United States

Environmental Protection

Agency

Office of Solid Waste and

Emergency Response

(5102G)

EPA/542-B-99-002

April 1999

www.epa.gov

clu-in.org

Solidification/Stabilization

Resource Guide
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION

RESOURCE GUIDE

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response

Technology Innovation Office

Washington, D.C. 20460

April 1999
[This Page Intentionally Left Blank]
i

FOREWORD

This Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide is intended to inform site cleanup managers of

recently-published materials such as field reports and guidance documents that address issues

relevant to solidification/stabilization technologies. In addition to a short abstract for each of the

resources listed, the guide includes a look-up table that allows the user to quickly scan the

contents. Information on how to obtain a specific document also is included.
ii

NOTICE

This document was prepared by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under

EPA Contract Number 68-W5-0055. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not

constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

This document is part of a series of technology resource guides prepared by the Technology

Innovation Office. The series includes the following technology guides: the Bioremediation

Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-93/004); the Ground-Water Treatment Technology Resource Guide

(EPA/542/B-94/009); the Physical/Chemical Treatment Technology Resource Guide

(EPA/542/B-94/008); the Soil Vapor Extraction Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-94/007); and the

Soil Vapor Extraction Enhancement Technology Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-95/003). These

and other technology-related documents are available over the Internet at the Hazardous Waste

Clean-Up Information (CLU-IN) Web Site at http://clu-in.org.
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 3

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE .................................................. 4

HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE ......................... 5

TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY .................................................. 7

SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX ........... 9

ABSTRACTS OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES . . 29

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS ...................................... 31

OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS ................................... 34

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS ......................................... 37

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS ............................. 46

BOOKS AND DISSERTATIONS .............................................. 55

JOURNAL REFERENCES ................................................... 57

BIBLIOGRAPHIES ........................................................ 74

IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES ....................... 75

SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ................................... 79

OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES ............................................... 83

REQUEST FOR COMMENTS ................................................ 85
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3

INTRODUCTION

EPA is committed to identifying the most effective and efficient means of addressing the thousands

of hazardous waste sites in the United States. In addition, EPA seeks to ensure that decision-makers

are aware of current information on the performance of remediation technologies, policies, and other

sources of assistance. This Guide was prepared to help identify documents that can directly assist

Federal and State site managers, contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation of

technologies. This Guide was developed for those who are considering solidification/stabilization

technologies for the remediation of RCRA, UST, and CERCLA sites.

This Guide has abstracts of 125 solidification/stabilization technology guidance and policy

documents, overview/program documents, studies and demonstrations, workshops/conference

proceedings, books, journal references, bibliographies, in situ solidification/stabilization resources,

and other resource guides. A matrix is provided to allow easy screening of the abstracted references.

Documents listed in this Guide were found through a literature search conducted using several

commercial and Federal databases including EPA’s web site at http://www.epa.gov/, the National

Technical Information Service (NTIS), and DIALOG One Search Databases. The selected references

are not an exhaustive list of all available literature, but rather a representative sample of the available

literature. Because of the inherent lag time between document publication and subsequent listing in

electronic databases, there may be more recent references available than those included in the Guide. 

Most of the references in the Guide are of documents published between 1994 and 1998. The

documents are available from sources such as EPA’s National Service Center for Environmental

Publications (NSCEP), NTIS, document delivery services, and a variety of libraries. Further, all

documents listed in this Guide as having been prepared by the Technology Innovation Office are

available over the Internet at http://clu-in.org. Information in this Guide does not represent an

endorsement by EPA.
4

EPA Document Number: EPA/542/-B-95-003

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

When using this Guide to identify resource information on solidification/stabilization technologies,

you may wish to take the following steps:

1. Turn to the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Resource Matrix located on page 9. This

matrix lists alphabetically by document type 125 solidification/stabilization technology-related

documents, identifies the type of information provided by each document, and provides a

document ordering number.

2. Select the document(s) that appear to fit your needs based on the information in the matrix.

3. Check the abstract identification number. This number refers to an abstract of the document.

4. Review the abstract that corresponds to the document in which you are interested to confirm that

the document will fit your needs.

5. If the document appears to be appropriate, note the document number presented under the

abstract. For example:

6. Turn to the section entitled “How to Order Documents Listed in this Guide” on page 5 of this

Guide and order your document using the directions provided.

7. When seeking information on technical assistance sources, turn to page 79 of this guide

8. If you would like to comment on this Guide or would like additional information, turn to page 85

of this Guide and follow the directions for mailing or faxing your comments/questions.
5

HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE

Documents listed in this Guide are available through a variety of sources. When ordering documents

listed in the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Abstracts section of this Guide, use the number

listed in the bar below the abstract. If using the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Resource

Matrix, use the number listed below the document title. If multiple document ordering numbers are

identified, select the appropriate number based on the directions below. EPA/530, EPA/540,

EPA/600, and EPA/625 documents may be available through the Center for Environmental Research

Information (CERI); EPA/540 and EPA/542 documents may be obtained through the National

Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP); and EPA/530 documents may be obtained

from the RCRA Information Center (RIC). These document repositories provide in-stock documents

free of charge, but document supplies may be limited. Documents obtained through the National

Technical Information Service (NTIS) are available for a fee; therefore, prior to purchasing a

document through NTIS, you may wish to review a copy at a technical or university library, or a

public library that houses government documents. Out-of-stock documents may be ordered from

NSCEP or may be purchased from NTIS. Several Portland Cement Association (PCA) publications

also can be obtained by contacting PCA’s Publications Order Processing Department.

Document Type Document Source

Publication numbers with the following To send a request: National Technical Information Service

prefixes: (NTIS)

AD U.S. Department of Commerce

DE 5285 Port Royal Road

PB Springfield, VA 22161

PR (free of charge) Sales Desk: 1-800-553-NTIS(6847) or

(703) 605-6000

Operates Monday - Friday, 8:00 a.m. -8:00

p.m., Eastern Time

Subscriptions: 1-800-363-2068 or (703) 605-6000

Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. -

5:00 p.m., Eastern Time

TOD: (703) 487-4639

Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. -

5:00 p.m., Eastern Time

To fax a request: (703) 605-6900

Available 24 hrs, 7 days a week.

To verify receipt of fax, call

(703) 605-6090

Operates Monday - Friday, 7:00 a.m. -

5:00

p.m., Eastern Time

Email: orders@ntis.fedworld.gov

http://www.ntis.gov/ordering.htm
6

HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE (CONT’D)

Document Type Document Source

Publications with the following numbers: To send a request: Center for Environmental

EPA/530 (limited collection) Research Information (CERI)

EPA/540 (limited collection) Cincinnati, OH 45268

EPA/600 Sales Desk: (513) 569-7562

EPA/625 To fax a request: (513) 569-7566

Operates Monday - Friday, 8:00 a.m. - 4:30

p.m., Eastern Time

ORD publications: http://www.epa.gov/docs/ORD

ORD Technologies Transfer highlights:

http://www.epa.gov/ttbnrmrl/ceri.htm

Email: ord.ceri@epamail.epa.gov

Publications with the following numbers: To send a request: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EPA/540 National Service Center for Environmental

EPA/542 Publications (NSCEP)

A document title or number is needed to place http://www.epa.gov/ncepihom/ordering.htm

an order with NSCEP. Some out-of-stock

documents may be ordered from CERI or may

be purchased from NTIS.

P.O. Box 42419

Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419

Sales Desk: 1-800-490-9198, (513)-489-8190

To fax a request: (513) 489-8695

Operates Monday - Friday, 7:00 a.m. - 5:30

p.m., Eastern Time

email: ncepi.mail@epamail.epa.gov

Publications with EPA/530 numbers To send a request: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

RCRA Information Center (RIC)

401 M St., S.W.

Mailcode: 5305 W

Washington, DC 20460

Sales Desk: (703) 603-9230

Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00

a.m., Eastern Time

To fax a request: (703)-603-9234

email: rcra-docket@epamail.epa.gov

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/general/ricorder.htm

If you have difficulty finding a document or RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline:

wish to obtain EPA/510 documents (800) 424-9346, (703) 412-9810

TDD: (800) 553-7672, (703) 412-3323

Operates Monday-Friday, 9:00 a.m. -

6:00 p.m., Eastern Time

Publications prepared by PCA To send a request: Order Processing Department

P.O. Box 726

Skokie, IL 60076-0726

Request Desk: 1-800-868-6733

email: http://www.portcement.org
7

TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY

Solidification and stabilization are generic names applied to a wide range of discrete technologies

that are closely related in that both use chemical and/or physical processes to reduce potential

adverse impacts on the environment from the disposal of radioactive, hazardous, and mixed wastes.

Stabilization refers to techniques that chemically reduce the hazard potential of a waste by

converting the contaminants into less soluble, mobile, or toxic forms. The physical nature and

handling characteristics of the waste are not necessarily changed by stabilization.

Solidification refers to techniques that encapsulate the waste, forming a solid material, and does not

necessarily involve a chemical interaction between the contaminants and the solidifying additives.

The product of solidification, often known as the waste form, may be a monolithic block, a clay-like

material, a granular particulate, or some other physical form commonly considered “solid.”

Solidification as applied to fine waste particles, typically 2 mm or less, is termed

microencapsulation and that which applies to a large block or container of wastes is termed

macroencapsulation.

Solidification can be accomplished by a chemical reaction between the waste and solidifying

reagents or by mechanical processes. Contaminant migration is often restricted by decreasing the

surface area exposed to leaching and/or by coating the wastes with low-permeability materials. The

combined process of solidification/stabilization mixes wastes, soils, and sludges with treatment

agents to immobilize, both physically and chemically, the hazardous constituents in those substances.

The technologies are not regarded as destructive techniques; rather, they eliminate or impede the

mobility of contaminants.
[This Page Intentionally Left Blank]
*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

9

SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS

1 Guide Specification for [1] Department of the Army,

Construction, [2]

Solidification/Stabilization

(S/S) of Contaminated

Material.

USACE Document No. CEGS02160

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

USACE (1998).

2 Handbook for Stabilization/ [1] EPA-HWERL, ORD

Solidification of Hazardous [2]

Wastes.

EPA Document No. EPA/540/2-

86/001

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1986).

3 Innovative Site Remediation [1] EPA-OSWER/AAEE

Technology: Design and [2]

Application, Volume 4,

Stabilization/Solidification.

EPA Document No. EPA 542-

B-97-007

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1997).

4 Innovative Site Remediation [1] EPA-OSWER/AAEE

Technology: Volume 4, [2]

Solidification/Stabilization.

EPA Document No. EPA 542-

B-94-001

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1994).

5 Stabilization and [1] Barth, E. and others.

Solidification of Hazardous [2] (1990). Pollution

Wastes. Technology Review No. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

186.

6 Stabilization/Solidification of [1] EPA-CERI, RREL

CERCLA and RCRA Wastes:

Physical Tests, Chemical

Testing Procedures,

Technology Screening, and

Field Activities.

EPA Document No. EPA/625/6-

89/022

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1989).
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

10

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS (continued)

7 Statutory Interpretive [1] EPA-OSWER/OSW

Guidance on the Placement of [2]

Bulk Liquid Hazardous Waste

in Landfills.

OSWER Policy Directive No.

9487.00-2A

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1986).

8 Technical Resource [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Document: [2]

Solidification/Stabilization

and Its Application to Waste

Materials.

EPA Document No.

EPA/530/R-93/012

NTIS Document No: PB93-

237535

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1993).

9 Treatability Studies for [1] Department of the Army,

Solidification/Stabilization of [2]

Contaminated Material.

USACE Technical Letter No.

1110-1-158

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

USACE (1995).

OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS

10 Engineering Bulletin: [1] EPA-OERR, ORD

Solidification/ Stabilization of [2]

Organics and Inorganics.

EPA Document No.

EPA/540/S-92/015

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1993).

11 Guide to Improving the [2] Conner, J.R. Portland

Effectiveness of CementBased

Solidification/Stabilization.

PCA Publication No. EB211

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1997).

Cement Association.

12 Innovative Treatment [2] EPA-OSWER (1996).

Technologies: Annual Status

Report, 8th Edition.

EPA Document No. EPA-542-

R-96-010

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

11

OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS (continued)

13 Portland Cement: A [2] DOE - INEL, EG&G

Solidification Agent for LowLevel Radioactive Waste.

INEL Technical Bulletin No.

EGG-LLW-8843

! ! ! ! !

Idaho, Inc. (1991).

14 Potential [2] Wilk, C.M. Portland

Solidification/Stabilization

Projects Under the Superfund

Program.

PCA Publication No. IS500

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1994).

Cement Association.

15 Potential [2] Wilk, C.M. Portland

Solidification/Stabilization

Superfund Projects - 1995

Update.

PCA Publication No. IS501

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1995).

Cement Association.

16 Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Adaska, A., and others.

Wastes Using Portland [2]

Cement.

PCA Publication No. EB071 Edition. (1998).

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Association. Second

Portland Cement

17 Superfund Innovative [1] EPA-CERI (1996).

Technology Evaluation [2]

Program: Technology

Profiles, 9th Edition.

EPA Document No.

EPA/540/R-97/502

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

12

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS

18 Chemfix Technologies, Inc. [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Solidification/Stabilization [2]

Process: Applications

Analysis Report.

EPA Document No.

EPA/540/A5-89/011

NTIS Document No. PB-91-

187054

! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1991).

19 Evaluation of Solidification/ [1] Channell, M.G. and K.T.

Stabilization for Treatment of [2]

a Petroleum HydrocarbonContaminated Sludge from

Fort Polk Army Installation,

Louisiana.

NTIS Document No. ADA-320-

253/8

! ! ! ! !

Preston. U.S. ACE-WES

(1996).

20 Evaluation of Solidification/ [1] EPA- RREL, ORD

Stabilization Treatment [2]

Processes for Municpal Waste

Combustion Residues.

EPA Document No.

EPA/600/R-93/167

NTIS Document No: PB-93-

229870

! ! ! !

(1993).

21 HAZCON Solidification [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Process, Douglassville, PA: [2]

Applications Analysis Report.

EPA Document No. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

EPA/540/A5-89/001

NTIS Document No. PB-89-

206031

(1989).

22 International Waste [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Technologies/ Geo-Con In [2]

Situ Stabilization/

Solidification: Applications

Analysis Report.

EPA Document No.

EPA/540/A5-89/004

NTIS Document No. PB-90-

269085

! ! ! ! ! !

(1990).
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

13

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued)

23 Investigation of Test Methods [1] Environment

for Solidified Waste [2]

Evaluation - A Cooperative

Program.

Report EPS 3/HA/8

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Environment (1991).

Canada/EPA/Alberta

24 Literature Review of Mixed [2] Mattus, C.H. and T.M.

Waste Components:

Sensitivities and Effects Upon

Solidification/Stabilization in

Cement-Based Matrices.

NTIS Document No.

ORNL/TN-12656

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Gilliam. DOE-ORNL

(1994).

25 Onsite Engineering Report [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

for Solidification/Stabilization [2]

Treatment Testing of

Contaminated Soils.

NTIS Document No. PB-93-

166965/AS

! ! ! !

(1993).

26 Physical and Morphological [1] EPA-RREL, ORD/

Measures of Waste

Solidification Effectiveness.

EPA Document No. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

EPA/600/D-91/164

NTIS Document No. PB91-

226340/XAB

AWMA (1991).

27 Project Summary: Evaluation [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

of Solidification/Stabilization

as a Best Demonstrated

Available Technology for

Contaminated Soils.

EPA Document No.

EPA/600/S2-89/013

NTIS Document No. PB89-

169908

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1990).

28 Project Summary: [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Interference Mechanisms in [3]

Waste [4]

Stabilization/Solidification

Process.

EPA Document No.

EPA/600/S2-89/067

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1990).
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

14

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued)

29 Project Summary: Onsite [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Engineering Report for [2]

Solidification/Stabilization

Treatment Testing of

Contaminated Soils.

EPA Document No.

EPA/600/SR-93/051

! ! ! !

(1993).

30 Silicate Technology [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Corporation’s [2]

Solidification/Stabilization

Technology for Organic and

Inorganic Contaminants in

Soils. Applications Analysis

Report.

EPA Document No.

EPA/540/AR-92/010

NTIS Document No. PB-93-

172948

! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1992).

31 Silicate Technology [1] EPA- RREL, ORD

Corporation [2]

Solidification/Stabilization

Technology SITE

Demonstration at the SELMA

Pressure Treating Site, Selma,

CA. Technology Evaluation

Report.

EPA Document No.

EPA/540/R-95/010.

NTIS Document No. PB-95-

255709

! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1995).

32 Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/ [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Stabilization Process, [2]

Applications Analysis Report.

EPA Document No. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

EPA/540/A5-89/005

NTIS Document No. PB-91-

129817

(1990).

33 Stabilization of Heavy Metals [1] Wilk, C.M. Portland

with Portland Cement: [2]

Research Synopsis.

PCA Publication No. IS007

! ! ! ! !

Cement Association.

(1997).
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

15

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued)

34 Technology Evaluation [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Report: Chemfix [2]

Technologies, Inc.

