1

Demographic Programs

U.S. Census Bureau

U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

P70-68

A Child’s Day: Home, School, and Play

(Selected Indicators of Child Well-Being)

Household Economic Studies

1994

Issued February 2001

Current

Population

Reports

By

Jason Fields

Kristin Smith

Loretta E. Bass

Terry Lugaila

What’s in this Report?

INTRODUCTION

FAMILIES AND NEIGHBORHOODS

EARLY CHILD CARE EXPERIENCES

PARENT-CHILD INTERACTIONS

Reading Interaction

Family Rules About Television

PARTICIPATION IN

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

INTRODUCTION

This report presents findings from the Survey of Income and Program Participation

(SIPP) on the well-being of American children. While it may seem intuitive, the concept of child “well-being” is difficult to conceptualize and measure. Recent research

primarily assesses child well-being for two

age groups: preadolescent children and

young adults making the transition to

adulthood. Preadolescents are often assessed using measures of cognitive development, social environment, and time

spent interacting with adults. Young adults

are frequently studied in terms of their

progress through school, transition into the

labor force, and the timing of entrance into

marriage and parenthood.

This report uses a variety of indicators to

portray children’s experiences while growing

up. Data on child well-being were collected

by interviews of households in the 1992 and

1993 SIPP panels, which were conducted at

the same time in the fall of 1994. The topics

covered in this report illustrate what children

experience on a daily basis, including differences in family living arrangements, economic and social environments, and the

types of neighborhoods where children live.

Experiences with nonparental child care arrangements, daily interactions with parents,

performance in school, and participation in

extracurricular activities are other indicators

of child development and future well-being.

The decisions that families make about their

children’s daily activities are important, as

many will affect their children’s success over

time.1

Previous research established a link between family structure and various related

measures of child development and wellbeing.2 Children in two-parent families fare

better developmentally than children in

single-parent families, with children of divorced parents having the most problems.

In addition, children living with two biological parents are less likely to have problems

than children living with one biological parent and one stepparent.3 Child well-being

indicators associated with children of divorced or single parents include low

1To isolate the contribution of individual factors that

are related to behavioral outcomes for children, one

would need a multivariate analysis which would control

for the effect of many factors simultaneously; this type of

analysis has previously been conducted for some of the

topics covered in this report. See Jason M. Fields and

Kristin E. Smith, Poverty, Family Structure, and Child WellBeing: Indicators From the SIPP, Population Division Working Paper Series, No. 23, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington,

DC, 1998. 2Robert Hauser, Brett Brown, and William Prosser (editors), Indicators of Children’s Well-Being, Russell Sage

Foundation, New York, 1997. 3Sara McLanahan and Gary Sandefur, Growing Up With

a Single Parent: What Hurts, What Helps, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994.
2 U.S. Census Bureau

measures of academic achievement

(repeated grades, low marks, low

class standing), increased likelihood of dropping out of high

school, early childbearing, and increased levels of depression,

stress, anxiety, and aggression.

Familial stress associated with

marital conflict and divorce can

negatively affect a child’s development.4 Diminished contact with

the noncustodial parent can result

in a loss of emotional support and

supervision from adults. Children

of single parents generally have a

lower economic standard of living

and more frequently participate in

government assistance programs

than do children from two-parent

families.5 All of these circumstances have a cumulative effect on

the way children grow up and how

they are prepared for young adulthood.

FAMILIES AND

NEIGHBORHOODS

More than one in five children

live in families with incomes

below $1,500 per month.

In the fall of 1994, 51.0 million of

the 68.2 million children in the

United States were living in twoparent households (see Table 1).

An additional 15.7 million children

were living with a single femaledesignated parent, while only

1.6 million were living with a single

male-designated parent (see definitions box for “Designated Parent”).

Forty-nine percent of all children

(33.6 million) were living in families

with monthly incomes of $3,000 or

above. Another 18 million children

lived in families with monthly incomes from $1,500 to $2,999 and

4Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992. 5Martin O’Connell, Children With Single Parents - How They Fare. Census Brief , CENBR/

97-1, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC,

1997.

Table 1.

Living Arrangements and Family Characteristics of

Children: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic All children

Less than

6 years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Children in the

Household

68,225 21,844 23,634 22,747

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,972 5,101 3,040 5,831

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,124 8,827 9,685 8,612

3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,448 5,030 6,470 4,947

4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,625 1,793 2,812 2,021

5 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Adults in the Household

4,056 1,093 1,627 1,336

No adults in household. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 16 - -

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,406 3,346 4,297 3,763

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,134 17,279 16,498 13,357

3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,099 910 1,999 4,191

4 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Parental Presence

2,570 293 841 1,436

Lives with two parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,958 17,470 17,053 16,434

Lives with female parent only . . . . . . . . . 15,692 4,083 6,082 5,528

Lives with male parent only. . . . . . . . . . .

Marital and Work Status of Parents

1,575 291 498 785

Married couple1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,958 17,470 17,053 16,434

Both worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,295 9,228 10,166 10,902

One worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,637 7,630 6,183 4,824

Neither worked last month. . . . . . . . . . 2,026 612 705 709

Other marital status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,267 4,374 6,581 6,312

Worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,141 1,967 3,847 4,327

Did not work last month . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sex of Child

7,126 2,407 2,734 1,986

Female. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,088 10,584 11,529 10,976

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sex of Parent

35,137 11,260 12,106 11,771

Female. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62,057 20,174 21,612 20,271

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity of Child

6,168 1,670 2,022 2,476

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46,893 15,522 16,035 15,336

Non-Hispanic Black. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,839 2,496 3,237 3,106

Non-Hispanic, Other Race. . . . . . . . . . . . 2,857 895 930 1,032

Hispanic2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monthly Family Income

9,636 2,931 3,432 3,273

Less than $1,500. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,875 5,560 5,725 4,590

$1,500 to $2,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,281 6,016 6,331 5,933

$3,000 to $4,499 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,134 4,873 5,352 4,909

$4,500 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,503 5,248 6,064 7,191

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Poverty Level

433 147 162 124

Below poverty level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,043 4,845 5,181 4,017

On or above poverty level . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,750 16,853 18,292 18,606

100 to 199 percent of poverty. . . . . . . 15,907 5,075 5,725 5,107

200 percent of poverty or higher . . . . 37,843 11,777 12,566 13,499

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 147 162 124

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. Census Bureau 3

almost 16 million lived in families be extremely important in developmaking below $1,500 per month. ing children’s personalities and

skills. Families with additional

While financial resources are often adults in the household may have

presented as the most significant more time available and provide

family resource, daily contact with better supervision for children.

parents and adult relatives can also Fourteen percent of children

(9.7 million) in 1994 lived in households with three or more people

18 years and over.6

Although adults are the principal

providers of financial resources for

the family, children also depend on

their siblings for daily emotional

companionship. While multiple

children generally strain financial

resources and raise the chance of

being in poverty, living in a

married-couple family appears to

ameliorate a significant portion

of the financial burden compared

with other family structures (see

Figure 1). Regardless of the number of children in the household,

children living in families with married parents have lower poverty

rates than children living with

never-married parents or with separated, divorced, or widowed parents.

Dual-income married couples

with children consider their

neighborhoods to have higher

levels of safety.

Neighborhood quality plays an important role in child development.

Families with sufficient resources

may be able to relocate if they are

not happy with their neighborhood

easier than families in strained economic circumstances. Neighborhoods that parents consider safe

and with neighbors who can be

trusted to look out for children are

associated with higher levels of

child well-being. Children who

grow up in neighborhoods where

events such as teen births and violence are the norm are more likely

to experience similar events and

have problem behaviors as they

transition into adulthood.7

6The people over 18 include older siblings

and other related and nonrelated individuals. 7Dennis Hogan and Evelyn Kitagawa, “The

Impact of Social Status, Family Structure, and

Neighborhood on the Fertility of Black Adolescents,” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 9

(1985): 825-855.

Table 1.

Living Arrangements and Family Characteristics of

Children: Fall 1994—Con.

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic All children

Less than

6 years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

Poverty Level and Program Receipt

In poverty, with aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,057 3,437 3,272 2,348

In poverty, no aid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,986 1,408 1,909 1,669

100 to 199 percent of poverty, with aid. 2,983 1,298 974 711

100 to 199 percent of poverty, no aid . . 12,924 3,778 4,751 4,395

More than 200 percent of poverty . . . . . 37,843 11,777 12,566 13,499

Income level not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 147 162 124

Neighborhood Context3

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,316 4,686 5,883 5,746

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,392 6,232 6,829 6,332

Low opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,831 6,751 6,394 5,687

Neighborhood context not reported . . . . 13,686 4,176 4,529 4,981

- Zero or rounds to zero.

1

Includes only married, spouse present.

2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

Average composite score based on a scale of 0 to 10 of several questions related to

neighborhood characteristics.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

Designated Parent

In the SIPP child well-being module, data are collected for children

from a respondent who is identified as the “designated parent.” The

designated parent includes biological, step, and adoptive parents,

and may also include other relatives or nonrelatives acting as a

guardian for the child in the absence of the parents. In marriedcouple families, the mother is the designated parent — if the mother

is not available for an interview, the father or husband may provide

the mother’s information as a proxy respondent. In single-parent

families, the resident parent is the designated parent. If neither parent is in the household, the guardian is the designated parent. In

this module, 98 percent of the children had their mother assigned as

the designated parent. Data from fathers who were the designated

parent (about 10 percent) are included with the data on the mothers. People 15 to 17 years old, who themselves may be parents,

have their child well-being history reported not by themselves but

by their parents who live with them in the household.
4 U.S. Census Bureau

The SIPP questionnaire also contained a series of seven questions

designed to measure the perceived

levels of safety and trust in the

community. The items covered the

following areas: safety concerns,

trust in neighbors to look out for

each other, and the presence of

negative influences in the children’s

environment. Parents responded

to these items on a scale of 0 to 10

where a value of 10 is the best

possible rating. These items were

combined into an index, of the

same range, that represents the

parents’ views about their neighborhoods and communities. The

average value on the neighborhood/community index was 6.6 for

all children, indicating that on average, children are living in neighborhoods which are not perfect but

are far from unsatisfactory.

A descriptive category “neighborhood context” was derived from

this index by dividing it into three

groups of approximately equal

numbers of children: high (score

above 8), medium (score above 6

but not above 8), and low (score of

6 or below). Just over 16 million

children were living in neighborhoods regarded highly by their parents, about 19 million were in

neighborhoods which parents considered at a medium level of safety

and trust, and another 19 million

children lived in neighborhoods assessed as low by their parents.8 In

a given household, neighborhood

ratings did not differ by the age of

the children, because the parents

reported only once for the household, regardless of the number and

ages of their children.

Figure 2 shows that this neighborhood index is higher for children in

8Not all parents responded to the items on

neighborhood quality--20 percent of children

lived in neighborhoods for which there was no

report on neighborhood quality by their parents (see Table 1).

Figure 1.

Children in Poverty by Marital Status of Parent 

and Number of Children Under 18 in 

the Household: Fall 1994

1Includes married, spouse present and spouse absent. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

(Percent in poverty)

Never

married

Separated,

divorced,

widowed

Married1

One

Two 

Three 

Four or more

6

7

13

31

19

30

54

74

45

61

82

85

Number of children under 18

Figure 2.

