A History of the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports

Research Digest

Editor’s Note:

In 2006 the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (PCPFS) celebrated its 50th

anniversary. As a new chapter in the history of the PCPFS begins and sights are set on what can be

accomplished in the next fifty years, it seems fitting we devote this issue of the PCPFS Research

Digest on the publication itself—its origins, some of the landmark articles, and turning points for the

publication, including changes in the fields of physical activity, fitness, and sports.

The terms physical fitness, exercise, and physical activity are used throughout this article. The use of a

specific term is meant to reflect the manuscript that is being discussed at that time.

Research Digest: 1971-1979

The Research Digest owes its beginnings to H. Harrison Clarke, Ed.D., a research professor of physical

education at the University of Oregon and a part-time research consultant to the PCPFS. Dr. Clarke started

the Physical Fitness Research Digest in July1971 and served as its editor for over eight years. By the time he

began as editor, he had completed his work as the lead investigator of the Medford, Oregon Boys’ Growth

Study where he and his team of researchers analyzed the relationships

between intelligence and sixteen different measures including physique

type, body size, and motor ability.1

His predecessors and colleagues were engaged in research to

understand the components of fitness, and a few pioneers had been

promoting the health benefits of exercise for some time.

Dr. Thomas K. Cureton drew attention to fitness in the 1940s through

research on the benefits of regular exercise and the role of fitness in

improving health.2 He also established one of the first physical fitness

research labs in the country at the University of Illinois UrbanaChampaign (now the T.K. Cureton Physical Fitness Research

Laboratory) in 1944. In the 1950s one of those fitness pioneers, Jack

LaLanne, started to bring fitness to the masses through his popular

television series, “The Jack LaLanne Show,” which aired from 1951-

1984. In the late fifties, fitness for children and youth was brought to

the forefront after Hans Kraus published the results of a study he

conducted comparing the fitness of American children to their

European counterparts. Kraus’s findings caught the attention of the

media and high-ranking officials in the Eisenhower administration. In

Series 8, No. 1 March 2007

Published quarterly by the

President’s Council on

Physical Fitness and Sports

Washington, D.C.

★

Guest Author:

Jane D. Wargo, President’s

Council on Physical Fitness

and Sports

★

Co-edited by:

Dr. Barbara Ainsworth,

Arizona State University,

Dr. Deborah R. Young, University

of Maryland, and Dr. Michael

La Monte

President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports

ResearchDi est
June 1956, the White House hosted the President’s

Conference on the Fitness of American Youth at

the United States Naval Academy. One month

later, President Eisenhower, a former military

officer familiar with the complaints of military

recruiters and officers who were dismayed by the

poor fitness levels of draftees during World War II

and the Korean War, established the President’s

Council on Youth Fitness. The purpose of the new

agency was to educate, stimulate, motivate, and

encourage local communities and individual

Americans to promote and adopt active lifestyles.3

President Kennedy continued to make the subject

of fitness a matter of national pride when he wrote

two articles for Sports Illustrated, “The Soft

American” in 1960 (written as President-elect) and

“The Vigor We Need” in 1962.

In “The Soft American,” Kennedy outlined the

national fitness program he would create. His plan

included the development of a White House

committee on health and fitness with oversight by

the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare∗

and an annual youth fitness conference attended by

governors. Kennedy also made the assertion that

physical fitness was the business of the federal

government.3

Dr. Clarke was fortunate to be able to pull from

many of the larger studies that were initiated

during his professional career including the time

he wrote the Digests. From 1957-1960 and again 

∗In 1980 the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare became the Department of

Health and Human Services.

The establishment of the American College

of Sports Medicine in 1954 and the

ongoing work of the American Alliance for

Health, Physical Education, Recreation and

Dance (AAHPERD), created in 1885,

continued to advance and support

professionals in the fields of kinesiology,

exercise science, health promotion, and

physical education in an effort to advance

and improve the health of the population.

