NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

Japan’s Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Market: 

An Analysis of Residential System Prices

Ted James, David Feldman, and Robert Margolis

DOE – Solar Program

Washington, D.C. 

October 23, 2013

Contract No. 25814 

NREL/PR-6A20-60419
2

Disclaimer

DISCLAIMER AGREEMENT

These manufacturing cost model results (“Data”) are provided by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (“NREL”), which 

is operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy LLC (“Alliance”) for the U.S. Department of Energy (the “DOE”).

It is recognized that disclosure of these Data is provided under the following conditions and warnings: (1) these Data have 

been prepared for reference purposes only; (2) these Data consist of forecasts, estimates or assumptions made on a 

best-efforts basis, based upon present expectations; and (3) these Data were prepared with existing information and are 

subject to change without notice.

The names DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE shall not be used in any representation, advertising, publicity or other manner whatsoever 

to endorse or promote any entity that adopts or uses these Data. DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE shall not provide any support, 

consulting, training or assistance of any kind with regard to the use of these Data or any updates, revisions or new 

versions of these Data.

YOU AGREE TO INDEMNIFY DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE, AND ITS AFFILIATES, OFFICERS, AGENTS, AND EMPLOYEES AGAINST ANY 

CLAIM OR DEMAND, INCLUDING REASONABLE ATTORNEYS' FEES, RELATED TO YOUR USE, RELIANCE, OR ADOPTION OF 

THESE DATA FOR ANY PURPOSE WHATSOEVER. THESE DATA ARE PROVIDED BY DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE "AS IS" AND ANY 

EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY 

AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE BE 

LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER, INCLUDING BUT 

NOT LIMITED TO CLAIMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LOSS OF DATA OR PROFITS, WHICH MAY RESULT FROM AN ACTION IN 

CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS CLAIM THAT ARISES OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR 

PERFORMANCE OF THESE DATA.
3

Japan’s Electricity Generation Portfolio Continues to Change, and 

Stronger Growth in Renewable Energy is Anticipated

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA). (2013). “International Energy Statistics.” Accessed on September 12, 2013: 

http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=2&pid=27&aid=12&cid=r1,&syid=1990&eyid=2011&unit=BKWH. 

U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA). “International Energy Outlook 2013.” July 25, 2013. 

International Energy Agency (IEA). (2012). “World Energy Outlook 2012: Renewable Energy Outlook.” Chapter 7. Page 218.

• The future of nuclear energy in Japan is uncertain, and national policy is evolving.

• The figure only illustrates one nuclear projection by the U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA).

• Renewable energy and fossil fuels are expected to replace some permanently retired nuclear plants. 

• Japan’s national solar energy goal is to deploy 63 GW by 2030 (cumulative installed capacity).
4

Historical Solar Deployment in Japan is Similar to the United States, 

but Japan’s Demand Will Likely Exceed U.S. Demand in the Near-term

• Historical installed capacity (2012): 2.5 GW in Japan and 3.3 GW in the United States.

• Near-term forecasts (2015): 7.2 GW in Japan and 6.1 GW in the United States. 

• By 2015, deployments in Japan, China, and India will likely account for about 50% of global demand.

Source: Photon Consulting 1Q2013; BNEF 1Q 2013; GTM Research January 2013; Deutsche Bank 1Q2013; Stifel Nicolaus January 2013; Goldman Sachs January 2013. Policy details from RTS 

Corporation. PVTech. “Japan to exclude net-metering from new FiT.” May 2, 2012. PV-tech.org. Accessed September 3, 2013.

Note: This chart illustrates median data from a number of market forecasts listed below. In addition to the illustrated 

policies, net-metering in Japan was available from the early 1990s until the start of the feed-in-tariff in mid-2012.