Solidification/Stabilization

Process, Clackamas, Oregon.

EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-

89/011a

NTIS Document No. PB-91-

127696

! ! ! ! ! !

(1990).

35 Technology Evaluation [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Report: SITE Program [2]

Demonstration Test,

HAZCON Solidification,

Douglassville, Pennsylvania.

EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-

89/001a

NTIS Document No. PB-89-

158810

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1989).

36 Technology Evaluation [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Report: SITE Program [2]

Demonstration Test,

International Waste

Technologies In Situ

Stabilization/Solidification,

Hialeah, Florida

EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-

89/004a

NTIS Document No. PB-89-

194161

! ! ! ! ! !

(1990).

37 Technology Evaluation [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

Report: SITE Program [2]

Demonstration Test,

Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/

Stabilization Process

EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-

89/005a

NTIS Document No. PB-91-

129817

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(1990).
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

16

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

38 Capability of Cementitious [1] Poellmann, H. (1993).

Materials in the [2]

Immobilization Process of

Hazardous Waste Materials.

! ! ! ! ! !

15th International

Conference on Cement

Microscopy. p. 108-126.

39 Cement-Based Solidification [1] Cohen, B., and J.G.

of Ferro-Alloy Flue Dusts. [2]

! ! ! ! Institute of Mining,

Price. (1995). Canadian

Metallurgy, and

Petroleum. p. 297-308.

40 Chemical Aspects of [1] Testa, S.M. (1994).

Incorporating Contaminated [2]

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41 Chemical Stabilization of [1] Conner, J.R., Cotton, S.

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42 Chemistry and [1] Spence, R.D. (Editor).

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43 Designing a Better Matrix for [2] Bourgeois, J.C and

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44 Environmental Aspects of [1] Cote, P. and T.M.Gillian

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Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

17

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued)

46 Immobilization Technology [1] EPA-RREL, ORD

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222

[4]

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48 Laboratory, Regulatory and [1] Stegemann, J.A.,

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49 Material Handling Equipment [1] Lear, P.R., Schmitz, D.J.

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A&WMA Reprint No. 95- Management Association

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th

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or by contacting PCA.
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Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

18

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued)

52 Quality Analysis of Field [1] Stegemann, J.A., and

Solidified Waste.

! ! ! !

others. (1995). 5th

Annual Symposium on

Groundwater and Soil

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555.

53 Recent Advances in [1] Cocke, D.L., and others.

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537-541.

54 Remediation of Oil Refinery [1] Adaska, W.S., Bruin,

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55 Stabilization and [1] Gilliam T.M. and

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ASTM Publication No. 04-

011230-56

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56 Stabilization and [1] Gilliam T.M. and

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012400-56

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57 Synthesis, Crystal Chemistry [1] McCarthy, G.J., and

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

19

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued)

58 The Present State-of-the-Art [3] Bonen, D. and S.L.

of Immobilization of [4]

Hazardous Heavy Metals in

Cement-Based Materials. ! ! ! ! ! !

Sarkar. (1994).

Engineering Foundation

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in Cement and Concrete.

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61 Chemical Fixation and [1] Conner, J.R. (1990). Van

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Number Document Ordering No.

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Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

20

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67 A Model to Predict the TCLP [1] Faschan, A., and others.

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68 A Proposed Protocol for [1] Stegemann, J.A. and P.L.

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69 A Review of [2] Trussell, S. and R.D.

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519.

70 Cement-Based [1] Wilk, C.M. and Arora, R.

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72 Cement Binders for Organic [2] Owens, J. and S. Stewart.

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Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

21

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73 Durability Study of a [1] Yang, G. (1993). Journal

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74 Effect of Adsorbents on the [1] Tamas, F.D., and others.

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75 Effect of Carbonation on [3] Ismail, N., and others.

Microbial Corrosion of

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76 Electron Microscopy of Heavy [1] Ivey, D.G., and others.

Metal Waste in Cement [2]

Matrices. ! ! ! ! ! !

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77 Evaluation of Solid Waste [1] Albino, V., and others.

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78 Evaluation of the Leaching [1] Herrera, E., and others.

Properties of Solidified Heavy [2]

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998.

79 Factors For Selecting [2] Weitzman, L. (1990).

Appropriate

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Methods.

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Materials 24:457-468.

80 Feasilibilty of Using a [1] Yang, G. and K.L. Kao.

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81 Fundamental Aspects of [1] Roy, A. and F.K.

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Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

22

JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued)

82 Immobilization Mechanisms [1] Cartledge, F. and others.

in Solidification/Stabilization [2]

of Cadmium and Lead Salts

Using Portland Cement Fixing

Agents.

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24:867-873.

83 Immobilization of Chromium [1] Kindness, A., and others.

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84 Immobilization of Zinc and [1] Debroy, M. and S.S.

Lead From Wastes Using [2]

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355.

85 Immobilization Science of [1] Macphee, D.E. and F.P.

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[4]

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86 Impact of Carbon Dioxide on [2] Macias, A., and others.

the Immobilization Potential [3]

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Chromium.

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Concrete Research

27:215-225.

87 Leachability of Lead From [1] Wang, S.Y. and C.

Solidified Cement-Fly Ash [2]

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Vipulanandan. (1996).

Cement and Concrete

Research 26:895-905.

88 Long-Term Behaviour of [1] Andres, A., and others.

Toxic Metals in Stabilized [2]

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(1995). Journal of

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89 Long-Term Leaching of [1] Webster, M.T. and R.C.

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721.

90 Long-Term Stability of [1] Yang, G.C.C. and C.F.

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Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

23

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91 Metals Distribution in [1] Cheng, K. and P. Bishop.

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and Hazardous

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92 Ordinary Portland Cement [1] Hills, C.D., and others.

Based Solidification of Toxic

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93 Portland Cement Gives [1] Wilk, C.M. (1995).

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94 Potential Application of [1] Albino, V., and others.

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95 Preliminary Investigation into [1] Lange, L.C., and others.

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96 Reaction of CO With [1] Reddy, K.J., and others. 2

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97 Recent Findings on [1] Conner, J.R. (1995).

Immobilization of Organics as [2]

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98 Soil Stabilization Provides In- [1] Bornstein, R. and Wehr,

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99 Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Roy, A., and others.

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Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

24

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100 Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Buechler, P., and others.

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101 Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Roy, A., and others.

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102 Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Daniali, S. (1990).

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Materials 24:225-230.

103 Stabilization and [1] Lin. S.L., and others.

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48:95-110.

104 The Binding Chemistry and [1] Cocke, D.L. (1990).

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Hazardous Substances in

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Stabilization Systems.

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Journal of Hazardous

105 The Effects of Simulated [1] Bonen, D. and S.L.

Environmental Attack on [2]

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Metals Doped in Cement- [4]

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106 The History of [1] Conner, J.R. and

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107 The Interfacial Chemistry of [1] Mollah, Y., and others.

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Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

25

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108 The Limitation of the Toxicity [1] Poon, C.S. and K.W. Lio.

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TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

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Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

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[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating

Number Document Ordering No.

Topics Addressed*

Office/Author

TECHNOLOGY

TYPE MEDIA CONTAMINANTS

Additives

and

Binder

Reagents Inorganic Organic

Ex SituIn SituInorganicOrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness 

27

OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES TECHNOLOGIES ADDRESSED

1 Bioremediation Resource [1] EPA-OSWER, TIO

Guide [2]

EPA Document No. EPA/542-

B-93/004

NTIS Document No. PB-94-

112307

[3] Bioremediation

(1993).

2 Ground Water Treatment [1] EPA-OSWER, TIO

Technology Resource Guide. [2]

EPA Document No. EPA/542-

B-94/009

NTIS Document No. PB-95-

138657

Vapor extraction, air stripping, and biological treatment

(1994).

3 Physical/Chemical Treatment [1] EPA-OSWER, TIO

Technology Resource Guide. [2]

EPA Document No. EPA/542- dehalogenation

B-94/008

NTIS Document No. PB-95-

138665

Soil washing/flushing, solvent extraction, thermal desorption, and chemical (1994).

4 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) [1] EPA-OSWER, TIO

Enhancement Technology [2]

Resource Guide.

EPA Document No. EPA/542-

B-95/003

Air sparging, bioventing, hydraulic and pneumatic fracturing, and thermal

enhancements

(1995).

5 Soil Vapor Extraction [1] EPA-OSWER, TIO

Treatment Technology [2]

Resource Guide.

EPA Document No. EPA/542- Soil Vapor Extraction

B-94/007

NTIS Document No. PB-95-

138681

(1994).
[This Page Intentionally Left Blank]
29

ABSTRACTS OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION

TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

The abstracts below describe the contents of pertinent Solidification/Stabilization technology

documents. The abstracts are organized alphabetically within each of the nine following

document types:

Begins on Page

C Guidance and Policy Documents ....................................... 31

C Overview and Program Documents ..................................... 34

C Studies and Demonstrations ........................................... 37

C Workshops and Conference Proceedings ................................. 46

C Books and Dissertations .............................................. 55

C Journal References .................................................. 57

C Bibliographies ..................................................... 74

C In Situ Solidification/Stabilization Resources .............................. 75

C Other Resource Guides .............................................. 83

To quickly identify documents pertinent to your interest area, see the Solidification/Stabilization

Technology Resource Matrix beginning on page 6 of this Guide. The documents in the matrix

are organized alphabetically within the document types identified above. The document listings

in the matrix can be cross-referenced with the abstracts using the code to the left of the document

titles on the matrix. In an effort to limit the number of resources listed here, Records of Decision

(RODs) and for most part, documents more than five years old are not included. Those seeking

RODs may wish to contact the hotlines, dockets, or other sources.
[This Page Intentionally Left Blank]
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

31

SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION

RESOURCE GUIDE

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS

1. Guide Specification for Construction, Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) of Contaminated

Soil

Department of the Army. 1998. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, D.C.

USACE Document No.: CEGS-02160

This guide specification covers the requirements for solidification/stabilization of materials

contaminated with hazardous and toxic waste. The guide is a model specification for actual field

work, and USACE and other project personnel can easily incorporate their site- and projectspecific requirements electronically by downloading the document at USACE’s TechInfo web

site at <http://w2.hnd.usace.army.mil/techinfo/cegs/pdf/02160.pdf> [1], [2].

2. Handbook for Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous Wastes

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Hazardous Waste Engineering Research

Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/2-86/001

This handbook is intended for designers and reviewers of remedial action plans at hazardous

waste disposal sites. The handbook provides information and guidance needed to judge the

feasibility of stabilization/solidification technology in controlling contaminant migration from

hazardous wastes disposed of on land. The document describes reagents and methodologies that

have been useful in the stabilization/solidification of hazardous wastes; such information is

useful to industrial and engineering firms that work with handling and disposal of hazardous

waste, as well as regulatory agencies and environmental groups that need to assess the feasibility

of technical solutions proposed at sites requiring remedial action [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

32

3. Innovative Site Remediation Technology: Design and Application,

Stabilization/Solidification, Volume 4.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.

Washington, DC.

EPA Document No.: EPA 542-B-97-007

The monograph covers the design, applications and implementation of stabilization/

solidification technologies and provides guidance on innovative processes considered ready for

full-scale application. It is one of a series of monographs covering the description, evaluation,

and limitations of the technology. This monograph’s objective is to furnish guidance for

experienced professionals with site remediation responsibility, and it is intended to aid in the

implementation of stabilization and solidification technologies at specific sites [1], [2].

4. Innovative Site Remediation Technology: Volume 4, Solidification/Stabilization

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.

Washington, DC.

EPA Document No.: EPA 542-B-94-001

This monograph addresses innovative stabilization and solidification technologies that have been

sufficiently developed for use in full-scale applications for site remediation and waste treatment.

The purpose of the monograph is to further the use of innovative solidification and stabilization

site remediation and waste-processing technologies, particularly where their use can provide

better, more cost-effective performance than conventional methods. The monograph documents

the current state of the technology for a number of innovative solidification and stabilization

processes and considers all waste matrices to which solidification and stabilization can be

reasonably applied, such as soils, liquids, and sludges [1], [2].

5. Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes

Barth E., and others. 1990. Pollution Technology Review. No. 186. Noyes Data Corporation.

New York, NY.

This handbook provides a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art of solidification and

stabilization of hazardous wastes through 1990 and includes inorganic and organic processes, as

well as physical and chemical testing procedures used to evaluate solidification and stabilization

technologies. Guidance is also provided on the selection and use of solidification and

stabilization technologies through bench- and pilot-scale screening. Full-scale treatment

operations are presented with numerous examples of ex situ and in situ technologies. In addition,

quality control, safety, and environmental considerations for waste treatment, as well as

equipment, costs, and regulatory requirements are discussed [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

33

6. Stabilization/Solidification of CERCLA and RCRA Wastes: Physical Tests, Chemical

Testing Procedures, Technology Screening, and Field Activities

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Center for Environmental Research Information.

Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/625/6-89/022

A practical reference guide used for interpreting information on stabilization and solidification

technologies including a comprehensive list of references through 1989. The document covers a

wide range of applications useful for all technical and professional working in the

stabilization/solidification field, including state and local environmental protection agencies,

private industry, commercial treatment and disposal facilities, and environmental consultants, as

well as EPA regional staff responsible for reviewing CERCLA remedial action plans and RCRA

permit applications [1].

7. Statutory Interpretive Guidance on the Placement of Bulk Liquid Hazardous Waste in

Landfills

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.

Washington, D.C.

OSWER Policy Directive No.: 9487.00-2A

Section 3004(c)(1) was added to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, as amended by

the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984. This statutory interpretive guidance

addresses the amendment’s prohibition on the placement of bulk liquid hazardous wastes in

landfills. The guidance discusses the legal requirements of the amendment and presents

technical guidance to assist an owner or operator in complying with the amendment. The

guidance recommends the use of an unconfined compressive strength test to determine that liquid

wastes have been chemically stabilized or merely treated by the addition of a sorbant. The

guidance recommends that unconfined compressive strength above 50 pounds per square inch be

used to demonstrate that liquids in waste have been chemically stabilized [1], [2].

8. Technical Resource Document: Solidification/Stabilization and Its Application to

Waste Materials

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development, Washington, DC.

EPA Document No.: EPA/530/R-93/012

NTIS Document No.: PB93-237535

This technical resource document is intended for site managers considering solidification/

stabilization as an option for treating hazardous wastes. It provides technology transfer to

persons responsible for selection and design of solidification/stabilization treatment methods.
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

34

Information about solidification/stabilization is presented in detailed text descriptions supported

by summary tables, checklists, and figures. The document gives the user a summary of

solidification/stabilization technologies through 1993. The technology areas covered include

binding agents and binding mechanisms, waste interferences with solidification/stabilization

processes, solidification/stabilization treatment of organic contaminants, air emissions for

solidification/stabilization processes, leaching mechanisms, long-term stability, reuse and

disposal of solidification/stabilization treated waste, and economics. Information is also

provided to clarify the limitations of solidification/stabilization technology and ongoing research

to fulfill future development needs [1], [2].

9. Treatability Studies for Solidification/Stabilization of Contaminated Material

Department of the Army. 1995. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, D.C.

USACE Technical Letter No.: 1110-1-158

This technical letter provides information and guidance on scoping a treatability study for

solidification/stabilization of contaminated material. The letter focuses on treatability studies for

soils and sludges, and includes an outline of topics which should be considered for inclusion in a

solidification/stabilization treatability scope of work [1], [2].

OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS

10. Engineering Bulletin: Solidification/Stabilization of Organics and Inorganics.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.

Washington, DC. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/S-92/015

This bulletin provides general information on the applicability of solidification/stabilization

technologies, limitations of solidification/stabilization, and a description of the

solidification/stabilization treatment processes for organic and inorganic hazardous waste

contaminants. The document summarizes factors that may interfere with the

solidification/stabilization process and indicates the effectiveness of solidification/stabilization

for general contaminant groups in soil and sludges. The report also identifies sites where fullscale solidification/stabilization has been implemented under CERCLA or RCRA [1], [2].

11. Guide to Improving the Effectiveness of Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization

Conner, J.R. 1997. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.

PCA Publication No.: EB211

This guide discusses additives and techniques that can be applied to specific solidification

problems such as development of set, compressive strength, and free liquids. The guide also

provides lists and describes additives and techniques that can be applied to immobilization of

specific hazardous constituents such as lead, cadmium, and chromium, as well as classes of

constituents such as volatile organics, organo-metallics, and soluble salts. The guide includes a
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

35

list of a variety of generic additives for specific desired stabilization/solidification effects,

including those that can be used to control pH of wastes; to reduce, oxidize, and co-precipitate

constituents; and to accelerate or retard set [2].

12. Innovative Treatment Technologies: Annual Status Report, 8th Edition

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.

Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC.