In March 2007, the AAHPERD Board of

Governors will vote to change the name to

American Alliance for Health and Physical

Activity (AAHPA).

in 1962-1964, Dr. Henry Taylor led a study in

which 3,043 American men were assessed to

determine if there is a relationship between

physical fitness and heart disease.4 Known as the

U.S. Railway Workers’ Study, Taylor’s work was

the U.S. arm of the Seven Countries Study (also

conducted in Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, Finland,

Netherlands, and Japan). Participants of the U.S.

study took a sub-maximal treadmill test in a

Pullman car that was converted into a makeshift

laboratory. While much of the focus of the Seven

Countries Study was on the role of the diet on

cardiovascular risk, physical activity was a

lifestyle factor tracked by the researchers.5 The

results of the U.S. Railway Workers’ Study showed

that middle-aged men with lower levels of fitness

identified through a sub-maximal treadmill test

have a greater risk of dying from heart disease,

cardiovascular disease (CVD), and all causes.

The landmark Framingham Heart Study added

further evidence of the health benefits of physical

activity. Starting in 1948, investigators from the

National Heart Institute (now the National Heart,

Lung and Blood Institute) and Boston University

School of Medicine began tracking the lifestyle

and physical characteristics of 5,209 men and

women living in Framingham, Massachusetts, in

an effort to identify common patterns in CVD

development.6 The dedicated work of the

Framingham researchers and participants have

resulted in many milestones, including the 1967

finding that physical activity reduces the risk of

heart disease and that obesity increases the risk.7

Data from the Framingham Study continue to be

tracked and monitored today. The third generation

(the grandchildren of the original sample) was

enrolled into the study in July 2005. 

The findings of Framingham, the U.S. Railway

Workers’ Study, and other epidemiological

investigations are evidence of a shift in the way

physical activity and fitness were viewed in

relation to health. Evidence suggested that

physical or fitness-enhancing activities were not

only necessary to improve performance, but that

certain types or degrees of physical activity

produced health benefits as well.8

Research Digest: the early years

In the first issue in 1971, Dr. Clarke defined the

2
performance or skill-related fitness was the focus

in the field prior to 1980. In fact, the PCPFS was

established in 1956 because of the belief that

American youth would need to be fit in order to

respond optimally to the stressors placed on the

body or to perform a specific skill set at a higher

level.

Shortly after the PCPFS was founded, the

American Alliance of Health, Physical Education,

Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD)∗ published

the first survey of American youth (1958).11

However, the tests mainly assessed performancerelated skills measured through activities such as

the softball throw, long jump, and the 50-yard

dash. As a health-related definition of fitness

gradually evolved, performance-related measures

were removed from the test in order to assess

measures that were predictive of health (e.g.,

cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, muscular

strength and endurance). The Council released its

own fitness test, the Presidential Physical Fitness

Award, in 1966. In a 1975 issue of the Digest, Dr.

Clarke provided a review of the fitness tests

available to physical educators in primary,

secondary, and post-secondary educational

institutions and the military.12 Clarke described the

• AAHPER Youth Fitness Test,

• PCPFS Screening Test,

• California Physical Fitness Test,

• Indiana Motor Fitness Test,

• New York State Physical Fitness Test,

• Oregon Motor Fitness Test,

• Washington Motor Fitness Test,

• Marine Corps Physical Fitness Test,

• Department of the Navy Test, and

• tests of the United States Military

• Academy, United States Naval Academy,

• United States Air Force Academy, and 

• United States Coast Guard Academy.

While the emphasis for fitness was shifting from

improving skills to enhancing health in kids, the

research was still being amassed on the health

benefits for adults. A 1974 issue of the Research

Digest reported the results of the National Adult

Physical Fitness Survey, which was conducted for 

∗At the time the test was released, the name of the organization was the American

Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. (endnote Corbin and

Pangrazi)

nature and components of physical fitness.9 While

physical fitness wasn’t a new term or a new field,

the issue provided readers with an overview of the

components of physical fitness (muscular strength,

muscular endurance, and circulatory-respiratory

endurance) and opened doors to the world of

research that was happening at that time.

Afterwards, the publication continued to highlight

and summarize the research on the relationship of

physical fitness to “mental alertness, nervous

tensions, and psychological adjustments.”9 Dr.

Clarke’s writings emphasized a holistic view of the

role of fitness and the human body, a notion that

was put forth in subsequent issues, including a

two-part series, “The Totality of Man.”1,10 Here,

Dr. Clarke reviewed the relationships between

physical fitness and health and mental

achievement, personality traits, and psychological

characteristics.