Average Scores for Perception of Neighborhood 

Safety and Trust: Fall 1994

1Only includes married spouse present. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

 Total

 No aid

 With aid

 No aid

 With aid

 Not employed

 Employed

 Neither employed

 One employed

 Both employed

Marital and employment status of parent 

Poverty status and program assistance 

Married couple1

Single parent

Below poverty

100 to 199 percent of poverty

200 percent of poverty

7.1

6.7

5.5

6.1

5.1

5.2

6.1

5.7

6.5

7.1
U.S. Census Bureau 5

married-couple families where both their feelings about their neighbor- labor force participation has been a

parents work than for other chil- hood and community. It is also strong demand for child care for

dren. Neighborhood index scores possible that this rosy picture over- young children. Although the diare lower for single-parent house- shadows or minimizes actual prob- rect impact of child care on child

holds and households where the lems in the neighborhood, which well-being has yet to be fully exparents are not working. Children may be apparent to parents in less plored, growing proportions of chilliving in households in poverty are fortunate circumstances. If dren will experience nonparental

more likely than other children to married-couple dual-earner families child care arrangements at early

live in neighborhoods where par- have more financial resources, then ages as their parents, especially

ents are concerned about safety these parents may worry less about mothers, return to the labor force

and the quality of potential infor- their neighborhood circumstances within several months after childmal care/supervision networks. and their ability to purchase better birth.

(or safer) care for their children.

Parents’ opinions about their neigh- Experiences in early childhood can

borhood may also reflect their own shape a child’s development and EARLY CHILD CARE

happiness with their current family pave the way for future well-being. EXPERIENCES

and economic situation rather than Being cared for in a child care arIt is common today for families objective differences. Parents who rangement by someone other than

with young children to have both are married and who are both em- a family member is an increasingly

the mother and father in the labor ployed may have a positive outlook common event in a child’s preforce. One by-product of this joint on life which may carry over to school years, resulting partly from

Table 2.

Child Care Indicators by Current Family Employment Characteristics and Current Age of

Child: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Average age at first Average time spent in first

Percent ever in child care child care arrangement child care arrangement

(in months)1 (hours per week)1

Family employment characteristics

Less than 3 to 5 6 to 11 Less than 3 to 5 Less than 3 to 5

3 years years years 3 years years 3 years years

Total number of children . . . . . . . . . 8,787 9,644 19,547 4,076 6,279 4,076 6,279

Total percent, average age, and

average time in child care . . . . . . . . . . . 46.4

Employment Status of the Designated

Parent

65.1 50.2 5.7 19.7 29.7 25.6

Worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.6 82.8 56.8 5.0 15.4 31.5 29.6

Full-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.4 85.7 58.8 4.7 13.3 36.1 33.6

Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.0 76.9 52.5 5.7 20.0 20.5 20.5

Did not work last month. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4

Marital and Employment Status of the

Parents2

Married couple3

45.2 39.5 8.9 28.8 20.8 17.3

Both worked last month. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.4 82.7 56.5 4.8 14.2 31.5 29.3

One worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.0 47.1 39.1 8.7 29.0 20.9 16.1

Neither worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8

Single parent

35.6 40.9 (B) (B) (B) (B)

Worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79.3 90.7 59.4 5.8 18.6 33.4 31.3

Did not work last month. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.6 42.8 41.1 7.8 26.4 23.4 21.0

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Items not asked for children 6 to 11 years old. Measures based only on children ever having been in child care.

2

Full-time includes those who usually work 35 or more hours per week; part-time includes those who usually work 1 to 34 hours per

week; those who did not work last month include individuals who are unemployed or are not in the labor force. 3

Only includes married, spouse present.

Note: Characteristics of the designated parent and the age of child are as of the survey date. Average age at first care arrangement

and time spent in first care arrangement are based on population estimates only for those children for whom valid answers were reported.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
6 U.S. Census Bureau

the continuous rise in the labor

force rate of mothers with preschoolers in the past two decades.

The proportion ever in child care

arrangements by someone other

than an immediate family member

is presented in Table 2 for children

under 12 years of age. For children

currently under 6 years of age,

their average age when they entered their first arrangement is also

shown, as well as the number of

hours per week spent in this arrangement. Although the current

characteristics of the family may

not correspond to their characteristics at the time when their child

first entered child care, the statistics in Table 2 provide a picture of

the different situations experienced

by children living in families of

varying socio-demographic characteristics.

Just over half of children

under age 12 have been

in child care.

In the fall of 1994, 20.2 million

children (53 percent) under age 12

had been cared for regularly by

someone other than members of

their immediate family (derived

from Table 2).9 Among children

less than 3 years old, 46 percent

had been in a regular child care arrangement, compared with 65 percent of 3- to 5-year olds. However,

among children 6 to 11 years old,

only 50 percent had ever been in a

regular child care arrangement.

One factor that might account for

9Because not all items in the child well-being

modules were answered by parental respondents, the estimated numbers and derived statistics shown in this section and in all subsequent sections are computed only for those

respondents who gave valid answers. As a result, population estimates of the number of

children by age and by different characteristics

will differ in the tables in the report, reflecting

the level of nonresponse for specific items.

Table 1, however, shows the estimated number

of children regardless of nonresponse to child

well-being items.

the lower level of child care for

children 6 to 11 years old is that

they were of preschool-age in the

mid to late 1980s, when organized

child care facilities were less

common and mothers were less

likely to have been employed.

Children less than 3 years

old begin their first child care

arrangement at 6 months,

on average.

Children’s child care experiences

are related to both their age and

birth cohort (their year of birth).

As children age, more of them are

likely to have been in a regular

child care arrangement. This phenomenon affects the average age

for starting child care as well as the

total proportion ever in child care.

Children in earlier birth cohorts

may not have entered child care as

early as children in more recent

birth cohorts because of the lower

labor force participation of women

in past decades. The average age

at first child care for a given group

of children will generally be higher

for older than for younger children

because of increased use of child

care by children in more recent cohorts. In addition, 3- to 5-year olds

have a higher age at first child care

because a number of them begin

child care in this age group as parents use preschool programs to

prepare children for school or to

supplement half-day kindergarten.

The combination of these effects

can be seen when the average age

for entering child care is examined

for different age groups of children.

Table 2 shows that 6 months is the

average age that children who were

less than 3 years old in 1994 began regular child care. Among children 3 to 5 years old in 1994, their

average age to enter child care was

20 months. Early entrance into

child care is consistent with

findings of early entry into the labor force by mothers after their

child’s birth. Research using data

from the 1980s found that between

53 and 60 percent of women return

to work within 6 months of their

child’s birth, and 46 percent return

to work within 3 months after the

first birth.10

The average amount of time infants

and toddlers spend in their first

child care experience constitutes a

very large part of the week. Children less than 3 years old spent,

on average, 30 hours per week in

their first child care arrangement.

The older cohort of children also

spent a considerable amount of

time in their first arrangement,

about 26 hours per week.

Focusing on children under age 3

would present a relatively incomplete picture of the child care experiences of children throughout their

preschool years, while the characteristics of the families of children

6 to 11 years old in 1994 may have

changed considerably since the

child’s first child care experience almost a decade earlier. For these

reasons, the subsequent section on

child care examines only children

age 3 to 5 years old.

Approximately 32 percent of children 3 to 5 years old started child

care by the time they were 3

months old. Before their first birthday, 47 percent had been in some

type of regular child care arrangement. These statistics indicate that

child care experiences are becoming a common event in the everyday lives of young children.

10Kristin E. Smith and Amara Bachu, Women’s

Labor Force Attachment Patterns and Maternity Leave: A Review of the Literature, Population Division Working Paper Series, No. 32, U.S.

Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 1999.
U.S. Census Bureau 7

Table 3.

Early Child Care Experiences—Characteristics ofChildren and Parents: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Type of early child care experience1

Average age at Average time spent Age of child Percent ever in child first child care in first child care

care arrangement arrangement arrangement Characteristic (in months)2 (hours per week)2

Less Less Less Less

than 3 to 5 6 to 11 than 3 to 5 6 to 11 than 3 to 5 than 3 to 5

3 years years years 3 years years years 3 years years 3 years years

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,787 9,644 19,547 46.4 65.1 50.2 5.7 19.7 29.7 25.6

CHILD

Sex

Female. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,296 4,695 9,556 47.5 65.3 49.8 6.1 20.0 29.5 25.3

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,491 4,948 9,992 45.4 65.0 50.6 5.3 19.5 29.8 25.9

Race/Ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . 6,394 6,661 13,310 49.2 69.0 54.3 5.5 19.3 29.4 24.9

Non-Hispanic Black. . . . . . . . . . . 972 1,162 2,681 44.0 63.6 51.1 5.8 19.2 32.0 28.9

Non-Hispanic, Other Race. . . . . 319 404 734 39.0 62.8 32.3 7.3 24.9 33.4 25.9

Hispanic3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,101 1,417 2,822 34.3 48.6 34.6 6.6 21.7 28.1 27.3

PARENT

Sex

Female. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,581 9,394 18,795 46.4 64.9 50.1 5.6 19.6 29.7 25.7

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 250 752 45.5 72.1 51.4 8.0 24.6 29.8 23.8

Race/Ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . 6,355 6,644 13,334 49.2 69.2 54.3 5.5 19.0 29.4 25.0

Non-Hispanic Black. . . . . . . . . . . 927 1,100 2,590 44.7 62.2 51.4 6.0 19.4 32.1 29.1

Non-Hispanic, Other Race. . . . . 325 423 753 35.7 64.5 33.8 6.8 24.4 33.2 28.9

Hispanic3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,180 1,477 2,871 35.4 49.1 34.6 5.9 22.9 28.3 26.3

Marital Status

Married4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,244 7,530 14,148 46.8 64.9 49.4 5.5 19.2 29.4 25.0

Separated, divorced, widowed . 946 974 1,648 40.1 60.7 47.5 5.9 21.1 29.7 27.2

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 1,140 3,751 51.5 70.5 54.5 7.4 21.6 32.4 28.2

Educational Attainment

Less than high school. . . . . . . . . 1,314 1,723 3,403 28.5 43.3 34.8 6.4 28.1 26.8 24.4

High school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,621 3,060 6,792 42.7 62.8 46.7 5.2 20.6 30.2 26.1

College, 1 to 3 years . . . . . . . . . 2,433 2,689 5,213 49.2 69.9 55.3 6.1 18.2 30.6 25.7

College, 4 or more years . . . . . . 2,419 2,171 4,139 57.2 79.8 62.1 5.4 16.9 29.2 25.7

Employment Status5

Worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . 4,701 5,105 12,105 71.6 82.8 56.8 5.0 15.4 31.5 29.6

Full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,134 3,436 8,295 76.4 85.7 58.8 4.7 13.3 36.1 33.6

Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,567 1,669 3,810 62.0 76.9 52.5 5.7 20.0 20.5 20.5

Did not work last month . . . . . . . 4,086 4,539 7,442 17.4 45.2 39.5 8.9 28.8 20.8 17.3

Occupation6

Managerial-professional . . . . . . . 1,431 1,383 2,983 78.3 90.8 68.7 4.3 12.3 32.3 30.4

Technical, sales, and

administrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,803 1,803 4,462 73.6 85.8 57.2 5.1 14.8 34.1 31.4

Service occupations . . . . . . . . . . 615 815 1,943 63.1 78.2 48.5 5.4 20.9 27.2 24.4

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 1,099 2,686 62.1 71.2 48.4 5.9 17.5 26.0 28.3

1

Statistics are based only on those children ever being in child care for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Items not asked for children 6 to 11 years old. Measures based only on children ever having been in child care.