Policy in Japan No National Solar Incentives Residential Only Feed-in-Tariff (FIT)
5

Solar Resources in Japan are Similar to Some Northern Areas of 

the Contiguous United States

Note: Factors that impact the economic viability of solar PV systems include: solar resources, installed PV system costs, system performance, retail 

electricity prices, policy incentives, and financing considerations.
6

Today, Japan Represents the World’s Largest Residential Solar Market; 

Other Market Segments are Growing Rapidly

Residential Market Considerations

• Average residential electricity usage in 

Japan is 1/3 of U.S. household usage.

• 90% of modules installed on homes in 

Japan are composed of domestic brands.

o Manufacturers’ channel strategies may 

create barriers for new entrants

o Country-specific certification 

requirements represent short-term 

barriers (many solar firms headquartered 

overseas have now passed certifications)

• Third-party ownership models are 

uncommon in Japan’s residential sector, 

though developments in leasing and 

power purchase agreements are 

occurring.

Source: Dialogue with Japanese installers and market analysts. Deutsche Bank’s Industry Update Report (May 2013). Data from RTS Corporation and GTM/SEIA (2013). Japan Electrical 

Safety & Environment Technology Laboratories (JET). “Certification of Photovoltaic Modules.” (2011). Accessed September 15, 2013: http://www.jet.or.jp/en/products/solar/. Bloomberg 

interview with Travis Woodward. “Japan’s Solar Imports Up 9 Times.” September 12, 2013.

Note: Typical household electricity consumption in Japan is about 300 kWh/month (Federation of Electric Power Companies 2013); typical usage in the U.S. is 940 kWh/month (EIA 2013). 

This chart illustrates Japan’s historical focus on 

distributed generation solar applications. Nonresidential and utility sectors have gained 

significant market share in Japan since 2011. 
7

Japan’s National Policy Considers PV Pricing and Technology Performance

Residential Solar PV Systems in Japan (as of 1H 2013)

• National cash subsidy program

o Cash subsidy: residential incentive of $0.20/W for systems priced below $4.10/W; a lower subsidy of $0.15/W is available for systems priced between $4.10/W and $5.00/W.

o Price ceiling : systems sold for greater than $5.00/W cannot receive the subsidy.

o Certification: residential PV systems must obtain domestic certifications from the Japan Electrical Safety & 

Electrical Safety and Environment Technology Laboratories (JET).

o Technology requirements: module efficiencies must exceed 16% for mono-crystalline Si, 15% for multi 

crystalline Si, 8.5% for a-Si, and 12% for CIGS and CdTe.

• National feed-in-tariff (FIT)

o Residential FIT details:

– Residential FIT of $0.40/kWh is for surplus power generation (i.e., power not consumed by the home).

– The government targets a 3.2% annual return for system owners (10 year purchase period).

– The government’s installed PV system price assumption is $4.44/W.

o Technology requirements: module efficiencies must exceed 13.5% for c-Si, 7.0% for a-silicon, and 8.0% for 

other thin films. Requirements apply to BIPV, but flexible and concentrator devices are excluded.

• Local incentives

o No penalties for combining national and local incentives; more than 900 local authorities offer incentives.

o Some prefecture and municipal governments provide cash incentives (e.g., $500/system).

• Strikingly low cost of capital

o 10-year Japanese government bond is about 0.7%; this enhances the attractiveness of PV as an 

investment option.

Sources: Kazuhiko, O.; Izumi, K.; Yuzuru, U.; Takashi, O. (March/April 2013). “A Good Fit – Japan’s Solar Power Program and Prospects for the New Power System.” IEEE 

Power & Energy Magazine. “Certification of Photovoltaic Modules.” (2011). Japan Electrical Safety & Environment Technology Laboratories (JET). Accessed September 15, 

2013: http://www.jet.or.jp/en/products/solar/. RTS Corporation (2013). Trading Economics website. Accessed September 10, 2013: http://tradingeconomics.com.

Note: Japan’s residential electricity prices range from $0.19/kWh to $0.29/kWh in the Tokyo region (TEPCO 2013) and are similar in other parts of the country. 
8

Residential PV System Price Drivers in Japan Differ from Other Regions

Factors affecting residential PV system prices in Japan include:

• Relatively small rooftop spaces compared to the United States.

