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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Marine Fisheries Service 
Marine Mammal 

Protection Act of 1972 

Annual Report 

April 1, 1980, to March 31, 1981 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Malcolm Baldrlge, Secretary 

Natlonal Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

James P. Walsh, Acting Administrator 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Terry L. Leitzell, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries 
President of the Senate 

Speaker of the House of Representatives 

. 

Dear Sirs : 

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 

Washington, D.C. 20230 

'JUN 5 1981 

Enclosed is the Annual Report of the Department of Commerce concerning 

administration of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 for the period of 

April 1, 1980 through March 31, 1981, as required by Section 103(f) of the 

Act. 

The Department of Commerce is responsible for implementing the Act with respect 

to whales and porpoises of the order Cetacea and seals and sea lions of the 

suborder Pinnipedia. The report details the activities of the Department 

concerning these marine mammals. 

Sincerely, 

faEnclosure 
TABLE OF 03NlXNTS 

Introduction .................................................. 1 

Smq ..............*...........................*........... 3 

Part I -ministration ............................................ 7 

Permits for scientific research ad public display 

of marine mammals ....................................... 7 

Letters of qreanent ..................................... 7 

Manqement information system ............................ 8 

Fermit progran overview .................................. 8 

Marine mammal care ard maintenance ....................... 9 

Tanners and agents for native handicrafts ................... 9 

Marine mammal strandiq network ............................. 10 

Permits for incidental take af marine mammals during 

canmercial fishiq operations ............................ 11 

State/federal contracts-marine mammals ...... c............... 12 

Washiqton ............................................... 12 

Cali.mia .............................................. 13 

International program ...................................... 14 

Antarctic Marine Living &sources ........................ 14 

Inter-American wopical Tuna Canmission (IATIC) .......... 14 

International North Pacific Fisheries Canmission ( INPFC) . 15 

North Pacific Fur Seal Canmission (NPFSC) ................ 15 

United States-Mexico discussions ......................... 16 

U.S. - U.S.S.R Marine Mammal Project. Enviromental 

Protection mreenent .................................. 16 

International Whaling Canmission (IWC) ................... 17 

la1 actions ............................................... 18 

Law enforcement .............................................. 18 

Interqency review and coordination ......................... 19 

Marine mammals and the effects of outer continental 

shelf oil and gas devel-nts ........................ 19 

Wildlife law enforcement coordinating canmittee .......... 20 

Steering group - marine mannnal/fish and shell£ ish 

interactions .......................................... 20 

PART I1 - Research and manqement grograans .......................... 22 

Cetacean prqrans ........................................... 22 . Porpoise and the tma purse seine fishery ................ 22 

Manqement .......................................... 22 

&search ............................................ 25 

Bottlencse dolphin ....................................... 26 

Management .......................................... 26 

&search ............................................ 27 

Bobhead &ale ............................................ 28 
Manqment .......................................... 28 

Research ............................................ 28 

mllls pqoi se .......................................... 30 

Manqment. ......................................... 30 

Research .......................................... 30 

Gray hdle ............................................ 31 

Management .......................................... 31 

&search .............................................. 32 

Humpback hale ........................................... 32 

Manqment .......................................... 32 

Research ............................................ 33 

Pinniped programs ........................................... 34 

Hawaiian monk seal ....................................... 34 

Manqment .......................................... 34 

Research ............................................ 34 

Channel Islands National Park. California ................ 35 

Manqment .......................................... 35 

Research ........................................... 35 

Pribilof Islands ~ogran - northern fur seal ............. 36 

Manqment .......................................... 36 

Research ............................................ 37 

East coast marine mammal research ........................... 38 

Cetaceans and pinnipeds .................................. 38 

PART I11 - Status of Stocks ......................................... 40 

Introduction ................................................ 40 

Population tables - pinnipdia .............................. 46 

Order carnivora ............................................. 50 

Suborder pinnipdia . ..................................... 50 

Family otariidae .................................... 52 

Family pbcidae ..................................... 58 

Population tables - cetacea ................................. 73 

Order cetacea ............................................... 77 

Suborder mysticeti ....................................... 79 . Family eschrichtiidae ............................... 80 

Family balaenopteridae .............................. 82 

Family balaenidae ................................... 89 

Suborder odontoceti ...................................... 92 

Family delphinidae .................................. 94 

Family pbcoena ..................................... 109 

Family mnodontidae ................................. 112 

Family physeteridae ................................. 116 

Family ziphiidae ................................ . 120 

Wferences ............................................... 122 

PAW: N - AppeMixes 123- 143 

A . Tables 1-2: Permits fjor incidental take of marine mammals 

in canmercial fishiq *rations 

Tables 3-10: Scientific research and public display 

pennits 

Tables 11-12: Funding 

Table 13 : IWC whaling quotas 
B. Laws ard treaties gwerniq the protection of marine 

mammals 

C . Federal register not ices and regulations 

Painting of humpback hale on front cwer and paintiw of minke whale 

ard calf on back cwer by Larry Foster. 
INTRODUCTION 

The marine mammals that are familiar to us today, the 

dolphins, whales, seals and sea lions, are descendants of a 

group of mammals that left land for a life in the sea more 

than 50 million years ago. These warmblooded, air-breathing 

animals give birth to live young and nourish them with milk. 

Some marine mammal populations are healthy and stable; 

others, especially those of the great whales, have not 

recovered from previous years of intense exploitation. 

Over the years, many groups in the United States, both 

public and private, have promoted the conservation of marine 

mammals. Passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 

1972 (the Act or MMPA) committed this nation to continuing 

long-term management and research programs to conserve and 

protect these animals. The Act imposed a moratorium on 

taking and importing marine mammals or their products, with 

exceptions, in the United States. The Act applies also to 

persons subject to U.S. jurisdiction on the high seas. In 

1976, the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act 

(FCMA) expanded U.S. control of marine mammals to include 

the 200-mile fishery conservation zone (FCZ). 

The Act gave responsibility and authority for oceanic marine 

mammals to the Secretary of Commerce since the National 

Oceanic and Atmspher ic Administration (NOAA) operates in 

the Department of Commerce (DOC). The National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) , under NOAA, is respns ible for the 

order Cetacea (whales and porpoises) and the suborder 

Pinnipedia (seals and sea lions), except walruses. The Act 
gave the Department of the Interior (DO1 ) respons ib il ity for 

dugongs, manatees, plar bears, walruses, and sea otters. 

The moratorium does not apply to mammals already managed 

under international agreements, such as the northern fur 

seal. The Act allows the take of marine mammals under 

permit for scientific research, public display, and 

incidentally in commercial fishing operations. The Act 

provides for native take of marine mammals in the North 

Pacific Ocean and Arctic Ocean, waivers of the moratorium, 

and for the return of management to the States. Economic 

hardship and commercial fishing exemption provisions in the 

Act have expired. 

The NMFS makes decisions on requests for waiving the 

moratorium, issues permits, carries out research programs, 

enforces provisions of the Act, publishes rules and 

regulations to manage marine mammals, cooperates with the 

States, participates in international activities and 

agreements, and maintains a close working relationship with 

the Marine Mammal Commission and its Committee .of Scientific 

Advisors which were established by the Act. 

Marine mammal research programs take place at the Southwest 

Fisheries Center, La Jolla, Calif. ; the Southeast Fisheries 

Center, Miami, Fla.; the Kbrtheast Fisheries Center, Woods 

Hole, Mass., and the National Marine Mammal Laboratory 

(NMML), Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center, Seattle, 

Wash. Management programs are carried out at NMFS regional 

off ices in Gloucester, Mass. ; St. Petersburg, Fla. ; Seattle, 

Wash.; Terminal Island, Calif. ; and Juneau, Alaska. 

This annual report to Congress is available from the Office 

of Mar ine Mammals and Endangered Species, National Mar ine 

Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C. 20235. 
SUMMARY 

19 80-81 Program 

The Act noted that for many marine mammals, there was not 

enough information to protect or manage wisely their 

populations. Since 1972, NMFS has directed its research and 

management programs toward a better understanding of all 

marine mammal populations under its j ur isd ict ion. Along 

with these programs, NMFS has pursued its mandate to protect 

marine mammals through international as well as domestic 

organizations. 

One of the immediate goals of the Act was to reduce the 

numbers of marine mammals killed or injured in the course of 

commercial fishing operations. The mortality of porpoise* 

in the yellowfin tuna purse seine fishery was especially 

high in the years preceding passage of the Act. Porpoise 

mortality in this fishery , however, has steadily declined 

since 1972. The incidental take of porpoise by the tuna 

purse seine fishery in 1980 was about 4.5 percent (15,000) 

of the mortality that occurred in 1972 (about 350,000). 

Government actions, including gear research and development 

and regulations, encouragement from the public, and the 

cooperation of the tuna fishermen made this dramatic change 

poss ible. 

*NMFS uses the term porpoise, rather than dolphin, to 

prevent confusion with the dolphin fish, an object of sport 

and- commercial f ishing . The commn name is used when 

discussing individual species or stocks, such as eastern 

spinner dolphin. 
After publishing a draft and a final environmental impact 

statement (DEIS and FEIS) and after public review and a 

formal hearing before an Administrative Law Judge, NMFS 

published new regulations on October 31, 1980, which affect 

the incidental take of porpoise in the tuna purse seine 

fishery over the next five years. From 1981 through 1985, a 

maximum of 20,500 porpoise will be allowed to be taken each 

year. A 5-year permit based on the new regulations was 

granted to the American Tunaboat Association. 

At the International Whaling Commission's (IWC) 1979 annual 

meeting, a quota was set for the 1980 hunt of bowhead whales 

by Alaska natives of 18 whales landed or 26 struck, 

whichever happened first. The total take for 1980 of 16 

whales landed and 18 struck and lost exceeded the quota. 

The taking of a whale during the fall hunt was documented as 

being in violation of the closed season and the case has 

been passed to the Justice Department. 

Research on the endangered bowhead whale continued during 

1980 at the National Marine Mammal Laboratory, Northwest and 

Alaska Fisheries Center. Scientists counted bowheads from a 

whale census camp near Barrow, Alaska as the whales migrated 

past the Alaska Eskimo whaling villages. Analyses of data 

collected in 1979 and 1980 indicate that 2,264 whales is the 

best estimate of the bowhead population. 

The incidental take of marine mammals in any commercial 

fishery requires a permit. Both United States and foreign 

fishing fleets must apply for and receive a permit before 

taking is allowed. Before a permit can be issued, the 

Secretary of Commerce must determine whether or not the 

incidental taking will disadvantage the affected species and 

stocks and whether or not the taking will reduce the species 

or stock below their optimum sustainable population (OSP). 

Japan incidentally takes Dall's porpoise in its salmon 

gillnet fishery inside the U.S. fishery conservation zone. 

In 1978, the United States amended the North Pacific 

Fisheries Act of 1954 to implement a 3 year exemption from 

incidental take permit requirements. A Memorandum of 

Understanding was signed by the United States and Japan to 

conduct joint research to determine the effect of the 

Japanese salmon fishery on marine mammals, especially the 

Dall's porpo,ise, taken in the fishery. This 3-year 

exemption expires in June 1981. NMFS has issued a draft 

environmental impact statement on the Incidental Take of Dall 

Porpoise in the Japanese Salmon Fishery which contains two 
alternatives; allow the Japanese to continue to take marine 

mammals by granting a permit oz extending the permit 

exemption, or not allow the incidental take to continue, 

thereby ending the Japanese salmon fishery within the U.S. 

FCZ . 

Permits also are necessary for taking or importing/exporting 

marine mammals for public display or scientific research. 

Using a computer-based management information system for 

permit data allows NMFS to track individual animals taken 

under the Act which are permanently removed from the wild, 

aid in the review of permit applications, decrease the 

reporting burden of permit holders and simplify and enhance 

replies to inquiries. In place of taking animals from the 

wild for public display and scientific research, NMFS 

encourages the use of rehabilitated beached or stranded 

animals. Most regions have developed and are assisting in 

operating a Marine Mammal Stranding Network. According to 

the records of the Scientific Dent Alert Network, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., which publishes a 

monthly report and maintains a central computer file, the 

most frequently stranded species in 1979 were the bottlenose 

dolphin, harbor porpoise, and dwarf and pygmy sperm whales. 

NMFS has awarded contracts to two States to study marine 

mammals and fishery interactions. In California, the goal 

of the study is to identify areas of conflict between 

fisheries operations and marine mammal populations and to 

estimate economic loss to the fisheries due to loss of catch 

and gear as the result of interference by marine mammals. 

In Washington, the interactions involve primarily coastal 

pinnipeds (seals and sea lions) and salmon fisheries. The 

number of complaints of damage t6 gear, fish loss, and 

perceived direct competition for salmon resources have 

increased since passage of the Act. 

On October 14, 1980, Canada, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the 

United States signed a protocol which will extend the 

Interim Convention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur 

Seals until 1984. The harvest of northern fur seals on the 

Pribilof Islands, Alaska is carried out by the United States 

under the provisions of the Interim Convention. The U.S. 

Senate must ratify the protocol before the extension becomes 

effective. 
The provisions of the Act are enforced by NMFS through its 

law enforcement personnel. Most violations of the Act 

involve illegally importing marine mammals parts or 

products. A major effort was launched in 1980 to stop the 

illegal trade of wildlife and plants and a task force has 

been formed which includes the' Departments of Commerce, 

Treasury, Agriculture, and Interior in each major port of 

entry. 

According to the Marine Mammal Commission's 1980 Annual 

Report, 17 Federal Agencies conduct or support research 

related to the conservation and protection of marine 

mammals. NMFS reviews and coordinates with other agencies 

many of these programs. One of the largest programs 

reviewed by NMFS concerns the proposed actions of the Bureau 

of Land Management on activities and events associated with 

exploration and development of offshore oil and gas 

resources which may affect marine mammals. 
PART I - ADMINISTRATION 

Permits for Scientific Research 

and Public Display of Marine Mammals 

The Act allows marine mammals to be used for scientific 

research and public display. This use, however, is 

controlled by permit, Letter of Agreement, or other specific 

authorization. The primary objective of the permit system 

is to ensure that the removal of animals from the wild will 

not .harm the populations or the ecosystems they inhabit. 

Permit applications are subject to review by the Marine 

Mammal Commission and the public. Notices of permit ' applications, issuances, and modifications appear in the 

Feder a1 Reg is ter . Dur ing this reporting period, 57 

applications were considered. Of these, 30 have been 

resolved. There were 16 scientific research permits issued 

and 18 public display permits issued. There were 80 

modifications, amendments, or authorizations to permits. In 

addition, NMFS monitored 249 permits with current valid 

authorizations for take or related activities. 

NMFS encourages the use of rehabilitated beached or stranded 

animals instead of taking additional animals from the wild, 

especially in the case of California sea lions, which are 

frequently available. Currently, if a permit applicant 

requests a. California sea lion, a beached or stranded animal 

must be used if a suitable one is available. 

Letters of Aareement 

Letters of Agreement have proved an effective way to ensure 

that' live marine mammals not covered by permit are provided 

the same level of care and maintenance as required for 

animals taken under permit. Letters of Agreement may be 

used only . for animals already in captivity and usually 

involve placing rehabil itated beached or stranded animals 

into a suitable public display facility. Since no taking is 

involved, most Agreements are handled at the Regional level. 
Manaqement Informat ion Sys tem 

The computer-based management information system for marine 

mammal and endangered species permit data (MAMES) has 

qccelerated access to permit records and provides 

information' for statistical and management needs. Dur ing 

1980, the system was expanded to include animal inventories 

for facilities holding marine mammals under the Act. Its 

pr imary purpose is to track individual animals taken under 

the Act, aid in the review of permit applications, decrease 

the reporting burden of permit report holders, and simplify 

and enhance replies to inquiries. 

Facilities holding animals under the authority of the Act 

are required to submit various reports under each Permit, 

Agreement, or Letter of Exemption, including annual reports 

on the health and condition of the marine mammals. Further, 

each new application for a permit must include a full report 

on all marine mammals captured and maintained. The new 

inventory system reduces the reporting requirements to one 

annual report which covers the condition of all marine 

mammals maintained. This requirement can be sat is£ ied by 

updating the computer generated inventory report which is 

sent to every animal holder in January of each year. 

Fermi t Program Overview 

The following tables, generated by MAMES and required by the 

Act, appear in the Appendix and provide a detailed overview 

of the permit program: 

(1) common and scientific names of marine mammals requested in 

scientific research/public display permit appl icat ions 

(table 3); 

(2) summary of permit applications (table 4); 

(3) cetacean take requested in scientific research/public display 

.permit applications (table 5); 

(4 ) pinniped take requested in scientific research/public display 

permit applications (table 6); 
(5) cetacean take authorized by scientific research/public display 

permits (table 7 ); 

(6) pinniped take authorized by scientific research/public display 

permits (table 8); 

(7) authorized take for permanent removal from the wild - 

cetaceans (table 9); and 

(8) authorized take for permanent removal from the wild - 

pinnipeds (table 10). 

Marine Mammal Care and Maintenance 

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), 

Department of Agriculture, is responsible under the Animal 

Welfare Act (AWA) for the humane handling, care, treatment, 

and tr anspr tat ion of mar ine mammals. Standards developed 

by APHIS are incorporated as conditions to all permits 

issued by NMFS, both foreign and domestic, that involve 

capt ive mar ine mammals. A Cooper at ive Agreement by APHIS, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, and NMFS ensures that standards 

'are applied uniformly to all marine mammals in captivity; 

provides appropriate, consistent guidance to persons 

responsible for the marine mammals; and ensures that all 

responsibilities of the agencies relative to the humane 

handling, care, treatment and transportation of marine 

mammals are met. 

Tanners and Agents for Native Handicrafts 

Marine mammals can be taken by any Eskimo, Aleut, or Indian 

who dwells on the coast of the Mrth Pacific Ocean or the 

Arctic Ocean if the purpose is to create and sell authentic 

native crafts and clothing. Traditional native handicrafts 

include weaving, carving, stitching 8 lacing, beading, 

drawing, and painting. To produce these articles, the Act 

permits the services of a tanner to process hides. Tanners 
and agents must apply for and receive Certificates of 

Registration in order to possess or handle marine mammal 

parts and products. Ten tanners and 22 agents hold current 

valid certificates. 

Mar ine Mammal Stranding Network 

NMFS has encouraged each of its regions to develop and 

assist in operating a Marine Mammal Stranding Network. The 

Regional Networks include individuals and organizations 

cooperating with a scientific director and a WFS 

coordinator. Authorized members of a network may collect 

scientific specimen materials, record the event with the 

Regional coordinator and are obligated to assist local and 

Federal authorities in the disposal of the animals. Records 

of these strandings are forwarded to the Scientific Event 

Alert Network (SEAN), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 

D.C. which publishes a monthly report and maintains a 

central computer file. 

Investigation of both live and dead stranded marine mammals 

provides information on the food habits, incidence of 

disease, and reproduction biology of many coastal species. 

The systematic collection of these data contributes to a 

baseline source of information which can be used to monitor 

changes in coastal mar ine ecosys tems. 

In 1979, 279 cetaceans were examined by the Regional 

Networks . Twenty-two species were involved; the most 

frequently found were bottlenose dolphins, harbor porpo ises, 

and dwarf and pygmy sperm whales. The numbers of reported 

stranded marine animals are related to the frequency of 

visitors, the frequency of patrolling public and private 

coastal areas, and accessibility of coastal areas. This 

explains the large number of reports received from the East 

and Gulf coasts. 

An epidemic of viral pneumonia in harbor seals discovered in 

December 1979 was intensively studied during 1980. The 

disease has been found in 600 seals from Rockland, Maine to 

Cape Cod Bay, Mass. The causal virus is related to the 

Newcastle. disease virus (a major disease in poultry and 

other birds), but studies indicate that it does not cause 

serious disease in other species of mammals. 
Permits for Incidental Take of Marine Mammals during 

Commercial Fishing operations 

A general permit system established in 1974 under the MMPA 

authorizes the incidental taking of marine mammals by 

domestic fishermen during commercial fishing operations. 

The FCMA amended the MMPA to include the waters of the 200- 

mile fishery conservation zone. Since 1977, general permits 

have been issued to foreign fishing corporations holding a 

Governing Fishery Agreement with the United States under the 

FCMA. 

On April 2, 1980, a PJotice was published in the Federal 

Register that applications had been received from Douglas 

Chipman and from the Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's 

Association for General Permits under Categories 1, 3, 4 and 

5. A 30-day review period on these applications began April 

14, 1980, with release of "A Report Based on the Workshop on 

Stock Assessment and Incidental Take of Marine Mammals 

Involved in Commercial Fishing Operat ions" (Workshop 

Report). During the review period, the 1979 general permit 

and certificates of inclusion were extended until new 

general permits could be issued. This interim period ended 

on December 31, 1980, when new general permits to take 

marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations 

were issued to the PCFFA. The permit will expire December 

31, 1981. The application of Douglas Chipman was 

incorporated into the larger permit. It has been 

determined, based on the Workshop Report, that the take of 

animals authorized, 1,300 phocid seals, 1,140 otarid seals 

and 40 cetaceans, will not adversely impact or disadvantage 

the affected species or stocks. No take of animals is 

authorized from species where the population numbers are 

unknown. 

In 1980, general permits also were issued to seven foreign 

fishing corporations for a total incidental take of 437 

mar ine mammals. In 1981, nine applications have been 

received and eight issued authorizing a total take of 354 

marine mammals. See tables 1 and 2 for a list of domestic 

and foreign general permits issued for 1980 and 1981 (other 

than for Category 2). 

On December 3, 1980, the Assistant Administrator for 

Fisheries authorized the Regional Directors to adopt, where 

apmopr iate, procedures to both simplify the requirements 

for obtaining certificates of inclusion in the domestic 
fisheries and to increase the potential for obtaining data 

on the incidental catch of marine mammals. Such procedures 

could result in simplified applications and reports and 

reduced fees for certificate of inclusion holders. The 

Northwest Region has implemented a program to increase the 

number of fishermen who obtain certificates of inclusion. 

Press releases have been sent to the media notifying 

fishermen that the $10 fee has been waived. Certificate 

applications were sent out with State fishing license 

renewal notices in Washington and were sent to all 1980 

license holders in Oregon. Tribes and fishing associations 

have been asked to encourage fishermen to obtain 

Certificates and submit reports on any incidental 

involvement of marine mammals in their fishing operations. 

State/Federal Contracts - Marine Mammals 

Washington 

Marine Mammal/fishing interactions in the Northwest Region 

primarily involve coastal pinnipeds (seals and sea lions) 

and salmon fisheries. Since passage of the MMPA, pinnipeds 

in Washington and Oregon have been reported in greater 

numbers and further upstream in rivers. The number of 

complaints of damage to gear, fish loss, and perceived 

direct competition for salmon resources have increased. The 

NMFS has funded a project by the State of Washington to 

study marine mammal fishery interactions on the Columbia 

River and adjacent waters. The State of Oregon is supplying 

logistical support to the program. 

This study will evaluate the extent of interactions between 

marine mammals and commercial and recreational fisheries, 

continue efforts to monitor marine mammal populations along 

portions of the coasts of Oregon and Washington, and 

investigate certain biological characteristics of these 

populations. 
I~ 

California 

The Southwest Reg ion and Southwest F isher ies Center have 

extended, for one year, a contract with the California 

Department of Fish and Game to survey and assess the 

involvement of mar ine mammals in established commerc ial and 

recreational fisheries in Cal'ifornia. Areas ~f..~conflict 

between fisher ies operat ions and marine mammal populations 

will be identified and an estimate of the economic loss to 

the fisheries due to depredation of catch and loss of gear 

will be made. 

