a Taíno Indian to fell 

a tree, fashion a canoe, or use 

as a house post. In addition to 

exploiting the lower tabonuco 

forest type for its wood, the 

Taíno Indians and their predecessors visited the rain forest 

to cut vines and palm fronds, 

which they used to make 

baskets and roofing thatch, collect fruits and roots, and gather 

medicinal plants. (Found close 

by on private forest by Ronald 

Garrison Robertson.)

Batey (ball court) at the Caguana Indian Ceremonial Park near Utuado (2007).

22
n 1493 A.D.

Christopher Columbus and 

his crew, during their second 

voyage of discovery, became 

the first Europeans to set foot 

in Puerto Rico. At the time, the 

island was populated by as 

many as 50,000 Taíno Indians.

The population of the Puerto 

Rican parrot was estimated at 

one million.

Geographical

Bearings

n The Luquillo Mountain Range (Sierra de 

Luquillo) is the easternmost range in Puerto 

Rico, rising from the island’s eastern coastal 

plain. Covered with rain forest, it is drained 

by the Gurabo and Blanco Rivers on the 

south; the Río Fajardo on the east; and the 

Sabana, Mameyes, and Espíritu Santo Rivers 

on the north. The rain-drenched massif 

extends westward to the Caguas Valley, where 

it is drained by the eastern tributaries of the 

Río Grande de Loíza. The Caribbean National 

Forest encompasses a few foothills, most of 

the upper slopes, and all the peaks of the 

Sierra de Luquillo—El Yunque, East Peak, 

West Peak, Mt. Britton, La Mina, El Toro, 

El Cacique, and El Negro.

Forest Resources Used

by the Taínos

Resource Use

Jobillo, maricao, icacos, 

ausubo, jagua

Wild fruits, in season, for eating

Coroso palm, icacos Wild nuts, for eating

Ñame, yautía, lerenes Roots/tubers, for eating

Resins and gums Tabonuco for incense, resin torches; 

cupey seed pod for adhesives, sealants 

for canoes

Vines (bejucos), 

emajagua bark fibers

Cordage, hammocks, string, rope, 

building ligatures for houses

Vines, canes, palm 

fronds, bark

Basketry materials

Palm fronds, grasses, vines Roofing thatch and ties

Timber/wood House posts, beams, and roof members; 

canoe logs and paddles; furniture 

(dujos); wooden utensils (platters); 

wooden tools (macana, coa); ceremonial 

objects (idols, containers); musical 

instruments (rattles, drums); firewood

Gourds (higüeras) Storage containers, bowls, utensils, water 

jugs, serving vessels; rattles (maracas)

Birds and bird eggs, 

hutía, fish, eels, crawfish, 

land crab (buruquena), 

nerite snails, land snails, 

and snakes

Variety of food, for eating

Ortiga, verbena, guaco, 

tabonuco resin

Medicinal plants, for healing

Stones Cutting tools, hammers, pounders and 

choppers, firedogs, stone beads and 

adornos, ceremonial three-pointers, 

and stone collars

23
A chromolithograph made by the Prang Education Company, depicting Columbus claiming possession of the New World somewhere in the Caribbean (1893).

24
Second Voyage

of Columbus

1493 to 1496

Views that Columbus could have seen during his second voyage in November 1493, when he discovered what is known today as Puerto Rico: small mangrove island (left), sunrise over Guánica Bay (center), tropical dry forest (right) (2006).

PUERTO RICO

JUNE 8, 1496

RETURNED TO SPAIN;

ARRIVED IN PORTUGAL

NOVEMBER 3, 1493

ARRIVED FROM SPAIN;

SIGHTED DOMINICA

NOVEMBER 19, 1493

DISCOVERED PUERTO RICO

CUBA

HISPANIOLA

JAMAICA

MARCH 10, 1496

DEPARTED FROM 

HISPANIOLA

Caribbean Sea

25
n 1500 A.D.

Extinct animals:

• Puerto Rican Ground Sloth

• Puerto Rican Paca

• Lesser Puerto Rican Agouti

• Greater Puerto Rican Agouti

This Spanish olive jar was 

made between 1490 and 1570, 

the time of initial European 

exploration and colonization 

of the Americas. In this jar, 

a Spaniard exploring the 

mountains may have carried 

food, or possibly mercury to 

process and validate the gold 

he hoped to find. (Found by 

Dr. John Thomlinson of the 

Institute for Tropical Ecosystem 

Studies, University of Puerto 

Rico, while conducting research 

in the elfin woodland forest 

type.)

Taíno petroglyph in the Luquillo Mountains in eastern Puerto Rico (2003).

Petroglyphs and Shamans

The only Taíno sites found within the boundaries of the Caribbean 

National Forest are petroglyph sites, and all petroglyphs occur in 

sacred contexts. In the area of the lower Río Blanco on the southern 

side of the mountains are nearly a dozen distinct petroglyph groupings, 

with carvings that range from simple faces to spirals and complex 

frog figures. The striking variety in styles is noteworthy. It almost 

certainly resulted from different types of use, possibly by distinct 

cultural groups, and/or during different periods of time. We must 

conclude that, for much of the island’s prehistory, the populations 

considered this entire river system to be a sacred and spiritual landscape.

The Río Blanco complex covered a large area and was out in the 

open. Most of the petroglyph sites in the forest, however, are small, 

confined to several square meters on a single boulder, or covering 

the walls of small rock shelters. Virtually all are found close to 

running water. For what were they used?

Much like today, the “deep forest” on the middle and upper slopes 

of El Yunque, along El Cacique, El Toro, and East peaks, must 

have been a remote, menacing, and perilous realm. The dangerous, 

dense forest contrasted sharply with the commonplace and safe 

domestic world of the settlement, with its very open ball field and 

sunny surrounding fields. Incursions into the deep forest were few 

and, by all indications, were made only by those equipped with the 

proper spiritual fortitude to venture into that dark, ominous, and 

foreboding territory. It was the behique, the Taíno shaman, who 

grappled with the complex and dangerous spirit world. By entering 

that world, interacting with the spirits, and conducting sacred 

ceremonies and rituals, he would, after time, have pacified the 

more malevolent spirits lurking there. The behiques almost certainly 

created and used the petroglyph sites found in the Luquillo Mountains. Two basic types of sites are those that were enclosed and 

private and those that were open and public in nature.

The open-air public sites could have accommodated literally hundreds of people. We presume they were used by larger audiences 

for communal performances of public rituals. A variety of those 

sites are scattered around the island, some with as many as several 

hundred petroglyphs on different boulders and rock formations, 

26
such as the sites along the lower Río Blanco. These petroglyphs 

were probably part of a ritual theater, presumably coordinated by 

the shaman for the benefit of the crowd.

Some of the private sites were small, possibly used for burial or 

storage, while others could accommodate up to 20 people. The 

presence of a limited number of individuals suggests the larger 

private sites might have been for restricted societies practicing 

ceremonies closed to nonmembers. These ceremonies could have 

included divination rites or hallucinogenic journeys to the spirit 

world induced by the cohoba plant.

Inward and Upward

As prehistoric populations grew, and nearby forest plant and animal 

resources became depleted, it would have become necessary to 

travel deeper and deeper into the forest to find game, house timber, 

canoe logs, basketry materials, medicinal plants, and other essential 

forest products. As the exploitation progressed deeper and deeper 

into the woods, and it became necessary to walk farther and farther 

inland to gather the resources, eventually it would have become 

more practical to move closer to these resources and establish a new 

settlement nearer the hinterland. Such a venture would necessarily 

have required the intervention by the behique on behalf of the 

group to pacify the dangerous spirits. Only then could the area 

safely be occupied by the rest of the more spiritually vulnerable 

community members.

At the close of the 15th century, were the Taínos making their way 

to the higher reaches of the Luquillo Mountains? Were the behiques 

preparing the way with their numerous petroglyph sites? Or were 

the mountain peaks considered sacred, the abode of the gods, and 

thus taboo to human settlement?

With the arrival of Spaniards, the Taíno period ended. Those 

questions may never have answers.

For a glimpse of the island forests as they were before the populations 

of pre-Columbian and Spaniard settlers altered them, visit the upper 

slopes of El Yunque National Forest.

n 1508 A.D.

Juan Ponce de León, who 

accompanied Columbus and 

worked to colonize nearby 

Hispaniola, was granted 

permission by Queen Isabella 

to explore the island. On a 

well-protected bay on the north 

coast, he founded Caparra, 

where the island’s first mining 

and farming began.

n 1501 A.D.

The Spanish Crown permitted 

the export of slaves to America.

Taíno petroglyph on the Río Blanco near Naguabo in the Luquillo Mountains in eastern 

Puerto Rico (2005).

27
28
Spanish

Era

The

1508 to 1898

29
30
Chapter II

The Early Centuries

1508 to 1823

31
32
Chapter II

The Early Centuries

1508 to 1823

Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, Historian, 

International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry

In 1508, explorer Juan Ponce de León and a small band of settlers 

sailed from Hispaniola (today’s Dominican Republic and Haiti) 

to establish a colony in Puerto Rico. The settlers traveled counterclockwise around the island until they reached the large bay on the 

north coast that we know today as San Juan Bay. Along the way, 

they were impressed by the richness of the island–thick mangroves 

along the coast, forested plains and grassy savannas, and bluegreen mountains forming the steep Cordillera Central. As the men 

established their first settlement, they cut down trees to make a fort 

and cleared land for agriculture. These cuttings represented the first 

island deforestation by Europeans. For centuries, the view of most 

of the island to new arrivals was little changed. Puerto Rico was a 

sparsely populated outpost, where military matters were first and 

foremost, commercial development languished, and most of the 

forests endured.

33
n 1508 A.D.

Spanish colonization began in 

Puerto Rico.

Juan Ponce de León founded 

Caparra village.

First school was established in 

Caparra.

n 1509 A.D.

Spanish authorities refused 

to grant Diego Columbus 

(Christopher’s son) privileges to 

all discovered land.

n 1510 A.D.

Taíno chieftain Urayoán ordered 

his warriors to drown Diego 

Salcedo to determine whether 

the Spaniards were inmortal.

n 1511 A.D.

Realizing the Spaniards did not 

have divine powers, the Taínos 

staged an unsuccessful revolt.

n 1511 A.D.

King Ferdinand approved the 

Puerto Rico Coat of Arms.

Modest Economy

of Gold and Sugarcane

Visions of vast gold deposits danced in the heads of all New World 

settlers, and Puerto Rican settlers were no exception. The first 

Spanish explorers to enter Puerto Rico’s forests did not care about 

the rich woods or oversized leaves; instead, they were looking for 

gold nuggets in the streams and rivers. In the first decades of the 

1500s, gold ran the island’s fledgling economy, and miners fanned 

out around the island. Remote Mount Guilarte in the western 

Cordillera Central got its name from two miners in the region: one 

died, and their plight became a popular legend.

Unfortunately for the miners, gold deposits were small in Puerto 

Rico. Colonists soon realized they had to leave the island—and pay 

dearly if they were caught—or turn to more mundane livelihoods 

to survive. Some grew tubers and other subsistence crops. Others 

returned to the forests to hunt down feral livestock that had been 

let loose decades earlier. Raising livestock, harvesting ginger, and 

cultivating imported sugarcane became the occupations that turned 

the economy. Sugarcane production proved the most promising, 

but it initially benefited only a few.

The colony endured, but it did not prosper, and it was often bypassed 

by Spanish ships sailing to more lucrative ports. For centuries, 

European goods were in scarce supply, and colonists had to make do 

with local resources. The first official chronicler of the Americas, 

Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, praised the woods of two island 

trees, the guayacán (Guaiacum officinale) and the tabonuco (Dacryodes 

excelsa). Other early commentators noted local fruit trees, the availability of land for agriculture, and the abundance of timber trees 

in the Luquillo region. The seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera) became 

known as the survival shrub for shipwrecked sailors, who made use 

of its fruit, leaves, and wood. The leaves of the cupey (Clusea rosea) 

were used as a substitute for paper, which was rarely available.

34
A historic map of the “Principal Harbour in the Island of Porto Rico,” surveyed in 1794. The island of Porto Rico in this map is known today as Old San Juan. (Notice that the map is drawn upside down, with Old San Juan to the 

south and the bay to the north.)

35
A historic map of Puerto Rico on the island of San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico, drawn in 1785. Today, this island is known as Old San Juan.

36
Tabonuco n Known in the Lesser Antilles as gommier 

and candlewood, tabonuco (Dacryodes excelsa)

is one of the dominant trees in the lowland 

forests of northern Puerto Rico. This magnifi-

cent tree grows tall and straight with a smooth 

white bole, usually spotted with the growth 

of lichens. Tabonuco is one of the best timber 

trees on the Caribbean islands. Its wood is 

used for all types of furniture, cabinetwork, 

interior trim, general construction, and car-

pentry. Tabonuco also has many other uses, 

such as providing a clear, fragrant, and inflam-

mable resin that hardens and turns white on 

exposure. This resin has many uses, including 

making candles and torches, caulking boats, 

and formulating incense and medicine. n Tabonuco trees are “unionized;” that is, 

groves of trees are interconnected by roots 

that graft them into a tightly knit community 

that shares nutrients and organic matter. The 

union enables tabonuco trees to survive on 

ridges where conditions for tree growth are 

optimal, but where winds can be devastat-

ing during hurricanes. Because the trees are 

interconnected, when a tree loses its canopy, it 

receives nourishment from others that survive. 

At one time, the tabonuco grew throughout 

Puerto Rico at low elevations, and the parrot 

used its fruits as a food source. Today, both 

the parrot and the tabonuco have a reduced 

distribution throughout the island.

n 1513 A.D.

Escaped Taíno slaves who were 

opposed to outsiders invading 

the forest destroyed Santiago 

de Daguao, a settlement near 

present day Naguabo founded 

by Christopher Columbus’s son 

Diego to exploit gold in the 

nearby rivers. n 1514 A.D. 

The Spanish Crown granted 

permission for Spaniards to 

marry native Taíno Indians. n 1519 A.D.

The government moved from 

Caparra to today’s Old San Juan. n 1522 A.D.

San José Church was founded.

Today, it remains the oldest 

church still in use in the 

Americas.

A contemporary view of tabonuco tree resin (2005).

37
The Forests as Refuge

Being relatively cool, forests became a place where 

new arrivals from Spain—be they humans, animals, 

or plants—acclimatized to the tropics. An agricultural experiment station was established at Toa, “to 

the west” of San Juan.

Forests also became a place of refuge. Initially, the 

indigenous Taínos welcomed the Spaniards, but 

they soon began to suffer from the conquistadors’ 

harsh demands. Many escaped into the forests, 

from where they attacked the fledgling settlements. 

Yet their cause was hopeless. Within decades, most 

Taínos had died of disease or unaccustomed labor. 

Survivors lived primarily in the forests.

Slaves were soon imported from Africa to take 

the place of the Taínos in the fields. Many looked 

longingly at the scarcely penetrable forests surrounding them, and a few were fortunate enough 

to escape. Bands of these slaves, called cimarrones,

shared the forests with the Taínos. Before long, 

they also harbored disillusioned Spanish soldiers 

and settlers who wanted to distance themselves 

from the long arm of Spanish law.

n 1530 A.D.

Sugar became the island’s most 

important agricultural product.

Farmer Cristóbal de Guzmán 

was killed by Taíno Indians, who 

also destroyed his farm on the 

banks of the Mameyes River in 

opposition to settlement of that 

forested area.

n 1542 A.D.

The coconut tree was 

introduced to the island.

n 1576 A.D.

Hurricane San Mateo struck 

Puerto Rico on September 21, 

on the feast day of St. Matthew.

n 1582 A.D.

Taíno Indians still surviving in 

the Luquillo Mountains delayed 

deforestation of the valleys 

of the Espíritu Santo, Fajardo, 

Sabana, and Río Grande Rivers.

n 1587 A.D.

Engineers Juan de Tejada and 

Juan Bautista Antonelli planned 

the main design for the fortress 

at El Morro.

Large trees, common in the forests of Puerto Rico in the 1500s, 

may have resembled the tree in this 20th-century photo (c. 1930). 

Caves such as this one are common in the karst country in western Puerto Rico. Pirates and escaped slaves 

often used these caves for shelter and as hideouts (2003).

38
•	 Slave transport in Africa, engraving from Redenbacher,

1890 (top).

•	 Indemnity bond paid as compensation to former

owners of freed slaves in Puerto Rico (date unknown).

39
Military Importance

By the end of the 1500s, European powers came to recognize the 

importance of Puerto Rico as the coveted gateway to the Indies, 

point of entry and exit to the New World. Enemy vessels roamed 

the Caribbean, and British and Dutch forces attacked San Juan three 

times in as many decades. The Spanish colonial government, recognizing the urgent need to fortify its settlement against future attack, 

put virtually all its efforts into building up the town’s military and 

strategic capabilities. Forts were strengthened and walls were erected 

around the city. Large amounts of wood were needed for many of 

these projects, and the forest boundary shrunk ever farther from the 

city. Among other local trees, ausubo (Manilkara bidentata) became 

renowned for its excellent properties in construction, and its timbers 

are still seen in the ceilings of many Old San Juan homes. It was also 

an excellent wood for masts, and Spain prohibited its export to prevent it from getting into enemy hands. Hunters damaged remaining 

patches of neighboring forests in their search for feral livestock, 

which supplied meat and leather for a variety of military uses.

n 1595 A.D.

On November 22, Sir Francis 

Drake, hero of the battle of 

the Spanish Armada, with 26 

vessels and in company of Sir 

John Hawkins, tried fruitlessly 

to conquer the island and set 

the city of San Juan on fire.

n 1598 A.D. 

On June 15, the British Navy, 

led by George Clifford, 3rd 

Earl of Cumberland, landed in 

Santurce, conquered the island, 

and held it for several months. 

Clifford was forced to abandon 

his conquest, owing to an 

outbreak of plague among his 

troops.

Ginger replaced sugar as Puerto 

Rico’s main cash crop.

n 1625 A.D.

On September 25, Holland 

attacked San Juan, under 

the leadership of Boudewijn 

Hendrick, besieging El Morro 

and La Fortaleza and burning 

the city, but the Spanish 

repelled the Dutch troops.

n 1639 A.D.

San Juan Gate was built as the 

entry to San Juan.

The Fixed Regiment of Puerto Rico is a living history group composed of volunteers. This 

organization is dedicated to educating the public about the life and times of soldiers, 

militia, and their families in 18th century Puerto Rico. Activities include research, 

demonstrations, and lifestyle reenactments at living history events (2006).

40
Commercial Lethargy

The all-powerful Andalusian merchants desired gold, silver, pearls, 

and other lucrative resources, found in places like Mexico and Peru. 

Their southerly trade route to the Americas bypassed Puerto Rico 

entirely. While San Juan prospered as a military outpost, other 

towns on the island languished. Although the colonial government 

prohibited trade in contraband, most islanders, to have any chance 

to prosper, had little choice but to carry on such trade. One major 

exported contraband product was lumber.

Life in 17th century Puerto Rico was difficult for the average settler. 

Clearing the dense forests for agriculture was back-breaking work. 

Wood had to be prepared for charcoal, and timber was cut and 

transported down the mountains for use in furniture. Periodically, 

settlers had to deal with crippling hurricanes and devastating 

epidemics, which often left family members dead, homes destroyed, 

and plantations in ruin. Yet there was beauty in the lush vegetation, 

and occasional festivities lifted the soul.

n 1648 A.D.

In San Germán, Porta Coeli 

Chapel was completed.

n 1736 A.D.

Coffee was introduced to the 

island from Santo Domingo.

n 1582–1788 A.D.

During this time period, four 

separate explorers described 

the island of Puerto Rico as 

entirely covered by forest, 

especially in the uplands, 

including the Luquillo region.

Recreated typical caney (chieftain’s home) of the Taíno Indians, at the Caguana Indian 

Ceremonial Park, in Utuado (2007).

Fort San Felipe de El Morro (2007).

41
Fledgling Development

During the 1700s, Puerto Rico began to break out of its lethargy. 

In the growing enlightenment of the time, Spain enacted a series 

of reforms within its own government and took a more analytical 

look at nature and society. The modern-minded engineer Alexander 

O’Reilly, who came to San Juan to work on its fortifications, also 

examined other aspects of the island. He made a report on tree species and noted that certain species were already becoming hard to 

find. He also noted a connection between the destruction of forests 

and a lack of rainfall. In the 1770s, an energetic friar, Íñigo Abbad 

y Lasierra, traveled the island and produced its first comprehensive 

history. In his reports, he described island forests and specific species, 

discussing their potential for economic and commercial use. Both 

men looked for solutions to the island’s economic difficulties and 

spoke of the need to free up commerce, distribute land, import 

slaves, and encourage agriculture.

The island’s population rose dramatically during this time. A mere 

6,000 inhabitants were recorded in 1700; by 1765, the population 

had jumped to 44,000; and, by the end of the century, it topped 

130,000. Settlements were being established not only along the 

coast but also in the interior of the island. Towns like Moca and 

Corozal were named for common trees in the region, yet many of 

these trees were felled to make way for the towns and the necessary 

homes. Today, it is hard to find a moca tree in the town that bears 

its name. Nevertheless, the overwhelming majority of the island 

remained rural.

In an effort to analyze the island’s natural resources, a series of botanical expeditions arrived at the end of the century. Naturalists like 

André Pierre Ledrú, part of a French expedition, collected woods, 

seeds, dried plants, and other essentials for classifying species. Ledrú 

observed forests as old as time on the island, but he also noted the 

Higüera, a native fruit, was used by the Taíno Indians for cooking and eating utensils harvesting of contraband wood.

(2007).

Population growth in Puerto Rico from 1765 to 1807.

n 1776 A.D.

The Spanish Crown granted 

Luis Balboa Bertone, a French 

privateer, four leguas of land in 

the Luquillo Mountains (about 

76 square km or 48 square 

miles). Balboa helped Spain 

capture the Balearic Islands, for 

which the King awarded him 

the title Duque de MahonCrillon. Bilbao retained the land 

until 1829, but part of Naguabo 

kept the name “El Duque” to 

modern times.

n 1786 A.D.

The first history of Puerto Rico 

was published by Spanish priest 

and historian Iñigo Abbad y La 

Sierra.

n 1800 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 136,000.

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

1765 1776 1785 1795 1807

Number of people

42
n 1804 A.D.

A major hurricane hit Puerto 

Rico on the feast day of

St. Matthew on September 21. 

The hurricane became known as 

San Mateo II.

n 1815 A.D.

The Cédula de Gracias ceded 

Crown lands to the public for 

agricultural purposes. Each 

grant of 200 cuerdas (roughly 

80 hectares/198 acres) 

mandated that trees be planted 

on the boundaries. Some of 

these plots were in the Luquillo 

Mountains.

Fray Íñigo Abbad

y Lasierra

n Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra was a Benedictine monk who 

came to Puerto Rico in 1771 as secretary to the island’s new 

bishop, Manuel Jiménez Pérez. As he traveled around the island 

with the bishop, he recorded his observations. He also spoke 

his opinions, and they were not favorable to the governor of the 

time. In 1778 Abbad was sent back to Spain, where he began to 

write about what he had seen. His Historia Geográfica, Civil y 

Natural de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico (Geographic, 

Civil and Natural History of the Island of St. John the Baptist 

of Puerto Rico), released in 1788, is the first published history 

of the island. It offers useful information about the island’s past 

and a vivid description of Puerto Rico during the 1770s. The 

history is not only an important document as such but also a 

beautiful and inspiring literary work. Abbad y Lasierra loved 

nature and folklore and wrote wonderful descriptions of the 

landscape and the towns.

n A few of Abbad y Lasierra’s observations:

•	 Most ports dealt in contraband goods, and a few towns

survived almost entirely on this illegal trade.

•	 Country homes tended to be of Taíno style, with wood

posts to raise them off the ground, walls and roofs of palm 

fronds tied together with vines, and rustic ladders leading 

up to the homes.

•	 To get to the mountain town of Utuado, one had to cross

the Río Arecibo 33 times. Its church was in ruins, roads 

were impassable most of the year, and the people seemed a 

sorry lot due to their extreme isolation.

•	 Toa Alta had one of the healthiest climates, and supported

a convalescent hospital.

•	 Toa Baja had the best sugar and rum.

•	 The church at Manatí was the best-constructed and most

spacious.

•	 The healthiest and most robust people came from the

Isabela region.

•	 Hormigueros lay at the center of the most beautiful and

fertile plain.

•	 Guánica had the best bay, but no town.

•	 Other Caribbean islands preferred coffee processed in

Ponce to that of any other place in the Americas.

•	 San Juan (as the island was then known: the capital was

called Puerto Rico) was covered with great tracts of forest 

and had an impressive number of lumber trees, fruit trees 

and potential crops that could be grown. Yet so many of 

these natural resources were going unused.

[Excerpted from Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History by 

Arturo Morales Carrión and Abbad’s Historia Geográfica]

43
The Cédula de Gracias

In the early decades of the 19th century, Spain saw its New World 

empire crumble as one colony after another fought for independence. 

To maintain a strong presence in Puerto Rico, Spain enacted a 

series of concessions known as the Real Cédula de Gracias in 1815. 

These concessions, among other factors, were made to attract proSpanish Catholic settlers and military personnel to Puerto Rico.

Agriculture was deemed the best way to develop the island’s 

economy. New settlers would receive, free of charge, uncultivated 

Crown lands to farm in accordance with government rules and 

regulations. The land had to be surveyed, and this came to produce 

a more detailed picture of island forests. In addition, a certain 

amount of the land had to be cleared in a limited amount of time 

or it would return to the Crown. The quickest and easiest way to do 

this was by felling the trees and burning them when they dried. Pastureland was also burned periodically, and many an out-of-control 

fire caused further destruction of forest.

As a result of the Cédula de Gracias, settlers, many of them farmers, 

arrived from as far away as Venezuela and Spain. Ports were built, 

commercial restrictions were loosened, export duties were exacted, 

and contraband trade was fined. Puerto Rico was poised to prosper, 

both for the islanders and for the Spanish Crown.

Excerpts From the Cédula de Gracias of 1815

n Article 10: Each white person of either sex will be given four and 2/7 fanegas 

[each fanega is 1.59 acres] of land, and half that amount for each Negro slave or 

mulatto brought by the settlers. Within the land grant, all will share equally in the 

profits and losses of production. Information will be entered in the public register 

for each settler at the day of the registration. All members of the family of the settler, 

along with their origins and their standing in the community, will be included in the 

registered copies of their records, which will serve as title deeds.

n Article 11: Free Negro slaves and mulattos who come as settlers or family heads 

to establish themselves in Puerto Rico will be entitled to half of the land grant which 

the whites have been given. If they bring their own slaves, their percentage will 

be increased accordingly and noted in the document justifying the action. [Note: 

Although this distribution does not seem fair to us today, it was actually quite a 

liberal concept for its time.]

n Article 28: Old and new inhabitants will be supplied with farming implements 

and tools from the foundries in Biscay and other parts of Spain. The cost and shipping of these tools will be provided for over a period of 15 years. After this period, 

the settler will have to pay for obtaining tools. If for some reason settlers don’t have 

tools and the tools are urgently needed, they will be allowed to get them on the 

foreign islands that have friendly-nation status with the Spanish Crown. Payment for 

these will be made, not in legal tender, but in agricultural products. They will also 

have to pay the Crown a tax of three percent on the products.

n 1816 A.D.

Simón Bolívar, from Venezuela, 

known as the Great Liberator 

of the Americas, landed on 

Vieques Island.

Puerto Rico’s Governor Brigadier 

Salvador Meléndez Bruna 

limited cutting of wood for use 

in Spanish ship and building 

construction.

44
Artifact dating from the late 19th century on display 

at the Casa Canales museum, which is the re-creation 

of the home of Jayuya’s first mayor, Rosario Canales 

(2006).

45
46
Chapter III

Conservation 

Concerns

1824 to 1898

47
48
Chapter III

Conservation 

Concerns

1824 to 1898

Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, Historian, 

International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry

On August 6, 1824, Puerto Rico’s Governor Miguel De La Torre 

introduced Circular No. 493. A highly advanced forestry document 

for its day, the circular became Puerto Rico’s first conservation law. 

Decrying the amount of forested land being cleared on the island 

and the negative effect this deforestation was having on the water 

supply, the circular suggested measures to deal with the problem, 

such as prohibiting the cutting of trees around the island’s watersheds 

and reforesting denuded watersheds using fast-growing tree species.

De La Torre, a veteran of the revolt in Venezuela, which Spain lost, 

governed Puerto Rico from 1822 to 1837. Determined the island 

would remain in Spanish control, he fought off revolutionary rumblings with an iron hand. Yet he worked equally hard to improve 

the quality of life on the island by erecting public buildings and 

stimulating agriculture. He also enacted a series of measures that 

illustrated his concern for the island’s forest situation. This push 

and pull between development and conservation would continue 

throughout the rest of the 19th century.

49
Using the Island’s

Resources

The island’s resources were being used in a number of ways. The 

wave of immigrants to Puerto Rico continued. More immigrants 

meant the expansion of urban areas, the construction of wooden 

homes, and the need for charcoal for cooking. Forests were felled 

without official controls.