3

Hispanics may be of any race.

4

Married includes married, spouse present and spouse absent (excluding separated).

5

Full-time includes those who usually work 35 or more hours per week; part-time includes those who usually work 1 to 34 hours per week;

those who did not work last month include individuals who are unemployed or are not in the labor force. 6

Excludes those who work in the armed forces.

Note: Characteristics of the designated parent and the age of child are as of the survey date.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
8 U.S. Census Bureau

Eighty-three percent of available.) In 1994, 83 percent of where only one parent was

children 3 to 5 years old of 3- to 5-year olds of employed par- currently employed (16 hours per currently employed parents ents had at some time been cared week). Although these labor force have been regularly cared for for regularly in a child care arrange- and marital status categories re- in a child care arrangement. ment (see Table 2). Only 45 per- flect the current family situation

Children 3 to 5 years old whose cent of 3- to 5-year olds whose par- and not that of the time of the first

parents graduated from college ents were not working had ever care arrangement, the pattern of

were more likely to have ever been been regularly cared for by a differences shown in Table 2 is

in child care than children whose nonfamily member. what one would expect given the

parents did not complete high necessary demands and needs for

school (80 percent and 43 percent, Children of parents who were child care in different family situarespectively; see Table 3). Children working at the time of the survey tions.

with college-educated parents were started child care at younger ages

also more likely to start their first than children whose parents were Higher-income families are child care experience almost a year not working — in 1994, 15 months more likely to use a child

earlier than children whose parents compared with 29 months. care arrangement.

did not graduate from high school Whether the parents work full- or Because child care is costly, the (17 months and 28 months, re- part-time also plays an important amount of income a family has will spectively). In separate analyses, part in determining the age at entry be a factor in the decision to enroll about 17 percent of children whose into a regular child care arrange- a child in a regular child care ar- parents did not graduate from high ment. On average, children 3 to 5 rangement. Children living in fami- school entered child care by 3 years old of parents who were lies with higher incomes are more months of age compared with working full-time in 1994 started likely to have been in a child care 35 percent whose parents had child care 7 months earlier than arrangement at some point. completed 4 or more years of col- children of parents who were work- Among 3- to 5-year olds, 81 per- lege. This difference probably re- ing part-time (13 months and 20 cent of children living in families flects lower labor force participa- months, respectively). Children of with a monthly income of $4,500 tion levels after childbirth among parents working full-time also or higher have been cared for in a women with lower levels of educa- spent almost twice as many hours regular child care arrangement, tional attainment. Although chil- per week in their first child care ar- compared with 51 percent of chil- dren with parents from different rangement (34 hours) compared dren living in families with a educational backgrounds begin with an average of 17 hours per monthly income of less than their child care experiences at a dif- week for children of nonworking $1,500 (see Table 4). In addition, ferent pace, once in an arrange- parents (see Table 2). about 7 out of every 10 children ment, most children 3 to 5 years living at or above the poverty line old spend a similar amount of time Table 2 also shows the average have been in a regular child care ar- in child care per week (about 26 number of hours spent by children rangement compared with one-half hours), regardless of their parents’ 3 to 5 years old in their first child of children below the poverty level. educational level. care arrangement by their parents This large difference is noted de- current marital and labor force staspite the existence of Head Start tuses. Among children in single- Early child care experiences programs which are especially differ by parental employment. parent families, those whose par- geared to providing preschool ex- ent was currently employed spent The labor force status of the par- periences for children living in pov- on average 31 hours per week in ents is an important factor in deter- erty. In addition, the average age their first child care arrangement mining whether a child will need a when first entering child care is compared with only 21 hours per regular child care arrangement. lower for children living in families week among children whose parent (Labor force status in this report re- at or above the poverty line (18 was not currently employed. fers to the month preceding the in- months) than for those children livterview date; information about the Children of dual-earner married ing below the poverty line (27

parents’ employment status at the couples spent an average of 29 months).

time when the child first entered a hours per week in their first child

child care arrangement is not Figure 3 looks at child care use by care arrangement — much more poverty status and receipt of than children of married couples
U.S. Census Bureau 9

government assistance.11 Among

3- to 5-year olds living below the

poverty line, those children in

11Assistance programs in this report include

WIC, AFDC, food stamps, and general assistance.

families who received government poverty (between 100 and 199 perassistance were about as likely to cent of poverty), 60 percent of chilhave been in child care as those in dren in families that received assisfamilies who did not — 47 percent tance had been in child care — not

and 49 percent, respectively. significantly different from those

Among children living just above children who did not receive

Table 4.

Early Child Care Experiences—Characteristics ofFamilies and Households:

(Numbers in thousands)

Fall 1994

Characteristic

Age of child

Type of early child care experience1

Percent ever in child

care arrangement

Average age at

first child care

arrangement

(in months)2

Average time spent

in first child care

arrangement

(hours per week)2

Less

than

3 years

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

Less

than

3 years

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

Less

than

3 years

3 to 5

years

Less

than

3 years

3 to 5

years

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monthly Family Income

8,787 9,644 19,547 46.4 65.1 50.2 5.7 19.7 29.7 25.6

Under $1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,181 2,608 4,756 29.6 50.9 43.9 7.9 25.6 25.6 23.8

$1,500 to $2,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,433 2,574 5,238 43.6 58.4 44.4 5.4 20.8 29.6 26.6

$3,000 to $4,499 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,033 2,073 4,438 51.3 73.5 53.4 5.2 18.4 30.9 25.6

$4,500 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,095 2,337 4,994 63.1 81.2 59.6 5.2 15.8 30.6 26.2

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . .

Poverty Level

46 52 120 (B) (B) 40.5 (B) (B) (B) (B)

Below poverty level . . . . . . . . . . . 1,881 2,298 4,238 26.5 47.3 40.9 7.4 27.0 25.6 22.2

On or above poverty level . . . . .

100 to 199 percent of

6,860 7,294 15,189 52.1 70.8 53.9 5.4 18.2 30.2 26.4

poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

200 percent of poverty or

1,957 2,291 4,740 40.5 57.0 42.7 6.3 21.5 28.5 26.6

higher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,903 5,002 10,449 56.7 77.2 57.5 5.2 17.1 30.7 26.3

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . .

Tenure

46 52 120 (B) (B) 40.5 (B) (B) (B) (B)

Owns home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,833 5,516 11,969 51.8 72.0 52.9 5.6 18.4 30.1 25.4

Rents home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,627 3,807 6,932 39.5 56.1 46.1 5.7 22.0 29.3 26.1

Other arrangement . . . . . . . . . . .

Region of Residence

327 320 646 43.7 53.3 43.6 5.7 22.2 24.8 26.8

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,697 1,757 3,713 41.2 61.9 46.6 6.4 23.3 28.1 21.7

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,294 2,425 4,623 48.5 69.0 56.2 4.9 19.3 29.8 25.1

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,807 3,105 6,551 50.0 67.1 50.7 5.7 17.9 30.9 28.8

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metropolitan Residence

1,989 2,358 4,660 43.3 60.9 46.3 6.0 20.3 28.8 24.8

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,909 7,604 15,138 45.5 64.2 49.4 5.9 20.1 29.7 25.1

Inside central cities . . . . . . . . . 2,627 3,030 5,890 41.3 57.1 46.8 5.9 19.8 28.8 24.5

Outside central cities . . . . . . . 4,281 4,574 9,248 48.0 68.9 51.0 5.9 20.3 30.2 25.5

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood Context3

1,878 2,040 4,409 50.0 68.4 53.0 4.9 18.3 29.7 27.3

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,063 2,469 5,719 48.3 70.5 54.8 6.0 19.0 29.6 25.0

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,830 3,155 6,585 48.3 68.4 50.2 4.9 18.3 28.4 26.4

Low opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood context not

3,114 3,367 6,083 42.4 59.5 46.2 6.0 21.8 30.2 25.4

reported. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779 653 1,160 50.7 58.1 48.2 6.0 20.0 33.0 25.7

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Statistics are based only on those children ever being in child care for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Items not asked for children 6 to 11 years old. Measures based only on children ever having been in child care.

3

Average composite score based on a scale of 0 to 10 of several questions related to neighborhood characteristics with 10 being the

best rated level. See text for specifics on the items included in the variable. Score for parent applied to each individual child in the family.

Note: Characteristics of the designated parent and the age of child are as of the survey date.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
10 U.S. Census Bureau

assistance (56 percent). At these

income levels, receipt of government assistance does not appear to

be a contributing factor in whether

a child has been in a regular child

care arrangement. Rather, income

levels, and hence the ability to pay

for child care services, are associated with whether young children

experience child care.

Parents with a high opinion

of their neighborhood start

their children in child care

at earlier ages.

Earlier sections showed that the

educational, employment, and economic status of families plays an

important role in parents’ decisions

or needs for child care arrangements for their children. Parents

who are highly educated are likely

to be employed, which in turn increases the need for child care arrangements during working hours,

especially among dual-earner families. Greater income provides more

opportunities for securing and purchasing outside child care assistance on a regular basis. These

economic factors also influence the

quality of the neighborhood in

which families live in terms of

housing and community amenities.

One aspect of community life is the

parents’ opinions of neighborhood

safety and trust. Children of parents who have a high opinion of

their neighborhood’s safety and

trust are more likely to have been

in a regular child care arrangement

(71 percent and 60 percent, respectively) and to have started their

first arrangement at younger ages

than children of parents with a low

opinion of their neighborhood —

19 months compared with 25

months (see Table 4).

PARENT-CHILD parent or other family members.

INTERACTIONS Parents were asked questions on

family TV rules for their children 3 Another aspect of child well-being to 17 years old concerning whether is the type of daily interaction that there were rules for the types of TV occurs between children and par- programs their children could ents, such as reading together or watch, how early or late their setting rules for television viewing. children could watch TV, and limits Reading experiences indicate pa- on the number of hours watched. rental interest in their children’s

educational development at early

ages. Setting rules and limits on Reading Interaction

the use of the television also

Eleven percent of children 1 to 5 shows parental interest in using years old are not read stories by the TV for both educational and enfamily members. joyment purposes.

About 1.6 million children 1 to 5

The child well-being module in- years old (11 percent) were not

cluded questions about the number read to by a family member in the

of stories read to children and the week prior to the survey in 1994 —

existence of family TV rules for 13 percent of 1- and 2-year olds

each child under 18 years old. In- and 9 percent of 3- to 5-year olds

formation was collected on the (see Table 5). Among children who

number of times in the past week were read to by parents or family

that children 1 to 5 years old were members, children 1 and 2 years

read stories by the designated

Figure 3.

Children 3 to 5 Years Old Ever in Child Care by 

Current Poverty Status and Receipt of 

Program Assistance: Fall 1994

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

200 percent of

poverty or higher

100 to 199 percent

of poverty

Below poverty

With aid No aid With aid No aid Total

(Percent ever in child care)

47 49

60

56

77
U.S. Census Bureau 11

Table 5.