Results from the first year of the survey indicate that 

there are five fisheries in which significant loss of fish 

and/or damage to gear occurs : gill/ tr ammel net fisher ies, 

commercial salmon trolling, Pacific herring net fishery, 

squid f ishery , and the anchovy/mackeral round-haul net 

fisheries. Marine mammals are taken incidentally in all 

these fisheries either by entanglement in gear or by 

fishermen trying to protect their gear and catch from 

depredation. The contractor is investigating the extent of 

this take and will discuss in a final report the impacts to 

the mar ine mammal population involved. 

Completion of these two studies will allow NMFS to manage 

more wisely marine mammal populations of the Pacific Coast 

and provide a better information base to the State/Federal 

Program in the event the States apply for the resumption of 

mar ine mammal management author ity . 
International Programs 

Antarctic Marine Livinq Resources 

The Convention on the Conservation of Marine Living 

Resources of Antarctica was concluded in Canberra, Australia 

dur ing Apr il-May 1980. The Convention was open to signature 

from August 1 to December 31, 1980. The United States 

signed the Convention and the Department of State presented 

it to the Senate for advice and consent on December 1, 1980. 

The purpose of the Convention is to protect the Antarctic 

ecosystem and all marine living resources not protected 

under ex is t ing international agreements. 

The Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty are 

discussing the administration of Antarctic minerals with 

environmental protection as a major component of the 

prospective regime. 

Inter-Amer ican Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) 

The international tuna/porpo ise program approved by the 

Commission in 1977 was reviewed at the annual meeting in 

October 1980 in Washington, D.C. A report was made on the 

status of the Commissionls efforts to place observers on 

tuna vessels operating in the eastern tropical Pacific . Although coverage of 103 trips was planned in 1980, only 65 

were covered before the end of the year. Trips' were 

completed on vessels from Costa Rica, Panama, New Zealand, 

Venezuela, and the United States. There has been no 

coverage of Mexican vessels to date. An agreement between 

the IATTC and the Mexican Government has been developed and 

is awaiting approval by Mexican legal authorities. 
Cons istent with the Commission's objective to avoid the 

needless or careless killing of dolphins, the scientific 

staff presented guidelines found through its own research 

and the experience of the international fleet to be 

significant in reducing porpoise mortality. These 

guide1 ines were recommended to the commissioners who agreed 

to advise their governments of these techniques and gear 

designs for cons ideration and possible adoption. 

International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (INPFC) 

United States and Japanese scientists, in 1980, completed 

the third and final year of cooperative marine mammal 

research provided for under the terms of a 1978 Memorandum 

of Understanding included as part of the International 

Convention for the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific 

Ocean. The 1980 research included a dedicated research 

vessel provided by Japan which fished with the salmn 

fleets. For the first time, U.S. marine mammal scientists 

on board the motherships were able to make observations from 

catcher boats. 

At the Annual Meeting of INPFC in November 1980, the Ad Hoc 

Committee on Marine Mammals heard reports that observations 

on board the dedicated vessel and the catcher boats showed 

higher rates of incidental capture of Dall porpoise than 

tbse recorded by the Japanese catcher vessels. The 

Japanese delegat ion indicated that this discrepancy arose 

from a misunderstanding of the definition of "take" by 

Japanese fishermen. The Japanese stated that instruct ions 

to their fishermen will be more explicit in the future. 

North Pacific Fur Seal Commission (NPFSC) 

At its 23rd meeting in Moscow, U.S.S.R., in April 1980, the 

Commission noted that data presented by Canada and the 

United States indicate that the size of the Pribilof fur 

seal herd may have stabilized at a lower level since the end 

of the female harvest in 1968, the beginning of intensive 

commercial fishing in the Bering Sea, the entanglement 

problem and other environmental changes which may have 

occurred in this area. The total estimated size of the fur 

seal population is approximately 1.7 million, while the 
Pr ibilof ppulat ion is 1.25 million animals, including 

326,000 newborn pups. 

In 1980, the Soviet Union harvested 5,500 seals on Robben 

and the Commander Islands. The United States had a 

commercial harvest of 24,278 male seals on St. Paul Island. 

On October 14, the Governments of Canada, Japan, the 

U.S.S.R., and the United States signed a protocol which will 

extend the Interim Convention on Conservation of. Bbrth 

Pacific Fur Seals until 1984. The protocol contains minor 

modifications which recognize the extended fisheries 

jurisdictions of the parties. In the United States, the 

Senate must ratify the protocol before it can be 

implemented . The NPFSC was established by the Interim Convention on 

Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals of 1957. This 

treaty, among Canada, Japan, the United States and the 

Soviet Union, prohibits pelagic sealing, provides for 

coordinated research programs, and arranges for a sharing of 

skins £rom seals harvested on land among Party Governments. 

United States - Mexico Discussions 

United States and Mexican scientists met during 1980 to 

share sc ient if ic informat ion and to prepare for continued 

joint studies of gray whales in calving areas in Mexico. 

U.S.-U.S .S.R. Marine Mammal Project, Environmental Protection 

Agreement 

The project promotes joint research by U.S. and Soviet 

scientists on the biology, ecology, and population dynamics 

of marine mammals of interest to both countries. During 

March 1980, a project leaders1 meeting was held in Seattle, 

Wash. to review the previous 18-month period of joint work 

and to plan future research. 

Two U.S. scientists participated in a joint study of the 

Baikal seal dur ing May-June 1980. The work concentrated on 

the physiology and acoustics of this species. The U.S. 

sc ient ists traveled from the Academy of Sc iences 
Limnological laboratory at Lystvyanka, U .S .S.R. to the 

central part of Lake Baikal where the breeding 

concentrations are located. 

Two Soviet scientists participated in a research cruise 

aboard the NOAA ship DAVID STARR JORDAN from mid-June to 

mid-July 1980. The distribution of marine mammals, 

primarily cetaceans, in the coastal waters off southern 

California and Baja California were studied during the 

cruise. Cetacean sighting metbdology used by the SWFC was 

demonstrated . Two Soviet scientists participated in joint work on seals, 

sea lions and sea otters in Alaska and California during 

July and August 1980. They met with U.S. scientists in 

Fairbanks, Alaska and Seattle, Wash. during their visit to 

discuss future cooperation in marine mammal research. 

Highlighting the field research were studies of northern sea 

lions in the area of Kodiak, Alaska and sea otter 

observations at Piedras Blancas Calif. 

Three U.S. scientists participated in a research cruise 

aboard the Soviet research vessel "Razyatchi" in the Bering 

and Chukchi Seas for two weeks dur ing September 1980. One 

U.S. scientist returned with the vessel to 'the Chukchi Sea 

in October for further work. An extension of the range of 

gray whales' into the East Siberian Sea was recorded. Large 

numbers of bowhead .whales again were seen (as in 1979) in 

the. western Chukchi Sea,. with an estimated 200+ 

whales sighted between Capes Vankarem and Schmidt. Biopsy 

samples 'of skin and blubber were obtained from bowhead 

whales for karyotype and electophoretic analyses. 

International Whal inq Commission (IWC) 

The 32nd annual meeting of the IWC was held at Brighton, 

England, July 21-26, 1980. The United States has supported 

a moratorium on commercial whaling at every meeting of the 

IWC since 1972. That year, the total commercial catch limit 

was about 46,000 whales; this year it is down to 14,523. 

Although the complete commercial mratorium did not pass at 

the 1980 meeting, the United States did achieve a total ban 

on.taking killer whales by factory ships. This action 

protects the killer whale from pelagic whaling operat ions 

that might turn to hunting smaller whales because of 

Lightened restrict ions on hunting larger ones. The 
Government of Spain agreed to stop hunting sperm whales, and 

the IWC agreed to ban the use of the cold (non-explos ive) 

harpoon in taking large whales which will assure a more 

humane catch by reducing the time between harpooning and 

death. 

The United States will continue to press for a moratorium on 

commercial whaling, a hallmark of U.S. policy in the IWC, 

and until this is achieved, reduced quotas and strict 

conformity with IWC regulations by all whaling countries. 

See table 11 in the Appendix for a listing of the commercial 

quotas set by the 32nd meeting. The 1981 annual meeting of 

the IWC will be held in Br ighton from July 20-25. 

Legal Act ions 

Friends of Animals, et al. v. Roe, et al., Civ. No. 80-2870 

(U.S. District Court, D.C. I : American Tunaboat Association. 

et al. v. ~lutznick; et al, (Civ. No. 80-1952-G(1)) (u.s~ 

~istrictCourt, S. D. California). 

Both act ions challenge the Administrator's (NOAA) Final 

Decision in the 1980 tuna/porpoise rulemaking. In that 

Final Decision, the Administrator published a 20,500 overall 

porpoise quota for each year from 1981 through 1985. 

Complaints and answers have been filed in both cases. 

Law Enforcement 

The Law Enforcement Division, NMFS, is responsible for 

enforcing the provisions of the Act. Most violations of the 

Act involve the alleged illegal importation of marine mammal 

parts or products. In the Southwest Region (California), ' most law enforcement activities concern the incidental take 

of porpoise by tuna fishermen. 

Dur ing .the 1980/81 reporting per iod, NMFS investigated 265 

alleged violations of the Act. Of these, 201 actual 

violations were documented; 108 cases were closed by 

assessing civil penalties and/or forfeiting seized 
contraband, 64 cases were closed as unfounded or for lack of 

evidence; about 200 cases are pending (including cases from 

previous years). Six cases were closed through successful 

criminal prosecution. 

Contracts for enforcement of the Act were renegotiated with 

the States of California, Oregon, and Washington. NMFS 

works closely with State law enforcement agencies to improve 

their effectiveness in achieving compliance with the Act. 

State officials also monitor marine mammal capture 

operations carried out under permits issued by NMFS and 

inspect marine mammal holding f acilites. 

Two Morehead City, N.C. men were convicted in February 1981 

for illegally taking, transporting, possessing and landing 

an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin off Radio Island, N.C. in 

December 1980. Identical sentences given to the two men 

included; a one-year suspended prison term, two years of 

supervised probation, a $500 fine plus a $400 assessment for 

attorney and court costs and 40 hours of work at the NMFS 

laboratory in Beaufort, N.C. 

Three Taiwanese fishermen were found guilty in Federal Court 

in Tampa, Fla. on December 11, 1980, for taking Atlantic 

bottlenose dolphins, which they had filleted and eaten. The 

three were crewmen aboard the shrimp trawler Carib 602 which 

was operating near the Tortugas when the dolphins were taken 

during May and June. The three crewmen were arrested 

September 2, 1980, when they attempted to leave St. 

Petersburg. Although the vessel was registered as a U.S. 

fishing vessel, the entire crew were Taiwanese nationals 

except for the captain who is a U.S. citizen. The three men 

were fined' and deported in January 1981. 

On February 13, 1981, an Anchorage, Alaska Federal Judge 

fined the operators and owners of a Ketchikan fishing boat 

$15,000 after ruling that a crew member had committed the 

"heedless and senseless act" of shooting at a humpback 

whale. This is the largest fine levied in a case involving 

marine mammals since passage of the Act. 

A Canadian citizen and his corporation was assessed a 

$10,000 fine for the illegal importation of dolphins while 

enroute from Mexico to Canada. The defense stated that, 

under the ~ct, an in-transit shipment through the United 

States was not an importation. The ~dminkstrative Law Judge 

upheld the ~gency's definition of importation which includes 

in-transit shipments through the U.S. even though such 

shipments may not be considered an importation under Customs 

Laws. 
During 1980, a major effort to stop the illegal trade of 

wildlife and plants was launched by forming task forces from 

the Departments of Commerce,' Treasury, Agriculture, and 

Interior in each major port of entry. These groups were 

briefed by attorneys from the Department of Justice, Land 

and Natural Resources Division, and local U.S. Attorney's 

off ices. NMFS trains its own personnel as well as law 

enforcement personnel from other Federal agencies and the 

States in the enforcement of the MMPA. Also , tr a in ing 

seminars are held for U.S. Customs Inspections and Control 

personnel at ports of entry. 

Interagency Review and Coordination 

Seventeen Feder a1 departments and agencies conduct or 

suppor t research related to the conservation and protect ion 

of marine mammals. (Annual Report of the Marine Mammal 

Commission, Calendar Year 1980 ). The Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM), NMFS and the Fish and Wildlife Service 

have the largest programs. NMFS reviews and coordinates 

many of these programs with the other agencies involved in 

marine mammal programs. 

Marine Mammals and the Effects of Outer Continental Shelf Oil 

and Gas Development 

NMFS reviews proposed actions and advises the BLM on 

activities and events associated with the exploration and 

development of offshore oil and gas resources which may 

directly or indirectly affect marine mammals and the 

ecosystem of which they are a part. BLM is responsible 

under the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) land act for 

predicting, mitigating, and detecting the adverse effects of 

OCS oil and gas development. NMFS advises the BLM of 

measures that are needed to assure that the proposed actions 

will not plgce marine mammals at a disadvantage. 

NMFS and BLM held the first of several planned regional . coordinating meetings in Seattle, Wash. (November 1980 ) . The responsibilities of each agency and its marine mammal 

research programs were discussed. 
Wildlife Law Enforcement Coordinating Committee 

The Coordinating Committee, which includes NMFS, FWS, APHIS, 

Customs Service, and Department of Just ice concluded a 

Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) (~anuary 1980 ) to 

establish a Wildlife Task Force for California. The Task 

Force will be located in the Customs Office at Terminal 

Island, Calif. and will focus on wildlife importation 

violations in the Los Angeles and San Diego areas where many 

major wildlife cases have occurred. 

A draft MOU on forfeiture of seized wildlife has been 

circulated by the Committee for public comment. Signing of 

the MOU is expected in 1981. 

Steer inq Group - Marine Mammal/F ish and Shellfish Interact ions 

Marine mammals and fisheries compete for some of the same 

fish and s h e l l f i s h resources. In 1979, a Steering Group of 

representatives from NMFS, the North Pacific Fishery 

Management Council and the Marine Mammal Commission was 

formed to develop a plan to manage cooperatively the goals 

of the MMPA and the FCMA. 

NMFS has prepared a report on a workshop held by this group 

in Seattle, Wash., May 1980. The report, Ecosystem Simulation 

Models and Their Appl icat ions to Fishery Management, will be 

published in 1981. 
PART I1 - MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH PROGRAMS 

Cetaceans 

Porpo'ise and the Tuna Purse Seine Fishery 

Management 

Most tuna harvested in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean 

(ETP) involves setting large purse seine nets on schools of 

tuna. These schools are often found in close association 

with marine mammals such as porpoise. Fishermen use the 

knowledge of this relationship between certain prpo ise 

stocks and yellowfin tuna to guide fishing strategy by 

setting their nets around schools of prpo ise to catch the 

tuna. During this operation, incidental taking of porpoise 

can occur which results in death or serious injury. 

This incidental taking under the MMPA requires permits and 

accompanying regulations. Before permits may be issued, two 

operative tests must be sat is£ ied. First, any incidental 

taking must not be to the disadvantage of the affected 

species and stocks and must not reduce affected species and 

stocks below their optimum sustainable populations (OSP) . Second, the "immediate goal" test requires that "in any 

event it shall be the immediate goal that the incidental 

kill or incidental ser ious in j ury of mar ine mammals 

permitted in the course of commercial fishing operations be 

reduced to insignificant levels approaching a zero mortality 

and serious injury rate." Once the "disadvantage" test is 

satisfied, the "immediate goal" test requires that mortality 

be lowered to levels that are achievable through the use of 

the best pr act icable technology so that commercial £ ishing 

can continue. Once the interests of the marine mammals are 

assured, the interests of the industry can be served. 

A major consideration is that, except for scientific 

research., the MMPA does not allow any take permits to be 

issued if the subject species or stock is designated as 

depleted. In this regard, the Administrator of NOAA has 

concluded as a matter of law that a species or stock is 
depleted when the number of individuals of the species or 

stock is below its OSP. 

The previous general permit governing the incidental taking 

of porpoise in the ETP was issued on December 27, 1977; 

regulations were published on December 23, 1977. These 

regulations reduced allowable annual porpo ise mortality by 

establishing decreasing individual stock quotas; gear 

regulations; porpo ise rescue ~ocedures; and observer 

requirements. The general permit expired December 31, 1980. 

In addition, there is an accidental take enforcement policy 

that allows for limited accidental taking of eastern spinner 

dolphin, a depleted stock, and other prohibited stocks, 

because such limited taking was determined not to be to the 

stocks' disadvantage. 

On February 15, 1980, proposed regulatory amendments were 

published that included statements required by the MMPA and 

that would amend regulations published on December 23, 1977. 

A Draft Environmental Impact Statement was filed with the 

Environmental Protect ion Agency on February 5, 1980, and 

made available to other Federal agencies and the general 

public for comment on February 15, 1980. 

A formal hearing provided the opportunity for public review 

of the proposed regulations and all other relevant 

informat ion. The hearing was conducted by Administrative 

Law Judge, Hugh J. Dolan in San Diegoi Calif. , from March 31 

through April 5, 1980, and in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 

15, and 18, and May 19, 1980. 

The hearing focused on the following issues: (a) estimates 

of existing levels of the species and stocks of the marine 

mammals involved in purse seining yellowfin. tuna; (b) the 

expected impact of the proposed regulations on the OSP 

levels of the species and stocks involved; (c) the economic 

feasibility of implementing the proposed regulations, (d) 

the technological feasibility of implementing the proposed 

regulations; and (e) the impact of implementing the proposed 

regulations on the tuna stocks. 
Table 1. Total incidental porpoise mortality and serious 

injury for U.S. and Non-U.S. vessels, 1971-1979 

(NMFS, 1979, updated) 

Year - U.S. Vessels 

246,213 

368,600 

206,697 

147,437 

166,645 

108,740 (quota - 78,000) 

25,452 (quota - 62,429) 

19,366 (quota-51,945) 

17,938 (quota-41,610) 

15,000 (quota-31,150) 

Non-U.S. Vessels Total 

Following public review and comment and the formal hearing 

before an ALJ, the Administrator's final decision was 

announced October 21, 1980 and published October 31, 1980. It 

was reprinted in the FEIS - proposed Regulations and 

Conditions for the Issuance of a General Permit Governing 

the Taking of Marine Mammals Associated with Tuna Purse 

Seining Operations, November 1980. The amended regulations 

established conditions for the issuance of a qeneral permit 

to allow the taking of a maximum of 20,500-~or~oi~es as 

apportioned into individual stock quotas for each of the 

five years 1981-1985. This mortality limit will not be to 

the disadvantage of the affected porpoise stocks, and no 

intentional taking of depleted or other prohibited 

species/stocks will be permitted. NMFS will monitor the 

affected fishery and take appropriate action to reduce the 

maximum number of porpoises that are taken incidentally 

consistent with the economic and the technological 

feasibility of industry compliance with the reductions. The 

NMFS will also complete a reassessment of the status of the 

porpoise stocks in the ETP by the end of 1984. The 

regulations add to or modify gear and procedural 

requirements, clarify observer responsibilities, and modify 

importation documents. 

A general permit was issued to the American Tunaboat 

Association, December 1, 1980. Proposed amendments to the 

regulations modifying stock quotas within the 20,500 animals 

per year unit were published in the Federal Register, 

January 7, 1981. 
The yellowfin tuna/porpoise management program is led by 

NMFS personnel in the , Southwest Region. Dur ing 1980, 99 

tuna/porpo ise observer cruises were completed aboard U .S. 

flag tuna vessels. Of these, 55 were cooperative cruises 

with the Inter-Amer ican Tropical Tuna Commission and 44 were 

trips sponsored by the NMFS. 

Porpoise safety gear inspections were made on 66 vessels in 

San Diego, Calif. and Panama City, Panama to ensure 

conformance with U.S. mar ine mammal regulations. Tun a 

seiner operator workshops were held for 13 skippers during 

the year. Since tuna/prpo ise regulations remained 

unchanged from the previous year, 138 operators who held 

1979 Certificates of Inclusion were not required to attend 

in 1980. 

Porpoise mortality for the U.S. tuna purse seine fleet 

declined further in 1980. By the first week in December 

1980, less than 15,000 animals were estimated to have been 

killed during the course of fishing operations. This 

compares favorably to a total of about 18,500 in 1979, about 

24,000 in 1977 and about 157,000 in 1975. 

Research 

In 1980, the Southwest Fisheries Center continued to assess 

the population size and biology of dolphins involved in the 

tuna purse seine fishery of the eastern tropical Pacific. 

Research activities focused on six major areas: . (1) 

analysis of research vessel and aerial survey data for 

population estimation; (2) collect ion of additional data on 

dolphin distribution; (3) execution of experiments to 

evaluate aerial photographs for measuring dolphins; (4) 

development of methods for better age determination; (5 ) 

investigation of new methods for stock identification; and 

(6) continuat ion of development of a satellite-1 inked tag. 

Data collected in 1979 and early 1980 on research vessel and 

aer ial surveys were analyzed. A descr ipt ion of methodology 

used in the analyses and estimates of stock sizes were 

completed and included in the Final Environmental Impact 

Statement, Proposed Regulations and Conditions for the 

Issuance of a General Permit Governing the Taking of Marine 

Mammals Associated with Tuna Seining Operat ions, November 

1980. 
NMFS participated on two research vessel cruises of the 

Eastern Pacific Ocean Climate Survey to obtain more 

information on the distribution and habitat of dolphins in 

the eastern tropical Pacific. The cruises were conducted in 

an area where data on dolphin distribution are sparse. 

Principal objectives were to extend our understanding about 

changes in dolphin distribution with season and about 

differences in distribution of species as related to 

oceanographic features. 

Aerial photographic techniques for counting and identifyin5 

dolphins have been under investigation since 1974. An 

aer ial photographic exper iment was des igned and executed 

jointly by the NMFS and the Inter-American Tropical Tuna 

Commission in November and December 1980 off the coast of 

Mex ico . The goal of the experiment was to obtain 

photographs of schools of high resolution and clarity for 

estimating lengths of individual animals. The data obtained 

are being evaluated. 

Development of a method of aging dolphins by mapping fine 

layers in teeth sections continued in 1980. Sufficient 

pogress has been made to test the method on a large 

collection of specimens. 

Investigations in new methods for stock identification began 

with studies on the feasibility of using parasite faunas, 

chromosome morphology, and mult i-var iate analysis of 

mrphometric data to separate stocks. These studies are 

expected to be completed in 1981. 

A design flaw delayed the development of a satellite-1 inked 

tag in 1980. The flaw was discovered in a prototype tag 

that was tested on a wild dolphin. The test revealed that 

the surface-exposure time of the tag's antenna was 

insufficient for linking with a NIMBUS satellite. 

Modifications to correct the problem are being evaluated. 

Bottlenose Dolphin 

Management 

The popularity of the bottlenose dolphin, especially for 

public display, prompted the Marine Mammal Commission to 

recommend an annual quota for the number of animals 

2 6 
authorized to be removed from populations in the Southeast 

Region for scientific research and public display. The 

number removed during any calendar year cannot exc.eed two 

percent of the minimum population in a specific location. 

The Southeast Region regulates the taking under permits; all 

permit holders authorized to take dolphins from the region 

are required to consult with the Regional Director about 

specific locations of take. At this time, taking is 

authorized only from the areas where quotas have been set 

and only until these quotas are reached. The Southeast 

Center is currently surveying the populations in the 

affected areas and future quotas will be based on the 

results of these studies. 

