DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE $ National Owntc and 

- Atfm&phsrb Admlnlstratbn 

The Marine Mammal 

' Natlonal Marine Fisheries Service I 

Protection Act of 1972 

Annual Report 

April I, 1977, to March 31, 1978 
The Marine Mammal 

@Z % C 

Protection Act of 1972 & 

a@?3 6h7, , CCPE. P. Annual Report 

April 1,1977, to March 31, 1978 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Annlla M. Krops, Sam 

National Ocaanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Rkhard A. Fmk, Rdrninlstratur 

Nations! M wine Fisheries Service 

Terry t LelkeH, Assistant Adninishtw for Fisheries 
THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 

Washington, 0 C. 20230 

JUN 2 1 1978 

Sirs : 

It is my honor to submit the Annual Report of the Department 

of Commerce on the Administration of the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act of 1972 for the period of April 1, 1977, through 

March 31, 1978, as required by Section 103(f) of the Act. The 

responsibilities of the Department are limited to whales and 

porpoises of the Order Cetacea and seals and sea lions of the 

Suborder Pinnipedia. 

Sincerely, Po& Juanita M. Kreps 

Enclosure 

President of the Senate 

Speaker of the House of Representatives 
CONTENTS 

Part I-Introduction ......................... 1 

Legislative history of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 . 1 

Summary . The Marine Mammal Program .............. 2 

Part 11-Program activities-April 1. 1977. to March 31. 1978 ... 5 

Bowhead whales ......................... 5 

Incidental taking of marine mammals in the course of commercial 

fishing operations ...................... 5 

Three-year tuna-porpoise management program ........ 8 

Importing tuna ....................... 9 

Permits for public display and scientific research . 10 

Research permits ..................... 10 

Public display permits .................. 11 

Health and welfare of captive marine mammals ....... 12 

Beached or stranded animals .......... 12 

Authentic native articles of handicrafts and clothing ...... 12 

International program ...................... 13 

International Whaling Commission .............. 13 

United States-Mexico discussions .............. 14 

Antarctic Living Marine Resources ............. 14 

Convention on Nature Protection in the Western Hemisphere . 14 

North Pacific Fur Seal Commission ............. 15 

U . S.-U.S. S.R. Marine Mammal Project. Environmental .... Protection Agreement ............... 15 

Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission .......... 17 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 

Wild Fauna and Flora ............. 17 

Legalactions .......................... 18 

Law enforcement program ................ 19 

Returning management of marine mammals to Alaska ........ 21 

Optimum sustainable population ............ 21 

Depleted species of marine mammals ............... 22 

Research and development programs ........... 22 

Tuna-porpoise ................... 22 

Mortality reduction technology ............ 23 

Biological stock assessment research ......... 24 

Fleet performance ................... 26 

Northern fur seals. pinnipeds. and cetaceans ....... 27 

Northern fur seal program ............... 27 

Pinniped program ................. 28 

Cetacean program ................. 29 
Funding. . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 

Laws and treaties governing the protection of marine mammals . . 30 

Laws and treaties involving the United States . . . . . . . 30 

Miscellaneous regulations and agreements of U.S. interest . 32 

Part III-Current status of stocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 

Introduction.......................37 

Specieslist......... .......... 38 

Statusreports............. .......... 41 

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I82 

Part IV-Appendixes 

A - Tables 1-3: Incidental take of marine mammals in the 

course of commercial fishing operations 

Tables 4-11: Scientific research and public display permits 

B - Federal Register notices and regulations 

C - Funding table 

Part I - INTRODUCTION 

Legislative History of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 

In 1972, when the Marine Mammal Protection Act (the Act) was under 

consideration by the United States Senate and the House of 

Representatives, concern was expressed over the future of marine 

mammals. The Senate Committee on Cmmerce reported, "man's dealings, 

with marine mammals have in many areas resulted in overutilization of 

this precious natural resource. Many of the great whales which once 

populated the oceans now have dwindled to the edge of extinction. The 

canmercial hmting of whales has reduced these great mammals to the 

point that many may never be able to return to their original population 

size and balance in nature." Also, the Committee expressed concern over 

the incidental killing of thousands of porpoises (dolphins) each year by 

the U.S. tuna industry. 

The proposed legislation included other marine mammals such as manatees, 

sea otters, seals, polar bears, and walruses. During canmittee 

hearings, it was pointed out that one of the major incentives for the 

purchase of Alaska was the fur seal resource. Prior to 1911, when 

harvesting became regulated by treaty, this animal was exploited by 

canmercial interests. Although the northern fur seal herd in the 

Pribilofs seemed to be holding its own at the time of the Senate 

hearings, controversy rmained wer the method used to kill the seals. 

After public hearings, the Committee determined that "man's hand upon 

the environment had been severely heavy for some species of marine 

mammals." The basic issue before the Committee was whether to prohibit 

the killing of any marine mammal, or whether to continue to allow 

managed but restricted taking of certain mammals. Strong evidence was 

presented to the Committee that total and canplete protection without 

scientific management was not the best answer to solving the problems of 

marine mammals. Therefore, both the House of Representatives Committee 

on Merchant Marine and Fisheries and the Senate Cwmittee on Commerce 

recanmended legislation that imposed a moratorium for all taking of 

marine mammals, but with important exceptions. The basic moratorium of 

the Act does not apply to mammals already managed under international 

agreements, such as the northern fur seal. The Act allows the Secretary 

of Commerce or the Secretary of the Interior to make wildlife management 

decisions concerning exceptions and to issue permits for scientific 

research or display. Alaska Eskimos, Indians, and Aleuts are allowed to 

take marine mammals for subsistence. However, the Secretary may limit 
or end the native exemption if taking endangers, depletes, or inhibits 

the restoration of depleted or endangered stocks. Further, the 

Secretary was allowed to exempt persons from the provisions of the Act, 

for no more than 1 year, to prevent cases of undue econanic hardship. 

The Act calls for the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of the 

Interior to establish general regulations on taking and importing of 

marine mammals by species and to invite full public participation in 

this decision-making process. 

The Departments of Commerce and Interior were directed to start 

immediate research programs on marine mammals. In seeking answers about 

population sizes and canplex questions relating to their envirowental 

health, the Committees found confusion between social decisions and 

scientific knowledge. They concluded that our knowledge of marine 

mammals was not great enough for either proper conservation or 

canmercial use. 

The Act created a Marine Mammal Commission to review existing and 

proposed programs and research and a Committee of Scientific Advisors to 

assist the Commission. The Act requires each Secretary to initiate 

international negotiations in order to expand the principles of the Act 

to other countries. 

The Committee on Canmerce determined that the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was the agency best equipped to deal 

with marine mammals on an ecosystem basis in the oceans. Therefore, 

NOAA was given responsibility for the order Cetacea (whales and 

porpoises) and the Suborder Pinnipedia (seals and sea lions), except 

walruses. The Department of the Interior is responsible for sea otters, 

walruses, polar bears, dugongs, and manatees. 

Summary: The Marine Mammal Program 

After the Act became effective, the Administrator of NOAA gave authority 

to the Director of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) to carry 

out the functions of the Act. In 1976, the Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act expanded NMPS responsibilities under the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act to include the 200-mile Fishery Conservation Zone. 

The current program includes decisions regarding waivers of the 

moratorium, issuing permits for scientific research and public display, 

conducting research on marine mammals, enforcenent of the provisions of 

the Act, publishing the rules and regulations to control the status of 

marine mammal populations, cooperating with the states, and 

participation in international activities and agreements to conserve and 

manage marine mammals. A close working relationship is maintained with 

the Marine Mammal Commission and its Committee of Scientific Advisors. 
Fran the beginning of the program, the incidental killing of porpoises 

by ccmmercial fishermen while purse seining for yellowfin tuna has been 

a daninant issue. (NMFS uses the term porpoise as opposed to dolphin 

based on a long history of usage and to prevent confusion with the 

dolphin fish, an object of sport and ccmmercial fishing) . Therefore, 

one of the most significant acccmplishments of the current year's 

program was the publication Decmber 23, 1977, of a final decision on a 

3-year program to reduce the incidental mortality of porpoises. The 

program establishes the number of porpoises by species that can be taken 

during 1978, 1979, and 1980. The quota will decrease each year; by 1980 

the number allowed will be half the 62,429 allowed in 1977. The 

decision includes an enforcement policy on accidental taking of 

prohibited species, additions to previous gear and fishing procedure 

requirements, and provides for observers aboard each purse seine vessel 

for at least one trip each year. Also, the regulations prohibit 

importing yellowfin tuna from countries that do not ccmply with U.S. 

requirements. 

The bowhead whale issue touched on three aspects of the marine mammal 

program: the exemption for native subsistence, international agreanents, 

and assessment of population stocks. In the past, Alaska Eskimos, 

Aleuts, and Indians have been exempt from the moratorium of the Act. At 

the 29th Annual Meeting (Jbne 1977) of the International Whaling 

Commission (IWC), the IWC Scientific Committee reccmmended deleting the 

native exemption to hunt bowhead whales because in the past, the kill 

rate and struck and lost ratio were too high to sustain the limited 

bauhead population. However, in recognition of the native cultural need 

for bowhead whales, NMFS prepared a research and management plan which 

was reviewed by the IWC at a special meeting in Decmber 1977. The IWC 

voted to allow the Eskimo hunt in 1978 to have a quota of 12 whales 

landed or 18 struck, whichever occurs first. 

The taking of marine mammals for research and public display has been 

placed under a successful permit systen. Since 1972, 306 applications 

have been received. During this report period, 42 permits have been 

processed. The permit program's primary interest is to prevent any 

significant harmful effect on the populations of marine mammals or their 

enviroment when they are rmoved from the wild and to maintain their 

health and well-being after they are taken. 

On an international level, NMFS continues to work for worldwide 

acceptance of the Act through participation in various groups including 

the IWC, the In ter-American Tropical Tuna Canmission, U .S .-Mexico 

Discussions, the Parties to the Antarctic Treaty, the Organization of 

American States, the North Pacific fir Seal Commission, and the U.S.- 

U.S.S.R. Marine Mammal Project. 

The General Counsel's office of NOAA was imrolved in legal actions 

concerning the importation of baby fur seal skins £ran South Africa, 

regulations governing the incidental take of porpoises in cmrnercial 
fishing for yellowfin tuna, and enforcement of the Act. 

The law enforcement office is responsible for enforcing the provisions 

of the Act. This year, NMFS initiated 464 investigations into alleged 

violations of the Act. Most violations involve persons who illegally 

import or kill marine mammals. 

In 1973, the State of Alaska asked the Secretary of Commerce to waive 

the moratorium on seven species of marine mammals and return their 

management to the State. In June 1977, an Administrative Law Judge 

found the Federal proposal acceptable. A final decision will be made by 

the Administrator of NOAA. 

The marine mammal research program is carried out at two NMFS research 

centers. The research program at the Northwest and Alaska Fisheries 

Center, Seattle, Wash., includes population stock assessments of the 

behead, gray, humpback, and killer whales, the Hawaiian monk seal, and 

the California and northern sea lions. The research program at the 

Southwest Fisheries Center, La Jolla, Calif., is concerned with oceanic 

porpoise populations and their relation to the tuna fishery. 

Bowhead Whale 

4 
PART I1 - PROGRAM ACTIVITIES 

April 1, 1977, to March 31, 1978 

Bowhead Whales 

In 1931, bowhead whales were given protection fran canmercial whaling by 

the Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and later, by the 

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, the Marine 

Mammal Protection Act of 1972, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA), 

and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 

Fauna and Flora. These Conventions and Acts allowed Eskimos, Aleuts, and 

Indians to hunt bowhead whales for subsistence needs. However, at the 

29th Annual Meeting (June 1977) of the IWC, the Scientific Committee 

recanmended deletion of the native exemption for the killing of bowhead 

whales. The IWC accepted the recanmendation by a 16-0 vote, with the 

United States abstaining. During the 90-day period when the United 

States could legally file an objection to the decision, NMFS held 

informal public hearings in Alaska and Washington, D.C., and issued a 

Draft and Final Environnental Impact Statenent that included danestic, 

international, and environmental considerations. The United States' 

decision not to file an objection was challenged in a series of court 

actions, ending with Supreme Court Justice Warren E. Burger upholding 

the Secretary of State's determination not to file an objection. 

However, in recognition of the native cultural need for hunting bowhead 

whales, NMFS prepared a research and management plan and recanmended a 

whale harvest for 1978 of 15 landed or 30 struck, whichever occurred 

first. This plan was submitted to the IWC and reviewed at a special 

meeting in December 1977. As a result, the IWC voted to allow a quota 

of 12 whales landed or 18 struck, whichever occurs first, for the Eskimo 

hunt in 1978. To implement the IWC decision, NMFS published regulations 

under the Whaling Convention Act of 1949. An extensive 3-year research 

progran on bowhead whales began in early 1978. 

Incidental Taking of Marine Mammals in the Course 

of Canmercial Fishing Operations 

After October 20, 1974, the Act prohibited the taking of marine mammals 

in the course of canmercial fishing operations without a General Permit 

and Certificate of Inclusion. Five categories of General Permits were 

designed to reduce marine mammal mortality and serious injury. Five 

danestic General Permits were issued to allow marine mammals to be taken 

in the course of canmercial fishing operations through December 31, 

1977. Also, eight foreign associations representing fishermen £ran 

Bulgaria, East Germany, Japan, Korea, and the U.S.S.R., submitted 10 

applications for general permits to take marine mammals during 1977 in 
the Fishery Conservation Zone established by the Fishery conservation 

and Management Act of 1976. Table 1 illustrates the general permit 

applications. Public concern over porpoise deaths incidental to tuna 

purse seining operations reached a peak in 1976. Court actions resulted 

in a District Court order that prevented permits from being issued until 

the optimum sustainable population (OSP) of each species or stock of 

porpoise taken and the effects of taking on these populations had been 

determined. The District Court directed NMFS to publish and make 

available, prior to holding public hearings on proposed regulations, the 

following statements required by the Act: 

(1) the estimated existing population levels of 

the species and stocks concerned; 

(2) the expected impact of the proposed regulations 

on the optimum sustainable population of these 

species and stocks; and 

(3) the evidence upon which the regulations are based. 

A workshop of prominent international scientists convened in July 1976 

to estimate the population levels of the various species and stocks of 

marine mammals affected by the tuna purse seine fishery. The report of 

the workshop provided, for the first time, sufficient scientific 

information concerning optimum sustainable populations to meet the 

requirements of the Act as interpreted by the District Court. Following 

the workshop, NMFS published proposed regulations to govern the taking 

of marine mammals in the course of canmercial tuna purse seine fishing. 

The proposed regulations were extensively reviewed during public 

hearings before an Administrative Law Judge (ALJ), who gave his 

recanmended decision to the Director of NMFS on January 17, 1977. The 

Director's decision, based on the ALJ decision and the public hearing 

record, was published with the final regulations in the Federal Register 

on March 1, 1977. On April 15, 1977, a general permit was issued to the 

American Tunaboat Association authorizing fishermen to take incidentally 

a limited number of porpoises while purse seining for tuna during 1977. 

The general permit established for the first time limits on all aspects 

of incidental take, including pursuit and encirclement of porpoise, as 

well as mortality. 

The take and mortality limits set in the general permit were based on 

specific requirenents of the Act, which does not allow a take for 

species or stocks when adequate data are not available to assess the 

effect taking would have on the population. Adequate population data 

were available in 1977 to determine the status of the eastern spinner 

dolphin stock relative to its optimum sustainable population (OSP). The 

eastern spinner stock was determined to be at the lmr end of OSP. 

Therefore, for the purposes of a general permit, the species was 

considered depleted and taking was prohibited. 

The tuna industry and emirormental groups challenged the regulations 

and general permit conditions. The industry felt the decision to 
consider the eastern spinner dolphin as depleted was overreactive and 

unsupported by available data. They felt vessel masters would be 

subject to severe penalties for not detecting a small number of eastern 

spinners in a large school of other species of porpoises, until the 

entire group had been encircled. Also, they were concerned about the 

or&inal quota of 7,840 whitebelly spinners. Most U.S. tuna vessels 

remained in port until mid-May. 

However, NMFS determined that the eastern spinner stock could withstand 

some mortality without being disadvantaged. Also, unintentional and 

accidental taking may be unavoidable. Therefore, on May 4, 1977, the 

Secretary established an enforcenent policy statement that said a purely 

accidental take of eastern spinner, by itself, would not be a cause for 

issuing a Notice of Violation. Several environmental groups challenged 

the regulations based on alleged inadequacies in the statements made in 

canpliance with the Act. The U.S. District Court for the District of 

Columbia denied the motion for a preliminary injunction and commended 

NMFS for its thorough population analysis. 

Tuna-boat equipped with "Super Apron" 
Thr ee-year Tuna-Pomo ise Management Progrm 

Proposed regulations published July 20, 1977, authorized the taking of 

porpoises incidental to tuna purse seine fishing for a 3year period 

(1978-80). The proposed amendments wre designed to authorize issuance 

of a general permit for a 3-year period rather than 1 year; establish 

quotas for calendar years 1978, 1979, and 1980; state an enforcement 

po licy regarding accidental takings; amend gear and fishing procedure 

requirenents; an4 prwide administrative procedures for mending the 

regulations and permit conditions. A Draft Environmental Impact 

Statement on the proposed regulations was made available for public 

canment on August 19, 1977. The Final Impact Statement was filed with 

the Council on Enviromental Quality on November 25, 1977. Public 

hearings were held before ALJ Frank W. Vanderheyden in August 1977 in 

San Diego, Calif., and in September in Washington, D. C. Further, ' 

opening and reply briefs were served and oral arguments heard. The 

&J's Recanmended Decision was semed on November 4, 1977, and much of 

it was adopted as the Administrator's (NOAA) final decision. Full 

details of the final decision were published, along with the final 

regulations, in the Federal Register Decanber 23, 1977. 

The 3-year quota program established the numbers of marine mammals that 

can be taken during calendar years 1978, 1979, and 1980 by U.S. vessels 

in the course of commercial fishing operations. Table 2 lists the 

annual quotas for each species stock. The 3-year general permit system 

allows continuity in management of the porpoise stocks and at a minimum 

guarantees a steady reduction in incidental porpoise mortality. The 3- 

year quotas by species require a 50-percent reduction in the maximum 

mortality allawable by 1980 from the 1977 aggregate quota level of 

62,429. The level has been set at 51,945 in 1978, 41,610 in 1979, and 

31,150 in 1980. 

A general permit issued to the American Tunaboat Association on December 

27, 1977, is valid from January 1, 1978, to December 31, 1980. The 

Assistant Administrator for Fisheries may, upon receiving new and 

significant information, propose to modify the quotas. However, these 

proposals must be published in the Federal Register, along with 

statements required by the Act. Also, a 30-day public cunment period 

will be allowed. 

The new regulations incorporate not only the 1977 enforcement policy for 

accidentally taking eastern spinner dolphins, but cwer other prohibited 

species as well. The regulations require the same porpoise protection 

gear as in 1977, with one major addition. The large purse seiners must 

install a porpoise or "super" apron and make a trial set under WFS 

supervision before July 1, 1978. A super apron is a triangular section 

of 1 and 114 inch mesh webbing, approximately 90 fathoms long by 7 

fathoms deep and is placed on top of a fine-mesh safety panel (a 180- by 

12-fathom insert of 1 114-inch webbing) . A joint NMFS-industry test 
found the apron/chute system superior to the fine-mesh safety panel 

alone. The apronlchute system is a finemesh safety panel plus a 

trapezoidal shaped super apron topped by an additional 26-fathom long by 

5-fathom deep smaller trapezoidal section of finemesh webbing. The 

super apron (a slightly modified apronlchute) , if properly installed and 

operated, should reduce the porpoise mortality rate significantly over 

the now required fine-mesh webbing system. Other porpoise release gear 

or procedures remain relatively unchanged. 

Observers will be placed on each certificated vessel for at least one 

trip per year from 1978 through 1980. 03servers will monitor individual 

species and stock quotas, prwide a continuing profile of the 

performance of each individual operator and certificated vessel, and 

collect data on canpliance with the regulations. 

Importing Tuna 

Regulations govern the importing of fish and fish products caught in 

connection with marine mammals and allow'the Assistant Administrator of 

Fisheries to permit the importation of yellowfin tuna and tuna products 

from nations that meet U.S. requirements. These countries may not 

import tuna into the United States until they have applied for and 

received a favorable finding from the Assistant Administrator. After a 

decision is made, the findings are published. 

The Assistant Administrator originally identified 14 nations as having 

tuna purse seine vessels operating in the ETP fishery. fro nations 

certified that their purse seine vessels had been renoved from the ETP. 

Eight nations prwided NMFS with sufficient information to aemonstrate 

that their vessels were operating in substantial conformance with U.S. 

marine mammal regulations and were exempted from the importation 

prohibition. Two additional nations operating tuna purse seiners in the 

ETP were notified that their tuna imports would be prohibited after July 

31, 1978, unless they received a favorable finding. 

Seven of the nations involved are members of the Inter-American Tropical 

Tuna Commission (IATTC), an eight-member canmission (the United States 

is the eighth member nation) established under a 1950 treaty to conserve 

and manage yellowfin tuna stocks in the ETP. The Commission unanimously 

passed a resolution in June 1977 to establish an international tunaporpoise research and observer program. This program will provide new 

data on the involvement of the international purse seine fleet in 

porpoise-associated tuna fishing. 

The IATTC observer program is designed to collect porpoise mortality 

data and educate all purse seine captains in the latest porpoise release 

gear and procedures. 

Table 3 lists all nations required to obtain a finding, their IATTC 

membership, and status of a yellowfin tuna import prohibition. 
Permits for Public Display and Scientific Research 

Although the Act declared a moratorium on the taking or importing of 

marine mammals and marine mammal products, it included exceptions that 

allow continuing research on marine mammals and taking of marine mammals 

for public display. However, the health and well-being of the species 

and populations involved must not be harmed when the animals are removed 

fran the wild, or while they are captive. Also, the marine ecosystem 

must not be harmed when the animals are taken or when permitted 

activities take place in the animals' habitat. Permit applications are 

reviewed and canrnented upon by the Marine Mammal Commission and its 

Committee of Scientific Advisors. Since the Act became effective, NMFS 

has resolved 306 permit applications. During this reporting period, 42 

applications were received; 30 have been resolved and 12 are pending. 

Tables 5 through 11, Appendix A, provide an overview of the permit 

progrm, both for this year and since the Act became effective. Table 5 

lists applications received, the number of marine mammals requested, the 

actions taken on applications, and the number of marine mammals 

authorized to be taken and/or imported. Tables 6 and 7 list the number 

of each species of marine mammals requested in permit applications. 

Tables 8 and 9 list the number of marine mammals authorized to be taken 

and/or imported under scientific research and public display permits. 

Tables 10 and 11 summarize the reported actual take from the wild. 

Permit holders are required to submit reports on the progress and 

results of their research and the health and condition of marine mammals 

under their care. 

A fee is charged to cwer the administrative cost of issuing a permit. 

A public display permit holder fee is $200; a scientific research permit 

holder fee is $25. Fees are waived for Federal and State agencies. 

During this reporting year, $6,600 has been collected from permit 

holders and deposited in miscellaneous receipts of the U.S. Treasury. 

Research Permits 

The criteria used by the Assistant Administrator for Fisheries to issue 

a scientific research permit include whether the proposed taking or 

importing is consistent with the policies and purpose of the Act and 

whether granting the permit is required to further genuine, necessary, 

or desirable research. Another consideration is the anticipated 

benefits from the scientific research and the effects of the proposed 

taking or importing on the population stock and the marine ecosystem. 

Most research activities involve marine mammals that are not removed 

fran the ecosystem. 
Public display of porpoises - Sea Life Park, Hawaii 

Public Display Permits 

In determining whether to issue a public display permit, the Assistant 

Administrator for Fisheries considers: (1) whether the proposed taking 

or importing will be consistent with the Act's policies and purposes, 

(2) whether a substantial public benefit will be gained from the 

display when the manner of the display and the anticipated audience are 

balanced with the effect of the proposed taking or importing on the 

population stock of marine mammals and the marine ecosystem, and (3) 

the applicant's qualifications for the proper care and maintenance of 

the marine mammal, including adequate holding facilities. 
Health and Welfare of Captive Marine Mammals 

A major consideration in issuing permits to capture and maintain marine 

mammals, for either scientific research or public display, is the 

quality of care provided. Soon after passage of the Act, WFS developed 

requirements for marine mammal care and maintenance that are now used as 

criteria for all permits involving captive marine mammals. These 

requirements appeared as Appendix C to the July 1973, Report of the 

Secretary of Commerce on Administration of the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act of 1972. 

Since 1972, NMFS has worked closely with the Marine Mammal Canmission, 

the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) of the Department of Interior, and 

the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the Department 

of Agriculture, representatives of the marine mammal display industry, 

and concerned public groups to develop canprehensive standards for the 

care and maintenance of captive marine mammals. In October 1975, the 

Marine Mammal Commission prepared a set of recanmended standards and 

guidelines. 

The NMFS, FWS, and APHIS are developing ways to implement standards 

proposed by APHIS under the Animal Welfare Act of 1970. 

Beached or Stranded Marine Mammals 

The handling of living stranded marine mammals has been a continuing 

problem since passage of the Act. The inventory of stranded yet healthy 

marine mammals has increased as knowledge about caring for them has 

increased; most cannot be successfully returned to the wild. A valid 

permit holder may substitute a stranded animal for a captured one. A 

nonpermit holder who takes a stranded marine mammal is bound by 

conditions similar to a regular permit. Recently, most cases involving 

beached cr stranded animals have been resolved at the regional level. 

Authentic Native Articles of Handicrafts and Clothing 

Marine mammals can be taken by an Eskimo, Aleut, or Indian to create and 

sell authentic native crafts and clothing and may be transferred to a 

registered tannery, either directly or through a registered agent. 

Examples of traditional native handicrafts include weaving, carving, 

stitching, lacing, beading, drawing, and painting. 

Also, marine mammals taken in Alaska by natives for subsistence may be 

sent to a registered tannery for processing and then returned to the 

native. Any tannery or person who wishes to act as an agent within the 

jurisdiction of the United States may apply for a certificate that will 

allow the tannery or agent to possess and process marine mammal products 

for Eskimos, Aleuts, and Indians. Eight tanneries and 23 agents have 

been granted Certificates of Registration since 1973; 1 tannery and 3 

agents were certified this year. 
International Programs 

The International Marine Mammal program seeks to achieve worldwide 

cooperation for the conservation and protection of whales, seals, sea 

lions, and porpoises through involvement with canmissions, conventions, 

meetings, and discussions. 