Trees were not cut just to make way for the burgeoning population. 

In spite of laws to the contrary, oxen-pulled cartloads of lumber 

were still being pulled out of the mountain forests and shipped as 

contraband to farflung Caribbean ports. Even more was being used 

in the local furniture industry. In addition, entrepreneurs armed 

with the latest in mining paraphernalia were revisiting the forest in 

the centuries-old search for its metals. In the Luquillo Mountains 

alone, gold and silver were being mined on the northern slopes, and 

copper mining was established on the southern slopes.

The biggest leveler of trees was the agriculture industry. Many new 

immigrants turned to farming, and those who wanted permanent 

title to the government’s Crown land had to prove that they were 

using it, in part by clearing it of trees. Most farmers worked small 

plots of land, where they grew subsistence crops. Over the decades, 

sugarcane and coffee became the major crops. Sugarcane grew best 

in lower elevations along the coast, and trees were felled to accommodate the crop. In the cooler mountain regions, coffee thrived. 

Here the land was only partially cleared, for the coffee bushes 

needed overhead shade trees. Coffee production was especially 

lucrative. Puerto Rican coffee became sought after by the drink’s 

connoisseurs throughout Europe. As demand increased, so too did 

the proliferation of coffee farms, and the forests decreased.

At the start of the 19th century, some 175,000 people lived in 

Puerto Rico. By the century’s end, nearly a million people lived 

there, agriculture flourished, and only 161,821 acres or 8.27 percent 

of the island was covered by forest.

Coffee Production

n From 1736, the year coffee was introduced into Puerto Rico, this crop 

proved a promising newcomer in the agricultural economy of the island. By 

the end of the 19th century, coffee had become the island’s main agricultural 

export product, displacing sugarcane. The economic crisis sugar was undergoing, the quality and excellence of Puerto Rican coffee, the availability of 

much fertile land, and the existence of abundant and cheap manual labor 

all worked together to make coffee the staple of island agriculture. As coffee 

production increased, thousands of acres in the mountainous interior of the 

island were deforested, leaving only a few tree species that were used to provide shade for the coffee. Along with the deforested land came the problem 

of erosion as well as a decrease in the quality and quantity of river water. The 

cultivation of coffee produced a number of direct and indirect effects on the 

island, among them the rising indebtedness among the small coffee producers, 

the enrichment of commercial firms that exported the coffee, and the significant increase in the population of the mountainous interior.

n 1824 A.D.

Alarmed by the extent of 

deforestation caused by 

government-sponsored farms, 

Governor Lieutenant General 

Miguel de la Torre issued the 

island’s first conservation 

law, Circular No. 493. The law 

required the planting of trees to 

stem harm to watersheds.

50
Coffee production in the central mountain region of Puerto Rico contributed to deforestation, as seen in the background (c. 1930).

51
Pioneering Conservation Efforts

During de la Torre’s term as governor, several botanical expeditions scoured the island. One of the most important arrived from 

the Natural History Museum of Paris and was led by the French 

naturalist, Augusto Plee. In addition, the governor’s secretary, Pedro 

Tomás de Córdova, wrote two volumes over the course of a decade, 

chronicling the island’s forests and trees and updating the descriptions made by Íñigo Abbad a half century earlier. Like Abbad, 

Córdova spoke of the promise of many island species, but he also 

noted the problems of uncontrolled deforestation.

By the end of the 1830s, government officials on both sides of the 

Atlantic, aware that trees were not an unlimited resource and wanting an ample supply for their own naval, military, and construction 

needs, began to take serious measures to control deforestation. In 

1839, the Spanish Crown announced the first of a series of forest 

regulations. The Board for the Protection of Forest, Fish, and 

Wildlife was established, and one of its major goals was to control 

the indiscriminate cutting of trees. Over the years, the board 

enacted a number of measures: trees could be cut on vacant Crown 

lands only with government permission, the burning of vegetation 

on Crown lands was prohibited, no trees adjacent to rivers could 

be cut, and vacant Crown lands best used as forest would remain 

with the government. Duties were exacted for exported woods, and 

violations were punishable by fines.

In addition, the board created auxiliary boards in towns around 

the island. To establish a national forest policy, mayors were asked 

to take stock of their region’s forest situation. They were also asked 

to implement conservation measures and to plant trees along the 

roadway. A great contrast emerged between the remote, underpopulated, forest-rich regions in the interior of the island and the 

more populated, denuded regions along the coast.

In 1853, by Royal Decree, a commission dealing exclusively with 

forestry was created for Puerto Rico. The commission was mandated 

to write reports about the forestry situation, and these reports had 

to follow very strict guidelines. Each report was divided into three 

sections. The natural report focused on data about the forests, 

including the types of plants and trees found on the island; the legal 

report studied the history and uses of the forests; the forestry report 

included a general summary outlining personnel, production, and 

consumption. The reports were required to include wood samples 

and visuals of machinery and other tools in use.

Enlightened ideas, strict laws, detailed reports—now all the 

government had to do was enforce the new regulations, and that 

would prove to be the most difficult task of all.

n 1824 A.D.

In addition to harboring 

Spain’s enemies of the Crown, 

the island became a host to 

an assortment of pirates and 

smugglers. One of the more 

famous was Puerto Rican 

Roberto Cofresí, who is said 

to have shared his spoils with 

the poor. Pirate Cofresí and his 

crew attacked eight ships, one 

of them an American ship. As 

a result, the U.S. Naval Forces 

sent the schooner Grampus to 

pursue him. After a ferocious 

battle, Cofresí and his crew 

were captured by Captain John 

Sloat and executed by a Spanish 

military firing squad in Old San 

Juan a year later.

n 1828 A.D.

Timber was reported abundant 

in the Luquillo Mountains.

Land crabs, commonly found in the mangrove forests, have been a food source since 

Taíno times (2007).

Coquí tree frog, commonly found throughout Puerto Rico (2007).

Gold-washing Device

n 1832 A.D.

Manuel Martínez Zercenán 

developed a silver and gold 

mine claim on Río La Mina.

52
n 1839 A.D.

A Spanish Crown forest 

regulation was promulgated 

within Puerto Rico that 

required permission from 

the government to cut down 

trees in vacant Crown land, 

prohibited clear cutting, and 

called for preservation of 

riparian (river valley) forests 

and the construction of a forest 

headquarters.

n 1843 A.D.

The first lighthouse in Puerto 

Rico was constructed atop 

El Morro.

n 1844 A.D.

A regulation by the Board 

for the Protection of Forests, 

Fish, and Wildlife required the 

appointment of forest guards, 

prohibited the burning of lands 

conceded by the Crown, and 

required the planting of trees 

on the borders of Crown lands, 

with reversion of such lands to 

the Crown if they were found in 

violation. Humans used forest resources for lumber, which also contributed to island deforestation (no date).

53
The First Foresters

In 1853, two recently graduated forest engineers from Spain arrived 

in Puerto Rico and were authorized to survey and manage the remaining Crown lands, including those in the Luquillo Mountains. 

These engineers were the island’s first official foresters. The young 

men got off to a slow start as they waited for their instruments, 

materials, and books to arrive. They were commissioned to send 

detailed reports back to Spain, but the commission’s final report 

was completed very late. Among the difficulties encountered were a 

cholera outbreak, a great quantity of unknown flora to document, 

and several changes in island governors. The foresters did not 

adjust well to the tropical climate, and, by 1860, both of them had 

returned to Spain.

A third forester, Miguel Fernández Balmaseda, arrived to take the 

place of the two who had left. It was estimated that some 13 percent 

of the island was covered with forest. Although Fernández Balmaseda 

admitted the actual area might be larger, it was still much less than 

what the island should have. In his report, he explained many of 

the hardships the earlier foresters had encountered. It seems he too 

encountered them, because, within 3 years, Fernández Balmaseda 

returned to Spain for reasons of health. It took 2 years for the 

government to find a new forester. Based on the information provided by the foresters and by the 

mayors of island towns, important forest documents were written 

in the latter half of the 1860s, describing the general state of the 

forests and providing an inventory of available resources in the 

public forests. It was estimated that the island had 263,954.65 acres 

of forest, of which some 18 percent belonged to the Crown. Only 

55 of 68 island municipalities claimed to have any kind of forest. 

The forest in the Luquillo Mountains was the largest in Puerto Rico. 

The island had 34 public forests in 10 towns. Mangroves at this 

time were not counted as forests and were under marine command. 

This report would be used to determine the best way to make use of 

the resources.

In 1870, an economic crisis gripped the island. Measures that would 

have protected island forests could not be implemented, and the 

post of forester was eliminated. Realizing the connections among 

forests, water supplies, and agriculture, a number of private societies 

came to the rescue, experimenting in the planting of several imported 

tree species, among them mahogany, Canary Island pine, and 

eucalyptus.

n 1845 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 443,140.

n 1853 A.D.

By Royal Decree, two Spanish 

foresters were to survey, mark, 

and manage Crown forests, 

including forests in the Luquillo 

Mountains.

n 1858 A.D.

The telegraph was introduced 

into the island with the 

assistance of Samuel F.B. Morse 

at Hacienda La Enriqueta 

in Arroyo. His daughter and 

son-in-law Edward Lind had a 

plantation outside Arroyo.

n 1860 A.D.

An appropriation of Puerto 

Rican governmental funds for 

forest management was first 

approved. This appropriation 

appeared in the public record 

in varying amounts until 1870, 

when, due to a lack of funds, 

the position of Forest Engineer 

was eliminated.

1876 emblem of the Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Montes (engineer corps) (official brand 

of the Government of Spain).

1876 emblem of the Inspectors de Montes (forest inspectors) (official brand of the 

Government of Spain).

54
Mangroves: On Land 

or Sea?

n Although not the most majestic of trees, mangroves are 

extremely versatile and of great importance in Puerto Rico’s 

ecology. They are found in large flat areas of silty or muddy 

shoreline in salt and brackish water around the island. Their 

leaves are small, shiny, and green; their roots resemble an 

elaborate tangle of stilts; and their pencil-shaped seedling 

pods often float for a distance in the water before becoming 

anchored to soil.

n With their many stilt roots, mangrove forests maintain coastlines, and, over time, they can even extend the land toward the 

ocean. The waters around mangrove forests, darkened by the 

tannin found in the tree’s bark, provide protective habitats for 

small fish and a number of other sea organisms. Among the 

most famous micro-organisms are bioluminescent dinoflagellates found only in certain mangrove-bordered bays. The rich 

food base in the water in turn attracts many coastal bird species.

n During most of the 19th century, mangroves rooted in 

coastal waters were not classified as forests; instead, they were 

placed in the jurisdiction of the island’s Marine Command. 

Until 1876, the Marine Command was responsible for all 

affairs involving the marine ecosystem, which included mangrove forests. But with the passage of the Forestry Ordinance 

in 1876, forests were defined as lands used in the production 

of timber, charcoal, and uncultivated pastureland. These lands 

included mangroves, which were commonly used for fuel, and, 

in 1877, the Marine Command released its authority over the 

mangroves, transferring them to the jurisdiction of the Inspection of Forests.

[Excerpted from text by Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal and Common Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands by Elbert L. 

Little, Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth.]

n 1864 A.D.

American naturalist E.C. Taylor 

described the Puerto Rican 

parrot as “abundant in the 

eastern lowlands of the island.”

n 1866 A.D.

Copper mining along the 

south border of the Luquillo 

Mountains began, but was 

abandoned in 1899 due to 

hurricane damage.

n 1867 A.D.

The first islandwide forest 

inventory performed by 

Ingenieros de Montes for the 

Cuerpo de Montes was staffed 

by graduates of the Spanish 

Crown forestry school.

Mangroves in Boquerón Bay look much as they did in the 19th Century (2006). 

55
Local farmers protect their land by patrolling on horseback, such as they did in the mid-19th century (1929).

56
Topographic map of Puerto Rico (1886).

57
The Enlightened Times

of King Alfonso XII

The forests’ fortunes changed in 1875, when the newly crowned 

King Alfonso XII established the Puerto Rico Inspection of Forests. 

A forester would be responsible for conservation and improvements 

to public forests, which were the remaining Crown lands. All forest 

documents were transferred to Inspection of Forests. Concessions 

could be reviewed, and the Inspection could decide which public 

land should be used for agriculture and which should remain as forest. 

Agricultural lands had to be taxed and surveyed, at the owner’s expense, 

and forest-designated lands were to be reforested if they were currently 

bare. The inspection established forest policies to conserve water, 

control flooding, and avoid landslides. Fines could be given out 

to people who broke rules, and 10 percent of money obtained by 

selling public lands would go toward growing more forests.

A year later, King Alfonso XII established a Forestry Ordinance for 

the development of forests in Puerto Rico and Cuba. This ordinance 

would be the primary policy for forest activity on the island. Its eight 

chapters dealt with everything from administration to marking 

public forest boundaries. All plans for forest use had to follow strict 

procedures: they had to be drawn up by a forester, approved by the 

governor, and put up to public bid. Throughout the decade, much 

effort was spent in repopulating forests. Each forest was evaluated 

to decide the most economical and convenient method to reforest. 

These methods could include establishing plantations, planting seed 

directly, or letting the forest return naturally.

Some 40.9 percent of the island’s forested land, by far the largest 

tract, was located in the Luquillo Mountains. In 1876, through 

the ordinance, its 24,710 acres became a forest reserve, making it 

one of the first reserves established in the Americas. In the 1880s, 

timber sales were authorized within the Crown lands, under 

contracts that were quite progressive for their time, requiring prior 

marking, determination of volumes, and controls of damage.

Although the forest policies were defined in detail—or perhaps 

because they were defined in such detail—they were often not properly 

followed. One of the most difficult aspects of the new forest policy 

was establishing and maintaining forest boundaries, particularly in 

the areas where coffee flourished and farmers who bordered public 

forests “borrowed” additional acres to increase their yields.

n 1870 A.D.

Forest Engineer Juan Fernández 

Ledón published a forest 

inventory that covered 18,682 

hectares (46,164 acres). Exotic 

eucalyptus trees (Eucalyptus 

globulus) were introduced from 

Australia into Puerto Rico by the 

Sociedad Económica de Amigos 

del País (Economics Society of 

Friends of the Country).

n 1873 A.D.

The Spanish Crown abolished 

slavery in Puerto Rico.

n 1874 A.D.

Rafael de León, Mayor of Ponce, 

issued a circular describing the 

urgent need to conserve Puerto 

Rico’s forests to avoid ruining 

the island’s agriculture.

A total of 9,700 hectares 

(23,969 acres) of heavily 

timbered forest remained 

in the Luquillo Mountains.

Los Picachos Peak in the Luquillo Mountains is part of the Crown lands that were 

declared a forest reserve in 1876 by the King of Spain (1995).

58
King Alfonso XII n King Alfonso XII reigned 

as king of Spain from 

1874, when he was just 

17 years old, until he died 

of tuberculosis in 1885. 

The eldest surviving son of 

Queen Isabella II, he followed her into exile 

after a revolution in 1868. While in exile, he 

received an education in Austria and England. 

In 1870, the Queen abdicated her rights in 

her son’s favor, but he did not take the crown 

until 4 years later. The King married twice: his 

first wife died, and with his second he had two 

daughters and a son. n During King Alfonso’s reign, Spain enjoyed 

unaccustomed tranquility. Although he was 

politically inexperienced, he demonstrated great 

natural tact and sound judgment, qualities that 

influenced the course of events as far away as 

Puerto Rico. He enjoyed considerable popularity, 

and his untimely death at 28 years of age was 

a great disappointment to those who looked to 

him as the hope for a constitutional monarchy 

in Spain.

n 1875 A.D.

Governor José Laureano Sanz 

published a decree that served 

to regulate the use of the 

forests of Puerto Rico, declaring 

lands nonconceded and 

conceded without compliance 

by the Crown as public forest, as 

well as prohibiting the burning 

off of trees on private lands 

without a permit. The Ponce 

Agricultural Society imported 

forest tree seeds of various 

species to be used to plant 

forests, thus improving the 

climate of the island. n 1876 A.D.

Spanish King Alphonso XII 

proclaimed forest in the 

Luquillo Mountains as a 

reserve of 10,000 hectares 

(24,710 acres) with soil and 

water conservation and timber 

removal regulated and enforced 

by the Inspección de Montes 

(Spanish Forest Service), 

making it today one of the 

oldest forest reserves in the 

Western Hemisphere.

59
The Temporary Demise of Forestry

Puerto Rico was divided into four forest regions—Luquillo, Cayey, 

Utuado, and Yauco—and each region was guarded by a lone 

forester. Those who aspired to be foresters had to possess certain 

requirements: they had to be Spanish members of the Civil Guard; 

be between 25 and 40 years of age; know the basics in reading, 

writing, and arithmetic; and have a good conduct record. In addiMining Ventures

In 1832, Manuel Martínez Zercenán developed 

a silver and gold mine claim on La Mina River.

In 1866, copper mining along the southern border of the Luquillo Mountains began, but it was 

abandoned in 1899 due to hurricane damage.

n 1876 A.D.

The newly formed Inspección 

de Montes submitted a plan 

to regulate forest use on the 

island.

The coastal mangrove forests 

were placed under the supervision of the Inspección de 

Montes.

n 1880 A.D.

Illicit timber extraction was 

eliminated in the Mameyes 

and Jiménez river valleys of the 

Luquillo Mountains.

n 1880–1881 A.D.

The land set aside as a 

forest reserve in the Luquillo 

Mountains was referred to as 

the Sierra de Luquillo.

n 1885 A.D.

The 12,000 hectare (29,652 

acre) Luquillo Forest Reserve 

was patrolled by one part-time 

guard, who, in 1 year, presented 

a dozen trespass cases before 

the mayor of Luquillo.

tion, they had to own a horse and saddle in good condition. 

For its part, the government would provide a gun, machete, 

uniform, and an official-looking metal badge. Once hired, the 

foresters would earn 500 pesos a year plus commissions. As 

always, part of their work involved writing reports, an aspect of 

forestry that has not changed to this day.

Unfortunately, in 1889, the four jurisdictions were abolished 

due to budget cuts.

c 1930s

60
Do Coconut Palms 

Keep Hurricanes Away?

In 1825, Puerto Rico was lashed by Hurricane Santa Ana, one 

of the worst recorded storms to pass over the island. A theory 

at the time of Hurricane Santa Ana suggested that the strength 

of a hurricane was determined by the number of coconut palms 

destroyed. To keep storms at bay, the thinking continued, it 

was necessary to plant coconut palms everywhere along coastlines that were in the paths of hurricanes.

n 1886 A.D.

A water law was enacted that 

prohibited the cutting of trees 

at the sources and along the 

banks of rivers on the island.

n 1886–1898 A.D.

Crown forest timber prices were 

established by public auction, 

and trees were sold “on the 

stump,” marked previously by a 

government forester.

n 1891 A.D.

The railroad was inaugurated in 

Puerto Rico.

n 1895 A.D.

A permit from the Cuerpo de 

Montes de la Inspección de 

Montes was required to extract 

timber from Crown lands in the 

Luquillo Mountains.

n 1897 A.D.

Arbor Day was celebrated for 

the first time in San Juan, 

Puerto Rico.

61
62
The Island of Porto Rico in 1900, showing signal communications, telegraph, telephone, and heliograph lines operated by the Signal Corps, U.S. Army.

63
64
U.S.Era

The

1898 to

present

65
66
Chapter IV

Organizing

the Forests

1898 to 1917

67
68
Chapter IV

Organizing

the Forests

1898 to 1917

Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, Historian, 

International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry

Foresters evaluating a timber plantation after a thinning (no date).

As a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898, Puerto Rico, 

along with all Crown lands, passed from Spain into U.S. hands. For 

the first time, the United States took on the duty of administering 

a colony, an agricultural colony whose rich coffee plantations in 

the high reaches of the mountains fueled the local economy at the 

end of the 19th century. Crown lands now belonged to the Federal 

Government, and it was up to the United States to continue their 

protection and management. A challenge came immediately in 

1899 when San Ciriaco, one of the most devastating hurricanes to 

cross Puerto Rico, unleashed its fury on both coffee plantations and 

newly aquired forests.

69
Getting To Know the Island

One of the first acts of the United States in Puerto Rico was to 

compile a detailed look of the island and its people. The U.S. War 

Department prepared a census report for the entire island. The 

Forest Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

sent a representative to file a report on forest conditions. A host of 

intrepid U.S. travelers came down to explore the new U.S. island in 

the Caribbean sun. Most of the reports concurred that the amount 

of forested land in Puerto Rico was small and getting smaller. Some 

18 percent of the land was forested, according to one report, but 

of that, more than one-half was merely scrub trees or weed thicket. 

Deforestation on the island had resulted primarily from the need 

to use the land for agricultural purposes and to export wood for 

construction. The largest remaining chunk of forest was located 

around El Yunque Peak in the Luquillo Mountains. This region also 

sheltered one of the few zones of untouched virgin forest on the 

island and harbored many tree species unknown to the American 

market, but even the forest here was rapidly being destroyed.

n 1898 A.D.

As part of the settlement of 

the Spanish-American War, the 

Treaty of Paris ceded control 

of Puerto Rico to the United 

States. The settlement included 

approximately 127,000 hectares 

(313, 822 acres) of forested 

land.

Forested land remaining in 

the Luquillo Mountains was 

estimated at 2,070 hectares 

(5,116 acres).

n 1898 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 953,200.

n 1899 A.D.

Hurricane San Ciriaco caused 

great damage to Puerto Rico. 

The hurricane caused minimal 

tree loss in the Luquillo 

Mountains. 

Spanish-American War

The seeds of the Spanish-American War originated with 

Cuba’s struggle for independence from Spain, a struggle 

that began in 1895. Americans were horrified by newspaper reports of the brutally repressive measures used to halt 

the rebellion, and the growing popular demand for U.S. 

intervention increased after the unexplained sinking of 

the battleship USS Maine (sent to protect U.S. citizens) 

in Havana harbor. By April 1898, Spain and the United 

States had declared war on each other. The ensuing war 

was pathetically one-sided because Spain had not prepared 

for such distant combat. First Spanish forces in the Philippines were defeated, then in Cuba, and, by July 17, the war 

had basically ended. Through the Treaty of Paris, signed on 

December 10, 1898, Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, 

ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States, and 

transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United 

States for $20 million. The war was a turning point for 

both countries. Spain’s defeat ended Spanish colonial rule 

in the Americas and forced the country to focus inward on 

its own domestic needs. The United States, on the other 

hand, emerged from the war a world power with far-flung 

overseas possessions and a new stake in international politics.

In 1929, the forest near El Yunque Peak in the Luquillo Mountains was much the same 

as it was when it was set aside as a forest reserve by the King of Spain in 1876 (c. 1929).

70
Historical map of the Spanish-American War in 1898.

71
Establishing Luquillo National Forest

In 1902, the U.S. Congress enacted a law giving President Theodore 

Roosevelt the power to determine, within a period of 1 year, Federal 

uses for the various public lands and public buildings in Puerto 

Rico, now under U.S. jurisdiction; whatever would not be needed 

for Federal uses would be handed over to the island government 

(which was run by U.S. governors until the 1940s). In response, 

the USDA Bureau of Forestry sent John C. Gifford to the island to 

determine which public lands could be appointed for use as forests. 

Gifford’s report inspired Roosevelt to declare the creation of the 

Luquillo Forest Reserve in 1903. Gifford also recommended surveying the forest and constructing a road to facilitate public access and 

transport forest products, suggestions that Roosevelt took seriously. 

The nearby offshore islands of Culebra and Vieques also figured 

n 1903 A.D.

President Theodore Roosevelt 

proclaimed the Luquillo Forest 

Reserve under the authority 

of a 1902 Act of Congress, 

which allowed him to reserve 

public Crown lands, ceded to 

the United States by Spain in 

1898, to form this public forest 

reservation.

The Sabana river valley in the 

new Luquillo Forest Reserve 

was seen to be heavily 

timbered, a testimony to 

the former forest authority’s 

conservation efforts.

n 1905 A.D.

Landowners adjacent to the 

forest, who were obtaining 

timber illegally themselves, 

reported the trespassing of 

others to obtain timber.

An infrequently used trail 

crossed the forest via El Yunque 

Peak from north to south.

Luquillo National Forest office located in Río Piedras (1928).

Mountain stream originating in the Luquillo Mountains (c. 1930).

as part of the forest reserve in this early report. In 1905, Gifford 

published a book, The Luquillo Forest Reserve, an important work on 

the natural history of the forest and its vegetation. From its inception, Luquillo was considered part of the Federal forest system, and 

its purpose was clearly defined to provide wood for local use and 

to protect water supplies. After the creation of the USDA Forest 

Service in 1905, officials changed the name of the forest reserve in 

1907 to the Luquillo National Forest.

72
By the President of the

United States of America

A Proclamation

Now, therefore, I, Theodore Roosevelt, 

President of the United States, by virtue 

of the power in me vested by ... Act of 

Congress, do hereby make known and 

proclaim that there is hereby reserved and 

set apart as a Public Forest Reservation ... 

in the island of Porto Rico. ... The 

reservation hereby established shall be 

known as The Luquillo Forest Reserve.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my 

hand and caused the seal of the United 

States to be affixed.

Done at the city of Washington this 17th 

day of January, in the year of our Lord 

one thousand, nine hundred and three, 

and of the Independence of the United 

States the one hundred and twentyseventh.

Theodore Roosevelt

73
Early Challenges to the New National Forest

The mere designation of Luquillo as a forest reserve did not guarantee the 

future safety of the region. A lack of forestry personnel, particularly guards, 

made the forest available to anyone who cared to enter, and many did. Thousands of trees were being felled to make charcoal. Time-consuming though 

this process was, it was a way for the very poor mountain residents to earn a 

little extra money for their families. After several petitions, the USDA Forest 

Service sent a forestry advisor to Luquillo in 1909, but he did not stay long.

A more serious challenge to naming Luquillo a national forest occurred a year 

later. Upon evaluating the area a bit more closely, it was found that much of 

the land was lacking a key component of a forest—trees. Recommendations 

were made to take Luquillo out of the National Forest System and transfer it 

to the island government. For some reason, the island governor of the time, 

George Colton, opposed the idea, suggesting instead the Federal Government 

buy adjacent lands. USDA Forest Service officials in Washington sent down 

several experts to study the situation. The experts agreed with the earlier evaluations, and they reiterated that Luquillo should be handed over to the local 

government. To this end, the island should establish a local forest service. 

Nevertheless, they agreed the land should be surveyed. One of the experts, 

Louis S. Murphy, remained on the island and wrote a seminal book about 

the forests of Puerto Rico and the woods found in them.

It took 4 years, from 1912 to 1916, to survey the forest boundaries on the 

land reserved in 1903. Local surveyors paid with Federal funding needed to 

establish the boundaries, measure them, and place permanent markers to 

maintain them. The task was fraught with difficulties: the exact location of 

boundary lines had never been determined, people were occupying public 

land and alleging it was private property, very little documentation backed 

up legitimate claims, and the local property registry was in chaos. Surveyors 

noted some of the daily activities going on in the forest—oxen pulling timber down the mountainside, palm leaves being crafted into hats or ties for 

packs of tobacco, resin from the tabonuco tree being used to start kitchen 

fires in small wood and thatch homes, sand being extracted from the rivers, 

and honey being taken from the forest’s numerous beehives.

When the surveying was done, the Puerto Rican Interior Commission 

reported 12,503.98 acres, which was about 30,000 fewer acres than the 

42,369.5 reported in Spanish documents. Undaunted, the island governor 

asked for a superintendent for the forest. Although he did not get his wish 

immediately, the island did get its first forestry graduate from a U.S. school. 

Gabriel Mitchell was given a scholarship to attend the Ohio School of Forestry and graduated in 1914.

n 1905 A.D.

USDA Bureau of Forestry 

published the report “Luquillo 

Forest Reserve, Porto Rico,” 

(known officially as Porto 

Rico by the U.S. Government 

until 1932) the first detailed 

report about the forest and its 

resources.

One of the first technical reports about the forests of Puerto Rico (1916). An 

original copy of this report is in the Frank H. Wadsworth Library.

n 1905 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 1,070,000.

n 1907 A.D.

The Luquillo Forest Reserve was 

renamed the Luquillo National 

Forest.

Because of its unique location 

in the Caribbean, the Luquillo 

National Forest became the 

single tropical rainforest in the 

USDA National Forest System.

74
Making Charcoal

n In the centuries before gas and electricity came to Puerto 

Rico, meals were cooked over charcoal or wood. In the cities, 

charcoal was preferred, because it yields more heat over a longer 

period of time than the same amount of wood. To produce 

charcoal, wood is heated with limited access to air, and the 

result is a residue of almost pure carbon.

n Charcoal-making in Puerto Rico was a major forest industry, 

one involving a large amount of time. First, laborers gathered 

up suitable pieces of wood, such as guamá, guaba (common 

coffee shade trees), or moca. They chopped the pieces into 

1- to 3-foot lengths, stacked them to form a low tepee with a 

stick in the center, and covered the wood with grass or bits of 

branches. Taking the stick out of the center, they filled the tepee 

with pieces of lit charcoal, added fire to the entire structure, 

and placed soil around the bottom and halfway up the sides. 