Annual Quotas 

Mississippi Sound - 35 

Indian/Banana River Complex (Florida) - 7 

Texas Coast - Corpus Cristi/Matagordo Bay - 17 

West Coast of Florida (between Crystal River and Charlotte 

Harbor) - 6 

Research 

After evaluating several experimental marking techniques, 

the Southeast F isher ies Center selected cryogenic freeze 

branding .as the method to use to identify individual 

bottlenose dolphins. Dur ing November 1980, sixty-two 

dolphins were captured, branded and released in the Indian 

River, Fla. Through systematic res ight ing , information is 

collected on comps it ion, social dynamics, and movements of 

selected dolphins in this area. 

Aer ial survey technology developed to estimate bottlenose 

dolphin densities was applied to five specific locations; 

Aransas and San Antonia Bays, Tex; Indian and Banana Rivers, 

Fla; Apalachicola and St. Joseph Sound, Fla; Mississippi 

Sound, Miss; . and Charlotte Harbor, Fla. Popul at ion 

estimates of these areas are pending. 
Bowhead Whales 

Management 

Hunting bowhead whales by Alaska natives has been regulated 

by the International Whaling Commission since 1977 when it 

set a quota for whales struck and landed during the 1978 

season. The MMPA allows for a native subsistence harvest of 

whales if the taking is for subsistence purposes and not 

accomplished in a wasteful manner. The MMPA allows for 

regulating the subsistence take of a species declared 

depleted as defined by the Act. 

The IWC decided to regulate the hunt because of concern for 

the population size of the bowheads and the expansion of the 

hunt. The current population estimate is 2,264 bowheads in 

the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. The 1980 quota set 

by the IWC was 18 whales landed or 26 struck. A landed 

whale is counted as a strike, and whales that are struck but 

lost are counted as strikes. The quota was reached by 

Alaska natives when 15 bowhead whales had been landed and 11 

had been struck but lost. The quota was exceeded when 5 

bowheads were struck at Barrow during May and one whale was 

landed and two struck and lost at Kaktovik during the autumn 

hunt. The total take for 1980 was 16 landed and 18 struck 

and lost for a total of 34. The overall quota set by the 

IWC for 1981, 1982, and 1983 is 45 landed or 65 struck, with 

no more than 17 landed during any one year. 

During the 1980 hunting season, NMFS placed enforcement 

personnel beginning at Pt. Hope, Alaska, April 14 and ending 

at Barrow, Alaska, June 6. Taking of a whale by natives at 

Kaktovik in the fall was documented as being in violation of 

the closed season. The case was passed to the Justice 

Department for prosecut ion. 

Research 

The bowhead whale research program at the National Marine 

Mammal Laboratory, Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center, has 

been designed to (1) provide a reliable estimate, of the 

western Arct ic-Bering Sea bowhead whale population size, (2) 

provide an estimate of annual recruitment, ( 3) determine 
distribution and migration routes, and; (4) determine the 

effect of the Alaska native harvest on this population. The 

spring northward migration was delayed by almost a month in 

1980 due to an ice blockage in the Bering Strait. As a 

result, some bowheads entered Norton Sound, an unusual 

occurrence, and one bowhead was landed (the first time on 

record) by hunters at Shaktoolik. The migration past the 

NMFS whale census camps near Barrow occurred over a two-week 

period, a much shorter period than normal, because of the 

ice blockage in the Bering Sea. Based on observations made 

in spring 1978, the population of bowhead whales migrating 

past Alaska Eskimo whaling villages ranged from 1,783 to 

2,865 whales, with 2,264 bowheads considered the best 

estimate. Analyses of data collected in 1979 and 1980 

indicate that the 1978 estimate remains the best estimate of 

this population size. Census research is directed pr imar ily 

at determining relative abundance or change in the 

populat ion. 

Studies of bowheads were made during research in Amundsen 

Gulf and eastern Beaufort Sea, (Canada) to gain better 

information on annual recruitment (births). A cruise aboard 

the Soviet vessel Razyatchi in the western Chukchi Sea in 

the autumn provided additional information on distribution. 

An analysis of life history and harvest data using an agestructure model suggests that this population may have 

declined over the period 1970-1980. Further evaluation of 

the limited data available and collection of additional life 

history information will be needed to determine the 

reliability of this model. 

Biological work on aging bowheads continues through 

biochemical analysis of eyes. Other aging techniques, based 

on analyses of baleen plates and wax ear plugs, have not 

proven reliable. A biopsy dart developed and successfully 

tested in 1979 was used again in 1980 to collect additional 

t issue samples for karyotyping and electrophoretic work to 

determine the biochemical and genetic heterogeneity of the 

population. Stored fatty acids in the blubber layer and in 

prey are being analyzed for their relation to possible prey 

items and time of feeding. 

Stomach contents from the five whales taken in the fall of 

1979 were recovered and identified. The dominant food item 

was copepods, with euphausiids (krill) being next in 

importance; together they provided 91.2 to 99.7 percent of 

the stomach contents of all five whales. The stomach 

contents indicate that a feeding dive probably involves 

swimming obliquely from surface to bottom and back, feeding 
the entire time, These are the only data available on the 

feeding of bowhead whales in the central portion of the 

Beaufort Sea. 

Dall Is Porpo ise 

Management 

Marine mammals, primarily the Dallls porpoise, are taken 

dur ing commercial gillnet operat ions by Japanese fishing 

vessels, within and outside the U.S. fishery conservation 

zone (FCZ) in the North Pacific and Bering Sea. A threeyear exemption from the incidental take permit requirements 

of the MMPA granted the Japanese salmon fishery in the North 

Pacific Ocean, and implemented by 1978 amendments to the 

North Pacific Fisheries Act of 1954, will expire in June 

1981. NMFS published a draft environmental impact statment, 

Incidental Take of Dallls Porpoise in the Japanese Salmon 

Fishery in January 1981. The DEIS examines the Impacts or 

the following alternatives : ( 1) allow the Japanese fishery 

to continue to take marine mammals within waters under U.S. 

jurisdiction (proposed action), through either (a) granting 

an incidental take permit under the MMPA, or (b) 

recommending legislative action to extend the permit 

exemption; and (2) not allow this incidental take to 

continue, thereby ending the Japanese salmon fishery within 

the U.S. FCZ, by taking no action before June 1981. The 

Japanese have applied for a general take permit for 1981 

which, if granted, would allow 5,500 animals to be taken in 

the FCZ. 

Research 

Scientists from the National Marine Mammal Laboratory, and 

the Japanese Fisher ies Agency completed a 3-year cooperative 

research program to evaluate the effect on the Dallls 

porpoise by the Japanese high-seas salmon gillnet fishery. 

Not enough data existed previously to determine current 

mpulation size, annual incidental take levels, or the 

reproductive and natur a1 mrtal ity rates of the af fected 

populations. Data from the three years of study are being 

analyzed to determine the possible impact of the mothership 
and land-based fisheries on the Dall's porpoise. Estimates 

of abundance of the Dallls porpoise in the northern North 

Pacific and Bering Sea range from 580,000 to 2.3 million 

with 920,000 considered the best estimate. Preliminary 

analysis of the life history data is complicated because of 

pssible seasonal and aerial biases in the data and by lack 

of return of all porpoise to the mothership for sampling as 

a result of a misunderstanding of the cooperative agreement 

requirements by the Japanese fishermen. 

During the 1979 and 1980 seasons, the Fisheries Agency of 

Japan chartered a vessel dedicated to marine mammal and 

salmon research. The vessel was engaged in tagging to 

provide information on movements of the porpoise and in 

studies of entanglement while working with the mothership 

fleet using commercial gear and techniques. One marine 

mammalogist boarded each of the four salmon motherships to 

collect biological samples and data from all porpo ises 

returned to the motherships by the catcherboats. This 

information will be used to determine the life history of 

Dallas porpoise. The s c i e n t ists observed entanglements 

abosrd catcherboats of each of the mothership fleets this 

ye ar . U.S. scientists aboard three Japanese research 

vessels collected systematic sighting data for use in 

estimating the abundance of Dall 's porpo ise. 

Gray Whale 

Management 

In 1978, the IWC removed the gray whale from protected 

status when they determined the population was approaching 

precommercial exploitation levels. Interest in whale 

watching along the California coast has paralleled the 

increased abundance of gray whales. Harassment by whale 

watchers continues to have the potential for adverse impact 

to individual whales as they migrate along the California 

coast. 

Guidelines for gray whale watching were included in an 

educational brochure published by the Southwest Region in 

cooperation with the American Cetacean Society in 1979. 
Failure to observe the guidelines may be interpreted as 

harassment which is illegal under the MMPA. Copies of the 

brochure are available from the NMFS, Southwest Region, 300 

South Ferry Street, Terminal Island, California 90731, 

Research 

During the second year of a proposed 5-year cooperative 

research program with the Mexican Department of Fisheries, 

the NMML studied the gray whales most important calving area 

which is at Laguna Ojo de Liebre, Baja California. Data on 

distribution, numbers, and behavior of both adults and 

calves were obtained. In addition, an extensive aerial 

census of gray whales was made throughout their winter range 

along the west coast of Baja California. 

Annual shore censuses of southward migrating gray whales 

have been made for the past 13 years from points near 

Monterey , California. A series of aerial transects and 

ground-truth studies were made during the 1979/80 southward 

migration to determine what proportion of whales pass out of 

sight of the shore observers and to identify and measure 

observer bias from shore. Gray whale censuses also were 

made at Cape Sarichef, Unimak Pass, Alaska. These censuses 

indicate that the gray whale population now numbers about 

16,000. 

H umpb ack Wh a1 e 

Management 

About 60 percent (650) of the entire North Pacific 

population of the humpback whale winter in the coastal 

waters off the main islands of Hawaii. To protect the 

humpback from whale watchers, NMFS issued a Notice of 

Interpretati~n (NOI) on January 4, 1979 for the "taking by 

harassment" of humpback whales in the Hawaiian Islands which 

continued to be in effect for the 1980-81 season. Portions 

of the NO1 were summarized in a brochure distributed by the 

Southwest Region to private boaters, whale watchers, 
airlines serving Maui, and the general public. NMFS special 

agents were assigned temprary duty in Hawaii to augment 

enforcement efforts and increase public awareness through 

increased public contact. Enforcement efforts also have 

been aided by the acquisition of a NMFS patrol vessel. The 

number of complaints of alleged harassment of humpback 

whales declined in the 1979-1980 season compared to previous 

years. This appears to be due to a better understanding by 

whale watchers and the public about activities which harass 

humpback whales. 

Research 

A census of humpback whales and other marine mammals was 

made in the Gulf of Alaska from June through August 1980 by 

the National Mar ine Mammal Laboratory. Small local 

concentrations of humpbacks are located around the Barren 

Islands northeast of Kodiak, around Middleton Islands, in 

Prince William Sound, in Yakutat Bay, and in the Alexander 

Archipelago of southeastern Alaska. 

The NMML has established a central computerized index for 

identification photographs of humpback whales. Photographs 

of the flukes of humpback whales are being contributed by 

biologists working in many parts of the Mrth Pacific. 

Matching photographs enables the movements of individual 

whales to be plotted and has revealed the migration routes 

between summer grounds in Alaska and winter grounds around 

Hawaii and off Mexico. 
Pinniped Programs 

Hawaiian Monk Seal 

Management 

The Hawaiian monk seal was declared depleted in July 1976 

under the MMPA and listed as endangered under the Endangered 

Species Act in November 1976. The Marine Mammal Commission 

recommended in December 1976 that a portion of the Hawaiian 

monk seal's range be considered for designation as critical 

habitat. NMFS issued a draft environmental impact statement 

in February 1980 which evaluated critical habitat 

alternatives for the Hawaiian monk seal. Public comments 

have been received and are under review. A recovery team 

was appointed by the Southwest Regional Director in 1980 to 

prepare a Draft Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian monk seal. 

The Plan is scheduled for completion by summer, 1981. 

Research 

A long-term cooperative study of Hawaiian monk seal biology 

was started in 1976 by biologists at the Wrthwest and 

Alaska Fisheries Center; the National Bird and Mammal 

Laboratory, FWS ; and Mar ine Mammal Commission contract 

researchers. Surveys were made of the status and trends of 

the population, and a population and behavioral study was 

made at Laysan Island, Hawaii in 1977, 1978, 1979 and 1980. 

Recent censuses indicate most island populations have 

decreased 50 percent, on the average, since the late 1950's. 

Monk seal populations at Kure, Midway, and Pearl Islands and 

Hermes Reef declined 70 to 90 percent in the same period. 

Lisianski and Laysan Island populations have declined 40 to 

60 percent, while monk seal populations at French Frigate 

Shoals and. Necker Island increased during the same period. 

A comprehensive analysis of the data from the 1977-1980 

studies will be made in 1981. The results will be used by 

the Recovery Team, the Marine Mammal Commission and NMFS to 
identify the actions needed to encourage recovery and 

mnktor the status of the monk seal population. By the end 

of 1980, the Recovery Team had met several times to develop 

a Recovery Plan. A workshop was held at the Southwest 

Fisheries Center in April 1980 to develop a "die-off" 

response plan. In 1978, at least 50 mnk seals died on 

Laysan Island, possibly from ciguatoxin poisoning. 

Threats to the monk seal include disturbance and harassment 

by humans, commercial fishing , disease, shark predation, and 

man-made toxic substances. The Honolulu Laboratory of the 

Southwest Fisheries Center directs monk seal studies for 

NMFS. 

Channel Islands National Park, California 

Management 

The National Parks and Recreation Act (the Act) established 

the Channel Islands National Park in March 1980. S an 

Miguel, one of the islands included in the park, is home to 

s ix species of pinnipeds. The Act instructed the Departments 

of the Interior and Commerce to cooperate in the development 

of a Natural Resources Study to consider marine mammals in 

the park planning process. The NMFS Southwest Region and 

the Southwest Fisheries Center are developing management and 

research plans for pinniped populations within the Park in 

cooperation with the National Park Service, the State of 

California, and the Office of Coastal Zone Management. This 

cooper at ive effort will continue for a minimum ten-year 

period (1980-1990) as mandated by the Act. 

Research 

The NationaJ Marine Mammal Laboratory is continuing a long 

term research program on San Miguel Island. This program 

was initiated in 1968 when a northern fur seal breeding 

colony was discovered on the island. The program mnitors 

the growth of the northern fur seal colony, investigates the 

relationships between northern fur seals and the five other 
pinniped species that use the island, and studies the 

biology and behavior of all the pinniped species on the 

Island. In 1981, the Southwest Fisheries Center will 

implement the population assessment phase of its coastal 

marine mammal program to collect in£ orma t ion on the current 

status of pinniped populations on the Channel Islands. The 

California sea lion, northern sea lion, northern fur seal, 

Guadalupe fur seal, harbor seal, and northern elephant seal, 

haul out on the island. The northern fur seal population is 

expanding; in 1980, about 1,500 pups were born. The 

California sea lion population appears to have stabilized 

with between 7,000 and 9,000 pups born each year. 

California sea lions and northern fur seals compete for 

rookery space, because both species pup and breed at the 

same time at Adams Cove and Castle rock. Studies of 

competition for space between the two species suggest that 

the less abundant northern fur seal is displacing the 

California seal lion. In 1980, studies of allocation of 

food resources among California sea lions, northern fur 

seals, harbor seals, and northern elephant seals were 

initiated to describe the food habits and further 

characterize the role in that ecosystem of these pinniped 

species. 

Pribilof Islands Program - Northern Fur Seal 

Management 

Each year the U.S. government employs Aleut residents to 

harvest male fur seals on the Pribilof Islands. The fur 

seal is polygynous with one harem bull to an average of 40 

female seals. Therefore, the surplus males in excess of the 

reproductive needs of the population are harvested when they 

are between the ages of 2 and 6 years. These sub-adult 

males haul out in groups away from the females, pups, and 

harem bulls in the breeding areas. This separation makes it 

possible to herd only bachelor males inland for harvesting 

without disturbing the rookeries. The number of seals 

harvested each year is regulated by establishing size and 

season limit-s. In 1980, a total of 24,278 male fur seals, 

primarily 3 and 4 year olds, were harvested during the 25- 

day season on St. Paul Island from June 27 to August 1. 
The moratorium on commercial harvest on St. George Island 

that began in 1973 continued in 1980 although a subsistence 

harvest was allowed on one haul-out area. A total of 350 

seals were taken for local consumption during the twice a 

week subsistence harvest from July 8 to August 21. 

Aside from managing the northern fur seal herds on the 

Pribilof Islands, the WFS is responsible (under the Fur 

Seal Act of 1966) for administration of the islands. 

Feder a1 involvement is gradually d imin ishing on the Pr ib ilof 

Islands as the Aleut people assume greater responsibility 

for municipal functions. 

NMFS pub1 ished the final environmental impact statement 

(FEIS) in September 1980, Interim Convention on Conservation 

of North Pacific Fur Seals. The FEIS recommended extending 

the Interim Convention for four years. This alternative was 

determined by NMFS to provide the best available protection 

to the northern fur seal throughout its range. 

Research 

Biological information collected by the National Marine 

Mammal Laboratory for fur seals of the Pr ibilof Islands of 

St. Paul and St. George in 1980 included the determination 

of age composition of fur seals harvested, the number of 

adult males on the rookeries and hauling grounds and the 

number of pups and seals older than pups that died on the 

rookeries and adjacent beaches. The number of pups born on 

St. Paul Island in 1980 was also estimated. This work was 

reported in NWAFC Processed Report 81-2--Fur Seal 

Envestigations, 1980. Population data, collect ion 

procedures, and management of the northern fur seal of the 

Pr ibilof Islands were summarized in NWAFC Processed Report 

80-11. With the cooperation of Japan, Canada, and the USSR, 

a comprehensive summary of land and pelagic data was 

com~iled and ~ublished in 1980 as NOAA Technical Memoranda. 

~heke three <olumes included: Volume 1, Land Data of the 

United States and Soviet Union; Volume 2, Eastern pacific 

Pelagic Data of the United States and Canada; and Volume 3, 

Western Pacific Pelagic Data of the Soviet Union and Japan. 

The Pelagic Research Task completed its analysis of Pelagic 

fur seal data collected by the United States and Canada 

dur ing 1958-74. The report includes distribution and 

migration, life table and biomass estimates, pregnancy rates 

and migration, maturity and age at first reproduction, and 

the feeding habits of the northern fur seal. 
A three-year field study on estrus in fur seals and a threeyear study on movements of juvenile males were completed. 

Additional data were collected on diving behavior of female 

fur seals for inclusion in a manuscript on "Feeding and 

diving behavior in three species of eared sealstt. A study 

on age bias in the shearing-sampling procedure was complete, 

and results were made available to other fur seal tasks for 

use in modifying the technique. A study on the seasonal 

distribution of fur seal births by sex was also completed; 

the results will be published by the NMML. 

The NMML investigated an epidemic of neurologic disease in 

adult female fur seals migrating off the coast of Oregon and 

Washington. Two of three comatose seals studied were 

restored to normal health. A mother-pup pair was studied 

for energy requirements of nursing females, and the life 

history of a parasite found in their bloodstreams was 

examined before they were released. 

Progress was made on determining the life cycle and 

detrimental effects of respiratory mites on fur seals and on 

the transmission of filariid worms in fur seals. 

Microbiology and cell mediated immunity were studied. Two 

scientific papers on parasites and treatment of parasites 

were published. 

East Coast Marine Mammal Research 

Cetaceans and Pinnipeds 

Relatively little is known about the status or trends of the 

more than 30 species of cetaceans and pinnipeds that inhabit 

the waters along the East Coast of the United States. 

Congress appropriated monies in 1980 to facilitate the 

development of a research and management program for East 

Coast cetaceans. The first workshop was organized by the 

New England Aquarium in 1979. 

To continue the program, NMFS convened a Workshop on 

Humpback Whales in the Western North Atlantic (November 

1980). The report of the workshop will be used to develop a 

research/management plan for humpback whales in the 

Northwestern Atlantic. NMFS also initiated a program to 

assess and monitor the status of endangered whales, harbor 
porpoises, and other cetaceans along the northeast coast of 

the United States. NMFS has awarded contracts to study 

harbor seals, humpback whales and right whales, develop an 

observer training course, a shipboard observer manual, 

publish a humpback whale fluke identification catalogue, and 

extract data from whaling logbooks and journals. 
PART I11 - STATUS OF STOCKS REPORT FOR MARINE MAMMALS 

Introduction 

The system used by scientists to classify plants and animals 

begins with the major category, kingdom, and is followed by 

phylum, class, order, suborder, family, genus, and species. 

The Department of Commerce is responsible for the order 

Cetacea (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and the seals and 

sea lions of the suborder Pinnipedia, which is a part of the 

order Carnivora. This report describes the orders, 

suborders, families and species of these groups. It also 

reports the estimated population numbers of these animals 

and their relative status in the ecosystem. Of about 108 

species of pinnipeds and cetaceans throughout the world, 

status reports have been prepared for 52 species that are of 

primary concern to the United States including marine 

mammals commonly found in the Fisheries Conservation Zone, 

the Antarctic, Eastern Tropical Pacific, and those managed 

by the International Whaling Commission or which have been 

imported under a scientific research or public display 

permit. 

Because we are separated from marine mammals by the sea, the 

study of these animals in their natural habitat has been 

difficult. Although, several alternatives to first hand 

observation are used to study marine mammals. One method 

has been to study the remains of animals that have been 

killed or stranded. New methods of statistical analysis 

allow scientists to estimate the past abundance and 

distribution of some groups and to compare these to present 

day populations. In the past 25 years, the study of fossil 

history has given scientists a better understanding of the 

development of marine mammals. 

Some marine mammals populations are healthy and stable; 

others have not recovered from previous years of intense 

exploitation. As a group, pinnipeds seem to have fared 

better than the cetaceans. Whales listed as endangered 

under the U.S. Endangered Species Act are the blue whale, 

bowhead whale, fin whale, gray whale, humpback whale, right 

whales, sei whale, and sperm whale. Three seals, the 

Caribbean monk seal, the Hawaiian monk seal, and the 

Mediterraean monk seal are on this list. The Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and 

Flora (CITES) controls the trade of all plants and animals 
that have been given protected status by the onv vent con. 

This international body has restricted trade for all 

cetaceans and 13 species of pinnipeds. 
Accounts of the following species are included in this 

report. 