International Whaling Commission (IWC) 

At its 29th Meeting in June 1977 and at its Special Meeting in December 

1977, the IWC continued to establish catch limits for canmercial whaling 

based on recanmendations of the Scientific Canmittee. The new 

management procedure was followed without modification. The result of 

both meetings was a reduction of 4,530 whales from the total allowable 

catch of the previous year. 

The Scientific Canmittee recanmended that all but two stocKs of southern 

hemisphere sei whales should be protected; the IWC reduced the catch 

allowed from the previous year by 58.5 percent. 

The recanmendations of the Scientific Committee adopted by the IWC in 

June 1977 to reduce the allowed catch of 7,200 North Pacific sperm 

&ales in the 1977 season to 763 in the 1978 season was tentatively 

adopted by the IWC pending review at special meetings in November and 

December. Based upon a reassessment by the Scientific Committee, the 

allowable catch limit was raised to 6,444 North Pacific sperm whales for 

the 1978 season. 

At the June meeting, the IWC decided, on the basis of a Scientific 

Committee recanmendation, to prohibit the taking of right whales, 

including bowheads, by aboriginal people. After the possibility of a 

special meeting of IWC on North Pacific sperm whales had been 

established and other issues had been added to the agenda, the United 

States requested the IWC to reconsider its position on the bowhead 

whale. The Commission agreed that in 1978 Alaska Eskimos may kill 12 or 

strike 18 bowhead whales, whichever occurs first, as long as no calves 

or females with calves are taken. 

Most regulations adopted by the IWC encouraged nonmember whaling nations 

to becane members of the IWC. Resolutions seeking cooperation from 

Chile, Republic of Korea, Peru, Portugal, and Spain were adopted and 

sent to these nations. Other resolutions stated that IWC member nations 

should (1) prevent transfer of vessels or gear to nonmember nations, (2) 

discourage dissemination by their citizens of expertise and assistance 

necessary to conduct whaling to nonmember nations, and (3) prevent 

import of whale products from norbnember whaling nations. 
U.S. - Mexico Discussions 

Discussions were held with officials of the Department of Fisheries of 

Mexico in Mexico City, January 11 and 12, 1978, to discuss an agreement 

on the protection and conservation of marine mammals. 

Antarctic Living Marine Resources 

Due to the increased interest and exploitation of krill in the 

Antarctic, the Ninth Consultative Meeting of the Parties to the 

Antarctic Treaty will hold a special meeting to draft a convention on 

living marine resources. NMFS encourages the establishment of a 

conservation program for living marine resources in the Antarctic 

because many marine mammal species, including endangered whales, depend 

upon krill for food. NMFS took part in a special consultative meeting 

on this subject, February 27 to March 16, 1978, in Canberra, Australia. 

Cowention on Nature Protection in the Western He_m_isphere. Meeting of 

Marine Mammal Experts Convened by Organization of American States(0AS) 

The OAS will hold five meetings of experts in different areas of nature 

protection to revitalize the Convention on Nature Protection in the 

Western Hemisphere. In his envirowental message to Congress, May 

23, 1977, President Carter said the United States should make use of 

this Convention, which many Western Hemisphere nations have ratified. 

The first expert meeting, held September 1977 in Puerto Madryn, 

Argentina, was attended by marine mammal specialists from several 

Western Hemisphere nations, including the United States. The group 

prepared recanmendations on (1) sanctuary areas for marine mammals, (2) 

priority research on marine mammals, and (3) bilateral or multilateral 

agreements between Western Hemisphere nations to conserve marine 

mammals. 

Once the five expert meetings are canpleted, the OAS will hold a 

conference of the parties to the Convention in late 1979 when they will 

review the findings and recanmendations of the expert groups and make 

final recanmendations to member nations. 
Northern Fur Seals 

North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 

The Twentieth Annual Meeting of the North Pacific Fur Seal Commission in 

Tokyo, Japan, March 22-25, 1977, considered the reports of the Standing 

Scientific Committee and the Finance and Administration Committee. 

There was no change in the prohibition of pelagic sealing for canmercial 

purposes. The United States announced that it would allow 350 fur seals 

to be taken on St. George Island by the native population for 

subsistence purposes. The U.S.S.R. announced plans to take 2,500 fur 

seal pups as an experimental harvest. 

The total harvest of fur seals in 1976 was 5,200 by the U.S.S.R. (2,500 

on Robben Island and 2,700 on the Commander Islands) and 23,081 by the 

United States on St. Paul Island. 

U.S.-U.S.S.R. Marine Mammal Project, Environmental Protection Mreement 

The objective of the U.S.4J.S.S.R. Marine Mammal Project is to develop 

collaborative research on the biology, ecology, and population dynamics 

of marine mammals of mutual interest to both nations that will 

contribute toward sound management and conservation of these animals. 

The NMFS has the lead role for the United States in this project. 

During the first quarter of 1977, two Soviet scientists worked at U.S. 

laboratories in La Jolla and San Diego, Calif. A. Yablokov worked with 

W. E. .Evans (Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute) in studying basic color 

patterns of cetaceans for distinguishing between wild populations and 

between individuals within populations and herds. They studied color 
patterns of many specimens of killer and sperm whales and porpoise 

species and conducted field observations on four species of porpoise 

during a 3-day trip on a Ses-World research vessel. 

A. S. Sokolov worked with W. F. Perrin (NMFS, La Jolla) in examining 

certain anatomical characteristics of five different genera of porpoises 

and collected new data for taxoncnnic and functional morphologicsl 

studies. 

During a 4-week visit in April and May, two U.S. scientists, W. F. Evans 

and C. Scott Johnson visited laboratories in Moscow, Leningrad, and 

Batumi, Georgian S.S.R., on the Black Sea. The two scientists conducted 

numerous discussions on the subjects of cetacean hearing and biosonar 

work in the U.S.4.S. S.R. and general acoustic work going on in our 

countries with regard to marine mammals. They presented seminars in 

Moscow at the Laboratory of Postnatal Ontogeny and at the Institute of 

Developmental Biology. They also presented seminars at the Acoustical 

Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. and at the 

Zoological Institute of Leningrad. They visited the first Russian 

oceanarium at Batumi on the Black Sea and several academic and research 

institutions in that region. 

In April and May, Serge Birk, NMFS, participated in a cooperative whale 

tagging and observational cruise aboard the Soviet research whale 

catcher Zharkii. The purpose of the research cruise was to develop 

information on cetacean biology, distribution, abundance, and movements 

in order to formulate rational conservation and management policies. 

The species of particular concern on this cruise were sperm and Bryde's 

whales. In addition, the research cruise was interested in 

observational data on porpoise, although few were sighted during the 

cruise. The Zharkii surveyed areas around New Hebrides, New Caledonia, 

and the Fiji Islands. During the 4-week, approximately 5,000-mile 

survey, 452 sperm whales were observed and 58 were tagged. A great deal 

of useful information was obtained on the cruise, including data on 

estimated size, sex, and family groupings. Behavior was observed during 

tagging efforts. 

Two Soviet scientists, V. A. Zemsky and A. A. Berzin, participated in 

rdio tagging experiments on humpback whales in southeastern Alaska. 

Field tests of the remotely applied radio tags =re made in the latter 

part of July throughout the area of Stevens Passage and Frederick Sound, 

approximately 50 to 60 miles south of Juneau. This was the second year 

of a planned 5-year test program to determine the feasibility of radio 

tagging large whales in oceanic conditions. The scientist implanted 

five radio tags; four of the transmitters functioned perfectly and 

enabled scientists £ran the Marine Mammal Division, Northwest and Alaska 

Fisheries Center, NMFS, and the Soviet participants to track the whales 

for several days wer a number of miles. 
The Soviet scientists had discussions with numerous marine mammal 

scientists in Alaska and Seattle, Wash., and visited laboratories and 

museums in the Seattle area. 

The U.S. Steering/Planning Committee held a series of meetings in 

December 1977, and considered: review of the Memorandum of the Joint 

Committee meeting held on November 15 and 16; discussion of topics to be 

advanced at the Joint Marine Mammal Project meeting in July 1978; U.S. 

proposals for future joint research; future walrus surveys by both the 

Soviet and American sides; various matters concerning structure and 

functions of the Steering Committee including membership and rotation 

schedules, the manner of conducting business and incorporating 

information from the scientific canmunity, our efforts and success in 

informing the scientific community about the U.S.-U.S.S.R. enviromental 

agreement, necessity. for a more formalized record of canmittee 

activities; and the difficult questions concerning reciprocity in 

opportunities for field work on the parts of both the United States and 

the U.S.S.R. 

In ter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) 

Members of the IATTC met June 27-29, 1977, in San Diego, Calif., to 

discuss the tuna-porpoise problem. The discussions focused on a 

Commission staff document entitled "The Tuna-Porpoise Relationship: 

Research, Management, and Possible IATTC Role." Following a review of 

the Commission staff's proposal for porpoise research, member countries 

agreed to undertake research to evaluate the status of the porpoise 

populations in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean (ETP). The IATTC 

authorized a program for porpoise research that will focus primarily on 

(1) recmihnent and training of scientific technicians who will 

accanpany vessels at sea and collect data on the stocks of porpoise in 

the eastern Pacific and (2) workshops to waluate and disseminate 

porpoise- saving techniques and gear technology. 

At the IATTC's 1977 Annual Meeting, the budget necessary to implement 

the international tuna-porpoise program was presented and approved by 

the canmission subject to approval through internal national procedures. 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora 

and Fauna 

In an advisory capacity to the Management Authority of the Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (July 

1975), NMFS participated in the development of U.S. policy, regulations, 

and an identification manual for implementation of the Convention. 

Implementing regulations were published by the FWS, Department of the 

Interior (Management Authority), and became effective May 23, 1977. 

Import, export, re-export, and introduction from the sea of convention 

animals are controlled by the U.S. Management Authority for the 

Convention through a systm of permits and enforcement. Endangered 
species receiving protection under the Convention are listed on Appendix 

I or Appendix 11. Trade is more strictly controlled for Appendix I 

species. 

As a member of the Scientific Authority of the Endangered Species 

Convention, NMPS evaluated applications for permits to trade in 

Convention species and participated in the development of U.S. policy 

for trade mder the Convention. 

Marine mammals under the protection of the Convention are listed in the 

section on Laws and Treaties. 

Legal Actions 

Animal Welfare Institute, et al. v. Juanita Kreps, et &., No. 76-2148 

(D.C. Cir. 1977); and Canmittee for Humane Legislation. Inc., and 

Friends of Animals, Inc. v. Juanita Kreps, et al., No. 76-2149 (D.C. 

Cir. 1977). 

The above actions are appeals fran the United States District Court for 

the District of Columbia of D.C. Civil Actions Nos. 764483 and 76-0484. 

The District Court held that the plaintiffs lacked standing to challenge 

a decision by the Governnent defendants to waive the moratorium imposed 

by the Marine Mammal Protection Act and allow the United States to 

import the skins of baby fur seals fran South Africa. 

On July 27, 1977, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia 

reversed the decision of the District Court and held that the appellants 

did have standing, and that the Goverwent's decision to waive the ban 

on importing the skins of baby fur seals violates the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act. 

On October 25, 1977, the Governnent respondent filed a Petition for a 

Writ of Certiorari with the Suprene Court of the United States (No. 77- 

601). The petition raised two questions: (1) Whether the respondent 

organizations had standing to challenge the waiver decision and 

implementing regulations, and (2) Whether the U.S. Court of Appeals for 

the District of Columbia properly rejected the interpretation by the 

Department of Cwmerce of the limitation on importing seals that were 

less than 8 months old or nursing when taken. The petition was denied. 

Committee for Humane Legislation, et al. v. Kreps, et al., No. 774564 

(D.D.C. June 30, 1977) 

On March 30, 1977, the Committee for Humane Legislation (CHL) filed a 

Complaint and Motion for a Preliminary Injunction in the District of 

Columbia District Court seeking to prevent implementation of regulations 

governing the incidental take of marine mammals in conmercial yellowfin 

tuna fishing operations. CHL alleged that the regulations did not 
canply fully with the requirements of the Marine Mammal Protection Act. 

On June 30, the Court upheld the validity of the regulations and 

dismissed the CHL suit. The Court found that the regulations and 

general permit canplied in all respects with the requirements of the 

Act. 

A suit brought by the American Tunaboat Association (ATA) seeking 

judicial rwiew of the same regulations was transferred frw the 

District Court in San Diego to Washington, D.C., and joined with the CHL 

case. In June, the ATA was dismissed from the case because it failed to 

file an answer. 

Legal actions related to law enforcement are discussed in the following 

section. 

Law Enf orcement Program 

The Law Enforcenent Division, NMFS, is responsible for enforcing the 

provisions of the Act. Most violations of the Act this year involved 

the alleged illegal importing or killing of marine mammals. In the 

Southwest Region (California), most law enforcement activities concerned 

the incidental take of porpoise by tuna fishermen. 

During the reporting period, NMFS agents initiated 464 investigations 

into alleged violations of the Act. Of these, 364 actual violations 

were documented, and 224 cases were closed by assessing civil penalties 

and/or forfeiting seized contraband; 2 cases were closed through 

successful criminal prosecution, and 100 cases were closed as unfounded 

or for lack of evidence. At present, approximately 164 cases are 

pending. Of the total investigations initiated, 375 seizures involving 

1,061 illegal items were made. Twenty-nine of the alleged violations 

were tuna-porpoise related. The remaining 89 investigations under 

illegal takings involved harassment, which generally does concern a 

tangible, seizable object. 

Contracts, which provide funds for enforcement of the Act, were 

renegotiated with the States of Alaska, California, Florida, Oregon, and 

Washington at a cost of $443,000. NMFS works closely with the law 

enforcement agencies of these States to improve their effectiveness in 

achieving cmpliance with the Act. During the reporting period, State 

officers worked 4,297 hours under NMFS contracts. State agencies 

initiated 65 investigations into possible violations of the Act; 3 cases 

were referred to NMFS for further action, and 21 were closed. State 

officials also monitored 44 marine mammal capture operations carried out 

under permits issued by NMFS and made 30 inspections of marine mammal 

holding facilities. 
ULv. w, No. 77-94-CR-T-H (M.D. Fla. Sept. 15, 1977) 

The U.S. District Court for the middle district of Florida found a 

resident of that State guilty on October 25, 1977, of unlawfully 

shooting dolphins fran a small boat. This individual was sentenced to 2 

years' probation and forfeited to the Federal Government the boat, 

: motor, and trailer used in canmitting the offense. 

U& v. Lewis. et.al. 

On January 11, 1978, two individuals pleaded guilty to the killing and 

possession of a dolphin. The U.S. District Court in St. Thomas, V. I. 

sentenced the parties to $100 fines; one fine was reduced to $25. 

U.S. - v. Mitchell, 553 F. 2d 996, (S.D. Fla. 1977) 

OwJune 13, 1977, the U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals in Florida 

overturned the June 1976 conviction of a U.S. citizen for illegally 

taking 21 dolphins within the territorial waters of another nation. In 

handing dam its decision, the court stated that the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act does not specify that the moratorium imposed on the 

taking of marine mammals applies to the activities of U.S. citizens in 

the waters of foreign countries. Therefore, the taking of the dolphins 

was not a violation of the Act. This decision has resulted in NMFS 

altering its position that the Act applies to U.S. citizens regardless 

of the location of their marine mammal activities. NMFS does not 

require permits for U.S. citizens to take marine mammals wfthin the 

territorial waters of other countries for public display or scientific 

research. A permit, however, would be necessary to import these 

animals. 

Marine Wonderland v. Kreps, No. 78-0398 (D.D.C. March 23, 1978) 

This suit challenged U.S. jurisdiction under the Act to impose 

administrative civil penalties. Canadian aquarium owner John Holer and 

two employees, all of *om have been issued Marine Mammal Protection Act 

cfvil penalty notices for their January 1977 importation of eight 

porpoises, seek injunction against further processing of cases on the 

grounds that (1) the United States has no personal jurisdiction over 

then and (2) that the MMPA does not reach the kind of "importation" in 

question. This case involved the air transportation of porpoises from 

Mexico to Canada with a scheduled refueling stop in the United States. 

The District Court dismissed the suit. 
Returning Management of Marine Mammals to Alaska 

The'~ct all- return of management to individual States if the States' 

uws are consistent with the Act and if rules and regulations 

established by the Federal Government are followed. 

In 1973, the State of Alaska applied to the Secretary of Conmerce to 

waive the moratorium on bearded, harbor, ribbon, ringed and spotted 

seals, northern sea lions, and belukha whales and to return management 

of these species to the State. A simultaneous request was made to the 

Secretary of the Interior regarding sea otters, polar bears, and 

walruses. 

The Department of the Interior and the Department of Cwmerce jointly 

agreed to propose the waiver by publishing proposed regulations and a 

draft emirormental impact statement. A hearing on the record was held 

in Alaska and Washington, D.C. in 1976. On June 30, 1977, the 

Administrative Law Judge recanmended to the Directors of NMFS and FWS 

that subject to certain modifications, a waiver of the moratorium and a 

return of management to the State would be in accord with the terms and 

policies of the Act. 

On March 27, 1978, the two Departments forwarded to EPA the required 

final envirormental impact statement (FEIS). The next requirenent is a 

final decision based on the hearing record and the ALJ decision which 

will be made jointly by the Administrator of NOAA and the Director, FWS. 

Before actual management can be returned, if that is the final decision, 

the State would be required to canply with certain requirenents made by 

the Federal agencies. 

Optimum Sustainable Population 

The interrelated concepts of optimum sustainable population (OSP) and 

optimum carrying capacity (OCC), as used in the Act, are basic elanents 

of a management program to protect and conserve marine mammals. The Act 

defines OCC as the "ability of a given habitat to support the optimum 

sustainable population of a species or population stock in a healthy 

state without diminishing the ability of the habitat to continue that 

fmction." The definition of OSP has evolved to mean, a population size 

that falls within a range fran the population level of a given species 

or stock that is the largest supportable within the ecosysten to the 

population level that results in maximum net productivity. Maximum net 

productivity is the greatest net annual increment in population numbers 

or bianass resulting £ran additions to the population due to 

reproduction and/or growth, less losses due to natural mortality. 

The lower end of the OSP range is believed to lie between 50 and 70 

percent of the initial size of the unharvested population. The working 
definition of optimum sustainable population will be modified as 

knowledge and understanding of the concept grows. 

Depleted Species of Marine Mammals 

The Act acknowledges that certain species and population stocks of 

marine mammals are or may be in danger of extinction or depletion as a 

result of man's activities. 

When a species is-declared depleted, it canes under a provision of the 

Act (as amended by the Endangered Species Act of 1973) that states, 

"Except for scientific research purposes as provided for in paragraph 

(1) of this subsection, during the moratorium no permit may be issued 

for the taking of any marine mammal which is classified as an endangered 

species or threatened species pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 

1973, or has been designated by the Secretary as depleted, and no 

importation may be made of any such mammal." 

Alaska natives are exempt fran these provisions of the Act when taking 

is for subsistence or for creating and selling authentic native articles 

of handicrafts and clothing and is not accanplished in a wasteful 

manner. However, the Secretary may regulate the native take of any 

marine mammal designated as depleted. NMFS declared the Hawaiian monk 

seal (Monachus schauinslandi) depleted September 1, 1976, and the 

bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) depleted November 25, 1977. 

Research and Development Programs 

Tun a-Po mo ise 

The Oceanic Fisheries Resources Division, NMFS, Southwest Fisheries 

Center, has two marine mammal research programs that are primarily 

concerned with oceanic porpoise populations and their relation to the 

tuna fishery. The programs are designed to carry out NMFS 

responsibilities under the Act and include three basic objectives: 

(1) develop and refine methods and technology to reduce further 

porpoise mortality incidental to yellowf in tuna purse 

seine fishing; 

(2) determine the status of the porpoise stocks; and 

(3) monitor incidental mortality by the U.S. fleet throughout 

the year against established quotas. 
A purse seine net "backing down" under a school of porpoise 

Mortality Reduction Technology. During 1977, efforts centered on 

refining the apron concept and introducing it into widespread use by the 

tuna fleet. Also, analyses were canpleted on the 1976, 20-vessel test 

conparing the performance of an apronfchute systan atop a double-depth, 

f ine-aesh porpoise safety panel with the performance of a finemesh 

panel alone. The aprodchute systen proved superior to others in 

allowing porpoise release fran the seine during backdown. At the end of 

1976, a slight modification of the apronfchute systen showed promise of 

allowing wen more-efficient porpoise release. This modification, 

termed the porpoise or super apron, was voluntarily installed on more 

than 20 U.S. purse seiners and was required for the entire fleet mder 

the 1978 regulations. NMFS technicians supervised installation and 

alinenent of many of these super aprons both in San Diego and Panama and 

instructed net makers, in both locations on construction and installation 

procedures. 

The continuing study of the causes of porpoise mortality has resulted in 

information helpful to the tuna purse seine fleet leading the SWFC to 

produce an illustrated pamphlet for the fishermen on improved techniques 

to avoid killing porpoises during purse seining. 

Preliminary data collected during 1977 by NMFS observers on 17 canplete 

trips and 2 incanplete trips aboard seiners carrying the super apron 

revealed a 1.74 overall kill per set and 0.15 porpoise kill per ton of 

yellowfin tuna caught with porpoises. These values are about half those 

for vessels carrying the fine-mesh safety panel without a super apron. 

Results of seven cruises with the super apron and final analyses of the 

1976, 20-vessel test =re presented at public hearings in August 1977 
and led to the requirwent in the new regulations of a super apron for 

most U.S. purse seiners by July 1978. 

A chartered cruise was made in the fall of 1977 aboard a smaller and 

older purse seiner of the class that does not frequently make 

intentional sets on porpoise. Sets =re made with and without a super 

apron panel system installed in the net. The cruise results indicate 

that the apron panel system was operational on this class of vessel and 

could assist in alleviating problems with the net during backdown. 

Field testing of a purse-block suspension system to prevent "rollup" 

(the purse cable turns and winds up the webbing) started in May 1977. 

The blocks =re fabricated by a private firm and loaned to a vessel with 

a history of frequent and severe rollups. The blocks are being tested 

in canbination with various types of purse cables, including two sizes 

of torque-balanced cable and one size of conventional cable. 

Preliminary results with both types of torque-balanced cable showed a 

low incidence of rollups. 

A second vessel chartered in the fall of 1977 examined the principle of 

providing panels or flaps of wbbing attached at their base to the 

backdown apex of the net in order to offer minimal resistance to the 

exit of porpoise while providing a visual barrier that would turn the 

tuna back into the net during backdown. The visual barrier to the fish 

was achieved, but the porpoise were reluctant to apply the slight 

pressure necessary to pass over or through the flaps. Also, the flaps 

hindered hand rescue in the later stages of backdm; therefore, the 

idea was abandoned. During this charter', blood samples frm live 

porpoises captured during backdown were collected for examination to 

establish a method of measuring stress levels in the animals. 

Preliminary experiments, using bubble screens created with dry ice in 

the backdown channel, showed some indication that movement of porpoise 

within the channel may be artificially restricted. The causes of stern 

away, a net-folding phenomenon during backdown, were examined during 

this cruise. 

A dedicated research vessel secured for 1978, through mutual agreement 

between NMFS, the MMC, and the United States Tuna Foundation, will be 

used to pursue in-depth behavioral studies and gear modifications aimed 

at the prebackdown release of porpoise and testing and development of 

various stimuli to separate tuna and porpoise. 

Biol-ical Stock Assessment Research. Biological research concentrated 

on estimating the important life history factors of the major porpoise 

species involved in the tuna fishery. Using specimens and data 

collected aboard commercial tuna seiners and standard techniques and 

analyses, the biological studies staff at SWFC canpleted analysis of 

growth and reproduction of the whitebelly spinner dolphin. L. 

lomirostris subsp. 
Scientists at the Naval Ocean Systems Center canpleted contract work on 

growth and reproduction of the canmon dolphin, Delphinus delphis. 

Another contractor cmpleted sectioning and reading a backlog of 8,000 

teeth from spotted and spinner dolphins sampled from 1973 to 1977. 

Additional contracts =re let to survey data and specimens of 

bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, from the eastern Pacific, to 

study biochemical techniques for age determination, and to develop and 

test tags and marks designed specifically for small cetaceans. 

During 1977, stock assessment activities focused on survey work £ran 

aircraft and ships. In the first half of the year, two long-range 

aircraft searched 32,910 nautical miles off the coast of North and 

Central America and Hawaii. This was canbined with the surveys of the 

NOAA Ships David Starr Jordan and the Townsend Crwwell. The results of 

the canbined aerialishipboard survey ptovided a canprehensive picture of 

the eastern tropical Pacific during a relatively short time period. The 

data are being statistically analyzed using line transect theories 

adapted for the porpoise surveys to produce estimates of stock sizes. 

Contributions to this mrk are being made by SWFC staff, scientific 

representatives of the Marine Mammal Commission, industry, and 

consulting scientists from academic institutions and outside agencies. 

The two shipboard cruises of January and February 1977, as well as 

another cruise of the David Starr Jordan in October and November, 

provided additional data on physical oceanographic and faun istic 

correlations of the occurrence of dolphins and tuna. 

Stock assessment has been extended to include a tagging research 

program. Initially, this research was concerned with developing 

appropriate marks designed specifically for porpoise, developing 

apparatus for examining entire schools of porpoise, and placing the 

marks or tags and design of the statistical experiment in a way that 

would produce estimates of stock size, vital rates, and migratory 

patterns independent from other survey methods. 

The impact of incidental mortality on the OSP of porpoise stocks was 

updated using the method given in a workshop report (SWFC, 1976). These 

methods used the results of aerial and shipboard surveys in 1974-76 to 

establish stock sizes; then, net reproductive rates and incidental 

mortality rates were included to predict the change in stock level. 

Present stock levels wre canpared to preexploitation levels to 

establish the relationship of the stock to OSP. Results indicated that 

the spotted and whitebelly spinner dolphins =re within the lower limits 

of OSP, while the eastern spinner dolphin was at or slightly below the 

lower limit of OSP. Therefore, the intentional capture of eastern 

spinners in the process of purse seining was prohibited in 1977. Stocks 

of common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and striped dolphin (Stenella 

coeruleoalba) were estimated to be at or abwe OSP. 
Fleet Performance. The new regulations again established a quota on the 

number of individual species that may be killed by the U.S. fleet during 

purseseining operations and requirenents for procedures designed to 

reduce porpoise mortality. Close monitoring of the cumulative mortality 

of porpoises during 1978 and continual analysis of the kill rate 

performance by the U.S. fleet will be a continuing program. 