Then they waited. For 2 or 3 days the laborers waited as the 

tepee smoldered, occasionally piling more soil on the wood. 

The laborers built temporary tentlike shelters with palm fronds 

to provide protection in case of rain. When the smoldering was 

finally complete, the laborers doused the tepee with water and 

moved away the soil. They pulled out the pieces of wood, which 

had been transformed into charcoal. Stuffing the charcoal into 

sacks, they lugged the sacks, two in front and two in back, on 

a stick hoisted onto their shoulders, down the mountainside to 

market. Their compensation in the national forest was 5 cents 

for a 40-pound sack in the first years of the 20th century. Today, 

there is a limited market for old-style charcoal, and laborers earn 

more than $10 a sack.

[Excerpted from Where Dwarfs Reign: A Tropical Rain Forest in 

Puerto Rico by Kathryn Robinson]

n 1908 A.D.

Illegal trails used for unlawful 

timber extraction appeared in 

the El Verde and Jimenez Valleys 

of the forest.

The Luquillo National Forest 

proclamation boundaries 

were located and marked with 

concrete markers by the U.S. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Timber extraction trails existed 

from the town of Mameyes to 

the forest edge and on into the 

forest watershed areas.

n 1908–1912 A.D.

Local officials made repeated 

requests to the USDA Forest 

Service to appoint guards 

to control trespassers in the 

Luquillo National Forest.

Local farmer making charcoal in the Luquillo Mountains (date unknown).

75
The New York Academy of Sciences in 

Puerto Rico

Among the many visitors to Puerto Rico in the early years of the 

20th century were biologists and botanists fascinated by the tropical 

flora and fauna. In 1913, the prestigious New York Academy of 

Sciences, along with Columbia University, the New York Botanical 

Garden, the U.S. Museum of Natural History, and the local government, began an indepth study of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. The study was expected to be completed in several years but 

actually continued into the 1940s, resulting in the most complete 

scientific investigation every carried out on the natural history of 

Puerto Rico. Filling 19 thick volumes and covering everything from 

butterflies to fungi, the studies are still respected and used to this day.

Puerto Rico’s Forest Service

The year 1917 was important in the annals of forestry on the island. 

A long-awaited law was enacted to establish a forestry policy. After 

years of back-and-forth debate, Luquillo remained a national forest. 

The governor could now set aside land not only for Federal use, as 

in Luquillo, but also for State (local) use. All public lands that were 

not being used for other purposes could become local forests. In 

addition, the Puerto Rico Forest Service was established under the 

direction of the Supervisor of the Luquillo National Forest. Plans 

included an experimental station for woods, a botanical garden, and 

tree nurseries. The responsibilities of the Puerto Rico Forest Service 

would include producing lumber, safeguarding water sources, controlling erosion, protecting wildlife, regulating forest use, developing 

educational programs, and providing forest security. The forest 

ranger in charge of Luquillo National Forest would also be in 

charge of the local forests.

The basic forest plan was now in place, but it would be amended 

soon, and often, to adapt to the needs of the island.

n 1910–1911 A.D.

A representative from the USDA 

Forest Service traveled to Puerto 

Rico to study local forests and 

found “property ownership 

in the Luquillo Mountains 

in chaos.” He recommended 

releasing the forest to the local 

government. Governor George 

B. Colton responded that Puerto 

Rico needed USDA Forest Service 

assistance and that withdrawal 

would be “exceedingly regretted.” 

The Puerto Rico government 

prevailed in their effort to persuade the USDA Forest Service 

to study the Luquillo National 

Forest area and agreed to survey 

the land for the USDA Forest 

Service.

n 1911 A.D.

The College of Agriculture and 

Mechanical Arts, today’s University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez 

Campus, was founded.

Biologist on an exploratory trip to observe forest conditions in the Luquillo Mountains (c. 1930).

The legend, the voice, and the persona of American hero 

Theodore Roosevelt lives on through the interpretation of 

actor Keith McGough who performs “Theodore Roosevelt...

Today” at events throughout the United States. McGough 

performed at the centennial celebration of the Caribbean 

National Forest in January 2003.

76
Arbor Day

and the Palma Real n One of the island’s first forestry festivals was Arbor Day, inaugurated in 

San Juan in 1897, when Puerto Rico was still part of the Spanish Empire. 

Marking the centennial of the British attack on San Juan, the activity 

included planting hundreds of trees. After the arrival of the Americans, 

Arbor Day was celebrated within the school system. The celebrations 

became so successful that, in 1904, the governor declared the last Friday 

in December an official Arbor Day holiday. At the end of 1903, elections 

were held among students in the public schools to select a symbolic tree 

for Puerto Rico. The students chose the palma real (Roystonea borinquena),

although neither this tree nor any other has ever been named the official 

tree of the island. The students gave many reasons for choosing the palma 

real: it was one of the loveliest, most useful, and most resistant of the 

native trees; it made sturdy construction material; it provided excellent 

food for hogs; it added beauty to the landscape; and it was a favorite perch 

for melodious birds. n The palma real, or Puerto Rican royal palm, is a majestic palm tree that 

grows up to 60 feet high. The tree’s smooth gray trunk bulges at some 

distance above the base, then narrows as it reaches a cluster of feathery 

leaves up to 12 feet long. It is common in forests, pastures, and river banks 

throughout the island but is restricted to Puerto Rico, the offshore island 

of Vieques, and St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands. A related species is 

found in Cuba. Its scientific name honors General Roy Stone (1835–1905), 

U.S. Army engineer, “who rendered outstanding service to the island during 

the Spanish-American War.” Although boards hewn from the palma real 

were once commonly used in siding and flooring, they are very susceptible 

to attack by dry-wood termites. The dried leaf blades have served as thatch 

for roofs, and the broad sheaths, known as yaguas, are spread out to make 

sides of buildings. Its small whitish flowers attract numerous bees.

[Excerpted from text by Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal and from Common 

Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands by Elbert L. Little, Jr., and 

Frank H. Wadsworth]

n 1912 A.D.

Alexander Wetmore found 

small parrot populations in 

the Mameyes River Valley and 

Luquillo Mountains.

Under the auspices of the New 

York Academy of Sciences, the 

New York Botanical Garden, 

the University of Puerto Rico 

Experimental Station, and 

the Puerto Rican Legislature, 

botanist Nathaniel Lord Britton 

and his wife, bryologist (a 

botanist specializing in mosses 

and lichens) Elizabeth Knight 

Britton, began compiling a 

“Scientific Survey of Porto 

Rico,” a survey of the physical 

and natural history of the 

island, focusing on its geology, 

zoology, botany, culture, and 

broader natural science fields. 

The 19-volume product of this 

survey stands as one of the 

most complete descriptions 

of the natural history of any 

tropical area in the world.

77
Nathaniel Britton

n Botanist Nathaniel Britton and fellow scientists from 

the New York Botanical Garden extensively surveyed the 

Luquillo flora from 1914 to 1930 as part of the study 

sponsored by the New York Academy of Sciences. Along 

with Percy Wilson (who in 1902 hiked from the Luquillo 

foothills to El Yunque Peak to collect some 3,000 specimens), 

Britton compiled the forest’s largest collection of spermatophytes (seed-bearing plants). The tower-topped peak known 

as Mount Britton is named for Britton and his wife.

n “I read a report in which Nathaniel Britton said he saw 

trees cut in the Luquillo forest whose severed branches were 

still green when he returned three months later. I think he was 

speaking somewhat hyperbolically.”

[Frank H. Wadsworth, when walking through a particularly 

humid patch of forest]

n 1914 A.D.

Gabriel Mitchell, the first native 

Puerto Rican forester, was 

appointed.

n 1915 A.D.

Deforestation was reported 

to an elevation of 548 meters 

(1,797 feet) on the southern 

slopes of the Luquillo 

Mountains.

Mount Britton Tower, constructed in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps for 

recreational use, honors the work of Nathaniel and Elizabeth Britton (2005).

Dr. Nathaniel Britton, Mrs. Britton, Puerto Rico Commissioner Carlos 

Chardón, Mr. Kramer, Mr. Dale, and Mr. Dexter (1924).

n 1916 A.D.

USDA Bulletin No. 354, “Forests 

of Porto Rico, Past, Present 

and Future and their Physical 

and Economic Environment,” 

by Forest Examiner Louis S. 

Murphy, was published.

The Puerto Rican Government 

donated 575 hectares (1,420 

acres) of land, adjacent to the 

forest, to the Luquillo National 

Forest.

78
n 1916 A.D.

The first forest boundary survey 

by Puerto Rican Government 

engineers indicated that the 

former Crown lands, now 

the Luquillo National Forest, 

comprised 5,035 hectares 

(12,441 acres).

n 1917 A.D.

Emory M. Bruner, the first forest 

supervisor of the Luquillo National Forest and chief forester 

of Puerto Rico, drafted the first 

forest law to be implemented 

since the Spanish administration.

The Puerto Rican Legislature 

established the Puerto Rico 

Forest Service and provided for 

the reservation of local forests 

from Crown lands.

Mount Britton Tower, surrounded by sierra palm and elfin woodland on a prominent point close to El Yunque Peak (2007).

Governor Arthur Yager issued 

a proclamation setting aside 

6,000 hectares (14,826 acres) 

of coastal mangrove forests as 

forest reserves.

79
The mountains of the Luquillo Forest Reserve (El Yunque National Forest) from the town of Río Grande. The three dominant peaks El Yunque, El Cacique, and El Toro can all be identified. The photograph above was taken about 

1905 and the photograph on the right was taken in 2008, from approximately the same location.

EL YUNQUE EL CACIQUE EL TORO

80
EL YUNQUE EL CACIQUE EL TORO

81
82
Chapter V

Managing

the Forests

1918 to 1952

83
84
Chapter V

Managing

the Forests

1918 to 1952

Frank H. Wadsworth, Retired, 

USDA Forest Service Employee

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the year 1917 marked a 

turning point in U.S. relations with Puerto Rico, setting the stage 

for events that would affect the island for decades. That year, the 

U.S. Congress passed the Jones Act, which gave Puerto Ricans U.S. 

citizenship. Young Puerto Rican men were drafted to fight with 

other U.S. troops in World War I, and, in a vote symbolized by a 

coconut versus a bottle, many illiterate islanders chose the coconut 

and voted themselves into Prohibition.

Luquillo, which was renamed a national forest in 1907, was officially made part of the National Forest System. State (local) 

forests were authorized, and Emory Bruner arrived on the island 

as the USDA Forest Service’s first supervisor, in charge of both the 

Federal and local forests. Now it was up to both Forest Services to 

implement their objectives of managing forests wisely. To do so 

would require the development of many facets of forestry on the 

island—land acquisition and control of access, access roads, recreational facilities, administration buildings, a library, a laboratory, 

an herbarium, a tree nursery and wood samples, research plots, 

data collection facilities, manuals, and more. For the next several 

decades, foresters would define and reserve forest areas, develop 

techniques for reforestation and forest management, and communicate these experiences to others.

85
Expansion: From Mangroves to 

Mountain Peaks

A fundamental step in forest conservation is setting aside forested 

land for that purpose. In 1918, the Luquillo National Forest had 

slightly more than 12,500 acres. The U.S. Geological Survey 

surveyed the land and placed concrete-filled lard cans along the 

boundaries. A skeleton crew of forest guards, armed with pistols, 

patrolled the boundary on horseback. Trespassing was rife, and 

patrolling was not always peaceful. Tales emerged of trespassing 

cattle spending time in jail and guards vanishing from their posts. 

Patrolling against trespassers went on for years.

Additional land was added to the Luquillo National Forest in the 

1930s, and Toro Negro, encompassing the island’s highest peaks, 

became a western unit of the forest. As a result, the official name of 

the combined forests had to change to include both units, and, in 

1935, they became the Caribbean National Forest. Even after Toro 

Negro was turned over to the Puerto Rico Forest Service system 

decades later, the Luquillo unit officially remained the Caribbean 

National Forest until 2007, when it became El Yunque National 

Forest. Since the 1800s, island residents have commonly referred to 

the forest as “El Yunque,” for the peak of the same name.

In the 1920s, the government of Puerto Rico began to reserve land 

for the islandwide local forests. These forests encompassed the 

former Spanish Crown coastal mangroves in the Monte del Estado 

of Maricao, in the coastal hills near Guánica, and on Mona Island. 

The Great Depression era of the 1930s and the destruction caused 

by two major hurricanes forced many farmers to abandon their 

land and try to make a better livelihood in urban areas. The USDA 

Forest Service bought much of this abandoned land, embarking 

on a period of extensive acquisition that resulted in five more state 

forests and ended with the arrival of World War II.

n 1918 A.D.

First forest guards, Bartolo 

Peraza and Bienvenido Gerena, 

were appointed to the Luquillo 

National Forest. Enforcing 

violations of forest grazing 

laws, they walked trespassing 

cattle to local jails, where they 

were kept until they were 

reclaimed by their owners and 

the fines were paid.

Agricultural activity was 

reported up to 548 meters 

(1,798 feet) on the southern 

slope of the forest.

n 1919 A.D.

To effectively patrol the 

boundaries of the forest on 

horseback, beginning in 1919, 

the forest guards built 61 

kilometers (38 miles) of trails.

The governor of Puerto Rico 

issued a proclamation setting 

aside the former Crown lands 

of Guánica, Maricao, and Mona 

Island to be in the Puerto Rico 

Forest Service system.

Forest Supervisor Emory M. 

Bruner published the first 

description of the four forest 

types—tabonuco, sierra 

palm, palo colorado, and elfin 

woodland.

A sign at the entrance to the El Toro Commonwealth Forest, which was part of the Caribbean National Forest in the mid-20th century (2007).

86
n 1920 A.D.

A large-scale program involving 

trial planting of exotic and 

native plants began in Puerto 

Rico.

The first tree nursery was 

established, funded by the 

Puerto Rican Legislature and 

operated by the University of 

Puerto Rico.

A site was made available to 

house the headquarters of the 

Federal and local forest services 

on the University of Puerto Rico, 

Río Piedras Campus.

The first sawmill serving the 

Luquillo National Forest was 

established in the Sabana 

Valley.

n 1922 A.D. 

William P. Kramer succeeded 

Emory M. Bruner as forest 

supervisor of Luquillo National 

Forest and chief forester of 

Puerto Rico.

About 4,000 hectares (9,880 

acres) of the 8,000 hectares 

(19,768 acres) of forested land 

in the Luquillo Mountains were 

privately owned.

Red mangrove forests were common in the 1920s and 1930s along coastal areas in Puerto Rico (c. 1930).

87
n 1922 A.D.

A horse trail to El Yunque Peak 

was constructed.

Use: Pressure for Forest Uses

As part of its management goals, the USDA Forest Service authorizes permits for uses that are compatible with conserving resources. 

Over the decades, many assorted requests have been made. Some 

have been permitted, others rejected, and a few permitted but later 

regretted. Requests have included the construction of roads, the 

use of water for consumption, and the removal of selected trees 

for timber or fuelwood (all permitted), summer homes (permitted 

but later rescinded), a major hotel in the Luquillo Mountains, a 

tramway from Luquillo Beach to El Yunque Peak (rejected), a trout 

hatchery in Luquillo (permitted but unsuccessful), a Girl Scout 

Camp (permitted and still in use), and communication towers atop 

peaks (permitted with limitations). One of the most unique use 

permits in the annals of the USDA Forest Service history was that 

of the parcelero plot system.

The Parcelero System

Landowners who sold lands to the government during the acquisition boom of the 1930s were loath to evict their laborer families, 

so the government received them along with the land. They were 

subsistence farmers, working Puerto Rico’s poorest soils, and many 

were also part-time forest workers and charcoal-makers. The Puerto 

Rico Forest Service concluded that the public forests had a responsibility toward such people. In what became known as the parcelero 

system, the workers were allowed to continue conservative farming 

under permit, with the proviso that they plant and care for trees 

interspersed with their crops, an adaptation of the practice called 

“taungya” developed in Burma. Few of these families had sturdy 

dwellings with floors, so each parcelero family was provided a 

dwelling—the USDA Forest Service installed a sawmill in the 

Luquillo Forest to produce tabonuco timber for the homes—and 

a concrete cistern for rainwater from the roof. Later, it was learned 

that the exchange of government resources for planting services was 

a policy violation, so parcelero farmers were charged a small rental 

fee for the land and the dwelling and were, in turn, paid for the 

reforesting. During World War II, charcoal-makers were in great 

demand, with as many as 130 working in the Caribbean National 

Forest. (After the war, kerosene stoves were imported and the local 

charcoal market collapsed.) The parcelero system in the Federal and 

State forests served a purpose—to sustain more than 1,000 families 

(250 in the national forest alone) living on acquired forest lands. 

From the outset, it was recognized that their land was too poor for 

sustainable agriculture. As the trees they interplanted among their 

crops grew and as jobs outside the public forests appeared, the 

parceleros were given better opportunities, until, by the 1950s, they 

Typical jíbaro (rural peasant) dwelling in the mountains in the 1920s and 1930s (c. 1934). were almost all gone.

Parcelero dwelling (rural farmer) near Toro Negro Forest (c. 1930).

n 1925 A.D.

The USDA Forest Service began 

support of local tree production 

under the Clarke-McNary Act.

“ Ley 9 del 1925 de Puerto Rico” 

provided tax relief for forests 

existing on private lands.

n 1926 A.D.

Construction of initial portions 

of Road 191, which would 

ultimately provide convenient 

access to the forest, began. The 

USDA Forest Service State and 

Private Forestry Program began 

in Puerto Rico.

n 1927 A.D.

Forest tree nurseries were 

established in San Germán 

and Utuado by municipal 

governments for farm tree 

planting.

88
Recreation: The CCC Legacy

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, island poverty, which 

was already chronic, deepened. In part, to counter the dire situation, 

two Federal programs—the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) 

and the Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration (PRRA)—

were established. For 8 years, until the end of 1942, these programs 

engaged as many as 2,600 employees in the public forests of Puerto 

Rico, most of them sharing work time with work on their farms.

To this day, recreational visitors to the island’s forests can appreciate their accomplishments. In the Federal and State (local) forests 

n 1928 A.D.

Hurricane San Felipe caused 

massive destruction on the 

island.

Timber from the forest was 

provided to the public to 

reconstruct under the Free Use 

Provision Act.

The McSweeney-McNary 

Forest Research Act authorized 

the establishment of a forest 

research station in Puerto Rico.

n 1930 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 1,543,000.

n 1931 A.D.

William R. Barbour succeeded 

William P. Kramer as forest 

supervisor and chief forester.

The first mahogany plantations 

were established within the 

Luquillo National Forest.

The USDA Forest Service first 

authorized the sale of timber 

from the Luquillo National 

Forest, although actual sales did 

not begin until a year later.

The total Puerto Rican parrot 

population was estimated at 

approximately 2,000 birds.

Flag station at a Civilian Conservation Corps Camp in Puerto Rico (c. 1933).

during the 1930s, more than 256 kilometers of internal roads were 

built, primarily by CCC workers. Former trails were improved to 

road standard for forest protection, administration, and management, and almost 400 kilometers of foot trails were constructed, 

many of them from former paths made by farmers. In Luquillo and 

the local forests, recreational foot trails were completed, linking 

recreation areas with the forests’ highest peaks. Luquillo’s recreation 

area also showcased observation towers, picnic areas, swimming 

ponds, bath houses, and a restaurant, all constructed by CCC 

workers. For the most part, the work of the CCC has withstood the 

ravages of hurricanes and time. 

89
Reforestation:

Learning From One’s Mistakes

With the earlier successes of agriculture in Puerto Rico, particularly 

of coffee in the 19th century and sugarcane in the 19th and early 

20th centuries, many of the slopes of Puerto Rico’s newly acquired 

“forests” were partially or totally denuded of trees. Thus, reforestation was not merely important; it was essential. In 1921, Puerto 

Rico’s fledgling nursery began to produce trees, the first being 

casuarinas for use on farms. Luquillo’s first plantings began in 1931, 

on a site still known as the Harvey plantation. The seed, which 

came from St. Croix, surprised everyone when it proved to be a 

hybrid of two types of mahogany.

Reforestation means more than throwing down seeds and hoping 

for the best, or letting nature “take its course” on crop-abused land. 

Yet, in the early years, the reforestation efforts in Puerto Rico, 

though large in scale, were accomplished largely by trial and error. 

Foresters had virtually no experience on which to build. Successful 

reforestation had been done primarily in temperate forests, and 

what had worked there did not necessarily work in the tropics. In 

the course of acquiring experience, many mistakes were, inadvertently, made: native trees that had flourished in the island’s mature 

forests failed when planted on exposed, degraded slopes; tree species 

that prospered in international forests with similar conditions did 

not work here; and promising young saplings often succumbed to 

disease, flooding, or other local calamities. More than one-half of 

the public forest plantings had to be partially replanted. In addition, 

millions of trees had been distributed to private farmers by 1938, 

but, in part because the trees had been delivered at no expense to 

the farmers, few good plantations were produced.

At this time, it was decided to back the program with investigations, and, in 1939, the USDA Forest Service created the Tropical 

Forest Experimental Station. Its job was to assess some 78 recent 

plantations with 35 tree species in public forests and 50 million 

trees distributed to private landowners during the previous 20 years 

to see what was going wrong. The headquarters were located on 

land provided by the University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras, and 

research field stations were established at El Verde in Luquillo and 

in the Río Abajo Insular Forest. The station soon encompassed a 

tropical forestry library, one of the first of its kind in the hemisphere; 

an herbarium; and an invaluable collection of wood samples.

Before the Tropical Forest Experimental Station existed, the Caribbean National Forest, under Leslie Holdridge and George Gerhart, 

n 1931 A.D.

Beginning in 1931 through 

1939, L.R. Holdridge of the 

Luquillo National Forest 

planting staff, built an 

herbarium that represents 

two-thirds of the trees of 

Puerto Rico and that eventually 

became part of the collection 

of the University of Puerto Rico 

Botanical Gardens.

n 1932 A.D.

On May 17, the Congress of 

United States approved a law 

to return the name of Porto 

Rico back to its original name, 

Puerto Rico.

The first National Forest Policy 

Statement for the Luquillo 

National Forest was published.

Acquisition of 20,234 hectares 

(50,000 acres) of forest for the 

purpose of research, silviculture, 

and reforestation was proposed.

Two overnight cabins were 

constructed on the north and 

south sides of the forest to 

facilitate guard patrols. Laborers tending cedar seedlings at the 

Río Piedras Nursery (1931).

90
had begun research. Gerhart placed regeneration plots in the 

Luquillo National Forest in 1937, and Holdridge had accumulated 

a good herbarium of most of Puerto Rico’s trees, which he passed 

on to the station. With the studies of plantations throughout the 

Federal and local forests, the station began a series of permanent 

growth plots with trees numbered individually, beginning in 1943. 

By 1950, about 40 plots, many an acre in size, were distributed 

through the entire Federal and local forest systems. (Their remea-

surement brought to light findings about forest density and the 

relation between spacing and light and tree growth that led to a 

universal practice for improvement of wood production in tropical 

moist forests.) These research plots remain among the oldest in the 

Western Hemisphere.

Renowned tropical scientists of the first half of the 20th century—

Nathaniel Britton, H.A. Gleason, Leslie Holdridge, José Marrero, 

L.F. Martorell, Frank H. Wadsworth, Alexander Wetmore, George 

N. Wolcott, and nursery wizard José Gilormini—did some of their 

major research in Puerto Rico, exploring the conditions of the 

natural environment to determine subsequent management plans. 

They described and mapped ecological life zones of Puerto Rico, 

recognized four forest types in the Luquillo Mountains, described 

the tree flora of Puerto Rico, wrote a bilingual glossary of terms and 

planting manuals, and studied birds, insects, and other fauna.

Holdridge, who came to Puerto Rico in 1932 and later developed 

the internationally known Life Zone System, launched The Carib-

bean Forester, a regional technical forestry quarterly journal. The 

magazine endured for 24 years, carrying articles from throughout 

the tropics and publishing the station’s technical findings and 

annual reports. For a time it was published in three languages 

(English, Spanish, and French) and distributed through a mailing 

list that rose to more than 2,000.

Between 1934 and 1946, more than 29 million trees of 53 species 

(24 of them native) were planted in the public forests. By 1949, 

virtually all public forest land had been reforested: within the 

national forest, 8,790 acres had reforested naturally and 3,600 acres 

had been reforested by planting. José Marrero, a forest regeneration 

scientist who worked for more than 30 years with the USDA Forest 

Service, admitted that the early mistakes were invaluable to the later 

successes, and the successes produced information about tropical 

reforestation that was unequalled in tropical America at the time. 

n 1932 A.D.

Beginning in 1932 and 

continuing for 17 years, 292, 

966 cubic meters (961,174 

cubed feet) of wood was sold 

from the Luquillo National 

Forest, 83 percent of which was 

fuelwood.

On September 30, Hurricane 

San Ciprián struck the island. 

Two hundred people were 

killed, a thousand were injured, 

and property damage reached 

$40 million. n 1933 A.D.

Congress enacted the Federal 

Emergency Conservation 

Program.

Civilian Conservation Corps 

(CCC) programs began in the 

Luquillo National Forest, under 

Forest Supervisor William R. 

Barbour’s control.

Projects included “building 

a road through the cliffs 

and jungles of the Luquillo 

Mountains,” reforestation, and 

recreational and administrative 

improvements. Most of 

the present-day El Yunque 

recreation area was constructed 

at that time.

Beginning in 1933 and continuing 

through 1949, 505 hectares 

(1,247 acres) of land were 

acquired and added to the 

Rural farmer showing success of reforestation (c. 1930). Luquillo National Forest.

91
Deforested land in the mountains from Comerio Road. Tobacco is being grown under the white cloth (1930).

92
n 1932 A.D.

Hurricane San Ciprián caused 

extensive damage to Puerto 

Rican coffee plantations.

The mineral resources of the 

Luquillo Mountains were 

described in a book by Puerto 

Rican geologist Rafael Picó. n 1934 A.D.

A major reforestation program 

began within public forests. 

Over the next 12 years, more 

than 7,000 hectares (17,297 

acres) were planted, with 53 

species of trees, 26 of which 

were native.

To increase the original Luquillo 

National Forest proclamation 

area, 3,000 hectares (7,400 

acres) to the east of the forest 

were acquired. n 1935 A.D.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt 

created the Puerto Rican 

Reconstruction Administration 

(PRRA), which provided for 

agricultural development, 

public works, and the 

electrification of the island.

Additional land surrounding the 

Luquillo National Forest was 

purchased under the adminis-

tration of Forest Supervisor and 

Chief Forester E. Worth Hadley, 

who succeeded William R. 

Barbour.

George Albert Gerhart n George A. Gerhart was born on November 30, 1905, in 

Wernersville, PA, the first son of William Peter and Mamie 

(Yoder) Gerhart. He graduated from Wernersville High School 

in June 1924. n In September 1924, Gerhart entered the Pennsylvania State 

Forest School at Mont Alto, PA. For a portion of the academic 

program, he studied in Germany. He was elected to Xi Sigma 

Pi, the national forestry honorary fraternity. Gerhart graduated 

on June 13, 1928, with a baccalaureate degree in forestry. n After graduating, he was hired as forest nurseryman by the 

Puerto Rican Forest Service. On October 4, 1928, he boarded 

the steamship San Lorenzo in New York City and arrived in 

San Juan 4 days later. He worked in Puerto Rico for 9 years. 

His initial focus was operation of the forest tree nursery at “El 

Yunque.” He expanded production of Caribbean pine seedlings 

in tar-paper cylinders to avoid transplant shock. In the late 

1920s and early 1930s, he made a number of voyages to other 

islands in the Caribbean, collecting seed—primarily ma-

hogany—and establishing provenance trials in Puerto Rico. In 

addition to carrying out major duties associated with running 

the forest tree nursery at El Yunque, he performed a number 

of other duties, including timber inventories and evaluating 

private lands for purchase by the Bureau of Insular Affairs and 

later by the USDA Forest Service. He did much of the land 

acquisition work for the Bisley Watersheds (now a premier 

research facility). He kept a meticulous daily diary of his work 

activities, cross-referenced to several volumes of photographs 

taken on the job, with many reproduced here. n In 1937, Gerhart left Puerto Rico to return to the mainland 

to work as a reforestation specialist on national forests in the 

South. Gerhart died on June 9, 2002, and was buried at Wer-

nersville, PA, next to his wife, Annie Lou (Jackson) Gerhart 

and a daughter, Olivia. He is survived by a second daughter, 

Shirley Riggins, of Duluth, GA.

93
Worthless Research

The forester in the Agricultural Extension Service asked 

us to clarify the validity of the rural belief that fence posts 

cut during the waning moon were the only ones that were 

durable. We were exploring several of the farmers’ beliefs. 

The most common one was that of the waning moon. 

There were also beliefs that in low tide, or when trees do 

not have new foliage, durability was longer.

We designed a study to compare all of these options. Four 

species of posts were selected, with 25 posts for each treatment on the north coast and in the Toro Negro Mountains. 