Order: Carnivora 

Suborder : Pinn iped ia 

Family: Otariidae , Family: Phocidae (con't) 

C\ 

California sea lion 

S~ i. ". (Zalophug californianus) ~~YPUS 

Northern (Stellar) sea lion '/ 

,,/ Bearded seal >" , (Eumetopias jubatus) S/& (Er ignathus barbatus) - 

Northern (Alaska) fur seal r yawaiian monk seal 

Cal lor h inus ur s inus) 27 '- (Monachus schauinslandi) 

Guadalupe fur seal crabeater seal 

c,- 'I (Arctocephalus townsendi) (Lobodon carc inophaqus) 

Family: Phocidae 

Largha seal ' .' (Phoca largha) 

,Harbor (Commn) seal 

(Phocl vitulina) 

Ross seal 

(Ommatophoca rossi) 

Leopard seal 

(Hydrurga leptonyx ) 

Weddell seal 

(Leptonychotes weddelli) 

jc Ringed seal ' Wrthern elephant seal /I 

,. : . (Phoca [=pusal hispida) s'/ ' (Mirouga leonian) 

. Harp seal i 

(Paqophilus qroenlandicus) 

I Ribbon seal 

.: (Phoca [=Histr iophoca] f asc iata) 5 #' 
Suborder: Mysticeti 

Family: ~schr ichtiidae Family: Delphinidae (con1 t) / ( /%ray wh a1 e '51 -@ '~4 T' Spinner Dolphin 

(Eschrichtius robustus) (Stenella longirostris) t 

37 

Family: Balaenopterida . Spotted dolphin 

(Stenella attenuata) 6 

, Minke whale 5 :I- Atlantic spotted dolphin; ) 

(Balaenoptera acutorostratar 2 (Stenella plagiodon) Z 

/ Sei whale 5 1 Striped dolphin 

(Balaenoptera borealis) Sf (Stenella coeruleoa1ba)- 

'Bryde s whale s "I Common dolphin 

(Balaenoptera edeni) ' (Delphinus delphis) i; 2 & 

Fin whale s 'f Fraserls dolphin 

(Balaenoptera physalus) (Lagenodelphis hosei) 

, Blue whale wr . Atlantic white-sided do1 hin 

(Balaenoptera musculus) - (Lagenorhynchus acutus) ? ' 

/Humpback whale & , Pacific white-sided dolphin .i 

(Meqaptera novaeangliae) (Lagenorhynchus ohliquidens)\, 

Family : Balaenida~...-b , Northern right whale dolphin, . (Lissodelphis borealis) ., 7- 

,Right whale Rissols dolphin 'i 

- (Balaena qlacialisb.. i I (Grampus griseus) / -+." .* 

Bowhead whale Melon-headed whale 

(Balaena mysticetus) (Peponcephala electra) . 

_ _I' 

. Pygmy killer whale 57 

Suborder: Odontoceti (Feresea attenuata) 

Family: Delphinidae ', 

Rough-toothed dolphin ~1 

(Steno bredanensis) 6 \ 

Bottlenose dolphin 5'1 J 9- (Tursiops truncatus) y. . / 

'\ .-' /' ' I7 - 4 3 r /' 

?/ 

I. P /" 1 --- 
Family: Delphinidae ( conn t) Family: Monodontitae 

Fplse killer whale -1 Beluga, belukha, white whale 

1;'(~seudorca crassidens) ' . -1 '(~el~hina~terus leucas) 

Long-f inned pilot whale ,r, 

'(~lobicephala melaena) J (. L , mP drWhal

(Monodon rnonoceros) 

Short-f inned pilot whale ,J < -, 

" Family: Physeteridae 

.- , (Globicephala macrorhynchus) ', . 

Killer whale iA'- i , ,Sperm whale 

(Orcinus orca) , c',t\[ (Physeter catodon) 

Family: Phocoena 

Harbor porpoise 51 

(Phocoena phocoena) 

Pygmy sperm whale , .- L(~0gi.a breviceps) ' I 

.,Dwarf sperm whale i\ - (koqia simus) 

Family: Ziphiidae 

Dall's porpoise i-, 3 '( ~a'ird's beaked whale 

i(Phocoenoides dallii) ("'1 ,' (~erardius bairdii) 3 \ 


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Order Carnivora 

Suborder Pinnipedia 

Seals, Sea Lions, and Walrus 

Pinnipeds (fin-footed animals) were once classified as a 

separate order of mammals. Based on information published 

10 years ago, they are classified now as a diverse group of 

carnivores ( flesh-eat ing animals ) that have adapted to 

marine life. The ancestors of sea lions and fur seals 

appeared 22 million years ago and are thought to be close to 

the ancestors of a group that preceded the modern bear. 

Hair (true) seals are considered to be between 14 to 16 

million years old and are tied closely to the carnivores 

that preceded the otter and weasel. Walruses, a member of 

the suborder Pinnipedia, are under the jurisdiction of the 

Department of the Interior. 

P inn ipeds have adapted several bas ic mammal i an 

characteristics to a marine existence. They maintain a 

relat ively constant body temperature s imilar to other 

mammals including humans. In fur seals, the constant body 

temperature is made possible by a coat of short stiff hairs 

over a heavy underfur while most other pinnipeds depend on a 

thick layer of blubber beneath the skin. This layer is an 

energy reservoir as well as a protective insulator in 

maintaining , body temperature. P innipeds have adapted to 

diving by reserving oxygen for the brain and heart. 

Immediately on diving, their heart beat slows to 20 to 25 

percent of its rate at the surface. During diving, the 

digestive system does not function at full capacity and the 

muscular system operates on a supply of oxygen stored in the 
tissue. One species can dive and remain submerged for over 

an hour, and several other species accomplish dives of 20 to 

30 minutes. 

Pinnipeds are tied to the land or a solid place such as the 

ice pack because successful births and nursing of the pups 

occur only along shorelines or ice packs. Like other 

mammals, they nourish their young with rich milk. Delayed 

implantat ion, or the capacity to postpone the development of 

an embryo after conception, is another adaptation to the 

marine environment demonstrated by seals. The ability to 

cycle the gestation and birth of the pup is known in other 

species of mammals, notably weasels and bears. Gestation, 

the time from conception to birth, reaches a finely timed 

coordination in pinnipeds; females of several species give 

birth within one day after coming ashore, become impregnated 

within a few days of giving birth, nurse the newborn for a 

few weeks and return to the water with the next year's 

pregnancy. 
Family Otariidae 

Eared Sea Lions and Fur Seals 

Our knowledge of the history of sea lions and fur seals is 

based on fossil deposits found along the edge of the North 

Pacific Ocean from California to Japan. Sea lions and fur 

seals have inch long, furled external ears. They are able 

to rotate both the fore and hind flippers which allows them 

to stand, run, and climb with great agility. In their 

polygamous (several mates ) social structure, a dominant male 

attempts to breed all females passing through his territory. 

Many newborn pups are crushed or lose track of their mothers 

during this time although high pregnancy rates may 

compensate for many of the pups lost. After about four 

months on land where birthing, breeding and nursing have 

taken place, the sea lions and fur seals return to sea. Sea 

lions and fur seals are found in both cold and tropical 

latitudes. Their underfur beneath a strong net of guard 

hairs provides insulation in extremely cold latitudes . Cold 

oceanic currents explain the presence of animals with heavy 

fur coats in tropical latitudes where during the mid to late 

18001s, some species of fur seals were reduced to remnants 

of their former populations because of the fur traders 

desire for their pelts because of the dense underfur. 
California sea lion 

Z alophus cal iforn ianu:* 

The three subspecies of the California Sea Lion inhabit the 

Pacific Ocean from the Galapagos Islands to Baja California 

to British Columbia. A form in the Sea of Japan may be 

extinct. The California population, which is the largest, 

breeds along the Channel Islands and oceanic islands off 

Mexico. Adult males reach 7.2 ft in length and weigh 600 

lbs; the females are 6 ft long and weigh 200 lbs. Newborn 

pups weigh 11 to 13 lbs. After the breeding season, males 

migrate as far north as Washington and British Columbia. 

Females and juveniles frequent the coastal waters of 

California and Mexico. Males defend their territories in 

the rookery areas although the females move freely from one 

territory to the next. Births occur from mid-May through 

June off California and from October to December in the 

Galapagos Islands. Gestation lasts 11.5 to 12 months, and 

the pups nurse for more than a year; the exact age of 

weaning is unknown. The females breed about 3 weeks after 

giving birth; the period of delayed implantation of the 

fetus is probably 3.5 months. This species adapts well to 

captivity and is the most commonly exhibited marine mammal 

species in the world. Under special conditions, it breeds 

well in captivity. Longevity records of 20 to 25 years are 

common. In the wild, this species feeds both day and night 

on squid, hake, sardines, and opeleye fish. Killer whales 

and sharks prey on California sea lions. 

The Mexican and California populations of sea lions number 

about 45,000 animals each. The Galapagos Island population 

has stablized at about 20,000 animals after recovering from 

sealing operations at the turn of the century. The eastern 

Pacific populations appear to be approaching the "carrying 

capacity of the ecosystem" (the number of animals of a 

species that a habitat can support). 
Northern (Steller) Sea Lion 

Eumetopias jubatus 

Northern sea lions are found in a large arc over the Pacific 

that includes the Sea of Japan, the Bering Sea, Aleutian 

Islands, Gulf of Alaska and the Channel Islands off 

California. They are the largest o'tarid; adult males 

average about 2,000 lbs, and adult females about 660 lbs. 

The males are about 10 ft long; females are 6 to 7 ft long. 

Newborn pups are about 3.5 ft long and weigh 35 to 50 lbs. 

The young are born from mid-May through June after a one 

year gestation period that includes a delayed implant at ion 

of about 3 months. The young are nursed for 8 to 11 months, 

and occasionally both a yearling and newborn are seen 

suckling from the mother. Pup mortality may be high in some 

rookeries from males moving about rapidly trying to maintain 

harems of 10 to 20 cows. Groups of non-breeding bachelors 

are found at the edges of the main rookery areas. Males in 

the northern portion of the range migrate north after the 

breeding season. Females mature sexually at 4 to 5 years. 

Males mature at age 5 to 7 although they become competit'ive 

breeders defending harems at 7 to 9 years of age. Harem 

bulls are active breeders probably for only 3 to 5 years 

before they retire to the bachelor groups. Northern sea 

lions have been known to live as long as 23 years. Northern 

sea lions feed on a wide variety of fish including salmon, 

cape1 in, shad, and lampreys. Killer whales frequently prey 

on sea lions. 

Northern sea lions probably are at or near the carrying 

capacity of their ecosystem. The Alaskan populations are 

estimated at over 200,000 animals. U.S.S.R. populations are 

thought to be between 20,000 to 50,000. The British 

Columbia population is about 5,000; Washington, about 600; 

Oregon, about 2,000; and California, about 5,000 to 7,000. 
Northern Fur Seal 

Callorh inus urs inus 

The Northern fur seal is one of the best known species of 

pinnipeds. Its biology and management have been the focus 

of an international treaty for over 75 years. The females 

and juveniles are highly migratory and range in a great arc 

across the North Pacific from the Sea of Japan through the 

southern Bering Sea down to the Channel Islands (San Miguel 

Island) off southern California. With the exception of the 

San Miguel breeding population, the animals migrate north in 

June to four island complexes. The largest number 

congregate on the Pribilof Islands, eastern Bering Sea; 

lesser numbers at the Commander Islands, Sea of Okhotsk; and 

the Kuril Islands, western North Pacific. As the females 

come ashore, they are met by the breeding harem master bulls 

who attempt to keep a group of females close to them. About 

two days after coming ashore, the females give birth to a 

single black pup which weighs about 12 lbs. The pups nurse 

for about four months and stay together in groups while 

their mothers are at sea feeding. In October, the seaward 

migration begins. Most fur seals do not come ashore again 

during their first years. 

Northern fur seals have a maximum life span of about 25 

years. Females mature sexually between 3 and 4 years of age 

and reach a breeding peak of a pup per year between 7 and 14 

years of age. The gestation period is about one year and 

includes a delayed implantation of about 4 months. Males 

mature sexually at 4 to 5 years but do not become effective 

breeders until 9 to 15 years old. Adult males are about 6.5 

ft long and weigh up to 600 lbs; the females weigh up to 110 

lbs and are about 4.5 ft long. Fur seals eat herring, 

pollock, salmon, and squid. Killer whales and sharks prey 

on adult northern fur seals; northern sea lions prey on fur 

seal pups. 

At a population size of about 1,838,000, this species 

appears to be at or near the carrying capacity of the 

ecosystem. There are 585,000 northern fur seals in Soviet 

waters, more than 3,000 in Southern California waters and 

1,250,000 in glaskan waters and the Bering Sea. Northern 

fur seal populations were greatly reduced in the latter part 

of the 19th century by pelagic sealing. In 1911, the total 

population numbered about 200,000 animals. 
Guadalupe Fur Seal 

Arctocephalus townsendi 

After 1923, the Guadalupe fur seal generally was regarded as 

extinct. In 1949, one adult male was seen on San Nicolas 

Island off California and a breeding colony was discovered 

on Guadalupe Island off Mexico in 1954. Observers have 

counted a population of 1,000 fur seals on Guadalupe Island 

along with o c c a s i o n a l s ightings of animals in the offshore 

waters of Baja California and southern California. Since 

1968, small numbers of non-breeding animals, usually subadult males , have been observed on San Miguel in the Channel 

Islands off California. Estimates of the former population 

of the Guadalupe fur seal are as high as 200,000 on 

Guadalupe alone. The estimated length for adult males is 

about 6.5 ft, 4.5 ft for females and 2 ft for newborn pups. 

Adult males weigh about 300 lbs and females about 100 lbs. 

Pups are born in June and July when the adult males 

establish territories in caves and rocky recesses for their 

harems. 

The small population on Guadalupe Island has survived as a 

breeding colony largely due to its inaccessible and usually 

unnot iced rookery s ites . The population probably will 

continue to grow since it appears to be below the 

ecosystem's carrying capac i ty . 

Family Phocidae 

Hair (True) Seals 

Hair seals are relatively young in the fossil record and are 

not as well known as the otarids. Their development 

probably took place in the North Atlantic Ocean basin. 

Their modern range in the northern and southern hemispheres 

is a recent dispersal thought to have preceded the 

pleistocene ice ages. Hair seals have smooth, round earless 

heads. The newborn phocid has a coat of lanugo hair which in 

several northern hemisphere species is white. A lanugo 

coat, or birth hair, provides warmth and protection in the 

first weeks of life. It can be white, gray, or black. 

Retaining a white coat after birth is an adaptive response 

to their ice habitat and is thought to protect them from 

their predators, polar bears, which feed -on the young and 

adults both on ice and at sea in the northern hemisphere. 

For some species, this predatory pressure is a substantial 

factor in their reproductive success each year. The general 

social structure of hair seals is of monogamous (one mate) 

aggregations with 1 ittle attempt to hold territories of 

females. Exceptions are found in the polygamous 

organization of gray and Weddell seals and in the 

territorial defense of the elephant seals (genus Mirounga). 

The limb structure, and therefore the locomotion, of hair 

seals is markedly different from the eared seals. The hind 

flippers of the hair seals do not extend at an angle from 

the body, but are held in a straight line axis. Their 

locomotion on land resembles an inch. worm.. . the weight of 

the rear part of the body thrown forward gives the animal a 

rippling effect when moving. Hair seals can balance and 

lift themselves on their forelimbs, but not while moving. 
Largha Seal 

Largha seals are found in the Beaufort, Chukchi, and Okhotsk 

Seas and northwestern parts of the Yellow Sea off Japan. 

During the winter and early spring, they associate closely 

with the ice pack and large ice flows on which they depend 

for a place to give birth and nurse their young. As the ice 

retreats in summer and autumn, they move north and form 

large groups on coastal shores. The newborn have a white 

wooly lanugo coat and weigh about 15 to 22 lbs. Gestation 

is about 10.5 months and pups are nursed for one month. The 

pups are usually born from late March through mid April. 

Males mature sexually between 4 and 5 years, females between 

3 and 4 years. Largha seals are known to live for 35 years. 

Males grow to 5.6 ft in length, while the females are 

slightly smaller and average about 5 ft long. Adults weigh 

between 200 to 250 lbs. Largha seals feed on a variety of 

fish, squid and crustacea according to season and location. 

Polar bears, walrus, foxes, and killer whales prey on largha 

seals. 

The Bering Sea population ( including Alaskan waters ) is 

estimated at 200,000 to 250,000 animals. The total world 

population is estimated to be 335,000 to 450,000 animals. 

This species is considered stable in numbers and close to 

the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. There are regulated 

hunts for largha seals in U.S.S.R. waters. 
Harbor Seal 

Phoca vitulina 

The three commonly recognized subspecies of harbor seals are 

widely dispersed in the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific Ocean 

basins. There are a few populations in fresh water lakes. 

Harbor seals range from temperate and semi-tropical 

latitudes (Baja California) to above the Arctic circle 

(Ellesmere Island and Hudson's Bay, Canada) . Generally, 

harbor seals move ahead of advancing ice packs. Although 

harbor seals are generally solitary animals, they gather at 

feeding sites and haul out areas. There is no harem 

structure during the breeding season, and the females give 

birth to a single spotted pup after a gestation period of 

10.5 to 11 months that includes a delayed implantation of 2 

months. The young nurse for 4 to 6 weeks. Harbor seal 

females mature sexually at 2 to 5 years of age, males 

between 3 and 6 years. Lengths and weights of adults vary 

depending on the area they inhabit. Adults range from 3.6 

to 6 ft in length and weigh between 100 and 230 lbs. Pups 

are from 2.5 to 3 ft long and weigh 20 to 25 lbs at birth. 

Harbor seals feed on squid and a variety of fish including 

herring, smelt, salmon, and cod. Dives to depths of 300 ft 

and for 23 minutes have been recorded. Harbor seals live up 

to 40 years. Eagles and foxes prey on the newborn and young; 

sharks, killer whales, bears, and walruses prey on the older 

animals . Harbor seals are considered abundant throughout most of 

their range and may be close to the carrying capacity of 

their ecosystems. Populations have increased substantially 

in the last 10 years. European populations are estimated at 

48,000 to 51,500 animals, eastern Canada at 20,000 to 

30,000, and a preliminary estimate of 3,000 to 7,000 in U.S. 

Atlantic waters. About 312,000 to 317,000 animals inhabit 

the Pacific Ocean. 
Ringed Seal 

Phoca hispida 

The ringed seal, found on the pack ice of the Arctic basin 

in summer and among the pressure ridges of the fast ice near 

the shore in winter, is probably the most abundant seal in 

the northern hemisphere. It is the only pinniped species 

which attempts to provide the newborn with a protected 

hiding place, or birth lair. Females give birth to a single 

white coated pup in the crevices and cracks of the fast ice 

pressure ridges or in drifts of frozen snow. They maintain 

breathing holes near these lairs while nursing the pup for 4 

to 6 weeks. The pups are 1.6 to 2 ft long at birth and 

weigh between 9 and 11 lbs. Males mature sexually at 7 

years and females at 5 to 8 years. Gestation lasts for 10.5 

to 11 months including a delayed implantation period of 3.5 

months. Breeding occurs in the first month after the female 

gives birth. The size and weight of the six recognized 

subspecies of ringed seals vary cons iderably. Adults 

average about 4.5 ft in length and weigh about 143 lbs. The 

diet of the ringed seal depends on the food available given 

the ice conditions. From December through February, it 

feeds on polar cod; in summer, it feeds on plankton and 

crustaceans. Arctic foxes prey on the pups and polar bears 

feed on pups and adults. 

This species is hunted for subsistence needs throughout 

most of its range. The estimated population number of 6 to 

7 million ringed seals makes this species the most abundant 

pinniped in the Arctic basin. 
Harp Seal 

Phoca qroenlandica 

- There are three groups in the world population of harp seals 

including a group in the White Sea off the Soviet Union, a 

group in the Norwegian Sea around Jan Mayan Island, and the 

largest group around Newfoundland along the Labrador Coast 

and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada. The harp seal 

associates with the pack ice of the North Atlantic and 

adjacent Arctic ocean. Most of the known biology of this 

species is based on information obtained when the animals 

congregate on the ice packs for pupping and breeding. 

Thousands of females can be found some distance away from 

the ice-water edge among the pressure ridges and hummocks of 

the large ice floes where the pups are born and where there 

is some protectiop from wind and snow. Most births occur in 

the last week of February and first week of March after a 

gestation period of 11.5 months that includes a delayed 

implantation of 4.5 months. Pups are born with a white 

lanugo coat which molts in about 4 weeks to a gray spotted 

coat. Nursing lasts 10 to 12 days with the protective 

mother visiting the pup through breathing holes maintained 

in the ice. Harp seals are about 3 to 3.5 ft long at birth 

and weigh about 22 lbs. Males probably breed with one or a 

few females. Females mature sexually at about 5 years, 

males at 6 years. Longevity of 30 years has been 

documented. Harp seals feed on capelin, polar cod, herring, 

and many species of crustaceans. Harp seals are maintained 

successfully in research colonies. Sharks, killer whales, 

and polar bears are known predators of harp seals. 

The total world population is estimated to be between 1.3 

and 2.3 million animals. The Norwegian (Jan Mayen Island) 

and White Sea populations appear to be increasing. The 

western North Atlantic population which breeds in the Gulf 

of St. Lawrence and off Newfoundland is estimated from 

700,000 animals (other than pups) to 1.5 million. 
Harp Seal 

Phoca qroenlandica 

- There are three groups in the world population of harp seals 

including a group in the White Sea off the Soviet Union, a 

group in the Norwegian Sea around Jan Mayan Island, and the 

largest group around Newfoundland along the Labrador Coast 

and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada. The harp seal 

associates with the pack ice of the North Atlantic and 

adjacent Arctic ocean. Most of the known biology of this 

species is based on information obtained when the animals 

congregate on the ice packs for pupping and breeding. 

Thousands of females can be found some distance away from 

the ice-water edge among the pressure ridges and hummocks of 

the large ice floes where the pups are born and where there 

is some protectiop from wind and snow. Most births occur in 

the last week of February and first week of March after a 

gestation period of 11.5 months that includes a delayed 

implantation of 4.5 months. Pups are born with a white 

lanugo coat which molts in about 4 weeks to a gray spotted 

coat. Nursing lasts 10 to 12 days with the protective 

mother visiting the pup through breathing holes maintained 

in the ice. Harp seals are about 3 to 3.5 ft long at birth 

and weigh about 22 lbs. Males probably breed with one or a 

few females. Females mature sexually at about 5 years, 

males at 6 years. Longevity of 30 years has been 

documented. Harp seals feed on capelin, polar cod, herring, 

and many species of crustaceans. Harp seals are maintained 

successfully in research colonies. Sharks, killer whales, 

and polar bears are known predators of harp seals. 

The total world population is estimated to be between 1.3 

and 2.3 million animals. The Norwegian (Jan Mayen Island) 

and White Sea populations appear to be increasing. The 

western North Atlantic population which breeds in the Gulf 

of St. Lawrence and off Newfoundland is estimated from 

700,000 animals (other than pups) to 1.5 million. 
Ribbon seal 

Phoca fasciata 

The ribbon seal, found in the Bering and Okhotsk Seas and to 

some degree in the Chukchi Sea, is one of the lesser known 

seals of the northern hemisphere. It is an animal of the 

ice pack and floes. The average adult is about 5 ft long 

and weighs about 200 lbs. Pups are born on the ice in March 

and early April and average less than 2 ft in length and 

weigh about 22 lbs. The newborn have a coat of white lanugo 

hair which is shed within a month of birth. Nursing is 

estimated at 3 to 4 weeks. Gestation is about 11 months, 

including delayed implant at ion. Longevity is between 22 to 

26 years. Females mature between 2 to 4 years; males 

between 3 to 5 years. As the ice pack recedes in spring and 

summer, ribbon seals probably return to the open sea. They 

feed on a variety of fishes, squid, and small crustaceans. 

From 1961 through 1967, large numbers of this species were 

taken in the waters off the Soviet Union. In 1968, the take 

was reduced because of a not iceable drop in the population; 

by the mid 1970's the numbers were increasing. A small 

number is been taken by Alaskan natives for subsistence. 