In the early Digests, Dr. Clarke discussed the

research on the relationship between learning

potential or mental achievement and physical

fitness. He wrote:

. . . physical fitness is not a guarantee of

superior mental achievement . . . However, the

evidence overwhelmingly relates the

individual’s general learning potential to his

fitness. While physical educators have several

worthy objectives, the need to maintain a

proper physical fitness program should be a

basic one. Physical fitness has fundamental

benefits other than improved learning potential

. . . However, educators at all education levels

should recognize this value and strongly

support physical fitness programs for this

benefit . . .1

While the relationship between physical fitness

and academic achievement remains unclear to this

day, Dr. Clarke encouraged physical education and

other programs that improve fitness and motor

skills because of the positive impact on selfconcept, relationships with peers, and other

psychological characteristics.10

The idea that both mind and body can benefit from

enhanced fitness, while not a new concept, was not

prevalent during the time when Dr. Clarke wrote

the early Digests. According to Chuck Corbin,

Ph.D., former editor of the Digest who was also a

recent chair of the PCPFS Science Board,

3
4

the PCPFS by the Opinion Research Corporation.13

The survey questioned 3,875 adults (male and

female) in their homes. The questions asked

participants about their involvement in school

sports; if they took a physical education class and

if they felt it was beneficial; the exercises they

engage in and the reasons for doing such exercises;

and whether or not they had heard any messages

about the importance of physical fitness and

sports.

The findings of this survey were summarized in

the Digest article. Dr. Clarke’s recommendations

are strikingly similar to what has been published in

recent years:

. . . expand physical education programs into

elementary schools, especially, and junior high

schools . . . more than 90 percent of all adults

believe that all people should have physical

education from elementary school through

college.13

Similar findings were publicized by the

National Association of Sport and Physical

Education (NASPE). NASPE contracted

with the Opinion Research Corporation to

assess parental attitudes towards physical

activity and physical education. According

to a NASPE news release dated April 29,

2003:

Three in four parents (76%) think more

school physical education could help

control or prevent childhood obesity . . .

95% think physical education should be

part of a school curriculum for all students

in grades K-12.∗

∗Sample included 2,038 adults (50% male/50% female). The news release

can be found at

www.aahperd.org/naspe/template.cfm?template=pr_042903.html.

These opinions were supported by the non-federal

Task Force on Community Preventive Services,

which recommended physical education as a

means to increase youth physical activity and

fitness levels.14

Results of the National Adult Physical Fitness

Survey also found “A major need [is] to make

easily accessible paths for bicycling, jogging and

walking; greater opportunities for swimming are

also needed, with pools reasonably accessible to

participants.”13 Again, Dr. Clarke’s writings almost

seemed ahead of their time. The expressions

“active living,” “smart growth,” and “livable

communities” have become standard expressions

in the physical activity field and fitness promotion

and research in recent years. Journal articles have

been written and talks given that report associations

between the way neighborhoods are designed and

the levels of physical activity among residents.15,16

The latest systematic review of the Task Force on

Community Preventive Services recommends

community-scale17 and street-scale18 urban design

land use policies and practices as methods to

facilitate increasing physical activity. 

From 1974 to 1979, Dr. Clarke reported on the

latest research, much of which continues to be of

interest today: athletes and academic

achievement,19 exercise and the knee joint,20

physical fitness in elementary and secondary

schools,21 exercise and aging,22 and updates on

physical fitness and exercise and coronary risk

factors.23, 24

The final editions of the first phase of the Digest

came full circle. Before launching into a new era

of the nation’s history, Dr. Clarke wrote about the

importance of physical fitness and exercise for

cardiovascular health and started utilizing the term

“physical activity.”23 Up until that point, emphasis

was given to exercise and fitness-enhancing or

sports-related activities. There is no indication as

to what led Clarke to address physical activity,

other than, perhaps, the focus on physical activity

in two of the studies he featured in one of those

last editions of the Digest: the 22-year follow-up

study of San Francisco longshoremen and the

Harvard alumni study, both of which were led by

Dr. Ralph Paffenbarger. In summarizing the results

of these studies, Clarke wrote:

The studies consistently supported the need for

a moderate level of physical activity as a

lifestyle for maintaining a sound cardiovascular

system; strenuous physical activity, including

competition, does not appear to reduce further

the incidence of coronary heart disease.23

Reflecting on an issue that had much of the

nation’s attention, the last edition of the Digest

written by Dr. Clarke addressed female fitness and
the differences in fitness-related abilities between

males and females. He wrote, “. . . questions are

being raised from many sources as to the physical

ability of girls and women to participate on par

with boys and men at all levels of demanding

physical work.”25 To put this in context, the

deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights

Amendment (ERA) was March 22, 1979, but

failing to have enough states ratify the amendment

and with enough pressure from supporters,

Congress granted a 3-year extension.26 Dr. Clarke

noted that males and females exhibit differences in

physique, structure, and body composition that

cause differences in physical and motor

performance and that these differences can be

increased or decreased depending on lifestyle. Dr.

Clarke retired shortly after he wrote his final

Digest in 1979. He felt he had made his

contributions to the field and he was ready to move

on to other things. (Personal communication with

Chuck Corbin.)

Research Digest: 1993-Present

As he set out to do in 1971, Dr. Clarke continued

to try to shed light on issues that were important to

physical fitness research. His efforts did not go

unnoticed. In 1988, Charles “Chuck” Corbin,

Ph.D., Brian Sharkey, Ph.D., and Hal Morris,

Ph.D. attended a meeting of the President’s

Council on Physical Fitness and Sports to ask,

among other things, that the Research Digest be

resurrected and that the Council establish a science

board comprised of researchers in the field who

could help to ensure the scientific integrity of the

Council’s programs and publications. Corbin,

Sharkey, and Morris felt that the Digest served a

niche. There were journals for scholarly articles

and original research and professional journals for

practitioners, but there wasn’t anything that

provided a summary of the scientific evidence.

What set the Digest apart from some of the other

fitness journals available was its in-depth

exploration of specific topics related to physical

activity and fitness in a manner that allowed a

large audience to understand these issues. The

recommendation was approved. With the corporate

sponsor, Chiquita Brands International, Inc., the

first issue of the PCPFS Digest with Chuck

Corbin, Ph.D. and Robert Pangrazi, Ph.D. as coeditors was published in February 1993, under the

name of the PCPFS Physical Activity and Fitness

Research Digest.

Christine Spain, now Director of Research

Planning and Special Projects at the PCPFS, was

instrumental in the resurgence of the Digest by

following up on the request of Corbin, Sharkey,

and Morris. She helped secure the funding from

Chiquita (1992-1994) and, later, from the Advil

Forum on Health Education (1995-1997), which

sponsored the printing of the Digest as a public

service. It should also be noted the publication

changed its name again in December 1996 when it

became the President’s Council on Physical

Fitness and Sports Research Digest.

For the first time, physical activity was included in

the title. The co-editors recognized that “both the

process of physical activity and the product of

physical fitness are important to good health and

quality of living.”27 The inclusion of physical

activity and the focus on physical activities as a

means to improving health was listed as the first

priority area in the 1990 publication of Healthy

People 2000, the federal governments’ 10-year

public health objectives for the nation.28 Although

Corbin and Pangrazi noted that research had

proven the role of physical activity in prevention

and treatment of disease, the impact of physical

activity on quality of life and well-being was still

unclear. Dr. Corbin felt the first issues of the

“new” Digest “helped practitioners make the

transition from focusing on physical fitness to

focusing on the promotion of physical activity.”

(Personal communication.) The initial co-editors

reflected on other issues that marked a turning

point in the field:

• Whitehead J. (May 1993) “Physical

• Activity and Intrinsic Motivation.” This

• issue marked a change in the thinking

• practitioners had about the use of

• extrinsic rewards for promoting physical

• activity.

• Bouchard C. (November 1993) “Heredity

• and Health-related Fitness.” Bouchard

• explained that many factors including

• physical activity and genes play a role in

• the fitness of an individual. This was

• particularly helpful in understanding

• fitness testing outcomes. Heredity, age,

5
publication to an even greater number of users

through both the website of the President’s

Challenge (www.presidentschallenge.org) and the

PCPFS (www.fitness.gov). Today, most Digest

readers access the publication in a web-based

format through a listserv maintained by the

President’s Challenge program. Anyone can

register to receive this free publication at

http://www.presidentschallenge.org/misc/news_-

research/research_digest.aspx. Copies can also be

accessed on the PCPFS website

http://www.fitness.gov/pcpfs_research_digs.htm. A

limited number of copies are printed and are

available through the Council’s office.