A procedure for monitoring mortality was developed to estimate 

cumulative kill by stock on a weekly basis. It includes radio reports 

from observers and canputer-statistical analysis of the data. 

Individual quotas for the major stocks were not reached in 1977 partly 

because the fleet stayed in port for an extended time during the early 

part of the year. However, the kill rate decreased substantially and is 

believed to be the primary reason for not reaching the quotas. The 

preliminary average kill rate for 1977 was 2.95 porpoises per set and 

the average kill for each ton of yellowfin taken in association with 

porpoise was 0.25, a 75-percent reduction from 1976 rates. In 1977, the 

U.S. tuna fleet's estimated porpoise kill was 27,000; their quota was 

62,429. 

Killer Whale 

2 6 
Northern Fur Seals, Pinnipeds, and Cetaceans 

The Marine Mammal Division, NMFS Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center, 

has three principal research programs. The northern fur seal program 

monitors the status and population dynamics of the fur seal herds on the 

northern Pribilof Islands, as wll as biological and ecological research 

in accordance with the provisions of the Interim Convention for the 

Conservation of Northern Fur Seals. St. George Island has been 

established for an indefinite period as a nonharvest research control 

area for canparative studies with the harvested fur seal population on 

St. Paul Island. 

The pinniped and cetacean programs primarily assess the status of the 

stocks and obtain life history infornation about species such as the 

California and northern sea lions, Hawaiian monk seal, northern elephant 

seal, and the bowhead, gray, humpback, and killer whales. The 

population dynamics of cmmercially harvested species of whales is also 

emphasized. In addition, infomation is collected on the distribution 

and abundance of marine mammals in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering, 

Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. The Marine Mammal Division, NWAFC, also 

maint-+--, an interest in the progress of other marine mammal research 

througlludt the world. 

Northern Fur Seal Program. Long-tern objectives of the northern fur 

seal program are to deternine what measures may be necessary to achieve 

maximum sustainable productivity and to determine the relationship 

between fur seals and other living marine resources. 

Population assessment studies are designed to build a data base on 

population structure essential to management of the resource. In 1977, 

for example, counts ware made of all adult males on the Pribilof 

rookeries and hauling grounds in late June and mid-July and all of the 

pups that had died by mid-August. The qe canposition of seals 

harvested, on St. Paul Island was determined; the number of pups born on 

St. George Island was estimated. 

Behavioral research on St. George and St. Paul Islands in 1977 

emphasized the identification and quantification of behavioral 

cmponents that may control population size. Observation sites on St. 

Paul and St. George Islands =re occupied continuously by NMFS 

scientists throughout the reproductive season of the fur seal. During 

this period, data were collected on the number and density of seals 

ashore, male and female aggression, number of copulations and births, 

female feeding cycles, mother-young behavior, and the social behavior of 

subadult males. 
The analysis of pelagic data collected frw 1958 through 1974 continued 

in 1977. Studies of distribution and abundance, feeding habits, age 

structure and growth, age-specific pregnancy rates, and the intermixture 

of fur seals of different origins wre enphasized. 

Physiology and medicine research continued with investigations into fur 

seal mortality with emphasis on virology, bacteriology, serology, and 

immrnology as keys to learning more about first year mortality at sea. 

Three distinct subgroups of pathogenic vesicular virus have been 

isolated, and serologic evidence indicates that fur seals have been 

infected with strains not yet isolated, including influenza viruses of 

human, avian, and swine flu types. 

Twenty-six species of bacteria from fur seals were newly isolated and 

identified. Another 55 species of anaerobic bacteria were isolated, but 

not yet identified. The immune systems of 80 fur seals ranging in age 

from full-term, unborn to 4-month old juveniles, and 3- and 4- year-old 

males have been evaluated. 

New parasite work was initiated in mechanism of hookworm and tunic worm 

(filiarial) transmission, and new information on the life cycleof nasal 

mites was obtained. 

The role of rain and cold temperatures in pup mortality was explored for 

the second year, and more closely recognized as a secondary mortality 

factor. 

Seal oil obtained frm the canmercial blubbering process ms 

successfully substituted for whale oil in the formula for artificial 

seal milk to maintain live pups for parasite transmission studies. 

Five subadult fur seals (two males and three females) were well 

established at the new Seattle Aquarium to support studies of husbandry 

and marking. 

Gross pathology of fur seal pups £ran the .unharvested population on St. 

George Island was successfully carried out in 1977. Causes of death 

here will be cmpared to causes of death among pups on St. Paul Island 

where a harvest of subadult males is still carried out. 

Pinniped Program. Biological and population studies involved the six 

species of pinnipeds that haul out on San Miguel Island, one of the 

Channel Islands of Southern California. Special attention was given to 

determine the cause of premature births in California sea lions. The 

number of fur seal pups counted in Adams Cover, San Miguel Island, 

increased to 421, an increase of 4, over 1976. On Castle Rock, 617 fur 

seal pups were counted, an increase of 96 over the 1976 count. 
A low-term study of the Hawaiian monk seal began in 1976. Included 

were studies of behavior and biology and counts to determine population 

trends. During that year, 695 animals were counted in two surveys. In 

1977, a behavioral study began at Laysan Island, Hawaii. Study terns 

observed monk seals at Kure and French Frigate Shoals, and 625 animals 

were counted in a 1977 census of the entire northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands. Canparisons with past censuses indicate that populations at 

French Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island and Lisianski Island appeared 

stable; however, those at Pearl and Hermes Reef, Midway, and Kure have 

declined since the late 1950's. 

Cetacean Program. An extensive 3-year bowhead whale research progrmn 

.has been implemented to prwide a more precise estimate of the Western 

Arctic population size, recruitment and natural mortality rates, 

distribution and migration routes, and the effect of the Eskimo hamest 

on these stocks. This research program consists of aerial and vessel 

surveys, ice and land camp studies, acoustic and sonar studies, harvest 

monitoring, biological studies, and examination of historical whaling 

logbooks. 

Population studies of both protected and exploited minke, sei, and sperm 

whales, especially in the North Pacific Ocean, are made to develop the 

data base for manqement recanmendations to the International Whaling 

Commission. Estimates of stock sizes of large whale species are 

developed through censuses, whale observation and marking cruises, and 

analysis of catch and effort statistics. The annual gray whale census 

off Pt . Lorna, Calif ., the cooperative killer whale survey in Puget 

Sound, Wash., and hmpback whale surveys in southeastern Alaska and 

Hawaii are made under this progran. In 1977. a radio tag for whales was 

tested in the Frederick Sound area of southeastern Alaska. 

Funding 

The fiscal year 1978 budget for marine mammals is $5,761,000 and 98 

positions. This includes frnding under the MMPA, the Endangered Species 

Act, the Fur Seal Act, and other authorizations. 

Funding covers administration of the Washington office, law enforcement 

that includes State contracts, research at the Northwest and Alaska 

Fisheries Center and the Southwest Fisheries Center, and the tmaporpoise obsemer progrrn. Additional funds in FY '78 have been 

requested for bowhead whale enforcenent and participation in the IATTC 

observer program. 
Sperm Whale 

Laws and Treaties Governing the Protection of Marine Mammals 

Every marine mammal of U.S. concern is protected by one or more U.S. 

laws or acts, and the conservation of some species is partially assured 

by international treaty or law. A summary of laws, conventions, and 

coomissions designed to protect marine mammals follows. 

Laws and Treaties Involviw the United States 

1. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972: A U.S. Federal law that 

prohibits persons under the jurisdiction of the United States from 

taking, harassing, or importing any marine mammal or its byproducts into 

the United States, except when authorized to do so by special permit. 

Eskimos, Aleuts, and Indians of the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans can 

take marine mammals for subsistence, and for creating and selling 

handicraft itans and clothing as long as the stocks can support the 

harvest. 

2. Endawered Species Act of 1973: The purpose of this U.S. Federal 

law is to provide a progran for the conservation of species that are 

either endangered (now) or threatened (within the foreseeable future) 

with extinction and their dependent ecosystans, and to implement 

international conservation conventions. With limited exceptions, the 

Act prohibits the taking, importing, exporting, and interstate canmerce 

of any endangered species, as well as their parts or products. 

Exceptions include: permits for scientific purposes or the enhancement 

of propagation or survival of the species, econanic hardship exemptions, 

and subsistence taking by Alaska natives. For threatened species, the 
Act authorizes the issuance of protective regulations as necessary for 

their conservation. Furthermore, to assist in acconplishing its 

purposes, the Act authorizes the acquisition of land; authorizes 

cooperative agreements with States which have an adequate conservation 

program, including Federal funding of up to two-thirds (or three-fourths 

when entered with more than one State); prohibits Federal agencies £ran 

taking any action which would jeopardize the continued existence of an 

endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or 

modification of its critical habitat; and provides for civil and 

criminal penalties. Marine mammals under the jurisdiction of NMFS and 

listed as endangered species are the blue whale, bowhead whale, fin 

whale, gray whale, humpback hale, right whales, sei whale, sperm whale, 

Hawaiian monk seal, and Mediterranean monk seal. 

3. Convention on International Trade in Endawered Species of Wild 

Fauna and Flora: This Convention, which entered into force on July 1, 

1975, provides additional protection for the following marine mammals 

under the jurisdiction of NMFS: Appendix I--blue whale, bowhead whale, 

gray whale, humpback whale, right whales, certain stocks of fin and sei 

whales, Ganges River dolphin. Caribbean monk seal, Hawaiian monk seal, 

Mediterranean monk seal, and northern elephant seal; Appendix 11-- 

certain stocks of fin and seiwhales, southern elephant seal, Amsterdam 

Island fur seal, Galapagos fur seal, Guadalupe fur seal, Juan Fernandez 

fur seal, Kerguelen fur seal, New Zealand fur seal, Southern (South 

American) fur seal, and South African fur seal. Trade is more strictly 

controlled for Appendix I animals than for Appendix I1 animals. The 

U.S. Management Authority for the Convention (U.S. Department of the 

Interior) controls the import, export, reexport, and introduction from 

the sea of convention animals through a system of permits and 

enforcement. Implementation by regulating canmerce began May 23, 1977. 

4. International Whaling Convention: The IWC was established under a 

convention signed in Washington, D.C., in Decmber 1946. The membership 

includes all ccuntries that catch significant numbers of kales except 

Chile, Peru, Portugal, and Spain. The IWC is responsible for whale 

conservation worldwide. Since 1964, the IWC has acted to bring world 

whaling under control by prohibiting the taking of some species, sharply 

reducing the authorized catches of species in certain areas, 

establishing catch quotas by species and stocks, and implementing an 

international observer plan for checking canpliance with quotas and 

regulations at land stations and on factoryships. The IWC now regulates 

the harvest of Bryde's, fin, minke, sei, and sperm whales. An IWC 

subcanmittee has been established to rwiew problems relating to 

cetaceans. The blue, barhead, gray, humpback, and right whales are 

canpletely protected, except for some hmting by aborigines. 

5. Whalinn Convention Act of 1949: brought into force the 

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling signed on 

December 2, 1946, by the United States and certain other goverrments. 

Article I11 of the International Convention established the IWC. 
6. The Whale Conservation and Protection Study Act of 1976: The Act 

requires the Secretary of Canmerce to make a conprehensive study of all 

whales found in waters subject to the jurisdiction of the Thited States, 

including the 200-mile fishery conservation zone. A report that 

includes suggested recanmendations and legislation is due to Congress 

January 1, 1980. 

7. Interim Convention on North Pacific Fur Seals: This cowention, 

ratified in 1957, prohibits most citizens of Canada, Japan, the 

U.S.S.R., and United States frm taking northern fur seals. The 

exceptions are aboriginal Eskimos, Aleuts, and Indians, who may take 

them only at sea and by primitive methods. The convention also provides 

for intensive research on this species by the four countries. The U.S. 

and U.S.S.R. canmercially harvest northern fur seals on their breeding 

grounds and regulate the kills on a scientific basis. 

8. Fur Seal Act of 1966: brought into force the Interim Convention on 

North Pacific Fur Seals. 

9. International Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals. 1972: 

The purpose of this convention is to safeguard all species of Antarctic 

seals and to ensure that, if conmercial sealing begins on floating ice 

of the Southern Ocean, the taking of any species will be subject to 

strict limitations to prevent overexploitation or damage to their 

ecosystem. Measures adopted under the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 provide 

only for the protection of seals and other animals around the shoreline 

of the Antarctic Continent, but not on floating ice. The convention of 

1972 may be applicable to crabeater, leopard, Ross, southern elephant, 

southern fur seals, and Weddell seals south of latitude 60'. The Ross, 

southern elephant, and southern fur seals are protected species, and no 

taking is permitted. 

Miscelladeous Regulations and Agreenents of U.S. Interest 

1. International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries: 

Under terms of a convention signed in 1949, ICNAF is responsible 

for the investigation, protection, and conservation of the 

fisheries of the Northwest Atlantic in order to make possible the 

maintenance of a maximum sustained catch fran these fisheries. On 

January 1, 1977, Canada extended its jurisdiction over fisheries to 

200 miles. To avoid con£licts in 1977 between Canadian and 

international regulations, Canada agreed to adopt ICNAF regulations 

for the 1978 harvest of harp seals and hooded seals. 

An armendment to the ICNAF Convention adopted in Decenber 1976 

allows the Canmission to give scientific advice for management of 

fisheries within natural fishery limits if requested by a coastal 

state that is a party to the Convention. In 1977, Canada requested 

and received frm ICNAF a scientific report on harp and hooded 

seals. 
Following national and international consultations, Canada issued 

regulations and catch levels for 1978. The total allowable catch 

for the entire northwest Atlantic was set at 180,000 harp seals; 

Canada's share was 135,000 with 35,000 for Norway and 10,000 for 

Greenland, the Canadian Arctic, and Labrador. Canada appears to 

have caupleted the transition fran international to Canadian 

management of harp and hooded seals within the limits of Canadian 

fisheries jurisdiction. The United States withdrew fran the ICNAF 

in December 1976. 

2. Canadian-Norwegian Agreement on Sealing: On December 22, 1971, 

these two goverments ratified an agreement on sealing and the 

conservation of seal stocks in the Northwest Atlantic. The 

agreement applies to the harp seal, but provision is made for 

extension to hooded and bearded seals and to the walrus. 

3. Ham Seal: The U.S.S.R. and Norway signed an agreement in 

1958 entitled "Preservation of Seals in the Greenland Sea." 

The agreement prwides for the regulation of harp seal catches 

by these two nations. The U.S.S.R., however, has not hunted 

harp seals since 1965. 

4. Grav Seal: The U.S.S.R. has prohibited (since 1970) the 

hunting of gray seals for sport and by amateurs, but permits 

the taking of these animals for subsistence. Canada uses an 

1886 law for authority in regulating the take of gray seals. 

England has prohibited the hunting of gray seals on the Farne 

Islands since 1932 and on Orkney Island since 1923. Norway 

has forbidden hmting at Sor Trondelag since 1923. Finland and 

Sweden offer bonuses for gray seals taken. 

5. Hooded Seal: Canada and Norway prohibit the taking of hooded 

seals near Newfoundland before March 10, near Jan Mayen Island 

before March 13, in Denmark Strait from June 15 to July 15, and 

in northern waters fran March 20 to May 5. The U.S.S.R. and 

Norway in 1958 agreed to prohibit the harvest of hooded seals 

near Jan Mayen Island before March 13, and banned hunting in 

Dewark strait. 

6. U.S.S.R. regulations (fran the Russian publication. "Rules for 

Protecting and Harvesting Marine Mammals," July 11. 1975: 

a. Under these r'mulations. - a series of ~rotective and 

conservation measures were adopted. Sport and hobby 

(recreational) hun ting of any marine mammal is prohibited 

everywhere and throughout the year. Rookeries and hauling 

grounds are protected. Capture by use of poisons, certain 

firearms, and hook and line gear is prohibited at sea as well 

as fishing or harassment by vessels or aircraft within certain 

distances of various islands inhabited by marine mammals. The 

regulations include other prohibitions designed to protect 

marine mammals and their ecosystems. 
b. The U.S.S.R. has established stringent closed seasons on vessel 

and shore harvest of ribbon, ringed, and harbor seals (and the 

icedwelling form of the harbor seal, the larhga seal). The 

regulations allow short periods of harvest of hite coats, 

yearlings, and adults in the Okhotsk and Bering Seas. Short 

harvest periods are allared in the northern canmercial areas 

(White, Barents and eastern Arctic sea areas) on harp, hooded, 

and ringed seals. The harvests in the Jan Mayen area are 

adjusted by international agreement. Taking of bearded seals 

and belukhas (white whales) is allowed in Arctic areas 

primarily for subsistence purposes. 

7. Walrus: In 1958, the U.S.S.R. and Norway agreed to ban the 

hunting of walrus except to satisfy the needs of local groups and 

expeditions. 

8. Guadaluue fur seal: Mexico has safeguarded the breeding grounds of 

the Guadalupe fur seal on the Guadalupe Islands by making this 

island a wildlife refuge. 

9. South American fur seal: The Uruguayan and Argentinian Goverrments 

protect the South American fur seal on land and out to 200 miles at 

sea. The Uruguayan Government also regulates the harvest by 

protecting all female seals except the l-year-olds, controlling 

take of pups by seasonal restrictions, and imposing quotas in some 

instances. 

10. South African fur seal: The harvest of South African fur seals is 

largely a state enterprise in South Africa; however, the system 

includes one of control and leasing of rookeries to private 

contractors. The South West African Administration has not entered 

the harvesting business, but licenses private firms, restricts gear 

to be used, establishes closed seasons, and places limits on sex 

and condition of catch. 

11. Narwhal: Canada allows Eskimos to take five narwhals annually for 

personal use and issues permits to capture this mammal for 

exhibition. 

12. Killer whale: Canada allows this species to be taken under a 

pennit system. 

Part 111. CURRENT STATUS OF THE STOCKS OF MARINE MAMMALS 

Introduction 

Of the approximately 108 species of pinnipeds and cetaceans throughout 

the world, status reports have been prepared for 69 species which are of 

primary concern to the United States and which are the responsibility 

of the Secretary of Commerce under the terms of the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act. The Act requires a report not only on the status of 

each marine mammal species, but also on the population stocks. The 

population stocks of only a few marine mamals have been delineated, 

and the effort needed to obtain information on most population stocks 

is beyond the scope of research being carried out at the present time. 

Information about each species is summarized under six major 

headings. They are distribution and migration, abundance and trends, 

general biology, ecological problems, allocation problems, and 

current research. Selected references are listed at the end of each 

species discussion. Summary information on existing protective 

regulations for marine mammals also is included. 

References are not cited in the report except for the paragraph on 

abundance and trends. Because of the importance of data on abundance 

and trends, information in this section is cited and citations are 

given in the list of references. Data on the abundance of marine 

mammals are difficult and costly to obtain. Except for a few species 

which have been harvested commercially, such as large whales and fur 

seals in the North Pacific Ocean, abundance data are usually inadequate 

for management purposes. 

A list of scientists who have assisted either by providing information 

or reviewing the status reports is included in this report. 
Order Carnivora (incl. "Pinnipedia") 

Family Otariidae 

Zalophus californianus californianus (California sea lion) 

Eumetopias jubatus (northern sea lion) 

Callorhinus ursinus (northern fur seal) 

Gtocephalus pusillus pusillus (South African (Cape) fur seal) 

Arctocephalus australis (South American fur seal) 

Arctocephalus philippii (Juan Fernandez fur seal) 

~rctocephalus townsendi (Guadalupe fur seal) 

Family Phocidae 

- Phoca largha (largha seal) 

Phoca vitulina (harbor seal) 

Phoca hispida (ringed seal) 

- Phoca groeniandica (harp seal) 

P 

Phoca fasciata (ribbon seal) 

Halichoe~s a (gray seal) 

Erignathus barbatus (bearded seal) ~ -~ cystophora &at5 (hooded seal) 

Monachus tropicalis (Caribbean monk seal) 

Monachus schauinslandi (Hawaiian monk seal) 

Lobodon carcinophagus (crabeater seal) 

Ommatophoca rossii (Ross seal) 

Hydrurga leptonyx (leopard seal) 

Leptonychotes weddelli (Weddell seal) 

Mirounqa leonina (southern elephant seal) 

Mirounga angustirostris (northern elephant seal) 

Order Cetacea, Suborder Mysticeti 

Family Eschrichtiidae 

Eschrichtius robustus (gray whale) 

Family Balaenopteridae 

Balaenoptera acutorostrata (minke whale) 

Balaenoptera edeni (Bryde's whale) 

Balaenoptera borealis (sei whale) 

Balaenoptera physalui (fin whale) 

Balaenoptera musculus (blue whale) 

Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) 
Family Balaenidae 

Balaena glacialis (black right whale) 

Balaena mysticetus (bowhead whale) 

Order Cetacea, Suborder Odontoceti 

Family Platanistidae 

Platanista gangetica (Ganges susu, Ganges river dolphin) 

Platanista minor (Indus susu, Indus river dolphin) 

Family Delphinidae 

Steno bredanensis (rough-toothed dolphin) 

Tursiops truncatus (bottlenosed dolphin) 

Stenella longirostris - (spinner dolphin) 

Stenella attenuata [frontalis, graffmani, and dubia (spotted dolphin)] 

Stenella plagiodon (Atlantic spotted dolphin) 

Stenella coeruleoalba (striped dolphin) 

Delphinus delphis (common dolphin) 

Lagenodelphis hosei (Fraser's (Sarawak) dolphin) 

Lagenorhynchus albirostris (white-beaked dolphin) 

Lagenorhynchus es (Atlantic white-sided dolphin) 

Lagenorhynchus obliquidens (Pacific white-sided dolphin) 

Lissodelphis borealis (northern right whale dolphin) 

Grampus griseus (Risso's dolphin) 

Peponocephala electra (melon-headed whale) 

Feresa attenuata (pygmy killer whale) 

Pseudorca crassidens (false killer whale) 

Globicephala melaena (long-finned pilot whale, pothead, blackfish) 

Globicephala macrorhynchus (short-finned pilot whale) 

Orcinus orca - (killer whale) 

Phocoena phocoena (harbor porpoise) 

Phocoenoides dallii (Dall porpoise) 

Family Monodontidae 

Delphinapterus leucas (white whale, beluga, belukha) 

Monodon monoceros (narwhal) 

Family Physeteridae 

Physeter catodon (sperm whale) 

Kogia breviceps (pygmy sperm whale) 

Kogia simus (dwarf sperm whale) 
Family Ziphiidae 

Berardius bairdii (Baird's beaked whale) 

Ziphius cavirostris (Cuvier's beaked whale) 

Hyperoodon ampullatus (Northern bottlenose whale) 

Mesoplodon (True's beaked whale) 

Mesoplodon europaeus (Gervais' beaked whale) 

Mesoplodon ginkgodens (ginkgo-toothed whale) 

Mesoplodon carlhubbsi (Hubb's beaked whale) 

Mesoplodon stejnegeri (Stejneger's beaked whale) 

Mesoplodon bidens (Sowerby's beaked whale) 

Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville's beaked whale) 
status Reports 

CALIFORNIA SEA LION 

(Zalophus californianus californianus) 

Distribution and Migration: This subspecies of the California sea lion ranges 

along the west coast of Mexico from about lat. 19O~ to southern British 

Columbia, Canada. The California sea lion breeds on some Gulf of california 

islands northward to San Higuel Island, California, in lat. 34O~. Many adult 

and subadult males move northward along the California, Oregon, Washington, 

and British Columbia coasts after the breeding season. Feral animals which 

have escaped from captivity are being reported in the southeastern IT. S. (including the Gulf of Mexico),but there is yet no evidence of breeding (caldwell, D. K., pers. corn., 1974). 

Another subspecies occurs on the Galapagos Islands, and still another, formerly 

found in Japanese waters,. from 34' to is now extinct. 

Abundance and Trends: The California Department of Fish and Game censuses 

indicate that the California sea lion population reached a low level in the 

early 1930's in California waters, then made a steady recovery and apparently 

leveled off about 1961 with little variation in the counts since then (Ripley, 

Cox, and Baxter, 1962; Carlisle and Aplin, 1971). During the breeding season 

(May-July) almost the entire population is found south of lat. 34'~. Odell 

(1971) obtained minimum counts of 34,328 California sea lions on all Channel 

Islands in June 1964. Peterson and LeBoeuf (1969) estimated that 40,000 

animals were ashore on San Nicolas and San Miguel Islands during the 1967 and 

1968 breeding seasons. LeBoeuf et al. (1976) completed a photographic count 

of the Channel Islands area 27-30 June 1975 and found 38,754 animals. Rice, 

Kenyon, and Lluch (1965) counted 16,150 California sea lions on Guadalupe, 

San Benito, and Cedros Islands, Mexico, in January and February 1965. Brownell, 

et al. (1974) made counts in June 1968 of 15,467 on Guadalupe, Islas San Benito, 

Cedros, and Natividad Islands, Mexico. Orr, Schoenwals, and Kenyon (1970) 

counted this species in the Gulf of California between 1960 and 1968, and 

made counts on six islands of about 5,400 animals in April 1966, Mate 

(1977) in July 1975 counted 9,332 animals on islands in the Gulf of 

California. During an aerial survey of the entire range (except Guadalupe 

Island) in July 1975,Mate obtained a count of 75,387 animals. The proceeding 

figures indicate that the present p~pulation may approach 80,000 animals 

about equally divided between the United States and Mexiso, 

During the nonbreeding season, 2500 2. californianus may be found in Oregon, 

500 in washing to^ and 1,000 in ~ritiFh Columbia (Mate, 1975). 

On 25 February 1972, 430 California sea lions were counted in Barkley Sound 

off Vancouver Island, 35 on Race Rocks off Victoria, B.C., and 10 in Dodds 

0 Narrows (lat. 49 07'N) near Nanaimo, B.C. (Bigg, 1973). 
General Diology: 

Species Statistics. -- The adult male grows to 2.2 m and 275 kg, the adult 

female to 1.8 m and 91 kg. Newborn pups are about 0.8 m long and weigh 5 

to 6 kg. 