The north circumpolar population is estimated to be between 

200,000 and 250,000 animals. 
Gray Seal 

Hal ichoerus grypus 

This North Atlantic animal is found in temperate and subarctic waters. Three stocks are recognized, western 

Atlantic (Canada), eastern Atlantic (Iceland and Britain), 

and an ice breeding population in the Baltic Sea. There is 

a breeding colony of gray seals near Nantucket Island, 

Massachusetts. These large pugnacious seals have a long 

fleshy nose and fore flippers with long claws which become 

worn with age. Adults do not migrate, but younger animals 

scatter over wide areas. One animal tagged in Canada was 

taken off Norway and animals tagged on Sable Island, Nova 

Scotia, have been found in New Jersey. In Britain, the 

breeding males attempt to hold territories in a polygamous 

type of social structure. This social behavior is not seen 

in groups on the ice where they are more monogamous. 

Pupping in Canadian and Baltic waters occurs mostly in 

February; in Britain, births are generally in September and 

October. Adult males reach about 7 ft in length and average 

500 lbs in weight; females average 6 ft in length. The 

newborn are 2.6 to 3.4 ft long, weigh about 32 lbs, and have 

a white lanugo coat which they shed in two to three weeks. 

Females mature sexually in 4 to 7 years; males probably are 

similar, but do not hold territories until their 10th year. 

Mating takes place at the end of the nursing period, usually 

3 to 4 weeks af ter birth. Gestation is 11.5 months 

including a delayed implantation of 3 months. Males 26 

years old and females 46 years old have been recorded. One 

animal lived 43 years in captivity. Gray seals are 

exhibited in public displays although they do not mix well 

with other species. They eat halibut, pollack, lamprey, 

salmon, herring, and other fish. 

The world population for this species is between 88,000 and 

94,000 animals. Several populations are increasing. 
Bearded Seal 

Er ignathus barbatus 

The bearded seal, the largest phocid in the Arctic Ocean 

bas in, is circumpolar in its distribution. These animals 

generally associate with the moving pack ice as it advances 

and recedes each winter and summer. They are solitary 

animals except when they form small groups in the breeding 

season. Their ice habitat brings them as far south in the 

Atlantic Ocean area as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, 

Scotland, Norway, and in the Pacific to Hokkaido, Japan. In 

U.S. waters, they are found in the Beaufort and Bering sea. 

Bearded seals recently have been observed residing in the 

fast ice along the shore where they maintain breathing 

holes. Their size, their habit of almost exclusively 

feeding on bottom dwelling invertebrates, and the presence 

of long bearded whiskers which form a moustache are 

characteristics they share with walrus. Both sexes are 

similar in size averaging about 8 ft in length; adult weight 

fluctuates from 605 lbs in summer to 743 lbs in winter. The 

pups are about 2.6 ft long at birth and weigh about 95 lbs. 

Pups triple their weight after nursing only 12 to 18 days. 

Breeding occurs in May and the gestation period is 10.5 to 

11 months including a delayed implantation of 2.5 to 3 

months. Females mature sexually at 5 to 6 years, males at 6 

to 7 years. Animals 31 years old have been recorded in one 

area. Polar bears prey heavily on bearded seals 

congregating on the ice. Killer whales also feed on this 

species. There are some records of bearded seals being kept 

in captivity, but they are not common in public displays. 

The total population exceeds 500,000 animals. About 10,000 

to 13,000 animals are taken annually by subsistence hunters 

in Norwegian, U.S.S .R. and U.S. waters. 
Hawaiian Monk Seal 

Monachus schauinsland i 

The Hawaiian monk seal is one of three species in the genus 

Monachus . The Caribbean monk seal ~onachus tropical is is 

senerally considered to be extinct : the last unconfirmed 

report of 20 animals was in 196;. The third species 

Monachus monachus, the Mediterranean monk seal, survives in 

small numbers in separate colonies on the African-Atlantic 

and European-African Mediterranean coasts. The Hawaiian 

species is found on Necker Island, French Frigate Shoals, 

Lisianski Island, Laysan Island, Pearl and Hermes Reef and 

Kure Atoll, all in the Leeward Islands. They are not known 

to migrate, but they do move among the islands. They are 

found scattered along sandy beaches and in the shoreline 

vegetation. Mating probably takes place in the water; pups 

are born from December through July with a peak birth time 

in April and May. Newborns are about 3.3 ft long and weigh 

between 35 to 37 lbs. Some mature females give birth to 

pups each year; many give birth every other year. Adult 

females which are about 7.6 ft long and weigh about 600 lbs 

are larger than males. Males average 7 ft in length and 

weigh about 380 lbs. Not much is known about longevity, but 

a 20 year old male has been reported. The monk seal feeds 

among the the coral reefs on a wide variety of fish and 

invertebrates including eels, octopus, and lobster. A 

variety of large predator sharks frequent these reefs and 

attempt to feed on monk seals as evidenced by many animals 

having large extensive scars. The toxic disease cigutera 

has been implicated as a mortality factor in this species. 

The Hawaiian monk seal is intolerant of human disturbance 

and readily abandons breeding and haulout areas if not 

protected. U.S. military installations have restricted 

movements of personnel to minimize disturbances on these 

islands. This species, with a population of about 500 

animals, is endangered and is the subject of a research and 

management program by a Recovery Team, a requirement of the 

Endangered Species Act. 
Cr abeater Seal 

Lobodon carcinophaga 

The crabeater seal is probably the most populous species of 

pinniped in the world. It is an animal of the Antarctic 

drifting pack ice and is found in greatest abundance at the 

broken edge of the pack. In the late Antarctic summer when 

the ice is at its minimum, crabeater seals come relatively 

close to the shore1 ine of the continent. There are no known 

migratory movements for this species, and the forming of 

groups is subject to the advance and retreat of the ice 

pack. As with the other genera of Antarctic phocids, 

crabeaters have cusps on each of the premolar and molar 

teeth in contrast to the cone shaped teeth of other 

pinnipeds. When the upper and lower teeth are brought 

together, the row of teeth forms a close knit filter 

structure. The major food of this species is krill (tiny 

shr imp-like organisms) from the Southern Ocean. Newborn 

pups are about 4 ft long and weigh about 44 lbs; the adult 

males are about 8.4 ft long and weigh about 490 lbs; the 

females are about 8.6 ft long and weigh 500 lbs. Pups are 

born in September and October; nursing lasts about one 

month. The young, which reach adult size in four months, 

are born with a light gray lanugo coat. Breeding probably 

occurs within 2 to 3 weeks after females give birth. 

Gestation lasts 11 months including a delayed implantation 

of 2 to 3 months. This species may live as long as 33 

years. Killer whales and leopard seals prey on crabeater 

seals. 

Crabeater seals are believed to be at the carrying capacity 

of their Antarctic ecosystem. The population estimate of 15 

million animals is higher than for all the other pinniped 

species combined. 
Ross Seal 

Ommatophoca ross ii 

Although there is considerable knowledge on the biology of 

Antarctic hair seals, the Ross seal remains one of the least 

understood pinnipeds in the world. This seal prefers the 

heavy consolidated ice pack where ice breakers- or aircraft 

are the only means of access. Ross seals have large plump 

bodies with a short wide head that can be pulled into rolls 

of blubber around the neck. They make cooing and trilling 

noises as they lift their head and inflate the throat in a 

'singing" posture. Biological data is based on a few 

specimens; however, an animal of at least 12 years has been 

recorded. Adult males average a little over 6 ft in length 

and weigh about 380 lbs; females average about 7 ft long and 

about 400 lbs. Newborn are about 3.5 ft long and weigh 

about 60 lbs. females mature sexually at 3 to 4 years and 

males between 2 and 7 years. Ross seals eat mostly 

cephalopods. They feed under the great thickness of the 

heavy pack ice where there is little light. 

There is no reason to think this species has experienced a 

decline in numbers. Antarctic sealing activities did not 

involve species found in the pack ice to any great extent. 

More information on its biology and ecology is needed before 

its role in the ecosystem can be assessed. The population 

estimate of 220,000 animals is probably low. 
Leopard Seal 

Hydr urga leptonyx 

The leopard seal, a major predator of penguins and seals 

throughout the drift ice areas of the Antartic, is found as 

a straggler on the shores of all southern continents and 

hauls out on many of the sub-Antarctic islands. It has a 

long streamlined body, a large head with a wide gaping 

mouth, and long tapered fore-£1 ippers. Most s ightings have 

been of single animals. Adult males average about 9 ft in 

length, but are known to reach 10.5 ft. They average 700 

lbs, but some weigh up to 1,000 lbs. Females are about 9.4 

ft long and weigh about 800 lbs, but weights up to 1,300 lbs 

have been recorded. Pups are born in November and December 

and weigh about 77 lbs and are about 5 ft long. Females 

reach sexual maturity at 3 to 7 years and males between 2 to 

6 years of age. Longevity is estimated at more than 26 

years. Leopard seals feed on krill, an abundant food source 

that may be especially important to the young animals. 

Killer whales prey on this species. Leopard seals have been 

displayed successfully in public display facilities. 

This species is probably at the carrying capacity of its 

ecosystem. It is not hunted and is under the regulatory 

regimes of international treaties . The total population is 

estimated at about 500,000 animals. 
Weddell Seal 

Leptonychotes weddelli 

The Weddell seal is an animal of the Antarctic fast ice 

attached to shores of islands and the continent. Breeding 

colonies are known on the island of South Georgia and strays 

are known as far north as Uruguay. It is not considered a 

migratory species, but its seasonal abundance is in£ luenced 

by the development of fast ice and tidal cracks in the ice 

which give the seals access to the surface. The pupping 

season is from September through November. Females come up 

on the ice through cracks that are kept open through 

repeated use. Groups of females haul out around these holes 

and cracks and frequently return to the water to feed. 

Males spend much of their time below the ice establishing 

territories and competing with other males. Adults are from 

7 to 11 ft long and weigh between 700 to 1,200 lbs. Pups 

are born with a gray or dark lanugo coat which is molted 

about the time they are weaned at six weeks. They grow 

rapidly from a birth weight of 48 to 55 lbs, to 275 lbs when 

weaned. at ing takes place in the water near the breathing 

hole. Gestation is about 11 months including a delayed 

implantation of 2 months. Both sexes mature between 3 to 6 

years of age; although, males probably do not mature 

socially until 7 to 8 years. Leopard seals prey on this 

species as do killer whales to a lesser extent. Weddell 

seals eat a wide variety of invertebrates including krill 

and fish. Weddell seals are the longest and deepest diving 

pinnipeds known. A dive of 1,900 feet for 70 minutes has 

been recorded, although they probably feed between 990 to 

1,320 ft. These seals are known to live at least 25 years. 

The population estimates of 750,000 animals are regarded as 

conservative due to the difficult access for observers to 

the animals' preferred habitat, the shore fast ice. The 

world population is cons idered stable. 
Northern Elephant Seal 

Mirounqa anqust irostr is 

The Northern elephant seal, the second largest species of 

pinnipeds, is found on offshore islands from Central Baja 

California to Pt. Reyes, north of San Francisco. The 

elephant seal is an exception to the general pattern of 

phocid social organization because the male defends 

territories on the beach and battles with other males to 

defend this territory. The females are able to move away 

from combatant males although the less mobile pups are 

occasionally crushed by the males. Although they do not 

have defined migration patterns, weaned pups scatter 

northward over a wide area. Elephant seals can be found on 

rookeries at all times of the year although some wander as 

far north as southeas tern Alaska and have been recorded over 

125 miles off shore. Pups are born from December through 

February after a gestation period of 11.3 months including a 

delayed implantation of about 3 months. They weigh between 

69 to 79 lbs at birth and after 4 weeks of nursing, their 

weight reaches about 345 lbs. Adult males are 14 ft long 

and weigh between 3,960 and 5,940 lbs; the females are 12 ft 

long and weigh around 1,980 lbs. Females mature sexually 

between 3 and 5 years while the males mature between 4 and 5 

years and become territorial breeding bulls at age 9 or 10. 

Northern elephant seals have relatively short 1 ives , usually 

about 14 years. They are deep divers that feed on fish 

below 50 fathoms as well as fish known in shallow depths. 

This species has made a remarkable recovery in its 

population numbers. In 1892, it was estimated that only 100 

elephant seals remained, and they inhabited Guadalupe 

Island, Mexico. This species is now considered to be 

approaching the carrying capacity of its ecosystem. The 

total population is estimated between 45,000 and 60,000 

animals. 
Yearling gray whale loafing in kelp off Pt. Lorna, Calif. 

NMFS photo. 




Oraer Cetacea 

Whales, Dolphins, and PorpoS.ses 

Cetaceans as an order of mammals, including whales, dolphins and 

porpoises, .are about 65 million years old. In the last twenty 

years, the fossil record for this qroup has become much better 

understood. One extinct group, the suborder Archeoceti ( oldest 

whales) which preceded the two living suborders, baleen whales 

and toothed whales, displays many characters of the land dwelling 

origins of the cetacea, yet they developed special qualities for 

life at sea. These early whales had teeth in both the upper and 

lower jaws, small hind limb bones not connected to the spinal 

column, and nostrils placed forward or on the middle of their 

long snout. Their teeth were triangular shaped, and a 

specialization of the inner ear suggests that hearing underwater 

sounds was an early adaptation of living completely at sea. One 

of these early whales possesses the ear structure of baleen 

whales and small teeth in both the upper and lower jaws. The two 

living suborders were established about 50 million years ago and 

by that time had completely developed the special characters of 

the order. The tail was horizontal (instead of vertical as in 

fish and extinct marine reptiles); it had no bony support but was 

comprised of a new structure, blubber. The nostrils (blowholes) 

had migrated back to the front of the brain case which allowed 

breathing from the top of the head, while the bones of the snout 

had lengthened. A dorsal fin consisting of only blubber and 

blood vessels was another new structure not found in other 

mammals. 

The whales bear their young alive, and as air breathers, have 

adapted to their life at sea. As with other mammals, whales 

regulate their body temperature above that of their surroundings. 

Cetaceans are insulated by blubber, a fatty layer beneath the 

skin; it differs from the blubber of seals since it retains its 

structure even when the animal has not been feeding. Whales 

produce some of the richest milk of all the mammals which causes 

a phenomenal growth rate in calves. Cetaceans have the advantage 

of buoyancy, wh'ich contributes to a faster growth rate than most 

land dwelling animals. A fatty oil is present through most of 

their body systems except for the brain and central nervous 

sys tem . 
In all living cetaceans, the brain is large compared to the body 

weight, and the areas associated with hearing are dominant. All 

species possess a multi-chambered stomach that digests food 

swallowed whole. The kidneys of whales are comprised of dozens 

to several hundred smaller units, each with the structure of a 

single kidney. Whales have a moderately long gestation period 

and nurse their young for a year or longer. They can experience 

multiple pregnancies similar to other large mammals although 

twins or triplets probably do not survive after birth. All of 

the living cetaceans have a reduced hind limb structure which is 

set in the muscles near the anus. In some abnormal cases, these 

bones may protrude through the blubber. By severing all ties to 

land, cetaceans have made the most changes in the evolution of 

marine mammals. 
Suborder Mysticeti 

Baleen Whales 

There are three living families of baleen whales; the rorquals 

(6 species), the right whales (3 species), and the gray whale. 

Instead of teeth in the upper jaws, there are two rows of baleen 

plates (whale bone) which hang down from the roof of the mouth. 

Each plate is fringed with hair-like bristles wrapped in material 

similar to fingernails (keratin). After the whale scoops up 

water, the tongue scrapes the inner surface of the plates and the 

bristles which are mated together filter the whale's food, and 

the water is strained out of the mouth. Each species of baleen 

whale has a different texture of bristles. Sei whale baleen 

bristles are thin and soft, forming a filter like silky hair. 

The right whale baleen plates are over 6 feet long and contain 

sparse coarse fibers. 

One of the baleens, the blue whale, is the largest known animal 

living or extinct. The accepted record length is 102 feet from 

an animal taken south of New Zealand. In contrast, the pigmy 

right whale in the Southern hemisphere grows only 16 to 18 feet 

long as an adult. Baleen whales do not travel in large herds as 

do dolphins or sperm whales. All of the species probably have 

some form of seasonal migration. The best known example is the 

gray whale's 11,000 mile annual trek south and return to the 

Bering Sea. Except for the bowhead whale, the various species 

breed and give birth in warmer temperate and tropical waters and 

mve to in the nutrient rich waters of the higher latitudes to 

feed and nurse their young. 
Family Eschrichtiidae 

Gray whale 

The only living species in this family is found in the eastern 

Pacific Ocean and Bering and Chukchi Seas, although many skeletal 

remnants of the Atlantic form are known from European waters, 

notably the Baltic, and eastern North America waters. The 

Atlantic form is being studied to determine if the term "scag 

whale" in the accounts of early European whalers referred to an 

Atlantic gray or if it was a reference to small or sickly 

animals. A western population winters off Japan and in the 

Yellow Sea and is considered severely depleted; a few reports 

indicate this species still can be found there. 

Many specimens of fossil gray whales are being studied. Most are 

from California, but some are from other areas around the Pacific 

basin. They are distinguished from the other two families of 

baleen whales by their lack of speed and their lack of a 

streamline body or ponderous bulk. The upper jaws with the two 

rows of baleen plates have a low arch, and a- profile of the head 

reveals that the lower jaws and lips are not especially dominant 

features. In place of a dorsal fin, there are 9 to 14 bumps or 

knuckles along the midline of the tail. They have 2 or 3 

variable throat- creases or grooves which are unlike those in 

rorquals. Although the general form of the gray whale is 

intermediate between the two other families, the fossil record 

does not support .the idea that it preceded the other groups. 
Gray Whale 

Eschrichtius robustus 

The gray whale is one of the better known cetaceans and has been 

studied extensively over the last twenty years. This species 

migrates up to 11,000 miles each way from the Bering and Chukchi 

Seas to a series of lagoons in Baja California. They stream 

through Unimak Pass in the Aleutian Island chain and angle across 

the Gulf of Alaska to travel close to shore along the west coast 

of California and arrive in the calving and breeding lagoons in 

December. The migration north is not as structered as the 

migration south, and the whales travel farther offshore. Many of 

the younger migrants seen throughout the summer have traveled 

only halfway to the northern feeding grounds of the adults. 

Male gray whales average less than 40 ft in body length and reach 

sexual maturity at 5 to 11 years. Females are thought to bear a 

calf every 2 or more years. Gestation is 12 to 13 months and 

nursing lasts about 7 to 8 months. The newborn are about 16 ft 

long. The gray whale feeds on the bottom raking through the mud 

with its stiff rows of baleen. They feed on a wide variety of 

invertebrates, usually amphipods (small crustaceans such as sand 

hoppers) . They are covered with large numbers of shelled 

barnacles and are host to great colonies of whale lice which show 

up as patches of yellow against the whales mottled gray pattern. 

At an estimated 16,000 animals, the eastern Pacific population of 

this species is near the carrying capacity of its range. The 

actual population numbers are uncertain, a problem compounded by 

the incomplete migrations of younger animals not passing the 

counting stations. 
Family Balaenopteridae 

Rorquals 

The rorquals are the fastest swimmers of the baleen whales. They 

feed heavily on plankton and several types of school fish in the 

northern hemisphere and almost exclusively on plankton in the 

southern hemisphere, notably krill. With the exception of the 

Bryde's whale, the migration of northern and southern populations 

alternate between high latitudes and tropical temperate waters in 

each hemisphere which sets up a cycling in their worldwide 

distribution. In July, August and September, the southern 

rorquals are in the tropical wintering grounds of southern 

hemisphere waters and are not in contact with their northern 

hemisphere counterparts who are feeding in the higher latitude 

temperate or arctic waters during this time. There are records of 

rorquals tagged in the southern hemisphere being recovered in the 

tropical North Pacific but mixing of the populations of each 

hemisphere is not thought to be significant. This family 

contains two living genera Balaenoptera, 5 species, and 

Megaptera, 1 species. Adults range in size from 30 ft (minke) to 

over 100 ft (blue). 

The species in this family have grooves or pleats in their throat 

that extend from the chin to various levels from the chest to the 

navel. Throat grooves contain both blubber and a thin sheet of 

muscles. Sailors and cetologists often have speculated on the 

function of the grooves. Both aerial and underwater films of 

feeding blue, fin, and humpback whales reveal that the extended 

grooves increase the size of the head and chest 2 to 3 times 

larger than the rest of the body. The volume of food and water 

filtered through the baleen rows is equal to or greater than the 

tremendous amounts found in the huge mouths of right and bowhead 

whales. When feeding, these otherwise sleek whales resemble 

guppies. 
Minke Whale 

Balaenoptera acutorostrata 

The minke whale, the smallest member of this family, is found in 

all of the world's oceans. It migrates between temperate 

tropical waters and high latitudes. In the Antarctic, it feeds 

among the fields of drift pack ice and sometimes becomes trapped 

in the ice where it must maintain an open area for breathing. In 

the North Atlantic, it feeds on fish, notably capelin; in the 

Southern Ocean, it feeds almost exclusively on krill. This wide 

ranging species has many variations in color pattern and hue. 

Adults range from 22 to 33 ft in length. The calf is 2 to 9 ft at 

birth and is weaned at about 6 months. Sexual maturity occurs at 

about 2 years of age in the southern hemisphere and at 7 to 8 

years in the north. Females probably give birth every other 

year. 

This species is currently the only baleen whale taken 

commercially in the southern hemisphere where its population is 

estimated at greater than 200,000. The North Atlantic population 

is about 120,000 animals. An estimate for the North Pacific has 

not been developed. 
Sei Whale 

Balaenoptera borealis 

The sei whale is named after the Norwegian word for pollack, a 

species of fish. Sei whales migrate from tropical to high 

latitudes in both hemispheres. They are similar to the fin 

whale, but are smaller and have the largest dorsal fin in 

proportion to the other species in this genus. Their fine, 

almost silken, baleen allows them to feed on some of ,the smallest 

food items, copepods (minute crustaceans), of any whales. In the 

northern hemisphere, they also feed on school fish such as 

herring, sardines, anchovy, and saur ies. 

Sei whales travel in groups of 2 to 5, and many of these groups 

will gather in a small area. Sei whales mature sexually between 

6 and 12 years and males grow to lengths of about 43 ft and 

females about 45 it. Gestation is 11 to 12 months. The newborn 

calf is about 15 ft long. Nursing lasts 6 to 7 months or until 

the weaned calf is about 28 ft long. Sei whales taken off the 

California coast have been infected with a disease that 

disintegrates the baleen plates which are replaced by a hairylike growth. Without the baleen plates, the whales are unable to 

feed. 

In the Nbrth Pacific and Southern Oceans, sei whales are listed 

as a protected stock by the IWC. In the North Atlantic, a quota 

and regulations are set for this species for Icelandic whaling. 

In other areas of the world, this species is considered to be 

below the maximum sustainable yield level, but not depleted. The 

total world population is about 210,000 animals. 
Bryde's Whale 

Balaenoptera edeni 

Bryde's whales are found in tropical warm t5mperate waters in all 

the oceans. They are similar in size and I'orm to sei whales and 

are of ten con£ used with them. This species has a smaller dorsal 

fin, three ridges on the top of the snout and a change in the 

color of the baleen plates from the front to the back of the 

mouth. It is the only rorqual which does not migrate to high 

latitudes to feed and to suckle its young. .It has course baleen 

bristles and it feeds on fish and a variety of planktonic 

organisms. Bryde's whales are between 43 and 45 ft long as 

adults; they become sexually mature when they reach about 40 to 

41 ft long. In several species, sexual maturity is determined by 

the size of the animal rather than by age. In South African 

waters, they breed all year; in the northern hemispheres breeding 

probably occurs from November through February. Gestation is 

about 1 year. They have been reported traveling in pairs and 

groups up to ten. 