In 2004 following the establishment of the PCPFS

Science Board, some members of the Board began

a rotating service as “lead” and “junior” editors.

Following Franks’ retirement, Deborah Rohm

Young, Ph.D., associate professor in the

Department of Kinesiology and researcher at the

University of Maryland, joined Corbin and

Pangrazi as an editor. With Dr. Corbin’s retirement

and the end of his term as a member of the Science

Board, Barbara Ainsworth, Ph.D., MPH, professor

in the Department of Exercise and Wellness at

Arizona State University, began a term as co-editor

in June 2005. In January 2007, Dr. Michael

LaMonte, Ph.D., MPH, assistant professor in the

Department of Social and Preventive Medicine,

School of Public Health and Health Professions,

University of Buffalo, joined the PCPFS Research

Digest as a junior editor.

The Research Digest is fortunate to have so many

esteemed researchers and practitioners contribute

to its pages. In keeping with H. Harrison Clarke’s

original intent, the editorial team does its best to

identify and produce Digests that are current to the

fields of physical activity, fitness, physical

education, and sports. If you have topics that you

feel would be of particular interest to your

colleagues or students, please don’t hesitate to

share them with the editorial team by emailing

them to the author at jane.wargo@hhs.gov. When

suggesting a topic, please recommend an author.

Author’s note: The author wishes to thank Drs.

Corbin, Franks, and Pangrazi for the information

they supplied for this article.

6

• and maturation have a bigger impact on

• fitness testing in youth than levels of

• physical activity.

• Corbin C., Pangrazi R., and Welk G.

• (November 1994) “Toward an

• Understanding of Appropriate Physical

• Activity Levels for Youth.” The article

• called for the development of and

• provided the basis for the first national

• guidelines for physical activity for

• children. In 1998 the National

• Association for Sport and Physical

• Education and the Health Education

• Authority independently published youth

• physical activity guidelines.29

• Wells C. (March 1996) “Physical Activity

• and Women’s Health.” The benefits of

• physical activity for select population

• groups had often been ignored. This issue

• reached out to one of those groups—

• women.

• Welk G. and Blair S. (December 2000)

• “Physical Activity Protects Against the

• Health Risks of Obesity.” Elaborated on

• the idea that obese individuals benefit

• from physical activity and that physical

• activity has positive effects for all

• individuals regardless of their physical

• condition.

• Ainsworth B. (June 2003) “The

• Compendium of Physical Activities.”

• Especially noteworthy from the

• standpoint of the Council. The

• compilation of the Compendium provided

• the data on which the President’s

• Challenge Presidential Champions award

• and web-based physical activity tracker

• are based.

Drs. Corbin and Pangrazi served as co-editors of

the Digest until March 1998. From June 1998 to

March 2002, Don Franks, Ph.D., professor in the

Department of Kinesiology at the University of

Maryland (retired), served as a third co-editor of

the publication. Combined, they edited over fifty

Digest articles and compiled two volumes of

selected topics: Toward a Better Understanding of

Physical Fitness and Activity (Volumes 1 and 2). In

that time they also saw the boom of the web and

the opportunity it provided to distribute the
7

Please Post

President’s Council on Physical Fitness & Sports

Jane D. Wargo, Program Analyst

200 Independence Avenue, S.W., Room 738H, Washington, DC 20201

(202) 690-9000 • FAX (202) 690-5211

The Research Digest is fortunate

to have so many

esteemed researchers and

practitioners contribute to

its pages.
8

16. Frank L., Sallis J., Conway T., Champman J., Saelens B., and

Bachman W. (2006). Many pathways from land use to health.

Jrnl Amer Planning Assoc. 72(1). 75-87.

17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Increasing

physical activity: Community-scale urban design and land

use policies and practices are recommended to increase

physical activity. Guide to Community Preventive Services

Website. Retrieved December 28, 2006, from

www.thecommunityguide.org/pa.

18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Increasing

physical activity: Street-scale urban design and land use

policies and practices are recommended to increase physical

activity. Guide to Community Preventive Services Website.