EPA Document No.: EPA-542-R-96-010

http://clu-in.com

This yearly report and website database documents and analyzes the selection and use of

innovative treatment technologies at Superfund sites and some non-Superfund sites under the

jurisdiction of DoD and DOE. The information provides information for experienced technology

users and those who are considering innovative technologies to clean up contaminated sites. In

addition, the information will enable technology vendors to evaluate the market for innovative

technologies in Superfund for the next several years. The database is used by the EPA

Technology Innovation Office to track progress in the application of innovative treatment

technologies. Alternative technologies are defined as alternatives to land disposal; innovative

technologies include alternative technologies for which there is a lack of data on cost and

performance. The ninth edition of the report and database (to be released in the Fall of 1998)

also tracks the implementation and use of solidification/stabilization technologies. [2].

13. Portland Cement: A Solidification Agent for Low-Level Radioactive Waste

U.S. Department of Energy. 1991. Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. EG&G Idaho, Inc.

INEL Technical Bulletin No.: EGG-LLW-8843

This technical bulletin provides an understanding of solidification of low-level radioactive waste

to provide the structural stability required by 10 Code of Federal Regulations 61, Licensing

Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste. Topics addressed include regulatory

requirements, current and past practices, packaging efficiencies, problem wastes, available

solidification systems, and quality control [2].

14. Potential Solidification/Stabilization Projects Under the Superfund Program

Wilk, C.M. 1994. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.

PCA Publication No.: IS500

This publication contains a list of 166 existing and prospective Superfund projects involving the

potential use of solidification/stabilization technology for waste remediation. The list is derived

from a database developed and maintained by the Public Works Department of the Portland

Cement Association. The document is designed to provide a quick reference for general

information on each listed site, including location, industry type, contaminated media,

contaminants, amount of contaminated media, project costs, record of decision (ROD) date,
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

36

remediation program, EPA region number, and a site description. Following the listing is an

index of sites grouped into industry types [2].

15. Potential Solidification/Stabilization Superfund Projects - 1995 Update

Wilk, C.M. 1995. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.

PCA Publication No.: IS501

This publication describes 42 Superfund cleanup projects involving the use of

solidification/stabilization technology as part of the cleanup or site remedy. The list is mostly

derived from EPA’s Records of Decisions signed in Fiscal Year 1993 and 1994. The publication

is an update to PCA’s 1994 publication - Potential Solidification/Stabilization Projects Under the

Superfund Program (IS500) [2].

16. Solidification/Stabilization of Wastes Using Portland Cement

Adaska A., and others. Second Edition. 1998. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.

PCA Publication No.: EB071

This engineering bulletin clarifies the role of Portland cement in the solidification/stabilization of

hazardous wastes and is intended for consulting engineers, material suppliers, government

officials, waste site owners, and the general public. The publication summarizes the chemistry of

Portland cement and the cement hydration process as influenced by solidification/stabilization

treatment additives, and organic and inorganic contaminants. In addition, the report discusses the

regulatory basis for use of solidification/stabilization and outlines the various test methods for

treatment characterization [1], [2].

17. Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program: Technology Profiles, 9th

Edition

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. National Risk Management and Research

Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/R-97/502

The Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program evaluates new and promising

treatment, and monitoring, and measurement technologies for cleanup of hazardous waste sites.

The program was created to encourage the development and routine use of innovative treatment

technologies. As a result, the SITE Program provides environmental decision-makers with data

on new, viable treatment technologies that may have performance or cost advantages compared

to traditional treatment technologies. Each technology profile presented in the document

contains the following: (1) a technology developer and process name; (2) a technology

description, including a schematic diagram or photograph of the process; (3) a discussion of

waste applicability; (4) a project status report; and 5) EPA project manager and technology

developer contacts. The profiles also include summaries of demonstration results if available.
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

37

The technology description and waste applicability sections are written by the developer. EPA

prepares the status and demonstration results sections [2].

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS

18. Chemfix Technologies, Inc. Solidification/Stabilization Process: Applications Analysis

Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/011

NTIS Document No.: PB-91-187054

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Chemfix

Technologies, Inc. (Chemfix), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils

contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, copper, and other metals. The Chemfix

demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation

Program in March 1989, at the Portable Equipment Salvage Company site in Clackamas County,

Oregon. The Chemfix treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility,

measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the solidified material, measured by

physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using

cost information supplied by Chemfix and supplemented by information generated during the

demonstration. This report summarizes the results of the Chemfix demonstration, the vendor’s

design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications of the technology. It discusses

the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated costs of the technology [1],

[2].

19. Evaluation of Solidification/Stabilization for Treatment of a Petroleum Hydrocarbon

Contaminated Sludge from Fort Polk Army Installation, Louisiana

Channell, M.G., and K.T. 1996. Preston. Army Corps of Engineers - Waterways Experiment

Station, Vicksburg, MS.

NTIS Document No.: ADA-320-253/8

This study used solidification/stabilization to treat the oily sludge found in the vehicle washrack

oil-water separators. Solidification/stabilization is usually used to treat soils and sludges that

contain heavy metals. Organic compounds, such as petroleum hydrocarbons found in the sludge,

interfere with the setting of the solidification binding materials and thus are typically not treated

using solidification/stabilization. This study incorporates the use of dicalcium silicate as an

additive to the solidification process to increase the strength and reduce the leachability of the

petroleum hydrocarbons found in the sludge. This study shows that dicalcium silicate improves

the handling characteristics of the sludge and reduces contaminant leachability from the

washrack sludge [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

38

20. Evaluation of Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Processes for Municipal Waste

Combustion Residues

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/600/R-93/167

NTIS Document No.: PB-93-229870

This report provides results of evaluations conducted to determine the effectiveness of

solidification/stabilization processes, as well as information useful in designing and evaluating

solidification/stabilization processes for treating municipal waste combustion residue. A full

factorial experimental design was used to evaluate five solidification/stabilization processes to

treat bottom ash, air pollution, control residue, and combined ash. The solidification/

stabilization processes included a control using Portland cement only, as well as Portland cement

with soluble silicates, dry carbonaceous material, and other proprietary additives; cement kiln

dust and proprietary additives; and soluble phosphates. The evaluations included analysis of

chemical composition, physical properties, durability, and leaching characteristics. Based on

comparison of untreated and treated residues, the solidification/stabilization processes evaluated

generally did not decrease the potential for the release of target contaminants, including metals,

dioxins, and furans. However, a phosphate process did reduce the potential of lead to be released

[1], [2].

21. HAZCON Solidification Process, Douglassville, PA: Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/001

NTIS Document No.: PB-89-206031

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the HAZCON

solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils containing a wide range of

organic and heavy metal contaminants. The HAZCON demonstration was conducted under

EPA’s Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in October 1987, at the

Douglassville, Pennsylvania, Superfund site. The HAZCON treatment process was evaluated

based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the

solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;

and economic analysis, using cost information supplied by HAZCON and supplemented by

information generated during the SITE demonstration. This report summarizes the results of the

HAZCON SITE demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field

applications of the technology. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as

well as estimated costs of the technology [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

39

22. International Waste Technologies/Geo-Con In Situ Stabilization/Solidification:

Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/004

NTIS Document No.: PB-90-269085

This Application Analysis Report evaluates the International Waste Technologies HWT-20

additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/

solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup.

The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund

Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company

electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychlorinated biphenyls and

localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report

discusses the in situ process based on test results of the demonstration, as well as other data

provided by the technology developer and the general capabilities of cement-based systems. It

also discusses the applicability of the technology to other sites [1], [2].

23. Investigation of Test Methods for Solidified Waste Evaluation - A Cooperative Program

Stegemann, J. A., and P.L. Cote. 1991. Environment Canada, U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, and Alberta Environment.

Report EPS 3/HA/8

This study was initiated by Environment Canada, in conjunction with Alberta Environment, and

15 American, Canadian, and European industrial participants involved in developing or

marketing solidification technology. The purpose of the study was to develop and evaluate 16

laboratory test methods for characterizing the physical and chemical properties of a variety of

solidified wastes. The cooperative objectives included (1) developing a set of laboratory test

methods for characterizing the physical and chemical properties of a wide variety of solidified

wastes, (2) evaluating the set of test methods by using real wastes and actual commercial

solidification processes and by generating information on the reproducibility of the test methods,

(3) developing an international database of properties of solidified wastes achievable with

present technology to assist regulatory agencies and the waste treatment industry in setting

guidelines, (4) providing a basis for continued development of test methods and mathematical

models, and (5) promoting international use of the test methods for uniform comparative

evaluation of solidified wastes. To maximize universal applicability of the tests, no attempt was

made to simulate specific disposal conditions; therefore, the properties measured relate to the

waste form and are independent of the disposal scenario [1], [2].

24. Literature Review of Mixed Waste Components: Sensitivities and Effects Upon

Solidification/Stabilization in Cement-Based Matrices
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

40

Mattus, C.H., and T.M. Gilliam. 1994. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. U.S. Department of

Energy.

NTIS Document No.: ORNL/TN-12656

The report discusses the hydration mechanisms of Portland cement, mechanisms of retardation

and acceleration of cement set-factors affecting the durability of waste forms, and regulatory

limits as they apply to mixed wastes. This report also reviews (1) inorganic compounds that

interfere with the development of cement-based waste forms and (2) radioactive species that can

be immobilized in cement-based waste forms. In addition, the report also reviews organic

species that may interfere with various waste-form properties [2].

25. Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Testing of

Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

NTIS Document No.: PB-93-166965/AS

This report provides the full documentation of the Project Summary: Onsite Engineering Report

for Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Testing of Contaminated Soils (see abstract number

29) [1], [2].

26. Physical and Morphological Measures of Waste Solidification Effectiveness

Grube, W.E. 1991. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Risk Reduction Engineering

Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/600/D-91/164

NTIS Document No.: PB91-226340/XAB

The paper describes and discusses physical testing to characterize wastes treated by the

Soliditech cement solidification/stabilization process. Morphological measurements included

documented observations and measurements of the structure and form of the treated materials.

The paper provides data to relate easily measured physical and morphological properties with

intensive chemical extraction and solute leachability information obtained from standardized

tests [1].

27. Project Summary: Evaluation of Solidification/Stabilization as a Best Demonstrated

Available Technology for Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/600/S2-89/013
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

41

NTIS Document No.: PB89-169908

This project summary evaluates the performance of solidification/stabilization as a means of

treating contaminated soils at Superfund sites. Tests were conducted on artificially contaminated

soils thought to be representative of the types of contaminated soils found at Superfund sites.

Soils were solidified and stabilized using Portland cement, lime kiln dust, and a mixture of lime

and fly ash. Solidification/stabilization significantly reduced the amount of metal salt

contaminants released, as measured by the EPA Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure

(TCLP). Because of large losses of organics during the mixing process, the effect of

solidification/stabilization on the organic leachate could not be quantitatively determined. The

volatile and semivolatile organic contaminants appeared to decrease as a result of the

solidification/stabilization process; however, this decrease can be attributed to the compounds’

release to air during processing and curing. No correlation was observed between unconfined

compressive strength and the results of the leaching tests [1].

28. Project Summary: Interference Mechanisms in Waste Stabilization/Solidification

Process

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/600/S2-89/067

This project summary presents key findings from a literature search and review concerning

portland cement and pozzolan chemistry, the effects of admixtures on concrete setting

characteristics, and the effects of common organic waste components on the physical and

containment properties of the final treated waste product. These topics are presented so that

conclusions may be drawn as to possible types of interferences that may be encountered in typical

waste binder systems. The summary concludes that further experimental work is needed to

obtain physical and chemical data about cementitious and asphaltic treatment systems and that

sufficient basic information should be developed so that waste/binder interactions can be

modeled and testing of each specific waste/binder combination for possible interference can be

overcome [1], [3], [4].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

42

29. Project Summary: Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization

Treatment Testing of Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/600/SR-93/051

This project summary evaluates the mechanism of lead fixation by portland cement,

quicklime/fly ash, and cement kiln dust/fly ash on contaminated soil from a Superfund site. The

study was performed to supply information to the best demonstrated available technology

(BDAT) data base for soil remediation, used to develop soil standards for Land Disposal

Restrictions. Results from the study indicate that soil can be treated to reduce the amount of

leachable lead below the regulatory limit of 5 mg/L with the use of certain binder mixtures.

Portland cement mixtures appear to provide the best results for stabilizing lead in contaminated

soil used in the tests. The results of the study also indicate the organic content of the soil may

effect the ability of binders to stabilize lead in the soil. Full characterization of soil being treated

should therefore be performed to determine characteristics that may inhibit stabilization and what

pretreatment procedures should be performed to improve stabilization [1], [2].

30. Silicate Technology Corporation’s Solidification/Stabilization Technology for Organic

and Inorganic Contaminants in Soils. Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/AR-92/010

NTIS Document No.: PB-93-172948

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the solidification/stabilization treatment process of

Silicate Technology Corporation (STC) for the on-site treatment of hazardous waste. The STC

treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund Innovative

Technology Evaluation Program in November 1990, at the Selma Pressure Treating wood

preserving site in Selma, California. STC’s contaminated soil treatment process was evaluated

based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the

solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;

and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by STC and supplemented by

information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results of the STC

demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications of

the technology. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated

costs of the technology [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

43

31. Silicate Technology Corporation Solidification/Stabilization Technology SITE

Demonstration at the SELMA Pressure Treating Site, Selma, CA. Technology

Evaluation Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1995. Risk Reduction Laboratory, Office of Research

and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/R-95/010.

NTIS Document No.: PB-95-255709

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the solidification/stabilization process of Silicate

Technology Corporation (STC) for the on-site treatment of soils contaminated with organics,

predominantly pentachlorophenol (PCP), and inorganics, mainly arsenic, chromium, and copper.

The STC immobilization technology uses a proprietary product (FMS Silicate) to (1) chemically

stabilize and microencapsulate organic and inorganic wastes and (2) physically solidify the

contaminated soils. The STC demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund Innovative

Technology Evaluation Program in November 1990, at the Selma Pressure Treating wood

preserving site in Selma, CA. STC’s contaminated soil treatment process was evaluated based

on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests, and structural integrity of the

solidified material, measured by physical, engineering, and morphological examinations. This

report provides a comprehensive description of the STC demonstration and its results, including

a description of data collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality

control results [1], [2].

32. Soliditech, Inc., Solidification/Stabilization Process, Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/005

NTIS Document No.: PB-91-129817

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Soliditech, Inc.

(Soliditech), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated

with polychlorinated biphenyls, various metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The Soliditech

demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation

Program in December 1988, at the Imperial Oil Company/Champion Chemical Company

Superfund site in Morganville, New Jersey. The Soliditech treatment process was evaluated

based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the

solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;

and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Soliditech and supplemented by

information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results of the

Soliditech demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field

applications of the technology. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as

well as estimated costs of the technology [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

44

33. Stabilization of Heavy Metals with Portland Cement: Research Synopsis

Wilk, C.M. 1997. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.

PCA Publication No.: IS007

This publication summarizes research on establishing the mechanisms by which portland cement

and portland cement-based reagents immobilize certain toxic heavy metals in inorganic form by

solidification/stabilization treatment. The metals studied include lead, chromium, cadmium,

arsenic, and mercury. This work confirms that cement-based stabilization involves far more than

simple pH control, and suggests some possible mechanistic explanations for its effectiveness.

The research also investigated certain additives designed to enhance stabilization mechanisms,

and suggests modifications to further improve the immobility of metals [1], [2].

34. Technology Evaluation Report: Chemfix Technologies, Inc. Solidification/ Stabilization

Process, Clackamas, Oregon

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/011a

NTIS Document No.: PB-91-127696

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Chemfix

Technologies, Inc. (Chemfix), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils

contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, copper, and other metals. The Chemfix

demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation

Program in March 1989, at the Portable Equipment Salvage Company site in Clackamas County,

Oregon. The Chemfix treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility,

measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the solidified material, measured by

physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using

cost information supplied by Chemfix and supplemented by information generated during the

demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive description of the Chemfix demonstration

and its results, including a description of data collection activities, testing procedures, and quality

assurance and quality control results [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

45

35. Technology Evaluation Report: SITE Program Demonstration Test, HAZCON

Solidification, Douglassville, Pennsylvania

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/001a

NTIS Document No.: PB-89-158810

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the HAZCON

solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils containing a variety of

organic and heavy metal contaminants. The HAZCON demonstration was conducted under

EPA’s Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in October 1987, at the

Douglassville, Pennsylvania, Superfund site. The HAZCON treatment process was evaluated

based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the

solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;

and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by HAZCON and supplemented by

information generated during the demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive

description of the HAZCON demonstration and its results, including a description of data

collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2].

36. Technology Evaluation Report: SITE Program Demonstration Test, International

Waste Technologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/004a

NTIS Document No.: PB-89-194161

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the International Waste Technologies HWT-20

additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/

solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup.

The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund

Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company

electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychorinated biphenyls and

localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report

provides an interpretation of the available data and presents conclusions on the results of the

demonstration, as well as the potential applicability of the technology at other sites [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

46

37. Technology Evaluation Report: SITE Program Demonstration Test, Soliditech, Inc.

Solidification/Stabilization Process

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/005a

NTIS Document No.: PB-91-129817

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Soliditech, Inc.