Periods for cutting included the middle of the rising and 

waning moon phases nearest each of the four seasons, days 

with the greatest differences between low and high tides, 

and four periods when the crowns had and did not have 

new foliage. Some 1,800 fence posts were cut at specified 

times and set in the ground at random on 8-foot centers.

The service life of all treatments ended by the fourth year, 

except for Vitex at Toro Negro, where the posts took root 

and sprouted. We reported the results as indicative that 

there was nothing to the rural beliefs. The farmers responded 

that our experiment was worthless because it did not show 

what everybody knew.

[Reminiscence of Frank H. Wadsworth]

Official visitors to the La Mina Recreation Area in the Caribbean National Forest; left 

to right, Mr. Henzleman, William R. Barbour, and Gov. Blanton Winship (c 1934). (The 

fourth man is unknown.)

n 1935 A.D.

The Luquillo National Forest, 

combined with the Toro Negro 

Forest in the Central Mountains, 

was renamed the Caribbean 

National Forest.

The La Mina Recreation Area 

was opened.

Beginning in 1935 through 1945, 

1,589 hectares (3,926 acres) in 

the Caribbean National Forest 

were reforested.

The Civilian Conservation Corps 

(CCC) employed 2,600 local 

laborers to engage in forest 

work throughout the island. In 

the Caribbean National Forest 

during the ensuing decade, 

CCC workers constructed 105 

kilometers (65 miles) of roads 

and 80 kilometers (50 miles) 

of trails; built towers on Mt. 

Britton and El Yunque; and built 

two picnic areas, cabins, a fish 

hatchery, two swimming pools, 

and a restaurant.

The construction of major 

recreational trails in the 

Caribbean National Forest 

began.

Silvicultural stand improvement 

began in the El Verde section of 

the Caribbean National Forest.

94
n 1935–1943 A.D.

The local Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration voluntarily 

established a forestry division 

that acquired 6,800 hectares 

(16,800 acres) for five State 

(local) forests. This governmental 

unit, comprising professionals 

and rural laborers, established 

plantations and constructed 

roads, trails, recreation areas, 

and administration facilities in 

those local forests.

n 1936–1959 A.D.

The University of Puerto Rico’s 

Agricultural Extension Service 

was instrumental in distributing 

60 million trees to island farmers.

n 1937 A.D.

The first systematic inventory of 

6,879 hectares (16,998 acres) 

of the Caribbean National 

Forest’s timber resources was 

completed. A USDA Forest 

Service sawmill was established 

at Sabana in the forest. Over 

a 6-year period, the sawmill 

cut native tabonuco timber 

used in constructing houses for 

permitees living in the Sabana 

and Mameyes Valleys in the 

forest.

Experimental Forests

The staff at the new Tropical Forest Experimental Station saw a 

need for plots that were typical of different local sites to test reforestation and other forestry practices. On lands of the University of 

Puerto Rico, a nearby 9-acre tract of old secondary forest in walking 

distance from the headquarters became the Río Piedras Woodlot, a 

site for early studies of tree growth and underplanting. Soon thereafter, a 27-acre tract of Federal land in Carolina was transferred and 

became the St. Just Experimental Forest. It represented shale soils 

of poor agricultural potential at low elevation. A third, 600-acre 

experimental forest was made available by the Puerto Rico Land 

Authority in 1947. Named the Cambalache Experimental Forest, it 

was located in the northern limestone hills near Arecibo. It was the 

site for testing the adaptability of more than 50 tree species and the 

durability of preservative-treated fence posts set in the ground.

Cambalache

Cambalache, now a Commonwealth forest, had a significant beginning when a 

500-acre law released Colonia Wolcott from Central Cambalache (a sugar refinery 

mill) to the government. Within the forest was an area of concentrated limestone 

hills that were densely forested. The trees had been used only to fire up the Central 

(sugar mill) boilers before fuel became available at the beginning of the harvest. 

With the concession of the area for an experimental forest came a budget for a 

guard and a small crew. With the construction of a ranger dwelling, a remarkable 

candidate, José Rodríguez Viruet, took control. He found that some 250 families 

in the vicinity were dependent on cooking fuelwood from the forest. Because what 

they were taking was dead material, permission was continued. Then, with the hills 

mapped, a systematic, 5-year silvicultural program was begun. The forests were selectively thinned to provide more growing space for the more promising trees. This 

practice produced fuelwood and posts, each being sold to the neighbors. A price 

for straight posts, set at three times the price for fuelwood, sold only at the fuelwood price until we learned to cut them only during the waning moon. Once this 

was done and the community was informed, we got the post price. Dependence 

of the community on free deadwood and freshly cut fuelwood and posts produced 

loyalty. Neighbors monitored and reported the theft of wood to the guards.

[Reminiscence of Frank H. Wadsworth]

Luquillo Experimental Forest sign at the El Verde field station (no date).

95
n 1937 A.D.

USDA Forest Service employees 

estimated the Puerto Rican 

parrot population to be about 

2,000.

n 1938 A.D.

In the first application of 

silviculture in the Caribbean 

National Forest, poor trees and 

vines were eliminated and desirable saplings were liberated 

in a 55-hectare plot.

Timber trees were planted 

along with their food crops 

by 700 Puerto Rican parcelero

families living in the public 

forests.

The first five study plots were 

established in the Caribbean 

National Forest and were later 

remeasured by forest technicians.

n 1939 A.D.

A USDA Forest Service Tropical 

Forest Experimental Station 

was established on 2 hectares 

(5 acres) of land on the University 

of Puerto Rico campus in Río 

Piedras. The university provided 

the land rent-free for 50 years. 

The annual budget was $30,000.

The Tropical Forest Experimental 

Station Library was established. 

Arthur Bevan was named the 

Tropical Forest Experimental 

Station’s first director.

Multiple Use: Parts of a Whole

Frank H. Wadsworth was a young, recently married forester when he 

came to Puerto Rico in 1942 to work at the Tropical Forest Experimental Station. He researched his Ph.D. thesis for the Universtiy of 

Michigan at Ann Arbor on the development of forest land resources 

in the Luquillo Mountains; it was published 7 years later. For decades, 

it has stood as a classic land management model for tropical forests. 

Instituted in the Caribbean National Forest in 1949, the plan reserved 

10 percent of the total forest for complete preservation to protect 

soil and water resources, 8 percent for passive research, 12 percent as 

parrot habitat, and 6 percent for recreation. The same year, the USDA 

Forest Service further protected some 1,895 acres of virgin forest in 

the headwaters of the Río Mameyes in Luquillo by creating the Baño 

de Oro Research Natural Area, reserved purely for nonmanipulative 

research.

In addition, 29 percent of the forest was set aside for saw-timber 

production, 12 percent for the production of poles and small timbers, 

and 23 percent for the production of charcoal and fuelwood. ProCharcoal-making was an important economic activity for rural people in the mid-20th century (c. 1934).

duction areas were divided into six working circles, with a harvesting 

cycle of 15 years. During the cycle, workers would be permanently 

employed as they moved from circle to circle. The goal of the USDA 

Forest Service was to maintain sustainable growth in the forest by 

removing a controlled quantity of selected trees while doing a 

minimum of damage to surrounding trees. To determine what could 

be considered sustainable, foresters looked at inventories from the 

1940s and at plot growth records. The evidence of sustainability 

began to become apparent from around the time the forest was 

treated following the application of the 1949 plan until around 1970.

By the early 1950s, Wadsworth was promoted to project leader of 

the Tropical Forest Research Center (formerly the Tropical Forest 

Experimental Station). Thanks in large part to his management 

efforts, by the 1950s, the public forests in Puerto Rico, particularly 

the Caribbean National Forest, became outstanding examples of how 

to use forests wisely by implementing multiple-use management, 

models not only for the island but for all of the Caribbean and 

tropical America.

96
The Rise and Fall 

of The Caribbean 

Forester

With the opening of the experimental station, Leslie Holdridge recognized the need for a regional technical journal 

and began The Caribbean Forester in 1939. For several years, 

Caribbean islands shared the cost of the publication. It 

appeared quarterly and ultimately appeared in three languages. 

It presented much of the research of the station and of other 

workers in the Caribbean. Editing was a big job, because 

many of the sources were not trained in scientific writing. 

Many articles were almost emasculated but without complaints, due to the authors’ appreciation of appearing in 

print. The journal was terminated in 1964.

[Reminiscence of Frank H. Wadsworth]

Gov. Blanton Winship at a cabin in La Mina Recreation Area, Caribbean National Forest (1934). Benchmark placed by the U.S. Geological Survey at El Yunque Peak in 1940 (2006).

n 1939 A.D.

The first of 24 volumes of 

The Caribbean Forester were 

published.

Scientific testing of the Site 

Adaptability Program began, 

testing more than 100 native 

and 350 introduced species over 

the ensuing years.

n 1940 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 1,869,000.

n 1940 A.D.

The Puerto Rico Reconstruction 

Administration completed the 

El Verde Field Station, a research 

base within the Caribbean 

National Forest.

n 1942 A.D.

The Mameyes-Río Blanco Forest 

Highway (Road 191) that once 

bisected the Caribbean National 

Forest and served the forest’s 

recreation area was completed 

after 16 years of construction.

97
n 1942 A.D.

The U.S. Postal Service issued a 

stamp to commemorate the 

450th anniversary of Columbus’s 

landing on Puerto Rico.

n 1943 A.D.

The Caribbean National 

Forest and the Tropical Forest 

Experimental Station were 

consolidated as the Tropical 

Forest Unit, with Arthur Upson 

as Director.

Research on silviculture of 

natural forests began in the 

Caribbean National Forest, 

conducted by the Tropical Forest 

Experimental Station. This 

research represented the first 

information on the structure 

and composition of the forest. 

Three permanent natural forest 

growth plots were established 

at El Verde for long-term 

research. This effort continued 

and reached a total of 554 plots 

by 1956.

Tropical Forest Experimental Station in Río Piedras (1945).

98
Epilogue to Road 191

The first highway through the Luquillo Mountains connected 

the area of Mameyes near the north coast with the Río Blanco 

on the southern side of the mountains. Known today as Road 

191, it was started in 1926 and completed in 1942, and the 

entire route was built by hand. In the 1970s, tropical storms 

and hurricanes produced abnormally heavy rains that caused 

the largest landslide ever recorded on the island. It severed 

Road 191. From that time until today, the road has been closed 

in the area of the landslide, a longer period of time than it was 

opened.

After the landslide, the Caribbean National Forest and the 

Federal Highway Department pushed to reopen the road. They 

gave out a contract, but the company went bankrupt during 

construction and could not finish the job. The Institute of 

Tropical Forestry, on the other hand, opposed reopening the 

road for a number of reasons. Among them—the geologic 

formation of the Río Blanco stock, common in the region, was 

highly susceptible to slope failures; the overwhelming majority 

of landslides in the forest are road related; road-related slides 

are larger in size and retard vegetation cover for a longer period 

of time than nonroad-related slides; clearing for a new road 

would create enormous environmental impacts, including the 

destruction of portions of the only remaining original forest 

stands in Puerto Rico (i.e., those that were here when Columbus landed); and landslides would still occur, because the whole 

side of the mountain is in the Río Blanco Formation.

Pressure to reopen the road remained very heavy, particularly 

from the Federal Highway Department and the national forest. 

Eventually, a nongovernmental organization, the San Francisco 

Office of the Environmental Defense Fund, intervened, sued 

in court, and won. The Federal court stopped construction to 

reopen the road. Today, national forest personnel understand 

that it was best not to reopen the road. The new Land Use Plan 

for the forest contains a new concept—“the quiet side of El 

Yunque”—to provide recreational use on the southern slopes of 

the mountain.

[Ariel E. Lugo] 

Construction of Road 191 in the Caribbean National Forest (1935).

n 1943 A.D.

Wartime greatly accelerated the 

timber sales program required 

for charcoal fuel production at 

all public forests.

Estimates showed that less than 

1 percent of Puerto Rico was 

virgin forest.

The USDA Forest Service 

authorized construction of a 

paved road to El Yunque Peak 

to be built by the U.S. Army to 

provide access to a wartime 

observation post.

The Land Authority of Puerto 

Rico conceded 267 hectares 

(659 acres) of limestone forest, 

which became the Cambalache 

Experimental Forest.

This effort was supported by a 

single forest guard who served 

the fuelwood needs of 240 

nearby families during the first 

years of his employment.

n 1944 A.D.

The Caribbean National Forest 

sold 992,428 board meters 

(3,255,997 board feet) of 

timber, much of which was 

made into charcoal by local 

carboneros. Trees removed for 

sale were premarked by local 

forest officers, leaving more 

promising immature trees to 

survive for the future.

99
José Marrero:

A Forester Speaks Out

José Marrero was born in 1910 in the mountains of central Puerto Rico, near the 

town of Utuado. When he was of school age, he left the mountains and studied 

in schools in the coastal city of Arecibo.

“I lived in a rural area and I loved the countryside and my mother and my family. At that time there weren’t rural schools and my mother decided to send me 

to an aunt’s house in Arecibo. This for me was a tragedy. To leave the farm and 

leave my mother to go to Arecibo, it was a tragedy. I got up before dawn and that 

day for me was the end of the world. All that darkness. I saddled up the horse 

because there were only horses back then. I mounted the horse and began to cry.

“Of course the family in Arecibo was very nice and in a little while I got settled. I 

came to love cowboy movies. Elmond Lincoln was my favorite and he was Tarzan 

and he also worked in a movie about a forest ranger. The forest ranger fought the 

thieves who robbed the lumber, stepping from log to log as the logs floated down 

a chute of water, and he landed punch after punch on the thieves. Those movies 

were so primitive.

“That was my first contact with forests.”

When he graduated from high school, Marrero studied in the Agronomy College 

of the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez campus.

“I liked horticulture, and I studied the cultivation of vegetables, citrus fruits, 

coffee, everything that was horticulture. A big reason I studied that was because 

I admired Professor Cowells. I thought he was an outstanding professor, and he 

was Dean of the Agronomy College.”

In the mid-1930s, Marrero began to work with the USDA Forest Service as 

part of the Civilian Conservation Corps. During that time he married Grisel 

Carrasquillo; their daughter studied biology. His first job was as a supervisor for 

men working in the Toro Negro Forest. When the Tropical Forest Experimental 

Station opened in 1939, he went to work with Leslie Holdridge. In the 1940s, 

the USDA Forest Service began a series of studies in foreign countries. Holdridge 

was in charge of the mission in Ecuador, and he asked Marrero to go with him.

“It was a forestry mission to study the forest system and to make recommendations of what to do to conserve the forests. I had experience and I spoke Spanish, 

I knew the idiosyncrasies of the Spanish Americans. When the mission ended in 

6 months, Dr. Holdridge went on to jobs in the United States, but I stayed for 

3 more months.

“During that time, I got an attack of appendicitis while I was in the middle of 

the jungle. There was an American forester with a lot of tropical experience. He 

laid me down in a truck. There were no roads, the beach was the road, and he 

told the driver to go quickly, before the tide rose. We reached a town, where a 

doctor had a brother who was a good surgeon. There was also a U.S. base in the 

little town of Manca, with an American surgeon. So I had the good luck that two 

excellent surgeons could have operated on me.”

In the mid-1940s, Marrero studied forestry sciences at the University of Michigan. The university was interested in bringing Spanish Americans to study there, 

and Marrero received a scholarship. He then returned to work with the USDA 

Forest Service in Puerto Rico.

“My specialty was in reforestation, in forest plantations. I worked in the nurseries, and gave follow-up from the nursery to the plantation. I mainly worked 

in forest maintenance. I remember writing articles, mostly for The Caribbean 

Forester and the Puerto Rico Agricultural Review.”

In 1965, after 30 years of service, Marrero retired from the USDA Forest Service.

“At that time I was interested in the cultivation of roses. Roses interested me a 

lot. I had a very good collection of roses and became somewhat of an expert in 

them.”

Marrero lived a long and healthy life. He held this interview with historian 

Carlos M. Domínguez Cristóbal in 2003, at the impressive age of 93. He spoke 

of the future of forests in Puerto Rico.

“If I were a government leader, I would focus on conserving the federal and 

local government forests. This would be for me the most important task. I don’t 

have a lot of faith in the private lands because the owners change so often and in 

general the private entities don’t have much interest in conservation. For me the 

emphasis has to be on the government. In schools, I would stress the importance 

of trees and the conservation of trees and forests. My message would revolve 

around conservation.”

[Excerpted from an interview with Carlos M. Domínguez Cristóbal]

100
In Memory

of José Marrero 

(1910-2007)

On April 13, 2007, José Marrero died. The follow-

ing excerpt from his obituary sums up the amazing 

career of this dedicated forester:

“The enormity of José’s work remains in the trees. 

His affection was not limited to his favorite tree, the 

guamá (Inga laurina), but to the millions of more 

than 50 species that got their start under his guid-

ance. When José finished his 30 years of federal ser-

vice in 1965, there was not one acre in Puerto Rico’s 

public forests that hadn’t been reforested: more than 

20,000 acres had been planted during his time. 

These trees, in the forests of El Yunque, Carite, Toro 

Negro, Aguirre, Cambalache, Río Abajo, Guajataca, 

Guilarte, Maricao, Susúa, Guánica and Boquerón, 

remember José as the person who was responsible 

for their care when they were in diapers.”

n 1945 A.D.

The Caribbean National Forest 

recorded 1,750 timber sales. 

That number represented more 

than 10 percent of the total 

for the entire National Forest 

System for the year. Four forest 

officers provided tree-marking 

and supervision: José Reyes 

Mateo, Luis Carrión, Raúl Ybarra 

Coronado, and Ramiro Agosto 

Ruíz.

The book Forest Insects of Puerto 

Rico, written by entomologist 

Luis F. Martorell, was published.

The Puerto Rico Forest Service 

initiated a Watershed Protec-

tion Project, planting stands of 

exotic bamboo on the periphery 

of major reservoirs. n 1945 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 2,210,700.

101
n 1946 A.D.

The Caribbean National Forest, 

better known to island residents 

as “El Yunque,” was designated a 

Puerto Rico wildlife refuge.

Beginning in 1946 and 

continuing through 1947, the 

public forests of the island were 

inventoried by the Puerto Rico 

Forest Service.

Large-scale placer mining of 

gold on the Río Mameyes in the 

Caribbean National Forest was 

abandoned.

A systematic inventory of 

the forest began and was 

accomplished through strip 

sampling by local crews.

n 1947 A.D.

The Puerto Rico Forest Service 

published the Forest Nursery 

Manual by agronomist José A. 

Gilormini.

Tree nursery established at Las Mesas by the Puerto Rico Experimental Station (1934).

102
Valley of the Giants

n From the 1948 timber inventory, the largest tree recorded 

had a dbh (diameter at breast height) of 104 inches. The 

person who recorded it died shortly thereafter. A group 

of us was curious and set out to see it. It was about a mile 

east of Highway 191 at kilometer 17 and thence northeastward toward West Peak. By noon, we had completed 

the mile and stopped for lunch. There, immediately to 

the south, on a small level area, we found what has come 

to be called the Valley of the Giants, a sparse stand of 

huge palo colorado trees, mostly hollow, and some large 

enough to shelter a person. Three later searches failed to 

find it again.

[Frank H. Wadsworth]

Tabonuco tree greater than 6 feet wide (1930). Palo colorado tree in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (1985).

n 1948 A.D.

The USDA Forest Service 

published its technical 

assessment of the planting of 

4 million trees and 22 tons of 

seeds from 34 tree species in 

the Caribbean National Forest 

over an 11-year period starting 

in 1934. It was written by 

forester José Marrero.

The 4.5-hectare (11-acre) 

Elizabeth Colberg Girl Scout 

Camp was established in the 

El Verde sector of the Luquillo 

Mountains.

The Tropical Forest Experimental 

Station tree herbarium accrued 

a total of 3,000 specimens, 

obtained locally.

n 1949 A.D.

The U.S. Secretary of Agriculture 

designated 852 hectares (2,105 

acres) of the Mameyes Valley in 

the Caribbean National Forest 

as the Baño de Oro Research 

Natural Area.

The first maps showing 

forest types were produced 

from aerial reconnaissance 

photography.

Studies showed 2,266 hectares 

(5,600 acres) in the National 

Forest were still unaffected by 

human activities.

103
n 1949 A.D.

A Multiple Use and Timber Management Plan for the Caribbean 

National Forest, calling for uplands 

preservation, parrot habitat, and 

watershed conservation, was 

completed by Frank Wadsworth 

of the Tropical Forest Unit 

(Caribbean National Forest).

The Caribbean National Forest’s 

second timber cruise of 4,548 

hectares (11,238 acres) was 

accomplished.

A total of 3,460 hectares (8,550 

acres) reforested naturally due 

to protection.

Development of the El Yunque 

Peak Electronic Communication 

Center for the island was initiated.

n 1950 A.D.

The USDA Forest Service in Washington, DC, awarded Forest 

Ranger Emilio Solis for “harmoniously” relocating 125 parcelero

families onto better land outside 

the Caribbean National Forest.

The Puerto Rico Forest Nursery 

was established in the Caribbean 

National Forest, producing millions 

of trees for reforesting public 

and private lands on the island.

The Puerto Rican Government 

agreed to expand the Caribbean 

National Forest proclamation 

area to permit more forest land 

acquisition.

Rexford G. Tugwell

and Luis Muñoz Marín:

Governors React

Rexford G. Tugwell was known as a liberal economist, a 

member of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Brain Trust, 

professor, planner, and author. In 1941, he became the last 

U.S.-appointed, non-Puerto Rican governor of Puerto Rico. 

Following are some of his reactions to the island.

On visiting “El Yunque”:

“There was a kind of token reserve on El Yunque, the Luquillo 

Forest. We [Tugwell and Chief of the USDA Forest Service, 

Ferdinand A. Silcox] could see that vastly more acreage would 

have to be acquired both in this area and in the more desirable 

one to the west, the Toro Negro, if much was to be done in 

producing timber. In the decade which followed some of this 

land was to be acquired and the whole reserve in Puerto Rico 

would be renamed the Caribbean National Forest. But even 

more important, Silcox’s conception of small lease holding 

farmers at the forest edge (or even within its boundaries) who 

got their main living from development work, was, at least on a 

small scale, to be carried out.”

“Luquillo was, in the exact sense of the word, a revelation to 

both of us. Silcox was a South Carolinian, a product of the Yale 

School of Forestry and a graduate from the USDA Forest Service 

into the wider field of industrial conciliation. I had persuaded 

him to leave this and come back to be Chief of the Service, and 

had talked the President into consent against the advice of most 

of the professional pundits who thought him a little unorthodox—

as, of course, he was. We saw a good many things in the same 

way; and it was so here. We thought this forest was an opportunity, and not only for Puerto Rico. For it was unique in being a 

tropical rain forest, and in developing it we might learn a good 

deal about the resources of other American subtropics.”

“A rain forest is not a comfortable place to be. Not only is there 

the constant uneasy interest in vegetation which seems to have 

got completely out of hand, but there is also the atmosphere of 

mystery created by the drifting rain and mist. For El Yunque is 

a mountain with its head in a turban of cloud.”

“I wondered whether someday a grandchild of mine might not 

come to a forest of his day hereabouts which had vast stands 

of mahoganies and other hardwoods, perhaps also Cinchonas 

and other trees, useful for many purposes, grown to maturity! 

And the whole serving as the source and reservoir of vast flows 

of hydroelectric power which would make possible a hundred 

industries, lifting a whole people to a new level of life.”

On February 2, 1942, in his message to the legislature, Tugwell 

reported that he had suggested to the Federal Government 

in Washington, DC, to transfer El Yunque from the USDA 

Forest Service to the National Park Service, along with other 

natural areas in Puerto Rico, such as beaches. He promoted the 

acquisition of lands for public recreation and use and a local 

park service.

[Excerpted from the book The Stricken Land: The Story of 

Puerto Rico by Rexford G. Tugwell]

Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican author, editor, senator, and 

the first governor elected by the people of Puerto Rico, in 1948, 

was also an inflential figure in forestry. After a disastrous 1932 

hurricane, he obtained federal funds for the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. PRRA formed a third forest service, 

also under USDA Forest Service administration. During its 

10 years, it financed the purchase of the Susúa, Guilarte, Guajataca, Río Abajo, and Carite forests, their facilities, nurseries, 

and plantations.

104
On visiting “El Yunque”:

On a rainy afternoon on one of the trails up in the Caribbean 

National Forest, a raincoat-covered figure approached a forest 

officer also on foot. As they came together, it was apparent to 

the forest officer that the figure was Muñoz Marín. Salutations 

led him to recognize the forest officer by name. He suggested 

that they go to his cabin for a talk. It was in one of the summer 

homes he was using as an escape from pressure. That afternoon, 

he spent 3 hours showing a boyish curiosity about the forest 

and its management. The depth of his interest in the natural 

was later exposed when he recommended a panoramic foot and 

horse trail through the mountains the length of Puerto Rico 

(the original idea behind today’s Panoramic Route).

[Anecdote by Frank H. Wadsworth]

President John F. Kennedy with Puerto Rico Governor Luis Muñoz Marín (1961). 

n 1951 A.D.

Arthur Upson was succeeded by 

Henry B. Bosworth as Director 

of what had become the 

Tropical Region. 

n 1952 A.D.

The United States ratified the 

Constitution of Puerto Rico and 

the island became officially 

known (in English) as the 

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.

105
106
Chapter VI

Analyzing the Forests/

Training the Foresters

1953 to 1969

107
108
Chapter VI

Analyzing the 

Forests/Training 

the Foresters

1953 to 1969

Frank H. Wadsworth, Retired USDA 

Forest Service Employee

In 1956, the Luquillo Forest, nicknamed “El Yunque” by island 

residents and officially known as the Caribbean National Forest, 

received another official name—the Luquillo Experimental Forest. 

With that designation, it became unlike any other U.S. national 

forest. Most national forests had certain areas within their boundaries that were designated for research purposes, yet Luquillo was 

the only forest in which the research area encompassed the entire 

28,000 acres of the national forest itself.

Luquillo was also unique as the only tropical forest in the National 

Forest System. Management practices that were successful here 

could be applied in tropical forests around the world, more specifically in the neighboring forests of Central and South America. By 

the middle of the 20th century, forestry in Luquillo boasted many 

success stories. Luquillo’s Tropical Forest Research Center sponsored the first of 16 international tropical forestry short courses. 

Primarily 3 months in length, the courses were designed to train 

foreign students in tropical forestry. In addition, professional staff 

members went on assignments to other tropical areas to provide 

training and technical assistance. Unlike any other national forest, 

Luquillo was becoming recognized as a leader in tropical forestry on 

an international level.

109
Shifts

Before the 1956 designation of the Luquillo Experimental Forest, 

Luquillo hosted two separate entities. The national forest, in charge 

of management, was led by a forest supervisor. The Tropical Forest 

Experimental Station, which was renamed the Tropical Forest Research 

Center in 1955 and the Institute of Tropical Forestry in 1961, was 

in charge of research and led by a project leader. Occasionally, differences of opinion arose between the two entities and their bosses 

over how the forest should be run. In 1955, Frank H. Wadsworth 

became both supervisor and project leader. With one person wearing both hats, forest administration ran more smoothly.

The USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico underwent other changes. 

In 1953, the Puerto Rico Forest Service, with a professional forester, 

had come of age. After 35 years with the USDA Forest Service, it 

became an independent bureau under the Puerto Rico Department 

of Agriculture of the newly established Commonwealth of Puerto 

Rico. Later (1972), it became part of the Department of Natural 

Resources. By the mid-1960s, the organization managed more than 

a dozen forests surviving on almost 75,000 acres of land. Mangrove 

forests grew along the coast, dry forests survived on the south coast, 

karst forests covered the northern hills, and mountain forests flourished along the Cordillera Central, including the former western 

unit of the Caribbean National Forest, Toro Negro.

Cactus and elfin vegetation (above) and an ancient guayacán tree (right) form part of 

the tropical dry forest in the Guánica Biosphere Reserve (2006).

n 1953 A.D.

The Puerto Rico Forest Service 

separated from the USDA Forest 

Service and became the Forests, 

Fisheries and Wildlife section of 

the Department of Agriculture 

and Commerce. Agronomist 

Miguel Hernández Agosto was 

appointed as its first director.

The first of 16 international 

tropical forestry short courses 

was held at the Tropical Forestry 

Unit.

Irvin Pat Murray succeeded 

Henry B. Bosworth as 

supervisor of the Caribbean 

National Forest.

Frank H. Wadsworth served as 

project leader of research.

110
Mangrove forest, about 20 years old, at Las Mareas, Aguirre before a thinning (1950).

111
Wood Production

As part of its management plan, the USDA Forest Service sold local 

timber from the Caribbean National Forest; the timber was primarily 

used in making furniture. Some of the trees were products of the 

initial forest plantings several decades earlier. Economic disaster struck 

in 1953, when the local furniture industry opted to use imported, 

kiln-dried mahogany. Local timber sales dried up, with the exception of a few eucalyptus plantations in the center of the island. Even 

the use of wood from thinnings within the plantations declined. In 

addition, by 1956, tree growth studies showed slow growth in palo 

colorado forests at high elevations and led to the exclusion of this 

extensive forest type from future plans for wood harvest.