Reading to Children—Characteristics ofChildren and Parents: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Family reading practices

Age of child Percent of children Percent never read Average times read read to seven or more Characteristic to last week to child per week1

times per week

1 to 2 3 to 5 1 to 2 3 to 5 1 to 2 3 to 5 1 to 2 3 to 5

years years years years years years years years

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,777 9,375 12.8 9.1 8.9 6.8 48.2 46.5

CHILD

Sex

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,792 4,565 12.3 8.7 9.1 7.1 48.2 48.1

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,985 4,810 13.3 9.4 8.8 6.5 48.1 45.1

Race/Ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,114 6,532 7.6 4.2 10.0 7.2 56.2 52.9

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 1,107 16.3 15.1 5.1 5.3 30.7 34.4

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . . . . . . . . . . 213 397 14.4 12.3 7.8 6.3 49.4 50.0

Hispanic2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 1,339 37.1 26.9 5.6 5.3 20.1 25.6

PARENT

Sex

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,639 9,129 12.7 9.1 8.9 6.8 48.2 46.8

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 246 15.8 7.6 7.9 5.2 46.2 36.8

Race/Ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,114 6,531 7.2 4.3 10.0 7.3 56.2 53.0

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 1,043 17.1 15.6 4.9 5.2 28.4 32.6

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . . . . . . . . . . 206 412 16.0 11.2 7.9 6.2 46.6 47.7

Hispanic2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 1,390 37.2 26.2 5.7 5.3 23.2 26.4

Marital Status

Married3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,708 7,309 11.2 7.4 9.5 7.1 51.6 49.9

Separated, divorced, widowed. . . . . . . 441 1,140 19.9 11.2 6.4 5.4 32.8 37.1

Never married. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 926 19.6 19.7 6.1 5.6 32.9 31.2

Educational Attainment

Less than high school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 1,647 28.1 22.5 6.3 5.6 28.3 30.0

High school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,802 2,966 15.1 10.0 7.5 6.3 40.0 40.1

College, 1 to 3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,561 2,620 9.1 5.0 8.4 6.6 49.3 50.1

College, 4 or more years . . . . . . . . . . . 1,507 2,143 4.7 2.4 12.0 8.3 68.7 63.4

Employment Status4

Worked last month. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,144 4,986 10.6 6.7 9.0 6.7 50.0 47.6

Full-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,125 3,340 11.7 6.7 8.3 6.5 48.5 46.1

Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,018 1,646 8.3 6.8 10.6 7.5 53.2 50.6

Did not work last month . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,633 4,389 15.4 11.7 8.8 6.9 46.0 45.3

Occupation5

Managerial-professional . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 1,349 3.8 2.2 10.8 7.5 64.1 55.9

Technical, sales, and administrative . . 1,195 1,772 8.7 6.5 8.4 6.5 48.8 46.6

Service occupations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 781 22.2 13.5 8.5 6.0 39.6 40.0

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 1,078 16.5 7.9 7.9 6.4 38.6 44.1

1

Statistics are based only on those children reported as being read to one or more times per week and for whom valid answers are

reported. 2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

Married includes married, spouse present and married, spouse absent (excluding separated).

4

Full-time includes those who usually work 35 or more hours per week; part-time includes those who usually work 1 to 34 hours per

week; those who did not work last month include individuals who are unemployed or are not in the labor force. 5

Excludes those who work in the armed forces.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
12 U.S. Census Bureau

old were read to 8.9 times per Highly educated and employed 4 or more years of college, 69 perweek compared with 6.8 times for parents provide higher levels of cent of children 1 and 2 years old

children 3 to 5 years old (about reading interaction. and 63 percent of children 3 to 5

once a day). Overall, about one- years old were read to seven or Children whose parents had 4 or half of children 1 to 5 years old more times per week. For children more years of college are read to were read to 7 or more times per whose parents graduated high more frequently than children week. school, the comparable statistics whose parents have fewer years of are 40 percent for both age groups. schooling. Table 5 shows that The percentages are even lower for among children whose parents had

Table 6.

Reading to Children—Characteristics ofFamilies and Households: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Family reading practices

Age of child Percent of children Percent never read Average times read read to seven or more Characteristic to last week to child per week1

times per week

1 to 2 3 to 5 1 to 2 3 to 5 1 to 2 3 to 5 1 to 2 3 to 5

years years years years years years years years

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,777 9,375 12.8 9.1 8.9 6.8 48.2 46.5

Monthly Family Income

Under $1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,450 2,519 22.5 17.3 6.5 5.6 32.7 34.4

$1,500 to $2,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,701 2,525 11.8 9.8 8.9 6.6 47.7 43.4

$3,000 to $4,499 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,232 1,993 11.2 5.3 9.1 7.0 49.2 48.9

$4,500 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,356 2,291 4.9 2.5 11.0 7.9 64.7 61.2

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 47 (B) (B) (B) (B) (B) (B)

Poverty Level

Below poverty level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,235 2,230 24.0 19.5 6.3 5.5 31.8 32.5

On or above poverty level . . . . . . . . . . 4,505 7,097 9.7 5.8 9.6 7.1 52.8 50.9

100 to 199 percent of poverty . . . . . 1,389 2,236 14.4 9.4 7.8 6.6 42.7 43.7

200 percent of poverty or higher. . . 3,116 4,860 7.5 4.1 10.3 7.3 57.2 54.3

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 47 (B) (B) (B) (B) (B) (B)

Tenure

Owns home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,092 5,359 7.0 4.8 10.1 7.3 56.6 53.2

Rents home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,460 3,707 19.7 15.2 7.2 5.9 38.7 37.7

Other arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 309 18.3 9.5 8.7 5.7 35.7 36.5

Region of Residence

Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,112 1,697 9.1 10.3 9.4 7.0 51.7 48.4

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,444 2,377 8.4 4.0 9.8 6.6 53.7 48.2

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,894 3,024 13.8 7.8 7.9 6.4 45.2 45.7

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,326 2,277 19.3 15.1 9.0 7.3 43.4 44.6

Metropolitan Residence

Metropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,535 7,346 14.2 10.6 9.0 6.9 48.6 46.7

In central cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,736 2,904 19.9 16.0 8.6 6.3 41.7 38.5

Outside central cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,799 4,442 10.7 7.1 9.2 7.2 52.8 52.2

Nonmetropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,242 2,029 7.7 3.4 8.6 6.3 46.6 45.8

Neighborhood Context2

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,396 2,434 6.4 2.5 9.7 7.4 57.8 57.2

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,885 3,086 11.5 7.5 8.8 6.8 45.4 45.2

Low opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,048 3,272 16.9 14.6 8.6 6.3 44.0 40.4

Neighborhood context not reported . . 449 583 19.4 14.0 8.3 6.2 48.7 43.7

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Statistics are based only on those children reported as being read to one or more times per week and for whom valid answers are

reported. 2

Average composite score based on a scale of 0 to 10 of several questions related to neighborhood characteristics with 10 being the

best rated level. See text for specifics on the items included in the variable. Score for parent applied to each individual child in the family.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
U.S. Census Bureau 13

parents who did not graduate high with their parents (higher proporschool — 28 percent of children 1 tions never read to) than did chiland 2 years old and 30 percent of dren whose parents were emchildren 3 to 5 years old were read ployed.

to seven or more times per week.

Half of children living with Parents employed part-time may married parents are read to seven have more time to read to their or more times per week. children, especially if they altered

their work schedule to spend more The amount of parent-child reading

time with their children. For 3- to interaction depends not only on

5-year olds whose parents worked the interest and time available to

part-time, about half (51 percent) each parent but also on the numwere read to seven or more times ber of parents in the household to

per week, compared with 46 per- share their time with their children.

cent of children whose parents Children living in single-parent

worked full-time. Similar differ- households are at a disadvantage

ences were found for children 1 on this count — 52 percent of chiland 2 years old. For both age dren 1 and 2 years old who had

groups, children whose parents married parents were read to seven

were not employed — who, on av- or more times per week compared

erage, have less education — expe- with 33 percent each for children

rienced less reading interaction living with never-married parents

or separated, divorced or widowed

parents (see Table 5). At ages 3 to

5 years, critical preschool years

when children start to develop

reading skills, 50 percent of children living with married parents

were read to as much as seven or

more times per week — again,

more than children of unmarried

parents (31 percent).

Children living at or above

the poverty level are read to

more often than children below

the poverty level.

Over half of children 1 to 5 years

old who were living at or above the

poverty level were read to seven or

more times per week (see Table 6).

Only one-third of those children living below the poverty level were

read to as often. These proportions are similar for both younger

and older age groups. Figure 4

also shows that regardless of race

or Hispanic origin, children 3 to 5

years old were read to more frequently (seven or more times per

week) if they were living at or

above the poverty level than below.12 For children these ages, differences in reading frequency between non-Hispanic White and

non-Hispanic Black children were

less for families above the poverty

level (54 percent and 41 percent,

respectively) than for families below the poverty level (45 percent

and 25 percent, respectively).

Differences in reading interaction

are also related to the income level

of their family — over 60 percent

of children in the highest income

group ($4,500 and over per month)

were read to seven or more times

per week compared with only onethird of children living in families in

the lowest income group (less than

$1,500 per month). These data

show that children in families with

12Hispanics may be of any race.

Figure 4.

Times per Week Children 3 to 5 Years Old Are 

Read to by Parents by Race of Child and 

Poverty Status: Fall 1994

1Hispanic may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

(Percent distribution)

 Hispanic1

 Non-Hispanic,

Other Race

 Non-Hispanic

Black

 Non-Hispanic

White

 Hispanic1

Non-Hispanic,

Other Race

 Non-Hispanic

Black

 Non-Hispanic

White

On or above poverty line

Below poverty line

Seven 

or more

None One to three Four to six

9 21 25 45

21 36 19 25

21 23 2037

35 32 14 20

4 20 22 54

1030 19 41

8 14 25 53

18 27 23 32
14 U.S. Census Bureau

greater economic resources receive

significantly higher levels of

parent-child reading interaction in

their formative preschool years.

Family Rules About Television

The majority of children have

family rules about television (TV).

In fall 1994, 88 percent of children

3 to 17 years old (41.2 million)

lived in households with at least

one type of family TV rule —

91 percent of 3- to 5-year olds and

95 percent of 6- to 11-year olds

were subject to TV rules (see Table

8). In comparison, only 79 percent

of children 12 to 17 years old were

living in families with TV rules.

The majority of children under 12

years of age lived in families with

rules for all three dimensions of TV

viewing: type of program, time of

day, and number of hours watched

(see Table 7). Among 12- to 17-

year olds, only 4 out of 10 experienced all three types of family TV

rules for children. Possibly, older

children may be perceived by their

parents as being able to make their

own choices on TV programs,

times of day, and hours watched as

they gain maturity and responsibility with age.

Approximately 25 percent of children 3 to 11 years old and 23 percent of children 12 to 17 years old

lived in families that had two types

of TV rules. The most likely combination included rules on the type of

program watched and the time of

day the TV was viewed. Among

children 12 to 17 years old, the

most frequently imposed type of

TV rule concerns the time of day

programs are watched, perhaps because of parental concerns over

homework and after-school activities (see Figure 5).

Table 7.

Existence ofTV Rules f

Hours Watched, and

Child: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

or Type ofProgram, Number of

Time ofDay Viewed by Age Group of

Characteristic 3 to 5 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Percent with rules:

9,576 19,472 17,683

No rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 5.3 20.8

One rule only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 9.0 15.9

Type of program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 2.1 3.6

Number of hours watched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 0.4 0.6

Time of day viewed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 6.4 11.7

Two types of rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Type of program and number of hours

25.2 25.3 23.2

watched. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 0.8 1.0

Type of program and time of day viewed . . .

Number of hours watched and time of day

20.4 21.3 17.8

viewed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 3.2 4.4

All three types of rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.0 60.3 40.2

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

Figure 5.