Reproductive Data. -- On San Nicolas Islands, the pupping season begins about 

15 May and lasts about 5 weeks, with the peak during the first week in June. 

The females usually breed 15 to 30 days after parturition, and the mother and 

pup may remain together the first year. The males establish and defend breeding territories on landt the females move about freely. 

 go-Growth Data. -- California sea lions have lived 18 to 20 years in captivity. 

Feedinq Habits. -- The California sea lion's food is squid, octopus, and a 

variety of fish such as herring, sardines, rockfish, hake, and ratfish. 

Farasites and Diseases. -- During the past 2 or 3 years an apparent increase in 

premature births and in the mortality rate of subadults and young adults has 

occurred. Three potential causes have been isolated: (1) chemical residues 

(polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT, and metabolites) 8 (2) a bacterium (Leptospira) I 

and (3) a virus. The greatest single cause of death in wild and captive animals is lungworm. Animals in captivity have also died from pleuropneumonia, 

pneumonia, and enteric infections, diseases which may also occur in wild 

populations. 

Ecological Problems: Killer whales and large sharks are known to prey upon 

sea lions. Possibly there is some competition with other otariids for food 

and hauling grounds. California sea lions associated with certain hauling 

grounds and rookeries have practically abandoned these areas because of harassment by man. Although most major populations of sea lions are now on sites 

not easily reached by the public, a few areas, such as the Monterey Bay 

breakwater in Monterey, California, are used extensively as hauling grounds by 

California sea lions and are visited frequently by tour boats. The latter 

sometimes pass within 10 m of the hauling grounds. 

Allocation Problems: A history of conflict exists between people for and 

aoainst complete protection of this species. Some conservation groups would 

like complete protection for the California sea lion while some fishermen 

want the number of California sea lions to be controlled. California sea lions 

are probably the most widely sought-after species of eared seals in the world 

for public display. In August 1976, North American zoos or oceanaria had 423 

California sea lions on public display (Cornell and Aspe, 1976). 

Current Research: The National Marine Fisheries Service conducts research 

on this species on San Miguel Island off California. The following organizations are conducting research on the California sea lion: University of 

California, Santa Cruz, California; University of California, Berkeley, 

California; California Academy of Science, San Francisco, California; 

Humboldt State University, Arcata, California; Fisheries Research Board of 

Canada, Nanaimo; Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego, California; and 

Navy Bioscience Laboratory, Oakland, California. 
References 

Banfield, A.W.F. 1974. The mammals of Canada. Univ. Toronto Press, 438 p. 

Bigg, M.A. 1973. Census of California sea lions on southern Vancouver 

Island, British Columbia. 3. Mammal. 54:285-287. 

Bonnot, P. 1951. The sea lions, seals, and sea otters of the California 

coast. Calif. Fish Game 37:371-389. 

Brownell, R.L., Jr., R.L. DeLong, and R.W. Schreiber. 1974. Pinniped 

populations at Islas de Guadalupe, San Benito, Cedros, and Natividad, 

Baja California, in 1968. J. Mammal. 55:469-472. 

Carlisle, J.G., and J.A. Aplin. 1971. Sea lion census for 1970, including 

counts of other California pinnipeds. Calif. Fish Game 57:124-126. 

Cornell, L.H. and E.D. Asper. 1967. A census of captive marine mammals in 

North America. Food and Agric. Organ. U.N. Adv. Comm. Mar. Resource. 

Res., FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC90,p. 18. 

Daugherty, A.E. 1972. Marine mammals of California, 2d rev. Calif. Dept. 

Fish Game, Sacramento, 90 p. 

DeLong, R.L., W.G. Gilmartin, and J.G. Simpson. 1973. Environmental 

pollutant residues in parturient California sea lions: premature vs 

normal. Science 181: 1168-1170. 

Frey, H.W. (editor). 1971. California's living marine resources and their 

utilization. Sacramento, Calif. Dept. Fish Game, 148 p. 

Gilmartin, W.G., R.L. DeLong, A.W. Smith, J.C. Sweeney, B.W. delappa, 

R.W. Risebrough, L.A. Griner, M.D. Dailey, and D.E. Peakall 1976. 

Premature Parturition in the California sea lion. J. Wildl. Disease 

12:114-115. 

LeBoeuf, B.J., and M.L. Bonnell. 1971. DDT in California sea lions. 

Nature, 234:108-110. 

LeBoeuf, B.J., M.L. Bonnell, M.O. Pierson, D.H. Dettman and B.D. Farrens. 

1976. Pinnipedia: Numbers, distribution and movements in the Southern 

California Bight. Section I, in Regents of the Univ. of Calif. (editors), 

Marine mammal and seabird survey of the Southern California Bight Area, 

p. I11 - 1-269, Draft final rep. 1975-1976, BLM contract 08550-CT5-28. 

Odell, D.K. 1971. Censuses of pinnipeds breeding on the California Channel 

Islands. J. Mammal. 52:187-190. 

1972. Studies on the biology of the California sea lion and the northern elephant seal on San Nicolas Island, California, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. 

Calif., Los Angeles, 168 p. 
Orr, R. T., J. Schoenwald, and K. W. Kenyon. 1970. The California sea lion: 

skull growth and a comparison of two populations. roc. calif. Rcad. 

Sci., 4th Ser., 37:380-394. 

Peterson, R. S., and G. A. Bartholornew. 1967. The natural history and behavior of the ~alifornia sea lion. Am. Soc. tlammal., spec. Publ. NO. 1, 

79 p. 

Peterson, R. S., and a. J. LeBoeuf. 1969. Population studies of seals and 

sea lions. Trans. 34th N. Am. Wildl. Ilat. Res. Conf., pp. 74-79. 

Rice, D. W., K. W. Kenyon, and D. Lluch-B. 1965. Pinniped populations at 

Islas Guadalupe, San Benito, and Cedros, Baja California in 1965. 

Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. His. 14 (7) :73-84. 

Ripley, W. E., K. W. Cox, and J. L. Baxter. 1962. California sea lion 

census for 1956, 1960, and 1961. Calif. Fish Game 48:228-231. 
NORTHERN (STELLER) SEA LION 

(Eumetopias jubatus) 

Distribution and Migration: The northern sea lion is found in continental 

shelf water from the Sea of Japan and northern Honshu, Japan, northward around 

the North Pacific Ocean rim to the Okhotsk and Bering Seas and southward to 

the California Channel Islands. Some seasonal movements occur in parts of 

its range. Examples of such movements are differences in the winter and summer distribution of these animals in the Bering Sea, and the postbreeding 

movements in central California. 

Abundance and Trends: Mate (1976) estimated a world population of 250,000 

to 325,000. Alaska has 202 known rookeries and hauling grounds. The Alaska 

population has increased considerably since the early 1900's and now exceeds 

200,000 and may be near maximum levels in many areas (Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game, 1973). Between 1964 and 1973, the year the Marine Ma-1 

Protection Act became effective, several thousand ups were harvested annually; 

6,546 were taken in 1972. 

The population of sea lions in British Columbia waters was estimated at 

11,000 to 12,000 from an aerial census in 1956-57. The authorities undertook 

a heavy reduction program in 1959 and 1960, and the population was reduced to 

about 4,000 animals in 1969 (Banfield, 1974). The breeding population is 

estimated to be 5,000 by Fisher and Brenton (cited in Mate, 1976). 

Kenyon and Scheffer (1962) made six aerial and one surface survey along the 

Washington coast between 1949 and 1959 and stated that the population did not 

exceed 500. Mate (1975) revised this estimate to 600. Pearson and Verts 

(1970) estimated the Oregon population at 1,078. Mate (pers. corn.. 1975) 

estimated the Oregon breeding population at about 2,000 animals. The 

California Department of Fish and Game makes periodic aerial censuses of Sea 

lions in California. Carlisle and Aplin (1971) have given the following 

figures for sea lions in California north of Pt. Conception: (1958) 7.053; 

(1961) 6,675; (1965) 4,998; (1969) 7,156; and (1970) 5,189. They consider 

these to be northern sea lions, although small numbers of California sea 

lions were known to occur north of Pt. Conception at the time the rensus was 

made. The California Kreed?ng season population probably numbers about 

2000 (Mate 1977, Fiscus pers. corn.). 

The northern sea lion ranges to the Channel Islands group south of Pt. 

Conception. In the Channel Islands, the population peaked at about 2,000 

in the late 1930's and has declined since (Bartholomew, 1967). In 1977, 

the San Miguel Island Population was estimated by Antonelis (pers. corn.) 

at less than 20; 3 pups were born in 1977. 
Species Statistics. -- The adult males grow to 3.0 m in length and over 900 

kg in weight. The adult females reach 2.0 m and almost 300 kg. Newborn pups 

weigh 16 to 23 kg, are 89 to 102 an long, and have a dark chocolate-colored 

pelage. 

Reproductive Data. -- Northern sea lions favor isolated locations with some 

shelter, free access to the sea, and freedom from human harassment. Colonies 

may become established on rock outcrops and boulder, cobblestone, and coarse 

sand beaches. 

Males may matwe sexually by age 5 years, but hold' breeding territories first 

at age 7 or 8. Females can first produce young at age 5 or 6, and breed 10 

to 14 days after parturition. The adult male maintains a territory 40 to 60 

days and fasts throughout the period. The harems consist of 10 to 30 cows. 

The female is aggressive toward other females for several days after her pup 

is born. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The pup sheds its dark chocolate birthcoat for the tan 

pelage in the autumn of birth. Some pups remain with their mothers the first 

year. They have been known to live 17 years in the wild. 

The northern sea lion has only a few predators besides man--the killer whale 

and one or two species of large sharks. 

Feeding Habits. -- The northern sea lion eats a variety of fish and cephalopods. 

A study of 382 stomachs indicated the following diet: squid, octopus, sand 

lance, rockfish, clams, crabs, flounder, halibut, greenling, and lumpfish. 

Ecological Problems: Northern sea lions in some areas may compete with other 

pinnipeds for spaces on rookeries and hauling grounds. Some animals have 

abandoned their rookeries and hauling grounds because of excessive disturbance 

by humans. 

Allocation Problems: Northern sea lions have damaged gear and destroyed 

fish in the halibut longline, salmon purse seine, gillnet, and troll fisheries. 

The species has also destroyed herring in herring traps and has heen accused 

of biting and sinking inflated plastic buoys used to marb crab pots. This 

species has consfderable esthetic and recreational value. 

Current Research: This species has its center of abundance in Alaska where 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game's management and research investigations 

have Tieen directed primarily at determining abundance and distribution, 

and the effects of harvesting operations on rookery populations. A marking 

program began in 1975, and an aerial survey program in 1976. The 

University of California, Santa Cruz, is conducting research on the species 

off California. The National Marine Fisheries Service has carried out 

surveys in the eastern Aleutian Islands since 1975. 
References: 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alas)lals wildlife and habitat. 

Van Cleve Printing, Anchorage, 143 p. 

Banfield, A. W. F. 1974. The mammals of Canada. University of Toronto Press, 

438 p. 

Bartholomew, G. A. 1967. Seal and sea lion populations of the California 

islands, pp. 229-244. 5 R. N. ~hilbrick (ed.), Proc. Symp. on the 

Biology of the California Islands. Santa Barbara Botahic Garden. 

Bonnot, P. 1929. Report on the seals and sea lions of California, 1928. 

Calif. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 14, 62 p. 

Carlisle, J. G., and J. A. Aplin. 1971. Sea lion census for 1970, including 

counts of other California pinnipeds. Calif. Fish Game 578124-126. 

Fiscus, C. H., and G. A. Baines. 1966. Food and feeding behavior of Steller 

and California sea lions. J. Manvnal. 478195-200. 

Gentry, R. L. 1968. Censuses of Steller sea lions Ano NueM Island during 

1967-1968, pp. 23-25. In R. L. Peterson (ed.), Ano Nuevo Reports 2, 

Univ. of Calif., Santa zuo. 

Gentry, R. L. 1970. Social behavior of the Steller sea lion. Ph.D. thesis, 

Univ. Calif., Santa Cruz, 113 p. 

Kenyon, K. W., and D. W. Rice. 1961. Abundance and distribution of the 

Steller sea lion. J. Mammal. 438223-234. 

Kenyon, K. W., and V. B. Scheffer. 1962. Wildlife surveys along the northwest coast of Washington. Murrelet 4281-9. 

Mate, B. R. 1973. Population kinetics and related ecology of pinnipeds along 

the Oregon coast. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Oreg., Eugene, 92 p. 

- 1975. Annual migrations of the sea lions Eumetopias jubatus and 

Zalophus californianus along the Oregon coast. Rapp. P.-V. Gun. CIEM 

169: 455-461. 

- 1976. History and present status of the northern (stellex) sea lion, 

Eumetopias jubatus. Food Agric-Organ. U.N., Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res. 

FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/66 r 6 p . 

1977. Aerial censusing of pinnipeds in the eastern Pacific for 

assessment of population numbers, migratory distributions, rookery 

stability, breeding effort, and recruitment. Final rep., Mar. 

Mammal Comm., Contract MM5AC001, 67 p. 
Mathisen, 0. A., R. T. Baade, and R. J. Lopp. 1962. Breeding habits, 

growth and stomach contents of the Steller sea lion in Alaska. J. 

Mammal. 43: 469-477. 

Nishiwaki, M., and F. Nagasaki. 1960. Seals of the Japanese coastal waters. 

Mammalia 24: 459-467. 

err, R. T., and T. C. Poulter. 1965. The pinniped population of Ano Nuevo 

Island, california. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 32:377-404. 

Pearson, 3. P., and 8. J. Verts. 1970. Abundance and distribution of harbor 

seals and northern sea lions in Oregon. Murrelet 51:l-5. 

Pike, G. C., and I. B. MacAskie. 1969. Marine mauunals of British Columbia. 

Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 171, 54 p. 

Sandegren, F. E. 1970. Breeding and maternal behavior of the Steller sea 

lion (Eumetopias jubata) in Alaska. MS thesis, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks, 

138 p. 

Smith, I. D. 1972. Sea lions wintering along the outer coast of Vancouver 

Island. 3. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 2981,764-1,766. 

Spalding, D. 3. 1964. Comparative feeding habits of the fur seal, sea lion, 

and harbour seal on the British ColWia coast. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 

Bull. 146, 52 p. 
NORTHERN FUR SEAL 

(Callorhinus ursinus) 

Distribution and Migration: Most of the animals are on their breeding grounds 

from May through November to bear young and to breed. They otherwise are 

found at sea along the continental shelf from the Bering Sea south along 

both sides of the North Pacific ocean to lat. 32%. sane intermingling 

of eastern and western Pacific populations occurs at sea and on land, primarily among males younger than age 6 years. 

Abundance and Trends: A program of reducing the population of Pribilof 

Islands fur seals was begun in 1956 with the expectation that the rate of 

survival would improve (Roppel, et al., 1963) and result in an increased 

yield of pelts. By 1968. it had become evident that the herd had been 

reduced to a level somewhat below that of maximum sustainable yield, and 

that an increase in the number of pps born was desirable. Thus, female 

fur seals have not been harvested cawercially on the Pribilof Islands since 

1968 with the expectation that the population would increase. However, less 

than average survival of several year classes, the cause of which is not 

understood, has prevented the expected increase. L/ In 1975,the number of 

pups born was estimated to be 361,000; and in the paststhe maximum yield of 

furs was produced when about 400,000 pups were born. 

Apparently the Commander Islands fur seals have not becane reestablished 

on a considerable portion of their original rookery area. Consequently, 

this population should increase to a higher level. It is likely that the 

Robben Island population is near the maximum. Johnson (1972) estimated 

the abundance of northern fur seals by breeding islands, as follows: 

Estimated number of 

northern fur seals 

Location of fur seal rookeries: 

Pribilof Islands 

San Miguel Island 

Commander Islands 

Robben Island 

Kuril Islands 

Thousands 

Total 1,765 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- The adult male weighs 227 to 318 kg, and the female 

36 to 59 kg. Newborn pups average 4.5 (female) and 5.4 kg (male) . The 

male is polygynous and establishes his territory in late May and early June. 

- 1/ An average of 48,000 males were harvested annually in 1956-72, while the 

average was 65,000 annually from 1939 to 1955. 
Age-Growth Data: Pups shed their birthcoat in late summer for the adult pelage. 

The females reach 23 kg in weight by age 4 years, or 46 percent of their average 

adult size of 50 kg. They become sexually mature by age 3 to 5 years. The males 

weigh 25 to 35 kg by age 4 years, then experience major growth adding approximately 

200 kg of weight by age 10. Males are sexually mature as young as age 4 to 5 

years, but do not become members of the organized breeding structure until age 

10. Females have been observed to reach 22 years, whereas few males live longer 

than 15 years. 

Reproductive Data. -- Most of the pregnant females arrive on the rookeries 

in late June and early July, when they form harems of 1 to 100 females to 

1 adult male. Within 3 days of her arrival, the female bears a single pup 

(twins are rare), breeds 2 to 5 days later, then begins nursing-feeding 

cycles of 2 days on land and about 8 days at sea within a 200-mile radius. 

Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until November. Most of the males 

first breed at age 10, and few live longer than 15 years. 

General Behavior. -- Immature fur seals arrive on the breeding grounds in 

descending order of age, the males beginning in mid-June and the females 

in late July. Some l-year-olds haul out in September and October, but most 

fur seals return first at age 2. Most of the animals have left the rookeries 

by December. The adult males winter in northern waters, pregnant females 

usually migrate as far south as southern California, and young animals of 

both sexes are found throughout that range. 

Diseases and Parasites. -- The main causes of death among pups on the rookeries are, in order of importance: emaciation-malnutrition syndrome, hookworm 

disease. - - bacterial infections, leptospirosis - - (perinatdl - hemorrhagic syndrcme), 

and injuries. Pathogenic bacteria thus far isolated include: Clostridium 

perfrinqens, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella enteriditis, and Leptospira 

so. -=- A - * osittacosis - arouD - - chlamvdia has been reworted. - but the clinical syndrome caused by the agent has not been described. A calcivims, indistinguishable frm vesicula exanthema of swine virus,has been found associated with 

vesicles on the flippers and may be related to emaciation syndrome. 

The fur seal has filariid worms, stomach ascarids, intestinal flukes, 

cestodes, hookworms, and acanthocephalaw, and nasal mites, but no heart or 

lungworms. nookworms and sucking lice parasitize the newborn. 

Feeding Habits: The fur seal is an opportunistic feeder taking squid and 

a variety of fishes including herring, anchovy, salmon, capelin, saury, 

walleye pollock,and mackerel. 

Ecological Problems: Northern fur seals concentrate within their body tissues 

contaminants such as pesticides and heavy metals. For example, mercury compounds have been found in fur seal liver. The effect of contaminants on the 

health of fur seals is unknown. Predators include sea lions, sharks, and 

killer whales.some competition may exist between fur seals, other pinnipeds 

and sea birds (Lander and Kajimura, 1976). 

Allocation problems: In the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, fur seals 

and commercial fisheries may compete for the same species of fish. Harvesting 

of fur seals on the Pribilof Islands has been criticized in recent years by 

animal protection organizations that would prefer esthetic and educational 

rather than economic use of the resource. 
Current Research: Mnq-term research is financed and carried out by the 

Governments of Japan, Canada, the U.S.S.R., and the United States. Shortterm projects are frequently carried out on the Pribilof Islands by 

university professors or graduate students. 

In 1973 St. George Island was designated by the North Pacific Fur Seal 

Commission as an area of intensive research where no comercial harvest 

would take place for some years. An expanded research program on 

St. George Island began in 1973. 

References: 

Anas, R. 1970. Mercury found in fur seals. Comm. Fish. Rev. 32(12):3. 

Anas, R. E., and A. J. Wilson, Jr. 1970. Organochlorine pesticides in nursing 

fur seal pups. Pest. Monit. J. 4:114-115. 

Chapman, D. G. 1964. A critical study of Pribilof fur seal population 

estimates. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 63:657-669. 

Johnson, A. M. 1975. The status of northern fur seal populations. 

- In K. Ronald and A. W. Mansfield (eds.) Biology of the seal. 

Cons. Int. Expl. Mer., Proc. Verb., 169 p. RAPP P.-v. &un. CIEM 

169: 263-66. 

Kenyon, K. W., V. B. Scheffer, and D. G. Chapman. 1954. A population study 

of the Alaska fur seal herd. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. 

Wildl. 12, 77 p. 

Keyes, M. C. 1965. Pathology of the northern fur seal. J. Am. Vet. Med. 

ASSOC. 147:1,090-1,095. 

Lander, R. H., and H. Kajimura. 1976. Status of northern fur seals. 

Food Aqric. Organ. U.N., ~dv. Comm. Mar. Resour. ~es. FAO ACMRR/MM/ 

SC/34, 50 p. 

north pacific Fur Seal Comnission. 1965. North Pacific Fur Seal Comnission 

report on investigations from 1958 to 1961. Kenkyusha Co., Tokyo, 

183 p. 

- 1969. North Pacific Fur seal commission report on investigations 

from 1964 to 1966. Kenkyusha Co., Tokyo, 161 p. 

Roppel, A. Y., A. M. Johnson, . D. Bauer, D. G. Chapman, and F. Wilke. 

1963. Fur seal investigations, Pribilof Islands, Alaska. U.S. Fish 

Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 454, 101 p. 
SOUTH AFRICAN (CAPE) FUR SEAL 

(Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) 

Distribution and Migration: The South African fur seal breeds on the mainland and coastal islands of southern Africa from Cape Cross (South West 

Africa) to Algoa Bay (South Africa). This species shows no definite seaso.nal 

migration, but disperses widely while feeding. A marked adult was seen in 

deep-sea trawling grounds 450 miles from its birthplace. Young seals in 

their first year tNovember to October) frequent protected bays and areas 

near their places of birth. (Another race, A. pusillus doriferus, occurs 

in southeastern Australia and Tasmania.) 

Abundance and Trends8 Rand (1972b) estimates &out 19,500 mature territorial 

males and about 273,000 mature females on mainland and island rookeries of 

the Republic of South Africa. Best (1973) estimates that from 250,000 to 

300,000 South African fur seal pups are born each year in the Republic of 

South Africa and South West Africa. Shaughnessy (1975) has reviewed the 

estimates of Best (1973) and revised them downward to between 211,000 and 

213,000 pups. Assuming the number of pups to be 1/4 the population, 

Shaughnessy estimates the total population to be 850,000 animals. Firstyear pups (about 9 months) and a small (unknown) number of second-year 

animals of either sex are harvested in the winter (June-September), although 

all cow seals are protected (Rand, 197213). In 1950.the winter harvest 

totaled 27,289 pups and has increased to 76,694 in 1971 (Laws, 1973). The 

summer kill of surplus adult males (October-December) has declined from 3,000 

in the early 1950's to 812 in 1969 (Rand, 197213). 

General Biology: 

9ecies Statistics. -- The adult males weigh 204.2 to 363 kg and grow to 

2.3 m long1 females weigh 90.7 to 122.0 kg and are 1.5 to 1.8'm long. At 

birth the pup is about 0.76 m long and averages 6.4 kg. 

Reproductive Data. -- In late October, when IQOSt of the older pups are 

weaned, the first adult males come ashore to establish territories and 

harems8 pregnant females arrive about a week later. In November and early 

December, the female bears a single pup (twins are rare), mates 5 to 6 days 

later, then leaves its pup for the first time and feeds for 1 to 2 days at 

sea. Subsequent nursing-feeding cycles extend to 4 to 5 days on land and 

7 to 10 days at sea. Implantation of the blastocyst in the uterus is 

delayed until April or May. Thus, gestation is 7 to 8 months, but may be 

longer for some females that mate for the first time in their second year. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Adults of both sexes molt on land (14 days' duration) 

a few weeks after the breeding season, usually during March. The pups also 

shed their natal hair and milk teeth at this time and acquire the olivegray coat of the yearling. The copper-colored underfur also becomes 

obvious. 

Weaning is well advanced by September and October, although undisturbed 

mther-pup relationships may prolong weaning. 
Feeding Habits. -- Food consists of fish, cephalopods, and various small 

crustaceans. 

Ecological Problems: Sharks and killer whales are natural predators. On 

the desert coast, the black-backed jackal is a predator on pups. 

Allocation Problems: Local fishermen engage in scattered and illegal killing 

of seals, contending that the animals interfere with their expanding purseseine fishery. Seals occasionally feed on fish protruding through the meshes 

of otter trawl nets or taken by line fisheries. 

Current Research: A recently expanded research program is carried out by the 

South African government to measure herd size, production, annual recruitment, 

natural and harvest mortality, and movements. 

References: 

Best, P. B. 1973. Seals and sealing in South Africa and South West Africa. 

14 processed pp. plus appendix. Statement at the application of the 

Fouke Company for exemption from the Marine Mammal Protection Act. 

Franca, P. da. 1967. Sur la presence d'Arctocephalus pusillus (Schreber) 

(Otaridae) et de Mirounga leonina (Linne) (Phocidae) au sud de 1'Angola. 

Mammalia 31:50-54. 

King, J. E. 1964. Seals of the world. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, 

154 p. 

Laws, R. M. 1973. The current status of seals in the Southern Hemisphere. 

IUCN, New Pub. Ser., Suppl. Pap. No. 338144-161. 

Rand, R. W. 1955. Reproduction in the female cape fur seal, Arctocephalus 

pusillus (Schreber). Proc. 2001. Soc. London 124:717-740. 

- 1956. The Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus). Its general characteristics and moult. Invest. Rep., Div. Fish. S. Afr. 21:l-52. 

- 1959. The Cape fur-seal (Arctocephalus pusillus). Distribution, 

abundance and feeding habits off the southwestern coast of the Cape 

Province. Div. Sea Fish., Invest. Rep. 34:75p. 

- 1967. The Cape fur-seal (Arctocephalus pusillus). 3. General behaviour 

on land and at sea. Div. Sea Fish., Invest. Rep. 60, 39 p. 

- 1972a. Conservation of Cape fur-seals. Text of a lecture delivered 

to Wildlife Society, Transvaal Branch, 7 Nov. 1972 at Johannesburg. 

- 1972b. The Cape fur-seal (Arctocephalua pusillus). 4. Estimates of 

population size. Div. Sea Fish., Invest., Rep. 89, 28 p. 

Rand, R..W. 1973. Management of the South African fur seals. J. 5. Afr. 

Wildl. Manage. Assoc. 3(2):85-87. 
Shaughnessy, P. D. 1976. The Status of seals in South Africa and South 

West Africa. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res. 

FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/52, 30 p. 