(Soliditech), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated

with polychlorinated biphenyls, various metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The Soliditech

demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation

Program in December 1988, at the Imperial Oil Company/Champion Chemical Company

Superfund site in Morganville, New Jersey. The Soliditech treatment process was evaluated

based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the

solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;

and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Soliditech and supplemented by

information generated during the demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive

description of the Soliditech demonstration and its results, including a description of data

collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2].

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

38. Capability of Cementitious Materials in the Immobilization Process of Hazardous

Waste Materials

Poellmann, H. 1993. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Cement

Microscopy. Dallas, TX. Pages 108-126.

This paper investigates and summarizes the capabilities of cementitious materials in

immobilizing hazardous waste materials, including inorganic and organic contaminants. The

fixation of chlorine, anions, heavy metals, and some organic compounds is discussed and

strongly depends on the type of waste and cement used. Depending on the chemical and mineral

compositions, various systems must be used, and detailed investigations are necessary for every

waste material. In most cases, fixation in the crystal lattice plays an important role, and the

formation of a microporous structure of the hydrated material intensifies the quality of the

fixation and solidification process. The combination of different mineral reservoirs, for example

anhydrous material and hydration products, can increase the immobilization process of hazardous

materials. In the fixation process, incorporation of toxic substances in crystal lattices is

necessary for the immobilization, but a dense microstructure can improve leaching tendencies

[1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

47

39. Cement-Based Solidification of Ferro-Alloy Flue Dusts

Cohen, B., and J.G. Price. 1995. In Proceedings of the Canadian Institute of Mining,

Metallurgy, and Petroleum on Waste Processing and Recycling in Mineral and Metallurgical

Industries. Vancouver, Canada. Pages 297-308.

Flue dusts from ferro-alloy furnaces contain metal phases with a potential mobility that precludes

them from being disposed of directly into landfills. This paper describes the use of cement-based

solidification/stabilization in the treatment of such wastes. A review is given of the binding and

retention mechanisms of metals within cement products. In this work, a model is presented for

the containment of solid waste products where water is present only to promote cement

hydration. The metals chromium and zinc are considered in detail due to their differing

mechanisms of containment [1], [2].

40. Chemical Aspects of Incorporating Contaminated Soil Into Cold-Mix Asphalt

Testa, S.M. 1994. In Proceedings Superfund XV: Environmental Conference and Exhibition

for the Hazardous Materials/Hazardous Waste Management Industry. Washington, DC. Pages

1,439-48.

This paper presents the chemical aspects associated with the incorporation of petroleum

hydrocarbons and metals-contaminated soil into an asphalt mix with an emphasis on pavement

properties, leaching behavior, sensitivities to moisture damage, and functional group analysis.

This study provides information that can be used to evaluate the stability of these constituents in

soil after being incorporated as an ingredient in asphalt, and it indicates that cold-mix asphalt that

incorporates contaminated soil will be highly stable and will perform adequately as an end

product. Maximum chemical performance is achieved when the asphalt consists of high

concentrations of pyridinic, phenolic, and ketone groups, which can be achieved by selectively

choosing the source material. If the situation requires special stability or redundancy, small

amounts of shale oil and lime can be used as additives. Situations and conditions that favor the

presence of inorganic sulfur, monovalent salts, and high strength solutions in the asphalt should

be avoided because these conditions decrease the chemical stability of the asphalt cement by (1)

disruption the functional group aggregate bonds and (2) increasing the overall permeability [1],

[2].

41. Chemical Stabilization of Contaminated Soils and Sludges Using Cement and Cement

By-Products

Conner, J.R., Cotton, S. and Lear, P.R. 1992. In Proceedings of the First International

Symposium, Cement Industry Solution to Waste Management. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Published by Canadian Portland Cement Association. Pages 73-97.

There are three basic elements in the chemistry of stabilized wastes: the waste, the stabilization

reagents, and the environment in which the stabilized waste will exist. Proper formulation of the

most cost-effective stabilization method that provides long-term stability requires a good
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

48

understanding of the chemistry of the waste-reagent-disposal system. This paper describes the

basics of this chemistry, relating them to a wide range of treatability study results and on-site

project case histories. Stabilization data on both metals and low-level organics is presented [1],

[2], [3], [4].

42. Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms

Spence, R.D. 1993. Editor. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.

This book contains proceedings from the Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste

Forms Symposium sponsored by the Environmental Division of the American Chemical Society

at the National Meeting in New York City in 1991. These published proceedings contain written

versions of most, but not all, of the papers presented orally. The symposium and its proceedings

were limited to cementitious, or cement-based, solidified or stabilized waste forms. The book

represents the level of knowledge of the chemistry, microstructure, and mechanisms of

solidification/stabilization among prominent research centers in the United States and Europe.

Authors were asked to summarize or review their organization’s contribution over the years and

to specifically introduce the reader to their organization’s achievements and past publications.

For example, information is presented on materials other than cement that are used to generate

cementitious waste forms, including lime, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and

combinations. In addition, cementitious waste forms do not include waste encapsulated in

polymers, such as bitumen, polyethylene, and vinyl ester styrene, or vitrified in glass waste

forms. The book is intended to reflect the current state-of-the-art in the chemistry and

microstructure of solidified waste forms. The book also informs professionals working the field

about the experiences and accomplishments at other sites and provides a wealth of references [1],

[2].

43. Designing a Better Matrix for Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Waste With the

Aid of Bagasse (Lignin) as a Polymer Additive to Cement

Bourgeois, J.C., and others. 1996. In Proceedings of the Spring National Meeting of the

American Chemical Society. New Orleans, LA. Page 416.

The proceedings address the need for a better solidification/stabilization matrix to help solve the

hazardous waste disposal problem. In this study, the waste-cement matrix is improved by

incorporating a polymer additive into the matrix. The polymer enhances the encapsulation and

penetration of the cement system into the interstitial spaces of the waste. To make the process

more economically feasible, the source polymer was lignin obtained from the large excess of

bagasse produced each year from sugar cane processors. The studies were conducted with lead

as the initial heavy metal waste source [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

49

44. Environmental Aspects of Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous and

Radioactive Wastes, Volume 1, STP-1033

Cote, P., and T.M. Gilliam. 1989. Editors. American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM). West Conshohocken, PA.

ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-010330-56

This Special Technical Publication contains 33 peer-reviewed papers of the 62 papers presented

at the 4th International Hazardous Waste Symposium on Environmental Aspects of

Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes, held in Atlanta, Georgia, in

1987. Although the two scientific communities work with chemically hazardous or low-level

radioactive waste and are faced with similar problems and technologies, the symposium

represented the first forum for technology exchange between them. The symposium provided an

occasion to understand the gap that separates the two groups, which use a shortly different

vocabulary and are subject to markedly different regulations. The papers in this Special

Technical Publication are grouped into four chapters: (1) processes, (2) regulatory aspects and

testing methods, (3) laboratory evaluation, and (4) large-scale evaluation or demonstration [1],

[2].

45. Evaluation of Long-Term Effectiveness of Solidified and Stabilized Wastes

Badamchian, B., and others. 1995. In Proceedings Superfund XVI: Environmental Conference

and Exhibition for the Hazardous Materials/Hazardous Waste Management Industry.

Washington, DC. Pages 599-608.

This paper evaluates chemical, physical, and leaching data from field samples of solidified and

stabilized wastes collected 6 years after the Soliditech, Inc., and Chemfix Technologies, Inc.

Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation demonstrations. The study is the first of a two-part

study that evaluates the long-term effectiveness of the solidification/stabilization processes used

to treat contaminated soils and hazardous wastes. Part II is a doctoral dissertation that evaluates

the mineralogical alteration of the treated wastes over time and explores the fundamental

mechanisms of degradation that affect the permanent containment of metals and the durability of

solidified and stabilized wastes [1], [4].

46. Immobilization Technology Seminar Speaker Slide Copies and Supporting Information

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: CERI-89-222

This document provides copies of speaker slides and supporting text regarding the use of

solidification/stabilization and vitrification technologies to immobilize hazardous waste. The

seminar material is comprised of eight sections: (1) immobilization processes overview; (2)
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

50

descriptions of solidification and stabilization technologies; (3) description of vitrification

technology; (4) physical testing methods for determining effectiveness of

solidification/stabilization processes; (5) chemical testing methods for determining effectiveness

of solidification/stabilization processes; (6) technology screening procedures for determining if

solidification/stabilization should be implemented; (7) field implementation procedures utilized

for solidification/stabilization; and (8) quality assurance procedures for ensuring long-term

performance [1], [2], [3], [4].

47. Laboratory and Field-Scale Test Methodology for Reliable Characterization of

Solidified/Stabilized Hazardous Wastes

Gray, K.E., and others. 1995. In Proceedings Air & Waste Management Association

International Symposium on Field Screening Methods for Hazardous Wastes and Toxic

Chemicals. Las Vegas, NV. Pages 575-82.

This paper presents a method for flow-through leach testing and discusses preliminary testing

using strontium-doped, cement-based solidification/stabilization samples. The complementary

and necessary characterization of the solidification/stabilization matrix, before and after testing,

is discussed in relation to the total evaluation of the laboratory- and field-scale testing for

predicting long-term performance of solidification/stabilization technology as well as its design

and improvement. This report describes existing laboratory testing systems that are well suited

for accelerated testing of solidification/stabilization waste forms. An overview of the available

testing systems is given, and a prototype test, including preliminary test results, is discussed. The

document also outlines complementary materials characterization methods currently being

applied [1].

48. Laboratory, Regulatory, and Field Leaching of Solidified Waste

Stegeman, J.A., Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, C. 1996. In Proceeding of the International Conference

on Incineration and Thermal Treatment Technologies. Savannah, GA. Pages 75-80.

This paper presents the results of a field solidification study to validate a proposed laboratory

evaluation protocol for solidified wastes. A project was initiated which involved placement of

63m of solidified electric arc furnace dust in a field test. Field leaching data were compared 3

with the results from a low liquid-to-solid ratio distilled water batch extraction, a buffered

extraction with a target pH of 5, and a regulatory leaching test based on 2 eq/kg acetic acid

solution, for the contaminants boron, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Equilibrium modeling was

performed to assist in interpretation of the laboratory and field data. The distilled water

extraction test provided a good estimate of initial leachate concentrations in the field for boron,

cadmium, chromium, and lead, but peak leachability of mercury was underestimated

significantly. The pH 5 test was developed to estimate long-term availability of contaminants

under severe environmental conditions. The pH regime created by the regulatory test is arbitrary

and therefore less useful in predicting field leachability [1], [4].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

51

49. Material Handling Equipment for the Preparation of Wastes for Stabilization

Treatment

Lear, P.R., Schmitz, D.J. and Brickner, R.J. 1995. In Proceedings of the Air & Waste

Management Association 88 Annual Meeting & Exhibition. San Antonio, TX. th

A&WMA Paper Reprint No. 95-RP130.01

Stabilization treatment at hazardous waste sites contaminated with heavy metals can be

complicated by the materials handling aspects of the waste material and associated debris. The

proper materials handling equipment must be selected and assembled to efficiently handle,

prepare, and/or separate the waste material and debris before the stabilization treatment process

occurs. This paper discusses the types of materials handling equipment available, the efficacy of

the equipment for dealing with waste material and debris, and the effect of the equipment on the

stabilization treatment process based on full-scale experience [1], [2].

50. Petrographic Techniques Applied to Cement Solidified Hazardous Wastes

Wakeley, L.D., and others. 1992. In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on

Cement Microscopy. Costa Mesa, CA. Pages 287-89.

The proceedings present data from petrographic and nondestructive analytical techniques applied

to treated waste forms to show that such data is needed to determine if treated waste materials

have stable phase composition and if their microstructures demonstrate uniform waste disposal.

The cementitious solids of a solidified waste bind the waste physically and may bind it

chemically, allowing it to pass performance tests required for its transportation and disposal. A

largely separate family of standard test methods has evolved for solidified wastes because it

represents an entirely separate use for cements. Some of these methods refer to or were based on

standard methods from concrete technology. This paper reviews several of the concrete

technology techniques to determine if they are appropriate for such waste forms and what unique

and useful information they can provide for determining the likelihood of waste form durability

[1], [3].

51. Portland Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization Treatment of Waste

Wilk, C.M. 1998. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium and Exhibition on

Environmental Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe.

This paper discusses the applicability of the portland cement-based solidification/stabilization

technology to various wastes; basic cement chemistry relating to solidification/stabilization; tests

used to design treatability studies and to verify treatment; basics on implementation of the

technology in the field; and examples of actual projects [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

52

52. Quality Analysis of Field Solidified Waste

Stegemann, J.A., and others. 1995. In Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium on

Groundwater and Soil Remediation. Toronto, Canada. Pages 553-55.

Factors responsible for variation in solidified products under field conditions, such as dosing and

homogenization of binder and waste conditions, were reviewed to establish a method that could

predict the magnitude of such variations and make solidification technology acceptable to

regulators and waste generators. Random samples of solidified electric arc furnace dust were

tested for bulk density, moisture content, specific gravity, contaminant concentrations, initial

leachability, acid neutralization capacity, unconfined compressive strength, and freeze-thaw

resistance. Variability in these properties were expressed in common statistical parameters and

were compared with the design formulation prepared at laboratory scale. Within the field

samples, chemical and leaching properties varied considerably. Despite the variations, the

overall characteristics of the field samples met the performance criteria for physical

encapsulation of contaminants recommended by Environment Canada’s Wastewater Technology

Center solidified waste evaluation protocols [1].

53. Recent Advances in Stabilization and Solidification

Cocke, D.L., and others. 1994. In Proceedings Spring National Meeting of the American

Chemical Society. San Diego, CA. Pages 537-41.

Recent advances in the use of cement, cementitious products, pozzolanic, and mixed

environmental materials for stabilization and solidification of priority pollutants are discussed in

the context of recently developed concepts and models. These advances in understanding are

being achieved by using modern analytical techniques to examine the surface and bulk properties

of solidification/stabilization systems. Substantial progress has been made in understanding the

binding chemistry and leaching mechanisms of priority pollutants in cement-based systems;

however, future challenges will require that waste management researchers extend such progress

to more complex hazardous waste problems than those being attacked today. Commercial

vendors will need to design more complex solidification/stabilization schemes to meet the

growing use of this technology for hazardous waste management in complex waste systems

containing both organics and inorganics. The recent findings are summarized and correlated with

the design of improved solidification/stabilization systems by using effective models to aid in the

long-term management of toxic wastes [1], [2], [4].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

53

54. Remediation of Oil Refinery Sludge Basin

Adaska, W.S., Bruin, W.T. and Day, S.R. 1992. In Proceedings of the First International

Symposium, Cement Industry Solutions to Waste Management. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Published by Canadian Portland Cement Association. Pages 119-134.

This paper discusses the remediation of a 5.5 acre storm water sludge basin for an oil refinery

company. The closure plan included a combination cement-bentonite slurry wall and jet grouting

along the perimeter of the basin. The sludge and contaminated soil beneath the basin were

solidified in place using a specifically developed soil mixing technique. The paper presents the

site evaluation, closure plan, preconstruction testing programs, and field testing and construction

that occurred and summarizes the results of the remediation [1], [2].

55. Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, Volume

2, STP-1123

Gilliam, T.M., and C.C. Wiles. 1992. Editors. American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM). West Conshohocken, PA.

ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-011230-56

This publication contains papers presented at the symposium on Stabilization and Solidification

of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, held in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1990. The

symposium series provides a forum for technical exchange between researchers working with

solidification/stabilization technologies for both low-level radioactive and chemically hazardous

wastes. The papers presented in this publication are grouped into six sections: (1) regulatory and

technical guidance; (2) speciality wastes: organics, ashes, and resins; (3) laboratory-scale

leachability studies; (4) laboratory-scale process and development; (5) test method development;

and (6) large-scale evaluation or demonstration [1], [2], [4].

56. Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes. Volume

3, STP-1240

Gilliam, T.M., and C.C. Wiles. 1996. Editors. American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM). West Conshohocken, PA.

ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-012400-56

The conference proceedings present papers given at the symposium on Stabilization and

Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, held in Williamsburg, Virginia, in

1993. The symposium series provides a forum for technical exchange between researchers

working with solidification/stabilization technologies for both low-level radioactive and

chemically hazardous waste. The scientific community has been focusing attention on

understanding and predicting the long-term containment prospects of waste treated with this
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

54

technology. Consequently, most papers presented in this publication address to some extent one

or both of the two principal issues associated with long-term containment: leachability and

durability. As defined in the overview of the proceedings, leachability refers to the release of

contaminants from the waste upon exposure to an aqueous media, whereas durability refers to the

ability of the waste to maintain its structural integrity upon exposure to expected environmental

conditions [1], [2], [3], [4].

57. Synthesis, Crystal Chemistry and Stability of Ettringite, a Material with Potential

Applications in Hazardous Waste Immobilization

Mc Carthy, G.J., and others. 1992. In Proceedings of the Materials Research Society

Symposium. Volume 245. Pages 129-140.