Undaunted, the USDA Forest Service planned for future timber 

production along the lower slopes of the Luquillo Mountains, and 

timber research continued unabated in forests around the island. 

Some 25,000 trees were under management in 40 plots islandwide. 

Additional plots were created in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. 

With the exception of thinning trees in specially designated thinning 

plots, these plots were still in the observation stage and were not 

being cut.

In 1960, an arboretum with plots of one-tenth acre per species 

was established in the western region of the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest; 3 years later, the arboretum boasted 90 tree species. Also 

during this time, the entire tree flora of Puerto Rico was described 

and illustrated in the book Common Trees of Puerto Rico and the 

Virgin Islands by Elbert L. Little, Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth.

Long-term forest production studies continued throughout the 1950s 

and 1960s in a variety of forest sites provided by Puerto Rico. Some 

of the most basic had to do with the differential growth of trees 

relative to their microenvironments. It was found that regardless of 

species, in the wet forest light was the stimulus for growth. Dominant 

trees outgrew suppressed trees fourfold. These studies showed foresters 

how much to thin the forest to make the trees grow. It was also found 

that such thinning need not expose the site and thus could be 

compatible with soil protection.

In mid-century, many people had the misconception that tropical 

forests, once exploited, were worthless, so the land could and 

should be used in some other way. To disprove this misconception, 

foresters selected some 5,450 acres of low-elevation tabonuco forest 

that had been cut-over for saw timber and fuelwood as the site for 

a pilot demonstration of productive management in the tropics. In 

this previously untreated forest, with many unproductive trees, the 

first treatment was refinement, reducing by timber sales for posts or 

fuel the number of such trees where better neighbors existed. Once 

done, it was possible to retreat more positively, selecting those trees 

best suited for future production and releasing them from excessive 

competition to accelerate their growth. The practice did not destroy 

the appearance of the forest but did leave a larger component of 

productive trees with room to grow. Work on this project continued through the 1970s, when financing was not renewed. Because 

the national forest has discontinued using wood, the productive 

benefits of this applied research have not been utilized.

Many other timber-related studies took place during this time. 

Foresters planted seeds from Central American mahogany throughout the island in preparation for studying genetic variation. They 

tested the machining properties of local plantation mahogany and 

found it superior to mahogany imported from Mexico, Honduras, 

and Peru.

Between 1945 and 1972, they investigated the drying properties 

and preservation of woods islandwide. Within the Luquillo Mountains, they determined the location and average structure and composition of each of the four forest types. For a number of years, they 

recorded tree stem growth—by species and canopy position—for 

thousands of trees. The results—growth was found to be slower at 

high elevation. After hundreds of attempts, starting in 1923, they 

successfully introduced a pine (Pinus caribaea hondurensis) into 

Puerto Rico, using imported mycorrhizal fungi, and it became 

naturalized on degraded land.

In addition, local forestry training and technical assistance programs 

improved the skills of island foresters. The programs included demonstrations of fence post preservation, pine planting on farms, sawmill 

layout, guidance on modern nursery operations, and the National 

Forest Visitor Information Service. Research on detailed wood 

properties and machining produced a bulletin on 60 local woods 

for artisans.

n 1954 A.D.

Agronomist Antonio RodríguezVidal estimated the Puerto 

Rican parrot population in the 

Caribbean National Forest at 200.

n 1955 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 2,250,000.

n 1955 A.D.

The Tropical Forest Experimental 

Station was renamed the 

Tropical Forest Research Center.

n 1956 A.D.

The entire Caribbean National 

Forest was additionally 

designated the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest to 

recognize the growing 

importance of research.

A Land Use Plan for the 

Caribbean National Forest was 

completed.

112
Teak plantation at the Sabana Field Station (1950). 

113
Birds in decline

In centuries past, two species of crow, large and small, were abundant in Puerto Rico. The small crow disappeared from the island in 

the 19th century. The larger one, all black but for a touch of white 

around the neck and known as the White-necked Crow (Corvus 

leucognaphalus), decreased in number, and, by the early 20th 

century, was found only in the Luquillo Mountains. In 1963, six 

crows were spotted. After that, nothing. The bird’s disappearance 

was without explanation.

Puerto Rico has one native parrot. About a foot long, it has predominantly green feathers, white eye-rings, red forehead, and twotoned blue primaries. Once, the large number of parrots darkened 

the skies, but, with the rise in agriculture in the 18th century, the 

number of parrots markedly declined. By the 1930s, the Puerto 

Rican parrot (Amazona vittata vittata) was found only in the Luquillo 

Mountains. By 1968, its population was estimated at 70, and it was 

added to the Federal list of species in danger of extinction.

Foresters were concerned. In a decade, one bird species disappeared 

from the forest (it still exists in the Dominican Republic), and a 

second seemed poised for the same fate. Even worse, the reasons for 

the crises were unclear. Why, in the protected shelter of a national 

forest, did the birds continue their precipitous decline?

A revised timber management plan for the Caribbean National Forest 

was approved in 1968. By this time, parrot research had shown that 

the habitat area reserved for the parrot in the 1949 plan was inadequate, and, with the bird’s endangered status, its habitat needed to 

be protected at all costs. In part, because of the cases of these two 

birds, there was a growing belief that wildlife concerns should be 

fundamental to management throughout the Caribbean National 

Forest.

Local residents often caught parrots as pets, increasing the species population decline 

(c. 1930).

n 1961 A.D.

An arboretum of more than 

100 tropical tree species was 

established in the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest.

University of Puerto Rico 

scientists from the Puerto Rico 

Nuclear Research Center tested 

the effects of gamma radiation 

on tropical forests in the El 

Verde sector of the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest. Those tests 

provided scientific evaluation of 

whether nuclear energy should 

be used to carve out a proposed 

interocean waterway through 

Central America to replace the 

Panama Canal.

The Tropical Forest Research 

Center was renamed the 

Institute of Tropical Forestry.

114
A Life With the Birds

A short time after arriving in Puerto Rico in October 1979 

to work on the Caribbean National Forest, I made a trip to 

the “Puerto Rican parrot aviary.” I had heard everyone talk 

about this place, so I was excited to learn more. As I drove 

up Road 191 and approached the aviary, I heard for the first 

time the raucous calls of the parrots. As I got closer, the calls 

got louder; as I entered the grounds, the calls got louder still. 

A stranger was entering the parrot territory and they knew it.

I had not been there long when two biologists, James Wiley, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife project leader, and Wayne Arendt, 

USDA Forest Service parrot biologist, came out of the weatherbeaten aviary building and greeted me. I was here to learn 

about the Puerto Rican parrot and the management of this 

species and its habitat in the Caribbean National Forest. 

Our meeting was planned to be short, about an hour or so. 

But after about 5 hours of talking, observing, and asking 

questions, I was still interested in learning more, and there 

was much more to tell. So I stayed late in the night and 

soaked up as much information as I could.

Little did I know at that time in 1979, that 31 years later 

I would still be working for the USDA Forest Service in 

Puerto Rico and that I would be as interested in the Puerto 

Rican parrot in 2010 as I was in 1979. What have I learned 

in these 31 years? A lot—too much to write here.

But I think the most important thing that I have learned in 

these 31 years is that we owe the survival of this species to 

the lifelong dedication of a larger number of biologists, from 

both Puerto Rico and the United States. These biologists—

too many to name here—have lived day and night, year after 

year, with these birds—feeding, caring, and tending to them 

like they were their children. They have been up all night 

long to help an egg hatch, get the chick in an incubator 

before it was too late, and feed the squawking birds a special 

diet. They have done this at the same time every day of the year. In 

addition to providing care at the aviary, these biologists also have 

either led or assisted with field research. The parrot success story 

has been accomplished because of these biologists’ dedication, 

because of volunteer help (many times from spouses), and because 

of cooperation between Commonwealth and Federal agencies, all 

working together for the benefit of the species.

Today, in 2013, the job is not yet done. New aviaries have been 

established—one in Río Abajo State Forest and one in El Yunque—

at a better location than the original. A new breed of biologists 

are now the leaders and are hard at work, because the old guys are 

retiring or have moved on. The parrot is better off today than it was 

in 1979, but it is not yet a “saved” species.

[Jerry Bauer]

n 1962 A.D.

Forester Juan Muñoz published 

a timber management plan for 

the Caribbean National Forest/

Luquillo Experimental Forest, 

which determined the available 

timber volume and projected 

sustainable silvicultural harvest.

n 1963 A.D.

Larry Hill was appointed 

project leader to administer the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest.

Line plantings of 1,274 hectares 

(3,148 acres) of mahogany in 

the forest began.

115
Communities Under Study

Irradiation and Ecology at El Verde

The El Verde study came about when a new, wider waterway was 

being considered to supplement the Panama Canal. Engineers 

thought atomic power would be required for excavation, but they 

were concerned about the possible effects an anticipated byproduct, 

gamma radiation, would have on the tropical forests. Luquillo, 

the only federally owned tropical rain forest comparable to that of 

Central America, was requested as a site for the test. Since 1961, the 

University of Puerto Rico, as a collaborator with the USDA Forest 

Service, had been using the Luquillo Forest for ecological research, 

and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission selected it for the investigation. El Verde Field Station became the base of operations.

On January 19, 1965, gamma radiation was released from a 

cylindrical block of metal placed on the ground in the western 

region of Luquillo Experimental Forest. For 93 days, the radiation 

penetrated the surrounding forest. Before, during, and after the 

release, between 1963 and 1967, some 80 scientists studied the 

forest community. When the El Verde study was completed, it 

became the most monumental research project undertaken within 

the Luquillo Experimental Forest, and Luquillo became the world’s 

most studied tropical forest ecosystem. The effects of the radiation 

were minimal and visible only very close to the source. Meanwhile, 

scientists, led by Howard T. Odum, were able to study everything 

from sierra palm germination to evapotranspiration. The resulting book had 111 chapters and was long considered the bible of 

tropical forest ecology.

Arboricides in Luquillo

Again, as the only federally owned tropical rain forest, Luquillo 

became a secondary site for another study. This one, less publicized 

than the El Verde irradiation and ecology project, sprang from a national need to screen airborne arboricides (defoliants). U.S. soldiers 

were fighting in Vietnam, and the military wanted to eliminate the 

leaves on trees that were concealing snipers along the Vietnamese 

rivers. The USDA Agricultural Research Service Station at Mayagüez 

was assigned the research. Screening started with small-scale tests 

in Maricao and other Commonwealth forests. Permission was also 

given to test a small area in the heart of the Luquillo Forest. One 

arboricide being tested became known as Agent Orange. Following 

the national controversy surrounding Agent Orange, concerned 

experts searched the site for residual chemicals, using extremely 

sensitive indicators, and found none.

Ecology of Dwarfed Vegetation

In the upper reaches of the forest, elfin woodland tops the highest 

peaks. The trees are short and gnarled, mosses and liverworts are 

abundant, winds are constant, and the weather is often foggy and 

excessively humid. Elfin woodland is very vulnerable; it survives 

under specific conditions, and, if damaged or destroyed, it is 

extremely slow to recover. During World War II, the U.S. Army 

was permitted to build a road through elfin woodland to El Yunque 

Peak, and, in 1963, a 5-kilometer road to East Peak, requested by 

the U.S. Navy, was completed. (Today, communications towers top 

these and several other peaks across the island.) A small amount of 

elfin woodland was lost in the construction of the two roads. The 

East Peak Road destroyed less than on El Yunque Peak, and the 

Navy was required to finance the revegetation of the entire roadway.

As a result of the construction of the East Peak Road, untouched 

elfin woodland atop nearby West Peak became easily accessible to 

scientists. In the 1960s, Richard Howard of Arnold Arboretum in 

Massachusetts began a decade-long study of the ecology of dwarfed 

vegetation. Scientists collected rainfall, examined algae, analyzed 

the chemical components of numerous plants, and performed 

a host of other studies. The results were presented in 17 articles 

spanning various issues of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 

information that would not have been known without the road.

Plants in the elfin woodland forest engulf a tree trunk (2008).

n 1963 A.D.

Construction of the Yokahú 

Observation Tower was 

completed, and the tower 

was opened to the public.

Juan A. Rivero discovered 

Elutherodactylus hedricki, a new 

species of coquí tree frog, in the 

“El Yunque Forest.”

The White-necked Crow (Corvus 

leucognaphalus) was last seen 

in the Caribbean National 

Forest.

Botonist Roy Woodbury sighted 

a minimum of about 130 Puerto 

Rican parrots in the wild in the 

Luquillo Mountains.

116
The elfin woodland forest is in the upper reaches of the Luquillo Mountains, surrounding Los Picachos Peak (2008).

117
Quebrada Juan Diego is one of the most beautiful streams originating in the Luquillo Mountains.  The crystal-clear water coming from these mountains provides drinking water to thousands of Puerto Ricans today (2008).

118
119
Sustainable Timber Production 101

The cutting and selling of timber in the Caribbean National Forest 

between 1934 and 1953 was viewed by the USDA Forest Service 

as an introduction of productivity that could be sustainable. The 

practice of sustainable timber production merits a full explanation 

because it has been widely misunderstood.

The goal of every conscientious forester is to make a forest 

sustainable; that is, to be able to maintain itself indefinitely while 

producing marketable timber. The difficulty in sustainability is the 

human pressure, the need for more timber now at the expense of 

the future. Foresters continually look for ways to satisfy both the 

forest’s and the people’s needs.

In unmodified forests, the volume of wood remains relatively stable, 

tree growth being offset by tree mortality so that, over time, there 

is no net increase. It was found that forest densities that are reached 

naturally actually slow tree growth. Thus, by reducing forest 

density, foresters can initiate volume increases. The trees removed 

for this purpose were only the following: (1) overmature trees 

considered susceptible to hurricanes, (2) about half of the other 

mature trees, (3) trees too close for good growth, and (4) trees of 

such poor form or wood quality that their removal was conducive 

to the regeneration of better trees.

Trees were sold on the stump, each paint-marked by a forest 

officer. Felling, bucking, and skidding of sawtimber were subject 

to cautionary provisions. The less accessible sawlogs were pit-sawn 

at the stump, and the boards were headed on footpaths to the 

roadside. At other sites, oxen skidded logs, leaving skid trails knee 

deep in mud and visible years later. Crawler tractors were tested and 

rejected because of soil damage on slopes.

The broadening concept of sustainability toward the end of the period 

terminated the need for more comprehensive timber inventories. 

Instead, new concerns over various features of the forest environment 

were expected to signal a need for experimentation to determine 

new options for management. It was also expected that external 

social constraints, governed by the clarity of public goals and understanding, could alter plans for sustainable timber production.

[Frank H. Wadsworth]

Yellow-ringed trees in a sustainable, managed timber plot along the Quebrada Sonadora in El Verde, Luquillo Experimental Forest (1987).

n 1965 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 2,594,000.

n 1966 A.D.

Víctor Márquez counted 70 

Puerto Rican parrots in a single 

flock.

n 1964 A.D.

Elbert L. Little, Jr., and Frank 

H. Wadsworth’s book, Common 

Trees of Puerto Rico and the 

Virgin Islands, was published. 

It contains more than 200 

drawings of tree species by 

island artists.

120
Four Forest Types

For local use, the Luquillo Experimental Forest is classified into 

four forest types (internationally, scientists tend to use Holdridge’s 

Life Zone System classifications). At the lowest elevations is the 

tabonuco forest type, named for the most prominent native tree. 

The tallest, most marketable, and most accessible timber is found 

here; this is the area where most reforestation has taken place. 

Higher up is the palo colorado type, also named for a local species. 

Here the trees are smaller, more suited for making charcoal than 

for cutting timber. The third type, sierra palm, is found on patches 

of steep slopes throughout the forest, where palm trees are virtually 

exclusive, sharing the slopes with ferns and other plants. The fourth 

type, elfin woodland, consists of a few species of sturdy, stunted 

trees that survive in wind, rain, and fog on the highest peaks. Timber 

production was undertaken only in the tabonuco and palo colorado 

types, never in the sierra palm and elfin woodland forests. In 1956, 

as a result of the virtual disappearance of the charcoal market, the 

USDA Forest Service removed the palo colorado type from timber 

production.

Tabonuco forest (2008). Palo colorado forest (2008).

Sierra palm forest (2008). Elfin woodland forest (2008).

n 1968 A.D.

The USDA Forest Service began 

formal research efforts to 

save the Puerto Rican parrot 

in collaboration with the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, the 

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 

and the World Wildlife Fund. 

Amazona vittata was listed as an 

endangered species in the Federal 

Register. By the end of the year, 

24 birds were counted.

A revised Timber Management 

Plan for the Caribbean National 

Forest/Luquillo Experimental 

Forest was approved after being 

rewritten to conform to the 1956 

Land Use Plan.

A 1-hectare (2.5-acre) forest 

stand in the Jiménez sector of “El 

Yunque Forest” was used to test 

tropical forest canopy defoliants 

as part of an islandwide study to 

develop defoliants for use by the 

military in the Vietnam war.

121
International Programs: 

The Beginning

Starting in the decade of the 1950s, the Luquillo Experimental Forest’s professional 

staff members began to reach out to scientists at other tropical forests around the world. 

Following are some of the early extended programs:

•	 Teaching graduate-level tropical forestry in Venezuela.

•	 Teaching graduate-level tropical forestry in Costa Rica.

•	 Preparing a national watershed plan for El Salvador.

•	 Preparing a national forestry plan for Paraguay.

•	 Designing watershed management in the Dominican Republic.

•	 Documenting forest plantation growth in 16 countries.

•	 Analyzing forest research progress and needs in Latin America.

•	 Describing the forests of western Ecuador.

•	 Providing technical guidance on nursery practices in Jamaica.

•	 Providing technical guidance on mahogany silviculture in Mexico.

[Frank H. Wadsworth]

International students at an institute-sponsored training session. Second from right is 

Frank H. Wadsworth (c. 1968).

Letter received from Guadeloupe Forest Service requesting technical assistance for 

reforestation.

122
Temptations

In 1959, as a result of a request from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Latin 

American Forestry Commission, three of us covered Latin America collecting data on the most 

successful forest plantations. In Chile, I was taken south along the coast to a plantation of Pinus 

radiata on a rainy site near Tomé. My driver personally knew the owner of the plantation and said 

he had planted it 17 years earlier when he bought the tract. When we got there, he pulled up to a 

tree almost a meter in diameter. I had an increment borer, but it was raining hard, so I questioned 

him. Again he assured me. I got out and took a core. That night from the hotel, I wrote to the 

Chief of the USDA Forest Service in Washington that, if I were not married, I would not come 

back to the United States.

Another time, the leaders of the Emberá of the Panamanian Darien had come together seated at a 

table in one of their straw shelters. A wizened elderly woman represented the Tribal Council. She 

asked for advice. She told how their ancestors had always told them never to cut the forest, which 

was their home. Then she said that now the Tribe is being offered $50 per tree and needs the 

money. What she wanted to know was how many trees they could sell without losing the forest. 

It was another tempting place for a forester from Puerto Rico. She was advised to send the two 

young agronomists in the meeting to forestry school in Costa Rica.

[Reminiscences of Frank H. Wadsworth]

Wadsworth worked with Emberá tribal members in Panama, such as this guide, in 

exploring the forest in the Panama Canal Watershed (2006). Letter from a forest service forester of a foreign country requesting technical assistance 

from the Institute of Tropical Forestry in the 1930s.

123
A Tale of

One Endangered Bird

The 70 Amazona vittata parrots found in the Caribbean National Forest in 

1968 were all that was left of a population that may have topped a million 

when Columbus first approached the island. Although the birds began to de-

cline after the arrival of the Spaniards, they remained in great numbers until 

the 1800s, when agriculture spread over much of the island. Lowland forests 

were destroyed, and the parrots, forced to feed on crops, became fair game for 

farmers’ slings and guns. Slaughter by farmers continued into the early years 

of the 20th century. Periodic hurricanes wiped out large numbers, and the 

parrots could no longer rebuild their populations. Poor country residents col-

lected young parrots to sell as pets: one parrot would fetch up to 2 dollars, a 

princely sum to the farmers. By the 1920s, the birds’ original lowland habitat 

was reduced to isolated nooks in the karst country of northwestern Puerto 

Rico. Yet, after Hurricane San Felipe in 1928, no parrots could be found in 

the karst region. By the late 1930s, a census estimated some 2,000 remaining 

parrots, all in the Luquillo Mountains.

Yet, even within the protective boundaries of the forest, the birds continued 

to decline—200 counted in 1959, a single flock of 70 in 1966, no flocks at 

all by the end of the decade. A number of factors contributed to the startling 

decline. Several of them, easy to list in retrospect, took a tremendous amount 

of time and analysis to understand. Back in the 1930s, workers disturbed 

habitats while constructing trails and building a road through the forest. 

Local residents continued to hunt parrots to sell as pets, often destroying nests 

as they did so. Loggers removed trees for fuelwood, timber, and posts. Forest-

ers cleared out old, decaying, cavity-ridden trunks: these trunks, biologists 

eventually learned, were favorite parrot nesting sites. Competition developed 

over who would use the limited remaining cavities: bees needed them to make 

their honey, and aggressive Pearly-eyed Thrashers tossed parrot eggs out of 

nests that appealed to them. Predators stalked the parrots, maggots 

lodged in the skin of chicks, hurricanes took their toll, and the military and 

radiation experiments may have affected the birds.

[Excerpted from the book The Parrots of Luquillo: 

Natural History and Conservation of the Puerto Rican Parrot, 

by Noel F.R. Snyder, James W. Witey, and Cameron B Kepler.]

124
Another Part

of the Tale

Ed Cliff was one of the USDA Forest Service’s toughest chiefs. He 

was interested in the tropics and visited the Caribbean National Forest 

around 1965. By that time, I had noticed that the parrots were less 

common than they had been before. I told Ed that if the parrots were 

to disappear, the egg would be on the face of the USDA Forest Service 

because the bird was found only in the forest. This was the beginning of 

the parrot restoration program, using $25,000 that Ed had gotten from 

the USDA Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the 

National Wildlife Federation.

The biologists who have worked with parrot recovery have concluded 

that without their efforts the bird would now be extinct.

[Reminiscences of Frank H. Wadsworth]

Woodcarving of Puerto Rican parrot by local artisian (2007). 

José Vidal (in wheelchair), the first Puerto Rican to carry out a study of the Puerto Rican parrot, participates in the 

inauguration of the Iguaca Aviary in the El Yunque National Forest (2007).

Then-USDA Forest Service Regional Forester Chuck Myers at the inauguration of the Iguaca Aviary (2007). 

125
First Impressions

My first contact with the USDA Forest Service was in the summer of 1963. My duty station was the 

El Verde Field Station and I spent the summer working in the Rain Forest Radiation Experiment led by 

H. T. Odum. I had just graduated from the University of Puerto Rico and became a field technician for 

the radiation project. Although the field station was on national forest land and leased to the University 

of Puerto Rico by the USDA Forest Service, the presence of the agency was invisible to me. I was only 

aware of Pepe Lefebre, who was the USDA Forest Service field person in charge.

Later, my duty station was the basement of the institute’s main building. I was an employee of the 

Nuclear Center and a master’s degree student in the first graduate class of the Biology Department. 

Here, I became aware of institute scientists, Director Frank H. Wadsworth, and the library. I shared 

the basement with Peter Murphy, Carol Ogle (for a while), and a noisy printing press of the University 

Agriculture Experimental Station. Our quarters were a very small cage. From there, I observed scientists 

entering and exiting the building, but not a word was exchanged with me. The presence of institute 

scientists intimidated me.

My master’s degree program and my job with Odum enabled me to spend a lot of time in the national 

forest, including meetings in what was for many years the parrot aviary. In all these visits to the field 

and use of the facilities, however, I was not aware of the USDA Forest Service as an agency. To me, the 

USDA Forest Service was Frank H. Wadsworth, institute scientists, and Pepe Lefebre.

When I was a 27-year-old professor at the University of Florida, I had my first significant encounter 

with the USDA Forest Service hierarchy. It was in the early 1970s and the Southern Region was interested 

in learning more about ecology. They contracted with the University of Florida to conduct weeklong 

sessions in ecology at Camp Oklawaha on the Ocala National Forest. I was one of the instructors, and 

spent the whole week at the camp. We eventually conducted two such trainings. My students were from 

the USDA Forest Service. Other than that, I had no idea who they were. I was aware, however, of how 

they reacted to my lectures, in a complicit, I-told-you-so mode, as some of them were wildlife-oriented 

and others were timber-oriented. I was a systems ecologist, and I gave them a lot of ecosystem science 

and even an early version of ecosystem management. These sessions were memorable, but I only realized 

how so later.

In 1979, I was a staff member at the Council of Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the 

President in Washington, DC, and had just been appointed project leader at the Institute of Tropical 

Forestry in Puerto Rico. For my going-away party, the Chief of the USDA Forest Service was present. 

Chief Peterson was asked to say a few words, and he pointed out that I had been his teacher. I was 

puzzled. Later, I checked my files and found a picture of the course participants at Camp Oklawaha. 

Sure enough, the Chief (regional forester at the time of the class), was there.

[Reminiscences of Ariel E. Lugo] Sierra palm forest, El Verde Field Station (2006). 

126
This Is His Life: Frank H. Wadsworth

Frank H. Wadsworth was born in Chicago, IL, in 1915. He attended the 

University of Michigan, earning B.S. and M.S. degrees, and later received a 

Ph.D. in forestry.

He came to the Tropical Forest Experimental Station in 1942 as a research 

forester. He later became the Institute of Tropical Forestry’s Director and 

Supervisor of the Caribbean National Forest from 1956 to 1974 and remained 

in charge of the institute until 1979. He continued as a research forester and 

an international tropical forestry consultant until his retirement in 1999. He 

currently works as a volunteer at the institute.

Wadsworth received the USDA Superior Service award (twice) and the Fernow 

International Forestry award. He is a Fellow of the American Society of Foresters. 

He has published more than 100 scientific books and papers; his major work 

is a 600-page Producción Forestal para América Tropical, a text in use in the 

forestry schools of the region.

127
Lush vegetation along the Mount Britton trail in the La Mina Recreation Area in the Caribbean National Forest/Luquillo Experimental Forest (2008).

128
Alejo Estrada Pinto

When I met Alejo in 1962, he was already a leader at work and 

in his community. Alejo had grown up in the Luquillo Mountains; although he had very little formal schooling, he knew 

the forest as well as anyone. Starting as a teenager, he worked 

around 10 years for the Caribbean National Forest under the 

supervision of Pepe LeFebre.

In March, 1963, based on Pepe’s recommendation, H. T. 

Odum hired Alejo, then 27 years old, and two others to work 

for the Rain Forest Radiation Experiment. Peter Murphy was 

their supervisor, although Alejo needed no supervision. He 

was the leader, and he took responsibility for daily activities at 

El Verde. More important, Alejo knew all the trees, the forest, 

and how to survive in the wild. He became the critical link 

between scientists and workers. He was the plant taxonomist 

without formal training. Robert Smith developed a key to 

translate Alejo’s common names to scientific names of trees; 

and Alejo was usually the authority when a particular tree 

needed identification. Odum assigned Alejo the task of doing 

a phenology study, which required monthly visits to more than 

150 trees along the trails of El Verde to see if they had flowers, 

fruits, or new leaves. Alejo is the single author of the article 

“Phenological Studies of Trees at El Verde,” published in the 

Rain Forest book containing the results of the radiation study. 

This work on the phenology of tropical trees could be used 

in the future as a base to compare potential changes in tree 

phenology because of climate change.

Alejo was a “doer” and a leader not only in the rainforest study, 

but also throughout the rest of his career. After Odum left, 

Alejo continued to work at El Verde as an employee of the 

University of Puerto Rico and de facto leader of the El Verde 

Field Station. He retired in June 1992 after 30 years of service. 

One of his legacies to the USDA Forest Service of today is his 

son Carlos Estrada, who works for the institute as a forestry 

technician in the Sabana Field Station.

[Ariel E. Lugo]

129
130
Chapter VII

Rethinking

the USDA 

Forest Service

in Puerto Rico

1970 to 1985

131
132
Chapter VII

Rethinking the 

USDA Forest Service 

in Puerto Rico

1970 to 1985

Frank H. Wadsworth, Retired USDA 

Forest Service Employee, and Other 

Sources

In 1976, the Caribbean National Forest/Luquillo Experimental 

Forest was designated a Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations 

Environmental Program. The biosphere is the factory of life on 

Earth. Living organisms process and recycle the energy and nutrients available from the environment, and the biosphere’s health 

is crucial to the future of our planet. The Luquillo Experimental 

Forest was one of the first biosphere reserves so designated. U.N. 

Biosphere Reserves are nuclei of virgin forests surrounded by reestablished forests; the reserves demonstrate preservation, research, 

tourism, rehabilitation, and traditional uses of the land. Several 

years later, Guánica Commonwealth Forest, a dry coastal forest 

on the island’s south coast, was also designated a U.N. Biosphere 

Reserve.

The biosphere designations indicated scientists were emphasizing 

different aspects of managing forests.