Children With Television Rules by Type of 

Rule and Age of Child: Fall 1994 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

(Percent with television rules) 3 to 5 years old 

6 to 11 years old 

12 to 17 years old

63

74

46

85

91

65

83 83

59

Rules on number

of hours watched

Rules on time of

day programs viewed

Rules on type of

program watched
U.S. Census Bureau 15

Table 8.

Family Television Rules—Characteristics ofChildren and Parents:

(Numbers in thousands)

Fall 1994

Characteristic

Age of child

Family television rules1

Percent with at least

one television rule

Percent with three types

of television rules

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHILD

Sex

9,576 19,472 17,683 91.3 94.7 79.2 54.0 60.3 40.2

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,653 9,502 8,615 90.7 94.4 79.0 54.1 60.3 40.4

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity

4,923 9,970 9,067 91.9 94.9 79.5 53.9 60.4 40.0

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,613 13,244 11,985 93.0 96.3 80.2 53.3 59.3 37.6

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,153 2,631 2,383 93.0 94.3 80.2 57.9 67.1 47.5

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . . . . . . . 409 730 710 89.5 92.1 76.4 58.1 58.1 38.4

Hispanic2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PARENT

Sex

1,401 2,867 2,604 82.5 88.1 74.6 52.7 59.7 45.6

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,324 18,733 16,631 91.3 94.6 80.0 54.2 60.4 40.9

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity

252 739 1,052 91.0 95.6 67.1 48.5 59.1 28.8

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,598 13,258 12,112 92.8 96.3 80.3 53.1 59.1 37.5

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,088 2,540 2,279 92.9 94.1 80.4 58.5 67.5 48.2

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . . . . . . . 428 748 688 90.5 92.3 74.9 58.6 60.0 38.6

Hispanic2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marital Status

1,462 2,925 2,603 83.6 88.3 74.7 53.5 59.7 45.9

Married3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,474 14,127 12,706 91.9 95.2 80.7 54.8 61.1 41.1

Separated, divorced, widowed. . . . 1,126 3,690 4,085 91.8 94.7 76.7 57.4 61.1 38.6

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Educational Attainment

977 1,655 891 86.3 89.5 70.2 43.8 51.9 33.7

Less than high school . . . . . . . . . . . 1,679 3,388 3,407 81.3 86.1 73.7 45.5 51.2 38.5

High school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,060 6,756 6,228 91.5 95.6 78.2 47.8 57.0 37.9

College, 1 to 3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,669 5,211 4,642 93.3 96.4 81.5 57.5 62.8 40.9

College, 4 or more years . . . . . . . .

Employment Status4

2,168 4,117 3,406 96.3 98.1 83.6 65.1 70.2 45.1

Worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,042 12,073 12,470 91.5 95.6 78.5 54.8 60.2 38.2

Full-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,389 8,285 9,032 91.1 95.4 77.3 54.4 60.4 37.3

Part-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,652 3,788 3,437 92.4 95.9 81.5 55.7 59.7 40.7

Did not work last month . . . . . . . . .

Occupation5

4,535 7,400 5,213 91.1 93.2 81.1 53.1 60.6 44.8

Managerial-professional . . . . . . . . .

Technical, sales, and

1,362 3,001 3,079 94.7 97.7 82.6 59.6 66.2 41.5

administrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,792 4,407 4,533 89.9 95.9 78.4 53.4 58.6 36.9

Service occupations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 1,929 2,064 90.1 93.7 80.0 52.9 57.4 39.7

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,084 2,705 2,775 91.1 94.0 73.0 52.8 57.6 35.6

1

Percentages are based only on those children for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

Married includes married, spouse present and married, spouse absent (excluding separated).

4

Full-time includes those who usually work 35 or more hours per week; part-time includes those who usually work 1 to 34 hours per

week; those who did not work last month include individuals who are unemployed or not in the labor force. 5

Excludes those who work in the armed forces.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
16 U.S. Census Bureau

Children living with nevermarried parents are less likely to

have family TV rules.

Children 3 to 5 years old living with

never-married parents were somewhat less likely to have at least one

type of family TV rule (86 percent)

than children with married parents

or with separated, divorced, or widowed parents (92 percent each —

see Table 6). The first group was

also less likely to have all three types

of TV rules (44 percent) than were

children living in families with either

married or formerly married parents

(55 and 57 percent, respectively). A

similar pattern exists for children 6

to 11 years old — about 52 percent

of children with never-married parents had all three types of TV rules

compared with 61 percent for children with either married parents or

with separated, divorced, or widowed parents.

The frequency of imposing TV family rules is consistently lower for

adolescents, but differences by the

marital status of the parent still

persist. About 70 percent of children of never-married parents had

at least one family rule, compared

with 81 percent of children of married parents and 77 percent of children with separated, divorced, or

widowed parents. When examining

the proportion of children with

three types of family TV rules by

marital status, children of nevermarried parents had a lower level

of TV supervision than children of

married parents (34 percent and

41 percent respectively).

TV rules reflect parental

educational levels.

Although the vast majority of children experience some type of limitation on viewing TV, children are

more likely to experience these

rules as the educational levels of

the parents increase (see Table 8), Children with three types

particularly for the youngest age of TV rules tend to have

group. Although a high proportion more reading interaction

of 3- to 5-year olds whose parents with their parents.

had less than a high school educa- Do parents who exercise stricter tion had at least one TV rule control over their children’s TV

(81 percent), an even higher pro- viewing habits spend more time portion of children whose parents reading to their children than par- had completed 4 or more years of ents who are more lenient in setcollege had at least one TV rule ting TV rules? More than one-half (96 percent). Only a 10 percentage of children 3 to 5 years old who point difference existed between have three types of television rules these groups for 12- to 17-year are read to by their parents seven olds (74 percent and 84 percent, or more times per week (see Table respectively). 9). For children living in families

with no TV rules, only 28 percent For both 3- to 5-year olds and 6- to are read to by their parents seven 11-year olds, children whose par- or more time per week — in fact, ents had 4 or more years of college 23 percent of these children were had significantly higher levels of TV not read to by their parents in the regulation (three types of TV rules) week preceding the survey. than children whose parents had

less than a high school education Among children of college- (a 20 percentage point difference educated parents, the majority of for both age groups). For children children are read to seven or more

12 to 17 years old, the difference times per week, regardless of the persists but was smaller between limitations on TV viewing. It may the lowest and highest education be that more highly educated par- levels (7 percentage points).

Table 9.

Parent-Child Interactions: Times Spent Reading to

Children 3 to 5 Years Old by Presence ofTelevision Rules

and Educational Level ofParent: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Total

Television rules

No rules

1 or 2

types

of rules

All 3 types

of rules

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Percent of children read to:

9,245 784 3,474 4,987

Not at all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 23.3 9.0 6.8

1 to 6 times per week. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.4 48.6 48.9 40.6

7 or more times per week . . . . . . . . . . . .

Children with designated parent

46.6 28.2 42.1 52.6

1 with 4 or more years of college ....

Percent of children read to:

2,116 80 669 1,367

Not at all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 6.6 1.6 2.6

1 to 6 times per week. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.4 38.0 40.9 31.1

7 or more times per week . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.1 55.4 57.6 66.3

1

Includes only those with valid answers for both television rules and reading interaction

questions.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
U.S. Census Bureau 17

ents realize the value of developing parents’ responses to questions constitute important components

reading skills at an early age re- about children’s involvement in of child development and can influgardless of how strictly they con- sports, clubs, and lessons. This ence how a child makes the transitrol their children’s viewing habits. multifaceted examination, includ- tion to adulthood.

ing activities other than attending

PARTICIPATION IN classes, provides a more complete One-half of school-age children

EXTRACURRICULAR picture of academic experiences participate in extracurricular

ACTIVITIES than considering the measurement activities.

of grades alone. It is important to Nationally, 50 percent of children 6 In this report, participation in ex- examine these activities as they to 17 years old (23.3 million) in tracurricular activities is based on

Table 10.

Family Television Rules—Characteristics ofFamilies and Households:

(Numbers in thousands)

Fall 1994

Characteristic

Age of child

Family television rules1

Percent with at least

one television rule

Percent with three types

of television rules

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

3 to 5

years

6 to 11

years

12 to 17

years

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monthly Family Income

9,576 19,472 17,683 91.3 94.7 79.2 54.0 60.3 40.2

Under $1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,584 4,735 3,675 89.2 91.7 78.2 50.5 57.7 43.2

$1,500 to $2,999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,558 5,234 4,669 89.8 93.5 77.8 53.4 58.8 40.0

$3,000 to $4,499 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,066 4,421 3,816 93.2 96.4 80.6 58.2 60.9 38.7

$4,500 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,316 4,976 5,433 93.9 97.1 79.9 54.9 63.6 39.2

Income not reported. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Poverty Level

52 106 90 (B) 94.0 (B) (B) 80.2 (B)

Below poverty level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,281 4,217 3,188 87.9 90.4 77.5 51.0 57.4 45.8

On or above poverty level . . . . . . . 7,243 15,149 14,404 92.4 95.9 79.5 55.0 61.0 38.9

100 to 199 percent of poverty .

200 percent of poverty or

2,288 4,755 3,987 91.1 94.0 79.7 54.9 59.9 41.1

higher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,955 10,394 10,417 93.1 96.7 79.4 55.0 61.5 38.0

Income not reported. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tenure

52 106 90 (B) 94.0 (B) (B) 80.2 (B)

Owns home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,484 11,911 11,937 92.7 96.0 79.8 54.7 59.9 39.3

Rents home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,780 6,930 5,263 89.3 92.4 78.0 52.8 61.7 42.5

Other arrangement. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Region of Residence

313 632 483 93.0 94.1 78.9 56.4 54.2 36.7

Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,722 3,642 3,324 92.3 95.8 76.8 60.5 64.9 43.4

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,426 4,616 4,375 89.9 94.5 79.4 47.1 54.2 34.6

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,101 6,481 6,281 92.3 95.4 80.3 54.5 62.0 41.9

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metropolitan Residence

2,327 4,733 3,703 90.8 93.0 79.5 55.7 60.6 40.9

Metropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,550 15,105 13,226 90.8 94.6 78.7 54.9 61.5 41.5

In central cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,022 5,857 4,932 89.0 93.8 79.7 54.8 61.9 45.8

Outside central cities . . . . . . . . . . 4,528 9,248 8,294 92.0 95.0 78.1 55.0 61.2 39.0

Nonmetropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood Context2

2,026 4,367 4,457 93.3 95.0 80.9 50.6 56.5 36.2

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,439 5,696 5,357 94.6 96.8 81.7 55.9 62.0 43.2

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,160 6,586 5,893 91.1 94.9 80.3 54.6 59.1 38.5

Low opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood context not

3,343 6,105 5,289 89.7 92.9 77.0 52.7 60.4 40.8

reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 1,086 1,143 88.3 92.0 73.0 50.5 58.8 31.9

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Percentages are based only on those children for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Average composite score based on a scale of 0 to 10 of several questions related to neighborhood characteristics with 10 being the

best rated level. See text for specifics on the items included in the variable. Score for parent applied to each individual child in the family.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
18 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 11.