These proceedings present results of the synthesis, crystal chemistry, structure, and stability of

ettringite with specific reference to the use of this mineral in hazardous waste immobilization.

The potential connection between reductions in leachate hazardous element concentrations and

ettringite formation led to the ongoing research program to investigate and then optimize the

immobilization of hazardous elements in solid wastes and sludges particularly after solidification

with ettringite-forming cementitious coal residuals or commercially-available cements. The

long-term stability and hazardous element leachability of the ettringite-containing products is

then evaluated. As research moves from the laboratory to the field, more attention to latent

ettringite potential will be necessary. Future research should include a detailed evaluation of the

stability of such composite waste forms under geochemically relevant conditions [1], [2], [4].

58. The Present State-of-the-Art of Immobilization of Hazardous Heavy Metals in CementBased Materials

Bonen, D., and S.L. Sarkar. 1994. In Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation Conference on

Advances in Cement and Concrete. American Society of Civil Engineers. Durham, NH. Pages

481-498.

This paper discusses the current state of knowledge involving solidification/stabilization of

metals in cement-based materials. The common notion that no further reaction occurs between

the waste and the binder after solidification/stabilization does not hold for Portland cement,

because it overlooks possible long-term deterioration due to environmental corrosion. The report

discusses the various types of chemical attack that Portland cement-based materials are prone to,

including corrosion by soft water, ground water, and carbon dioxide-bearing water. This paper is

aimed at stimulating awareness on the complexities involved in immobilizing waste in

cementitious materials [3], [4].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

55

59. Treatability Study of the Stabilization of Chromium Contaminated Waste.

McGahan, J.F., and D. Martin. 1994. In Proceedings of Waste Management ‘94: Working

Towards a Cleaner Environment, Technology and Programs for Radioactive Waste Management

and Environmental Restoration. Tucson, AZ. Pages 1493-1497.

This paper presents a process developed to immobilize chromium in calcined uranyl nitrate

mixed waste, resulting in a waste form that can be disposed of as radioactive, nonhazardous

waste. A treatability test program was initiated to define the optimum conditions for the

chemical reduction pretreatment step needed to stabilize the contaminated waste. Sodium

dithionite was determined to be the reducing agent of choice. A dithionite demand experiment

was run to determine the optimum dithionite dose. This dose, plus 67 percent excess, was added

to each sample. Four stabilization systems at three dosage levels were investigated. The best

performing reagent system was chosen for scale-up and more stringent performance testing. In

one of the tested reagent systems involving Portland cement sodium silicate and dithionite, all of

the samples exhibited TCLP extract concentrations for chromium well below the regulatory limit.

One sample of Portland cement and blast furnace slag blend passed, and none of the samples of

cement-fly ash and cement alone passed for leachable chromium. The scaled-up samples passed

the performance criteria, and the process has successfully converted mixed waste into radioactive

waste for disposal [2].

BOOKS AND DISSERTATIONS

60. A Surface Characterization of Priority Metal Pollutants in Portland Cement

McWhinney, H.G. 1990. Doctoral Dissertation, Texas A&M University.

This dissertation characterizes the binding mechanisms of selected metal pollutants in Portland

cement used in solidification/stabilization technologies. Surface analytical techniques were used

to evaluate the relationship of lead, chromium, zinc, cadmium, mercury, and barium to the

hydrated cementitious material. The location of metal ions with respect to the bulk and surface

of the cement matrix was evaluated as a function of the interfacial phenomena of the alkaline

medium in the synthetic wastes. Chromium tended to concentrate in the bulk, while lead

concentrations were high on the surface. Zinc, cadmium, and mercury exhibited similar

chemistries in the highly buffered alkaline medium, but their distribution in the final

solidification product differed. Mercury, as mercuric oxide, occurred in isolated deposits within

the cement matrix. Barium-doped cement contained large areas rich in calcium. There is also

evidence that barium sulfate and carbonate will form. All cation-doped cement showed increases

in surface carbonate content [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

56

61. Chemical Fixation and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes

Conner, J.R. 1990. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, NY.

This reference book discusses in detail the principles of chemical fixation (stabilization) and

solidification of hazardous wastes. Information is provided for using various inorganic binder

materials, including Portland cement, soluble silicates, lime, fly ash, kiln dust, and other limebased products. Organic binders also are described in the text. Hazardous wastes and waste

sources, as well as in situ and ex situ treatment processes are discussed. The text also includes

descriptions of commonly used test methods, including the EPA Extraction Procedure Toxicity

Test, Multiple Extraction Procedure, Oily Wastes Extraction Procedure, and Toxicity

Characteristic Leaching Procedure, as well as California’s Waste Extraction Test (WET) and the

American Nuclear Society ANS 16.1 Test Procedure. Information sources, computer

applications, and research developments also are included [1], [2].

62. Effectiveness of Sulfur for Solidification/Stabilization of Metal Contaminated Wastes

Lin, S.L. 1995. Doctoral Dissertation. Georgia Institute of Technology.

This research evaluates the use of over-supplied materials recovered from waste streams (such as

sulfur) to stabilize lead-contaminated soils; such soils can then be used as construction materials,

such as roadway fill. Sulfur polymer cement (SPC) was considered a possible binder or

stabilizing agent for the solidification and stabilization of hazardous, low-level radioactive, and

mixed wastes. Elemental sulfur recovered from industrial waste streams was also used to

supplement asphalt cement by blending it with the asphalt to form sulfur-extended asphalt. The

sulfur-extended asphalt is used for pavement and construction and has excellent performance

characteristics. The research found that the use of sulfur alone (or SPC) could not stabilize lead

compounds satisfactorily. However, more promising results were obtained with the use of sulfur

modified by sodium sulfide or sodium sulfite. The sodium-sulfur compounds chemically react

with the heavy metals and physicochemically bind them to form stable compounds, significantly

reducing the leachability of the metals. Metal levels in sulfur-treated wastes may be reduced to

the point that the wastes can be used in some forms of construction materials [2].

63. Permanence of Metals Containment in Solidified and Stabilized Wastes

Klich, I. 1997. Doctoral Dissertation. Texas A&M University.

This dissertation reviews the current literature available on containing metals in solidified and

stabilized wastes treated with inorganic binders, such as Portland cement, fly ash, and other

soluble silicates. The research examines the mineralogic alterations of seven metal-bearing

solidified and stabilized wastes that were landfilled or stored aboveground for up to 6 years. The

extent of degradation after the 6 years was found to be slight to moderate; however, pervasive

cracking was observed at the macro-, micro-, and submicroscopic scales. In addition, chemical

weathering features were documented. The research verified that wastes treated with cement,

like hardened concrete, are metastable both physically and chemically under ambient conditions.
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

57

Over time, treated wastes will attempt to reach equilibrium with the surrounding environment.

Therefore, the same environmental concerns that affect the durability of concrete must be

considered when evaluating the durability and permanence of cement-stabilized and solidified

wastes. Burial of cement-based solidified and stabilized wastes in deleterious environmental

zones, such as acid or saline soils, as well as fluctuating ground water systems, are not

recommended [1], [3], [4].

64. Stabilization of Arsenic Wastes

Taylor, M., and R.W. Fuessle. 1994. Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources and

Hazardous Waste Research Information Center. Champaign, IL. Report No. HWRIC RR-073.

The focus of this research is the development and understanding of a treatment technology for

arsenic wastes that are not wastewaters. The document addresses a research need by developing

a greater microchemical and microstructural understanding of why stabilization works in some

cases and not in others and by comparing methods of pretreatment to eliminate or minimize

interferences and to predict whether the treatment will last or not. These guidelines aid in

deciding which arsenic wastes are amenable to stabilization. The recommendations include

pretreatment dosages and mix design parameters. These guidelines are intended to improve the

design and operation of commercial arsenic stabilization processes [2].

JOURNAL REFERENCES

65. A Critical Review of Stabilization/Solidification Technology

Conner, J.R. and Hoeffner. S.L. 1998. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and

Technology. 28(4): 397-462.

This article reviews the methods of solidification/stabilization critically in light of the current

regulatory atmosphere that controls and often mandates their use. The processes and techniques

of solidification/stabilization have matured into an accepted and important part of environmental

technology. As a result, many methods have been promoted recently and offered for the

treatment of hazardous and other wastes from industry, municipalities, and government sources.

An overview of the technology is provided. The generic and proprietary

solidification/stabilization processes (chemical, physical, and thermal) are described. Of those,

six generic chemical processes that dominate the field and encompass nearly all the treatment

work and proprietary products to date are discussed. Current and anticipated major waste

streams using the technology today are summarized and the solidification/stabilization approach

for each are reviewed [1], [2].

66. A Long-Term Leachability Study of Solidified Wastes by the Multiple Toxicity

Characteristic Leaching Procedure

Lee, C.H., and others. 1994. Journal of Hazardous Materials.

This paper discusses the use of the multiple toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (MTCLP)

to evaluate the long-term leachability of solidified wastes. Two cement-based, solidified,

mercury-containing wastes and one untreated waste were evaluated by the MTCLP to simulate
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

58

the long-term leaching behavior of heavy metal contaminants in these wastes in an improperly

designed sanitary landfill. The MTCLP combines multiple extraction procedure and the TCLP,

which are being used by the EPA. The study presents the experimental procedures of the

MTCLP as well as the results of the chemical analysis of leachates obtained from the MTCLP of

the mercury-bearing wastes [1], [4].

67. A Model to Predict the TCLP Leaching of Solidified Organic Wastes

Faschan, A., and others. 1996. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials. 13:333-350.

This study evaluates the effects of organoclay adsorption on the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching

Procedure results for solidified organic wastes. Linear adsorption isotherms were developed for

the adsorption of 1,2-dichlorobenzene (DCB) and nitrobenzene (NB) by five organoclays on

simulated wastes solidified with various combinations of Type I Portland cement. A model was

developed to predict the leachability of organic wastes solidified using organoclays. The model

is limited to predictions for nonionic organic compounds and predicts the slope of linear

adsorption isotherms dependent on (1) the Kow of the organic compound solidified and (2) the

percent organic matter of the organoclay utilized. The predicted adsorption isotherm slope is

then corrected using several factors developed in the study. One factor corrects for differences in

actual leaching results compared to results predicted by the isotherm based on the encapsulation

of the organic-organoclay mixture by cement. Another factor corrects for differences in actual

and predicted leaching results due to different sample curing times [1].

68. A Proposed Protocol for Evaluation of Solidified Wastes

Stegemann, J.A., and P.L. Cote. 1996. Science of the Total Environment. 178:103-110.

Solidification technologies are potentially useful for improving the chemical and physical

properties of hazardous wastes to the extent that they are suitable for less expensive disposal or

even utilization. Unfortunately, in most jurisdictions worldwide, there is no mechanism for

reclassifying a treated, previously hazardous waste, as nonhazardous. In response to the need for

such a mechanism, this study proposes a protocol of test methods for cement-based solidified

wastes. The suggested test methods examine contaminant partitioning as a result of chemical

specification, potential for slow release of contaminants, mobility of the contaminants in the

solidified waste matrix, and the durability of the matrix. Most of the suggested tests are

standards from the fields of hazardous and radioactive wastes, some of which have been

evaluated in a cooperative study initiated by Environment Canada with vendors of solidification

processes. Based on the performance of a solidified product in the tests, it is considered for four

utilization and disposal scenarios, including unrestricted utilization, controlled utilization,

segregated landfill, and sanitary landfill. The protocol represents a first attempt to develop a

management tool for solidified waste that accounts for its physical and leaching characteristics in

different disposal scenarios [1].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

59

69. A Review of Solidification/Stabilization Interferences

Trussell, S., and R.D. Spence. 1994. Waste Management. 14:507-519.

This paper reviews the literature on interferences between hazardous wastes and cement and the

fundamental chemical mechanisms that inhibit the setting of cement. From this fundamental

information, it is possible to reach some conclusions about the potential effects of most waste

constituents even in the absence of particular studies on specific compounds. Decisions on the

appropriate disposition of wastes containing both organic and inorganic compounds should first

determine whether any waste constituents compromise the strength or stability of the waste form

or are highly leachable. Often interferences can be mitigated decrease the leachability of the

waste constituents. Organic and inorganic wastes, as well as low-level radioactive wastes are

considered [2].

70. Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization of Lead-Contaminated Soil at a Utah

Highway Construction Site

Wilk, C.M. and Arora, R. 1995. Remediation, The Journal of Environmental Cleanup Costs,

Technologies & Techniques. Reprints available through PCA (PCA Publication No.: RP332).

This article describes portland cement-based solidification/stabilization treatment of heavy metalcontaminated soil. The soil was discovered during highway construction in West Jordan, Utah.

The article includes a discussion of the excavation; size segregation; reduction of oversized

particles; addition and mixture of portland cement and cement kiln dust; and beneficial use of the

treated soil as a subbase for building a pavement for composting operations at a municipal

landfill [1], [2].

71. Cement-Based Stabilization/Solidification of Organic Contaminated Hazardous Wastes

Using Na-Bentonite and Silica Fume

Shin, H.S., and K.S. Jun. 1995. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 30:651-668.

This study investigates the use of (1) bentonite and briquette ash as adsorbents for organic

components and heavy metals in industrial wastes and (2) silica fume as an admixture to improve

the solidified wastes with cement. Chrome tanning wastes containing up to 1.5 percent organic

carbon and 1.2 percent chromium were treated with sodium montmorillonite (bentonite) and

briquette ash. The organic components and heavy metals of the waste were well adsorbed.

Solidification of the waste, clay, and silica-fume mixtures produced a monolithic mass with high

strength and very low leaching of the organic compounds and the metals. This study showed that

bentonite and briquette ash could be successful adsorbents for the organic contaminant and heavy

metals in industrial wastes, which enabled them to be treated by cement-based solidification.

Also, the use of silica-fume was highly effective in achieving high compressive strength and low

permeability. Cement-based solidification with the bentonite, briquette ash, and silica-fume gave

solid products which set rapidly and were far stronger and more homogeneous than the sole
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

60

cement-based solidification. The total organic carbon was reduced by 60 to 78 percent for the

wastes tested compared with the conventional cement-based solidified waste, and the release of

heavy metals was reduced by 52 to 70 percent [2].

72. Cement Binders for Organic Wastes

Owens, J.W., and S. Stewart. 1996. Magazine of Concrete Research. 48:37-44.

Three cyclic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene), each a known volatile organic

compound (VOC), is produced in large quantities by the synthetic chemical manufacturing

industry. The hydrocarbons were loaded into Portland cement matrices and stored in a similar

organic solvent, o-dichlorobenzene, for 2 months. The leaching characteristics of these three

VOCs were measured using gas chromatography and a flame ionization detector. The objective

of this study was to assess the comparative leaching characteristics of these organic contaminants

in cement matrices stored in another organic solvent compared with storage in air. The leaching

characteristics of benzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene from Portland cement stored in odichlorobenzene were compared with reported values for similar organic contaminants loaded

into cement matrices stored in water. Results indicate that the leaching of benzene, toluene, and

ortho-xylene from Portland cement is erroneously high when measured using a weight loss

method [2].

73. Durability Study of a Solidified Mercury-Containing Sludge

Yang, G.C.C. 1993. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 34:217-223.

This paper presents research findings on the durability of a solidified mercury-containing sludge.

A sludge sample was obtained from a chloro-alkali plant and solidified using a commercially

available sludge treatment agent (STA II). The solidified monoliths were subjected to physical

and chemical durability tests. The physical durability tests (freezing/thawing and wetting/drying

tests) were followed by measurements of unconfined compressive strength and mercury

concentrations resulting from the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). The

multiple TCLP was employed for the chemical durability test. The smaller the sludge-to-binder

ratio was, the better the physical and chemical properties a solidified monolith would have. Test

results showed that solidification using the binder STA II reduced the cumulative amount of

mercury leached from 11 percent to less than 0.7 percent by weight [1], [2], [3].

74. Effect of Adsorbents on the Leachability of Cement Bonded Electroplating Wastes

Tamas, F.D., and others. 1992. Cement and Concrete Research. 22:399-404.

Results from this study indicate that water-soluble cadmium and nickel salts are quantitatively

transformed into insoluble hydroxides within Portland cement matrices; this suggests that other

heavy metals capable of giving insoluble hydroxides in alkaline surroundings would behave

similarly. Chromates and dichromates formed no insoluble hydroxides, but they were partly
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

61

bound in the cement matrix. Adsorbents (silica fume, fly ash, and activated carbon), with the

exception of fly ash, did not improve the bonding. The use of clinker instead of cement caused a

more intensive bond. Chromium bonding appears to be affected by the presence of gypsum or its

hydration products with clinker aluminates. However, further research is needed to determine if

this sort of disposal is really risk-free, because carbonation may transform insoluble hydroxides

to more soluble carbonates or even hydrocarbonates. In addition, research is necessary to

determine the durability of the cemented products among extreme conditions, such as

carbonation or other types of acid attack [1], [2].

75. Effect of Carbonation on Microbial Corrosion of Concretes

Ismail, N., and others. 1993. Journal of Construction Management and Engineering.