• Higher equipment prices and channel costs.

• Labor costs are relatively high compared to some countries.

• The market is driven by host-owned systems.

• National policies incentivize the deployment of large solar PV systems (in terms of capacity).

Sources: Dialogue with installers, RTS Corporation, municipal government officials, the Japanese Photovoltaic Industries Association (JPEA), and Photon Consulting. 

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics . (December 2012). “Economic News Release –Hourly Compensation Costs.” Accessed on September 10, 2013: 

http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ichcc.t01.htm.

Factor Japan United States

PV system hardware Generally higher PV equipment prices (supplier power). Generally lower PV equipment prices (buyer power).

Other equipment Some installers use scaffolding as opposed to ladders. Installers often add materials to 

satisfy customers' aesthetic preferences (e.g., smoothing the corners of arrays). 

Most installers use ladders; additional materials to protect panels from 

animals like squirrels are common in some regions. 

Taxes Tax of 5% on all systems. Taxes often range from 0% to more than 7%.

Installation labor 4-6 people in a crew; electrician(s) may operate independently from construction crew; 

systems are often installed in less than 1 or 2 days.

3-8 people in a crew; total time to install systems range from less than 1 day 

to more than 4 days depending on system and site characteristics.

System design Installers use design software provided by equipment suppliers; typically takes 15 to 30 

minutes to design a residential system.

Installers often use in-house engineering expertise and design software; 

typically takes 2 to 7 hours to design rooftop systems.

Permitting and grid 

interconnection

Utilities often require both a pre-inspection and final inspection; this may occur 

independently of work by PV installation crew; structural and rough inspections are rare.

Types of inspections vary by location; may include structural, rough, and 

final inspections, in addition to interconnection approval by the utility.

Applications for 

subsidies

Generally takes 2-3 hours to complete paperwork; cannot file all forms electronically, but 

most are available online. Approval often takes 1-2 months.

Time to complete and file paperwork varies, but often takes 3-10 hours; not 

all forms are available online; some forms cannot be filed electronically.

Ownership structure Majority of systems are customer-owned. Majority of systems sold in 2012 and 2013 are third-party owned.

Operations and 

maintenance

Installers prioritize building strong relationships with homeowners; O&M plans vary (e.g., 

$100/cleaning or multi-year service contracts).

Third-party companies are responsible for the operations of their systems; 

with customer-owned systems, service plans vary.

Selected Residential PV System Installation Cost Factors
9

PV System Hardware: Channel Structures Affect Installers’ Equipment Costs, 

and the Structures in Japan are Distinct from Those in the United States

Japan-based PV 

Module Manufacturer

Overseas PV Module 

Manufacturer

Manufacturer 

Subsidiary Local Distributors 

and Installers

Homeowner

Large Distributors; 

Trading Companies

Housing 

Manufacturers

Affiliate Renovation 

Companies

Residential Estate 

Developers

Japan: two-tier wholesale system; relatively high supplier power

Inverters 

and BOS

United States: hardware pricing driven by large integrators; high buyer power

PV Module 

Manufacturer

Inverters and BOS 

Manufacturers

Installer Homeowner

Big Box Retailers

5% mark-up 

(est.) Large distributors 

/ Integrators

Affiliate 

Installers Reported module 

price (Q1 2013): 

$1.71/W

Estimated module price 

with brand premium 

(Q1 2013): $0.83/W

Factory gate module 

price (Q1 2013): 

$0.69/W

10% mark-up 

(est.)

Kit prices (Q1 2013):

(all hardware components) 

$2.00/W to $2.50/W

20% to 50% 

mark-up (est.)

10% to 35% 

mark-up (est.)

5% to 30% 

mark-up (est.)

• Installers must have “manufacturer IDs” to buy hardware.

• Installers use system design software provided by OEMs.