VLsser, J. 1967. Catching South African fur seals. Zoonooz 40(2): 15-19. 
SOUTFl AMERICAN FUR SEAL 

(Arctocephalus australis) 

Distribution and Migration: Two major populations of the South American fur 

seal, identifiable only by size, are found, one on the Falkland Islands 

(Islas Malvinas) and the other on coastal Uruguayan Islands. Minor populations of this species occur in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. The adults are 

on the Uraguayan breeding grounds in November and December, and offshore 

up to 200 miles east on the edge of the continental platform during the 

austral winter. An extreme northern record for the South American fur Seal 

was of one identified at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

Abundance and Trends: In 1972, the Uruguayan population was estimated at 

252,000. This population grew from an estimated 129,000 in 1960 to an 

estimated 174,000 in 1965. According to Strange (1973),the 1965-66 

population on the Falkland Islands was 15-16.000. From a census taken in 

1976, Chile reports a population of 40,000. The data on the Argentine 

population were collecteu ill 1954 and are given as 2,700. (Advisory 

Committee on Marine Resource Research, 1976) 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Adult males on the Falkland Islands grow to 159 kg, 

whereas those in Uruguay reach only 136 kg; the females weigh 33 to 48 kg. 

The males are blackish-gray; the females and immature animals vary but 

usually have a silvery-gray neck and back and a yellow tint to the belly. 

Reproductive Data. -- Males are polygynous and establish territories in 

early November. Most of the pregnant females arrive on the rookeries in 

mid-November and form small harems of about six animals. Within 6 to 7 

days, each female bears a single pup and breeds 2 to 3 days later. Most 

males breed at age 7 years and the females at age 3 years. Uterine implantation of tlie blastocyst probably occurs in March. Gestation, including the 

period of delayed inplantation, lasts nearly 1 year. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Most of the animals leave the rookeries during the 

austral winter. On the rookeries, the fur seals are in close contact with 

South American sea lions, Otaria flavescens. Main causes of death in order 

of importance are from sporadic storms, which wash large numbers of pups 

out to sea; the seven-gilled shark; and probably the killer whale, which 

is common around the larger rookeries. 

Feeding Habits. -- Brownel1,cited in Vaz-Ferreira (1976), examined 13 stomachs 

and found remains of anchovies, mackere1,and sea bass. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- The South American fur seal has nasal mites and 

10 species of endoparasites, but no heart-or lungworms. 

Ecological Problems: Offshore oil wells are planned in the near future and 

may result in an ecological hazard. 

55 
Allocation Problems: The species has esthetic, educational, and economic 

values. The Government of Uruguay annually harvests about 12,000 male fur 

seals on the islands. 

Current Research: Long-term research on this species is carried out by 

the Governments of Uruguay and Argentina. In addition, short-term projects 

are carried out by the Natural History Museum of Montevideo and the Smithsonian Institution. 

References : 

Advisory Committee on Marine Resource Research 1976. Mammals in the sea: 

ad hoc group I11 on seals and marine otters, addendum. Food Agric. 

Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/4 add. 1, 9 p. 

Perez-Fontana, H. 1943. Informe sobre la industralia lobera (Ciento diez 

anos de explotacion de la industria lobera en nuestro pais). Informe 

sobre la industria pesquera nacional. Publicado por el Servicio 

Oceanografico y de Pesca. Montevideo, Uruguay. 70 p. +1 cuadro. Monteverde. 

Peso Blanco, 3. del. 1911. Focos de la Republica o del Uruguay. Granada, 

Spain, 27 p. 

Smith, H. M. 1927. The Uruguayan fur seal islands. Zoologica 9(5):271-294. 

Strange, I. 1973. The silent ordeal of a South Atlantic Archipelago. Natur. 

Hist. 82 (2) :30-39. 

Vaz-Ferreira, R. 1950. Observaciones sobre la Isla de Lobos. Rev. Fac. 

Human. Cien., Montevideo, Uruguay, 5:145-176. 

- 1956. Etologia terrestre de Arctocephalus australis (Zimmerman) 

("lobe fino") en las Islas Uruguayas. Servicio Oceanografico de Pesca, 

Trabajos sobre de Lobos y Lobos Marinos 2:l-22. 

Vaz-Ferreira, R., and B. Sierra de Soriano. 1961. Division funcional del 

habitat terrestre y estructura de las agregaciones sociales de 

Arctocephalus australis (Zimmerman), estudio grafico. Rev. Fac. Hum 

Cien. Montevideo, Uruguay. 19:253-260. 

Vaz-Ferreira, R. 1976. Arctocephalus australis (Zimmerman) South American 

fur seal. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 

ACMRR/MM/SC/49, 13 p. 

Ximenez, I. 1963. Frecuencia y fluctuaciones estacionales en la poblacion 

de Arctocephalus australis en algunas zonas de la Isla de Lobos. Rev. 

Inst. Invest. Pesq. 1(2):141-158: 

- 1973. Nota preliminar sobre la repoblacio de Arctocephalus australis 

en la Isla Rasa. Trab. V Congs. Latinoam. Zool., Montevideo, Uruguay, 1:281-288. 
JUAN FERNANDEZ FUR SEAL 

(Arctocephalus philippii) 

Distribution and Miqration: This seal is known to occur only on the Islas 

Juan Fernandez (360 and 440 miles west of Valparaiso, Chile) and Islas San 

Felix (500 miles west of Caldera, Chile). The two groups are 500 miles apart. 

It is not known elsewhere, and migratory movements are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the population on the Islas Juan Fernandez may have numbered 3 to 3-1/2 million, but 

was reduced to the point of commercial extinction. Although there were 

occasional reports of its existence, the species had been regarded as probably extinct since the early 20th century. In 1965 its survival was confirmed 

(Aguayo, 1971). Aguayo (1973) estimates 700 to 800 seals now occur in the 

Islas Juan Fernandez. The trend in numbers is increasing. Seals were 

formerly common on the Islas San Felix; despite several searches, only two 

seals have been seen there in recent years (Hubbs and Norris, 1971). 

General Biology: The biology of this species is little known. Few specimens have been taken, and no studies made. It is now known to breed only on 

the Islas Juan Fernandez. Pupping occurs in December. The habitat of the 

Juan Fernandez seal is similar to that utilized by the Guadalupe seal. 

Species Statistics: In the genus Arctocephalus, this species is second in 

size to A. pusillus. One male taken in November 1968 was 201 cm long and 

weighed an estimated 159 kg. 

Reproductive Data: No study has been made. 

Age-Growth Data: No study has been made. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems; Although the species has been given complete protection 

by Chilean law since 1965, local fishermen may still kill some seals for 

lobster bait. 

Current Research: None known. 

References: 

Aguayo, L. A. 1971. The present status of the Juan Fernandez fur seal. 

K. Norske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 1:l-4. 

Aguayo, L. A. 1973. The Juan Fernandez fur seal. In Seals, Proceedings of 

a working meeting of seal specialists on threatened and depleted seals 

of the world held under the auspices of the Survival Service Commission 

Of IUNCH, pp. 140-143. 
~ubbs, C. L., and K. S. Norris. 1971. Original teeming abundance, supposed 

extinction and survival of the Juan Fernandez fur seal. Antarctic R~S. 

Ser. 18:35-52. 

Repenning, C. A., R. S- Peterson, and C. L. Hubbs. 1971. Contribution to 

the systematics of the southern fur seals, with particular reference 

to the Juan Fernandez and Guadalupe species. Antarctic Pinnipedia. 

Antarctic Res. Ser. 18:l-34. 
GUADALUPE FUR SEAL 

(Arctocephalus townsendi) 

Distribution and 14igration: The distribution of A. townsendi in the 18th 

and 19th centuries is unknown. The Guadalupe fur-seal was believed extinct 

during two periods (1895-1926; 1928-49). One adult male was observed on 

San Nic0laS Island in 1949, and breeding animals were rediscovered at 

Guadalupe Island in 1954. Subsequently, individual animals have been 

reported at Cedros Island, Baja California, and adult and immature males 

have been sighted on San Miguel Island each year since 1968. 

Abundance and Trends: The last Guadalupe fur seal was commercially harvested from the islands of southern California and Baja California in 1894. 

The populations of Guadalupe fur seals on the Guadalupe and San Benito 

Islands apparently once numbered in the thousands. Rice, et al. (1965) 

counted 285 of these mammals on Guadalupe Island and suggested that the 

population was growing rapidly and may contain as many as 600 animals, 

including those in the water. Peterson, et al. (1968) counted 372 animals 

in April 1966. In June 1968, 314 individuals including pups were observed on 

Isla de Guadalupe (Brownell, et al., 1974). About 1,000 seals were counted in 

June and July 1977 by Fleischer (pers. corn.), on Isla de Guadalupe. 

General Biology~ Biological information on this species is scarce. Specimens have not been collected since their recent rediscovery. 

Species Statistics. -- The males are almost 1.8 m long and weigh about 

136 kg. Males appear somewhat smaller and females considerably larger than 

Callorhinus ursinus. 5. townsendi can be separated from C. ursinus by its 

narrow, pointed muzzleand the extension of pelage beyond the wrist onto 

the dorsum of the foreflipper. It is separated from Zalophus californianus 

by its distinctive underfur. 

Reproductive Data. -- The pups are born in June and July. ~lthough 

breeding has not been observed, a postpartum estrus probably occurs, which 

would extend the breeding period into August. The adult males establish 

territories in isolated caves or recesses that have access to the sea or 

among large boulders close to the splash zone. Single or small groups of 

breeding territories are distributed along 20 km of the eastern shoreline 

of Guadalupe Island. The harems contain 1 to 10 females. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The adult males apparently spend considerable time at 

sea; most sightings of males on other islands have occurred during the 

nonbreeding season, but since 1973 males have been observed at San Miguel 

Island during the breeding season. The females may not migrate long 

distances from Guadalupe Island. 

Ecological Problems: Increasing numbers of human visitors to Guadalupe 

Island are subjecting the animals to more disturbance. Because they breed 

only on Guadalupe Island, the seals need complete protection from undue 

disturbance and habitat modification. 
Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: The University of California makes periodic censuses of 

this species. In 1976, the University of Washington and NMFS, Marine Mammal 

Division, began a study of the speriks. 

References: 

Brownell, R. L., Jr., R. L. DeLong, and R. W. Schreiber. 1974. Pinniped 

populations as Islas de Guadalupe, San Benito, Cedros, and Natividad, 

Baja California, in 1968. J. Manmtal. 55:469472. 

Hubbs, C. L. 1956. Back from oblivion; Guadalupe fur seal: still a living 

species. Pac. Disc. 9(6) 814-21. 

Peterson, R. S., C. L. Hubbs, R. L. Gentry, and R. L. DeLong. 1968. The 

Guadalupe fur seal; habitat, behavior, population size, and field 

identification. J. Mammal. 498665-675, 

Peterson, R. S., and D. H. Ramsey. 1969. Reproductive behavior of the 

Guadalupe fur seal. Proceedings of Biological Sonar and Diving Mammal 

Conference, Stanford Res. Inst., pp. 35-42. 

Repenning, C. A., R. S. Peterson, and C. L. Hubbs. 1971. Contributions 

to the systematics of the southern fur seal, with particular reference 

to the Juan Fernandez and Guadalupe species. Antarctic Pinnipedia. 

Antarctic Res. Ser. 18:l-34. 

Rice, D. W., K. W. Kenyon, and D. Lluch-B. 1965. Pinniped populations at 

Islas Guadalupe, San Benito, and Cedros, Baja California, in 1965. 

Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 14(7):73-84. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses: a review of the 

Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. 
LARGA SEAL 

Distribution and Migration: The larga seal is found in the Bering, Chukchi, 

western Beaufort, Okhotsk, northern Sea of Japan and the,Po Hai Seas. This 

species lives in the seasonal pack ice in winter and spring, bearing and 

nurturing its pup there, and moves toward the coasts when the ice retreats. 

A large portion of the eastern Bering Sea population moves northward into 

the Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas in summer. Breeding populations 

gather on the sea ice in spring in the eastern Bering Sea, in the Gulf of 

Anadyr, and near Karaginski Island in the western Bering Sea; in the northeastern 

and southwestern Okhotsk Sea; in Tatar Strait and Peter the Great Bay, Sea of 

Japan; and in the northern Po Hai Sea (Shaughnessy and Fay, 1977). 

Abundance and Trends: The Bering Sea larga seal population has been 

estimated to contain from 135,000 to 200,000 animals. The Okhotsk Sea 

population estimate is 135,000 to 200,000 animals. No data available for 

populations in the Sea of Japan or in the Po Hai-Sea. (Advisory Committee on 

Marine Resource Research, 1976, Popov 1976). 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics.--Adult male larga seals range in size from 1.5 to 1.7 m 

in length; adult females from 1.3 to 1.6 m in length. Adults of both sexes 

weigh from 90 to 114 kg. Newborn pups are.76 to.90 m long and weigh 

7 to 10 kg. Pups are born with a woolly white lanuqo hair coat. Color of 

the adults varies somewhat,but is generally light with a gray saddle and 

dark spots overall. Larga seals are usually paler than harbor seals. 

Reproductive Data.--Larga sea adults form male-female pairs with a single 

pup along the front zone of the sea ice in the Bering Sea and the pups are 

born from late March to mid-May. Pupping in the northern Okhotsk Sea occurs 

from the end of March to mid-April; in Tatar Strait and in the southwestern 

Okhotsk Sea in March; and in the Po Hai Sea and Peter the Great Bay, it 

occurs from early February to mid-March. Larga seals are reproductively 

active about 2 months earlier than harbor seals,and their ranges do not 

usually overlap during the larga seal breeding season. The pups nurse from 

4 to 6 weeks during which time they more than double their weight. Males 

become sexually mature at 4 to 5 years of age; females at 3 to 4 years. 

Breeding is annual, and the period of pregnancy (including delayed implantation) is about 10.5 months. 

Age-Growth Data.--Adults are gregarious outside the breeding season. The 

annual molt occurs between August and early November. It proceeds from the 

posterior to the anterior parts. Predators include the polar bear, walrus, 

and killer whale. 

Feeding Habits.--The diet of the larga seal, which varies according to season 

and location,includes pelagic, demersal, and anaclromous fishes, cephalopods, 

and other invertebrates. 
Parasites and Diseases.--Almost all adult seals have anisakid roundworms and 

corynosomid acanthocephalans.. 

Ecological Problems:--None known. 

Allocation Problems:--The U.S.S.R. manages the commercial take of Soviet 

sealers by setting harvest limits in the Gkhotsk and Bering Seas. 

Current Research:--Ongoing research in Alaska, the U.S.S.R., and Japan is 

aimed toward describing their distribution and movements, reproductive biology, 

feeding habits, growth, physiology, and ecology. 

-- References: 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1972. Testimonypresented to Senate Subcommittee on Oceans and Atmosphere. Nome, Alaska, May 11, 12, and 13, 

1972. Serial No. 92-56, U.S. Gov. Print. Off., V~ash., D.C.,pt. 2:839-1, 

192. 

Advisory Committee on Marine Resources Research. 1976. Mammals in the Seas: 

ad hoc group 111 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., 

Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/~, p. 182. 

Burns, J. J. 1970. Remarks on the distribution and natural history of 

pagophilic pinnipeds'in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. J. Mammal. 

51:445-454. 

Burns, 3. J., and F.. H. Fay, 1972. Comparative biology of Bering Sea harbor 

seal populations. Paper presented at 23d Alaska Sci. Conf., Fairbanks, 

Alaska, Aug. 1972. 

Chapskii, K. K. 1966. Sovremennoe sostoyanie i zadachi vos stanoveleniya 

resursov morskogo zveroboinogo promysia (Present state and task of 

the restoration of resources of marine trapping). Tezisy 3-go Vses, 

Soveshch. po Izuch, Morsk. Nlek., Moskvil-Leningrad, "Nauka. " (not seen, 

cited by Bychkov, 1971). 

Galster, W., and J. Burns. 1972. Accumulation of pesticides in Alaskan marine 

mammals. Paper presented at 23d Alaska Sci. Conf,, Fairbanks, Alaska, 

Aug. 1972. 

Naito, Y., and M. Nishiwaki. 1972. The growth of two species of the harbor 

seal in the adjacent waters of Hokkaido. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 

24:127-145. 

Popov, L.A. 1976. The status of main ice forms of seals inhabiting waters 

of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent to the country marine areas. Food Agric. 

Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MI/SC/Sl, 17 p. 

Shaughnessy P.D. and F.H. Fay 1977. A review of the taxonomy and nonenclature 

of North Pacific harbor seals. J. Zool. Lond. 182:385-419. 
HARBOR SEAL 

(+ vitulina) 

Distribution and Migration: The harbor seal is found in the North 

Atlantic Ocean from the ice pack south to France and Georgia and 

in the North Pacific Ocean from the Bering Sea south to Baja 

California and southern Japan and Korea. (E.E. richardii and 

- P.v. - stejnegeri in the North Pacific; P.1. vitulina and P.X. 

concolor in the North Atlantic are essentially coastal forms.) 

The harbor seal is the gredominant nearshore seal in ice-free 

waters north of lat. 35 N. 

Abundance and Trends: Overall, the world population of harbor 

seals appears to be high and stable, and is estimated to be 

between 380,000 and 399,000 distributed as follows: 48,200 to 

51,500 Northeast Atlantic, no data for Baltic sea; 20,000 to 30,000 

Northwest Atlantic, no data for eastern USA; 312,500 to 317,500 in 

the Pacific ( Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res, 1976). 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Harbor seals of all subspecies are of 

medium size; large adults of both sexes are from 1.2 to 1.8 m. 

long and weigh about 45 to 105 kg. Pups weigh from 0.9 to 12 kg, 

and are about SO to 90 cm long at birth. Pups of this species 

normally shed the lanugo hair in utero and are horn with an 

adultlike pelage. Coat color and pattern are variable. 

Reproductive Data. -- Adults congregate on islets and bear a single 

pup, usually in April to July. The pups nurse 4 to 6 weeks, .in 

which time the weight is more than doubled. Males become sexually 

mature at 4 to 5 years of age; females at 3 or 4 years. Breeding 

is annual, and the period of pregnancy (including delayed 

implantation) is about 10.5 months. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Adults are gregarious outside the breeding 

season. The annual molt occurs between August and early November; 

it proceeds from the posterior to the anterior parts. Predators 

include the killer whale and sharks. Golden eagles have been 

known to prey upon newborn pups resting on sandbars. 
Feeding Habits. -- The diet of the harbor seal, which varies according to 

season and location of specific populations, includes primarily pelagic, 

demersal, and anadromous fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans. In captivity 

a single animal eats about 4 kg of fish per day. 

This species has been known to dive as deep as 91.5 m for short periods and 

can remain under water for as long as 23 minutes. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- Almost all adult seals have anisakid roundworms 

and corynosomid acanthocephalans, and occasionally, high infestations of 

anopluran lice. The latter seem associated with filarial heartworms 

may be vectors. Toxoplasma has been reported in captive animals, but its 

presence in wild seals is not verified. 

Ecological Problems: In some parts of its range, the harbor seal contributes 

to high worm infections in fish, notably codfish. This animal is extremely 

sensitive to disturbance, and may leave an area temporarily or even permanently after continual harassment by people, equipment, or aircraft. 

Contamination of the environment with pesticides, heavy metalsl, and other 

contaminants may be a problem for the land-breeding harbor sea1,because it 

frequently inhabits the relatively closed waters of bays and estuaries where 

these contaminants are likely to concentrate. 

Allocation Problems: These seals damage commercial fishing gear and compete 

with man for such fish as herring, salmon, smelt, and whitefish. 

According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, hunting and the harvest 

of the harbor seal have declined markedly during the past year because of 

a reduced market for salable products from these species, mainly skins. In 

southeastern Alaska, the decreased harvest has resulted in additional conflicts between the harbor seal and the fishermen. 

Current Research: Ongoing research in California, Washington, British 

Columbia, Alaska, the U.S.S.R., and Japan is aimed toward the identification 

of North Pacific populations and describing their distribution and movements, 

reproductive biology, feeding habits, growth, physiology, and ecology. 

References: 

Advisory Committee on Mafine Resource Research. 1976. Mammals in the Seas: 

ad hoc group I11 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., 

Adv. Comm. br. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/4, p. 132. 

Banfield, A. W. F. 1974. The mammals of Canada. Univ. Toronto Press, 438 p. 

Bigg, M. A. 1969. The harbor seal in British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 

Bull. 172, 33 p. 
Bishop, R. H. 1967. Reproduction, age determination, and behavior of the 

harbor seal, vitulina L., in the Gulf of Alaska. MS thesis, Univ. 

Alaska, 121 p. 

Bonner, W. N. 1972. The grey seal and common seal in European waters. 

Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev., 108461-507. 

Bychkov, V. A. 1971. Pinnipeds of the U.S.S.R., pp. 59-74. 2 L. K. 

Shaposhnikov (ed.), Review of the status of U.S.S.R. pinnipedia conservation. Min. Sel. Khoz. S.S.S.R., Tsent. Lab. Okhr. ~rir. Moscow. 

(~ransl. IPST 650946, 129 p.) 

Chapskii,K. K. 1966. Sovremennoe sostoyanie i zadachi vos stanoveleniya 

resursov morskogo zveroboinoqo promysia (Present state and tasks of 

the restoration of resources of marine trapping). Tezisy 3-90 VSeS. 

Soveshch. po Izuch. Morsk. Mlek., Moskva-Leningrad, "Nauka.' (Not 

seen, cited by Bychkov, 1971.) 

Galster, W., and J. Burns. 1972. Accumulation of pesticides in Alaskan 

marine manunals. Paper presented at 23d Alaska Sci. Conf., Fairbanks, 

Alaska, Aug. 1972. 

Mansfield, A. W. 1967. Distribution of the harbor seal, vitulina 

Linnaeus, in Canadian arctic waters. J. Mauanal. 488249-257. 

Naito, Y., and M. Nishiwaki. 1972. The growth of two species of the harbor 

seal in the adjacent waters of Hokkaido. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 

248127-145. 

Shaughnessy, P.D. and F.H. Fay. 1977. A review of the taxonomy 

and nomenclature ofNorth Pacific harbor seals. J. Zool. 

Lond. 182: 385-419. 

Wilson, S. 1973. Mother-young interactions in the common seal Phoca - 

vitulina vitulina. Behavior 48:23-26. 
RINGED SEAL 

(Phoca hispida) 

Distribution and Migration: The ringed seal is circumarctic in distribution 

in the ice pack. In the North Pacific Ocean it is found in the Bering, 

Chukchi, and Okhotsk Seas and in the permanent ice pack of the Polar Basin. 

In winter, most ringed seals occupy areas of land-fast ice, but nonbreeding 

adults and juveniles may be found wherever ice occurs. Apparently, animals 

wintering in the Bering and Chukchi Seas move northward in spring as the 

ice recedes and southward in autumn as it advances again, whereas those in 

the Canadian Arctic may reside year-round in the same locality. In western 

Alaska, the ringed seal is the dominant near-shore seal during months when 

sea ice is present and is replaced by the harbor seal during ice-free months. 

A small proportion of the population, mainly juveniles, remains in ice-free 

areas of the Bering Sea during summer. 

Abundance and Trends: Counts of ringed seals on land-fast ice along the 

northern coast of Alaska made in 1970 (Burns and Harbo, 1972) indicated 

that the density of resident animals varies from 5.36 per square mile in 

the Chukchi Sea between Point Lay and Wainwright to 1.06 per square mile 

in the Beaufort Sea between Oliktok and Flaxman Island. Overall, the population in the Bering and Chukchi Seas appears high and is probably stable. 

Estimates of population size made by the Soviets are diff'cult to evaluate, 

because they recognize three subspecies with overlapping ranges. The Soviets 

estimate that the total population of P. hispida is 5 to 6 million (Chapskii, 

1966); - P. - h. hispida (North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans) at 2,500,000; P. h. 

krascheninikovi (western Bering Sea) at 12,000 and P. h. ochotensis (Okhotsk 

Sea) at 800,000 to 1,000,000 animals (Fedoseev, 1969, from Bychkov, 1971). 

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) estimates the Bering-Chukchi 

Seas population at about 250,000 ringed seals. The U.S. harvest in 1976 was 

limited to an aboriginal harvest of 4,500 to 5,200 animals. Soviet pelagic 

sealing is limited to a quota of 18,000 pelagic and 7,000 shore animals in 

the Okhotsk Sea and the shore harvest in the Bering and Chukchi areas is 

2,000 to 3,000 animals annually. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- The ringed seal is the smallest of the northern seals. 

The adults of both sexes grow to about 1.3 m in length and 66 kg in weight. 

A few individuals, usually females, become much larger. The animals undergo 

marked seasonal changes in weight, being heaviest in mid- to late winter. 

Newborn pups are 55 to 65 cm long, weigh about 4.0 kg, and bear white coats. 

Coloration of the adults is variable. Dorsally they may be brown to blueishblack in background with irregular creamy rings with dark centers. The 

ventral surface may be silvery white to creamy yellow with scattered black 

spots. 

Reproductive Data. -- Males become sexually mature at 6 to 8 years of age, 

females at 5 to 7 years. The ringed seal breeds annually, has a 10.5-month 

period of pregnancy (including delayed implantation) and is probably 
monogamous. The males are sexually active between mid-March and mid-May, 

but they do not collect harems. The females are monestrous, and the oestrous 

period is postpartum while the females are still lactating. The pups are 

born from March to about mid-May in a birth lair within an ice pressure 

ridge or under drifted snow. The females nurse their pups for a full 4 

to 6 weeks. A longer nursing period in sheltered northern bays, where snow 

and ice remain longer, produces larger pups. 

Age-Growth Bata. -- The weight of the pup triples during the nursing period. 

The annual n~lt occurs between mid-May and mid-July, but a few molting 

individuals have been noted as late as 1 September. Plaximum longevity 

exceeds 35 years, but one individual (a male) was 43 years old according to 

annuli on the dentine layers of its teeth. 

Predators of adults include sharks, killer whales, and polar bears. Polar 

bears and arctic foxes prey upon newborn "whitecoats" in their natural 

dens, and even the larger and more powerful gulls attack exposed young pups. 

Feeding Habits. -- Ringed seals tend to be solitary,but congregate in areas 

favorable for feeding, along extensive tide cracks in land-fast ice, and 

during seasonal migrations. The diet of these seals varies considerably, 

depending on their location and water depth. Their diving potential appears 

to be a depth of 91.5 m and for as long as 20 minutes. In western Alaska, 

this seal feeds mainly on mysids, amphipods, euphasiids, shrimps, saffron 

cod, polar cod, and sculpin. These seals fast from April to late June or 

July during their reproductive and molting seasons. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- The mammals commonly have internal parasites, 

including roundworms, acanthocephalans, and anopluran lice. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

hunting and the harvest of the ringed seal have declined markedly during 

the past year because of a reduced market for salable products from these 

species, mainly skins. 