20:133-138.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of carbonation on microbial corrosion of

concretes. The carbonation process involves the reduction of surface pH of concrete and is the

prerequisite for microbial corrosion to occur. Results showed that the carbonated surface layer of

concrete accelerated the surface colonization of sulfur oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacilli thioxidans)

and induced microbial corrosion. Corrosion rates corresponded well with the carbonation rates.

The formation of gypsum and ettringite in cured products may further result in the complete

decomposition of the hardened concrete [3].

76. Electron Microscopy of Heavy Metal Waste in Cement Matrices

Ivey, D.G., and others. 1990. Journal of Material Science. 25:5055-5062.

In this study, cements were mixed with various amounts of chromium metal in the form of

nitrates to simulate industrial waste. The mixtures were then investigated to better understand

the distribution and stability of chromium contaminants within solidified and stabilized waste

matrices. Chromium is known to accelerate the hydration reaction and strength development in

cement, which may be of practical benefit. Electron microscopy techniques, including scanning

electron and scanning transmission electron microscopy, were used to study the complex

microstructures associated with the mechanisms of solidification/stabilization. Results showed

that trivalent chromium is chemically contained within the cement structure, a feature that

appears consistent with accelerating additives. Cement hydration retarders, such as divalent lead

and zinc, tend not to be chemically contained, but rather may form insoluble salts and tend to

precipitate as dense coatings on the hydrating phases. Accelerators, such as chromium, have

soluble calcium salts and are thus more easily incorporated into the cement hydration products

[1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

62

77. Evaluation of Solid Waste Stabilization Processes By Means of Leaching Tests

Albino, V., and others. 1996. Environmental Technology. 17:309-315.

The effectiveness of two novel stabilizing matrices were tested in systems where 5 or 10 percent

of soluble nitrates of cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc were added. The

matrices are based on blast furnace slag, fly ash, gypsum, hydrated lime, and Portland cement.

They owe their effectiveness to the formation of calcium trisulphoaluminate and silicate

hydrates. The study involved three leaching tests using deionized water, acetic acid/sodium

acetate with a pH of 4.74 in a buffer solution, and controlled pH 4 nitric acid solution. In each

test, metals were released to an extent that depends on the nature and initial metal concentration

as well as on the matrix nature. The results of the leaching tests have shown that neither the

prevailing entrapment mechanism can be understood, nor the long-term release behavior can be

predicted from a single leaching test [1], [4].

78 Evaluation of the Leaching Properties of Solidified Heavy Metal Wastes

Herrera, E., and others. 1992. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. A27:983-998.

The effects of three inorganic materials on the leaching properties of Type I Portland cement

solidification matrix were studied. Cadmium nitrate and hydroxide sludges of cadmium and lead

were used as the inorganic materials. Cure times of up to 28 days were studied. Leachability

effects were determined by the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. Leaching results

indicate that divalent cadmium, in hydroxide or nitrate form, was contained in the cement matrix.

Divalent lead was not found to be readily contained as indicated by the large amounts of lead

leached. Approximately all of the divalent cadmium was immobilized by the addition of cement

after a 1-day cure time, whereas a considerable amount of divalent lead was still left in a

leachable form after 28 days [1], [2].

79. Factors for Selecting Appropriate Solidification/Stabilization Methods

Weitzman, L. 1990. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 24:457-468.

This paper presents information that can be used to select solidification/stabilization methods for

treating a given waste. It also discusses binders, including: Portland cement; cement kiln dust;

fly ash mixtures; lime-based binders; absorbents, such as hydro and organophilic clays, wood

chips, saw dust, and rice hulls; and thermoplastic materials, such as asphalt bitumen and

thermoplastic polymers. Absorbents (such as sawdust or expanded clay) are generally not

considered to be an acceptable method of solidifying liquids. Solidification/stabilization is

generally not suitable for the stabilization of organics, although it can be used in combination

with other treatment schemes which remove the organics from the waste [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

63

80. Feasibility of Using a Mixture of an Electroplating Sludge and a Calcium Carbonate

Sludge as a Binder for Sludge Solidification

Yang, G.C.C., and K.L. Kao. 1994. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 36:81-88.

In this work, two industrial wastes, an electroplating sludge and a water purification calcium

carbonate sludge, were obtained, mixed, and heated at 1,000 C for 4 hours. The resulting o 

material was then tested to determine whether it could be used as a binding material to solidify

the original electroplating sludge. The heat-treated sludge mixture did exhibit binding capability

in a cement-based solidification of its original electroplating sludge. In this study, a modified

Taguchi method was employed for the experimental design of solidification. The heat-treated

sludge mixture was used to partially replace the Type I Portland cement as a binding material up

to 40 weight percent. The solidified monoliths were then tested to determine their unconfined

compressive strengths, Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) toxicity, and longterm chemical durability, using the Multiple TCLP. Experimental results were found to be

satisfactory. The concepts of “wastes treating wastes” and resource recycling are thus realized

[1], [2].

81. Fundamental Aspects of Cement Solidification and Stabilization

 Roy, A., and F.K. Cartledge. 1997. Editors. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 52:151-354.

This special issue of the Journal of Hazardous Materials is dedicated to peer-reviewed

publications on recent research findings in the advancement of solidification and stabilization

technologies that incorporate cement binders. Various parts of the community involved in

solidification/stabilization research are well represented in the issue, which includes articles from

academia, industry, and government laboratories. The work reported in this volume shows the

importance of a multidisciplinary approach in dealing with complex problems. The topics also

include a number of specific problems, such as long-term matrix changes, that have often been

suggested to be important but are seldom investigated in practice [1], [2], [4].

82. Immobilization Mechanisms in Solidification/Stabilization of Cadmium and Lead

Salts Using Portland Cement Fixing Agents

Cartledge, F.K., and S.L. Yang. 1990. Environmental Science and Technology. 24:867-873.

This study investigates the behavior of cadmium and lead salts toward cement-based

solidification using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, conduction, calorimetry, and

solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance as a function of time. Even though cadmium hydroxides

and lead hydroxides have comparable, and very low solubilities, the situation with respect to

cement solidification of aqueous sludges produced by lime treatment of solutions containing

divalent cadmium and lead was found to be quite different. Concentrations of cadmium in the

leachates were very low, while lead concentrations were considerably higher and would represent

a serious threat to groundwater. Explanations are presented for these differences [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

64

83. Immobilization of Chromium in Cement Matrices

Kindness, A., and others. 1994. Waste Management. 14:3-11.

One of the encouraging features of this study has been the ability to isolate the solubility

controlling mechanisms of solidification/stabilization treatment processes. The physical

potential of cements to immobilize relatively soluble chromium waste species is complemented

by a chemical potential. The nature of the chemical potential varies with concentration, time,

and chromium specification. Conditions favorable for retaining chromium in cement are

characterized by the available alumina to form calcium aluminate hosts and by the chemical

reducing conditions to stabilize trivalent chromium and reduce hexavalent chromium to the less

soluble trivalent species. Slag cement blends performed well because they meet both criteria.

Other combinations, such as Portland cement with an appropriate reducing agent as well as other

alumina sources, such as class F fly ash, are also thought to perform well [1], [2].

84. Immobilization of Zinc and Lead From Wastes Using Simple and Fiber-Reinforced

Lime Pozzolana Admixtures

Debroy, M., and S.S. Dara. 1994. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. A29:339-355.

This study evaluates the immobilization of zinc and lead present in waste sludges by chemical

fixation and encapsulation methods using lime pozzolana and fiber-reinforced lime-pozzolana

admixtures. In addition, the report explains fixation and encapsulation techniques. Fixation and

coating with sodium silicate solution produced good results for immobilizing lead and zinc ions,

but encapsulation of heavy metal hydroxide sludge in simple and fiber-reinforced lime-fly ash

mixtures was more efficient. Fiber additives to the admixture may increase the structural

strength of the monolith. Coating of an encapsulated admixture may provide an additional

immobilization barrier. The implications of these results for long-term storage of hazardous

wastes are discussed [1], [2], [4].

85. Immobilization Science of Cement Systems

Macphee, D.E., and F.P. Glasser. 1993. MRS Bulletin. 3:66-71.

This article highlights recent uses of cements in solidification/stabilization treatment processes

and summarizes results of studies in the interactions of specific waste species and cement

systems. Various aspects of waste species-cement interactions are reviewed and discussed. The

differing chemistry of the elements induces a wide range of reactions, and with few exceptions,

each element presents a separate challenge. Moreover, the nature of the reaction products is

largely time-dependent. Satisfactory leaching methods developed for metals and glass are not

applicable to cements without some reservations. The development and interpretation of leach

tests are worthy of attention in order to match the material science with legislative requirements

[1], [2], [4].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

65

86. Impact of Carbon Dioxide on the Immobilization Potential of Cemented Wastes:

Chromium

Macias, A., and others. 1997. Cement and Concrete Research. 27:215-225.

In this paper the effect of carbonation on the immobilization of trivalent and hexavalent

chromium has been studied in both Portland cements and blended cements containing granulated,

glassy, blast furnace slag. Carbon dioxide attack, or carbonation, is the most common form of

concrete environmental attack, and it promotes changes to the cement chemical composition and

physical properties that can affect the durability and long-term retention of heavy metals. The

results show that blends of ordinary Portland cement (Type I) and blast furnace slag are more

suitable matrices for chromium-containing waste and are capable of maintaining chromium pore

fluid contents below 1 part per million (ppm), even in a completely carbonated state. Slag, by

virtue of its slow hydration, continues to release sulfur ions that inhibit any tendency of

chromium to oxidize to hexavalent chromium. The development of a zonal structure, with

separate chromium-rich and chromium-poor zones, with overall depletion of chromium from the

near-surface layers of carbonated but unleached samples, requires further study. This affects

carbonation rates and will have implications for the modeling of chromium leaching from

matrices [2], [3], [4].

87. Leachability of Lead from Solidified Cement-Fly Ash Binders

Wang, S.Y., and C. Vipulanandan. 1996. Cement and Concrete Research. 26:895-905.

The potential of partially replacing cement with class C fly ash to immobilize lead was

investigated. Lead nitrate up to a concentration of 10 percent (by weight of binder) was

solidified with Type I Portland cement and a cement-fly ash (equal proportion) mixture.

Addition of fly ash to cement reduced the initial and final setting times, but with the addition of

lead nitrate, setting times were increased. The compressive strength of the solidified cement

decreased with the addition of fly ash and lead nitrate. Lead leachability from the solidified

binder matrix was studied using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. The quantity of

divalent lead leached depended on the initial lead nitrate concentration and the binder systems

adopted. Lead solidified with cement-fly ash mixture showed slightly less leaching compared to

the cement binder [1], [2].

88. Long-Term Behaviour of Toxic Metals in Stabilized Steel Foundry Dusts

Andres, A., I. Ortiz, and others. 1995. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 40:31-42.

This study examines the long-term behavior of stabilized steel foundry dust wastes using a

dynamic leach test. Two solidified and stabilized waste forms containing lead, chromium,

cadmium, and zinc were produced using either cement or cement and anhydrite (waste material)

as binders. The results of the dynamic leaching test were fitted to a semiempirical mathematical

model based on simple leaching rate mechanisms, which permitted the evaluation of an apparent
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

66

diffusion coefficient and a leachability index; these in turn provided a measure of the

contaminants’ mobility in the solidified waste. In the case of lead and zinc, the rate of leaching

was controlled by either an initial resistance or an initial wash off, followed by diffusion of the

metallic contaminants. The leaching indices obtained in both cases were higher than 12,

suggesting that both solidification/stabilization processes are acceptable [1], [2], [4].

89. Long-Term Leaching of Metals from Concrete Products

Webster, M.T., and R. C. Loehr. 1996. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 22:714-721.

The long-term leaching of metals from concrete products made with spent abrasive media was

investigated using a sequential procedure that employed both an acidic extraction fluid and

seawater. By using seawater, leaching behavior could be determined under conditions

encountered in the environment (especially coastal areas). Chromium, cadmium, and lead

concentrations were substantially less for the seawater sequential extractions than for the acidic

sequential extractions. The environment created during the acidic sequential extractions resulted

in the leaching of substantial amounts of alkalinity from the concrete, and leachate pH levels

dropped below 4 where metals are highly soluble. The integrity of the calcium matrix within the

concrete seemed to play an important role in the successful stabilization of cadmium and lead

[1], [2], [4].

90. Long-Term Stability of Superplasticized Monoliths of a Solidified Electroplating Sludge

Yang, G.C.C., and C.F. Chang. 1994. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 37:277-283.

In this work, physicochemical durability of superplasticized monoliths, solidified from an

electroplating sludge, were investigated. Two categories of superplasticizer; modified

lignosulphonates and sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates, were employed in this

study. Each was used as an auxiliary binding agent or as a modifier to ordinary Portland cement,

which was the major binder for solidification. The solidified monoliths were then subjected to

various physical and chemical tests, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS); leaching

toxicity by the TCLP method; physical durability by freeze/thaw and wet/dry tests; and chemical

durability by the multiple TCLP test. Results show that superplasticized, solidified monoliths

outperformed the corresponding control monoliths (without addition of any superplasticizer) in

terms of various physical and chemical properties. Generally, the performance of both

superplasticizers was found to be comparable in this study. Physical durability testing resulted in

less than 1 percent of corrected, cumulative weight loss for the solidified monoliths modified by

any type of superplasticizer. However, results of UCS measurements have shown that these

same solidified specimens have deteriorated to some degree after the physical weathering tests.

As for the resistance of solidified monoliths against the leaching of contaminants due to

repetitive precipitation of a synthetic acid rain, multiple TCLP test results indicate that using

either superplasticizer is satisfactory [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

67

91. Metals Distribution in Solidified/Stabilized Waste Forms After Leaching

Cheng, K.Y., and P. Bishop. 1992. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials. 9:163-171.

This study examines the morphology, physical structure, and metal compositions of leached

cement-based waste forms using various testing procedures. A series of leach tests were

conducted in the laboratory. After a sample had been leached for a given period of time, the

leached surface layer was physically separated from the remaining portion of the cement-based

waste form. The metal contents of the surface layer and the remaining unleached waste form

were examined individually. Data generated from this research is useful in understanding the

fate and transport of metal contaminants leaching out of solidification/stabilization waste forms.

In addition, the metal distribution information is crucial in determining appropriate models used

to predict metal leaching behavior [1].

92. Ordinary Portland Cement Based Solidification of Toxic Wastes: The Role of OPC

Reviewed

Hills, C.D., and others. 1993. Cement and Concrete Research. 23:196-212.

The work presented here is part of a wider study of the use of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

solidification technology. One common concern in the waste management industry is the

vulnerability of OPC hydration to specific waste components. For this study, a mixed waste

stream was solidified in the laboratory using OPC and fly ash in a variety of proportions. The

solidified products were subjected to calorimetric, physical, and microstructural analyses. The

heat of hydration for OPC and waste mixtures showed that a progressive poisoning of normal

hydration reactions occurred with increasing concentrations of waste. Once poisoned, OPC

failed to act as a cement and was substituted for with fly ash and other products. Strength

development was found to be related to the heat of hydration, suggesting that conduction

calorimetry could be used to determine the suitability of a particular waste for OPC-based

solidification [1].

93. Portland Cement Gives Concrete Support to Solidification/Stabilization

Wilk, C.M. 1995. Environmental Solutions. May.

This report summarizes the role of Portland cement in the solidification/stabilization of

hazardous wastes and discusses the general binding mechanisms of cement components.

Although Portland cement chemistry favors solidification/stabilization processes for inorganic

wastes compounds, the principles of cement-based solidification/stabilization of organic wastes

also are discussed. In addition, solidification/stabilization performance criteria for the individual

priority metals are reviewed, including arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury,

selenium, and silver, as well as copper, nickel, and zinc [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

68

94. Potential Application of Ettringite Generating Systems for Hazardous Waste

Stabilization

Albino, V., and others. 1996. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 51:241-252.

The advantages of ettringite-based stabilization systems over traditional cement-based ones are

presented. The potential of ettringite generating systems in hazardous waste stabilization

processes is also studied by means of a mixture of anhydrous calcium sulphoaluminate

(ettringite) and anhydrite doped with the nitrates, and six heavy metals including, cadmium,

chromium, copper, iron, lead, and zinc. The presence of metals has only a small negative effect

on the hydration kinetics. The hydrated samples retain their structural integrity when submitted

to the dynamic leaching test in water and in pH 4 nitric acid solution; however, they disintegrated

when the leachant is a pH 4.74 acetate buffer. The ettringite can partially accommodate any

metal in the crystal lattice, thus giving rise to chemical entrapment [1], [2].

95. Preliminary Investigation into the Effects of Carbonation on Cement-Solidified

Hazardous Wastes

Lange, L.C., and others. 1996. Environmental Science Technology. 30:25-30.