133
Ways of Thinking About the Forests

Over the centuries, people have focused on different characteristics 

of forests. To Taíno Indians, Luquillo may have been an abode 

of the gods; to runaway slaves, it was a place to hide and survive; 

to miners, it was a region to find gold. Spanish colonists found it 

exceedingly inaccessible, and only a limited amount of farming 

and lumbering took place. King Alfonso XII set aside the upper 

elevations as one of the hemisphere’s first forest reserves. In the 

early 20th century, the USDA Forest Service focused primarily on 

the trees in the forest, replanting abused slopes, and preparing for 

sustainable timber management. By the middle of the century, the 

emphasis began to shift toward looking at the forest as an entire 

interacting community, in which the fate of a certain bird could 

affect the fate of a certain tree, and vice versa. Around the time of 

the designation of U.N. Biosphere Reserves, scientists began to 

look at Puerto Rico’s forests as an interacting part of environments 

around the world, in which the dust of the Sahara could affect the 

plants in Guánica.

Expanding Concerns

The work being done in forests in Puerto Rico during the 1970s and 

early 1980s reflected the new trends. The study of trees remained 

an important aspect of forestry. Researchers continued to study the 

habitat of the birdlife by recording dates of flowers and fruits of the 

forest trees. Also they extended the period of growth measurements 

of thousands of trees to relate them to weather changes. They developed 

a technique for extracting the tiny seeds of kadam (Anthocephalus 

cadamba) and successfully planted kadam, along with broadleaf 

mahogany, under secondary forest. They intensified reforestation 

efforts for mahogany along the forest’s lower slopes. By 1978, the 

Institute of Tropical Forestry had conducted some 2,400 different 

comparative tests of forest regeneration and management practices, 

many of which are still providing new information. More than 450 

tree species had been propagated, including more than 100 native species.

Forest wildlife also came under the spotlight. The numbers of native 

Puerto Rican parrots continued to decline, reaching an all-time low 

of 13 birds in the wild in 1972. Rescue efforts were greatly increased. 

In 1970, a professional decision to rear parrots in captivity to save 

the species created the need for an aviary. By 1973, the aviary was 

in place within the forest; it contained eight captive birds. The Sharpshinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus) was also becoming rare in the 

mountain forests. Wildlife concerns became a top priority.

Rescue efforts for the parrots, some of which were downright 

ingenious, began to have success. One major reason for the parrots’ 

continued decline was the Pearly-eyed Thrasher (Margarops fuscatus).

An aggressive bird, the thrasher commandeered many of the scarce 

tree cavities used by the parrots for nesting, tossing out priceless 

parrot eggs in the process. Major habitat observation led to the 

conclusion that the thrashers actually preferred a shallow nest, and 

the parrot a deeper one. By deepening parrot nests and constructing 

shallow nesting structures for the thrashers near the parrot nests, 

biologists were able to stop the thrashers from harassing the parrots. 

Not only did they no longer enter the parrot nests, but their aggressiveness also served to protect the parrots from other predatory 

wildlife. The parrot slowly began to rebuild its numbers. In 1971, 

the ornithologist Cam Kepler and his wife, Kay, found a species of 

bird that had remained undiscovered longer than any other bird 

in the Caribbean, the Elfin-woods Warbler (Dendroica angelae).

Ornithologists considered the discovery of the bird, which is The Pearly-eyed Thrasher, a common bird in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (2004).

n 1970 A.D.

The USDA Forest Service and the 

Commonwealth Department 

of Agriculture (Natural 

Resources Division) exchanged 

lands around the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest for the Toro 

Negro Forest.

Road 191 through “El Yunque” 

was closed due to a major 

landslide. The highway 

remained closed because 

rebuilding plans were 

hampered by the existence of 

unstable sandy soils.

A Tropical Rain Forest, based on 

ecological studies begun during 

the early 1960s under the 

leadership of Howard T. Odum, 

was published. It includes 111 

research papers totaling 1,645 

pages.

n 1970 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 2,712,000.

134
endemic to the upper Luquillo Mountains, a positive sign that the 

forest remained healthy. The Keplers studied birds throughout the 

island and eventually published a comparison of the birdlife of the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest with that of the Guánica Commonwealth Forest.

Research was also expanding to biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics. A study of the Río Icacos watershed in the Luquillo Mountains 

found that only 10 percent of rainwater was intercepted for local use, 

primarily through evaporation and transpiration, while 65 percent 

tumbled down the mountainside as surface runoff. Fourteen scientists 

from the institute visited Isla de Mona, a small, ecologically rich, limabean-shaped island halfway between Puerto Rico and the Dominican 

Republic. They made an inventory of natural resources that became 

instrumental in a decision to abandon a proposed superport on Mona.

Elfin-woods Warbler, an endangered bird species found in the elfin woodland forest in the Luquillo Experimental Forest  (1999).

The Green Anole, a common lizard found throughout Puerto Rico (2006).

n 1971 A.D.

The Elfin-woods Warbler 

(Dendroica angelae), a 

heretofore undiscovered bird 

endemic to Puerto Rico, was 

discovered to exist at high 

elevations in the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest.

n 1972 A.D.

A tally of Puerto Rican parrots 

in the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest revealed 16 individuals 

remained in the wild.

A summary was published of the 

results of fence post longevity 

based on four preservatives 

and two treatments for 6,700 

treated and nontreated posts, 

representing 70 tree species.

A summary was published of 

growth studies for 15 conifers 

and 16 hardwood species for 

use in 60,000 hectares (148,263 

acres) of Puerto Rico’s granitic 

uplands.

Princeton doctoral student 

John Faarborg began tagging 

migratory birds in the Guánica 

Commonwealth Forest in what 

was to become the longest data 

set on migratory birds in the 

tropics.

135
Reaching Out to Fellow and Future 

Foresters

Foresters and scientists at the Luquillo Experimental Forest continued 

their work in connecting with local and international communities. 

On the local front, the institute offered forestry training and technical assistance, such as a 2-day workshop on forestry effects, a 

competition for hurricane-resistant house designs, and support 

for 14 urban tree nurseries. It also offered programs similar to the 

Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s—namely, the Youth 

Conservation Corps and the Young Adults Conservation Corps, 

which provided Puerto Rican young people with experience in 

forestry work.

On an international level, the institute staff participated in activities 

with organizations such as the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission, the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Latin American 

Forestry Commission, and the Tropical Silviculture Study Group 

of the FAO North American Forestry Commission (Canada/USA/ 

Mexico). In the 1980s, the institute hosted an international symposium on the role of tropical forests in the world’s carbon cycle and 

2 years later, initiated biennial Caribbean foresters’ meetings.

Administrative Changes

During this time, several administrative changes reflected the 

changing times. The administration of the Commonwealth forests 

was transferred from the U.S. Department of Agriculture to the 

recently formed Puerto Rico (Commonwealth) Department of 

Natural Resources (later, the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources). The administration of the Caribbean National 

Forest was separated from the Institute of Tropical Forestry, giving 

the institute greater autonomy. Eventually, the institute was placed 

under the Southern Forest Experimental Station in New Orleans. 

In 1982, the Luquillo Field Office was moved from its small quarters in the community of Sabana to the newly constructed Catalina 

Service Center off Road 191 at the northern edge of the forest.

n 1973 A.D.

L.A. (Andy) Lindquist was 

appointed Interim Supervisor of 

the Caribbean National Forest/

Luquillo Experimental Forest.

A captive breeding program 

for the Puerto Rican parrot 

was established at the Luquillo 

aviary.

A map and text on the 

ecological life zones of Puerto 

Rico was published.

Mahogany trees about 60 years old that were planted on abandoned land near El 

Verde, Luquillo Experimantal Forest (2007).

136
n 1974 A.D.

The Caribbean National Forest/

Luquillo Experimental Forest 

was administratively separated 

from the Institute of Tropical 

Forestry. Juan Muñoz was 

appointed forest supervisor of 

the Caribbean National Forest.

Mahogany reforestation efforts 

were intensified in secondary 

brushlands on the lower slopes 

of the Luquillo Mountains.

An environmental analysis 

and management plan for 

the proposed El Yunque Peak 

Electronic Site was prepared 

and implemented.

Participants from the Caribbean islands attended a 9-week international forestry training program presented by the USDA Forest Service in collaboration with the U.S. Agency 

for International Development  (1980s).

137
n “El Yunque contains the largest patch of primary forest 

on the island. Primary forest means it does not have any 

evidence of human effects such as logging. It was the gift 

of King Felipe to Puerto Rico. Of the 12,000-odd acres of 

Crown Land, some 10,000 of it was primary forest. This 

was the heritage of the Mother Country to Puerto Rico. 

... So we are locating these original tracts and saying they 

should be left alone as the heritage of Spain to Puerto Rico 

... no new trails, nonmanipulative research, just leave it 

alone.”

[Ariel E. Lugo, 2004]

Publicizing Research

Several important publications came out during this time. While 

her husband worked with the Puerto Rican parrots, Kay Kepler 

scoured the forest for ferns, locating around 150 species, which she 

studied and described in a book. A new booklet depicted the trees 

of the Caribbean National Forest. The Ecological Life Zones of Puerto 

Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands mapped the various climatic zones, 

using the system developed by Leslie Holdridge. Recognizing the 

importance of urban forestry on a populated island, the institute 

published a bilingual bulletin on the use of 46 tree species in urban 

settings. In March 1980, the first issue of the quarterly newsletter 

for the International Society of Tropical Forestry was published, 

reaching more than 2,000 people in 128 countries. This publication 

ended in 2013 due to lack of funding. A bulletin summarized the 

forest resources of Puerto Rico. Three years later, institute librarians and scientists published an extensive bibliography of all works 

pertaining to forestry in Puerto Rico. With close to a thousand 

publications produced by the institute alone at that time, it proved 

a great help in orienting both local and international scientists.

n 1975 A.D.

The Commonwealth of Puerto 

Rico passed a new forest 

law for the island, based 

on contributions by Forest 

Supervisor Juan Muñoz.

The Puerto Rican parrot 

population reached a low of 

13 birds in the wild, the lowest 

point in the history of the 

species.

n 1975 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 3,115,000.

n 1976 A.D.

The Luquillo Experimental 

Forest (Caribbean National 

Forest) was designated the 

Luquillo Biosphere Reserve 

as part of the United Nations 

International Network of 

Biosphere Reserves.

138
Is Our Research 

Relevant?

n Today’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry has been 

conducting tropical forestry research since 1939. Its mission 

is to generate and disseminate knowledge for the sustainable 

management of tropical forests. The institute provides many 

services to society in the form of its library services, technical 

information, education, forestry consultation, and training. 

More than 2,000 science publications are among the major accomplishments of the institute. Are these publications relevant 

to the mission of the institute? Do they have a practical use? 

Have they solved any real world problems?

n Science is under public scrutiny, and it is increasingly 

pressured to make its work relevant. Relevancy is the battle 

cry at the National Science Foundation, at universities, and 

in government. As an example, today’s institute scientists are 

expected not only to publish scientific journals but also apply 

their science through public interactions and demonstrations 

on its applicability. 

n In 1985, 10,000 people demonstrated against a threat by 

the USDA Forest Service to harvest timber from the Caribbean 

National Forest, and harvesting was put on hold. Today, 23 

years later, global carbon management is part of mainstream 

human activity, including the global Kyoto agreement that 

allows credits and profits for growing forests for carbon accumulation; a very practical outcome for a very basic research.

n Science works on problems that others do not yet see as 

problems. Libraries contain the solutions for today’s problems 

solved by science yesterday. When I explain this to lay audiences, they understand that part of the process of science is 

esoteric, but then something needs to happen after the research 

is done to make it relevant and understandable to the public.

n Is research relevant? Yes, it is. We can find many examples in 

the Luquillo Experimental Forest. Tree and vine identification 

is fundamental knowledge for management and conservation 

activities. Reforestation techniques assure the success of treeplanting programs. Silvicultural treatment for cut-over or 

volunteer forests allows for the management of secondary 

forests for public use. Rehabilitation of landslides allows for 

the reestablishment of forests and the stabilization of hazardous 

slopes. Understanding how silvicultural practices influence 

wildlife populations, soil fertility, greenhouse gas emissions, 

and water yield enables humans to know the effects of manipulating vegetation, something that is becoming increasingly 

more prevalent. What we need to do is work on filling the gap 

between science and the public.

[Adapted from 2008 a paper by Ariel E. Lugo]

n 1976 A.D.

Numerous reports began concerning long-term monitoring 

of permanent plots in the 

tabonuco, palo colorado, elfin 

woodland, and sierra palm 

forests. They included studies of 

forest structure, dynamics, and 

the impacts and responses to 

hurricanes.

The USDA Forest Service 

established a tree nursery 

to provide seedlings for a 

reforestation program.

The Youth Conservation Corps 

(YCC) program began in El 

Yunque Forest.

n 1977 A.D.

The first silviculture 

examination and prescription of 

the Caribbean National Forest 

was completed.

139
Designing a New Management Plan

In the 1970s, Congress passed two acts calling for the USDA Forest 

Service to assess its forests and provide a long-range management 

program, complete with an environmental impact statement, for 

each one. To comply, in the early 1980s, the USDA Forest Service 

in Puerto Rico began to fashion an environmental impact statement 

and a 50-year land and resource management plan for the Caribbean 

National Forest. Draft statements and proposed plans were published and distributed to a variety of interested parties, comments 

were made, hearings scheduled, changes approved, and, by the end 

of 1985, the USDA Forest Service put the finishing touches on 

the final version of its long-range plan—hundreds of pages of text, 

tables, facts, figures, glossaries, and maps.

A sierra palm forest, Luquillo Experimental Forest (2008).

The alternative preferred by the foresters favored continuation of 

multiple-use management, that is, balancing the uses of the forest’s various resources. There would be selective commercial timber 

harvesting on some of the reestablished forests of the lower slopes. 

A wildlife management program would maintain healthy wildlife 

populations and aid in the recovery of endangered plants and 

animals. Road construction would be reduced, and recreational 

activities would become more dispersed throughout the forest. All 

this would be done without compromising the optimum production 

of water.

In early 1986, the plan was released to the public, attracting 

significant attention and causing debate about the conservation of 

biodiversity.

n 1977 A.D.

The Institute of Tropical Forestry 

was transferred from the Office 

of the Chief of the USDA Forest 

Service to the Southern Forest 

Experiment Station (New 

Orleans) as the Tropical America 

Forest Research Work Unit.

n 1979 A.D.

Involvement in urban forestry 

began with a bulletin in English 

and Spanish on the use of 46 

tree species in urban settings 

for Puerto Rico and the U.S. 

Virgin Islands.

Beginning in 1979, more than 

4,000 hectares (9,800 acres) 

of forest were systematically 

sampled and analyzed for 

silvicultural conditions, including 

the determination of the tree 

size, age class, and species.

Frank H. Wadsworth was 

succeeded by Ariel E. Lugo as 

director of what will eventually 

become the International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry.

140
n 1980 A.D.

An islandwide inventory 

of secondary forests on 

timberlands was initiated.

The Institute of Tropical Forestry 

Analytical Research Laboratory 

was established.

The Institute of Tropical Forestry 

hosted an international 

symposium on the role of 

tropical forests in the world’s 

carbon cycle.

Editing and production of the 

quarterly newsletter of the 

International Society of Tropical 

Forestry began. This publication 

reached more than 2,000 

recipients in 128 countries.

n 1981 A.D.

Construction of the Puerto 

Rico Telephone Company 

communication tower was 

completed on El Yunque Peak in 

the Caribbean National Forest.

United Nations Educational, 

Scientific and Cultural Organization designated Guánica 

Commonwealth Forest as the 

Guánica Biosphere Reserve.

n 1982 A.D.

The Caribbean National 

Forest Field Office was moved 

from Sabana to the newly 

constructed Catalina Service 

Center off Road 191 at the 

northern edge of the forest.

n In response to claims from the Puerto Rico Medical Association, the institute and the Caribbean National Forest 

sponsored a symposium in 1977 on the ecological effects of 

plantations of alien trees in Puerto Rico. As an ecologist, I 

thought that I had a contribution to make to the response, 

because my main line of research at the institute was on the 

ecology of timber plantations.

n I had to approve technician time to cut weeds in our plantations before measuring the tree diameters. I thought this 

requirement was excessive and questioned the practice. A 

technician dared me to measure diameters in an unweeded 

plantation. I accepted the dare, and when I was faced with 

the wall of green in the plantation understory, I realized that 

a major ecological value of these plantations was allowing the 

regrowth of native vegetation under the canopy of the alien 

trees.

[Ariel E. Lugo]

Is There Such a Thing as Too Much Success?

Honeybees are necessary to help pollinate plants and play and important role in maintaining the ecological balance in the tropical forest (2007).

141
n 1982 A.D.

Information on the storage and 

production of organic matter in 

tropical forests and their role in 

the carbon cycle was published 

by the institute.

Biennial Caribbean foresters 

meetings were initiated.

Forestry in the Caribbean was 

published.

The Forest Resources of Puerto 

Rico was published.

n 1983 A.D.

The USDA Forest Service initiated 

collaborative research with the 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service on the 

Cinnamon Bay watershed, St. 

John, U.S. Virgin Islands. As a 

result, the institute published 

papers on species occurrence, 

dynamics, and hurricane impacts.

The San Juan National Historic 

Site (El Morro) was declared 

a World Heritage Site by the 

United Nations. Tabonuco trees in the Baño del Oro Research Natural Area (1987).

142
Right Makes Might

n Río Mameyes is the last river in Puerto Rico with an uninterrupted flow, yet several years ago the Commonwealth Government proposed to dam the river. The institute and a group 

of citizens led the way in the opposition. Two anecdotes typify 

the environmental conflict. In 1995, when the first hearing was 

called, I showed up alone with the lawyer for the environmentalists. We were surprised to find in opposition about 20 corporate lawyers representing government agencies, the Tourism 

Company, and many private interests that would benefit from 

the damming of the river.

n On another occasion in 1995, I was invited to debate the 

director of the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewer’s Authority 

in a public forum that would be carried by islandwide radio. 

I showed up alone and found that the debate would be in a 

gallera (an arena). The place was full, with people hanging over 

the rafters. The debate was in the ring. The director showed 

up with a dozen advisors, and he took heated questions from 

the town and callers to the program. After I made my case, I received no questions. All questions were addressed to the water 

company.

[Ariel E. Lugo]

Río Mameyes National Scenic River, El Yunque National Forest (2007). 

143
n Ariel E. Lugo was born in 1943 in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. 

He earned his B.S. and M.S. degrees in biology from the 

University of Puerto Rico, subsequently obtaining his Ph.D. in 

plant ecology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel 

Hill. His professional experience has included service with the 

Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources; the Center for 

Wetlands and the Deparment of Botany at the University of 

Florida at Gainesville; the Council on Environmental Quality, 

Executive Office of the President; and the Center for Energy 

and Environment Research, University of Puerto Rico. In the 

USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico, he served as project leader, 

director, and supervisory research ecologist at the Institute of 

Tropical Forestry. When the institute’s name changed to the 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry in 1992, he was 

acting director. Returning to Washington for a tour as Acting 

Deputy Chief of International Forestry, he subsequently 

returned to Puerto Rico as Director of the International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry.

This Is His Life: Ariel E. Lugo

Institute Director Ariel Lugo speaking with visiting U.S. school teachers at El Portal Rain Forest Center (2005).

n 1984 A.D.

Bibliography of Forestry in 

Puerto Rico was published.

n 1985 A.D.

A volume describing 150 vine 

species that grow in Puerto 

Rico, Los Bejucos de Puerto Rico, 

Volumen I, was published. 

n 1985 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 3,378,000.

144
Land snails commonly found in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (2006).

145
146
Chapter VIII

The USDA 

Forest Service

Today

1986 to Present

147
148
Chapter VIII

The USDA Forest 

Service Today

1986 to present

Peter Murphy, Professor of Botany, 

Michigan State University, East Lansing, 

MI, and Other Sources

In 1986, an event took place that, in the words of Director Ariel E. 

Lugo, “signaled a change in the philosophy of the USDA Forest 

Service in Puerto Rico.” An attempt on the part of Caribbean 

National Forest administrators to implement a new land management plan that included harvesting in the reforested region of a 

dominant tree, tabonuco (Dacroydes excelsa), aroused concerns 

about the protection of the forest’s primary stands. Although the 

potential benefits of some level of carefully managed harvesting was 

not at issue, a number of experts thought the plan inadequately 

ensured the protection of areas composed of fully mature, natural 

forest that were considered irreplaceable for their inherent ecological values. Eventually, public outcry in the form of demonstrations 

and newspaper commentaries, and even a lawsuit, forced a reorientation of the plan to include policy to protect primary forests. In 

many ways, this critical event, resolved through the process of communication and negotiation, was seen as the beginning of a new era 

of land management philosophy for the USDA Forest Service in 

Puerto Rico. Recreation, public education, and water production 

would continue to be the main management goals, and the production of timber would take a lesser role. 

149
The Forests Endure

After more than a decade of amendments, revisions, and public 

involvement, the Revised Land and Resource Management Plan 

was finally approved (in 1997). In 1988, a Big Tree Registry was 

begun, and competitions in subsequent years have sent people all 

over the island to find the largest trees in a variety of species. Eight 

years later, in 1996, El Portal Tropical Forest Center opened its 

doors to the public at the northern boundary of the forest. The 

multimillion dollar center, designed to reflect the cathedral-like 

canopy of old-growth tropical rainforest, provides visitors with 

a forest documentary, exhibits that analyze Luquillo and other 

tropical rainforests, an interpretive path, gift shop, and information about hikes, conferences, and other forest activities. About 

a million people visit the Caribbean National Forest every year. 

Most of them crowd into the recreation area in virgin forest along 

the upper reaches of the mountains, where there are mini-visitor 

centers, observation towers, picnic areas, paths, pools, and trails. 

Locating El Portal at a lower elevation was the first major step in 

dispersing visitors to other parts of the forest. A popular restaurant 

Visitor entrance to the El Portal Rainforest Center (2005).

n 1986 A.D.

Bernie Ríos was appointed 

forest supervisor of the 

Caribbean National Forest.

The Institute of Tropical Forestry 

began long-term collaborative 

research with high schools 

in Utuado and Barranquitas. 

Eventually, the program would 

expand to include a total of six 

schools.

The El Yunque Ranger District 

was established and lasted until 

it was terminated 10 years later.

The forest plan for the 

Caribbean National Forest/

Luquillo Experimental Forest 

was approved by the regional 

forester. The plan, however, was 

appealed by 12 environmental/

recreational organizations, and, 

on November 19th, thousands 

marched on “El Yunque” to 

protest the proposed cutting of 

trees. The process of amendments, revisions, and public 

involvement continued through 

1997, when the Revised Land 

and Resource Management 

Plan was finally approved.

150
popular restaurant once located in the recreation area lost its roof 

to Hurricane Hugo in 1989; it was never rebuilt. A decade earlier 

heavy rains caused a large landslide along Road 191, the main road 

through the forest. Another controversy erupted over whether to 

rebuild the road, with environmentalists opposed and groups like 

the town of Naguabo on the forest’s south side in favor. Eventually, 

the USDA Forest Service opted to keep the road permanently 

closed (see page 100). Today, foresters envision developing small 

pockets of recreational areas throughout the forest, including 

where Road 191 ends south of the landslide. In 1996, the 

antennas and buildings atop El Yunque Peak were greatly reduced, 

thus also reducing the amount of traffic involved in maintaining 

the communications equipment.

Of increasing concern to the USDA Forest Service is the extensive 

development in northeastern Puerto Rico, which is driving communities ever closer to forest boundaries. One solution has been 

to push for tougher Federal controls over forest resources. A good 

example is the Río Mameyes. The Mameyes is a beautiful stream 

that tumbles over boulders, into pools, and past unruly vegetation 

as it makes its way from cloud forests to the coast. Although it may 

be the only river in the Caribbean that remains untouched on its 

journey to the sea, a local water company had plans to dam it in 

the 1980s. Partly because of those plans, the USDA Forest Service 

petitioned that Luquillo’s Mameyes, Icacos, and La Mina Rivers 

be designated as Wild and Scenic Rivers, and, in 2002, they were 

added to the Federal program. Another bill was introduced to the 

U.S. Congress to declare 9,000 acres on the southern side of the 

forest as the El Toro Wilderness Area; it was signed by President 

George W. Bush in 2005.

The past two decades have been marked with concerns and controversy, but also with hope. In 2001, a population of more than 

1,500 orchids belonging to the species Lepanthes eltoroensis was 

recorded. This orchid grows only on El Toro Peak in the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest, nowhere else in the world, and its hardy 

population numbers surprised even the most optimistic botanists. 

More recently, the Puerto Rican Crested Toad, once found all over 

the island but now only surviving in the wild in Guánica Commonwealth Forest on the dry southern coast, took advantage of an 

unusual rainy spell. More than 600 toads were seen reproducing, by 

far the largest number since the animal was listed as endangered in 

the 1980s. Visitors in the main hall of the El Portal Rainforest Center (2005).

n 1987 A.D.

A comprehensive study of 

the dynamics, structure, 

and composition of the palo 

colorado forest type in the 

Luquillo Mountains was begun 

by the Institute of Tropical 

Forestry.

Watershed research began 

in the Bisley sector of the 

Caribbean National Forest.

The publication of Acta 

Científica, a scientific journal for 

Puerto Rican science teachers, 

began.

The Parrots of Luquillo, a 20-year 

history of parrot research in the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest, 

was published.

A technical guide for the 

nursery management of the 

Caribbean pine was published.

151
Hurricane Hugo struck Puerto Rico in September 1989, causing heavy damage in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, as seen at the Palo Colorado Recreation Area (this page), the 

entrance to the forest on Road 191 (opposite top), and the Sierra Palm Visitor Center (opposite bottom) (1989).

n 1988 A.D.

A Big Tree Registry was 

begun to record the largest 

trees by species throughout 

the island and to increase 

local appreciation for forest 

resources.

The Long Term Ecological 

Research Program of the 

National Science Foundation 

began in collaboration with the 

University of Puerto Rico.

Jose Salinas was appointed 

forest supervisor of the 

Caribbean National Forest.

152
n 1989 A.D.

Hurricane Hugo caused 

major damage to the island 

of Puerto Rico and to the 

Caribbean National Forest 

facilities, including the Catalina 

Service Center and the forest’s 

recreational areas. As a result of 

the hurricane, the population of 

the Puerto Rican parrot dropped 

to a low of some 30 individuals 

in the wild. Hurricane recovery 

efforts resulted in watershed 

restoration efforts involving 

more than 120 hectares (296 

acres).

The Institute of Tropical Forestry 

celebrated its first 50 years with 

a symposium and published 

a book, Tropical Forestry 

Management and Ecology.

The Puerto Rican parrot 

Population Viability Analysis 

and Recommendations, a 2-day 

workshop, was conducted by 

the institute and attended by 

scientists from many disciplines, 

recovery program managers, 

and field technicians.

153
The Institute Expands

In 1989, the Institute of Tropical Forestry held its 50th anniversary 

celebration with a series of conferences and the publication of 

the book Tropical Forest: Management and Ecology. In 1992, the 

institute became known as the International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry as the focus of the work took on a more global approach. In 

addressing complicated and multifaceted research issues, the institute 

has focused on extensive collaborations with a multitude of other 

agencies and organizations, in both governmental and private sectors, 

locally, nationally, and internationally. Research partnerships exist 

with more than 50 institutions around the world, including virtually 

all of the nations throughout Central and South America, Mexico, 

and the West Indies. Although the institute’s focus is on Latin America, 

the research product typically has relevance for tropical forests of 

many types throughout the tropical world.

Supporting the research programs are some of the most sophisticated 

facilities in the tropics, including a state-of-the-art chemistry laboratory with the capacity to process more than 50,000 plant, soil, water, 

and air samples per year, and various timber-handling shops and 

wood-product labs. Some of the plots under the jurisdiction of the 

institute, such as those established many years ago in the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest, have provided the potential for long-term 

studies unparalleled in the tropics. Equally important as a research 

asset is the institute library. In 1998, it was designated the Frank H. 

Wadsworth Library in honor of the former institute director and 

forest supervisor. Nothing compares to these facilities within the 

U.S. National Forest System.

Basic Research: What and Why

Research at the institute can be divided roughly into studies of basic 

biological and ecological processes and studies of a more applied 

nature. Basic research projects address questions and issues that 

actually underpin strategies for management, utilization, or protection of tropical forest ecosystems, including plant, animal, and 

water resources. Numerous studies have been done, papers written, 

and workshops attended, but several recent projects stand out.

In 1988, a research project funded by the National Science Foundation through its Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Program 

was initiated in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. LTER, still in 

progress, is the best known work undertaken in the forest since 

the El Verde irradiation and ecology study in the 1960s. It has the 

collaboration of leading scientists and organizations on fundamental 

issues of tropical forest ecology. By establishing, managing, and 

monitoring long-term plots, some of which are subject to experimental manipulation, scientists can unlock answers to questions 

about long-term growth patterns and changes in the processing of 

energy and materials and assess the effects of global warming or 

other environmental changes. As part of the program, the watershed studies in the Bisley area of the forest are providing important 

information concerning the flow of water and nutrients through 

tropical forest ecosystems. In 1989, shortly after the LTER program 

got under way, Hurricane Hugo passed directly over El Yunque. It 

was the first major hurricane to cross the forest in some 60 years. 