Source: Dialogue with Japanese and U.S. solar PV installers, and RTS Corporation. “Global Clean Tech Weekly.”(March 5, 2012). Piper Jaffray. “GTM Research Solar Quarterly 

Executive Briefing, Q4 2012.” (2013). GTM Research. Boston, MA: Greentech Media.

The modeled system price analysis on the following slides uses the mark-ups listed here. 

Some U.S. residential installers may mark-up products significantly higher in select transactions.

System Hardware Kitting

Modeled prices

Reported module price 

Large Installer (Q1 2013): $0.80/W
10

Modeled PV System Cash Purchase Prices in Japan are Higher than U.S. Prices

• Key factors influencing price differences: hardware and channel costs, customer acquisition costs, and labor costs.

• Modeled cases do not necessarily reflect transaction prices in each market. For more information on reported 

transaction prices in the United States, see: Feldman, D. et al. (July 2013). “Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends.” 

NREL/PR-6A20-60207; and, Goodrich, A., et al. (2013). “U.S. Residential PV System Prices: Drivers of Cash Purchase, 

Fair Market Value, and Transaction Prices.” NREL/TR. Forthcoming.

• Limited data is available about PV system technology differences between the United States and Japan. In Q1 2013, 

600 MW of mono-crystalline silicon modules and 900 MW of multi-crystalline modules were shipped within Japan. 

Source: Dialogue with Japanese and U.S. installers, the Japanese Photovoltaic Energy Association, Photon Consulting, and the RTS Corporation.

Note: These modeled prices assume residential rooftop system sizes of 6 kW using 15% efficient modules. In the figure on the right, customer acquisition costs are 

considered as part of installer overhead expenses. Additional details are available on the following slide. We assume equivalent technologies in the modeled cases.

September 18, 2013 September 18, 2013
11

While Japan’s Equipment and Channel Prices are Higher Than U.S. 

Prices, Installation and Overhead Costs are Lower in Some Markets

Note: These modeled prices assume residential rooftop system sizes of 6 kW using 15% efficient modules. “Installer profit” represents profits on labor, and a 25% margin was assumed for both cases. 

Installers’ profit on materials is represented as “supply chain costs.” Customer acquisition costs are a combination of sales and marketing expenses, system design costs, sales commissions, and travel 

expenses. With the FIT policy in Japan, customer acquisition costs , which we consider as part of installer overhead, are significantly lower than in the United States. Information about the analysis 

methodology is available in the following reports: Goodrich, A.; James, T.; Woodhouse, M. (2012). “Residential, Commercial, andUtility-scale Photovoltaic System Prices in the United States: Current 

Drivers and Cost-Reduction Opportunities.” NREL/TR-6A20-53347. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory; and, Goodrich, A.; Davidson, C.; James, T.; Feldman, D. (2013). “U.S. Residential PV 

System Prices: Drivers of Cash Purchase, Fair Market Value, and Transaction Prices.” NREL/TR. Forthcoming. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Source: Dialogue with Japanese and U.S. installers, RTS Corporation, and Photon Consulting.

September 18, 2013

Hardware Costs Soft Costs

Preliminary
12

Summary

• Solar PV deployments are increasing rapidly in Japan–the residential market is 

the largest in the world, and the share of installed capacity from other market 

segments is growing as a result of the FIT.

• Solar energy resources in Japan, which impact project economics, are lower 

than many areas of the United States. 

o Solar resources in Japan are similar to some northern areas of the contiguous United 

States.

• Japan’s installers currently acquire some PV system equipment (e.g., modules, 

inverters, racking) at higher prices than U.S. installers, due in part to their 

supply-chain structures and a strong consumer preference for Japanese brand 

products.

• In our modeled case, residential PV system prices in Japan are higher than in the 

United States.

o Pricing differences between Japan and the United States are mostly driven by 

differences in hardware and channel costs; select elements of installation soft costs in 

Japan are lower than comparable U.S. installations.