This paper reports results from preliminary investigations into the effects of carbonation on

cement-solidified waste material. The waste, which was a commercially blended product, was

solidified using different amounts of ordinary Portland cement (Type I) and cured in three

different environments: nitrogen, air, and carbon dioxide. After 28 days, the samples were

investigated for leachate metals fixation, strength, and microstructural development.

Carbonation solidified products were characterized by enhanced calcite contents, higher strength

values, and a significant reduction in leachable metals extracted compared to air-cured samples.

Samples cured under a nitrogen atmosphere showed significant retardation of hydration, resulting

in low strength values but improved fixation of leachable metals [1].

96. Reaction of CO2 With Alkaline Solid Wastes to Reduce Contaminant Mobility

Reddy, K.J., and others. 1996. Water Research. 28:1377-1382.

This study evaluates the effects of carbon dioxide treatment on the pH and soluble concentrations

of inorganic contaminants in alkaline fly ash and spent shale solid wastes. A two-level (low and

high), three variable (moisture, time, and pressure) statistical experiment was used to determine

optimum carbon dioxide conditions. Treated and untreated samples were subjected to solubility

and X-ray diffraction studies. Carbon dioxide treatment conditions of 40 pounds per square inch

of pressure, 20 percent moisture, and 120 hours effectively precipitated calcite. These conditions

lowered the pH and leachable concentrations of certain inorganic contaminants, including

cadmium, lead, zinc, manganese, arsenic, and selenium in alkaline fly ash and spent shale

samples. The results suggest that reaction with carbon dioxide under slightly elevated pressures

is an effective means of reducing the soluble concentrations of certain inorganic contaminants in
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

69

alkaline solid wastes, which would prevent their migration from disposal environments into

groundwater [1], [2].

97. Recent Findings on Immobilization of Organics as Measured by Total Constituent

Analysis

Conner, J.R. 1995. Waste Management. 15:359-470.

New hazardous waste stabilization additives and formulations are tested to help waste managers

meet the new EPA total constituent analysis regulatory requirements. The findings evaluate four

cement-based formulations applied to soils containing 50 hazardous organic compounds. Two

proprietary rubber particulate additives were superior relative to carbon organoclay for

stabilization of most constituents. Any of the four additives or their combinations may prove

valuable in immobilizing specific constituents [1], [2].

98. Soil Stabilization Provides In-Situ Toxic Containment

Bornstein, R. and Wehr, F. (1991). California Builder and Engineers. CB&E: 35-36.

This article describes the in situ stabilization of contaminated material at a commercial burning

yard in Rosamond, CA. Included in the article is a discussion of EPA laboratory tests to

determine the best mixture for the soil stabilization, the technique used to excavate and stabilize

the waste, and the results of analysis to determine whether EPA specifications were met. Project

results showed that soil mixture strength, durability, and permeability met or exceeded the EPA

specifications [1], [2].

99 Solidification/Stabilization of a Heavy Metal Sludge by a Portland Cement/Fly Ash

Binding Mixture

Roy, A., H.C. Eaton, and others. 1991. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials. 8:33-41.

This paper is another in a series of studies of microchemical mechanisms involved in

solidification/stabilization. A Portland cement/class F fly ash binder was used to solidify a heavy

metal sludge containing cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel. Results indicate a wide

variability in the composition of partially dewatered sludges. Such variability can lead to

localized differences in the chemical composition of the solidified material. Microanalyses of

the cement and fly ash mixtures indicate that fly ash spheres reacted with the Portland cement

component to form a variety of reaction products, including ettringite. The results show that the

sludge had an effect on cementing reactions, and it inhibited the rate and extent of hydration. To

a minor degree, fly ash was involved in the chemical entrapment of the waste elements [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

70

100. Solidification/Stabilization of Arsenic: Effects of Arsenic Specification

Buechler, P., and others. 1996. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. A31:747-754.

This study evaluates the chemical identity of arsenic compounds subjected to solidification/

stabilization in determining eventual leachability from the treated material. Arsenic compounds

have major effects on the developing cement matrix when Portland cement is the binder. Of the

compounds studied, the organoarsenic species, arsanilic acid, has the least effect on the

formation of the hydrated cement matrix, but it shows the greatest Toxicity Characteristic

Leaching Procedure effects. Arsenic trioxide has the greatest effect on the matrix, reducing the

hydration from 70 to 40 percent at 28 days of cure. Arsenate and arsenite salts have intermediate

effects on matrix formation, but they show low leachabilities. An organoarsenic fungicide waste

treated with Portland cement alone showed significant leachability, but leachability was greatly

reduced in the presence of tetramethylammonium bentonite [1], [2].

101. Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Waste: Evidence of Physical Encapsulation

Roy, A., and others. 1992. Environmental Science and Technology. 26:1349-1353.

The nature of a synthetic electroplating sludge (EPA waste classification F006) containing

cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel, as well as its solidification/stabilization mechanisms

were evaluated by investigating the microscopic morphologies and microchemistry of the

solidified and stabilized products. The sludge consisted of impure, submicrometer-sized

crystallites of heavy metal salts that retarded hydration of the ordinary Portland cement (Type I).

However, the hydration products were the same as those formed in the absence of the sludge.

Morphologies observed in the ordinary Portland cement/sludge samples were distinctly different

from those normally observed in hardened cement. Physical encapsulation on a microscopic

scale was the principal mechanism of stabilization [1], [2].

102. Solidification/Stabilization of Heavy Metals in Latex Modified Portland Cement

Matrices

Daniali, S. 1990. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 24:225-230.

This paper presents preliminary research data to develop latex-modified cement systems for the

solidification/stabilization of inorganic wastes containing lead and chromium. Polymers have

long been used to improve the properties of concrete and cement mortar, especially when these

materials are subjected to severe chemical attack. Results of freeze/thaw durability tests

conducted on the synthetic wastes show little or no weight loss after 50 cycles. In addition,

unconfined compressive strength tests show no loss of strength due to the presence of lead and

chromium. Preliminary Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure and extraction procedure

tests indicate considerable improvement over regular Portland cement [1], [2], [3].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

71

103. Stabilization and Solidification of Lead in Contaminated Soils

Lin. S.L., and others. 1996. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 48:95-110.

In this study, a sulfur waste material was employed as a binder to stabilize and solidify leadcontaminated soils. Soil samples collected from a battery recovery plant had high levels of

inorganic lead. Results obtained from the study indicated that sulfur binders can be used to

solidify and stabilize inorganic lead-contaminated soil, which may or may not contain organic

compounds. However, control samples, which used Portland cement to solidify the same

contaminated soils, showed that Portland cement was also an effective binder. The potential

applications of these solidified matrixes also are discussed. Due to the excellent physical,

engineering, and chemical leaching characteristics, sulfur-solidified wastes could be used as

construction fills, such as road fill in pavement construction. Under some circumstances, use of

the sulfur stabilization/solidification process will be a viable choice, especially where excess

sulfur, recovered from various industrial desulfurization sites, becomes a waste product that

requires disposal. The excess waste (sulfur) can be used as a stabilization agent to treat leadcontaminated soil locally. Thus the two waste materials can be combined and converted into an

environmentally stable material for recycling without having to be deposited in a landfill site [1],

[2].

104. The Binding Chemistry and Leaching Mechanisms of Hazardous Substances in

Cementitious Solidification/Stabilization Systems

Cocke, D.L. 1990. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 24:231-253.

The aim of this work is to provide information for (1) the design of new or improved

solidification/stabilization systems and (2) mathematically modeling the leaching. The chemistry

of binding and the mechanisms of leaching of hazardous substances, particularly priority heavy

metal pollutants, in cementitious systems are discussed in terms of their bulk and surface states.

Particular attention is given to the nature of the surface and solution chemistries. Key to

understanding the binding and leaching processes in cement is the characterization of the

chemical and physical states involved. Recent efforts in the surface bulk and morphological

characterization of solidification/stabilization hazardous metal-Portland cement systems are

presented, with the results summarized in physical and chemical concepts [1], [2].

105. The Effects of Simulated Environmental Attack on Immobilization of Heavy Metals

Doped in Cement-Based Materials

Bonen, D., and S.L. Sarkar. 1995. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 40:321-335.

This study investigates the effects of long-term simulated corrosive environmental conditions for

the leaching characteristics of selected heavy-metal oxides stabilized in Portland cement as well

as the leaching from paste and mortar. Portland cement-based materials, which are often used as

binders for hazardous waste immobilization, are prone to various types of chemical attack,
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

72

including corrosion by soft water and ground water. Carbon dioxide-bearing water is most

deleterious, affecting the leachability characteristics of waste-based cement over time. Heavy

metals analyzed include cadmium, nickel, lead, and mercury. Results from aggressive carbon

dioxide attack indicated the formation of a peripheral decalcified zone (the leached zone) and an

apparent intact unleached zone. The leached zone was characterized by a depleted heavy metal

content, in which nickel and cadmium were converted into hydroxides, and mercury remained in

its original oxide form. The leaching rate of the metals was lowest for lead and increased for

nickel and cadmium. Increasing the metal load increased the amount of metals leached at any

given time [1], [2], [3], [4].

106. The History of Stabilization/Solidification Technology

Conner, J.R. and Hoeffner, S.L. 1998. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and

Technology. 28(4): 325-396.

This article describes the history of solidification/stabilization. The processes and techniques of

solidification/stabilization have matured into an accepted and important part of environmental

technology. How it came about is presented in both an interesting and instructive way. The

article includes a definition of terms; overview of the basics of solidification/stabilization

technology; a discussion of the origins of solidification/stabilization before 1970, its pre-RCRA

use (1970-1976), the post-RCRA solidification/stabilization industry (1976-1990), the current

solidification/stabilization technology (1990 to present), and the future of

solidification/stabilization [1], [2].

107. The Interfacial Chemistry of Solidification/Stabilization of Metals

Mollah, Y.M.A., and others. 1995. Waste Management. 15:137-148.

This study investigates the chemistry of cement, its hydration, and mechanisms of

solidification/stabilization of toxic metals by cement-based systems, near surface, and interfacial

phenomena. The adsorption conditions and the selectively strong affinity of hazardous metals

towards clay minerals, certain hydrated metal oxides and oxyhydroxides, and cementitious

substances also play an important role in the solidification/stabilization process for the

immobilization of contaminants. Recent work involving metal ions and superplasticizers have

elucidated the mechanics of reactions that retard cement hydration and subsequent setting as well

as their interactions with silicate-based systems. This paper delineates the current status of

interfacial chemistry at the solid-liquid boundary and places it in perspective with present and

future solidification/ stabilization processes based on Portland cement and pozzolanic materials.

The importance of surface charge, the role of interfacial phenomena on adsorption, and the

importance of calcium and other types of anions and cations in solidification/stabilization are

also discussed. A surface charge control reaction model that accounts for the importance of

calcium and other cations and anions is outlined and is used to discuss the chemical nature and

microstructure of the interfacial transition zone [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

73

108. The Limitation of the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure for Evaluating

Cement-Based Stabilized/Solidified Waste Forms

Poon, C.S., and K.W. Lio. 1997. Waste Management. 17:15-23.

The EPA Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) is commonly used as a regulatory

tool to determine whether or not a waste can be classified as a hazardous waste. The validity of

the test procedure for assessing cement-based stabilized and solidified heavy metal wastes is

examined in this paper. Synthetic cement-based heavy metal waste forms with different acid

neutralizing capacity were prepared and subjected to TCLP to study the effect of waste acid

neutralizing capacity metal leaching. A real waste was also obtained from a local commercial

treatment facility and tested to verify the findings. The results showed that as long as the

stabilized and solidified waste forms neutralize the acidity of the leachant, the leaching of metals

will be small, and the performance of the different waste forms cannot be differentiated. The test

therefore has limited use in comparing the performance of different cement-based waste forms.

A modified test procedure is proposed [1].

109. Time Effects of Three Contaminants on the Durability and Permeability of a

Solidified Sand

Al’Tabbaa, A., and S.D. King. 1998. Environmental Technology. 19:401-407.

This paper examines the effect of three contaminants in low and high concentrations on the

durability (wet/dry and freeze/thaw) and permeability of stabilized and solidified contaminated

sand. The effect was investigated in terms of the development of the two properties with time

under the influence of the contaminants after two curing periods results provide some insight into

the development of the behaviour with time. The results show that in some cases the behaviour

depends not only on the type of the contaminant, but also on its concentration. In general, both

the durability (as measured by wet/dry and freeze/thaw tests) and permeability results improved

with time as the curing period increased from 28 to 56 days. These results were attributed to the

continual hydration of cement. This means that the design of solidified and stabilized soil is

based on 28-day durability, and permeability would lead to an uneconomical design unless the

effect of continual hydration of the cement products, and hence continual development of the two

properties, is allowed for in some way. This emphasizes the need to develop appropriate tests

that model in situ long-term behavior of solidified and stabilized ground [1], [3], [4].

110. Treatment of Metal Industrial Wastewater by Flyash and Cement Fixation

Weng, C.H., and C.P. Huang. 1994. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 120:1470-1488.

This paper presents a technique for treating industrial waste waters contaminated with heavy

metals. The proposed method employs fly ash adsorption and cement fixation of the metalcontaminated adsorbent compound to isolate the metals. Fly ash can provide an acceptable level

of metal adsorption for zinc and cadmium in dilute wastewater streams with adsorption

capacities of 0.27 and 0.05 milograms per gram, respectively. Tests of leachates derived from

the fixed metal-laden fly ash indicated that concentrations of the metals in the leachates were

lower than the existing drinking water standards [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

74

111. Variability of Field Solidified Waste

Stegemann, J.A., Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, C. 1997. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 52: 335-

348.

There is little information available regarding the effect of field variability on solidified waste

properties. In a field test conducted by the Wastewater Technology Centre it was found that the

proportions of the waste (electric arc furnace dust) and binder (activated blast furnace slag) could

be controlled within 2 percent, expressed as a fraction of the mix. Comparisons of

comprehensive physical and chemical test results for laboratory and field solidified specimens of

electric arc furnace dust showed that the physical properties of the field solidified material were

sensitive to changes in water addition. Chemical properties and leachability were most affected

by changes in pH and acid neutralization capacity. However, both physical and chemical

properties remained within the desired range [1], [2], [3], [4].

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

112. Hazardous Wastes - Fixation, Solidification, and Vitrification Excluding

Radioactive Materials

Energy Science and Technology Database. 1998. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

NTIS Document No.: PB96-855945INI

http://www.ntis.gov

This bibliography contains the latest citations concerning the fixation or solidification of

hazardous wastes. Articles discuss methods of fixation, such as use of cements, concretes,

silicates, fly ash, and vitrified glass. Citations are continuously updated to examine the ability of

various techniques to immobilize hazardous materials; immobilization is determined by leach

tests and experimental verification. Materials discussed include furnace wastes, contaminated

soils, sludges, asbestos wastes, organic wastes, and ashes. The bibliography contains as many as

250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list [1], [2].

113. Radioactive Waste Processing - Fixation in Cements and Bitumens

Energy Science and Technology Database. 1998. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

NTIS Document No.: PB96-855135INI

http://www.ntis.gov

This bibliography contains citations concerning the fixation or solidification of radioactive

wastes using cements, bitumens, or asphalts. Formulation, physical strength, degradation, and

leachability of these materials is presented. Specific full-scale production plants are described.

Wastes that can be contained through fixation include gaseous wastes, nitrate salts, borate salts,
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

75

spent fuels, contaminated soils, sludges, and liquid wastes. The bibliography contains about 250

citations and includes a subject term index and title list [1], [2].

IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES

114. Engineering Issue: Considerations in Deciding to Treat Contaminated Soils In Situ

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.

Washington, DC.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/S-94/500

NTIS Document No.: PB94-177771/XAB

The purpose of this document is to assist in deciding whether consideration of in situ treatment

of contaminated soil is worthwhile and to assist in the selection and review of in situ

technologies. This document addresses issues associated with assessing the feasibility of in situ

treatment and selecting appropriate in situ technologies, including characteristics of the

contaminants, the site, the technologies, and how these factors and conditions interact to allow

for effective delivery, control, and recovery of treatment agents and contaminants. The document

focuses on established and innovative in situ treatment technologies already available or

available for full-scale application within 2 years, including in situ solidification/stabilization.

The document is intended to assist in identifying applicable alternatives early in the technology

screening process and is not a source for final determinations [1], [2].

115. Handbook on In Situ Treatment of Hazardous Waste-Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/2-90/002

NTIS Document No.: PB90-155607/XAB

This publication discusses various alternatives for in situ treatment of hazardous waste in

contaminated soils. Several in situ technologies are described, including in situ solidification/

stabilization treatment processes. Delivery and recovery systems also are discussed. The

document includes a description of the treatment process and its advantages and disadvantages.

An extensive list of references is included [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

76

116. International Waste Technologies/Geo-Con In Situ Stabilization/Solidification:

Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/004

NTIS Document No: PB-90-269085

This Application Analysis Report evaluates (1) the International Waste Technologies HWT-20

additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/

solidification process and (2) its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site

cleanup. The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund

Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company

electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychlorinated biphenyls and

localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report

discusses the in situ process based on test results of the demonstration, as well as other data

provided by the technology developer and the general capabilities of cement-based systems. It

also discusses the probable applicability of the technology to sites other than the General Electric

Company electric service shop [1], [2].