Although Hurricane Hugo reduced the wild Puerto Rican parrot 

population, caused innumerable mountain landslides, and stripped 

most trees of their leaves and some of their branches, it also proved 

to be a great opportunity for the LTER scientists. Now they could 

also follow the growth cycle the forest goes through from one major 

hurricane to the next.

Another important project involves studies of the palo colorado forest 

type in Luquillo. Begun in 1987, it has had important implications 

for the ecology of the severely endangered Puerto Rican parrot populations, which largely roost in cavities of the Cyrilla racemiflora (palo 

colorado) trees. This forest type, occurring at mid-to-higher elevations, 

is thought to contain some of the oldest trees in the Caribbean, with 

the potential to add insights into changes in forest conditions over 

extended periods of time. Studies of cloud forest (elfin woodland) 

in Luquillo have been and continue to be among the most respected 

Scientists from the University of Puerto Rico collaborate with the institute scientists 

conducting a wildlife survey in Quebrada Sonadora, El Verde section of the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest (2006).

n 1990 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 3,522,000.

n 1991 A.D.

A volume on the growth and 

site relationships of Caribbean 

pine was published.

A list of naturalized exotic 

species in Puerto Rico 

with information on their 

environmental requirements 

and estimated rates of spread 

was published.

The first fire crew trained in 

the Caribbean National Forest 

was dispatched to fight fires. A 

decade later, a recordbreaking 

22 fire crews were dispatched 

from the forest to fight fires in 

the continental United States.

154
for this category of ecosystem. A major cloud forest symposium was 

held in the early 1990s. The proceedings were published in 1994 and 

are now regarded as one of the landmark references on this topic. 

Soon afterward, the United Nations declared The Year of Tropical 

Cloud Forests, in recognition of their ecological importance and the 

peril that confronts them due to habitat alteration and climate change.

On the south side of the island, in the Guánica Commonwealth 

Forest, another long-term project is focusing on a dry forest, analyzing its structure, function, and recovery following such impacts 

as cutting and hurricanes. In addition to producing an array of 

pioneering publications on tropical dry forest ecology, it has served 

as a training ground for many graduate and undergraduate students 

and stimulated related studies in other regions. Tropical dry forest in the Guánica Commonwealth Forest (2007).

The palo colorado forest type in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (2007).

n 1992 A.D.

The International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry was 

created by the Secretary of 

Agriculture as called for in the 

1990 Farm Bill. The institute 

was designed to “serve as 

a gateway for collaborative 

efforts emphasizing forest 

research, demonstration forests, 

technology transfer, training, 

education, and networking.” 

International forestry was 

formally recognized as a vital 

part of the institute’s mission.

Supervision of the institute was 

transferred to the USDA Forest 

Service Washington [DC ] Office. 

Ariel E. Lugo was appointed 

director.

155
Applied Research: How

Applied research has a direct relevance to forest management, 

conservation, and resource issues. The institute’s 60-year record 

of growth and stand structure for certain forest types, developed 

to estimate the potential of forest resources, is among the most 

comprehensive for any tropical forest in any region. These stands 

have been used in a variety of assessments, including studies of the 

resiliency of forests in recovering from hurricanes, three of which 

occurred in Luquillo between 1989 and 1998. One significant 

conclusion emerging from these investigations is that at least some 

tropical forests are more resilient than has typically been assumed, 

and, with proper management, could be used for resource purposes. 

This is a notable departure from the common view of tropical forest 

fragility and suggests that effective forest management is indeed 

within the realm of capability, even in tropical rainforest ecosystems.

Some of the institute’s most interesting research has involved 

created systems, such as various types of plantations and secondary 

forests. The work has shown that these systems, in addition to 

Researcher Samuel Moya collecting rainwater sample in the Bisley watershed, Luquillo 

Experimental Forest (2007).

n 1992 A.D.

The State and Private Forestry 

program was transferred to 

the institute from USDA Forest 

Service, Southern Region.

The institute hosted an 

international workshop on 

Natural Sinks of carbon dioxide. 

After 22 years of continuous 

efforts to reopen Road 191, 

closed due to landslides 

between kilometers 13 and 21, 

the USDA Forest Service came to 

the conclusion that the soils in 

the area were highly unstable 

and withdrew any support to 

reopen the road.

The first Forest Interpretive Plan 

was completed in the Caribbean 

National Forest.

n 1993 A.D.

Pablo Cruz was appointed forest 

supervisor of the Caribbean 

National Forest.

The U.S. Postal Service issued 

a stamp to commemorate the 

500th anniversary of Columbus’s 

landing on Puerto Rico.

producing food or fiber, have the capacity to support at least a component of the natural forest community while, at the same time, 

relieving natural systems from the pressures of use. In addition, longterm institute investigations of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), the 

most valuable tropical timber tree in the Northern Hemisphere, 

have reoriented thinking on restricting the use and commerce of 

this increasingly scarce tree. Many of these research findings and 

recommendations were published in a special issue of Forest Ecology 

and Management, which was devoted to institute strategies for the 

restoration of biodiversity on degraded lands, and in a book that 

summarizes the state of the art in mahogany plantations and forests.

Applied institute research that will prove vital in future decades involves using tropical forest streams to provide water without damaging stream wildlife or long-term water productivity. Techniques 

such as new designs for water intakes and variable pumping rates 

synchronized with time of day, season, and streamflow rates have 

helped to ensure continuous system function even during times of 

drought.

Forester Jerry Bauer checking out a young mahogany enrichment planting in the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest (1993).

156
Boas, Vines, and the Canopy Connection

As a federally listed endangered snake, the 

Puerto Rican Boa (Epicrates inornatus) is 

a species of special concern for managers 

in the Caribbean National Forest as well 

as in forested areas throughout Puerto Rico. 

The boa is widespread in a variety of habitats, 

from sea level to 400 meters, where its 

prey includes various invertebrates, lizards, 

rats, bats, and birds. Formerly common, 

the boa is believed to have declined in 

both population size and distribution 

due to deforestation of the island in the 

late 1800s. Given the species’ endangered 

status and lack of knowledge of its basic 

biology, International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry researchers conducted a 4-year 

study of boa movements and habitat use 

in “El Yunque,” using radio telemetry. Small 

radio transmitters were surgically implanted 

in the boas, enabling researchers to use 

radio receivers to locate each boa on a 

weekly basis for approximately a year. As 

luck would have it, Hurricane Georges 

struck the forest in the middle of the study, 

allowing the researchers to document the 

hurricane’s effects on the boas. The boas responded to the hurricane by moving more 

frequently after the storm. Unfortunately, 

however, this upsurge in mobility also increased their risk to predation. Apparently, 

hurricane winds that strip leaves, branches, 

and vines from trees reduce cover for boas 

and limit access to arboreal sites for several 

years until regrowth brings about recovery, 

with increased vine growth. Both the study’s 

discovery of more boas than expected (72 

in 4 years) and the visual detection of boas 

at only 15 percent of the sites where boas 

were located with radios indicated that 

the boa is more abundant than generally 

perceived. As a result of the study, institute 

researchers devised methods for long-term 

monitoring of boa populations by “El 

Yunque’s” wildlife managers.

The study’s discovery that trees used by 

boas had more vines and greater canopy 

contact with neighboring trees than random 

trees was consistent with a hypothesis that 

some tropical forest birds avoid snake predation by nesting in isolated trees without 

vines and canopy contact with neighboring trees. The hypothesis was tested by a 

Jamaican collaborator, Dr. Susan Koenig, 

who measured vine cover and canopy contact and demonstrated higher rates of 

predation on Black-billed Parrot nests in 

trees with vines and canopy connection 

than nest trees lacking these traits in Jamaica. 

The closely related Jamaican Boa was implicated as the predator, and these findings 

led to a collaborative review of snake predation on parrot nests and management 

recommendations (including trimming 

the vines and canopy of nest trees) for endangered cavity-nesting birds. Although 

the Puerto Rican Boa is not a serious threat 

to the parrot in the Caribbean National 

Forest because most nesting occurs at high 

elevations where the boa is rare, reintroduction of the parrot to the island’s karst 

region has been initiated in places where 

boa densities are highest.

[Excerpted from anecdotes by 

Joe Wunderle, International Institute of 

Tropical Forestry scientist] Puerto Rican Boa (2007).

n 1994 A.D.

A Geographic Information 

System laboratory was 

established at the institute. 

It was later involved in 

summarizing the long-term 

plot information for Puerto Rico 

and the U.S. Virgin Islands and 

big-leaf mahogany studies in 

Central and South America.

The institute began research 

studies in Brazil.

The International Institute of 

Tropical Forestry published its 

1,000th publication.

The Caribbean National Forest 

prepared and implemented a 

drought emergency planned 

that outlined plans to supply 

more than 3 million liters 

(792,516 gallons) of water per 

day from rivers and streams to 

surrounding communities.

The Society of Arboriculturists 

was established in Puerto Rico.

n 1995 A.D.

El Yunque Peak Electronic Site 

consolidation plan was completed, reducing 23 buildings 

and more than 200 permittees 

to 9.

157
Education and Outreach: To Whom?

In the tradition of the USDA Forest Service, the institute has always 

made an effort to ensure that its research results are readily available to those who can use them. Over the years, publications have 

ranged from those of a basic or academic nature, placed in leading 

professional journals, to more practical material contained in field 

manuals, guidebooks, and brochures intended for widespread distribution. A technical guide published in 1987 contains information 

necessary for the cultivation of Caribbean pine, and a more recent 

book covers the silviculture of 102 tree species found in Puerto Rico 

and the U.S. Virgin Islands. More esoteric publications, primarily 

in scientific journals, concern such topics as the biogeochemistry 

of montane wetlands. In 1987, the institute began to publish Acta 

Científica, a journal for science teachers, placing special emphasis 

on topics and contributions of importance to Puerto Rico and the 

Caribbean region.

Recent workshops and conferences have covered a variety of contemporary issues—the endangered Puerto Rican parrot, urban forestry, 

the role of tropical forests in climate change, remote sensing, tropical 

stream dynamics, and Caribbean wildlife. In 1986, a program of 

long-term collaboration with high schools throughout Puerto Rico 

was started. Both teachers and students are learning to be more 

aware of environmental and resource issues and problems. In addition, 

undergraduate and graduate students are involved in institute projects, mentored by experienced members of the staff. Through these 

and many other efforts, the institute has acquired a reputation, in 

Puerto Rico and throughout the Caribbean, as being a place where 

the interested public can access information and expertise on a wide 

variety of environmental and resource-related matters.

Young Puerto Rican children (above and right) benefit from the institute’s outreach 

and educational programs (2007).

n 1996 A.D.

El Portal Tropical Forest Center 

opened with 3,000 square 

meters (9,800 square feet) 

of exhibit space highlighting 

public education and 

demonstrating the importance 

of forest conservation.

The first annual meeting of 

urban foresters in the Caribbean 

area was held.

Hurricane Hortense struck the 

island on September 10th, 

killing five people and knocking 

out electricity to 85 percent of 

the island.

158
The Third Branch of the USDA Forest Service: 

State (Commonwealth) and Private Forestry

Three branches of the USDA Forest Service receive funding—the forests 

themselves, which get up to 90 percent of funds; the research component; 

and State and private forests. The State and Private Forestry (S&PF) deputy 

area of the USDA Forest Service is based on the Cooperative Forestry 

Assistance Act. The act mandates State Forestry agencies and the USDA 

Forest Service to implement Federal programs targeted at State lands and 

private forest lands in a cooperative fashion. Research, technology development, field demonstrations, technology transfer, and financial assistance to 

State and private forest managers and landowners were important when the 

USDA Forest Service first became active in Puerto Rico, and they continue 

to be important today. State forests in Puerto Rico are often referred to as 

Commonwealth forests.

In the cooperative forestry programs, technical and financial assistance is 

provided to help sustain forests. The cooperative fire assistance program 

emphasizes improving fire planning and wildland fire techniques training 

for local fire agencies. The forest health protection program prevents, detects, and manages insects, disease, and invasive plants and manages forests 

to maximize their resilience in the face of severe storms and hurricanes. In 

the forest history program, forest historian Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal 

conducts research in local and international archives and libraries to identify 

events in the history of Puerto Rico that have affected forests and vegetation 

coverage throughout the island. The new Urban and Community Forestry 

in Puerto Rico program will assess current urban forest resources for the 

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico land areas and provide direction for future 

policies and program development based on protecting and restoring the 

urban ecosystem.

The conservation education program helps people of all ages understand 

and appreciate Puerto Rico’s natural resources and how to conserve those 

resources for future generations. As part of this program, in 1986, the 

Institute of Tropical Forestry began a pilot project in which the principal 

goal was to assist in curricula and forest research development at the Pablo 

Colón Berdecía High School in the mountain town of Barranquitas. 

Training sessions have included information on weather monitoring, forest 

community dynamics, tropical soils and nutrient cycling, hydrology and 

stream ecology, dynamics of vertebrate populations, and natural history. 

The USDA Forest Service, University of Puerto Rico researchers, as well as 

LTER researchers from collaborating mainland institutions, have conducted 

training sessions. Students have held symposia, participated in science fairs, 

published articles, and developed profiles for nearby forests.

A certified arborist ascends a tree using all proper safety equipment to check 

for disease (2007).

n 1997 A.D.

The Caribbean National Forest 

Land and Resource Management 

Plan was approved. 

A formal environmental 

education teacher training 

program was developed, 

in partnership with local 

schools, to enhance classroom 

experiences for middle and 

high school students and to 

complement the guided tours 

given by forest interpreters that 

the teachers and their students 

enjoy when visiting the forest.

159
Puerto Rico’s State 

Forests Are Unique

Active forestry during American administration of 

Puerto Rico began with a forest law passed by the local 

government in 1917. This law established the Puerto 

Rico Forest Service and provided for governmental 

proclamation of State (local) Forests for the production 

of wood and the protection of water and wildlife. It 

also provided for a silvicultural experimental station, 

a nursery for distribution of trees to the public, and an 

educational campaign to enhance public appreciation 

for forests. In the following year, with the arrival of the 

supervisor of the Luquillo National Forest, the administration of the local forest service under the Puerto Rico 

Department of Agriculture was passed to the Federal 

Forest Service supervisor, an arrangement that lasted 

for the ensuing 36 years. In the first 5 years following 

the 1917 forest law, the governor proclaimed two 

upland forests, Guánica and Maricao; the mangroves 

of Piñones as well as Ceiba, Aguirre, and Boquerón; 

and Mona Island. During this period, the Puerto Rico 

Forest Service relied on two sources of support: the 

Federal Government and the local government, with 

the latter subject to local as well as Federal approval. 

The result was a large component of direct assistance 

on State forest lands from the USDA Forest Service, 

a situation unique to Puerto Rico. This unusual level 

of assistance to the “State” included forestry practices 

in the State forests. State lands became excellent 

demonstration sites and are critical to technology 

transfer to this day.

[Frank H. Wadsworth]

Editor’s note: After the establishment of the Commonwealth 

of Puerto Rico in 1952, these forests became known locally as 

Commonwealth Forests.

Karst outcropping near the Río Abajo State Forest (2005). 

160
Making a Difference: Environmental 

Sustainability in the Turabo Valley

In 1997, I attended an urban forests conference in Atlanta, 

GA, on a trip funded by the State and Private Forestry (S&PF) 

Program of the USDA Forest Service’s International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry. There, at a presentation by the late Gary 

Mason of the firm Wolfe Mason Associates of California, I 

became enthralled with the concept of biotechnical restoration 

of rivers and the possibilities offered for the much abused water 

bodies of Puerto Rico. Less than 2 months later, with funding 

from the USDA Forest Service and the cities of San Juan and 

Caguas, Gary traveled to Puerto Rico and led a workshop on 

ecosystems management and biotechnical river restoration.

Interest in the protection of streams and rivers in Caguas 

increased upon publication of “Caguas 2020,” a strategic 

urban design study which called for “a continuous setback 

along the banks of ... rivers [to] be preserved or reclaimed for 

n 1998 A.D.

Hurricane Georges, with 120 mph 

winds, struck the island on 

September 21, killing 7 people 

and leaving more than 24,000 

in shelters. Virtually the entire 

island was left without electricity (99.5 percent), most without 

water service (77 percent), and 

some without phone services 

(25 percent). It was followed 

by extensive hurricane recovery 

efforts.

A partnership with the University of Puerto Rico Institute 

2000 and the Puerto Rico 

Department of Education was 

developed to allow teachers 

attending USDA Forest Service 

environmental education 

training sessions to qualify for 

continuing education credits. 

More than 400 teachers would 

benefit from these training sessions from 1998 to the present.

The new International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry library 

was designated the Frank H. 

Wadsworth Library. 

El Jardín Botánico de Caguas, Magaly Figueroa (2012)

a combination of ecological preservation, public access, recreational facilities, and linkages to the urban fabric.” In subsequent years, projects to protect and enhance the natural values 

of the local Cagüitas River, to create a new botanical garden 

along the river, and to plant and inventory trees on the grounds 

of the local Universidad del Turabo campus were launched. 

These projects came about thanks to the combined efforts of 

Gary Mason, Robin Morgan, and Magaly Figueroa of S&PF; 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; the Puerto Rico Department 

of Natural and Environmental Resources’ Sustainable Forestry 

Initiative (funded by S&PF); the University of Turabo; and the 

city of Caguas. The projects are fine examples of what devoted 

public service can accomplish, and residents of the Valle del 

Turabo will be grateful for these efforts for a very long time.

[Excerpted from a report by Jeffrey Glogiewicz, 

forester working in the Caguas Botanical Garden]

161
International Cooperation

The International Institute of Tropical Forestry has been involved in 

international cooperation, commonly known as international forestry, 

since its start. The early years of the Tropical Forest Experiment 

Station in Río Piedras (established in 1939) included international 

activities throughout Latin America and the Caribbean region. In 

subsequent decades, focus on international forestry grew considerably 

as the station carried out trainings for students from throughout the 

tropics, and they, in turn, created requests for technical assistance on 

return to their home countries. 

Given the established work of the USDA Forest Service in Puerto 

Rico, the island was considered an ideal location for training professionals from the Caribbean Basin.

Many identifiable similarities exist between Puerto Rico and other 

countries in the region—diversity of ecosystems and land formations; 

a wide range of forestry issues and historical uses; and, perhaps most 

importantly, Puerto Rico’s comparably advanced states of deforestation and agricultural and urban expansion that served as windows 

into the future for many less developed or deforested countries in 

the region, which were unmistakably moving down a similar path. 

Training programs have covered topics such as tree identification, site 

selection, forest nurseries, planting, cutting methods, mensuration, 

aerial photometry, research methods, timber grading and classification, 

forest legislation, and forest administration. These programs have 

led to improved knowledge and experience with plantation forestry, 

tropical forest products, tropical species taxonomical descriptions, and 

long-term monitoring of natural and planted forests.

As greater emphasis has been placed on the sustainability of natural 

tropical forest management in recent decades, the institute remains 

a center for technical training, providing courses in tropical forest 

management. The Caribbean Foresters Meetings (CFM), started 

during the early 1980s, continue to be held today. At these meetings, 

leaders in the forestry and natural resource sectors assemble, and many 

of the most significant and timely issues pertaining to natural resource 

management are brought to light, studied, debated, and acted upon. 

From watershed management and forest recreation to biodiversity 

protection and fire management, the meetings have provided an 

opportunity for forestry leaders and topic specialists to share practical 

experiences and discover ways in which forest use can become more 

sustainable and natural resources within the region can be conserved.

Learning To 

Live Together

As the International Institute of Tropical Forestry continues 

to contribute to forestry issues in the Caribbean Basin 

and the American Tropics, it almost certainly needs to 

reconsider the relationships between native, naturalized, 

and nonnative species, now characteristic of many forests 

in the region. More than 70 years after near-complete 

deforestation, Puerto Rico represents a valuable window 

into the mechanics and characteristics of forest recovery 

and conditions for environmental change—information 

important for a changing world. Studies have shown and 

described the emergence of new forest types in Puerto 

Rico that encompass native, nonnative, and naturalized 

species. These new forests arise naturally on abandoned 

and often degraded agriculture lands, conditions that 

are found throughout the tropics and that exhibit both 

positive and negative traits. As forest fragmentation, 

degradation, and land use change continue to occur and 

increase in the tropics, observations and lessons learned 

from Puerto Rico’s emerging new forest types will lend 

important information to the development of management 

and conservation strategies for existing and diminishing 

primary forests in the tropics and the new forest types that 

are likely to emerge around them.

n 1998 A.D.

The devastating pink hibiscus 

mealy bug was first discovered 

in the Caribbean National 

Forest. The Puerto Rican 

Department of Agriculture 

responded promptly with the 

introduction of a parasitic wasp 

to destroy the mealy bug.

The Caribbean National Forest 

World Wide Web site went on 

line.

n 1999 A.D.

Hurricane Lenny hit Puerto Rico.

The International Institute of 

Tropical Forestry celebrated 

its first 60 years with a 

symposium.

n 2000 A.D.

The Center for Aquatic 

Technology Transfer (CATT) 

performed a comprehensive 

inventory of aquatic species on 

the Río Espíritu Santo in the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest.

The first release of 10 Puerto 

Rican parrots reared in captivity 

into the wild was accomplished, 

followed by the release of 16 

parrots in 2001, and 9 in 2002.

The institute published a book 

on the silvics of 102 native and 

exotic tree species found in 

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands.

162
Within this expanded scope in the international arena, the institute 

has increased cooperation and technical assistance with the U.S. Agency 

for International Development (USAID) missions. Continually, since 

1989, the institute has had staff members placed on long- and shortterm assignments in Central America and the Caribbean within USAID 

missions as mission and regional environmental and forestry advisors.

Today, significant evidence of the institute’s long history indicates 

positive impacts in the region. For example, long-term research and 

monitoring of the mahogany tree has provided significant contributions to the international debate on mahogany’s conservation status 

as well as developments on technical guidelines for mahogany’s 

sustainable management. Other long-term monitoring and collaborative research on wildlife populations in the Caribbean Basin has 

shown noted declines in many neotropical migratory species over 

the past quarter century. Continued monitoring will provide valuable comparative data for questions relating to human impacts on 

forests and wildlife, as well as possible changes in the global climate. 

In addition to monitoring carried out by institute scientists, the 

USDA Forest Service has provided extensive training on long-term 

vegetation and wildlife monitoring to countries in the Caribbean 

Basin and beyond.

(Left to right) U.S. Ambassador to Nicaragua Paul Trivelli with institute scientist Wayne Arendt and biologist Marvin Tórrez looking at bird checklist in Montibelli Wildlife Reserve, 

Nicaragua (2008).

n 2000 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 3,808,600.

n 2001 A.D.

A Caribbean National Forest 

transportation study was completed. It recommended a mass 

transit system for Road 191.

A population of more than 

1,500 elfin forest orchids 

(Lepanthes eltoroensis) was 

recorded in the elfin woodland 

forest.

n 2002 A.D.

The first Caribbean National 

Forest Interpretive Site Guides

were published in English and 

Spanish.

The institute published a book 

on the big-leaf mahogany.

163
Although the people of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands 

have different languages and cultures, the islands themselves are 

quite similar when it comes to vegetation and wildlife. A mere 

10,000 years ago, when the oceans were lower, the land mass of 

Puerto Rico extended to today’s British Virgin Islands, which 

is why these islands share many of the same species. Most 

descriptive books chronicling Puerto Rico’s natural resources 

also include the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the USDA Forest 

Service has long worked closely with Virgin Island foresters.

For more than 10 years, the Virgin Islands Resource Conservation and Development (VIRC&D) Council has enjoyed and 

benefited immensely from a very successful partnership with 

the USDA Forest Service, in particular from the International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry. This partnership has played a 

major role in the growth and effectiveness of the VIRC&D 

Council, and 20 programs and projects have been completed 

with financial assistance from the USDA Forest Service.

Among the education and outreach initiatives in 2003, the 

USDA Forest Service funded a student outreach program that 

sent six Virgin Islands students to participate in the Natural 

Resource Conservation Conference in Georgia; a Virgin Islands 

Forest Products Outreach program that sent five Virgin Islands 

artisans to the 8th Caribbean Urban Forestry Conference in 

Ponce, Puerto Rico; and the farmers and landowners Agricultural and Natural Resources Conference held in the Virgin 

Islands.

The VIRC&D’s showcase project, partially funded with $11,000 

from the USDA Forest Service, is the Estate Adventure Nature 

Trail. This project was the idea of Paul Johnson, Chief of the 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in 

1995 after Hurricane Marilyn. He was the first NRCS Chief 

to visit the Virgin Islands. Local high school students have been 

involved in the design and preparation of signs and literature 

and in researching and collecting information to produce a brochure. In collaboration with VIRC&D volunteers, members of 

the St. Croix Hiking Association, and The Nature Conservancy, 

walkways and bridges were built to access the trail. The trail

 was officially inaugurated in 2004.

VIRC&D joins all others in this opportunity to acknowledge 

and celebrate 100 years of true service provided by the USDA 

Forest Service in its mission to sustain the health, diversity, and 

productivity of our forests and grasslands to meet the needs of 

present and future generations.

[Excerpted from a testimonial by the Virgin Islands Resource 

Conservation and Development Council, Inc.]

A Bridge to the U.S. Virgin Islands

n 2002 A.D.

The Caribbean National Forest 

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 

2002 amended the Wild and 

Scenic Rivers Act to designate 

Río Mameyes, Río de la 

Mina, and Río Icacos of the 

Caribbean National Forest of the 

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico 

as components of the National 

Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

Construction was completed on 

a new chemistry laboratory for 

plant, water, and soil analyses 

at institute headquarters.

The Catalina tree nursery was 

reestablished.

The official Caribbean National 

Forest Soil Survey was published.

Alexis Massol-González of Casa 

Pueblo in Adjuntas received 

the Goldman International 

Environmental Award for 

Excellence in Protecting the 

Environment for more than 20 

years of efforts to protect the 

natural and cultural resources of 

Puerto Rico’s Cordillera Central 

(Central Mountains).

164
Fungi—Unique

and Colorful

Some of the most interesting organisms in the tropics are fungi, com-

monly referred to as mushrooms. Numerous and colorful, they are 

noticed primarily in the forest by their whimsical shapes, and the more 

innocuous varieties often enhance a leafy salad or a sizzling steak. Other 

varieties of fungi, however, can be very poisonous to eat or cause serious 

plant infections

Microfungi are short lived, with about 95 percent of the species grow-

ing in and on live leaves and being replaced by other species within a 

few weeks. Most of the microscopic fungi that grow in decomposing 

leaves on the forest floor show strong ‘preferences’ for leaves of different 

tree species, and these preferences are related to their rates of decompo-

sition. Macrofungi, on the other hand, are long lived and are the dominant 

decomposers in much of the forest floor. Scientist have monitored some 

individual fungi for more than 20 years in the Luquillo Mountains.

Rounding out this quintessential group of organisms are about 250 spe-

cies of plant parasitic rust and smut fungi; about 450 species of mush-

rooms and other fleshy-stalked fungi; about 300 species of shelf fungi 

and flat-surfaced fungi; and approximately 150 species of puffballs, jelly 

fungi, coral fungi, tooth fungi, and other miscellaneous subgroups.

In Puerto Rico, about 1,800 species of fungi have been recognized. 

Between 1990 and 2007, through the efforts of Dr. Jean Lodge and 

her associates, more than 50 new species and 8 genera of fungi were 

described on the island, and an additional 50 species are in the process 

of being described. The total number of fungi, however, is unknown, 

because the majority of species has yet to be discovered.

Regardless of whether they are edible or poisonous, shaped like pert 

parasols or flat globs, fungi play a vital role in sustaining plants and 

animals, nutrient recycling, and the health of forests as well as other 

natural environments.

[Excerpted from anecdotes by Jean Lodge, 

botanist-mycologist for the Northern Research Station]

n 2003 A.D.

The first Biological Corridor in 

Puerto Rico was established 

through the community initia-

tive of Casa Pueblo in Adjuntas. 

Known as the Conservation of 

Sensitive Areas in Adjuntas and 

Adjacent Municipalities, the 

corridor united the Bosque del 

Pueblo Forest in Adjuntas with 

the forests of Toro Negro, Tres 

Picachos, La Olimpia, and Guilarte. n 2004 A.D.

The geographic information 

system (GIS)/Global Positioning 

System (GPS) laboratory was 

renamed the “International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry GIS 

and Remote Sensing Lab,” and 

a new state-of-the-art facility 

was inaugurated, allowing for 

expanding geospatial analysis, 

cartographic production, training, 

and technology transfer activities. n 2005 A.D.

Approximately 10,000 acres 

of the Caribbean National 

Forest was designated as El Toro 

Wilderness Area. El Toro, named 

after the highest peak (3,524 

feet) in the forest, is the only 

tropical wilderness in the U.S. 