Extracurricular Activities ofSchool Age Children—Characteristics ofChildren and

Parents: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Type of extracurricular activity1

Participation in sports Participation in clubs Enrolled in lessons

6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years

Number

Percent

participatingNumber

Percent

participatingNumber

Percent

participatingNumber

Percent

participatingNumberPercent

enrolled

NumberPercent

enrolled

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHILD

Sex

19,426 34.3 17,665 42.2 19,438 38.8 17,638 42.5 19,451 23.7 17,665 19.1

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,458 25.5 8,591 35.1 9,477 40.8 8,585 47.1 9,465 30.9 8,605 24.7

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity

9,968 42.5 9,074 49.0 9,961 36.9 9,054 38.2 9,986 16.9 9,060 13.8

Non-Hispanic White 13,214 41.1 11,999 47.0 13,240 45.1 11,978 48.6 13,219 27.1 11,994 21.1

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . 2,615 17.2 2,379 35.3 2,623 28.4 2,374 33.1 2,625 15.2 2,373 14.3

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . 729 26.6 710 34.0 727 32.6 717 39.4 728 36.9 719 26.8

Hispanic2 ................

PARENT

Sex

2,868 20.2 2,577 29.0 2,848 20.6 2,569 23.8 2,879 12.6 2,579 12.3

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,692 34.2 16,606 42.5 18,703 39.1 16,588 43.0 18,710 23.9 16,615 19.3

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity

734 35.8 1,059 38.2 736 32.3 1,050 35.8 741 20.2 1,049 17.5

Non-Hispanic White. . . . . . . 13,239 41.0 12,127 46.9 13,265 45.3 12,107 48.4 13,245 27.1 12,122 21.1

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . 2,525 16.7 2,274 35.3 2,531 28.0 2,269 33.8 2,533 15.4 2,268 14.3

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . 739 27.4 687 34.7 736 32.1 695 38.0 737 36.5 697 26.6 2

Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marital Status

2,923 20.8 2,577 28.5 2,907 20.2 2,568 23.9 2,937 12.6 2,578 12.4

Married3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Separated, divorced,

14,087 38.7 12,674 45.9 14,112 42.0 12,654 46.4 14,105 26.7 12,675 21.0

widowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,685 26.8 4,091 34.4 3,679 31.9 4,082 35.4 3,684 17.5 4,090 15.1

Never married. . . . . . . . . . . .

Educational Attainment

1,654 13.2 900 26.0 1,647 26.2 902 20.3 1,662 12.5 899 11.3

Less than high school. . . . . 3,398 15.5 3,415 24.7 3,404 18.0 3,403 21.3 3,419 9.5 3,413 10.0

High school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,754 31.4 6,222 41.1 6,747 35.5 6,225 38.8 6,757 17.9 6,219 15.1

College, 1 to 3 years. . . . . . 5,202 36.7 4,637 45.7 5,207 45.2 4,629 48.0 5,193 23.9 4,639 21.0

College, 4 or more years . .

Employment Status4

4,072 51.4 3,391 57.2 4,081 53.5 3,381 63.1 4,081 45.1 3,393 33.3

Worked last month. . . . . . . . 12,039 38.4 12,460 45.6 12,063 41.6 12,436 44.7 12,047 25.4 12,451 20.3

Full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,262 37.0 9,030 44.5 8,280 39.7 9,013 43.4 8,279 23.7 9,020 19.6

Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,778 41.6 3,430 48.3 3,783 45.7 3,423 48.1 3,768 29.1 3,431 22.1

Did not work last month . . .

Occupation5

7,387 27.5 5,205 34.3 7,375 34.3 5,203 37.4 7,404 20.9 5,213 16.5

Managerial-professional . . .

Technical, sales, and

3,008 48.4 3,114 56.6 3,021 49.4 3,114 57.1 3,012 37.5 3,106 27.1

administrative . . . . . . . . . . . 4,532 41.1 4,601 46.6 4,538 43.0 4,591 45.6 4,534 24.9 4,596 20.0

Service occupations . . . . . . 2,011 27.0 2,116 37.8 2,012 32.3 2,109 33.0 2,007 14.4 2,118 14.3

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,837 30.5 2,875 37.1 2,839 36.3 2,868 36.4 2,844 20.0 2,874 16.9

1

Percentages are based only on those children for whom valid answers were reported. Children may participate in more than one type

of activity, and the particpation rates do not add to 100 percent. Each activity is shown independent of participation in the others. 2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

Married includes married, spouse present and married, spouse absent (excluding separated).

4

Full-time includes those who usually work 35 or more hours per week; part-time includes those who usually work 1 to 34 hours per

week; did not work last month includes individuals who are unemployed or are not in the labor force. 5

Excludes those who work in the armed forces.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
U.S. Census Bureau 19

1994 participated in at least one of ment in sports activities, children’s However, among 6- to 11-year olds

the three extracurricular activities patterned participation by gender with employed parents, children

asked about by the SIPP — sports, may prepare boys and girls differ- had higher extracurricular activity

clubs, and after school or weekend ently for the future. rates if their parents worked partlessons. Children 12 to 17 years time rather than full-time. Separate

old were more likely to participate Activity rates for sports, clubs, and analyses also showed that 78 perin sports activities than children 6 lessons are higher among non- cent of part-time working parents

to 11 years old. Older children Hispanic White children than either had spouses who also worked.

may have more opportunities to non-Hispanic Black, or Hispanic Part-time working parents may

participate and take leadership children for both age groups. Activ- have more time away from work to

roles and be exposed to team com- ity rates for lessons are highest for oversee and coordinate their

petition once out of elementary children of non-Hispanic, Other children’s involvement. In fact,

school (see Table 11). Races (mostly Asian) than for chil- they may choose to work part-time

dren in any of the other race or to increase their participatory inThis age pattern of participation is ethnic groups. volvement with their children in exreversed for enrollment in lessons tracurricular activities (for example,

— 24 percent of younger children Household structure and scouts or sports activities).

participate in lessons compared parental time shape children’s

with 19 percent of older children. involvement in extracurricular Children living in more Older children may have more activities. economically advantaged

voice in what, if any, lessons they Participation was consistently households are more likely to

take or may cease to participate in participate in extracurricular higher across all three types of ex- lessons that no longer interest activities. tracurricular activities for children

them. Older children may also in married-couple families. For ex- Participation in organized activities

have more school-based activities ample, among children 12 to 17 takes not only parental time but ofavailable to them than do younger years old, 46 percent with married ten requires significant monetary

children which may reduce their parents participated in sports, com- expenditures, especially in the case

need for instructional lessons such pared with 34 percent of children of lessons. The data in Table 12 inas music lessons outside of the with separated, divorced, or wid- dicate that children in higher inschool curriculum. come families are more likely to owed parents, and 26 percent of

participate in all three extracurricu- children with never-married parents Table 11 shows that girls are more lar activities. For example, among (see Table 11). Children with fewer likely than boys to participate in children living in families whose parents present may have more clubs and lessons. Among children monthly income was less than household responsibilities, leaving 6 to 11 years old, 41 percent of $1,500, enrollment in lessons was them with less time for involve- girls and 37 percent of boys parment outside of school or the fami- only about 12 percent for children ticipated in clubs, while 31 percent either 6 to 11 or 12 to 17 years lies, which typically have lower in- of girls and 17 percent of boys old. Among children living in fami- were enrolled in lessons. In con- comes, may not be able to afford lies whose monthly income ex- trast, boys are much more likely to them.

ceeded $4,500, enrollment tripled be involved in sports activities than Parental employment is related to to 39 percent for younger children girls — one-quarter of girls 6 to 11 and doubled to 28 percent for the the time a parent has to help a child years old participate in sports com- older children. Figure 6 shows that participate in activities, interest in pared with more than 4 out of ev- participation in activities is higher having the child occupied with oth- ery 10 boys. Higher participation among children living in families ers, including adults, and the finan- rates in sports activities are also with monthly incomes at or above cial resources that may contribute noted for boys 12 to 17 years old. 200 percent of the poverty line toward participation in these activi- To the extent that involvement in than among children living in fami- ties. In general, children’s participa- clubs or lessons provides different lies with monthly incomes below tion in activities is higher when their interactive experiences with other the poverty line. In addition to be- parents worked in the last month children and adults than involve- ing able to afford more activities than when they did not work (see

Table 11).
20 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 12.

Extracurricular Activities ofSchool Age Children—Characteristics ofFamilies and

Households: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Type of extracurricular activity1

Participation in sports Participation in clubs Enrolled in lessons

6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years

Number

Percent

participatingNumber

Percent

participatingNumber

Percent

participatingNumber

Percent

participatingNumberPercent

enrolled

NumberPercent

enrolled

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monthly Family Income

Under $1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . .

$1,500 to $2,999 . . . . . . . . .

$3,000 to $4,499 . . . . . . . . .

$4,500 and over . . . . . . . . . .

Income not reported . . . . . .

Poverty Level

Below poverty level . . . . . . .

On or above poverty level .

100 to 199 percent of

poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

200 percent of poverty

or higher . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Income not reported . . . . . .

Tenure

Owns home. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rents home. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other arrangements . . . . . .

Region of Residence

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metropolitan Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In central cities . . . . . . . . .

Outside central cities. . . .

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood Context2

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . .

Low opinion. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood context not

reported. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19,426

4,721

5,238

4,414

4,956

98

4,201

15,128

4,746

10,382

98

11,883

6,909

634

3,688

4,593

6,423

4,722

15,078

5,841

9,238

4,348

5,682

6,572

6,103

1,070

34.3

16.4

29.6

40.0

51.3

(B)

14.8

39.7

27.9

45.1

(B)

42.2

21.9

20.9

39.8

37.8

31.5

30.1

34.4

26.3

39.6

33.7

45.0

37.2

21.4

32.4

17,665

3,654

4,641

3,812

5,471

87

3,182

14,395

3,946

10,450

87

11,934

5,248

483

3,348

4,379

6,244

3,693

13,198

4,918

8,279

4,467

5,374

5,902

5,267

1,121

42.2

25.9

38.2

45.0

54.8

(B)

26.2

45.8

35.7

49.6

(B)

47.7

30.4

37.0

45.7

48.9

37.2

39.6

41.7

34.4

46.0

43.9

52.8

43.6

30.9

38.0

19,438

4,703

5,239

4,425

4,974

98

4,190

15,150

4,744

10,406

98

11,915

6,889

634

3,674

4,583

6,462

4,720

15,079

5,830

9,249

4,360

5,703

6,592

6,078

1,065

38.8

25.1

33.4

46.1

51.0

(B)

23.2

43.1

34.7

47.0

(B)

44.8

29.2

29.8

41.4

46.5

36.3

32.7

38.3

32.6

41.9

40.5

47.2

42.9

27.3

34.1

17,638

3,664

4,652

3,793

5,444

85

3,188

14,364

3,955

10,409

85

11,911

5,247

481

3,342

4,369

6,242

3,685

13,177

4,896

8,281

4,461

5,358

5,893

5,259

1,129

42.5

28.0

36.4

46.3

55.1

(B)

25.8

46.3

35.1

50.6

(B)

48.1

30.3

38.0

44.7

46.4

40.7

39.1

42.9

36.0

46.9

41.6

50.3

46.1

32.1

35.6

19,451

4,731

5,243

4,417

4,962

98

4,218

15,135

4,745

10,390

98

11,890

6,927

634

3,672

4,582

6,473

4,724

15,099

5,871

9,228

4,352

5,673

6,592

6,109

1,078

23.7

12.9

17.4

25.9

39.0

(B)

11.9

27.1

15.3

32.4

(B)

29.5

14.9

12.3

29.0

24.8

20.7

22.6

25.1

22.5

26.7

19.0

30.0

25.6

16.3

21.0

17,665

3,667

4,651

3,801

5,459

87

3,192

14,385

3,953

10,432

87

11,937

5,247

480

3,358

4,360

6,254

3,693

13,199

4,901

8,298

4,465

5,355

5,914

5,266

1,129

19.1

11.5

14.9

19.5

27.8

(B)

10.5

21.1

14.2

23.7

(B)

21.5

14.0

16.0

23.5

19.8

16.8

18.4

20.5

17.3

22.4

15.1

24.5

19.5

13.9

16.2

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Percentages are based only on those children for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Average composite score based on a scale of 0 to 10 of several questions related to neighborhood characteristics with 10 being the

best rated level. See text for specifics on the items included in the variable. Score for parent applied to each individual child in the family.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
U.S. Census Bureau 21

and lessons for their children, economically advantaged families may

live in neighborhoods where school

activities are more readily available.