Although population estimates are being studied, the process is 

complicated by the use of data gathered when both scientists and 

whalers confused this species with the sei whale. The North 

Pacific population is estimated at about 16,000 whales; estimates 

for other areas have not been developed. 
Fin Whale 

Balaenopter a physalus 

The fin whale is the second largest species of rorqual and has' a 

record length of 82 ft, although they average 60 to 75 ft. The 

female, as in most baleen whales, is slightly larger than the 

male. They mve in groups of 2 to 5 animals, but aggregations of 

50 to 100 are seen within a few square miles. Although their 

high latitude migrations are not as extensive as other species, 

fin whales are found in all oceans. The asymetrical color 

pattern on the head of fin whales throughout the world is 

striking because it is consistently white on the right side of 

the head as well as the belly. This color pattern may be an 

advantage when the whale attacks a school of fish. The standard 

marine animal pattern is a darker color on the back and a 

lighter color on the belly. This species matures sexually 

between 6 and 12 years. Gestation is about 12 months and the 

calf averages about 21 ft long at birth. Nursing lasts for 6 to 

7 months or until the young are about 40 ft long. Females bear a 

calf every 2 to 3 years. 

Fin whales have been depleted in many areas, although not as 

seriously as. some other large whales taken commercially. The 

total population estimate is 214,000. This species is subject to 

Iceland commercial whaling operations in the Mrth Atlantic. 
Blue Whale 

Balaenopter a musculus 

Blue whales are well known for their length and overall size. 

The record accepted by biologists is nearly 102 ft for an animal 

found south of New Zealand. Blue whales are also known as 

suplhur bottom because of a definite yellow cast sometimes 

present on the belly and sides of the animals seen in the 

Antarctic. This coloring is caused by a film of diatoms, a form 

of phytoplankton which adheres to the skin of several whale 

species as they swim in the Antarctic Convergance current. The 

animals may change from pale to a distinct yellow color in less 

than a month in these waters. Diatoms are the food of the 

various species of 'krill which is the major food resource of 

baleen whales. Blue whales feed almost entirely on krill in both 

hemispheres. Blue whales have a small dorsal fin, a broad head, 

and a more massive back than other species of the genus. 

Gestation is 12 months and the newborn calf is about 24 ft long. 

Nursing lasts for 8 months during which the calf gains about 200 

lbs a day. When weaned, they are about 50 ft long. A form of 

this species, known as the pygmy blue whale, is found in the 

Indian Ocean. 

Blue whales are a depleted species and have been protected by the 

IWC since 1966. Population numbers are reported to be increasing 

slowly; the current estimate is over 11,000 animals. Blue whale 

sightings have increased in the last several years off the west 

coast of the United States. 
Humpback Whale 

Megaptera novaeangliae 

The humpback whale is heavier bodied than other members of the 

family and their flippers make up one-third the total length of 

the body. The head has a variable number of bumps of blubber, 

each one supporting a single hair follicle. The flippers have a 

series of knuckles on their leading edge which are associated 

with the bony joints of the encased fingers (phalanges). The 

trailing edge of the flukes is ragged, and individual humpbacks 

can be identified by the unique color pattern on the underside of 

the flukes when they are lifted clear of the water. 

Humpback whales migrate to high latitudes where they approach but 

do not enter the polar pack ice zones. When wintering in 

tropical latitudes, they usually calve and breed in association 

with the shallow waters of islands and atolls. The breeding and 

calving season is October to March in the Northern hemisphere, 

and April to September in the Southern hemisphere. Gestation 

lasts 12 to 13 months. Calves are about 12 to 14 ft long at 

birth. Nursing continues for about 11 months. The female rarely 

bears a calf 2 years in a row. Females are larger than males, 

reaching sexual maturity when they are about 40 ft long. Males 

mature sexually when they are about 35 ft long. Humpbacks feed 

heavily on schooling fish such as anchovies and sardines, but 

also on krill in high latitudes. Sometimes, they create a net of 

bubbles around a school of krill and then rise through the column 

of water engulfing the krill. 

Humpback whales are seriously depleted; their estimated 

population is between 5,700 and 6,800 animals. The populations 

which have been studied are slow to recover. Their frequency in 

shallow coastal waters while both feeding and calving can subject 

them to harassment by tourists and entanglement in fishing gear. 
Family Balaenidae 

Right whales 

Right whales have a high vaulted arch to the upper jaws and 

massive thick lower jaws which bear tall thick lips covering 

their baleen plates. This family contains two genera and three 

species. The right and bowhead whales have thick heavy bodies 

with tapered tails and wide expansive flukes. The skull is wide 

and massive, but when viewed from above, the elongated bones of 

the snout forward of the blow hole are like a narrow projection 

set between the huge lower lips. The seven vertebrae of the neck 

are fused together in this group of whales. 

The smallest species in this family, the pygmy right whale 

(Caperea marginata), has the basic characteristics of the family 

but has a dorsal fin and is not as heavy bodied as the others. 

What little is known about this species is based on observations 

of one animal trapped alive in a South African bay and 

fragmentary information from fewer than a hundred specimens. 

Balaenids have a distinctive double blow which rises above the 

animal before fonning a cloud. These slow moving animals 

probably are not deep divers and often associate with shallow 

waters of bays and shore lines. They were subject to a ruinous 

exploitation by early whalers. The 16th century Basques of 

Europe were probably the first to organize whaling expeditions 

that returned with finished products of oil and baleen instead of 

towed whales. heir target species, the right whale, was hunted 

from sailing vessels. The whaling industry carried whalers to 

the high latitude waters of the arctic Atlantic where they met 

the bowhead, and whaling expeditions became an integral part of 

the European exploration of North America. 
Right Whale 

Balaena qlacialis 

Today, right whales are found in small numbers in the North 

Pacific, the Western North Atlantic, and the Southern ocean. 

Right whales are round heavy bodied animals without a dorsal fin. 

They reach 60 ft in length. Right whales have growths 

(callocites) on the skin, over the eyes, the snout, and over the 

sides of their arched lower lips. These growths, made of a hard 

tissue (keratin) allow ectoparasites such as barnacles and whale 

lice to adhere to the whales. It is possible to identify 

individual whales from the distribution and form of these 

growths. Right whales feed extensively on copepods. Males 

mature sexually when they reach about 50 ft in length; females 

mature when about 51 f t long. Breeding and calving take place in 

temperate tropical waters. Gestation lasts about 12 to 13 

months. 

Right whales have been protected from commercial whaling since 

1938. Only the South Atlantic population, estimated at over 

3,000 animals, shows evidence of increasing. The two northern 

hemisphere groups are threatened with extinction. The North 

Pacific population is estimated at 220 animals; the North 

Atlantic at 200 animals. 
Bowhead Whale 

Balaena mys t icetus 

The bowhead whale is circumpolar in arctic and subarctic waters. 

Their baleen plates, averaging 10 to 11 ft long, are the longest 

of any mysticete. Their baleen plates number between 250 and 300 

on each side. They do not have a dorsal fin. Bowhead whales 

migrate in association with the seasonal movement of the Arctic 

pack ice. During their northward migration, they attempt to 

follow the narrow leads developed in the shore-fast ice. Bowhead 

whales can break ice several inches thick and will travel under 

large ice flows. They reach about 57 f t long and males sexually 

mature when they are about 38 ft long; females are about 40 ft 

long at sexual maturity. Breeding probably occurs in April or 

May during migration. Gestation appears to be 12 to 13 months. 

The newborn calf is 10 to 15 ft long at birth and the nursing 

period lasts about 6 months. This species usually travels alone 

or in twos or threes but has been observed in groups up to 50. 

They feed largely on krill, but include several other groups of 

invertebrates in their diet. 

This species is severly depleted, and there is evidence that its 

population is declining . The Ber ing , Beaufort, and Chukchi Seas 

population is estimated at 2,300 animals. There is a subsistence 

take of this species by Arctic natives. 
Suborder Odontoceti 

Toothed Whales 

There' are 65 species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises in this 

suborder. Most have teeth and demonstrate the development of a 

melon located in front of the brain. The melon, a barrel-shaped 

organ called the "case" by whalers, contains spermaceti, a clear 

liquid oil that hardens to a white paraffin-like consistency. 

The animal shunts air through a series of passages (sinuses) 

connected to the blowhole and produces high pitched sounds which 

are transmitted through oily tissue of the melon and are 

broadcast in front of the swimming animal. Pads of this same 

oily tissue are found on the inside of the lower jaws which are 

in a straight line with the head and connect to the bottom of the 

brain case at the inner ear. The theory is that the melon acts 

as a focusing lens for the sounds produced behind it; the sound 

travels ahead of the animal, returns as an echo, is received in 

the lower jaw, and then transmitted to the inner ear. This 

series of structures makes it possible for toothed whales to 

echolocate, the method of locating objects by determining the 

time for an echo to return and its direction. 

The brain of the toothed whales has one of the largest size to 

body weight ratios found in any group of mammals. Studies of 

anatomy and physiology of the brain of odontocetes show the areas 

associated with hearing are more developed than in other mammals 

which do not echolocate. 

Toothed whales have the best developed diving abilities of all 

the cetaceans. At least four species are known to dive for an 

bur at a time, and at least four others regularly dive 30 

minutes or more. In contrast, the baleen whales average 5 to 20 

minute dives. Toothed whales are deep divers; sperm whales have 

been found wrapped in submarine cables at depths greater than 

3,600 feet. The stomach contents of giant bottlenose whales 

taken in waters 4,000 feet deep contained organisms found only on 

the bottom. A coastal bottlenose dolphin trained to take its own 

picture at various depths easily accomplished a record of 1,000 

feet although these dolphins usually dive to 300 feet or less. 

Many studies of the diving accomplishments, particularly of 

toothed whales, have lead to the discovery of several adaptations 

of their anatomy and physiology. Unlike human deep sea divers 

who breathe . different pressures of air at different depths, 

whales breathe only one atmosphere of air pressure (at sea 

level). 
Bottlenose dolphins. Painting by Larry Foster. 

93 
Family Delphinidae 

Dolphins 

Both small and medium sized animals are included in this family 

as well as the larger pilot and killer whales. The delphinids 

move in large herds of 15 to 20 to several thousand. Extensive 

observations at sea over the past ten years have provided new 

insights into their social grouping and behavior. Some coastal 

dwelling species feed alone, but generally they move back to a 

group within a short time. Large herds may contain several 

species. All species of cetaceans have internal parasites 

(endoparasites)) and recent studies of delphinids have provided 

new information on the life cycles of these organisms. The 

delphinids have many species of internal parasites such as 

flukes, roundworms, and tapeworms which are found in the brain, 

lungs, kidneys, and digestive system, but apparently do not 

always cause disease problems. Parasites, a variable factor in 

the life history of a species, sometimes may constitute a role in 

the natural mortality of the host animals. 

Studies of the teeth of several species have provided new 

information on dolphin biology. Special techniques developed to 

section and stain the teeth allow detailed analysis of the growth 

history of the animal. Calcium layers are deposited at regular 

time intervals in the teeth so that the age of the animal can be 

determined; they also provide information on estimating the month 

of birth, the length of the nursing period, and sexual maturity. 

By combining tooth layer studies with other biological 

information, detailed knowledge of the life history of several 

species of dolphins is becoming better known. 
Rough-Toothed Dolphin 

S ten0 bredanens is 

The rough toothed dolphin is found in tropical and warm temperate 

waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. They are 

similar in appearance to bottlenose dolphins, but have a smooth 

slope to the melon which gives the head a cone shape. They grow 

to about 7 ft in length and travel in schools of up to 50 

animals. Sometimes they are seen with bottlenose, spinner, and 

spotted dolphins. They eat fish and squid. Their teeth are 

relatively large and have a series of vertical wrinkles, hence 

Hrough toothed" dolphins. They are involved in mass strandings 

usually in groups of 10 or less. Although rough-toothed dolphins 

are oceanic, they are often found inshore. Some specimens have 

been maintained in captivity for over 12 years. 

Population estimates are not considered reliable for the large 

distribution of this species. It is minimally involved in the 

yellowfin tuna purse seine fishery in the ETP. 
Bottlenose Dolphin 

Tur siops truncatus 

The bottlenose dolphin, one of the best known species of 

cetaceans, was the first species to be successfully maintained and 

bred in captivity. Studies on its physiology and behavior have 

become the basis for comparing information on other species of 

dolphins and whales. Many studies have been made on its 

echolocation, cmmunication, and ability to learn and adapt to 

sound cues. Several species have been named in the genus 

Tursiops; however, many scientists believe there are two forms, 

coastal and oceanic, with the latter often found near oceanic 

islands or sea mounts and the continental shelf. Bottlenose 

dolphins feed on a wide variety of fish and probably concentrate 

on species which are seasonally abundant. The coastal form 

regularly feeds in shallow water and has been recorded driving 

fish on the banks of streams and lunging at them while they are 

onshore. They may feed alone but more of ten they feed in groups 

of 5 to several hundred. Seasonal movements along coastlines 

have been described, but this may be small groups gathering to 

pursue a species of fish. Groups of feeding bottlenose dolphins 

have been seen flapping their heads and tails against the water. 

Gestation is about one year and calves nurse for 1.5 to 2 years. 

Bottlenose dolphins ride the bow waves of passing vessels and are 

often seen accompanying large baleen whales. Adults reach about 

12 ft in length and weigh about 1,400 lbs. Many specimens in 

captivity exceed 25 years of age. 

There are no reliable estimates for the total world population. 

As a result of population studies on the U.S. east coast, the 

minimum estimate is 3,000 to 10,000 animals. 
Spinner Dolphin 

Stenella longirostris 

Spinner dolphins, named for their habit of literally spinning 

several (2 to 5) times on the long axis of their body, are found 

in the tropical waters of all the world's oceans. The 

significance of the spinning behavior is not understood. These 

dolphins occur in herds of several hundred animals in the eastern 

tropical Pacific. Adults average 5.6 it in length and have a 

prominent triangular dorsal fin. The young are about 2.5 ft long 

when born after a gestation period of 10.6 months. Generally, 

their beaks are long. Spinner dolphins feed on mid-water lantern 

fish and other fish species. Their diet includes some squid and 

they may feed at different times than the yellowfin tuna and 

other species of porpoises with which they travel. Spinner 

dolphins often ride the bow waves of boats for long periods of 

time. They have been maintained in captivity in warm water 

aquariums for 7 to 10 years. 

Spinner dolphin populations have been studied extensively in the 

eastern tropical Pacific where it 'is taken in the yellowfin tuna 

purse seine fishery. Its population is estimated at about 2 

million in the ETP and is considered abundant elsewhere in its 

widespread range. 

Spotted Dolphin 

Stenella attenuata 

The spotted dolphin occurs in all tropical waters of the world. 

In the last 10 years, much information has become available about 

this species. The relationship of the several forms is not 

understood well at this time. The Pacific form is found with 

other species, especially the spinner dolphin. Combined 

aggregations may include several thousand animals. Gestation is 

about 11.5 months and the length of newborn is 2 1/2 ft. The 

nursing period is about 11 months. Spotted dolphins feed on a 

variety of midwater and surf ace fishes and squids. 

Population increases have been recorded for some of the 

identified stocks of ths species in the ETP where it is taken 

incidentallly in the yellowfin tuna purse seine fishery. The 

population in the ETP is estimated at 3.9 million animals. 
Atlantic Spotted Dolphin 

Stenella plagiodon 

This species, found along the continental shelf, moves inshore in 

the spring. It feeds primarily on squid and barnacles. Whale 

lice are found on the skin. The body is more robust than other 

species in the genus Stenella, and the dorsal fin is similar to 

that of bottlenose dolphins. They reach an adult length of about 

8 ft. They travel in groups of 20 to 50 animals, but herds of 

several hundred animals have been observed. They often ride the 

bow waves of vessels and breach clear of the water. Atlantic 

spotters have been maintained in captivity with some success. 

There is insufficient information to discuss population levels 

for this species. 

Striped Dolphin ~ 

Stenella coeruleoalba 

Striped dolphins are a widely distributed species found in the 

warmer waters of the Atlantic, Indian,. .and the Pacific Oceans. 

This species is slender in form and thelr average length is about 

9 ft; newborn calves average 3 ft. The gestation period is about 

12 months. They nurse their young for' 18 months and mature 

sexually at about 9 years. Striped dolphins feed on mid-water 

fishes (usually lantern fish) as well as squid and crustaceans. 

This species is reported to travel in herds of 20 to 50 to 

several hundred animals. Striped dolphins are occasionally 

involved in strandings. 

In the ETP, where the striped dolphin is moderately involved in 

the yellowfin tuna purse seine fishery, its population is 

estimated at 248,000 animals. Population estimates for other 

parts of its range are not available. 
Common Dolphin 

The common dolphin is an oceanic species infrequently found in 

the shallower waters of the continental shelf. Common dolphins 

are found worldwide in tropical and temperate waters. Their 

practice of riding the bow waves made by ships may be a carry 

over from riding the bow waves of large baleen whales. Common 

dolphins average about 6.5 f t long with the male's slightly larger 

than females. The sexes may segregate between mating seasons. 

Gestation lasts 10 to 11 months and the newborn are about 2 1/2 

f t long. The young are weaned at 1 to 3 years of age. They 

travel in groups of 40 to several thousand. These large groups 

may break into several smaller groups during the breeding season. 

Common dolphins are not considered deep divers although they 

average 30 fathoms while feeding on anchovies, squid, lantern 

fish, and other species. 

This species is involved in the yellowfin tuna purse seine 

fishery in the ETP where its population is estimated at 1.5 

million animals. There are no reliable population data for this 

species in other parts of its range. 
Fraser's Dolphin 

Lagenodelphis hosei 

Fraser' s dolphin is a recently d iscovered species previously 

known only from a skull collected in Borneo. In 1971, it was 

seen at sea in four widely scattered areas of the world's oceans. 

It is about 6.5 ft long as an adult and about 3.3 ft long at 

birth. This species is thought to inhabit offshore tropical 

waters. It is seen in schools of 500 animals and has Qeen seen 

traveling with spotted dolphins. The dorsal fin is small, the 

beak is short, and the body is heavy set. The general form is 

intermediate between the common dolphin (Delphinus) and the 

beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus) , hence the generic name 

Lagenodelphis. Fraser's dolphin is probably a deep diver since 

its stomach contents contain squid and deep water fishes. 

Knowledge is limited on this oceanic species. 

The recent discovery of this species and the fact that it occurs 

in areas not involved in cetacean population research does not 

allow reliable estimates of its numbers. It is marginally 

involved in the yellowfin tuna purse seine fishery in the ETP. 
Atlantic White-sided Dolphin 

Lagenorhynchus acu tus 

This dolphin is primarily an oceanic species, but is observed 

seasonally in coastal waters. They are found in temperate waters 

of the North Atlantic. As with other species in this genus, it 

has a complicated color pattern. Adults average about 10 ft in 

length, newborn calves are about 3.3 ft long. Gestation is 10 

months, and age at sexual maturity is not known. This species is 

involved in mass strandings. It is usually wary of ships and 

does not commonly ride their bow waves. They frequently 

associate with pilot whales and have not been maintained in 

captivity. 

The distribution of this dolphin is not well understood, although 

they are common for several months of the year in several 

locations along the eastern coast of the United States. 

Estimates for the western North Atlantic populations are being 

developed. 
Pacific White-sided Dolphin 

Lagenorhynchus obliquidens 

The Pacific white-sided dolphin is found in the North Pacific 

Ocean from Japan to California, but has not been recorded in the 

Bering Sea. It is generally an oceanic species, but is sometimes 

found on the continental shelf and in large bays. The animals 

travel in groups of 15 to 50; however, schools of several 

thousand have been seen. They associate with northern right 

whale dolphins and Rissols dolphins. The Pacific white-sided 

dolphin is well known for riding the bow waves of ships and for 

leaping high into the air and landing sideways. Their heads and 

tails slap the water as they feed. They grow to a length of 

about 7 ft and weigh about 400 lbs. Gestation is estimated at 10 

to 12 months. The calves are about 4 ft long at birth which is 

large considering the adult's size. This species is active day 

and night and feeds largely on squid, but the diet also includes 

herring, sardines, anchovies, and sauries. They are heavy bodied, 

have a short beak, and a tall curving dorsal fin. 

They have been maintained in captivity. Population estimates in 

the eastern North Pacific range from 30,000 to 50,000. Studies 

are continuing, since these figures are not considered reliable. 
Northern Right Whale Dolphin 

Lissodelphis boreal is 

There are two species in the genus Lissodelphis, the Southern 

right whale dolphin which is found in the temperate waters of the 

Southern Ocean and the Northern right whale dolphin which is 

found in the temperate waters of the North Pacific Ocean. These 

two species are the only delphinids that do not have a dorsal 

fin. Sighting records suggest that the northern species may be 

distributed continuously across the Pacific. They travel in 

groups of 15 to 200 or more in continuous u-shapes or long 

straight lines. They can swim faster than 25 knots and leap clear 

of the water and re-enter over 20 feet away. Entire herds have 

been recorded diving for over 6 minutes. Northern right whale 

dolphins average about 10 ft in length and have a long tapering 

tail. Calves are about 2 ft long at birth; neither the gestation 

period or nursing period are known. They feed largely on midwater lantern fishes along the western United States coast. They 

often travel with Pacific whitesided dolphins as well as with 

Dall 's prpo ise . There are no re1 iable population estimates for this species. 
Risso' s Dolphin 

Grampus griseus 

Risso's dolphin, found in tropical and temperate waters of the 

world's oceans, reaches a length of about 13 ft. They travel in 

groups of 5 to 15, although they have been seen in herds of 

several hundred. This species is distinguished by scars covering 

the back and sides. These long white scratches may be caused by 

the tooth marks of other Risso's dolphins or large squid. After 

breaching and flopping on their sides for several minutes at a 

time, these dolphins like to loll at the surface and slowly mill 

about. They usually are shy of small vessels, but they have been 

seen riding the bow waves of ships. When traveling, their 

synchronized leaps in the water closely resemble bottlenose 

dolphins. They have tall triangular dorsal fins and blunt heads. 

There is a prominent crease in the front of the melon. There are 

seven large teeth in each side of the lower jaw, although in 

older animals they may be worn or missing. They feed largely on 

squid, and some species of fish have been found in their 

stomachs. Aquariums have maintained individuals species for 

several years. 

There are no reliable population estimates for this species. 

Melon-Headed Whale 

Peponocephala electra 

This tropical species is found in the Atlantic, Indian, and 

Pacific Oceans. In general, its form is similar to the pygmy 

killer whale. From the few anrimals examined, it is known to 

reach a length of about 9 ft. The body is elongated, the jaws 

are somewhat pointed, and the dorsal fin is large. A stranding 

of 250 melon-headed whales was recently investigated in Costa 

Rica. This species is minimally involved in the yellowfin tuna 

fishery . This species i's known from very few specimens, and there are no 

estimates available of its population size. 
Pygmy Killer Whale 

Feresa attenuata 

The distribution of the pygmy killer whale is not well known, but 

it inhabits tropical and warm temperate waters. It has a 

prominent dorsal fin and a rounded head. Adults are about 8 to 9 

it long. They have 10 to 13 large teeth in each side of the 

upper and lower jaws. They travel in small groups of 5 to 10 

animals although groups of several hundred have been seen. They 

prey on other species of dolphins, particularly the young. 

Although they are not we11 known in the stranding record, 

attempts to maintain this species in captivity have been with 

stranded animals. There is little reliable information on their 

food habits or reproductive biology. 