National Forest System.

165
n 2007 A.D.

A new Puerto Rican parrot 

aviary was opened in the 

Caribbean National Forest.

Modern-day Foresters 

in the Caribbean

In the Caribbean, policies for the protection and sustainable use 

of forests have not, for the most part, had the desired impact. 

These policies have often failed to address the underlying factors 

that cause deforestation—industrial-scale agriculture, urban 

development, and, to a lesser degree, fuelwood consumption. 

Also, they are rarely supported with sufficient financing, technology, personnel, and training. In recent years, however, environmental groups and institutions have grown stronger by acquiring 

increased leverage in the policy arena and stimulating a greater 

environmental consciousness in the public arena. Consciousnessraising activities include a growing number of major educational 

campaigns for saving natural resources, reducing wasteful 

practices, promoting recycling, and using nonpolluting products.

Of great importance are the Caribbean Foresters Meetings. These 

meetings assemble leaders in the forestry and natural resource 

sectors to provide an opportunity for the exchange and distribution of information. Since May 1982, the International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry has sponsored and organized, in collaboration with other organizations of the region, a biennial meeting 

that brings together foresters and other government officials who 

work in forest and natural resource management at the national 

level in the Caribbean region. Following are the year, place, and 

theme for each meeting held.

Caribbean Foresters Meetings

Year Country Theme

1982 St. Lucia Forestry in the Caribbean

1984 St. Vincent Watershed Management in the 

Caribbean

1986 Guadeloupe Forest Recreation in the Caribbean 

Islands

1988 Dominica Wildlife Management in the 

Caribbean Islands

1990 Trinidad Wetlands Management in the 

Caribbean and the Role of Forestry 

and Wetlands in the Economy

1992 Martinique Toward Sustainable Forest Resource 

Management in the Caribbean

1994 Jamaica Economics of Caribbean Forestry

1996 Grenada Protected Areas Management

1998 Dominican 

Republic

Biodiversity in the Caribbean 

Management and Benefits

2000 Guyana Possibilities and Approaches 

Toward Community Forestry in the 

Caribbean

2002 St. Thomas,

U.S. Virgin 

Islands

The Future of Trees in the Caribbean 

Biology, Planning, and Management 

Possibilities

2004 Puerto Rico Wildland Fire Management and 

Restoration

2006 Jamaica Possibilities and Approaches to Idle 

Lands in the Caribbean

2008 Dominica Linking Conservation, Tourism, 

and Sustainable Development in the 

Caribbean

2010 Guadalupe Climate Change and Its Link in 

Forest Management and Biodiversity

2013 Dominican 

Republic

Forest Management, Climate 

Change, and Biodiversity: Advancing 

Understanding of Caribbean Forest 

Dynamics and Creating Long-Term 

Networks

[Excerpted from a report by Kathleen McGinley, 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry scientist]

Institute Director Ariel Lugo presenting an award to Gabriel Charles from the 

Santa Lucía Forest Service. 

A historic release of 22 Puerto 

Rican parrots was made in 

the Río Abajo Commonwealth 

Forest in the Karst region of 

Puerto Rico, marking the first 

time in 70 years that Puerto 

Rican parrots fly free over the 

Karst region.

The Caribbean National Forest 

was renamed the El Yunque 

National Forest.

The Governor of Puerto Rico 

designated the Northeast 

Ecological Corridor in Puerto 

Rico by executive order.

n 2007 A.D.

The population of Puerto Rico 

was 3,944,259.

166
Foresters from 17 countries attended the 14th Caribbean Foresters Meeting held in Dominica (2008).

167
This Is His Life:

Pablo Cruz

n Pablo Cruz was born in Fajardo, Puerto Rico. He attended 

the University of Puerto Rico, where he received a B.S. in 

civil engineering. Since his graduation, he has dedicated his 

entire professional career to public service. He was project 

engineer for the USDA Soil Conservation Service and 

joined the USDA Forest Service as a civil engineer in California. He spent 11 years with the USDA Forest Service, 

including tours in national forests and the Washington 

Office. He returned to Puerto Rico in 1989 as part of the 

Incident Command Team after Hurricane Hugo. In 1990, 

Cruz became the Caribbean National Forest’s district 

ranger and was appointed forest supervisor in 1993.

Sign at the entrance to El Portal Rainforest Center (2003).

n 2008 A.D.

Rosa Hilda Ramos received 

the Goldman International 

Environmental Award for 

Excellence in Protecting the 

Environment for her efforts to 

mobilize the local communities 

around the Las Cucharillas 

Marsh in Cataño to halt 

factories from polluting the 

wetlands and mangroves that 

provide important habitats for 

aquatic and migratory birds as 

well as flood protection and 

open space for local residents.

Institute Historian Carlos 

Dominguez completed a book 

on policies affecting mangroves 

in Puerto Rico during the 19th 

century.

Foresters from 17 countries 

attend the 14th Caribbean 

Foresters Meeting held in 

Dominica.

168
The elfin woodland forest and communications towers on El Yunque Peak, Luquillo Experimental Forest. Notice to the right the urban development encroaching on the lower slopes 

of the Luquillo Mountains (2005).

n 2009 A.D.

A study, “Incorporating 

Remotely Sensed Tree Canopy 

Cover Data Into Broad Scale 

Assessments of Wildlife 

Habitat Distribution and 

Conservation” is published by 

various scientists, including 

institute researcher W. Gould.

n 2010 A.D.

The institute becomes custodian 

to two new properties that 

were transferred from the 

USDA Farm Service Agency. 

These properties became the 

Guayama Experimental Forest 

and the Manati Experimental 

Forest. 

Study by Geographer Tania del 

Mar reveals that urban areas 

around El Yunque increased by 

21 percent from 1998 to 2010.

n 2011 A.D.

Recognizing the need to provide 

educational opportunities for 

kids, the Natural History Society 

of Puerto Rico applied a grant 

from the USDA Forest Service 

More Kids in the Woods Program 

and brought students from 

public schools to discover the 

Santa Ana Forest. 

169
Map of Puerto Rico Public Lands in 1905.

n 2011 A.D.

The institute worked with a 

number of other Federal and 

local agencies to establish 

the Caribbean Landscape 

Conservation Cooperative, 

which was initiated as part 

of a national network of 

22 landscape conservation 

cooperatives. 

n 2012 A.D.

USDA Forest Service published 

“The Luquillo Experimental 

Forest: Research History and 

Opportunities” by N.L. Harris, 

A.E. Lugo, S. Brown, and T. 

Heartstill Scalley.

The Renovated Headquarters 

Building and Sabana Field 

Station are inaugurated with 

a visit from Thomas L. Tidwell, 

Chief of the Forest Service. 

The institute prepares to celebrate 

its 75th Anniversary in 2014.

Land Use Around Luquillo Experimental Forest

Land use around the Luquillo Experimental Forest has drastically been altered by human activity in the last century. These maps show the 

decrease in pasture and agriculture land use and the increase in urban-built-up and open forest land areas.

170
Map of land use around the Luquillo Experimental Forest in 1936, 1950, and 1995. 

CNF = Caribbean National Forest.

Map of Public Lands in 

Puerto Rico

Early in the twentieth century, the need for public land and conservation was recognized. Many forested areas around the island were 

set aside for the long-term needs of the general public.

171
Land Cover of Puerto Rico in 1977–1978

Puerto Rico land use map in 1977–1978. 

172
Land Cover of Puerto Rico in 1991–1992

Land cover of Puerto Rico in 1991–1992. 

173
Land Cover of Puerto Rico in the Year 2000

Land cover of Puerto Rico in 2000.

174
Landscape Units 

of Puerto Rico

As an initiative of the institute, the USDA Forest 

Service created a national publication series to 

allow for the publication of research map products 

developed by its research scientists and collaborators. 

The primary purpose of the series is to publish maps 

that convey new geospatial information derived from 

USDA Forest Service research. 

The first four maps in the series were published in 

November 2008. They depicted various aspects of the 

Puerto Rican landscape and population dynamics. 

The maps were published in both English (top) and 

Spanish (bottom).

The maps came folded inside an envelope with a 

description of the map inside.

Landscape units of Puerto Rico: influence of climate, substrate, and topography. 

175
The Puerto Rico Gap Analysis Project

The Puerto Rico Gap Analysis project was first funded in 2002 through the U.S. Geological Survey Biological Resources Division National Gap Program cooperative agreement 

at the institute GIS [Geographic Information System] and Remote Sensing Laboratory. The main goal has been to assess the distribution of animal species and habitats in relation to protected areas and conservation. Since the project began, a number of modifications, collaborations, and continued efforts have built on the work and become known 

collectively as the PRGAP project. In 2006, the project expanded to include the terrestrial U.S. Virgin Islands and later in 2009 to include the analysis of aquatic environments 

and species in both territories. The project maintains an extensive database of species occurrences, spatial information on species distributions and protected areas, and continuing efforts mapping landcover and habitats for the area.

The PRGAP Analysis project findings and products have supported government planning decisions in the islands as well as continued research in various fields, including ecology, herpetology, conservation and protected areas management, and scientific publications, including USDA Forest Service technical reports. It has been pivotal for the institute 

GIS and Remote Sensing Lab in providing continued funding that allowed hiring, training, and supporting new employees, contractors, and students at the lab. The Web site 

developed for the project provides a portal for accessing this valuable set of information and findings (http://www.prgap.org).

The following two maps are products from this effort.

176
177
Trinidad and 

Tobago Forest-Type 

and Land-Cover Maps

The Caribbean Forest Inventory and Analysis Program (Caribbean 

FIA) monitors tropical forests from stand to landscape scales with 

ground-based inventory plots and remote sensing technologies. 

Working with local forestry agencies, Caribbean FIA combines 

forest inventory or lidar data with satellite imagery to map forest 

types, aboveground carbon storage (biomass), height, foliage height 

profiles, and tree species richness and species composition, as well 

as land cover and land-cover change, all of which are important 

for REDD+ monitoring. The program has produced the most consistent set of forest type and land-cover maps available for several 

Caribbean countries. It is conducted jointly by the USDA Forest 

Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry and the Southern 

Research Station. These maps of forest type and land cover for 

Trinidad and Tobago are products of the program (Helmer and 

others 2012).

178
179
Extent of light pollution in the islands of Puerto Rico, Vieques, and Culebra, 1992–1993 to 2000. Global data source accessible from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Geophysical Data Center, Earth 

Observation Group, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (USDA Forest Service 2008). 

180
Extent of light pollution in the islands of Puerto Rico, Vieques, and Culebra, 1992–1993 to 2000. Global data source accessible from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Geophysical Data 

Center, Earth Observation Group, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (USDA Forest Service 2008).

181
182
The Next

Hundred Years:

Conclusion

What the Future

Might Hold

183
184
Conclusion

The Next 

Hundred 

Years:

What the Future 

Might Hold

Ariel E. Lugo, Director, 

International Institute

of Tropical Forestry

It is impossible to predict the future and it is particularly difficult to predict what the future 

might hold for the conservation of the forest resources of Puerto Rico. Over the next 100 years, 

at least four different scenarios will influence forest stewardship in Puerto Rico, each with 

different implications to conservation. To make predictions more difficult to articulate, more 

than one or all of these scenarios are likely to occur, which means that the opportunities for 

synergy are likely. The four scenarios are changes in land cover, climate change, a change in 

political status for the island, and the decline of the availability of fossil fuel supplies that 

power the Puerto Rican economy. 

The land cover of Puerto Rico over the past 100 years resulted in more than 50 percent forest 

cover and about 25 percent under urban influence. The future proportions of forest, urban, 

and agricultural cover are uncertain. If the island continues with urban sprawl, it will affect 

forests and reduce the capacity to grow food. A concentration of urban populations would 

release land for agriculture and allow forests to supply clean water for future populations. To 

have one-half of the island under forest cover is a sound goal for sustaining quality of life over 

the next 100 years. 

Climate change is the most uncertain of the three scenarios. Mean air temperatures and 

precipitation might change, and the climate might become flashier with perhaps more frequent hurricanes. Those changes would certainly influence forests, but the changes are not 

unprecedented, because the biota has experienced climate change before, and the processes of 

succesion and adaptation will allow the biota to cope. Continuing research and observation 

will enable scientists and land managers to understand climate change and adjust management 

procedures to mitigate its effects.

A scenario involving political change will affect the island as a whole. Some political scenarios 

project a return of the El Yunque National Forest to the Government of Puerto Rico. In that 

case, negotiations between the Federal Government and the Government of Puerto Rico will 

determine the institutional framework under which the El Yunque National Forest will be managed. I assume, however, that the forests of the Luquillo Mountains and other public forests 

will continue to be protected, because the people of Puerto Rico are likely to demand it. Moreover, El Yunque, along with 22 other sites, was considered for inclusion in the designation of 

the top 7 natural wonders of the world, and that alone justifies its permanent conservation.

The unavailability of fossil fuels to power the economy (either because of price increase or 

exhaustion of global supplies) is a more serious threat to forest conservation because it might 

force the government into increasing the agricultural output and use of forests for fuelwood. 

This possibility is a back-to-the-future scenario, which was characterized by high rates of deforestation and overexploitation of forests. One big difference in the future is that we would have 

a greater reservoir of knowledge to manage forest land. The island, however, will also be more 

populated, which would complicate the conservation situation. Clearly, sustainability under 

a reduced fossil fuel supply scenario would be very difficult, and this scenario might be the 

greatest challenge facing conservationists, scientists, and government in the next 100 years. 

185
In the National Forest

The National Forest is starting out the new century with a new name, 

El Yunque National Forest. The forest will continue to provide vital 

services to Puerto Rico, with water becoming one of its most important 

services to the island’s growing population. It will also continue to 

harbor pristine open spaces on the island and the richest concentration of plants, animals, and biotic resources. Vehicle access to the 

forest will be controlled to minimize air pollution and congestion 

in the increasingly popular recreation areas. Forest management will 

be increasingly protective of the natural resource base, as evidenced 

by the designation of El Toro Wilderness Area and Wild and Scenic 

Rivers. The rivers within the forest will continue to be unique in 

the Caribbean due to the health and quality of their waters and biotic resources. The greatest threats to the forest will continue to be 

the systematic urbanization of its surroundings and potential global 

climate scenarios. Scientists believe that any changes in climate will 

cause the vegetation types of the forest to shift along the elevation 

gradient. A reduction of rainfall could result from expanding urban 

areas in the lowlands of the Luquillo Mountains.

Beetle in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (2007).

Stream with crystal-clear water originating in the El Yunque National Forest (2008).

186
In Research

The research program of the USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico 

will continue to evolve to maintain its innovative excellence. Although 

scientists will continue to measure tree growth and study endangered 

species and other wildlife, their research will also include new studies 

addressing problems that transcend the boundaries of the national 

forest. In the future, the conservation of natural resources will be affected by global and large-scale phenomena with complex temporal 

dimensions and interactions. Examples of these phenomena include 

potential changes in climate, higher frequency of hurricanes, fluctuating conditions leading to extreme drought or flooding events, invasions of alien species, and rapid changes in land use and land cover. 

These problems will drive scientists into new areas of research. In 

anticipation of these events, International Institute of Tropical Forestry 

scientists are now focused on the global role of the tropical forests 

and analyzing the changes induced by deforestation and logging. The 

institute is now focused on soil biology, a new ecological frontier. 

Soil organisms regulate the processes of decomposition and nutrient 

cycling of tropical ecosystems. The conservation of landscapes requires 

innovative research applications of new remote-sensing technologies 

coupled with computer modeling and geographic information systems. Modern chemistry laboratories allow the study of nutrient 

cycling and chemistry of tropical forests. The Luquillo and Estate 

Thomas Experimental Forests (on St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands) 

will network with other experimental forests in the region and the 

United States to help understand large-scale gradients of environmental change and adaptation and to monitor how the Earth is 

responding to the activities of human beings. Studies of the socioecological systems of cities will become more prevalent. 

USDA Forest Service technicians and university students Helen Cortés and Edward 

Camacho assisting with research data collection in the pterocarpus forest in the 

Humacao Nature Reserve (2006).

Research technicians from the University of Puerto Rico collecting data at El Verde, 

Luquillo Experimental Forest (2007).

New forest of oak growing on recovered agriculture land (2008).

187
In State and Private Forestry

The formation of partnerships and coalitions among government 

and private citizens, communities, and nongovernmental organizations will greatly increase in the future. Society will realize that 

government alone cannot solve the problems of conservation and 

sustainable development. Public empowerment is necessary with 

the government acting as facilitator or enabler and a center of 

knowledge. A good example is the interaction between the institute 

and Casa Pueblo, a nongovernmental organization in the central 

mountains of Puerto Rico. Through a partnership with the institute, Casa Pueblo is leading hundreds of landowners in a land-care 

movement by which private initiative takes the lead in achieving 

environmental quality and sustainable conditions for communities. 

Institute scientists collaborate by conducting research on the value 

of services rendered by natural ecosystems. State (Commonwealth) 

and Private Forestry programs focus resources on this effort and 

attract other State and Federal Government agencies into collaborating with Casa Pueblo. The expectation is that the effectiveness of 

government programs will increase because the efforts are focused 

on the interests of those who receive the services.

Lagoon and mangrove forest surrounded by urban gowth in the San Juan 

metropolitan area (2007).

Puerto Rican Flycatcher (2007). Smokey Bear helps carry the conservation message to local youth (2007).

188
International Cooperation

The International Cooperation (IC) unit at the institute will expand 

as more demand for its expertise increases in such areas as technical 

assistance, research, and technology transfer. The institute will continue to be recognized as a global leader in conservation, serving the 

people, and as a unique unit within the USDA Forest Service as the 

only field unit dedicated to tropical and international conservation 

issues. The IC unit will continue to develop partnerships with global 

clients in both the public and private sectors and to coordinate 

international activities with institute scientists. In addition to 

providing expertise to U.S. Government agencies, such as the U.S. 

Agency for International Development (USAID) and U.S. Department of State, the unit will also work closely with international 

donor organizations, such as the World Bank and Organization of 

American States; international not-for-profit organizations; and local 

communities. Unit staff will continue to work on long- and shortterm assignments with USAID, broadening their scope in several 

areas, and will continue to provide technical support for international 

seminars, conferences, and meetings, such as those hosted by the 

Caribbean Foresters, the Mesoamerican Society for Biology and 

Conservation, and the Mesoamerican Ecotourism Alliance Conference. IC technical assistance will be demand driven, emphasizing 

current trends and needs, while foreseeing and preparing for future 

obligations in areas such as climate change, watershed protection, 

and invasive species and in connecting youth and communities to 

the natural world.

Here, they observe local farmers making use of downed logs in Dominica (1990).

The institute’s International Cooperation unit provides technical assistance throughout 

the Caribbean and Latin America. Here, they help small farms on a rural road project in 

Guatemala (1990).

189
In the Forests of Puerto Rico

The Puerto Rican forests of the future will be different from the 

forests of today, just as today’s forests are different from those of the 

past. Three main reasons for this future scenario are, first, environmental conditions continue to change as humans expand the scope 

and intensity of their activities. Forests respond to these changes. 

Second, most forests in Puerto Rico are secondary forests—forests 

that are still young (less than 100 years) and are still changing and 

maturing. Third, the introduction and naturalization of species 

(plants and animals) change the species composition of forests and 

form new forests different from those of the past. These introductions and naturalization phenomena will continue into the future 

and thus cause forests to change.

Mona Island Commonwealth Forest (1987).

Guánica Commonwealth Forest at sunset (1987).

Anole lizard (2007).

190
Overall

The future is usually exciting: it is difficult to anticipate, and we 

always hope for the best. It is clear today, however, that the future 

will have a characteristic that has been accelerating throughout the 

100-plus-year history of the USDA Forest Service in Puerto Rico—

the rate of change. We know that the future will bring us change 

in environmental conditions, change in forest types, change in the 

levels of human activity—in short, changes in almost any parameter 

we choose to measure. These changes mean that, more than ever, 

research will be critical for our success in the conservation of forests. 

Through research, we can anticipate the consequences of change. 

Change also implies that we need to be in a state of mind that is 

flexible and anticipatory so that we can be as successful in caring for 

the land and serving people in the next hundred years as we were in 

the past hundred years.

Tree fern and Cecropia leaves dominate the overstory view in open, sunny spots in the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest (2007).

A flock of Great Egrets flying along the Puerto Rican coast (2006).

191
192
Recommended

Reading List

Ackerman, J.D. 1992. The orchids of Puerto Rico and the Virgin 

Islands. San Juan: The University of Puerto Rico Press. 168 p.

Joglar, R.L. 2005. Biodiversidad de Puerto Rico: Vertebrados 

terrestres y ecosistemas. San Juan: Editorial del Instituto de 

Cultura Puertorriqueña. 563 p.

Little, E.L., Jr.; Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common trees of Puerto 

Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook No. 249. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service. 548 p.

López, Marrero, T.d.M.; Villanueva Colón, N. 2006. Atlas 

ambiental de Puerto Rico. San Juan: La Editorial Universidad 

de Puerto Rico. 160 p.

Miller, G.L.; Lugo, A.E. 2009. Guide to the ecological systems of 

Puerto Rico. Gen. Tech. Rep. IITF-GTR-35. San Juan: U.S. 

Departmenttment of Agriculture, Forest Service, International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry. 437 p.

Raffaele, H.A. 1989. Guide to the birds of Puerto Rico and the 

Virgin Islands. 1983 ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 

255 p.

Rivero, J.A. 1978. The amphibians and reptiles of Puerto Rico. San 

Juan: The University of Puerto Rico Press. 148 p.

Robinson, K. 1997. Where dwarfs reign: a tropical rain forest in 

Puerto Rico. San Juan: The University of Puerto Rico Press. 

241 p.

193
194
Literature Cited

Abbad y LaSierra, I. 1788. Historia geográfica, civil y política de la 

isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico.

Baik, L.C.; Sotrde, Y.N. 2005. Cultura La Hueca. Museo de 

Historia, Antropología y Arte, Universidad de Puerto Rico, 

Recinto de Río Piedras. [Number of pages unknown.]

Curet, L.A. 2005. Caribbean paleodemography: Population, 

culture, history, and sociopolitical process in ancient Puerto 

Rico. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. 271 p.

Davis, G.W. 1902. Military government of Porto Rico from 

October 18, 1898, to April 30, 1900. Washington, DC. http://

www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/slaves.html. (13 May 2013).

Gould, W., et al. 2007. Puerto Rico Gap Analysis Project - Final 

Report. Moscow, ID and Río Piedras, PR: U.S. Geological 

Service and USDA Forest Service, International Institute of 

Tropical Forestry. 159 p. and Appendixes.

Helmer, E., et al. 2002. Mapping forest type and land cover of 

Puerto Rico, a component of the Caribbean biodiversity 

hotspot. Caribbean Journal of Science. 38:165-183.

Helmer, E.H.; Ruzycki, T.S.; Benner, J.; Voggesser, S.M., and others. 

2012. Detailed maps of tropical forest types are within reach: 

Forest tree communities for Trinidad and Tobago mapped with 

multiseason Landsat and multi season fine-resolution imagery. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 279: 147-166. http://www.

elsevier.com/locate/foreco. (30 September 2013).

Jiménez de Wagenheim, O. 1998. Puerto Rico: an interpretive 

history from pre-Columbian times to 1900. Princeton: Markus 

Wiener Publishers.

Little, Jr., E.L.; Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common trees of Puerto 

Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook No. 249. 

Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service.

Morales Carrión, A. 1984. Puerto Rico: A political and cultural 

history. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company. 400 p.

Museo de Historia, Antropología y Arte. 2006. Cultures Indígenous 

de Puerto Rico. Museo de Historia, Antropología y Arte, 

Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Río Piedras. pp. 8, 11, 

23, 27.

Picó, F. 2006. History of Puerto Rico: a panorama of its people. 

Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers.

Ramos González, O. 2003. Manto de oscuridad nocturna: patrimonio 

natural olvidado. San Juan, PR. Acta Científica Vol. 17.

Ramos, O.; Lugo, A.E. 1994. Mapa de la vegetación de Puerto Rico. 

Acta Científica. San Juan, PR. 8(1-2): 63-66.

Redenbacher, W. 1890. Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte oder Die 

Geschichte der Menschheit. Slaves being transported in Africa 

engraving. [Publisher and number of pages unknown].

Robinson, K. 1997. Where Dwarfs Reign: A tropical rain forest in 

Puerto Rico. San Juan, PR: University of Puerto Rico. 241 p.

Robiou Lamarche, S. Taínos y Caribes. 2005. San Juan: Editorial 

Punto y Coma. 288 p.

Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: rise and decline of the people who greeted 

Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 224 p.

Siegel, P.E., ed. 2005. Ancient Borinquen: Archaeology and 

Ethnohistory of Native Puerto Rico. Tuscaloosa: University of 

Alabama Press. 423 p.

Snyder, N.F.R., et al. 1987. The parrots of Luquillo: natural history 

and conservation of the Puerto Rican parrot. Camarillo, CA: 

Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology. 384 p.

Wilson, S.M., ed. 1997. The indigenous people of the Caribbean. 

Gainesville: University Press of Florida. 253 p.

195
Photography 

Credits

(in alphabetical order)

Ariel Lugo: p. 136 (right).

Edward Camacho: p. 101, p. 129, p. 156 (right).

Frank H. Wadsworth: p. 32, p. 53, p. 68, p. 75, p. 95 (bottom), 

p. 97 (left), p. 111, p. 113.

George Albert Gerhart: p. 51, p. 56, p. 60, p. 61 (right), p. 70, 

p. 72 (center and right), p. 76, p. 88 (middle and right), p. 89, p. 90 

(right), pp. 91–94, p. 96, p. 99, p. 102, p. 114, p. 122 (lower left), 

p. 123 (left).

Goldman Environmental Prize: p. 168.

Jerry Bauer: covers, p. 2, p. 5 (fourth from the top), p. 6, p. 8, p. 10, 

p. 12, p. 16, p. 18 (top and bottom), pp. 19–22, p. 23, pp. 25–28, 

p. 37, p. 38 (right), pp. 40–42, p. 45, p. 48, p. 50, p. 52, p. 55, 

p. 58, p. 61 (left), p. 76 (right), p. 77 (right), p. 78 (right), p. 79, 

p. 81, p. 86, p. 97 (bottom right), p. 103 (right), p. 110, pp. 117–121, 

p. 123 (right), p. 124, p. 125, p. 126, p. 132, p. 134, p. 135 (bottom), 

p. 136 (middle), p. 137 (left), p. 138, p. 139, p. 140 (right), p. 141, 

pp. 143–145, pp. 150–155 (the copyright for photos on pp. 152–

153 remains with Jerry Bauer; photos are not in public domain), 

pp. 152–153, p. 156 (left), p. 158, p. 159, p. 160, pp. 162–164, 

p. 165 (timeline), p. 166 (timeline), p. 167, p. 168 (right), p. 169, 

p. 182, p. 184, pp. 186–192, p. 194.

Library of Congress: p. 64, p. 71, p. 72 (timeline), p. 73, p. 76 

(timeline).

Marvin Tórrez: p. 163.

Mike Morel: p. 135 (top).

National Park Service: p. 53 (timeline).

Neysha Bauer: p. 5 (third from top), p. 116, p. 128, p. 148.

Revista de Agricultura de Puerto Rico: p. 78 (middle).

Taylor F. Lockwood: p. 165 (left, top, and bottom).

University of Puerto Rico: p. 18 (timeline), p. 19 (timeline), p. 20 

(timeline), p. 21 (timeline).

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission: p. 134 (timeline).

USDA Forest Service photo: p. 5 (2nd from top), p. 38 (left), p. 74, 

p. 78 (timeline), p. 80, p. 84, p. 87, p. 88 (timeline), p. 90 (timeline), 

p. 95 (top), p. 96 (top), p. 97 (timeline), p. 98, p. 103 (left), p. 108, 

p. 110 (timeline), p. 114, p. 115 (timeline), p. 120 (timeline), p. 122 

(top), p. 127, p. 136 (timeline), p. 137 (timeline), p. 140 (timeline), 

p. 142, p. 144 (timeline), p. 153 (timeline), p. 154 (timeline), p. 157, 

p. 159 (timeline), p. 161, p. 163 (timeline), p. 166 (right), p. 168 

(middle).

Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology: p. 115, p. 151.

The following images are believed to be in the public domain: 

p. 23 (timeline, top), p. 24, p. 27 (timeline), p. 34, p. 38 left, p. 39 

left, p. 41 (timeline), p. 42 (timeline), p. 43, p. 44, p. 50, p. 54, 

p. 59, p. 64, pp. 73–74, p. 77, p. 79 (timeline), p. 80, p. 103, 

p. 105, p. 167, p. 172.

Illustration Credits

(in alphabetical order)

Arturo Morales Carrion: p. 43.

Hansen BCN: p. 42 (timeline).

Jerry Bauer: p. 25.

Jorge Paniagua: p. 13, p. 18, p. 26, p. 29, p. 65.

Library of Congress: p. 35, p. 36, p. 39, p. 57, pp. 62–63.

U.S. Navy: p. 52 (timeline).

196