Current Research: The State of Alaska monitors the Eskimo harvest and 

conducts some biological research in conjunction with other programs. 

Canada conducts research on the ringed seal. 

References: 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Marine ~~al Status reports. 

Unpublished report, Juneau, Alaska. 

Bums, J. J. 1970. Remarks on the distribution and natural history of 

pagophilic pinnipeds in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. J. Mmal. 

51:445-454. 
Burns, 3. J., and S. J. Harbo, Jr. 1972. An aerial census of ringed seals, 

northern coast of Alaska. Arctic 25:279-290. 

~ychkov, V. A. 1971. Pinnipeds of the USSR, pp. 59-74. In L. K. Shaposhnikov 

(ed.) , Review of the status of the USSR Pinnipedia c~servation. Min. 

Sel. Khoz. SSSR, Tsent. Lab. Okhr. Prir. Moscow. (Transl. IPST 650946, 

129 P.) 

Chapskii, K. K. 1966. (Present state and tasks of the restoration of 

resources of marine trapping.) Tezisy 3-Go Vsesoyuznogo Soveshchaniya 

po izucheniyu morskikh mlekop tayushchikh. Moscow, "Nauka." (~ot seen, 

cited by Bychkov, 1971.) 

Fay, F. H. 1974. The role of ice in the ecology of marine mammals of the 

Bering Sea. In D. W. Hood and E. J. Kelly (eds.), Oceanography of the 

Bering Sea, ch. 19, pp. 383-399. Institute of Arctic ~iology, university 

of Alaska, Fairbanks. 

Johnson, M. L., C. H. Fiscus, B. T. Ostenson, and M. L. Barbour. 1966. 

Marine mammals. & N. J. Wilimovsky and J. N. Wolfe (eds.), Environment 

of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska, pp. 877-924. U.S. Atomic Energy 

Connu., Oak Ridge, Tenn. 

McLaren, I. A. 1958. The biology of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida Schreber) 

in the Eastern Canadian arctic. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 118, 97 p. 

popov, L. A. 1976. Status of main ice forms of seals inhabiting waters of 

the USSR and adjacent to the country marine areas. Food Agric. Organ. 

U.N. Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res., FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/51, 17 p. 

Smith, T. G. 1973. Population dynamics of the ringed seal in the Canadian 

eastern Arctic. Fish. Res. ~d. can., Bull. 181, 55 p. 

~ikhomirov, E. A. 1966. On the reproduction of the seals belonging to the 

family Phocidae in the North Pacific. 2001. Zhur. 451275-281. 

(Transl. by George Tschuikow-Row, Auke Bay Biol. Lab., Juneau, Alaska.) 
HARP SEAL 

(Phoca groenlandica) 

Distribution and Migration: The harp seal occurs in pack ice in the North 

Atlantic and Arctic Oceans from Europe to eastern Canada. In the spring, 

it mi rates south for breeding to the White Sea, to the Greenland Sea north a of 73 N, and to southern ~Arador, northeastern Newfoundland, and the Gulf 

of St. Lawrence. 

Abundance and Trends: Three breeding stocks of harp seals are known, the 

eastern (White Sea), central (Norwegian Sea around Jan Mayen Island), and 

western (Newfoundland). The last is divided into two substocks, one east 

of Belle Isle on winter pack ice drifting southward--the "Front," and the 

other in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence on winter ice formed in situ--the 

"Gulf." Sergeant (1973) estimates the total eastern Canadian population at 

1.3 million. The number of pups born decreased from about 400,000 in 1960 

to 300,000 in 1970. The population size in 1970 was less than that giving 

maximum production, and estimates indicated the 1970 catch was well in 

excess of the sustainable yield (International Commission for the Northwest 

Atlantic Fisheries. 1971. Redbook, Part I, Standing Committee on Research 

and Statistics Proceedings, annual meeting). From an aerial survey, the 

west Atlantic stocks were determined to be 630,000 tp 790,000 animals (La~igne 

et al., 1975). Ronald et al., (1976), give the following estimates: White Sea, 

600,000; Greenland Sea, 100,000; N.W. Atlantic, <1,000,000. 

The Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the entire northwest Atlantic for 1978 

has been set at 180,000 harp seals (including 10,000 for Greenland, the 

Canadian Arcticsand Labrador). The total for the Gulf of St. Lawrence and 

Front will be 110,000 compared with 160,100 in 1977. These quotas will 

include, for the first time, those seals taken as scientific samples 

(2,400 in 1978). 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- The adults grow to about 1.8 m and 135 kg; newborn 

pups are about 1.0 m long and weigh 11.8 kg. 

Reproductive Data. -- The females mature at age 4 to 6 years and bear a 

single pup annually after a gestation period of about 7.5 months. The 

pups are born from late January to early April, and are nursed for 10 to 

12 days, by which time they have attained a weight of 38 to 40 kg. 

Apparently the female can delay birth until there is suitable ice. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Molting by the pups is completed at 4 weeks. The 

maximum life span is about 30 years. 

Feeding Habits. -- Pups feed in surface waters on small pelagic crustaceans 

and small fish. The food of adults includes capelin, herring, cod, polar 

cod, flatfish, redfish, skate, barracudina, and various crustaceans. 
~~ological Problems: -- One species of helminth affecting the harp seal is 

also found in the muscles of groundfish, particularly cod, necessitating 

expensive removal by hand. 

Allocation Problems: The harp seal may eventually conflict with man over 

capelin stocks as this fishery expands. Several animal protection societies 

object to the harvest of harp seals. 

current Research: Canadian, Danish, Nowegian, and Soviet Government scientists are studying the population of harp seals. At the University of 

Guelph, scientists are studying the biology of this manmal. 

References : 

~ychkov, V. A. 1971. Pi~ipedS of the USSR. pp. 59-74. In L. K. Shaposhnikov, 

(ed.), Raview of the status of USSR Pinnipedia c0nse';;ation. Min. 

Sel. Khoz. SSR, Tsent. Lab. Okh. Prir., Moscow. (Transl. IPST 650946, 129 p.) 

Fisher. H. D. 1952. Harp seals of the Northwest Atlantic. Fish. Res. Bd. 

Can., Gen. Ser. No. 20 9 4 p. 

- 1954. Studies on reproduction in the harp seal -3roenlandica 

Erxleben in the northwest Atlantic. McGill university. Ph.D. thesis, 

133 p. 

Lavigne, D.M., S. Innes, K. Kalpakis, and K. Ronald. 1975. An aerial census 

of Western Atlantic harp seals (Pagophilus qroenlandicus) using ultra 

violet photography. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. 

Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/EC/33, 9 p. 

Ronald, K.,P.J. Healey, and H.D. Fisher. 1976. The harp seal (Pagophilus 

yroenlandicus). Food Aqric. Organ. U.N., Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res. 

FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/36, 29 p. 

Sergenant, D.E. 1976. History and present status of populations of harp 

and hooded seals. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. 

FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/~~, p. 31. 

Sivertsen, E. 1941. On the biology of the harp seal. ~va1r;d. Skr. 26:lO 

+ 166 D. 
RIBBON SEAL 

(Phoca fasciata) 

Distribution and Migration: Geographically, the ribbon seal is separable 

into the Okhotsk and Bering-Chukchi Seas populations, and interchanges 

between these two groups are not known to occur. In the latter group, the 

center of abundance is in the central Bering Sea. The ribbon seal bears 

and nurtures its pup on the sea ice. During winter and spring, the entire 

population is concentrated along the southern edge of the seasonal ice 

pack. Only a few ribbon seals remain with the ice edge as it retreats northward through Bering Strait. In sununer and autumn, ribbon seals are believed 

to be pelagic, mainly in the ice-free Bering Sea. 

Abundance and Trends: The powlation of ribbon seals is relatively low. 

having been markedly reduced by camnercial sealers of the Soviet union during 

the 1960s. In recent years the species has been afforded increased protection by Soviet sealing regulations and its numbers may be increasing again. 

U.S. citizens harvest very few ribbon seals. The Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (1973) estimates that the population probably does not exceed 

~~0,030 animals. Soviet estimates indicate a population of 133,000 in the 

Okhotsk in 1969 (Popov, 1976). Soviet sealers took less than 3,000 ribbon 

seals in 1973 from Bering and Okhotsk Seas. In Alaska, the native harvest is 

usually less than 250 per year. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Adults of both sexes average 1.5 m in length and 

80 kg in weight. A very large female was 1.8 m long with a girth of 

1 m had a blubber thickness of 6.1 cm, and weighed 148.2 kg. The pups are 

born with white coats. 

Reproductive Data. -- Pups are born from late March to mid-April and average 

about 10 kg and 80 cm. Males become sexually mature when 3 to 5 years old; 

females when 2 to 4 years. The species breeds annually, and pregnancy (including 

delayed implantation) probably lasts 10.5 months. A very large 23-year-old female 

(see measurements given above) obtained in March was rarryin~ a near-term 

fetus. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The pup nurses for about 4 weeks, during which time its 

weight triples. Maximum longevity is estimated at 26 years. 

Feeding Habits. -- The diet of these seals during late winter and early 

spring (in the ice edge zone) includes mainly pelagic and demersal fishes, 

cephalopods , and small crustaceans . Parasites and Diseases. -- Ribbon seals host anisakid roundworms in the 

stomach and corynosomid acanthocephalans in the intestine. 
~cological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problemst None known. 

References: 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Marine mamIIalS Status report. 

unpublished report, Juneau, Alaska. 

Burns, J. J. 1969. Marine mama1 report. Fed. Aid Segment Report, v01. X. 

Unpublished, Alaska Dept. Fish Game, Juneau, Alaska, 25 p. 

- 1970. Remarks on the distribution and natural history of pagophilic 

pinnipeds in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. J. Mammal. 51:445-454. 

~ychkov, V. A. 1971. Pinnipeds of the USSR, pp. 59-74. ZL. K. 

Shaposhnikov (ed.) , Review of the status of USSR Pinnipedia conservation, Min. Sel. Khoz. SSSR, Tsent. Lab. Okhr. Prir. Mosccw.(Transl. 

IPST 650946, 129 p.) 

Fay, F. H. 1974. The role of ice in +he ecology of marine mammals of the 

~ering Sea. D. W. Hood and E. J. Kelly (eds.), Oceanography of 

the Bering Sea, Institute of Arctic Biology, University Of Alaska, 

Fairbanks. Ch. 19, pp. 383-399. 

Popov, L.A. 1976. Status of main ice forms of seals inhabiting waters of 

the USSR and adjacent to the country marine areas. Food Agri. Organ. 

U.N. Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/~~. 17 p. 

Tikhomirov, E. A. 1966. On the reproduction of the seals belonging to the 

family ~hocidae in the North Pacific. Zool. Zhur. 45: 275-281. 

(Transl. by George Tschuikow-Roux, Auke Bay Biol. Lab., Juneau, Alaska) 
GRAY SERG 

Distribution and Migration: The gray seal inhabits the North ~tlantic Ocean, 

with major populations in eastern Canada, Iceland, and northwestern Europe. 

Dispersion, particularly by pups, from the Canadian breeding colonies in 

late spring and smer presumably accounts for most of the gray seals seen 

scattered along the coast of l-laine. The tendency for adults to disperse 

is far less, although they at times make pronounced local movements. One 

animal tagged in eastern Canada was recently taken off western Norway. 

Abundance and Trends: The world population is estimated at 50,000 to 60,000 

animals, with about two-thirds of these animals in the British Isles (Bonner, 

1972). Because the population estimates for 1956-71 fit a straight-line 

projection reasonably well, it can be presumed that the population will 

continue to expand in this manner (Bonner and Hickling, 1974). Platt, Prime, 

and Witthames (1974) state that the annual increase in the number of births 

indicates a similar trend in the total population in the Farne Islands. 

An estimated 5,000 gray seals inhabit Canadian waters. A small colony of 

10 to 15 animals was noted in the 1960's on Muskeqet Island, Mass. 

General Biolos: 

Species Statistics. -- Adult males range in length from 2.0 to 2.3 m and 

weigh from 170 to 310 kg; females average smaller in size 1.7 to 2.0 m in 

length and weight of 249 kg. The average weight and length of the newborn 

pups are 13.6 kg and 0.9 m, respectively. The adult coat is gray with obscure 

black blotches on the flanks and back, with lighter underparts. The pups are 

born in a long white coat which they molt when 2 to 3 weeks old to assume a 

dark gray, spotted juvenile coat. 

Reproductive Data. -- Sexual maturity is reported to be reached between 

6 and 7 years of age for members of Canadian populations. In the Farne 

Islands, bulls do not breed until their 8th year, and most do so between 

12 and 18 years of age. Cows do not enter the breeding population until 

their 10th year. The apparent gestation period is 11.5 months, and single 

births are the rule. Fups of the Canadian and Baltic populations are born 

mostly in Feb~ary, whereas most of those in Britain are born in September 

and October. The pups are weaned in about 3 weeks, at which time mating 

occurs. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Following birth, the pup gains about 1.4 kg per day 

and weighs about 41 to 45 kg when weaned at about 3 weeks. It begins to 

molt after the third week. When the molt is completed, it makes its 

way to the sea and disperses. When they are yearlinqs they have chanqed 

little in weight (40 kg),but are 115 to 127 cm long. The cows molt annually 

between late January and April, and males between late February and May. 

Estimated by dental rings, captive gray seals have reached an age of 41 

to 42 years, and wild seals have reached an age of up to 35 years. 
Feeding Habits. -- The adult seals feed chiefly on skates, mackerel, 

flounders, cod, hake, and herrings and occasionally salmon, haddock, sea 

bass, dogfish, squid, and crustaceans. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- In the Baltic Sea, the seals harbor an anisakine 

nematode, Terranova (Porracaecum) decipines. 

Ecological Problems: People occasionally harass the animals and use them 

for target practice. An oil spill in the Georqes Banks area could do irrevocable 

harm to the only U.S. colony,located on Muskeget Island, Mass. 

Allocation Problems: A significant indirect cause of damage by gray seals 

to fisheries in the waters around the British Isles and off Canada is the 

harboring by the seals of an anisakine nematode, Terranova (Porracaecum) 

decipines, the larvae of which infest cod and other gadids, reducing their 

commercial value. 

Current Research: Research on biology, ecology, and populations continues 

by Canadian and British Governments and private groups. Sane work is also 

being carried out by the University of Massachusetts on Muskeget Island 

and by the State of Maine. 

References: 

Advisory Committee on Marine Resource Research. 1976. Mammals in the Seas: 

ad hoc group I1 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., 

Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/4, p. 182. 

Backhouse, K. M., and H. R. Hewer. 1957. A note on spring pupping in the 

gray seal (Halichoems grypus Fab) . Proc. 2001. Soc. Lond 

Banfield, A. W. F. 1974. The mammals of Canada. Univ. Toronto Press, 438 p. 

BOMer, W. N. 1972. The gray seal and camnon seal in European waters. 

oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 10:461-507. 

Bonner, W. N. 1973. Grey seals in the Baltic. IUCN, Sur. S~KV. Comm., 

Suppl. Pap. No. 39:164-174. 

Bonner, W. N., and G. Hicklin. 1974. Seals of the Farne Islands, 1971-73. 

Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. North Umbria 42(2) :65-84. 

Cameron, A. W. 1967. Breeding behavior in a colony of western Atlantic 

gray seals. Can. J. 2001. 451161-173. 

Dubrovskii, A. N. 1937. On the biology of the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus 

Fabr.) . Priroda, Leningrad, No. 2, p. 107. 
Mansfield, A. W. 1963. Seals of arctic and eastern Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. 

Can., Bull. No. 137, 30 p. 

- 1966. The grey seal in eastern Canada waters. Can. Audubon 28:161-166. 

Platt, N. E., J. H. Prime, and S. R. Witthames. 1974. The age of the grey 

seal at the Farne Islands. Int. Counc. Expl. Sea, C. M. 1974/N:3, 

Prel. Rep., 7 p. 

Smith, E. A. 1966s A review of the world's grey seal population. J. 2001. 

150:463-489. 
BEARDED SEAL 

(Erignathus barbatus) 

Distribution and Migration: The bearded seal is found in the North Pacific 

region in the Bering, Okhotsk, and northern Japan Seas and is circumpolar 

in the Arctic Ocean. In winter and spring it is found £ran the southern 

edge of the seasonal ice pack, north to permanent ice, wherever areas of 

broken, moving ice exist. During sunrmer and autumn, it occurs along the 

edge of the permanent polar ice of the Arctic Ocean. Marked seasonal migrations are associated with the advance and retreat of the seasonal ice. 

The bearded seal is usually solitary, though very loose aggregations are 

sometimes observed during the breeding season. It does not normally cane 

ashore. 

Abundance and Trends: All populations seem to be at high levels and relatively stable. A Soviet estimate places the population at 450,000 animals 

in the East-Siberian, Chukchi, Bering, Okhotsk, and Japan Seas (Bychkov, 

1971). The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) estimates a population 

of 300,000 animals in the Bering, Chukchi, East-Siberian, and Beaufort Seas. 

The combined U.S. native and Soviet harvest in the Bering, Okhotsk, and 

Chukchi Seas is 8,000 to 10,000 seals per year, well within the biological 

productivity of this species. Hunting loss, however, is high (op. cit.). 

Soviet pelagic sealing has been prohibited since 1970. Land quotas are 

5,000 for Okhotsk Sea and 3,000 for Bering Sea. U.S. subsistence catch 

has been less than 3,000 animals. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- The bearded seal is the largest phocid of the western 

arctic and subarctic. Large adults attain a winter weight in excess of 

340 kg. From June through September the adults weigh from 215 to 240 kg 

and average 2.4 m in length. Some adult females are slightly larger than 

adult males. The pelage is a smoky-gray with a darker brown cap and dorsum. 

Newborn pups weigh about 31 kg and are 1.3 m long, and have a gray-hrown 

natal coat. 

Reproductive Data. -- The males become sexually mature at 6 or 7 years. 

Some females ovulate at age 3 years, but reproductive maturity is not 

attained until age 5 or 6 years. Female bearded seals are unique among 

northern seals in that they possess four mammary teats instead of the 

usual two, and produce one plp every other year instead of annually. A 

single pup is born, usually during late April or early May. The female 

does not ovulate until early June when the males are out of breeding condition; therefore, they must wait a year to be mated again. The period of 

pregnancy is 10.5 months, including 2.5 months of delayed implantation. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The weight of the pups triples by the end of the 12- 

to 18-day nursing period. They then molt their natal coat for one similar 

to the adult's, although it is sometimes spotted. The adults probably molt 
shortly after mating. Yearlings are about 160 cm long. Bearded seals attain 

full growth at about 10 years of age and average 235 cm long in the eastern 

Canadian arctic and 225 cm atsvalbard. At Svalbard, age groups are fully 

recruited at age 9 years and live to about 31 years. 

Polar bears are a natural enemy of the bearded seal. 

Feeding Habits. -- The bearded seal consumes several species of invertebrates, 

principally crabs, shrimps, clams, and amphipods, and sane demersal fishes, 

all from less than 200 meters. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- Most bearded seals, other than nursing pups, 

are heavily parasitized by anisakid roundworms in the stanach, acanthocephalans and diphyllobothriid cestodes in the intestine, and lice on the 

skin. 

Ecological Problems: The bearded seal is the final host for anisakid worms 

that infect fishes, but this problem is unimportant in Alaska at present. 

 bout 1 percent of these animals harbor Trichinella spiralis, the cause of 

trichinosis in man. 

Allocation Problems: None known. Bearded seals consume comercially 

hportant pandalid and crangonid shrimps and lithode crabs; however, they 

do not compete directly for canmercial fishes, nor do they damage fishing 

gear. 

Current Research: None known. 

References: 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Marine mammal status reports. 

Unplblished report, Juneau, Alaska. 

Benjaminsen, T. 1973. Age determination and the growth and age distribution 

£ran cementum growth layers of bearded seals at Svalbard. Fisk. Dir. 

Ser. Havunders. 16:159-170. 

Burns, J. J. 1967. The Pacific bearded seal. Alaska Dept. Fish Game, 

Juneau, 66 p. 

- 1970. Remarks on the distribution and natural history of pagophilic 

pinnipeds in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. J. Mammal. 51x445-454. 

Bychkw, V. A. 1971. Pinnipeds of the USSR, pp. 59-74. In L. K. 

Shaposhnikw (ed.), Review of the status of USSR ~i~ipedia COnSerVdtion. t in. Sel. Khoz. SSSR, Tsent. Lab. Okhr. Prir . Moscow. (Transl. 

IPST 650946, 129 p.) 
Fay, F. H. 1974. The role of ice in the ecology of marine marmnals of the 

Bering Sea. 2 D. W. Hood and E. J. Kelly (eds. ) , Oceanography of 

the Bering Sea, Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, 

Fairbanks, ch. 19, pp. 383-399. 

McLaren, I. A. 1958. Some aspects of growth and reproduction of the bearded 

seal, Erignathus barbatus (Erxleben). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 15:219-227. 

Popov, L. A. 1976. Status of main ice forms of seals inhabiting waters of 

the USSR and adjacent to the country marine areas. Food Agric. Organ, 

U.N., Adv. Com. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/51, 17 p. 
HOODED SEAL 

(Cystophora cris tata) 

Distribution and Migration: The hooded seal occurs mainly in the east 

Greenland pack ice from Bear Island and Spitzbergen to Jan Mayen, Iceland, 

and Denmark Strait. It also occurs off southern Greenland, southeastern 

Labrador, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Stragglers appear on the American 

coast as far south as Cape Kennedy, Fla. along the Canadian Arctic 

coast as far west as Herschel Island, and on the European coast as far 

south as the Bay of Biscay, France. Hooded seals prefer deep water and 

thick, drifting ice floes. 

In March 1974, an aerial survey by the Fisheries and Marine Service of 

Canada rediscovered a whelping population that had been reported by two 

different sources, one in 1840 and the second in 1873. The seals were 

located between 63O30' and 64*20'N, 56'00' and 5b030'W. There were adults, 

pups, and blood patches, indicating that births had taken place recently. 

Total numbers were estimated to be 50,000 animals. This population is 

believed to be the source of recruitment that maintains the herd of hooded 

seals at icefields east of Newfoundland where the species is heavily hunted. 

Abundance and Trends: Hooded seals of all ages are harvested commercially 

when the animals are congregated for molting. According to Scheffer (1958), 

the herds in the middle of the 20th century were estimated at 300,000 to 

500,000. Sergeant (1965) states that the catch rate of hooded seals has 

been high. The average annual kill from the Jan Mayen Island herd declined 

from about 53,000 (1949-53) to about 40,000 (1959-63) (Popov, 1967). Since 

1972, quotas of 15,000to 30,000 animals have been imposed. Popov. (1976), 

estimates the population to be between 500,000 and 600,000. 

General Biology: 

9ecies Statistics. -- Adult males grow to 2.7 to 3.0 m and 408 kg; females 

are slightly smaller. The adult coat is gray, covered with black patches 

of irregular size. The pups shed their light gray embryonal hair before 

birth and when born have an exceptionally beautiful silver gray coat 

dorsally with a creamy white ventral surface. 

Reproductive Data. -- The pups are born from late March to early April, 

are 1.1 m long and weigh 23 kg. Seals of both sexes mature at age 4 to 

6 years. The adults mate when the lactation period ends (about 2 weeks). 

Age-Growth Data. -- The pups are nursed about 2 weeks. The adults return 

to sea after mating, leaving the pups on the ice where they remain an additional 2 weeks before following the adults. Hooded seals of all ages are 

preyed upon by polar bears. 

Feeding Habits. -- Hooded seals feed on octopus, squid, rosefish, herring, 

capelin, cod, shrimp, mussels, and starfish and are capable of deep diving. 
Ecological Problems: Oil exploration shows signs of increase on the Labrador 

shelf, and with it the stress on marine mamnals may increase. There may also 

be competition for food with the human fishing industry. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Research on the hooded seal is carried out by the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Denmark (GrSnlands FiskeriundersBgelser), 

Norway (Fiskeridirektoratets Havforsknings Institutt), and the Soviet Union 

(VNIRO) . 

References: 

Advisory Cdttee Marine Resources Research 1976. Mammals in the Seas: ad hoc 

group 111 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Advisory 

Ccmmittee Marine Resources Research. FA0 AcMRR/MM/SC/~, p. 182. 

King, J. E. 1964. Seals of the world. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, 154 p. 

Mansfield, A. W. 1967. Seals of arctic and eastern Canada, 2d ed. (revised). 

Fish Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 137, 30 p. 

Popov, L. A. 1967. Modern marine animal hunting industry of the North 

Atlantic Seas. Prob. Severa 11:160-165. 

Popov, L. A. 1976. Status of main ice forms of seals inhabiting waters of 

the U.S.S.R. and adjacent to the country marine areas. Food Agric. 

Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/Sl, 17 p. 

Rasmussen, B. 1960. Om klappmyssbestanden i det nordlige Atlanterhav (On 

the stock of hood seals in the North Atlantic). Fisken og Havet (Bergen), 

No. 1, 23 p. (FishRes. Bd. Can.,Transl. Ser. No. 387.) 

- 1962. Klappmyssen aldersfordeling i Danmarkstredet. Fisk. Gang 

48 : 60-62. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses; a review of the 

Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. 

Sergeant, D. E. 1965. Exploitation and conservation of harp and hood seals. 

Polar Rec. 12 (80) :541-551. 

- 1974. A rediscovered whelping population of hooded seals, Cystophora 

cristata Erxleben,and its possible relationship to other populations. 

Polarforschung 44:l-7. 

- 1976. History and present status of populations of harp and hooded seals. 

Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Adv. Comm. Mar. Resour. Res. FAO ACMRR/MM/SC/35, 

31 p. 
CARIBBEAN MONK SEAL 

(Ifonachus tropicalis) 

The Caribbean monk seal is classified as endangered in the Red Book of 

the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, and was proposed for 

l'stin~ as an endangered species under authority of the Endangered Species 

Act of 1973 on 8 March 1977. From 17 to 29 March 1973, the Bureau of Sport 

Fisheries and Wildlife, Departnent of the Interior, conducted an aerial 

survey of this species' former habitat in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean 

Sea. The conclusion is that the Caribbean monk seal is now extinct. 

(-:cqon, 1977). 