This species is minimally involved in the .yellowf in tuna purse 

seine fishery. No estimates of its populations are available. 
False Killer Whale 

Pseudorca crassidens 

False killer whales are found in tropical and temperate waters 

around the world; they are generally an oceanic form but large 

groups move close to shore when feeding. 

Male false killer whales reach about 18 ft long and females about 

13 ft; they weigh up to 3,600 lbs. Newborn calves are about 6 ft 

long. The body is elongated; the head . narrow and markedly 

tapered (in contrast to pilot whales). The shape of the dorsal 

fin is similar to that of bottlenose dolphins. Their large teeth 

on each side of the jaw suggests that they feed on large animals. 

This species is seen in herds of 50 to several hundred animals. 

The largest mass stranding of cetaceans ever recorded involved 

over 800 false killer whales at La Plata, Argentina, in 1946. 

Several other large mass strandings of this species have been 

recorded. Bottlenose dolphin herds often travel with this 

species. False killer whales ride the bow waves of ships and 

often jump clear of the water. They have been seen feeding on 

young dolphins, squid, and several species of medium to largesized fish, including the dolphin fish (mahi-mahi). They have 

been maintained in captivity in Hawaii for several years. 

There are no reliable population estimates for this species. 
Long-f inned Pilot Whale 

Globicephala melaena 

The long finned pilot whale is generally an oceanic species, but 

has been observed on major banks and nearshore areas. It is 

found in the temperate regions of the North Atlantic and the 

southern hemisphere. pilot whales are found in schools of 

hundreds or thousands. They feed mostly on squid, but also on 

fish. Male Atlantic pilot whales average about 21 ft in length, 

the females, 17 it; the newborn 5 to 6.5 ft. The gestation 

period is about 16 months, and nursing may last 2 years. 

Breeding probably occurs year round. The melon is a prominent 

feature of the head. The flippers, usually one-f ifth of the body 

length, are thin and tapered. They have a distinctive broad 

based dorsal fin. This species is commonly involved in large 

mass strandings. 

There is a long history of directed fisheries for this species 

both in Europe and North America dating back to the 1500's. As 

a result of these periodic exploitations, some local populations 

recorded as depleted have been restored. 

There are no reliable population estimates for this species. 

Short-f inned Pilot Whale 

Globicephala macrorhynchus 

The short-finned pilot whale is found in warm temperate and 

tropical waters of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans. It 

is similar to the other species of this genus, but is more 

restricted to tropical waters. They travel in groups of 60 or 

more animals although smaller groups are more frequent. They 

feed primarily on squid and a variety of fish. Adults are 15 to 

21 ft long. There is little information on the reproductive 

biology. The species frequently is involved in mass strandings. 

There is some limited aboriginal take of short-finned pilot 

whales in the Caribbean and it is taken occasionally in large 

numbers in Japanese waters. The data base is not complete on 

this species, and worldwide population estimates cannot be made. 
Killer Whale 

Orcinus orca 

Killer whales, worldwide in their distribution, are common in 

cool coastal waters. They hunt in the polar ice packs and are 

the largest species in the dolphin family. Adult males are about 

17 ft long and females about 24 ft long. The dorsal fin is large 

in both sexes, although it is much higher in males. The flippers 

are large in proportion to the remainder of the body and 

extremely mobile. These fast swimmers reach speeds of 25 knots 

or more. They are highly predatory 'and feed on squid, sea 

turtles, fishes, sea birds, whales, dolphins, and seals. This 

species attacks its prey as a group and organizes a strategy to 

dislodge or to panic intended prey. In Argentina, they have been 

seen flopping several body lengths onto shore to panic the 

pinnipeds who escape to the water where other killer whales are 

waiting for them. Breeding probably occurs year round; gestation 

is about 13 to 16 months long. Calves are about 7 ft long at 

birth. This species is frequently maintained in oceanaria. 

Preliminary estimates for killer whale populations in the 

Antarctic are being developed. World population estimates are 

not available although it is known that this species is abundant 

in certain areas. 
Family Phocoenidae 

Porpo ises 

The three genera of the family Phocoenidae differ from dolpins 

internally and externally. A major internal difference is in the 

structure of the air sacs behind the melon and around the 

blowhole. Externally, porpo ises are distinquished from dolphins 

by small spade-shaped teeth and a short blunt snout. uthough 

these technical differences exist, the terms dolphin and porpoise 

are used interchangeably. The genus Phocoena has four species, 

the harbor porpoise of the North Pacific and North Atlantic 

coastal waters, the vaquita of the Gulf of California in Mexico; 

and the Burmeister's and spectacled dolphins of the 

termper ate/tropical waters of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of 

South America. The oceanic Dallas porpoise of the North Pacific 

Ocean and Bering Sea is the single species of the genus 

Phocoeno ides. The f inless porpo ise, found from India throughout 

Southeast Asia to Japan, is the only species of the genus 

Neophocoena. The chunky Dallas porpoise is the largest species 

in this family, and the harbor porpoise is one of the smallest 

oceanic cetaceans. This family is known in the fossil record by 

a few fragments from scattered localities. A pattern of their 

history and distribution is not understood at present. , 
Harbor Porpoise 

Phocoena phocoena 

The harbor porpoise is circumpolar in ice free waters ranging 

south to warm temperate waters in all the oceans of the northern 

hemispheres. It is often found in harbors, bays and sometimes 

fresh water estuaries. This species is seen in schools up to 200 

or more. Their local abundance of ten depends upon seasonal fish 

prey. They are considered deep divers that usually travel just 

below the surface and rise frequently to breathe when not 

feeding. They feed on several species of fish in shallow water 

including cod, herring, and flounder as well as squid, clams and 

crustaceans. Schools segregated by sex are common. They are 

small chunky animals without a beak. They generally are shy of 

boats and are not known to ride bow waves. 

The harbor porpoise is involved in marine mammal fishery 

conflicts in several areas of its distribution. In some areas, 

they may be taken incidental to fishery operations in large 

numbers. The extent of their involvement in U.S. fisheries is 

not known. The data base is not complete on this species, and an 

estimate of its populations cannot be made. 
Dall Is Porpo ise 

Phocoenoides dalli 

The Dallas prpoise inhabits the North Pacific Ocean in a broad 

arc from Japan to the Aleutian Islands and Bering Sea, the ~ulf 

of Alaska, and along the coast of North America as far south as 

Baja California. Migration has not been documented, but seasonal 

movement of some parts of the population have been recorded. 

This species is one of the swiftest cetaceans known, easily 

achieving a speed of over 20 knots. Dall's Wrpoise feed on 

squid, lantern fish, and other species of fish. They are heavy 

bodied reaching about 7 ft in length and weighing up to 500 lbs. 

This porpoise often travels in groups of 2 to 5 and sometimes 10 

to 20; although, large groups have been seen during migration. 

In the central North Pacific, this species is accidentally taken 

in the Japanese high seas salmon gill net fishery and, to an 

unknown degree, in other gill net fisheries. A direct fishery 

for this species occurs off the coast of Japan. It has been 

considered an abundant cetacean throughout most of its range. 

Population estimates for this species range from 580,000 to 2.2 

million, with over 920,000 animals the current estimate. 
Family Monodontidae 

Narwhal and Beluga Whales 

The two species in this family inhabit the Arctic basin and are 

usually found near advancing and retracting pack and drift ice. 

The fossil record of the genus Delphinapterus goes back 5 million 

years on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America. 

Other fossils from this family are dated as 12 to 13 million 

years old. 

They do not have a dorsal fin, and the separate vertebrae in the 

neck allows the head to turn at a sharp angle. The snout does 

not have a beak and the melon is large and prominent. The 

flippers are fan-shaped and curl upward while the animal swims. 

Both species have pronounced asysmetrical skulls. A series of 

well developed muscles attached to crests on the skull allow the 

head to move with greater freedom than other cetaceans. 
Beluga 

Delphinapterus leucas 

The beluga is generally a circum~lar Arctic basin species, 

although some populations exist along the southern coast of 

Alaska; one ppulation is found along the Pacific Coast of Alaska 

(Cook Inlet). Throughout most of its range, it is in frequent 

contact with the ice pack and ice floes. It does not have a 

dorsal fin, and its solid white coloring distinguishes the beluga 

from other whales. There is a prominent keel on top of the tail 

and the body is broad and expansive. This species is known for 

its remarkable agility, particularly the ability to twist and 

turn. The melon is a prominent feature of the head and belugas 

sbw a marked ability to change the shape of this structure. 

Males grow to about 16 ft; females grow to about 14 ft long. 

Gestation is probably 15 mnths and the newborn calves are about 

5 ft long. Nursing lasts 20 mnths, and the reproductive cycle 

is about 3 years. They often travel in groups of 2 to 3, but 

seasonally are found in groups of several hundred. They are 

frequently found in shallow waters. Their diet includes salmon, 

capelin, pike, cod, squid, crustaceans and other invertebrates. 

They break the ice with their bodies to maintain a breathing 

space. 

Belugas are taken by natives in the circumpolar areas for 

subsistence. The population of the beluga whale fluctuates widely 

in some areas. Because they are frequently found in shallow 

coastal waters and estuaries of large rivers, these populations 

may be subject to environmental changes. The circumplar 

population is estimated between 62,000 and 88,000 animals. 
Narwhal 

Monodon monoceros 

Narwhals inhabit all the Arctic Ocean basin and occasionally are 

seen just below the Arctic circle. The male species is 

distinguished by a tusk from 3 to 5 ft long. They are a deep 

water species traveling in pods of 6 to 20 animals that may be 

segregated by sex. When pursued, they swim in a tight group and 

blow in unison. Narwhals live near the pack ice throughout the 

year, although they frequent open bays and fjords. They can 

become trapped in the pack ice and break newly forming ice at 

breathing holes by butting it with their melon. Thick ice may be 

broken by several animals hitting it in unison. They are preyed 

on by polar bears at their breathing holes; sharks are probably 

predators when narwhals are trapped or confined in the ice. 

Dives of 15 minutes are recorded for this species; a depth of 200 

fathoms was reached by a harpooned animal. This species has not 

been maintained in captivity with any success. Narwhals feed on 

Polar cod and Greenland halibut as well as squid, octopus, and 

crustaceans. The adult female has no functional teeth; however, 

there are usually two unerupted teeth in the upper jaw. There 

are reports of females with tusks. In the adult male, the left 

tooth protrudes through the gum and the blubber of the upper lip 

and grows in a leftward spiral. The right tooth may erupt in 

some animals, but it also spirals to the left. Broken tusks are 

are quite common. The gestation period of narwhals is about 14.5 

months long; the newborn are between 5 and 6 ft long and weigh 

about 170 lbs. 

The population estimate for this species in the Canadian area of 

its range is 10,000 animals. There are no reliable estimates for 

other areas. 

Family Physeteridae 

Sperm Whales 

There are three living species in the sperm whale family. Two 

are in the genus Kogia and are relatively small in comparison to 

the sperm whale + Ph seter catodon. This family, found in the 

fossil record 25 .ml llon years ago, currently has some 20 genera 

and 30 species. The skull structure of the fossils suggests they 

had developed melons and were deep divers. The teeth are 

relatively large and widely spaced in the lower jaw, but are 

absent in the upper jaw. 

Physeterids have specialized the general structure of the melon 

of toothed whales, and the liquid wax it contains quickly 

solidifies when exposed to air. The chemistry of these oils is 

different from the oil of other toothed whales. The quality and 

quantity of oil in each animal resulted in the development of a 

large industry of sperm whaling. The oil was a major source of 

fuel for lamps and candles in the early and middle 1800's in 

North America and Europe. 

Physeterids feed largely on several species of squid and octopus 

as well as several species of deep water bony fish. 
Sperm Whale 

Physeter catodon 

Sperm whales are found in all oceans. Large solitary bulls 

migrate from tropical and temperate latitudes to near the pack 

ice of the polar regions. Older and middle aged females with 

calves and juvenile animals segregate into schools which may be 

joined by sizeable numbers of medium sized bachelors to form 

mixed schools of 25 to 100 or more animals. They may stay close 

together or be dispersed over a half mile area. Several studies 

suggest that the large bulls returning from their high latitude 

migration breed with the females and maintain harems as do sea 

lions and fur seals. The head of a sperm whale is about onethird the total length of the animal and its dominant structure 

is the melon. The blowhole located on the tip of the left side 

of the snout is connected to a complicated series of air sacks 

and tubes at the front of the brain case as in other toothed 

whales. It is the only species of cetacean to have the blowhole 

at the tip of the snout. Large sperm whales can dive for 60 to 

75 minutes. The current known record for a depth of dive is 

3,609 ft by a sperm whale caught in a submarine cable. Males 

reach about 50 ft in length, and females about 40 ft. Calves 

are from 10 to 16 ft long at birth and weigh about 2,150 lbs. 

The skin is heavily creased and folded at birth and these creases 

are retained in the adult. There is not a distinct dorsal fin, 

but a single large hump followed by a series of small knuckles or 

humps. Their large distinctive blow is thrown in front of the 

animal at a 45O angle. Sperm whales are frequently involved in 

mass strandings throughout the world although most strandings 

occur in the tropical and temperate latitudes. 

The sperm whale has been a major target species of commercial 

whaling over the past 30 years. In 1978, the IWC set a zero 

quota for take in the southern hemisphere. This species is taken 

under IWC quotas in Icelandic waters and off the coast of Japan. 

The ppulation for this species in the southern hemisphere is 

estimated at 410,000 animals; in the Sbrth Atlantic, 22,000 

animals and in the North Pacific, 300,000 animals. 
Pygmy Sperm Whale 

Koqia breviceps 

Pygmy sperm whales are found in tropical and warm temperate 

waters. At birth, this whale is about 3.5 ft long; adults reach 

about 11 f t long. A distinct dorsal fin is located far back on 

the body. They are heavy bodied animals we ighing over 1,700 lbs. 

There are 12 to 16 large teeth in each side of the lower jaw and 

occasionally in the upper jaw. The melon is similar in general 

structure to the sperm whale, but the head is only 10 percent of 

the body length. The blowhole is located immediately in front of 

the brain case and is slightly to the left of the midline of the 

animal as in other toothed whales. 

Our knowledge of this species is based on stranded animals. It 

is the second most frequently stranded species (after the 

bottlenose dolphin) on the Eastern and Gulf seaboard of the 

Un ited States. Studies of the food items in the stomachs 

indicate that they feed predominately on offshore species of 

squid found on the continental shelf slope and the open sea. 

Analysis of the stranding records of small groups of this species 

suggest that they may segregate into sexually mature and immature 

groups. Cow and calf pairs are frequently found stranded. 

Pregnant mothers with nursing calves have been found which 

suggests that they may give birth once a year. 

Both the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale were formerly 

described as rare or uncommon. Their frequency in the stranding 

record, however, indicates that they are abundant in several 

areas. Neither species lends itself behaviorally to 

observational techniques used in estimating populations. The 

blow is very thin and dissipates rapidly so that an observer at 

sea literally has to see the animal as it moves to breathe. They 

are infrequently seen at sea, but observers have recorded groups 

of 4 to 10 apparently asleep at the surface with the head exposed 

and the tail hanging down. 

There is no population estimate for this species. 
Dwarf Sperm Whale 

Koqia simus 

Most of what is known about the dwarf sperm whale has been 

obtained in the last 20 years through the stranding record. Its 

distribution is similar to the Pygmy sperm whale; although, from 

studies of its stomach Content, this species may not be as much 

of a deep water dweller as the pygmy sperm whale. They are about 

3 ft long at birth and 7 to 9 ft long as adults. Pregnant 

females with a nursing calf are known in the stranding record. 

There is little evidence that this species migrates or moves 

seasonally. They have been reported in groups of 2 to 7 animals. 

Ageing this species on the basis of tooth studies has proven 

difficult. They feed largely on squid, and often have no teeth 

in the upper jaw; the teeth in the lower jaw are shorter and more 

slender than in other species. The tall dorsal fin is similar to 

others in the dolphin family. 

There is no population estimate for this species. 
Family Ziphiidae 

Beaked whhles 

This family contains large to medium-sized whales. In all twenty 

species, the snout is tapered and the lower jaw is longer than 

the upper jaw. They have two grooves on the throat and, in some 

specimens, an additional one or two grooves. The dorsal fin is 

located far back on the body. There is no notch in the flukes, 

and when the flippers are pressed against the body, they fit into 

depressions of the blubber on the chest. 

The teeth of the beaked whale range from a full complement in 

Tasmacetus to tiny translucent slivers embedded in the gums in 

Z iphius. In the several species of Mesoplodon, the front teeth 

have several forms. In some species, the teeth become encrusted 

with barnacles since there is limited opening of the jaws. In 

females, the teeth are smaller; many of the rudimentary teeth in 

fetuses and juveniles do not persist in the adult stage. 

Beaked whales have a well developed melon which suggest that they 

are deep diving echolocaters preying on squid as a major part of 

their diet. Throwing a thin rapidly dissipating blow close to 

the water, these whales are difficult to observe at sea. Some 

species photographed breaching high above the water are of ten 

heavily scarred with scratches several feet long over the head 

and chest. The largest source of knowledge of this family is 

based on the examination of stranded specimens, except for the 

giant bottlenose and Baird's beaked whale which are taken 

commercially. 
Baird's Beaked Whale 

Berardius bairdii 

Baird's beaked whale is one of the few species of the family 

Ziphiidae for which basic biological information is known. ~t is 

the largest representative of the family and measures up to 40 ft 

long. It has a prominent beak and melon and a medium sized 

dorsal fin. Baird's beaked whale is found in the temperate 

waters of the North Pacific in an arc from Japan though the 

Bering Sea and down to central California- It has two teeth on 

each side of the lower jaw and feeds extensively on several 

species of squid and fish such as sardines and rock fish. ~dult 

males reach about 32 ft in length and females about 34 ft. 

Gestation is probably 10 months long. This offshore, deep water 

species dives for an average of 10 to 20 minutes; although, dives 

of over an hour have been recorded. They are often seen 

traveling in pairs, yet schools of 10 or more have been observed. 

They breach partially out of the water. 

This species is taken in coastal whaling stations in Japan. The 

estimated population sizes are unknown, although there are 

reported declines in numbers in local areas. 
REFERENCES 

Advisory Committee on Marine Resources Research, Working Party on 

Marine Mammals. 1978. Mammals in the Seas: FA0 Fisheries 

Series, No. 5, Volume 1. Food and ~gricultural organization of 

the United Nations, 264 P. 

1979. Mammals in the Seas: FA0 

Fisheries Series, No. 5, Volume I1 - Pinniped Species Summaries 

and Report of Sirenians. Food and Agricultural Organization of 

the United Nations, 151 p. 

Ellis, R. 1980. The Book of Whales. Alfred A. Knopf, 202 p. 

Harrison. R. J. R.C. Hubbard, R.S. Peterson, C.F. Rice, R. J. 

Shusterman, editors, 1968. The Behavior and Physiology of 

Pinnipeds. Appelton, Century, Crofts, 411 p. 

Mansfield, A.W., K. Ronald, editors. 1975. Biology of the Seal. 

Procedings of a symposium held in Guelph, Denmark August 14-17, 

1972. Rapports et Proces-Verbaux des Re' unions Volume 169. 

Consiel International Pour L'exploration de la Mer, 537 p. 

Matthews, L.H. 1978. The Natural History of the Whale, Columbia 

University Press, 219 p. 

Mitchell, E.D. 1975. Review of Biology and Fisheries for Small 

Cetaceans. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 

Volume 32, No. 7. Special Issue, 1235p. 

Southwest Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

1979. Report on the Status of Porpoise Stocks Workshop, August 

27-31, 1979, La Jolla, Calif. Administrative Report No. LJ-79-41, 

120 p. 

Society of Systematic Zoology, 1976. Advances in Systematics of 

Marine Mammals, Volume 25, No. 4. pp. 301-446. 
Appendix A 

TABLE I 1980 GENERAL PERMITS - COHMERCIAL FISBING INCIDENTAL TAKE IPINNIPEDIA CETACEA 

Otariidae Phocidae 

Applf ed 

for Allowed 

Category 1: Domestic (PCPFA)~' 350 

Towed or Japan (Deep Sea) 7 0 

Dragged Japan (~ediua) 2' 0 

Gear USSR (sovrybf lot) 200 

Poland (ODRA) 2 8 

Poland (DALMDR) 2 7 

Domes tic (Chipman) 3. 8 

West Germany - 4 0 

Subtotal 723 

Applied 

for Allowed 

Applied 

for Allowed 

TOTAL 

Applied 

for Allowed 

Category 3: Domestic (PCFPA)~. 300 300 400 400 40 4 0 7 40 740 

- Encircling Domestic (~hipman)3* 8 0 10 0 0 0 18 0 

Gear,Not 

Involving 

Intentional 

Taking - - - - - - - - Subtotal 3 0 8 300 410 4 00 40 4 0 758 740 

Category 4: Domes tic (PCFFA) " 40 40 5 0 50 0 0 9 0 9 0 

Stationary Domestic (chipman) 3* 7 ,O 10 0 0 0 17 0 

Gear - - - - - - - Subtotal 4 7 40 6 0 5 0 0 0 107 9 0 

Category 5 : Domestic (PCFFA) 450 450 600 600 4 0 4 0 1,090 1,090 

Other Gear Japan (~on~line) 2. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Domes tic (Chipman) 3. - 7 - 0 - 10 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 17 - 0 

Subtotal 457 450 610 600 4 0 4 0 1.107 1,090 

1. Except Category 2: Encircling Gear, Involving the Intentional Taking of Marine Mammals 

2. Requested harassment only, no mortality or serious injury intended 

3. Application denied, combined with PCFFA permit 

4. Permit valid through December 31, 1981 
TABLE 2 1981 GENERAL PERMITS - COMMERCIAL FISHING INCIDENTAL TAKE I' 

PINNIPEDIA C ETAC EA 

Otariidae Phocidae 

Applied Applied 

for Allowed for Allowed 

Category 1: Domestic (PCFFA) 350 350 

Towed or Japan (Deep Sea). 2 0 20 

Draggad . Japan (~edium)z. 0 0 

Gear Poland (GRYF) 2 4 2 4 

Poland (ODRA) 4 0 2 5 

Poland (DALMOR) 4 8 2 5 

Domestic (chipman) 3- 8 0 

Spain (ANAVAR) 2 0 2 0 

West Germany - 6 0 - 20 

Sub total 570 484 

Applied 

for Allowed 

TOTAL 

Applied 

for Allowed 

- Category 3: Domestic (PCFPA) 300 3 00 400 400 4 0 4 0 7 40 740 

,N Encircling Domestic (chipman) 3. 8 0 10 0 0 0 L 8 0 

Gear, Not 

Involving 

Intentional 

Taking - - - - - - - - 

Subtotal 308 308 410 400 4 0 4 0 758 740 

Category 4: Domestic (PCFFA) 40 40 5 0 5 0 0 0 9 0 9 0 

Stationary Domestic hipme men)^' 7 0 10 0 0 0 17 0 

Gear - - - - - - - - 

Subtotal 47 4 0 60 5 0 0 0 107 9 0 

Category 5: Domestic (PCFFA) 450 450 600 600 40 4 0 1,090 1,090 

Other Gear Japan (~ongline)2- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Domestic (chfpman)3' - 7 - 0 - 10 - 0 - 0 - 0 17 - 0 

Subtotal 457 450 610 600 4 0 4 0 1,107 1,090 

1. Except Category 2: Encircling Gear, Involving the Intenttonal Taking of Marine Mammals 

2. Requested harassment only, no mortality or serious injury Intended 

3. Application denied, combined with PCFFA permit 
TABLE 3 

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF MARINE MAMMALS INVOLVED IN 

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH/PUBLIC DISPLAY PERMIT APPLICATIONS 

COMMON NAME 

----------- 

CETACEANS 

-------0- 

SCIENTIFIC NAME 

--------------- 

ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN 

ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN 

ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN 

BAIRD'S BEAKED WHALE 

BLACK RIGHT WHALE, NORTHERN RIGHT 

BLAINVILLE'S BEAKED WHALE 

BLUE WHALE 

BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS 

BOTTLENOSE WHALES 

BOWHEAD WHALE 

BRYDE'S WHALE 

COMMERSON'S DOLPHIN 

COMMON DOLPHIN 

CUVIER'S BEAKED WHALE 

DALL'S PORPOISE 

DUSKY DOLPHIN 

DWARF SPERM WHALE 

FALSE KILLER WHALE 

FIN WHALE, FINBACK 

FINLESS PORPOISE 

FRASER'S (SARAWAK) DOLPHIN 

GISKGO-TOOTHED BEAKED WHALE 

GRAY WHALE 

HARBOR PORPOISE 

HEAVISIDE'S DOLPHIN 

HUBBS' BEAKE'D WHALE 

HUMPBACK WHALE 

KILLER WHALE 

LAGENORHYNCHINE DOLPHINS 

LONG-FINNED PILOT WHALE 

MELON-HEADED WHALE, ELECTRA 

MINKE WHALE 

NORTHERN RIGHT WHALE'DOLPHIN 

PACIFIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN 

PILOT WHALES UNSPECIFIED 

PYGMY KILLER WHALE 

PYGMY SPERM WHALE 

RIGHT WHALES UNSPECIFIED 

RISSO'S DOLPHIN, GRAMPUS 

ROUGH-TOOTHED'DOLPHIX 

SEI WHALE 

SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE 

SOUTHERN RIGHT WHALE 

SPERM WHALE 

TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS 

STENELLA PLAGIoDoN 

LAGENORHYNCHUS ACUTUS 

BERARDIUS BAIRDII 

BALAENA GLACIALIS 

ME SOP LO DO^ DENSIROSTRIS 

RALAENOPTERA MUSCULUS 

TURSIOPS SP. 