Households with higher incomes

are generally located in better

neighborhoods. School-age children are more likely to participate

in sports, clubs, and lessons when

parents have a high opinion of the

safety of their neighborhood (Figure 7). Characteristics such as parental marital status, family income, housing, and neighborhood

quality are certainly inter-related

and should be considered when

evaluating the participation levels

of extracurricular activities. This

report presents the broad picture

of a child’s daily activities and does

not analyze in detail the independent contribution of each parental

characteristic to the child’s degree

of participation in different activities.

Overall, the SIPP data suggest that

participation in extracurricular activities may not be an option for

many children in single-parent or

low income households or where

parents are uneasy about the

safety of their neighborhood. The

data from this particular survey

cannot show whether extracurricular participation has led to academic success or whether academically successful students are more

inclined to participate. The following section, however, explores current indicators of academic

achievement among school-age

children.

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Children’s academic achievement in

this report is analyzed by considering outcomes such as changing

schools, repeating grades, being

academically “on-track” — enrolled

in school at or above the modal

Figure 6.

Children 6 to 17 Years Old Participating in 

Extracurricular Activities by Family 

Poverty Status: Fall 1994

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

(Percent participating in activities) Below poverty 

100 to 199 percent of poverty 

200 percent of poverty or higher

47 49

28

31

35

15

20

24

11

Sports Clubs Lessons

Figure 7.

Children 6 to 17 Years Old Participating in 

Extracurricular Activities by Parent's Assessment 

of the Neighborhood: Fall 1994 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

(Percent participating in activities)

Low opinion 

Medium opinion 

High opinion

49 49

28

41

46

23

26

30

15

Sports Clubs Lessons
22 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 13.

Academic Achievement ofSchool Age Children—Characteristics ofChildren and Parents:

Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Indicators of academic achievement1

Change of schools Ever repeated a grade Gifted classes2 Ever suspended2

6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years

Number PercentNumber PercentNumber PercentNumber PercentNumber PercentNumber Percent

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHILD

Sex

18,885 29.5 16,888 51.6 18,936 6.6 17,058 15.9 18,952 12.5 17,003 10.3

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,243 29.3 8,197 52.8 9,254 5.1 8,330 12.0 9,258 3.7 8,303 5.5

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity

9,642 29.7 8,691 50.4 9,682 8.0 8,728 19.7 9,694 11.4 8,700 14.9

Non-Hispanic White. . . . . . . 12,858 27.0 11,479 49.0 12,921 6.6 11,572 14.3 12,917 13.5 11,561 8.4

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . 2,547 36.8 2,242 52.5 2,559 8.3 2,282 25.1 2,551 13.1 2,272 19.9

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . 712 30.9 685 68.5 706 2.9 706 13.0 714 10.2 703 6.5

Hispanic3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PARENT

Sex

2,768 34.1 2,481 57.6 2,750 6.1 2,499 16.0 2,770 7.9 2,468 11.4

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,169 29.0 15,881 51.1 18,217 6.6 16,058 15.8 18,228 12.6 16,016 10.1

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity

715 42.0 1,007 59.6 719 5.1 1,000 18.3 724 11.1 988 13.4

Non-Hispanic White. . . . . . . 12,873 27.3 11,608 49.7 12,931 6.7 11,686 14.4 12,941 13.7 11,672 8.4

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . 2,454 35.4 2,146 51.5 2,467 8.3 2,186 25.1 2,458 12.7 2,176 20.2

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . 736 31.2 654 65.4 729 2.0 689 13.4 726 12.0 689 7.3

Hispanic3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marital Status

2,822 33.9 2,480 56.6 2,809 5.8 2,497 15.7 2,826 7.2 2,466 11.1

Married4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Separated, divorced,

13,732 26.7 12,143 49.1 13,764 5.6 12,287 13.2 13,783 13.3 12,260 7.8

widowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,561 39.9 3,916 59.6 3,604 9.7 3,928 21.5 3,581 10.6 3,898 14.6

Never married. . . . . . . . . . . .

Educational Attainment

1,592 30.4 829 48.9 1,569 8.0 843 28.9 1,589 9.7 845 25.7

Less than high school. . . . . 3,305 35.4 3,216 56.4 3,275 10.7 3,267 24.6 3,303 6.0 3,246 15.2

High school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,515 28.7 5,970 46.5 6,545 7.1 6,000 15.5 6,548 9.4 5,988 10.1

College, 1 to 3 years. . . . . . 5,057 28.5 4,417 54.3 5,081 6.3 4,475 16.0 5,075 14.1 4,466 10.5

College, 4 or more years . .

Employment Status5

4,007 27.3 3,285 52.4 4,036 2.8 3,316 8.1 4,026 20.9 3,304 5.5

Worked last month. . . . . . . . 11,775 28.3 11,930 49.4 11,799 5.7 12,042 14.6 11,790 13.8 12,003 9.6

Full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,073 29.5 8,608 50.8 8,084 5.6 8,680 14.9 8,097 13.1 8,647 9.9

Part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,702 25.8 3,323 46.0 3,715 6.0 3,362 13.7 3,693 15.4 3,357 8.7

Did not work last month . . .

Occupation6

7,110 31.4 4,958 56.6 7,137 8.0 5,016 19.1 7,162 10.3 5,000 11.9

Managerial-professional . . .

Technical, sales, and

2,960 25.4 2,976 49.4 2,976 3.0 3,005 9.2 2,969 19.9 3,000 5.3

administrative . . . . . . . . . . . 4,461 28.5 4,415 47.5 4,434 5.4 4,453 13.1 4,429 13.5 4,450 9.2

Service occupations . . . . . . 1,974 30.6 2,001 52.6 1,984 9.0 2,031 20.0 1,989 10.6 2,022 13.6

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,722 30.1 2,745 50.5 2,743 7.4 2,780 19.0 2,746 10.2 2,759 11.9

1

Percentages are based only on those children for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Gifted question asked of children 6 to 11 years and suspended question asked of children 12 to 17 years.

3

Hispanics may be of any race.

4

Married includes married, spouse present and married, spouse absent (excluding separated).

5

Full-time includes those who usually work 35 or more hours per week; part-time includes those who usually

week; did not work last month includes individuals who are unemployed or are not in the labor force. 6

Excludes those who work in the armed forces.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

work 1 to 34 hours per
U.S. Census Bureau 23

grade level for their age, taking neighborhood, and the marital sta- Children with married,

working parents are most classes for gifted students, and be- tus of the parents — children in likely to be academically ing suspended. poor families and in neighborhoods on-track. held in relatively low opinion by

Poor children and children their parents, as well as those Parents serve as role models for

from households with family whose parents are separated, di- their children. Children whose pardisruptions are more likely to vorced, or widowed, are more ents are employed may also be

have changed schools. likely to have changed schools at more aware of the need to work as

Not including the normal progres- some time in their academic past. adults and understand the connecsion and graduation from elemen- tion between education and finding

tary and middle schools, 30 per- Girls are more likely to be a good job. About three-quarters

cent of 6- to 11-year olds and academically “on-track.” of children whose parents were

52 percent of 12- to 17-year olds both married and employed were One of the most important indicahad changed schools at some time academically on-track (see Table tors of children’s overall success in

in their educational careers (see 15). Among children from married- school is the timeliness of their

Table 13). Changing schools can couple households with only one promotion from grade to grade.

be disruptive because children usu- working parent, 69 percent were Children are generally considered

ally have to make new friends, ad- on-track compared with 56 percent as being academically “on-track”

just to new teachers, and become of children from married-couple when they are enrolled at or above

integrated into a different school households with no employed par- the modal grade for their age (the

setting and routine. A change in ents. Similarly, among children in grade at which most children of a

schools may have been prompted single-parent households, those given age are enrolled). Children

by a residential move, a change in with an employed parent generally who repeat a grade are not likely to

school-district boundaries, failure progressed more steadily in school be academically on-track.

at another school, or a change in (67 percent on-track) than those

the household structure or fi- Overall, 80 percent of children 6 to without an employed parent

nances, such as caused by a sepa- (55 percent on-track). Children 11 years old are on-track compared

ration or divorce of parents. with 69 percent of older children. raised with two parents in their

Of course, younger children have household may also be more likely

Children from families with in- to benefit from more attention been in school less time than older

comes less than $1,500 per month from both parents in addition to children and have had fewer educawere only somewhat more likely higher levels of family income that tional and life experiences which

ever to have changed schools than may lead them to repeat a grade. can provide more resources — such

children in families earning $1,500 as tutors and lessons — which tend For this reason, Table 15 presents

or more. Among children 6 to 11 to keep children from falling be- children’s on-track status only for

years old, 35 percent living in fami- hind in school. children 12 to 17 years old.

lies with monthly incomes less

than $1,500 had changed schools A higher proportion of girls than Children involved in

at least once compared with 28 boys were academically on-track extracurricular activities are

percent of children in families earn- (74 percent compared with 64 per- more likely to be academically

on-track. ing $1,500 or more. Among 12- to cent). About three-fourths of chil17-year olds, 57 percent of children dren of non-Hispanic, Other Races, Table 15 shows that children who

in families with incomes less than predominantly Asian and Pacific Is- participate in extracurricular activi-

$1,500 per month had changed landers, were academically on- ties were more likely to be acaschools compared with 50 percent track. Non-Hispanic White children demically on-track — 75 percent

of children in families earning (72 percent) were more likely to be among children who participate in

$1,500 or more (see Table 14). A academically on-track than non- at least one extracurricular activity

similar pattern of changing schools Hispanic Black children and His- compared with 60 percent among

exists by the poverty level of the panic children (61 percent and children who do not participate in

family, the parental opinion of the 65 percent, respectively). any. Although it cannot be known
24 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 14.

Academic Achievement ofSchool Age Children—Characteristics ofFamilies and

Households: Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Indicators of academic achievement1

Change of schools Ever repeated a grade Gifted classes2 Ever suspended2

6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years

Number PercentNumber PercentNumber PercentNumber PercentNumber PercentNumber Percent

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monthly Family Income

Under $1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . .

$1,500 to $2,999 . . . . . . . . .

$3,000 to $4,499 . . . . . . . . .

$4,500 and over . . . . . . . . . .

Income not reported . . . . . .

Poverty Level

Below poverty level . . . . . . .

On or above poverty level .

100 to 199 percent of

poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

200 percent of poverty

or higher . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Income not reported . . . . . .

Tenure

Owns home. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rents home. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other arrangements . . . . . .

Region of Residence

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metropolitan Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In central cities . . . . . . . . .

Outside central cities. . . .

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood Context3

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . .

Low opinion. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood context not

reported. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18,885

4,540

5,074

4,325

4,855

92

4,031

14,762

4,601

10,161

92

11,599

6,690

595

3,540

4,491

6,264

4,590

14,637

5,628

9,009

4,248

5,561

6,374

5,881

1,070

29.5

35.3

28.9

27.3

26.6

(B)

35.7

27.8

29.5

27.0

(B)

24.0

39.3

27.0

25.2

26.7

31.2

33.3

30.7

32.8

29.3

25.5

25.3

29.7

32.9

31.3

16,888

3,458

4,463

3,661

5,216

90

3,007

13,791

3,765

10,026

90

11,457

4,986

445

3,212

4,169

5,953

3,553

12,590

4,659

7,930

4,298

5,146

5,672

5,012

1,059

51.6

57.0

52.1

50.0

48.4

(B)

58.4

50.0

52.2

49.1

(B)

45.9

64.8

49.9

43.2

49.1

53.9

58.1

54.9

58.2

53.0

41.7

45.0

52.3

56.9

54.6

18,936

4,563

5,098

4,319

4,862

95

4,055

14,786

4,625

10,161

95

11,638

6,693

605

3,614

4,461

6,295

4,567

14,682

5,609

9,073

4,255

5,575

6,399

5,909

1,052

6.6

10.4

6.9

5.4

3.5

(B)

11.0

5.3

7.4

4.4

(B)

5.3

8.9

5.9

6.4

6.2

8.7

4.2

6.0

6.3

5.8

8.6

5.5

6.5

8.1

4.4

17,058

3,506

4,457

3,704

5,299

93

3,064

13,902

3,758

10,144

93

11,564

5,033

461

3,237

4,194

6,030

3,596

12,740

4,742

7,998

4,318

5,178

5,727

5,108

1,045

15.9

24.6

18.5

13.4

9.3

(B)

24.4

13.9

19.7

11.7

(B)

13.2

22.2

17.2

11.8

14.7

21.1

12.4

14.8

16.9

13.6

19.1

13.5

15.0

20.0

13.3

18,952

4,562

5,108

4,303

4,885

95

4,050

14,807

4,620

10,187

95

11,602

6,728

604

3,593

4,461

6,289

4,608

14,695

5,635

9,059

4,257

5,572

6,427

5,897

1,056

12.5

9.1

10.0

12.0

18.7

(B)

8.0

13.8

10.6

15.2

(B)

13.9

10.9

5.1

13.4

12.2

13.4

10.9

12.9

12.9

12.9

11.3

14.9

12.5

10.5

11.7

17,003

3,492

4,447

3,684

5,291

89

3,063

13,852

3,753

10,099

89

11,517

5,023

463

3,238

4,203

5,991

3,572

12,668

4,684

7,984

4,335

5,190

5,687

5,100

1,027

10.3

16.7

11.9

7.8

6.1

(B)

17.0

8.7

11.9

7.5

(B)

8.0

15.7

8.7

7.7

10.0

11.4

11.1

9.9

12.3

8.6

11.2

7.6

8.7

14.5

11.6

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Percentages are based only on those children for whom valid answers were reported.

2

Gifted question asked of children 6 to 11 years and suspended question asked of children 12 to 17 years.

3

Average composite score based on a scale of 0 to 10 of several questions related to neighborhood characte

best rated level. See text for specifics on the items included in the variable. Score for parent applied to each individual child in the family.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.

ristics with 10 being the
U.S. Census Bureau 25

from this analysis whether a causal

relationship exists, participation in

activities and success in school appear to go hand-in-hand.

Children who did not change

schools were also more likely to be

on-track (73 percent) than children

who had changed schools (68 percent) at least once in their school

careers. Suspension from school,

which can be an indicator of emotional or adjustment problems experienced by a child, was also

closely related to being academically on-track. Little more than

one-half (55 percent) of 12- to 17-

year olds who had been suspended

from school were on-track compared with 72 percent of children

who had never been suspended. In

addition, children whose parents

had a medium or high opinion of

their neighborhood were more

likely to be academically on-track,

(71 percent and 73 percent respectively) than children whose parents

had a low opinion of their neighborhood (65 percent).

Children from married-couple

families are more likely to be

enrolled in classes for gifted

students and less likely to

have been suspended.

Thirteen percent of children 6 to 11

years old with married parents

were enrolled in classes for gifted

students compared with about

10 percent of children whose parents were formerly married or

never married (see Table 13).

Moreover, 26 percent of 12- to 17-

year olds whose parents had never

been married had been suspended

from school at least once, while

only 8 percent of children whose

Table 15.

Children 12 to 17 Years Old Academically On-Track:

Fall 1994

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic1 All children Percent on-track

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Age of Child

18,118 69.3

12 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,099 73.5

13 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,213 70.4

14 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,259 68.3

15 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,971 72.6

16 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,845 66.5

17 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sex of Child

2,731 63.5

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,849 74.4

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Race/Ethnicity of Child

9,269 64.3

Non-Hispanic White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,241 71.6

Non-Hispanic Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,448 60.8

Non-Hispanic, Other Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 74.6

Hispanic2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marital and Work Status of Parents

2,688 64.7

Married couple3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,850 71.8

Both worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,513 74.2

One worked last month. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,776 68.8

Neither worked last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 56.4

Other marital status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,268 63.0

Worked last month. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,588 66.7

Did not work last month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Poverty Level

1,680 55.1

Below poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,239 56.7

On or above poverty level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,779 72.1

100 to 199 percent of poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,072 66.2

200 percent of poverty or higher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,707 74.3

Income not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Neighborhood Context

100 (B)

High opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,485 72.5

Medium opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,983 70.9

Low opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,385 64.8

Neighborhood context not reported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Participation in at Least One Extracurricular

Activity

1,265 66.6

Participated in an extracurricular activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,313 74.9

Did not participate in an extracurricular activity . . . . . . . .

Ever Changed Schools

6,805 59.9

Changed schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,706 67.5

Did not change schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ever Suspended

8,179 73.2

Suspended from school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,746 55.0

Never suspended from school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,255 71.8

B Base too small to show derived statistic.

1

Characteristics of the designated parent and the age of child are as of survey date.

2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

Includes only married, spouse present.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation.
26 U.S. Census Bureau

parents were currently married had class, or cheering them on in a Households from these panels are

ever been suspended from school. sporting event represents those followed in the Survey of Program

small daily activities that grow into Dynamics (SPD), with data collected

Children whose parents did not a lifetime of childhood memories. annually from 1998 through 2002.

complete high school were more They are also the tools that help

likely to have been suspended from children excel in school, secure ACCURACY OF THE

school and less likely to have been their first job, and start their own ESTIMATES

enrolled in a class for gifted chil- family. Parents with monetary re- Statistics from surveys are subject dren than were children whose par- sources can afford to provide their to sampling and nonsampling error. ents had completed four or more children with positive childhood All comparisons presented in this years of college. This difference experiences that develop both con- report have taken sampling error suggests that parental academic fidence and skills that will later into account and meet Census Bu- achievement is an important factor serve as building blocks toward reau standards for statistical sig- in a child’s success in school, possi- happy, productive adult lives. But nificance. Nonsampling errors in bly by providing children with both as important as these economic in- surveys may be attributed to a vari- a model to emulate and with aca- vestments are to child develop- ety of sources, such as how the demic experience to enhance their ment, the role that parents play survey was designed, how respon- children’s performance in school. when interacting with their children dents interpret questions, how able is also extremely important in and willing respondents are to pro- SUMMARY shaping and directing their vide correct answers, and how ac- children’s future. This report outlines some of the curately answers are coded and

more important aspects of child- classified. The Census Bureau emhood: the neighborhoods children SOURCES OF DATA ploys quality control procedures

live in, their family situation, early The estimates in this report come throughout the production process

childhood interactions, involve- from the Survey of Income and Pro- — including the overall design of

ment in daily activities with their gram Participation (SIPP), collected surveys, the wording of questions,

parents, and their participation in in the fall of 1994 by the U.S. Cen- review of the work of interviewers

school activities and progress in sus Bureau. The data highlighted and coders, and statistical review

school. in this report come primarily from of reports.

the child well-being topical mod- Relative to children in single-parent The SIPP employs ratio estimation, ules in the 1992 and 1993 SIPP

or low income households, children whereby sample estimates are ad- panels. These two panels were ad- in married-couple families and with ministered at the same time and justed to independent estimates of

higher incomes are more likely to were combined to form the sample the national population by age,

enter nonfamily child care arrange- race, sex, and Hispanic origin. universe for this report. The SIPP is ments and to enter these arrange- This weighting partially corrects for a longitudinal survey conducted at ments at earlier ages. Their inter- bias due to undercoverage, but 4 month intervals by the Census action with their parents related to how it affects different variables in Bureau. Although the main focus basic reading skills is more fre- the survey is not precisely known. of the SIPP is information on labor

quent and their parents exert more Moreover, biases may also be force participation, jobs, income, supervision in their TV viewing present when people who are and participation in federal assis- habits. They are also more likely to tance programs, information on missed in the survey differ from

participate as young adults in ex- those interviewed in ways other other topics is also collected in tracurricular activities and progress than the categories used in weight- topical modules on a rotating ba- more steadily in school. ing (age, race, sex, and Hispanic sis.

origin). All of these considerations Family and economic situations af- The 1992 and 1993 SIPP panels affect comparisons across different fect children’s everyday life, also provide the baseline for a lon- surveys or data sources. whether it is watching TV at home gitudinal analysis of the changes in or participating in after school ac- For further information on statisti- children’s well-being with respect tivities. The simple acts of reading cal standards and the computation to the Welfare Reform and Work Reto a child, enrolling them in art and use of standard errors, contact sponsibility Act of 1996.
U.S. Census Bureau 27

Mahdi S. Sundukchi, Demographic Fields, Child Well-Being Indicators USER COMMENTS

Statistical Methods Division, at From the SIPP, Population Division The Census Bureau welcomes the

301-457-4209 or on the Internet at Working Paper Series, No. 24, U.S. comments and advice of users of

mahdi.s.sundukchi@census.gov. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, its data and reports. If you have 1998. Both of these papers are any suggestions or comments,

MORE INFORMATION also on the Internet on the “Popula- please write to: tion: Working Paper;” section under The report is available on the “Subjects A to Z.” Chief, Population Division Internet (www.census.gov); search U.S. Census Bureau for child well-being data by clicking CONTACTS Washington, DC 20233 on the letter W in the Subjects A-Z

section of the Web page and select- Jason Fields or send an e-mail inquiry to: ing “Well-being/Dynamics of Eco- Jason.M.Fields@census.gov pop@census.gov nomic Well-Being.” 301-457-2465

Other research on child well-being Kristin Smith SUGGESTED CITATION

from the SIPP can be found in the Kristin.E.Smith@census.gov Fields, Jason M., Kristin Smith,

following reports: Jason M. Fields 301-457-2416 Loretta E. Bass, and Terry Lugaila.

and Kristin E. Smith, Poverty, Family 2001. A Child’s Day: Home, School,

Structure, and Child Well-Being: In- Terry Lugaila and Play (Selected Indicators of

dicators From the SIPP, Population Terry.A.Lugaila@census.gov Child Well-Being). Current PopulaDivision Working Paper Series, No. 301-457-2465 tion Reports, P70-68. U.S. Census

23, U.S. Census Bureau, Washing- Bureau, Washington, DC. Statistical Information Staff ton, DC, 1998; Kristin E. Smith, pop@census.gov Loretta E. Bass, and Jason M. 301-457-2422
28 U.S. Census Bureau

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