From the 1973 survey and frm other field nbservations, it formerly 

inhabited shores and islands of the Greater Antilles, Bahamas, Yucatan 

Peninsula, and Florida Keys. It was reported at Serannilla Bank as late 

as 1952. A single pup was born, probably in alternate years. The adults 

grew to 2.4 m in length. The color was a uniform brownish gray above; the 

underparts were pale yellow or yellowish white. ~onk seals were vulnerable 

to hunters because they were sluggish, unwary, and not easily alarmed. 

References: 

Allen, G. M. 1942. Extinct and vanishing manunals of the western hemisphere 

with the marine species of all the oceans. New York, her. Comm. Int. 

Wild Life Prot., Spec. Publ. 11, 620 p. 

Elliot, Ii. W. 1884. The monk seal of the West Indies (Monachus tropicalis, 

Gray) . Science 3:752. 

Gilmore, R. M. 1959. Is the West Indian seal extinct? Sea Frontiers 58225- 

236. 

Gunter, G. 1947. Sight records of Me West Indian seal, Monachus tro~icalis 

(Gray), from the Texas coast. J. Mammal. 288289-290. 

Kenyon, K. W. 1977. Caribbean monk seal extinction. J. Mammal. 58:97-98. 

King, J. 1956. The monk seals (genus ~onachus) . Bull. ~rit. Mus. at. 

Hist.), ZWl. 3 x201-256. 

Knudtson, P. M. 1977. The case of the missing Monk Seal. Nat. Hist. 

86(8):78-83. 

Rice, D. W. 1973. Caribbean monk seal (Monachus tropicalis). IUCN, 

Survival Service Cdssion, IUCN Publ, New Ser., Suppl. Pap. NO. 

39x99-112. 

Ward, L. 1887. (Elonachus tropicalis) . Notes of its life history. An 

Nat. 21r254-264. 
HAXAIIAN MONK SEAL 

(Monacilus schauinslandi) 

Distribution and Migration: The Hawaiian monk seal breeds only on Necker Island, 

French Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island, Lisianski Island, Pearl and Hermes Reef, 

and Midway and Kure Atolls of the Northwestern (Leeward) Hawaiian Islands. 

The first five of these islands are within the Hawaiian Islands National 

Wildlife Refuge (HINWR). Rarely do individuals wander southeastward to the 

main Hawaiian Islands. The species is not known to have a migratory pattern. 

Abundance and Trends: The total population was estimated ~t 1,350 in 1958 

(Rice, 1960). It was classified as endangered under the Endangered Species 

Act of 1973, on November 13, 1976. All monk seals are considered endangered 

by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna 

and Flora, signed 3 March 1973. Counts in the 1960's and 1970's suggest that 

the population is declining (Kenyon, 1973), due to human disturbance on puppinc 

and nursing areas. Counts made during the 1977 pupping season produced 

625 individuals (R.L. DeLong, pers. corn.). 

General Bioloa: 

Species Statistics. -- An adult female measures 2.3 m, and her estimated 

weight is 273 kg. On the average, females outweigh adultmales. A 

typical male is about 2.1 m long and weighs about 173 kg. The newborn 

pups weigh 16 to 17 kg and are about 100 cm long. 

Reproductive Data:-- Observations of 47 tagged individuals on Kure Atoll 

indicate an annual reproductive rate of 15 living pups per 100 adults. About 

19 percent of the adult females breed in successive years, and only 56 percent 

of the adult females had pups in either of two seasons. 

The age at which Hawaiian monk seals of either sex first breed is not known, 

but they may do so at age 3 years. Pups are born from late December to 

July, with the peak in April and May. They nurse about 6 weeks. 

~ge-~rowth Data. -- The pp grors frm 100 to about 130 cm during its first 

year. The weights of 6 yearlings averaged 45 kg. Two seals tagged as 

yearlings doubled their weight in their second year, and one increased in 

lenghh by 36 percent and the other by 15 percent. They probably do not attain 

full growth until at least 4 years of age. A technique developed for determining the ages of these seals by examination of the upper canine teeth indicated 

an age for one female of about 11 years and about 20 years for a male. 

Sharks are serious predators. 

Feeding Habits. -- Spewings found on haul-out areas included the remains 

of reef and bottom fishes, eels, and cephalopods. 
Ecological Problems: Harassment of the monk seal by humans and dogs on 

Midway and Kure Atolls may be causing a problem by preventing these animals 

from using sheltered dry pupping areas. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: A joint study has been undertaken by NMFS and U. S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service scientists. During 1976, the first year of the study, 

all breeding islands were surveyed in March and April. Recornendations were 

made to conserve and protect the monk seal. In 1977, research teams will 

intensively study the species on these islands. 

References: 

Kenyon, K. W. 1972. Man versus the monk seal. J. Mammal. 53:687-696. 

- 1973. ~awaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi). IUCN, Survival 

Service commission, rUCN Publ.New Ser., Suppl. Pap. No. 39388-97. 

Kenyon, K. W., and C. H. Fiscus. 1963. Age determination in the ~awaiian 

monk seal. J. MaUmitl. 44~280-282. 

Kenyon, K. W., and D. W. Rice. 1959. Life history of the Hawaiian monk 

seal. Pac. Sci. 13:215-252. 

King, J. E. 1956. The monk seals (genus ~onachus). Bull. Brit. Mus. at. 

Hi5t.J 3:210-256. 

Repenning, C.A.,and C.E. Ray. 1977. The origin of the Hawaiian Monk 

Seal. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 59: 667-688. 

Rice, D. W. 1960. Population dynamics of the Hawaiian monk seal. J. Mammal. 

41:376-385. 

- 1964. The Hawaiian monk seal, rare mammal surveys in Leeward Islands. 

Nat. Hist. 73:48-55. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses8 a review of the 

Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. + 32 pls. 

Tomich, P. Q. 1969. Mammals in Hawaii. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Spec. 

Publ. 57, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, Hawaii, 238 p. 

Wirtz, W. O., 11. 1968. Reproduction, growth and development, and juvenile 

mortality in the Hawaiian monk seal. J. Mammal. 49:229-238. 
CRABEATER SEAL 

(Lobodon carcinophagus) 

Distribution and Migration: The species is circumpolar and abundant in 

pack ice of the southern oceans. It is found as a straggler in Uruguay, 

New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, and South America. Part of the population 

moves toward the coasts in summer and away from land in the winter. 

Abundance and Trends: The crabeater seal is the most abundant species of 

seal in the Antarctic, with population estimates ranging from 2 to 5 million 

(Scheffer, 1958) to 30 million (Erickson, et al., 1971). Laws (1973) 

believes that the later estimate is unreliable, but that earlier estimates 

were too conservative. Gilbert (1974) is in general agreement with Laws 

and provides an estimate of 15 million. 

Laws (1972) reports that a total of 1,251 crabeater seals were killed or 

captured in the Antarctic Treaty area duringthe period 1964-69, which does 

not pose a direct threat to these seals. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Adult males range in size from 2.2.t o 2.4 m and 

200to 260 kg in weight. Adult females range in size from 2.2 to 2.5 m and 

200 to 265 kg in weight. At birth the pups are about 1.3 m long and 

20 kg in weight, and the natal color is gray-brown. Color ranges from 

black to silvery white, depending on the individual, its age, time of year 

in relation to the molt, and dampness of pelage. 

Reprqductive Data. -- Little information is available on the breeding 

habits; mating has notbeenobserved, but sperm are present in the testes of 

males in October and November. Single pups are born during the Antarctic 

spring (mid-September to early November). Available data indicate that the 

adults attain sexual maturity when 3 to 6 years old. 

Age-Growth'Data. -- By January or February the pups have grown so large 

that they are difficult to distinguish from adults. The adults molt in 

January and February while partly fasting. The life span as determined 

from tooth sections is 29 years or more. 

Killer whales and leopard seals are known to prey upon crabeater seals, 

and may be responsible for the numerous scars on a high proportion of these 

animals. 

Feeding Habits. -- The principal food of the crabeater seal is krill 

(primarily Euphausia superba). 

Parasites and Diseases. -- The species has lice on the skin, roundworms 

in the stomach, and, rarely, tapeworms in the intestine. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 
Current Research: The University of Minnesota is studying population dynamics 

of Antarctic seals. 

References: 

Advisory Committee Marine Resources Research 1976. Mammals in the Seas: ad 

hoc group I11 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., 

Advisory Committee Karine Resources Research FA0 ACMRR/MM/SS/4 p. 182. 

Bertram, G. C. L. 1940. The biology of the Weddell and crabeater seal. Sci. 

Rep. Brit. Graham Land Exped. 1934-37, 1:l-39. 

Eklund, C., and E. A. Atwood. 1961. A population study of Antarctic seals. 

J. Mammal. .43:229-238. 

Erickson, A. W., and R. J. Hofman. 1974. Antarctic seals. 2 Antarctic Mammals, ~ntarctic map folio series, Polio 18, Am. Geogr. Soc., pp. 4-13. 

Erickson, A. W., D. B. Siniff, D. R. Cline, and R. J. Hofman. 1971. Distributional ecology of Antarctic seals, pp. 55-75. 2 Sir George Deacon 

(ed.), Symposium on Antarctic Ice and Water Masses, Tokyo, Japan, 19 

Sept. 1970. 

Gilbert, J. R. 1974. Abundance and distribution of seals in Antarctic pack 

ice. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Idaho, 126 p. 

Laws, R. M. 1972. Seals and birds killed and captured in the Antarctic 

Treaty area, 1964-1969. Polar Rec. 16(101):303-364. 

- 1973. The current status of seals in the Southern Hemisphere. IUNC, 

Survival Service Commission, IUNC Publ.New Ser., Suppl. Pap. NO. 392141-161. 

Laws, R. M., and R. J. F. Taylor. 1957. A mass dying of crabeater seals, 

Lobodon carcinophagus (Gray) Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1298315-324. 

Oritsland, T. 1970. Biology and population dynamics of Antarctic seals, pp. 

361-366. &M. W. Holdgate (ed.), Antarctic Ecology 1. 

- 1970. Sealing and seal research in the southwest Atlantic, SeptemberOctober 1964, pp. 367-367. - In M. W. Holdgate (ed.), Antarctic Ecology 1. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses; a review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. 

Seals, U. S., A. W. Erickson, D. B. Siniff, and R. J. Hofman. 1971. Biochemical, population genetic, phylogenetic and cytological studies of 

Antarctic seal species, pp. 77-95. 2 Sir George Deacon (ed.), Symposium on Antarctic Ice and Water Masses, Tokyo, Japan, 19 Sept. 1970. 

Siniff, D. B., D. R. Cline, and A. W. ricks on. 1970. population densities 

of seals in the Weddell Sea, Antarctic, in 1968, pp. 377-394. GM. W. 

Holdgate (ed.) , Antarctic Ecol. 1. 
ROSS SEAL 

(Ommatophoca rossii) 

Distribution and Migration: The species is circumpolar in heavy pack ice 

of the Antarctic Ocean. 

Abundance and Trends: The Ross seal is usually solitary. Scheffer (1958) 

lists the population at 20,000 to 50,000, but more recent estimates of population size are greater than 100,000 (Hofman et al., 1973) and 220,000 (Gilbert, 

1974). 

Laws (1972) states that only 23 Ross seals have been killed or captured in 

the Antarctic Treaty area from 1964 to 1969, and that clearly there is at 

present no serious direct threat to these animals. 

The Ross seals account for 1.0 to 2.0.percent of the total Antarctic pinniped 

population (Hofman, et al., 1973). 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- The adults range in length from 2.0 to 2.4 m and 

up to 204 kg in weight. The animal is plump, with a short, wide head, a 

small mouth, and small teeth. The vocalizations of this mammal are 

striking and account for the common name "singing seal." 

Reproductive Data. -- Little is known of its reproduction, and newborn pups 

have never been seen. The males matures at 3 to 4 years, and the female at 

2 to 7 years. Breeding probably takes place in November, and available 

evidence indicates that the pups are born about 11 months after implantation. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Molting probably occurs in January and February. These 

animals may live up to 12 years. 

Feeding Habits. -- Food consists primarily of squids, fish, and other 

invertebrates. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- Roundworms are found in the stomach, tapeworms 

in the intestine, and lice on the skin. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: Xone known. 

Current Research: The University of Minnesota is studying the population 

dynamics of Antarctic seals. 
References: 

Advisory Committee Marine Resources Research 1976. Mammals in the Seas: ad 

hoc group I11 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Advisory 

Committee Piarine Resources. 

Eklund, D., and E. A. Atwood. 1962. A population study of Antarctic seals. 

J. Mammal. 431229-238. 

Erickson, A. W., and R. J. Hofman. 1974. ~ntarctic seals. 2 Antarctic 

mammals, Antarctic map folio series, Folio 18, Amer. Geogr. Soc., pp. 

4-13. 

Erickson, A. W., D. B. Siniff, D. R. cline, and R. J. Hofman. 1971. Distributional ecology of Antarctic seals, pp. 55-75. In Sir George Deacon 

(ed.) , Symposium on Antarctic Ice and Water ~assec Tokyo, Japan, 19 

Sept. 1970. 

Gilbert, J. R. 1974. The biology and distribution of seals in Antarctic pack 

ice. ph.~. Dissertation, University of Idaho. 

Hofman, R., A. Erickson, and D. Siniff. 1973. The Ross seal (Ommatophoca 

rossii). IUCN, Survival Service commission, IUCN Publ. New. Serv., Suppl. 

Pap. No. 39:129-139. 

King, J. E. 1964. Seals of the world. Brit. Mus. a at. ~ist.), London, 

154 p. 

Laws, R. M. 1964. comparative biology of Antarctic seals, pp. 445-457. 2 

R. Carrick, M. Holdgate, and J. Prevost (eds.), Biologie Antarctiqur 

Antarctic Biology, Hermann, Paris. 

Laws, R. M. 1972. Seals and birds killed and captured in the ,Antarctic 

Treaty area, 1964-69. Polar Rec., 16 (101) :343-364. 

Oritsland, T. 1970. Biology and population dynamics of Antarctic seals, pp. 

361-366. - In M. W. Holdgate (ed.), Antarctic Ecology, 1. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses; a review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. 
LEOPARD SEAL 

(Hydrurga leptonyx) 

Distribution and Migration: Leopard seals are circumpolar in Antarctic 

pack ice and in southern temperature regions and subarctic islands in the 

winter. They are occasionally seen off the southern tips of New Zealand, 

Australia, South America, and South Africa. 

Abundance and Trends: The leopard seal is a solitary animal. Scheffer (1958) 

estimated the population at 100,000 to 300,000. More recently, in 1972, 

Laws (1973) estimated the population at 250,000 to 500,000. 

Laws (1972) reports that 140 leopard seals were killed dr captured in the 

Antarctic Treaty area, which does not indicate any threat to the population. 

General Bioloa: 

Species Statistics. -- The adult males grow to 3.0 m in length and 450 kg 

in weight; adult females reach 3.3 m in length and 500 kg in weight. Leopard 

seals have a long slim body, large head, and wide gape. Newborn pups are 

1.6 m long and weigh 29.5 kg. The color of adults is dark gray dorsally 

and light gray ventrally, and a variable amount of spotting is present. 

Reproductive Data. -- Males are sexually mature at 3 to 7 years,and females 

at 2 to 6 years. Analysis of random specimens indicates that parturition 

occurs between October and December, but, unlike crabeater and Weddell 

seals, breeding may not occur until January or March. The gestation period 

is 240 days. Lactation lasts about 2 months. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The life span for both sexes is judged to be more than 

25 years, based on studies of tooth sections. 

Feeding Habits. -- The leopard seal, largest of the Antarctic seals, is 

the only seal that regularly feeds on warm-blooded animals. Their fwd 

consists of other seals, euphausiids,penguins, whale carcasses, fish, and 

squid. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- Leopard seals suffer from diseased teeth, tumors, 

bony nodules in nasal passages, and stomach carcinomas. 

Ecological Problems: Krill harvest could have deleterious effect upon 

population size. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: The University of Minnesota is studying population 

dynamics of Antarctic seals. 
References: 

Advisory Committee Plarine Resources Research 1976. Mammals in the Seas: ad 

hoc group 111 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., Advisory 

Committee Marine Resources Research FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC 4 p. 182. 

Bonner, W. El., and R. M. Laws. 1964. Seals and sealing. %Antarctic Research: a review of British scientific achievement in Antarctica; pp. 163- 

190. R. Priestly, R. S. Adie, and G. de Q. Robin (eds.), Butterworths, 

London. 

Brown, K. G. 1957. The leopard seal at Heard Island, 1951-54. A.N.A.R.E. 

Interim Rep. No. 1681-34. 

Erickson, A. W., and R. J. Hofman. 1974. Antarctic seals, In - Antarctic Mammals, Antarctic map folio series,'Folio 18, Am. Geogr. Soc., pp. 4713. 

Erickson, A. W., D. B. Siniff, D. R. Cline, and R. J. Iiwfman, 1971. Distributional ecology of ~ntarctic seals, pp. 55-75. In Sir George Deacon 

(ed.) , Symposium on Antarctic Ice and Water ~assec Tokyo, Japan, 19 

Bept. 1970. 

Laws, R. M. 1964. Comparative biology of Antarctic seals, pp. 445-457. 3 

Carrick, R., M. Holdgate, and J. Prewst (eds.), Biologie AntarctiqueAntarctic Biology, Herman, Paris. 

- 1972. Seals and birds killed and captured in the Antarctic Treaty Area, 

1964-1969. Polar Rec. 16 (101) 1343-364. 

- 1973. The current status of seals in the Southern Hemisphere. IUCN, 

Survival Service CodSsion, IUCN Publ. New Ser., Suppl. Pap. NO. 39: 

144-161. 

Oritsland, T. 1970. Biology and population dynamics of ~ntarctic seals, 

pp. 361-366. - In M.W. Holdgate (ed.), ~ntarctic Ecology, 1. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses; a review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. 

Seal, U. S., A. W. Erickson, D. B. Siniff, and R. J. Hofman. 1971. Biochemical, population genetic, phylogenetic and cytological studies of 

Antarctic seal species, pp. 77-95. In Sir George Deacon (ed.), Symposium on Antarctic Ice and Water ~assz, Tokyo, Japan, 19 Sept. 1970. 
WBDDELL SEAL 

(Leptonychotes weddelli) 

~istribution and Migration: This species is circumpolar in fast ice around 

Antarctica, occasionally reaching as far north as Urusuav flat. 35Os1. It - -- . - 

is littoral in distribution and nonmigratory. Because of its occurrence near 

scientific stations,it is the best known of the Antarctic seals. 

Abundance and Trends: The population was estimated to be 200,000 to 500,000 

by Scheffer (1958) and 250,000 to 500,000 by Laws (1973). Recent investigations (Erickson and Hofman, 1974) suggest a total population in excess of 

756,000. Gilbert (1974) estimated 730,000 in pack ice alone (excluding animals in shore-fast ice). 

Laws (1972) reports that a total of 893 Weddell seals were killed or captured 

in the Antarctic Treaty area during the period 1964-69, which poses no threat 

to the population. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Adults range in size from 2.1 to 2.,5 m in length and 

318 to 550 kg in weight. Females are slightly larger than males. Newborn 

pups are 1.2 m long, weigh from 22 to 25 kg, and have permanent dentition. 

Coloration of adults is dark brown to black, conspicuously mottled with 

white spots. 

Reproductive Data. -- Males reach sexual maturity at 6 to 8 years; females 

at 3 to 6 years of age. The average age of breeding females is 9 years. 

Pregnancy last 9 to 10 months. The pups are born from September to early 

November on fast ice, usually close to the Antarctic continent. The mating 

period has not been defined, but males with sperm and females that had ovulated have been collected between late November and mid-December. Lactation 

lasts 5 to.6 weeks, and pups are weaned at 6 weeks. The females protect 

their pups and are aggressive toward intruders. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The pups molt their natal fur and replace it with the 

adult pelage by the 44th day. Initial weight gains are dramatic: the pups 

gain an average of 12 kg or more per week for the first 6 weeks and weigh 

as much as 135 kg by the time the molt is completed. The life span, as 

determined by the teeth, is not over 20 years. 

~00th wear associated with maintaining breathing holes may be a mortality 

factor. 

Feeding Habits. -- Weddell seals feed on mysids, decapod crustaceans, amphipods, cephalopods, euphausiids,and varioud species of fish. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- Wounds inflicted on this mammal heal slowly. and 

festering sores are common. Kidney stones and uterine fibroids have been 
found. Weddell seals are heavily infested with tapeworms, trematodes, and 

ro. ~dworms . 

Ecological Problems: Local populations are discrete i~reeding units which 

could be eliminated by oil slicks. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: The University of Minnesota is studying population dynamics 

of Antarctic seals. 

kferences : 

Advisory Committee Marine Resources Research 1976. Mammals in the Seas; ad 

hoc group I11 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric. Organ. U.N., 

Advisory Comittee Marine Resources Research FA0 ACMRRIMMISCf4 p. 182. 

Bertram, G. C. L. 1940. The biology of the Weddell and crabeater seals. 

Sci. Rep. Brit. Graham Land Exped. 1934-37, 1:l-319. 

Dearborn, J. 11. 1965. Food and Weddell seals at PicMurdo Sound, Antarctica. 

J. Mamal. 46:37-43. 

Eklund, C., and E. A. Atwood. 1962. A population study of Antarctic seals. 

J. Marmnal. 43:229-238. 

Erickson, A. w., D. B. Siniff, 'D. R. Cline, and K. J. Bofman. 1971. Distributional ecology of Antarctic seals, pp. 55-75. Sir George Deacon 

(ed.), Symposium on Antarctic Ice and Water Masses, Tokyo, Japan, 19 

Sept. 1970. 

Erickson, A. w., and I?. J. Hofman. 1974. ~ntarctic seals. 2 Antarctic 

Mammals, Antarctic map folio series, Folio 10, Am. Geogr. Soc., pp. 

4-13. 

Gilbert, J. R. 1974. The biology and distribution of seals in Antarctic 

pack ice. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Idaho, 621 p. 

Kaufmann, G. D., D. B. Siniff, and R. Reichle. 1972. Colony behavior of 

Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddelli, at Ilutton Cliffs, Antarctic. 2 

Symposium on the biology of the seal, Guelph, Ontario, Aug. 14-17, 

1972, pp. 228-246. 

Laws, R. M. 1972. Seals and birds killed and captured in the Antarctic 

Treaty area, 1964-60. Polar Rec. 16(101):343-364. 

Laws, R. M. 1973. The current status of seals in the southern Hemisphere. 

IUCN/SSC Working Group on Threatened and Depleted Seals of the World. 

Guelph, Ontario, Aug. 1972, p. 144-161. 

Mansfield, A. W. 1958. The breeding behavior and reproductive cycle of the 

Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli Lesson). Falkland Islands Dep. 

Surv., Sci. Rep. 1R:l-41. 
Scheffer, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions and walruses; a review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press, 179 p. 

Siniff, D. B., D. R. Cline, and A. W. Erickson. 1970. Population densities 

of seals in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica, in 1968, pp. 377-394. - In M. W. 

Holdgate (ed.), Antarctic Ecol., 1. 

Siniff, D. B., J. R. Tester, and V. B. Kuechle. 1971. Some observations on 

the activity patterns of Weddell seals as recorded by telemetry, pp. 

173-180. - In W. H. Burt (ed.), Antarctic Pinnipedia, Antarctic Res. Ser. 18. 

Stirling, I. 1971. Population dynamics of the Weddell seal (Leptonychotes 

weddelli) in McMuKdo Sound, Antarctica, 1966-68, pp. 141-167. - In W. H. 

Burt (ed.), Antarctic Pinnipedia, Antarctic Res. Ser. 18. 
SOUTHERN ELEPHANT SEAL 

(Mirounga leonina) 

Distribution and Migration: The southern elephant seal is circumpolar on 

subantarctic islands, south to the ice edge of lat. 78's. It breeds on the 

continental coast of Argentina and on subantarctic islands. 

Abundance and Trends: The population of the southern elephant seal has been 

estimated at 600,000+100,000 (Laws, 1960). This species was once sought for 

its oil. It was nea2y extinct by 1900, but since that time regulations have 

allowed the herds to increase. At Sou* Georgia the average annual kill between 1952 and 1964 was 6,000 animals. There has been no commercial sealing 

there since 1964, although licenses to harvest these animals have been offered 

(Laws, 1973) . Laws (1972) reported a total of 25 southern elephant seals killed or captured 

in the Antarctic Treaty area during the period 1964-69, and states that clearly there is at present no serious direct threat to these seals, although one 

cannot rule out the possibility of restricted overexploitation of some local 

populations. 

General Biology: 

species Statistics. -- The southern elephant seal is the largest pinniped. 

Males grow to 5.5 to 6.1 m in length and 3628 kg in weight; females reach 

3.1 to 3.7 m and 907 kg. The South Georgia stock averages larger in size 

(adult males 4.4 m, 3,200 kg, adult females 2.8 m, 680 kg) than the 

Macquarie Islands stock (adult males 4.1 m, 3,000 kg; adult females 2.5 m, 

400 kg). The newborn pups are 1.2 m long and weigh from 37.6 to 49 kg. 

Reproductive Data. -- Males are sexually mature at 4 years, a+ hold harems 

at 5 to 7 years in commercially utilized populations. The females mature at 

2 years and bear single pups at age 3. In unuitilized populations, the 

females mature at age 3 to 6 years, but the males do not reach harem status 

until 12 years old. The breeding season varies with locale and occurs from 

August through November. Most harems contain 20 to 40 females, but up to 

100 have been counted. The pups are born in October, about 1 week after the 

females haul-out, and nurse about 23 days. The females mate about 18 days 

after their pups are born. 

Age-Growth Data. -- The pups weigh 113 to 181 kg at weaning. The molt usually 

starts in early November, when the pups, then 2 to 3 weeks old, shed their 

natal fur and older immature seals begin to haulout to molt. Mature females 

begin their molt in late December or January and mature males in late January 

or February. The molt requires about 18 days to complete. After the molt, 

they return to the sea and probably spend the winter feeding near pack ice. 

The females live about 12 years and the males up to 20 years. 

The leopard seal and killer whale are natural enemies of the Southern elephant seal. 
Feeding Habits. -- Shortly after weaning the pups feed on amphipods for a 

time, after which they feed primarily on cephalopods and fish. 

~cological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: According to Laws (19731, the southern elephant seal 

may become threatened because they compete with Soviet fishermen for commercial species of fish in the vicinity of Kerguelen Islands. 