HYPEROODON sp. 

BALAENA MYSTICETUS 

BALAENOPTERA EDEN1 

CEHPALORHYNCHUS COMMERSONII 

DELPHINUS DELPHIS 

ZIPHIUS CAVIROSTRIS 

PHOCOENOIDES DALLI 

LAGENORHYNCHUS OBSCURUS 

KOGIA SIMUS 

PSEUDORCA CRASSIDENS 

BALAENOPTERA PHYSALUS 

NEOPHOCAENA PHOCAENOIDES 

LAGENODELPHIS HOSE1 

MESOPLODON GINKGODENS 

ESCHRICHTIUS ROBUSTUS 

PHOCOENA PHOCOENA 

CEHPALORHYNCHUS HEAVISIDII 

MESOPLODON CARLHUBBSI 

MEGAPTERA NOVAEANGLIAE 

ORCINUS ORCA 

LAGENORHYNCHUS SP* 

GLOBICEPHALA MELAENA 

~E~oNOCEPHALA ELECTRA 

BALAENOPTERA ACUTOROSTRATA 

LISSODELPHIS BOREALIS 

LAGENORHYNCHUS OBLIQUIDENS 

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KoGIA BREVICEPS 

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STENO BREDANENSIS 

BALAENOPTERA BOREALIS 

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TABLE 10 

SUNMABY OF PERMITS FOR PERMANENT REMOVAL FROM THE WILD - PINNIPEDS 

ARCTOCEPKALINE FUR SEALS 

BAZKAL SEAL 

BEARDED SEAL 

CALIFORNIA SEA LION 

CASPIAN SEAL 

CRABEATER SEAL 

GRAY SEAL 

HARBOR SEALS 

HARP SEAL. GREEULAND SEAL 

KERGUELEN FUR SEAL 

LARGBA SEAL, SPOTTSD SEAL 

LEOPARD SEAL 

- NORTHEEN ELEPHANT SEAL w NORTHERH PUB SEAL W MORTHEEN SEA LION. STELLER SEA LION 

RIBBON SEAL 

RINGED SEAL 

ROSS SEAL 

SOUTH AMERICAN SEA LION 

SODTEEPI ELEPBANT SEAL 

UNSPECIFIED MARINE MAMMALS 

UNSPECIFIED PIPNIPEDS 

WALRUS 

WEDDELL SEAL 

AS OF MARCH 31, 1981 

****a*** PERMITS ********a 

ISSUED EXPIRED CURRENT 

*******************a* NUMBER OF ANIMALS ************************* 

REQUESTED AUTHORIZED REPLACEMENTS AUTHOBIZATfOH TAKEN TAKE 

EXPIRED (2) REMAINING 

TOTAL NUWBER OF ANIMALS: 10.168 10,144 16 1.46:' 1,850 6.868 

(1) PLEASB REFER TO TABLE 3 OF THIS APPENDIX FOR TEE APPROPRIATE SCIENTIFIC NAMES. 

(2) ANIMALS TAKEN INCLUDE TBOSB INADVERTENTLY KILLED DURING THE COURSE OF RESEARCH AUTHORIZING TYPES OF TAKB OTHER THAN PERMANENT 

REMOVAL 
Table 11 

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Fiscal Year 

73 

74 

7 5 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

MARINE MAMMAL PROTECTION ACT (MMPA) APPROPRIATIONS 

AND OTHER MARINE MAMMAL FUNDING FY 1973-1981 

(in thousands of dollars) 

1 a MPA Fundinq 

Section 

110 

550.0~ 

550.0 

550.0 

1100.0 

1667.0 d--- 

200.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Section 

114 

400.0 

1050.0 

1050.0 

1697.0 

2778.0 

4872.0 

6842.0 

7128.0 

6980.0 

MMPA 

Subtotal 

950.0 

1600.0 

1600.0 

2797.0 

4445.0 

4872.0 

7042.0 

7228.0 

7080.0 

Other Funds Total 

Fur Seal 

Act 

---* 

--** 

---- 

595.0 

595.0 

595.0 

595.0 

595.0 

595.0 

Endangered 

Species .Act 

S/K Fish and 

Wildlife Act 

'~onies were appropriated under Sections 110 and 114 only. 

'1ncl udes f250k one-time reprogramning from ~dministrator 's Reserve. 
Table 12 

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

ESTIMATED MARINE MAMMAL PROTECTION ACT (MMPA) EXPENDITURES 

BY PROGRAM ACTIVITY FOR FISCAL YEARS 1976 - 1981 

(in thousands of dollars) 

Program Administration 238.5 338.5 370.7 554.7 430.6 440.3 

Enforcement 1063.0 925.7 1010.8 1111.9 1074.8 1082.1 

Tuna-Porpoi se Research & Management 836.9 2486.9 2846.2 3328.6 3511.6 3562.1 

Cetacean & Pinniped Research 251.8 157.8 95.6 1406.4 1461.2 1069.0 

General Support 406.8 536.1 548.7 640.4 749.8 926.5 

Total MMPA Appropriations 2797.0 4445.0 4872.0 7042.0 7228.0 7080.0 

Note: Figures ao not rer~ect additional funding available for marine mama1 activities under the 

Endangered Species Act and Fur Seal Act appropriations. 
Table 13 

INTEWIRTIWBAL UIUING CDFFlERCIAL QUOTAS. 1975-80 lJ 

-- Southern Ilemlsphere 

Fin 

Ninke 

5ei 

Spenn (male) 

(female) . Uryde's 

--- North Pacific 

Fin 

Mtnke 

5el and Bryde's 

Se f 

Bryde' s 

thrth Atlantic. -- 

Tin 

- Hlnke 

w Sei 

Sperm 

TOTAL 

EomERcl A1 NTAS 

Other 7J 

1/ Quotas established at the tWC annual eting are for llntarctic whaling season (December of year of meeting through April of 

following year) and all coastal seasons of year after meeting. The hmfssion decided at the 32nd Meeting to apply quotas 

to whaling seasons in the year in whlch they begin. 

Catch liprit covering Ihtarctlc catch only (Swth of 40 Latitude). 

Of this figure. 622 rhales cannot be taken legally by nwkr countries because of the factory ship mratorim andlor the 

Indian Ocean Sanctuary. 

- 4/ This flare includes a pemissable bycatch of up to 11.5 percent females. Once the quota In males and females or 11.5 

percent of the quota in fcaales has been taken. hichewer occurs first, all haling for sperm whales in the Ibrth Pacific 

oust cease. 

y Of this fiwre. the Government of Iceland has stated its intention not to take 50 of the 304 whales permitted to be 

taken from the E. Greenland-Iceland stock. This figure also includes a limit of 240 for the Spain-Portugal-British Isles 

stock forwhich the 3Znd keting set a 1980-1981 combined limit of 440 with a maximum annual limit of 240. The limit 

originally set for 19BO and reflected in the colm for the 3Tst Heetfng was 143. 

6J Thts figure is for wales. and there isa zeruquota for females. 

7J Whales taken by IYC nations. but not Included in quotas. 

- 8/ The figure in parentlteses takes fnto account the reductions discussed In footnotes 3 and 5 above. 
Appendix B 

Laws and Treaties Governing the Protection 

of Marine Mammals 

Every marine mammal of U.S. concern is protected by one or more U.S. 

laws or acts, and the conservation of some Species is partially assured 

by international treaty or law.. A summary of laws, conventions, and 

commissions designed to protect marine mammals follows. 

United States Laws and Treaties 

1. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972: A U-S- Federal law that 

prohibits persons under the jurisdiction of the United States from 

taking, harassing, or importing any marine mammal or its byproducts into 

the United States, except when authorized to do so by special permit. 

Eskimos, Aleuts, and Indians of the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans can 

take marine mammals for subsistence and for creating and selling 

handicraft items and clothing as long as the stocks can support the 

harvest. 

2. Endangered Species Act of 1973: This U.S. Federal law provides a 

program for the conservation of species that are either endangered now 

or threatened with extinction within the foreseeable future and their 

dependent ecosystems, and to implement international conservation 

conventions. With limited exceptions, the Act prohibits the taking, 

importing, exporting, and interstate commerce of any endangered species, 

as well as their parts or products. Exceptions include: permits for 

scientific purposes or the enhancement of propagation or survival of the 

species, economic hardship exemptions, and subsistence taking by Alaska 

natives. For threatened species, the Act authorizes the issuance of 

protective regulations as necessary for their conservation. To 

accomplish its purposes, the Act authorizes the acquisition of land; 

authorizes cooperative aggreements with States which have an adequate 

conservation program, including Federal funding of up to two-thirds (or 

three-fourths when entered with more than one State); prohibits Federal 

agencies from taking any action that would jeopardize the continued 

existence of an endangered or threatened species or result in the 

destruction or modification of its critical habitat unless an exception 

is granted by the Endangered Species Committee; requires the development 

of recovery plans; and provides for civil and criminal penalties. 

Marine mammals under the jurisdiction of NMFS and listed as enaangered 

species are the blue whale, bowhead whale, fin whale, gray whale, 

humpback whale, right whales, sei whale, sperm whale, Caribbean monk 

seal, Hawaiian monk seal, and Mediterranean monk seal. 

3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 

Fauna and Flora: The Convention, which entered into force on July 1, 

1975, provides additional protection for the following marine mammals 
under the jurisdiction of NMFS: Appendix I--blue whale, bowhead whale, 

gray whale, humpback whale, right whales, certain stocks of fin and sei 

whales, Ganges River dolphin, humpbacked dolphin, Indus River dolphin, 

white flag dolphin, f inless porpoise, cochito (porpoise ) , Caribbean monk 

seal, Hawaiian monk seal, Mediterranean monk seal, and northern elephant 

seal; Appendix 11--certain stocks of fin and sei whales, and all other 

cetaceans, southern elephant seal, Amsterdam Island fur seal, Galapagos 

fur seal, Guadalupe fur seal, Juan Fernandez fur seal, Kerguelen fur 

seal, New Zealand fur seal, Southern (South American) fur seal, and 

South African fur seal. Trade is more strictly controlled for Appendix 

I animals than for Appendix I1 animals. The U.S. Management Authority 

for the Convention (U.S. Department of the Interior) controls the 

import, export, re-export, and introduction from the sea of convention 

animals through a system of permits and enforcement. Implementation by 

regulating commerce began May 23, 1977. 

4. International Whaling Convention: The IWC was established under a 

convention signed in Washington, D.C., in December 1946. The membership 

includes all countries that-catch significant numbers of whales except - 

Chile, Peru, Portugal, and Spain. The TWC is responsible for whale 

conservation worldwide. Since 1964, the IWC has acted to bring world 

whaling under control by prohibiting the taking of some species, sharply 

reducing the authorized catches of species in certain areas, 

establishing catch quotas by species and stocks, and implementing an 

international observer plan for checking compliance with quotas and 

regulations at land stations and on factoryships. The IWC now regulates 

the harvest of Bryde's, fin, minke, sei, and sperm whales. An IWC 

subcommittee has been established to review problems relating to 

cetaceans. The blue, bowhead, gray, humpback, and right whales are 

completely protected, except for some hunting by aborigines. 

5. Whaling Convention of 1949 brought into force the Jnternational 

Convention.for the Regulation of Whaling signed on December 2, 1946, by 

the United States and certain other governments. Article I11 of the 

International Convention established the IWC. 

6. The Whale Conservation and Protection Study Act of 1976: The Act 

requires the Secretary of Commerce to make a comprehensive study of all 

whales found in waters subject to the jurisdictibn of the united States, 

including the 200-mile fishery conservation zone. 
7. Interim Convention on North Pacific Fur Seals: The convention, 

ratified in 1957, prohibits most citizens of Canada, Japan, the 

U.S.S.R., and United States from taking northern fur seals. The 

exceptions are aboriginal Eskimos, Aleuts, and Indians, who may take 

them only at sea and by primitive methods. The convention also provides 

for intensive research on this species by the four countries. The 

United States and U*SoS*R* cmmercially harvest northern fur seals on 

their breeding grounds and regulate the kills on a scientific basis. 

8. Fur Seal Act of 1966 brought into force the 'Interim Convention on 

North Pacific Fur Seals. 

9. International Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, 

1972: The purpose of this convention is to safeguard all species of 

Antarctic seals and to ensure that, if commercial sealing begins on 

floating ice of the Southern Ocean, the taking of any species will be 

subject to strict limitations to prevent overexploitation or damage to 

their ecosystem. Measures adopted under the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 

provide only for the protection of seals and other animals around the 

shoreline of the Antarctic Continent, but not on floating ice. The 

convention of 1972 may be applicable to crabeater, leopard, Ross, 

southern elephant, southern fur seals, and Weddell seals south of 

latitude 60' south. The Ross, southern elephant, and southern fur seals 

are protected species, and no taking is permitted. 

Miscellaneous Regulations and Agreements of U.S. Interest 

1. International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries: 

Under terms of a convention signed in 1949, ICNAF is responsible for the 

investigation, protection, and conservation of the fisheries of the 

Northwest Atlantic. On January 1, 1977, Canada extended its 

jurisdiction aver fisheries to 200 miles. To avoid conflicts in 1977 

between Canadian and international regulations, Canada agreed to adopt 

ICNAF regulations for the 1978 harvest of harp seals and hooded seals. 

An amendment to the ICNAF -Convention adopted in December 1976 allows the 

Commission to give scientific advice for management of fisheries within 

natural fishery limits if requested by a coastal state that is a party 

to the Convention. 

A panel of ICNAF scientists recommended a kill of 180,000 harp seals for 

the entire northwest Atlantic for 1979. Canada appears to have 

completed the transition from international to Canadian management of 

harp and hooded seals within the limits of Canadian fisheries 

jurisdiction. The United States withdrew from the ICNAF in December 

1976 to conform with provisions in the Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act. 
2. Canadian Norwegian Agreement on Sealing: On December 22, 1971, 

these two governments ratified an agreement on sealing and the 

conservation of seal stocks in the Northwest Atlantic. The agreement 

applies to the harp seal, but provision is made for extension to hooded 

and bearded seals and to the walrus. 

3. Harp Seal: The U.S.S.R. and Norway signed an agreement in 1958 

entitled "Preservation of Seals in the Greenland Sea." The agreement 

provides for the regulation of harp seal catches by these two nations. 

The U.S.S.R., however, has not hunted harp seals, since 1965. 

4. Gray Seal: The U.S.S.R. has prohibited (since 1970) the hunting of 

gray seals for sport and by amateurs, but permits the taking of these 

animals for subsistence. Canada uses an 1886 law for authority in 

regulating the take of gray seals. England has prohibited the hunting 

of gray seals on the Farne Islands since 1932 and on Orkney Island since 

1923. Norway has forbidden hunting at Sor Trondelag since 1923. 

Finland and Sweden offer bonuses for gray seals taken. 

5. Hooded Seal: Canada and Norway prohibit the taking of hooded seals 

near Newfoundland before March 10, near Jan Mayen Island before 

March 13, in Denmark Strait from June 15 to July 15, and in northern 

waters from March 20 to May 5. The U.S.S.R. and Norway in 1958 agreed 

to prohibit the harvest of hooded seals near Jan Mayen Island before 

March 13 and banned hunting in Denmark Strait. 

6. U.S.S.R. Regulations (from the Russian Publication, "Rules for 

Protecting and Harvesting Marine Mammals," July 11, 1975: 

a. Under these regulations, a series of protective and conservation 

measures were adopted. Sport and hobby (recreational) hunting of any 

marine mammal is prohibited everywhere and throughout the year. 

Rookeries and hauling grounds are protected. Capture by use of poisons, 

certain firearms, and hook and line gear is prohibited at sea as well as 

fishing or harassment by vessels or aircraft within certain distances of 

various islands inhabited by marine mammals. The regulations include 

other prohibitions designed to protect marine mammals and their 

ecosystems. 

b. The U.S.S.R. has established closed seasons on vessel and shore 

harvest of ribbon, ringed, and harbor seals (and the ice-dwelling form 

of the harbor seal, the largha seal). The regulations allow short 

periods of harvest of white coats, yearlings, and adults in the Okhotsk 

and Bering Seas.. Short harvest periods are allowed in the northern 

commercial areas (White, Barents, and eastern Arctic Sea areas) on harp, 
hooded, and ringed seals. The harvests in the Jan Mayen area are 

adjusted by international agreement. Taking of bearded seals and 

belukhas (white whales) is allowed in Arctic areas primarily for 

subsistence purposes. 

7. Guadalupe fur seal: Mexico has safeguarded the breeding grounds of 

the Guadalupe fur seal on the Guadalupe Islands by making this island a 

wildlife refuge. 

8. South American fur seal: The Uruguayan and Argentinian Governments 

protect the South American fur seal on land and out to 200 miles at sea. 

The Uruguayan Government also regulates the harvest by protecting all 

female seals except the 1 year olds, controlling take of pups by 

seasonal restrictions, and imposing quotas in some instances. 

9. South African fur seal: The harvest of South African fur seals is 

largely a state enterprise in South Africa; however, the system includes 

one of control and leasing of rookeries to private contractors. The 

South West African Administration has not entered the harvesting 

business, but licenses private firms, restricts gear to be used, 

establishes closed seasons, and places limits on sex and condition of 

catch. 

10. Narwhal: Canada allows Eskimos to take five narwhals annually for 

personal use and issues permits to capture this mammal for exhibition. 

11. Killer whale: Canada allows this species to be taken under a 

permit system. 
Appendix C 

Notices and Regulations 

Final rules and regulations are reprinted each year in the Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR). Copies of the following rules, regulations, and notices 

published in the FEDERAL REGISTER are available from the Office of Marine 

Mammals and Endangered Species, National Marine Fisheries Service, 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20235. 

1. Bowhead Whale 

45 FR 93 (May 12, 1980) - Notice of reassignment of a bowhead whale struck 

quota for calendar year 1980. 

45 FR 108 (June 3, 1980) - Rules and Regulations - notice of closing the 

bowhead whaling season. 

46 FR 11 (January 16, 1981) - Proposed rules on the taking of bowhead whales 

by Indians, Aleuts, or Eskimos for subsistence purposes for calendar years 

1981, 1982, and 1983. 

2. Hawaiian monk seal 

45 FR 66 (April 3, 1980) - Notice of public meeting on proposed designation of 

critical habitat and availability of a draft environmental impact statement. 

3. Incidental take of marine mammals 

45 FR 76 (April 17, 1980) - Notice of availability of a report of a Workshop 

on stock assessment and incidental take of marine mammals. 

45 FR 72 (April 11, 1980) - Notice of issuance of general permits to incidentally 

take marine mammals. 

45 FR 87 (May 2, 1980) - Proposed Rules - taking of marine mammals incidental to 

commercial fishing operations. 

45 FR 239 (December 10, 1980) - Notice of issuance of general permits to the 

Pacific Coast Federation of is her men's Association to take marine mammals 

incidental to commercial fishing operations in Categories 1, 3, 4, and 5. 

Valid through December 31, 1981. 

46 FR 24 (February 5, 1981) - Notice of determination that the Government of 

Mexico is no longer in conformance with U.S. marine mammal regulations. 

Mexico is not allowed to export yellowfin tuna or tuna products into the 

United States. 
4. Incidental take of porpoise fn tuna purse seine fishery 

45 FR 147 (July 29, 1980) - Proposed Rules - Notice of availability of 

recommended decision on the taking of marine mammals incidental to 

commercial fishing operations. 

45 FR 150 (August 1, 1980) - Proposed Rules - Extension of time for filing 

exemptions to the above recommended decision. 

45 FR 213 (October 31, 1980) - Final decision and final rule to establish 

regulations to govern the taking of marine mammals incidental to commercial tuna 

purse seine fishing in the ETP for each of the 5 years 1981-1985. 

45 FR 237 (December 8, 1980) - Notice of issuance of a general permit to take 

marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations under category 2: 

encircling gear, purse seining involving the intentional take of marine mammals. 

46 FR 5 (January 8, 1981) - Advance notice of proposed rulemaking: enforcement 

policy relating to sundown sets. 

5. Dall's porpoise 

45 FR 227 (November 21, 1980) - Notice of intent to prepare an environmental 

impact statement on the incidental take of all's porpoise in the Japanese 

salmon fishery . 

46 FR 23 (February 4, 1981) - Notice of receipt of permit application; notice 

of formal hearing; notice of formal hearing procedures; notice of proposed 

regulations concerning the incidental take of Dall's porpoise and other marine 

mammals in the Japanese high seas salmon gillnet fishery inside the FCZ. 

6. Miscellaneous 

45 FR 186 (September 23, 1980) - Rules and Regulations - Removal of final 

rule - A waiver of the Marine Mammal Protection Act by National Marine Fisheries 

Service concerning the importation of Cape fur seals harvested in South Africa 

was rendered invalid by decision of the D.C. Court of Appeals in Animal Welfare 

Institute vs. Kreps. National Marine Fisheries Service amended 50 CFR Part 216 

by deletion of the regulations that sanctioned the waiver. 

45 FR 249 (December 24, 1980) - Final rule - Publication of the schedule of the 

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling as adopted at the 

July 1980 annual meeting of the IWC. 

+u.s+ DOVERNHNT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-0-340-997/1753