117. Overview of In Situ Waste Treatment Technologies

Hyde, R.A., and others. 1992. EG&G Idaho, Inc. Idaho Falls, ID.

NTIS Document No.: DE92-018012/XAB

In situ technologies are an attractive remedial alternative when addressing environmental

problems, and they typically reduce risks and costs associated with retrieving, packaging, and

storing or disposing of wastes. Each in situ technology has specific applications; to provide the

most economical and practical solution to a waste problem, these applications must be

understood. This paper presents an overview of 30 in situ remedial technologies for buried

wastes or contaminated soil areas. The objective of this paper is to familiarize those involved in

waste remediation activities with available and emerging in situ technologies so that they may

consider these options in the remediation of hazardous and radioactive waste sites. Several

types of in situ technologies are discussed, including solidification/stabilization. Much of the

information on in situ treatment technologies was obtained directly from vendors and

universities, and this information has not been verified [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

77

118. Pilot In Situ Auger Mixing Treatment of a Contaminated Site - Part I: Treatability

Study

Al’Tabbaa, A., and C.W. Evans. 1998. Geotechnical Engineering. 131:52-59.

The work presented in this two-part publication covers certain findings of a research contract and

related studies to develop an in situ stabilization/solidification treatment methodology using

auger mixing at a contaminated site at West Drayton. This paper, Part 1, contains the

introduction, site details, and results of the laboratory treatability study; Part 2 details the

prototype auger development, site trial, and assessment of the in situ treatment. The objective of

the treatability study was to develop soil-grout mixes appropriate for the site soils and in situ

application process, with an emphasis on low cement and grout content. Cement-based soilgrout mixes were developed based on available strength, durability, permeability,

compressibility, and leachate pH design criteria. Constituents of the soil-grout mixes, which

included cement, pulverized fuel ash and lime, and their ratios were varied. Contradicting

requirements for satisfying some of the criteria meant that the developed mixes had to be a

compromise. The applicability of the permeability and freeze/thaw durability criteria considered

for the stabilized contaminated soil was questioned [1], [2].

119. Recent Developments for In Situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Technology Innovation Office. Office of Solid

Waste and Emergency Response. Washington, DC.

EPA Document No.: EPA-542-R-97-004

This report provides a status update on available and promising technologies for in situ

remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. It is intended to assist in the remedy

selection process by providing information on four in situ technologies, including

solidification/stabilization. The report discusses different techniques currently in practice or

under development, identifies vendors and summarizes performance data, and discusses

technology attributes that should be considered during early screening of potential remedies.

EPA-sponsored demonstrations reviewed in the report indicate that in situ

solidification/stabilization is effective in reducing leachable concentrations of metals to within

regulatory or risk-based limits. Failure to meet the design specifications in the field most often

stems from poor grout control, such as inconsistently formulated slurries or clogged injection

ports that cause incomplete mixing or a spray pattern that is not uniform [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

78

120. Technology Evaluation Report: SITE Program Demonstration Test, International

Waste Technologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office

of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/004a

NTIS Document No.: PB-89-194161

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the International Waste Technologies HWT-20

additive and the Geo-Con, Inc. deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/

solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup.

The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA’s Superfund

Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program in April 1988, at the General Electric

Company electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida, where the soil contained polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs) and localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal

concentrations. This report provides an interpretation of the available data and presents

conclusions on the results of the demonstration, as well as the potential applicability of the

technology at other sites [1], [2].
79

SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

Numerous World Wide Web sites, publications/search systems, dockets, hotlines/regulatory/technical

assistance centers, and library resources are available to provide information or technical assistance

related to issues concerning solidification and stabilization. Many of these sources are available through

EPA’s main web address, www.epa.gov. This web site provides access to a variety of EPA offices,

laboratories, and regions; the reader is referred to the following EPA offices as providing information

that is particularly relevant to solidification and stabilization: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency

Response (OSWER), Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (OERR), Office of Solid Waste

(OSW), and Office of Research and Development (ORD). Specific sources of information are identified

below, with information about how to access these sources.

WORLD WIDE WEB SITES:

C Hazardous Waste Cleanup Information

(CLU-IN)

CLU-IN provides information about innovative Agency.

remediation and site characterization

technologies for hazardous waste cleanup

professionals. It includes information on

publications and software, partnerships and

consortia, regulatory items, vendor support,

internet and on-line resources, and international

activities.

Help Line...............................301-589-8368

Internet address: http://clu-in.org

seven action teams have been established by

C Alternative Treatment Technologies

Information Center (ATTIC)

ATTIC is a comprehensive computer database LASAGNATM Partnership, the Permeable

system that provides up-to-date information on Reactive Barriers Action Team, the Sediments

innovative treatment technologies. ATTIC Remediation Action Team, the In-Place

provides users with access to several Inactivation and Natural Ecological Restoration

independent databases, as well as a mechanism Technologies (IINERT) Soil-Metals Action

for obtaining full-text technical publications. Team, the Phytoremediation of Organics Action

The database contains information on Team, and the In Situ Flushing Action Team.

biological, chemical, and physical treatment

technologies; solidification and stablization

technologies; and thermal treatment

technologies.

Help Line...............................513-569-7272

Internet address: http://www.epa.gov/attic

Development (ORD) to encourage the

C Federal Remediation Technologies

Roundtable (FRTR)

FRTR is an interagency working group that

provides a forum for the exchange of

information about the development and

demonstration of innovative technologies for the

remediation of hazardous waste sites. The

forum also synthesizes the technical knowledge

that federal agencies have compiled and

provides a comprehensive record of

performance and cost of the technologies.

Participating agencies include the U.S.

Department of Defense, the U.S. Department of

Energy, and the U.S. Environmental Protection

Internet address: http://www.frtr.gov

C Remediation Technologies Development

Forum (RTDF)

RTDF was established by the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to

foster partnerships of public and private-sector

entities that conduct laboratory and applied

research to develop, test, and evaluate

innovative remediation technologies. To date,

RTDF, including: the Bioremediation of

Chlorinated Solvents Consortium, the

Internet address: http://www.rtdf.org

C Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation

(SITE) Demonstration Program

The SITE program was established by EPA’s

Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response

(OSWER) and the Office of Research and

development and implementation of innovative

treatment technologies for the remediation of

hazardous waste sites and for monitoring and

measurement technologies. Through the

program, technologies are field-tested and

engineering and cost data are gathered.

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/ORD/SITE
80

SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (CONT’D)

PUBLICATIONS/SEARCH SYSTEMS:

C Site Remediation Technology InfoBase: Indexes and provides public access to all

A Guide to Federal Programs, Information

Resources, and Publications on

Contaminated Site Cleanup Technologies

(EPA/542/B-98/006; August 1998)

This publication was prepared under the

auspices of the Federal Remediation

Technologies Roundtable and summarizes

information about federal cleanup programs

within the U.S. DoD, U.S. DOE, and EPA; site

remediation technology development assistance

programs; site remediation technology

development electronic databases; and

electronic resources for site remediation

technology information. It also provides a

selected bibliography of publications and

identifies technology program contacts.

C DIALOG Database............800-3-DIALOG

Contains files relevant to hazardous waste

including: Enviroline, CA Search, Pollution

Abstracts, Compendex, Energy Science and

Technology, National Technical Information

Service (NTIS), and others.

Internet address: http://www.dialog.com EPA personnel and provides information on the

DOCKETS: Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 6:00

C Federal Agency Hazardous Waste

Compliance Docket Hotline 800-548-1016

Provides the name, address, NPL status, agency,

and Region for the Federal facilities listed on the C Superfund Health Risk Technical Support

Federal Agency Hazardous Waste Compliance

Docket. Facilities are on the docket because Provides EPA Regional Superfund risk

they reported being a RCRA TSDF or having assessors, State agencies, and those working

spilled or having the potential to release under EPA contract with technical, typically

CERCLA hazardous waste. Operates Monday - chemical-specific, support and risk assessment

Friday 8:00 a.m.- 6:00 p.m., Eastern Time. review.

C UST Docket............................703-603-9230

Provides documents and regulatory information

pertinent to RCRA Subtitle 1 (the Underground

Storage Tank program). C TSCA Hotline........................202-554-1404

Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00 Answers public and private regulatory questions

p.m., Eastern Time. on TSCA. Refers callers to appropriate EPA

To send a request: U.S. Environmental contacts, and takes TSCA-relevant document

Protection Agency orders.

Office of Underground Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 5:00

Storage Tank Docket p.m., Eastern Time.

401 M Street, SW, 5305W To fax a request: 202-554-5603

Washington, DC 20460

To fax a request: 703-603-9234

C RCRA Information Center...703-603-9230

regulatory materials supporting the Agency’s

actions under RCRA, and disseminates current

Office of Solid Waste publications.

Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00

a.m., Eastern Time.

C Superfund Docket.................703-603-9232

Provides access to Superfund regulatory

documents, Superfund Federal Register Notices,

and RODs.

Operates Monday - Friday, 9 a.m. - 4 p.m.,

Eastern Time.

To fax a request: 703-603-9240

email: superfund.docket@epamail.epa.gov

HOTLINES/REGULATORY/TECHNICAL

ASSISTANCE:

C RCRA/Superfund Hotline...800-424-9346,

703-412-9810, TDD: 800-553-7672, 703-412-

3323

Provides regulatory assistance related to RCRA,

CERCLA, and UST programs. Serves as a

liaison between the regulated community and

availability of relevant documents.

p.m., Eastern Time.

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hotline/

Center....................................513-569-7300

Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 5 p.m.,

Eastern Time.

To fax a request: 513-569-7159
81

SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (CONT’D)

LIBRARIES:

C The EPA Headquarters and Regional Libraries

provide information services covering a wide

range of environmental and related subjects,

including hazardous waste, air and water

pollution and control, environmental law, solid

waste, toxic substances, and test methods. These

libraries also provide a collection of materials on

social, economic, legislative, legal,

administrative, and management projects related

to all aspects of environmental policy. EPA

Headquarters and Regional Libraries contact

information is provided below. In addition to

resources available through EPA libraries, users

may also access relevant documents through

university libraries or other public libraries that

house government documents.

- EPA Headquarters Library

Headquarters Information

Resources Center

To send a request: Environmental Protection

Agency

401 M Street, SW

Mail Code 3404

Washington , DC 20460

Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 5 p.m.,

Eastern Time.

Phone.....................................202-260-5922

Fax..........................................202-260-5153

email: library-hq@epamail.epa.gov

- EPA Region 1 Library (Boston, MA)

To send a request: JFK Federal Building

Boston, MA 02203-0001

Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 5 p.m.,

Eastern Time

Phone...................................617-565-3300

Fax.......................................617-565-9067

e-mail: library-regl@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/region01/oarm/index.html

- EPA Region 2 Library (New York, NY)

To send a request: 290 Broadway, 16 Floor th

New York, NY 10007

Operates Monday - Thursday, 9 a.m. - 4:30

p.m., Friday 9 a.m. - 1 p.m., Eastern Time

Phone......................................212-637-3185

Fax..........................................212-637-3086

e-mail: library-reg-2@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/Region2/library/

- EPA Region 3 Library (Philadelphia, PA)

To send a request: 1650 Arch Street

(3PM52)

Philadelphia, PA 19103

Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 4 p.m.,

Eastern Time

Phone......................................215-814-5254

Fax..........................................215-814-5253

e-mail: library-reg3@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/region3/r3lib/index.html

- EPA Region 4 Library (Atlanta, GA)

To send a request: Atlanta Federal Center

61 Forsyth St, SW

9 Floor Tower th

Atlanta, GA 30303-3104

Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 4 p.m.,

Eastern Time

Phone......................................404-562-8190

Fax..........................................404-562-8114

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/recoreds/a00220.html

- EPA Region 5 Library (Chicago, IL)

To send a request: 77 West Jackson

Boulevard

Chicago, IL 60604-3590

Operates Monday - Friday, 7:30 p.m. - 5 p.m.,

Central Time

Phone......................................312-353-2022

Fax..........................................312-353-2001

e-mail: library.reg5@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/region5/library/

- EPA Region 6 Library (Dallas, TX)

To send a request: 1445 Ross Avenue

Dallas, TX 75202

Operates Monday - Friday, 7:30 a.m. - 4:30

p.m., Central Time

Phone......................................214-665-6424

Fax..........................................214-665-2714

e-mail: library-reg6@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/6mol/6lib.htm
82

SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (CONT’D)

- EPA Region 7 Library (Kansas City, KS)

To send a request: Information Resource

Center

726 Minnesota Avenue

Kansas City, KS 66101-

2728

Operates Monday - Friday 10 a.m. - 3 p.m.

(walk-in), 8:30 a.m. - 5 p.m. (phone), Central

Time

Phone.............................913-551-7241/7358

Fax..........................................913-551-7467

e-mail: library-reg7@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/earth100/records/

a00222.html

- EPA Region 8 Technical Library (Denver,

CO)

To send a request: 999 18 Street, Suite 500 th

(8OC-L)

Denver, CO 80202

Operates Monday - Friday, (except

Wednesday), 12:00 noon - 4:00 p.m., Mountain

Time, operates Wednesday 10 a.m. - 4 p.m.,

Mountain Time

Phone......................................303-312-6312

Fax..........................................303-312-7061

e-mail: R8EISC@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/region08/html/eisc.html

_ EPA Region 8 Library (Denver, CO)

Environmental Information Service Center

(EISC)

Phone...........................303-312-6312

and 1-800-227-8917 (for region 8 states only)

Fax...............................303-294-1087

- EPA Region 9 Library (San Francisco, CA)

To send a request: 75 Hawthorne Street

San Francisco, CA 94105

Operates Monday - Friday, 9 a.m. - 4 p.m.,

Western Time

Phone......................................415-744-1510

Fax..........................................415-744-1474

e-mail: library-reg9@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/region09/library/

- EPA Region 10 Library (Seattle, WA)

To send a request: 1200 Sixth Avenue,

Mail code OMP-104

Seattle, WA 98101

Operates Monday - Friday, 9 a.m. - 4 p.m.,

Western Time

Phone......................................206-553-1289

Fax..........................................206-553-0110

email: library-reg10@epamail.epa.gov

Internet address:

http://www.epa.gov/earth100/records/

a00225.html

- RREL/Site Superfund Videotape Library

Provides composite videotapes containing a

number of EPA produced documentaries on

specific Superfund Innovative Technology

Evaluation (SITE) Program demonstrations.

Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 4:30

p.m., Eastern time

Phone......................................201-535-2219
83

OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES

The following documents are intended to support decision-making by Regional and State

Corrective Action permit writers, Remedial Project Managers (RPMs), On-Scene Coordinators,

contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation of innovative treatment technologies.

These guides direct managers of sites being remediated under RCRA, UST, and CERCLA to

bioremediation, ground water, physical/chemical, soil vapor extraction (SVE), SVE

enhancement, and solidification/stabilization treatment technology resource documents;

databases; hotlines; and dockets, and identify regulatory mechanisms (for example, Research

Development and Demonstration Permits) that have the potential to ease the implementation of

these technologies at hazardous waste sites. Collectively, the guides provide abstracts of over

400 guidance/workshop reports, program documents, studies and demonstrations, and other

resource guides, as well as easy to use Resource Matrices that identify the technologies and

contaminants discussed in each abstracted document. The title and document number is provided

for each.

1. Bioremediation Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1993. Office of Solid Waste and

Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC. [1], [2], [3].

EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-93/004

NTIS Document No.: PB-94-112307

2. Ground Water Treatment Technology Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1994. Office of Solid Waste and

Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC. [1], [2].

EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-94/009

NTIS Document No.: PB-95-138657

3. Physical/Chemical Treatment Technology Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1994. Office of Solid Waste and

Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC. [1], [2].

EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-94/008

NTIS Document No.: PB-95-138665
Topics Addressed

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols

[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures

[3] Durability and Degradation

[4] Long-term Effectiveness

84

OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES (CONT’D)

4. Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Enhancement Technology Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October, 1995. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency

Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC. [1], [2].

EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-95/003

5. Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Treatment Technology Resource Guide.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1994. Office of Solid Waste and

Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC. [1], [2].

EPA Document Number: EPA/542-B-94/007

NTIS Document Number: PB-95-138681
85

WE WOULD LIKE YOUR COMMENTS

We would like your comments about this guide, especially on:

C Questions about solidification/stabilization technologies

C Information about solidification/stabilization technology documents that you have drafted

or completed which may be suited for inclusion in an update to this Guide.

Mail this form:

C Fold the form into thirds (along the dotted lines) so that the address shows on the outside.

C Tape the form closed.

C Add a first class stamp (EPA employees use interoffice or pouch mail).

C Drop it in the mail.

or Fax this form:

TIO - (703) 603-9135 or (703) 603-9167

COMMENTS
86

Return Address: Place

Stamp

Here

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

TECHNOLOGY INNOVATION OFFICE

401 M STREET, SW (5102G)

WASHINGTON, DC 20460