Retrieved December 28, 2006, from

www.thecommunityguide.org/pa.

19. Clarke H. (1975). Athletes: their academic achievement and

personal-social status. Physical Fitness Research Digest.

5(3). Washington, DC. President’s Council on Physical Fitness

and Sports.

20. Clarke H. (1976). Exercise and the knee joint. Physical Fitness

Research Digest. 6(1). Washington, DC. President’s Council on

Physical Fitness and Sports.

21. Clarke H. (1976). Physical fitness practices and programs for

elementary and secondary schools. Physical Fitness

Research Digest. 6(4). Washington, DC. President’s Council on

Physical Fitness and Sports.

22. Clarke H. (1977). Exercise and aging. Physical Fitness

Research Digest. 7(2). Washington, DC. President’s Council on

Physical Fitness and Sports.

23. Clarke H. (1979). Update: physical activity and coronary heart

disease. Physical Fitness Research Digest. 9(2). Washington,

DC. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

24. Clarke H. (1979). Update: exercise and some coronary risk

factors. Physical Fitness Research Digest. 9(3). Washington,

DC. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

25. Clarke H. (1979) Physical and motor sex differences. Physical

Fitness Research Digest. 9(4). Washington, DC. President’s

Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

26. Francis R. The Equal Rights Amendment. In The history

behind the Equal Rights Amendment. Retrieved December

29, 2006, from

http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/era.htm.

27. Corbin C. and Pangrazi B. (1993). The health benefits of

physical activity. Physical Activity and Fitness Research

Digest. 1(1). President’s Council on Physical Fitness and

Sports. Washington, DC.

28. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy

People: What is Healthy People. Healthy People website.

Retrieved January 11, 2007, from

http://www.healthypeople.gov/About/whatis.htm.

29. Corbin C., Pangrazi R., and LeMasurier G. (2004). Physical

activity for children: current patterns and guidelines. PCPFS

Research Digest. 5(2). Washington, DC.

References

11. Clarke H. (1971). The totality of man. Physical Fitness

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12. Dalleck L. and Kravitz L. The history of fitness. Retrieved

December 6, 2006, from

http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/history/html.

13. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. History of

the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

Retrieved December 7, 2006, from

http://www.fitness.gov/50thanniversary/toolkitfirstfiftyyears.htm.

14. Slattery M. and Jacobs D. (1988). Physical fitness and

cardiovascular disease mortality. Amer Jrnl Epi, 127(3).

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15. University of Minnesota, Division of Epidemiology and Public

Health. The Seven Countries Study in brief. Retrieved

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http://www.epi.umn.edu/about/7countries/overview.shtm.

16. Framingham Heart Study (2006). Profile of the Framingham

Heart Study. Retrieved January 8, 2007, from

www.framingham.com/heart/profile.htm.

17. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. (2002). Research

milestones. In Framingham Heart Study: 50 years of research

success. Retrieved December 26, 2006, from

http://www.nhlbi.gov/about/framingham/timeline.htm.

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Physical Activity and Health: A report of the Surgeon General.

Atlanta, GA: USDHHS, Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention

and Health Promotion.

19. Clarke H. (1971). Basic understanding of physical fitness.

Physical Fitness Research Digest. 1(1). Washington, DC.

President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

10. Clarke H. (1972) The totality of man (continued). Physical

Fitness Research Digest. 2(1). Washington, DC. President’s

Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

11. Corbin C. and Pangrazi R. (1992). Are American children and

youth fit? Res Q Exer Sport, 63(2), 96-106.

12. Clarke H. (1975). Physical fitness testing in schools. Physical

Fitness Research Digest. 5(1). Washington, DC. President’s

Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

13. Clarke H. (1974). National adult fitness survey. Physical

Fitness Research Digest. 4(2). Washington, DC. President’s

Council on Physical Fitness and Sports.

14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Enhanced

physical education classes in schools are recommended to

increase physical activity among young people. Guide to

Community Preventive Services Website. Retrieved January

8, 2007, from

www.thecommunityguide.org/pa.

15. Ewing R., Schmid T., Killingsworth R., Zlot A., and

Raudenbush S. (2003). Relationship between urban sprawl

and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. Amer Jrnl Health

Promotion. 18(1), 47-57.