Current Research: The University of Minnesota makes incidental observations 

of this mammal while studying the Antarctic seal species. 

References : 

Advisory Committee on Marine Resource Research. 1976. Mammal in the Seas: 

ad hoc group 111 on seals and marine otters. Food Agric, Organ. U.N. 

Adv. Corn. Mar. Resour. Res. FA0 ACMRR/MM/SC/4 p. 182. 

Carrick, R., and S. E. Ingham. 1962. Studies on the southern elephant seal. 

Pt. 5, Population dynamics and utilization. Commonwealth Sci. Ind. Res. 

Org. (CSIRO) Wildl. Res. 7:161-197. 

Cline, D. R., A. W. Erickson, and R. J. Hofman. 1970. Elephant seal in 

the Weddell Sea. J. Mammal. 51:204. 

Erickson, A. W., and R. J. Hofman. 1974. Antarctic seals. =Antarctic 

blammals, Antarctic Map Folio Series, Folio 18, Am. Geogr. Soc., pp. 

4-13. 

King, J. E. 1964. Seals of the world. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, 

154 p. 

Laws, R. M. 1953. The elephant seal (Mirounga leonina, Linn.). I. Age and 

growth. Falkland Islands Dep. Surv. Sci. Rep. 8, 62 p. 

- 1956. The elephant seal (Mirounga leonina, Linn.). 11. General social, 

reproductive behavior. Falkland Islands Dep. Surv. Sci. Rep. 13, 88p. 

- 1956. The elephant seal (Mirounga leonina, Linn.). 111. The physiology of reproduction. Falklaad Islands Dep. Surv. Sci. Rep. 15, 66 p. 

- 1960. The southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina, Linn.) at South 

Georgia. Norsk Hvalfangst-Tid. 49(10t 11):466-476, 520-542. 

- 1972. Seals and birds killed and captured in the Antarctic Treaty 

area, 1964-69. Polar Rec. 16(101):343-364. 

- 1973. The current status of seals in the Southern Hemisphere. IUCN, 

Survival Service Commission. IUCN, New Publ. Serv, Suppl. Pap. No. 

39:144-161. 
NORTHERN ELEPHANT SEAL 

(xirounga angustirostris) 

Distribution and Migration: This species originally occupied rookeries and 

hauling grounds on the mainland and islands from Cabo San Lazaro, Baja California, northward to Pt. Reyes, just north of San Francisco. Nonbreeding animals range at least as far north as southeastern Alaska. 

This species now breeds on Isla San Benito, Islas Los Coronados, Isla 

Cedros, San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Island, San Nicolas Island, 

Ano Nuevo Island, and Southeast Farallon Island. 

Abundance and Trends: By 1890 the population had been reduced to 100 or 

fewer animals found only on Guadalupe Island, but this number increased 

to an estimated 15,000 animals by 1960 (Bartholomew and Hubbs, 1960). A 

total of 10,581 were counted in April 1968 on the six Mexican islands off 

Baja California (Brownell, et al., 1974). DeLong (1977) estimated a 

population of about 50,000 in 1976. This species has reoccupied most or 

all of its historic rookeries and hauling grounds. 

Wnll (1974) believes that the San Nicolas Island population is increasing. 

The largest California population of Mirounga is found on San Miguel Island, 

where DeLong and Johnson (in Press) estimate the total island population to 

be 16,000. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Maximum body lengths are about 5 m for adult 

males and 3.3 m for adult females. Newborn pups are about 1.2 m long 

and have black natal pelage. 

Reproductive Data. -- The adult males usually arrive first on the 

rookeries in November, followed by the pregnant females in December. 

Dominant adult males occupy choice locations within the breeding 

colonies and do most of the mating. The female usually bears a 

single pup about 7 days after her arrival and weans it about a 

month later. The female is bred during her last few days ashore. 

Most pups are born January 1 to February 10. 
Age-Growth Data. -- On San Nicolas Island most pups have molted their black 

natal pelage for the gray pelage of older animals by 1 March. The age at 

which the pups go to sea is not firmly established, but they spend at least 

2 to 3 months ashore. older animals return to shore to molt beginning with 

the females about 1 April, followed by immatures of both sexes the males 

are the last to return. 

Feeding Habits. -- Little information on the feeding habits of Mirounga is 

available. The stomach of one hlephant seal contained seven ratfish, one 

66.0 cm California dogfish shark, one swell or puffer shark, three skates, 

and four squids. The species apparently can feed at considerable depths, 

as indicated by prey species and the fact that three young Mirounga were 

taken on hooks set at about 100 fathoms. The stomach of a subadult male 

found dead in California contained the remains of cusk eels, toadfishes, 

scorpionfishes, flounder, cat sharks, and segments of undetermined teleosts 

and elasmobranchs. 

Ecological Problems: Oil from the Santa Barbara spill of 28 January 1969 

coated about 100 elephant seal pups ashore on one area of San Miguel Island. 

The pups had been weaned and apparently suffered no ill effects. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Curre?t Research: Scientists from the University of ~alifornia at Santa Crus, 

and from the Point Reyes Bird Observatory, Stinson Beach, Calif. are studying 

this species. 

References: 

Anthony, A. W. 1925. Expedition to Guadalupe Island, Mexico in 1922. Eroc. 

Calif. Acad. Sci., 4th Ser., 4:277-320. 

Bartholomew, G. A. 1952. Reproductive and social behavior of the northern 

elephant seal. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 47:369-471. 

- 1967. Seal and sea lion populations of the California Islands, pp. 

229-244. In R. N. Philbrick (ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium on 

the ~iolog~of the California Islands, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden. 

Bartholomew, G. A., and C. L. Hubbs. 1960. Population growth and seasonal 

movements of the northern elephant seal, Mirounga angustirostris. 

Mammalia 24:313-324. 

Brownell, R. L., Jr., R. L. DeLong, and R. W. Schreiber. 1974. ~inniped 

populations at Islas de Guadalupe, San Benito, Cedros, and Natividad, 

Baja California, in 1968. J. Mammal. 55:469-472. 

Carlisle, J. G., Jr. 1973. The census of northern elephant seals on San 

MOguel Island, 1965-73. Calif. Fish Game 508311-313. 
Carlisle, J. G., and J. A. Aplin. 1971. Sea lion census for 1970, including counts of other California pinnipeds. Calif. Fish Game 57:124-126. 

Daugherty, A. E. 1965. Marine mammals of California. Calif. Dept. Fish 

Game, Sacramento, Calif., 86 p. 

DeLong, R. L., and A. M. Johnson. In preparation. Increase in the 

northern 'sea elephant population on San Miquel Island, California. 

Huey, L. M. 1930. Capture of an elephant seal off San Diego, Calif., with 

notes on stomach contents. J. Mammal. 11:229-230. 

King, J. E. 1964. Seals of the world. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, 

154 p. 

LeBoeuf, B. J. 1972. Sexual behavior in the northern elephant seal, 

Mirounga angustirostris. Behavior 41:l-26. 

I.lorejohn, G. V., and D. M. Baltz. 1970. Contents of the stomach of an 

elephant seal. J. Mammal. 51:173-174. 

Odell, D. K. 1974. Seasonal occurrence of the northern elephant seal, 

Mirounga angustirostris, on San Nicolas Island, California. J. 

Mammal. 55(1) :81-95. 

- 1972. Studies on the biology of the California sea lion and the northern 

elephant seal on San NicolaS Island, Calif.ph.~. thesis, Univ. Calif., 

Ms Angeles, 168 p. 

Peterson, R. S., and B. J. LeBoeuf, 1969. Population study of seals and sea 

lions. Trans. 34th N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Res. Conf., pp. 74-79. 

Radford, K. W., R. T. Orr, and C. L. Hubbs. 1965. Reestablishment of the 

northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) off central california. 

Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 4th ser., 31:601-612. 

Rice, D. W., K. W. Kenyon, and D. Lluch-B. 1965. Pinniped populations at 

Islas Guadalupe, San Benito, and Cedros, Baja California, in 1965. 

Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 14(7):73-84. 

Scamon, C. M. 1874. The marine mammals of the northwestern coast of North 

America. John H. Carmany and Co., San Francisco, Calif., 319 p. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1964. Deep diving of elephant seals. Murrelet 45:9. 

Townsend, C. H. 1912. The northernelephant seal. Zoologica 1:159-173. 
GRAY WHALE 

(Eschrichtius robustus) 

Distribution and Migration: The gray whale is now restricted to the North 

Pacific Ocean, although it once occurred in the North Atlantic Ocean. 

Two geographically isolated populations are recognized: (1) the eastern 

Pacific ("California") stock, which spends the summer in the Chukchi, 

western Beaufort, and northern Bering Seas (and rarely along the coast as 

far south as central californiaj, and migrates to the west coast of Baja 

California and the southern Gulf of California for the winter; and (2) 

the western Pacific Ocean ("Korean") stock, which spends the summer in the 

northern Sea of Okhotsk and migrates to the southern coast of Korea for the 

winter. 

Abundance and Trends: Eastern North Pacific Ocean--contrary to earlier 

published estimates, the original population was almost certainly less than 

15,000 (Henderson, 1972). During the late 18th and earlier 19th centuries 

the population was greatly reduced. Since complete protection was given the 

stock in 1947, the population has increased to about 11,000 and has remained 

stable since 1967 (Rice and Wolman, 1971). An average of about 160 gray 

whales are killed each year in a subsistence fishery on the Chukotski 

Peninsula of Siberia. In Alaska, no more than five per year have been taken 

by Eskimos in recent years. 

Western North Pacific Ocean--in 1910, the population probably nunbered between 1,000 and 1,500. The status of this population is uncertain at the 

present time, but it appears to be nearly extinct. 

General Biology: The gray whale is identified by its mottled gray color 

and low hump in place of a dorsal fin. It feeds on benthic amphipods and 

other benthic invertebrates on the summering grounds, and fasts during 

migrations and on wintering grounds. Sexual maturity is attained at an age 

of 5 to 11 years, at a mean body length of 11.0 m for males and 11.6 m for 

females. The mating season is in late November and early December while 

the animals are on their southward migration. The calf is born following 

a 13-month gestation period after the pregnant females have arrived in 

certain shallow lagoons on the west coast of Baja California. The female 

bears a calf only once every 2 or more years. The calves average about 

5.0 m long at birth and are weaned 7 months later when they are about 8.0 m 

long. 

~cological Problems: The gray whale is now valuable as a tourist attraction, 

and it supports a rapidly increasing cruise-boat industry, including 1/2-day 

cruises off San Diego and Los Angeles, and week-long cruises from these 

ports to Scamns Lagoon. 

These activities have generated a problem of increasing harassment of the 

whales. In 1972, the Mexican Government declared Scananons Lagoon a whale 

refuge, so the cruise boats are now partly regulated. 
Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Studies on gray whales are being made by the National 

Marine Fisheries Service and the Soviet Union's Far Eastern Institute of 

Marine Fisheries and Oceanography. 

Evans, W. E. (ed.). 1974. The California gray whale. Mar. Fish Rev. 

36 (4) : 1-64. 

Henderson, D. A. 19j2. Men and whales at Scamns Lagoon. ~awson's Book 

Shop, Los Angeles, 313 p. 

Rice, D. W., and A. A. Wolman. 1971. ~ife history and ecology of the gray 

whale (Eschrichtius robustus). Am. Soc. Mmal. Spec. Publ. 3:l-142. 

Wolman, A. A., and A. J. Wilson, Jr. 1970. Occurrence of pesticides in 

whales. Pest. Monit. J. 488-10. 
MINKE WHALE 

(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) 

Distribution and Migration8 The minke whale inhabits all oceans of the 

world, except equatorial regions, and ranges into the polar pack ice zones 

in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It makes extensive seasonal 

migrations between high-latitude summering grounds and low-latitude wintering grounds. 

At least three geographically isolated populations are recognized, one in 

the North Pacific Ocean, another in the North Atlantic Ocean, and a third 

in the Southern Hemisphere. The affinities of the minke whale stocks in 

the northern Indian Ocean are unknown. 

In the eastern North Pacific Ocean, the minke whale ranges from the Chukchi 

Sea south to northern Baja California during the summer, and from central 

California south to within 2 degrees of the Equator during the winter. 

In the western North Atlantic Ocean, it ranges from Baffin Bay south to 

Chesapeake Bay during the summer, and from the eastern Gulf of Mexico and 

northeastern Florida south to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands during the 

winter. 

Abundance and Trends: The exploitable population in the Southern Hemisphere 

originally numbered about 183,000 and currently numbers about 157,000. 

For the North Atlantic there is no estimate of the original population, 

but the present population is about 80,000. No estimates are available 

for the~orth Pacific. 

The minke whale has long been an important species in the "small whale" 

fisheries of the world. In 1975 (including the 1975/76 Antarctic season), 

catches were over 9,522, distributed as follows: 

North Atlantic 1,969 

Japan 370 

Korea no data (566 in 1974) 

Brazil 1,039 

South Africa 110 

Antarctic 6,034 

General Biology: The minke whale is the smallest member of the genus 

Balaenoptera, not exceeding 10 m in length in the Northern Hemisphere. 

The northern animals are distinguished by a white band on the flipper; 

individuals from the Southern Hemisphere average about a meter longer, 

and usually lack the white flipper band. The minke whale feeds mainly on 

euphausiids, but also takes some small fishes. In the Northern Hemisphere, 

it attains sexual maturity at an age of 7 to 8 years and an average body 

length of 7.0 m in males and 7.9 m in females. The female bears a calf 

only once every 2 years (rather than annually, as once believed). During 

the summer, pregnant females migrate to much higher latitudes than do the 

lactating and immature females. 
Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Research on minke whales is being conducted by the 

Japanese Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory, the South African Division 

of Sea Fisheries, and the NoIWegian State Institute for Whale Research. 

References: 

6 0 

Jonsgard, A. 1951. Studies on the little piked whale or minke whale 

(Balaenoptera acutorostrata, Lacepede). Norsk ~valfangst-Tid. 40(5): 

209-232. 

- 1962. Population studies on the minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata 

Lacepede, pp. 158-167.In E. D. LeCren, and M. W. Holdgate (eds.), 

The exploitation of natural animal populations. Blackwell Sci. Publ., 

Oxford. 

Mitchell, E., and V. M. Koziki. 1975. Supplementary information on minke 

whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) from Newfoundland fishery. J. 

Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 328985-994. 

Ohsumi, S., and Y. Masaki. 1975. Biological parameters of the Antarctic 

minke whale at the virginal population level. J. Fish. Res. Bd. 

Can. 32x995-1,004. 

ohsumi, S., Y. ~asaki, and A. Kawamura. 1970. Stocks of the ~ntarctic 

minke whale. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 22175-126. 

Omura, H., and ti. Sakiura. 1956. Studies on the little piked whale from 

the coast of Japan. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 11:l-39. 

Sergeant, D. 1963. Minke whales, Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede, 

of the western North Atlantic. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 20:1,489-1,504. 

Williamson, G. R. 1975. Minke whales off Brazil. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. 

Inst. 27837-59. 
BRYDE ' S WHALE 

(Balaenoptera edeni) 

Distribution and ~igration: Bryde's whale is found in tropical and warm 

temperate waters around the world. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it ranges 

from Maryland south to Cabo Frio, Brazil, and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean 

from Morocco south to the Cape of Good Hope. In the Indian Ocean, it ranges 

from the Cape of Good Hope north to the Persian Gulf, east to the Gulf of 

Martaban, Burma, and thence south to Shark Bay, Western Australia. In the 

western Pacific Ocean, it is distributed from northern Hokkaido, Japan, south 

to Victoria, Australia, and North Island, New Zealand; in the eastern Pacific 

Ocean, it ranges from central Baja California, Mexico, south to Iquique, Chile. 

At least some of Che temperate zone populations (Japan, South Africa) make 

limited seasonal migrations. The tropical populations may be sedentary. 

Abundance and Trends: The population in the western North Pacific, north 

of lat. 20",originally numbered about 20,000, and has now been reduced to 

about 16,000. No estimates are available of population sizes elsewhere in 

the world. 

Until recently, Bryde's whales have been of minor importance in the modern 

whaling industry, and only a few were taken by shore stations in Japan, South 

Africa, and rarely elsewhere. Since 1970, however, increasing numbers have 

been harvested by pelagic expeditions in the western North Pacific Ocean, as 

these expeditions have shifted operations more to the south. In 1975, 1,433 

were killed there--1,317 by Japanese and Soviet pelagic expeditions, and 116 

by Japanese shore stations. The only ones reported taken in the Southern 

Hemisphere were three taken by the shore station at Durban, South Africa. 

However, it is believed that most of the 151 "sei" whales taken by the combination catcher-boat/factory-ship Sierra (registered in Somalia) off Angola 

were actually Bryde's whales. 

General Biology: Bryde's whale is very similar in appearance to the sei 

whale, and the two species were formerly confused. The Bryde's whale is 

slightly smaller--usually less than 13.5 m long; its throat grooves extend 

posteriorly beyond the umbilicus, and it has a pair of lateral ridges on 

top of its snout, one on each side of the median ridge. The fringe on its 

baleen plates is much coarser than that of the sei whale. It feeds mainly 

on small schooling fishes, and also takes some euphausiids and other crustaceans. Males attain sexual maturity at an average length of 12.2 m and females at 12.5 m. The mating and calving season is usually during the winter, 

but in some areas--South Africa, for example, they breed year-round. The 

gestation period is about 1 year. The female does not bear a calf 2 years 

in succession. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 
Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Research on Bryde's whale is being conducted by the 

South African Division of Sea Fisheries and the Japanese Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory. 

Mead, J. G. 1974. Record of sei and Bryde's whale from the Atlantic coast 

of the United States, the Gulf of t,lexico, and the Caribbean. Unpublished report submitted to Scientific Committee, International %&ling 

Commission. 

Ohsumi, s., Y. Shimadzu, and T. Doi. 1971. The seventh memorandum on the 

results of Japanese stock assessment of whales in the North Pacific. 

Rep. Int. Comm. Whaling 21:7G-89. 

Omura, H. 1959. ~ryde's whale from the coast of Japan. Sci. Rep. Whales 

Res. Inst. 14:l-33. 

- 1962. Further information on Bryde's whale from the coast of Japan. 

sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 16:7-18. 

- 1966. Bryde's whale in the northwest Pacific, pp. 70-78. In K. S. 

NorriS [ed. 1 , Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. of ~axfornia 

Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 
SEI WHALE 

(Balaenoptera borealis) 

Distribution and Migration: The sei whale is nearly worldwide in distribution. In the eastern North Pacific, it summers from California to the Gulf 

of Alaska and Aleutian Islandsi in the North Atlantic, from New England and 

the British Isles to the Arctic Ocean. It winters at low latitudes. In 

the Southern Hemisphere this species summers in all oceans from lat. 30°s 

southward, and in winter it is generally found north of lat. 4005. 

Abundance and Trends: Information in this section is from the annual 

reports of the International Whaling Connnission and from recent reports 

of the Bureau of International Whaling Statistics. The number of sexually 

mature animals originally numbered about 200.000 (excluding the North 

Atlantic, for which no estimates are available), and has now been reduced 

to about 57,000, distributed by major ocean areas as follows: 

ocean Original Current 

population population 

North Atlantic no data 

North Pacific 42,000 

Southern Ocean 160,000 

no data 

9,000 

48,000 

Inclusion of sexually immature whales would increase these estimates by 

roughly 50 percent. 

Catches of sei whales in recent seasons have been: 

Southern 

season North North oceans Southern 

Pacific Atlantic (south of land 

40°s)1/ - - 2/ stations 

1975 504 138 1,820 549 z/ 

1976 $I $I 1,858 4 3 -/ 

- 1/ Southern ocean catches are for the seasons 1959-70 

through 1976-76. 

- 2/ No daia from Chile. 

- 31 Protected 

- 41 No data from Greenland 

- 51 No data from Peru 10 4 
General Bioloqy: The species resembles the fin whale but is slightly 

smaller, with less white underneath, and a large dorsal fin. In the far 

north of the Northern Hemisphere it feeds mostly on copepods. The diet 

is much more varied in lower latitudes--including euphausiids, copepods, 

sauries, anchovies, herring, sardines, and jack mackerel. Sei whales 

usually travel in small pods of 2 to 5. They attain sexual maturity at 

6 to 12 years of age, at a body length of about 13.1 m (males) and 13.7 m 

(females). Females bear calves every 2 or 3 years. The mating and calving 

season occurs in winter in the respective hemispheres. Gestation lasts 

1 year, and the calf is weaned when about 7 months old. < 

Seven percent of the sei whales taken off California have been infected 

with a unique disease that causes progressive shedding of the baleen 

plates and their replacement by an abnormal papillomalike growth. 

Ec~logical Problems: None known. 

~llocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: The National Marine Fisheries Service is conducting 

population and biological studies of this species. Other organizations 

carrying out research on this species are the Japanese Whale Research 

Institute and Japanese Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory (North 

Pacific and Antarctic), Fisheries Research Board of Canada (North Atlantic), 

Norwegian State Institute for Whale Research (Antarctic), South African 

Division of Sea Fisheries (South Africa), and Soviet All-Union Research 

Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography. 

References: 

Bannister, J. L., and R. Gambell. 1965. The succession and abundance of 

fin, sei, and other whales off Durban. Norsk Hvalfangst Tid. 

54 (3) :45-60. 

Gambell, R. 1968. Seasonal cycles and reproduction in sei whales of the 

Southern Hemisphere. Disc. Rep. 35:31-134. 

International Commission on whaling. 1972. Twenty-second report of the 

Comission, 151 p. 

- 1973. Twenty-third report of the Commission, 264 p. 

Matthews, L. H. 1938. The sei whale, Balaenoptera borealis. Disc. Rep. 

17:183-290. 

mura, H., and T. Nemto. 1955. Sei whales in the adjacent waters of 

Japan. Sci. Rep. whales Res. Inst. 10~79-87. 
FIN WHALE 

(Balaenoptera physalus) 

Distribution and Migration: The fin whale is worldwide in distribution. 

In the eastern North Pacific it summers from California into the Chukchi 

Sea, and in the North Atlantic from Cape Cod and Spain into the Arctic 

Ocean. The fin whale migrates to more southern latitudes in winter. In 

the Southern Hemisphere it is generally found at lat. 47' to 60" S. 

in sunaer and from 20' to 40° S. in winter. 

Abundance and Trends: Information in this section is from the annual 

reports of the International Whaling Comission and from the report of 

the Bureau of International Whaling Statistics, Sandefjord. The stocks 

available for commercial harvest originally numbered about 470,000, but 

have now been reduced to about 107,000. These are distributed by major 

ocean areas as follows: 

Ocean Original Current 

population population 

North Atlantic 25,000 

North Pacific 44,000 

Southern Ocean 400,000 

Inclusion of immature whales shorter than the legal length limit would 

increase these estimates by roughly 50 percent. Recent catches from the 

stocks have been: 

North North Southern Southern 

Season Pacific Atlantic oceans 11 land 

stations 

1975 51 508 2 245 51 20; 

52 6. 

1'7; - <, -1 275 - 51 0 

- 

1/ Southern ocean catches are for the seasons 1969-70 

through 1975-76. 

An additional 122 "baleen whales" taken off Spain were 

probably fin whales. 

No information from Chile. 

- 4/ No data from Spain. 

- 51 Protected 

The fin whale is commercially the most valuable baleen whale. Stocks in the 

North Pacific and southern oceans are below maximual sustainable yield levels. 

106 
General Biology: This species is second in size only to the blue whale; 

in the Northern Hemisphere it grows to at least 23.2 m and is distinguished 

by a gray back, white belly, and well-developed dorsal fin. Fin whales 

feed mostly on euphausiids, but often eat fish--especially anchovies in 

the North Pacific and capelin in the North Atlantic. 

They usually travel in small pods of 2 to 5 animals. Fin whales are 

sexually mature at 6 to 12 years, with a body length of about 17.7 m 

(males) and 18.3 m (females). Females bear calves every 2 to 3 years. 

The mating and calving season occurs in winter in respective hemispheres. 

~estation lasts 1 year, and the calf is weaned at about age 7 months. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research; The National Harine Fisheries Service is conducting 

population and biological studies of this species. Other organizations 

carrying out research on this species are the Japanese Whales Research 

Institute and Japanese Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory (North 

Pacific and Antarctic), Fisheries Research Board of Canada (North Atlantic), 

British National Institute of Oceanography (South Africa and Antarctic), 

South African Division of Sea Fisheries (South Africa), and Soviet AllUnion Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (North 

Pacific and Antarctic). 

References: 

International Commission on Whaling. 1972. Twenty-second report of the 

commission, 151 p. 

- 1973. Twenty-third report of the Commission, 264 p. 

~ons~;rd, i. 1966. Biology of the North Atlantic fin whale 

physalus (L.): taxonomy, distribution, migration and 

Skr. 49, 62 p. 

Laws, R. M. 1961. Reproduction, qrowth, and age of southern fin whales. 

Disc. Rep. 31:327-486. 

Ptackintosh, N. A., and J. F. G. Wheeler. 1929. Southern blue and fin 

whales. Disc. Rep. 1:257-540. 

Mitchell, E. 1975. Present status of Northwest Atlantic fin and 

other whale stocks, pp. 108-169. In W. E. Schevill (ed.) The whale 

problem. Harvard Univ. Press, camb7idqe, Mass. 

Ohsumi, S., bl. Nishiwaki, and T. Hibiya. 1958. Growth of fin whale in 

the northern pacific. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 13:97-133. 
BLUE WHALE 

(Balaenoptera musculus) 

~istribution and PIigration: The blue whale is found throughout all oceans 

from the Equator to the polar pack ice zones in the Northern and Southern 

Hemispheres. It makes seasonal migrations between rather restricted highlatitude summering qrounds and low-latitude wintering grounds. 

At least three geographically isolated populations are recognized, one 

in the North Pacific Ocean, another in the North Atlantic Ocean, and 

a third in the Southern Hemisphere. Each population is probably comprised 

of several more or less discrete stocks. The "pygmy blue whale" of the 

southern Indian Ocean is morphologically distinct from the stocks which 

spend the summer in Antarctic waters. The affinities of the blue whale 

populations in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are unknown. 

In the eastern North Pacific Ocean, blue whales range from the Aleutian 

Islands and Gulf of Alaska south to central California during the summer, 

and from central Baja California south to within 8 degrees of the Equator 

during the winter. 

In the western North Atlantic Ocean, they range from Davis'Strait south 

to the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the summer and spend the winter in 

the waters east of the West Indies. 

Abundance and Trends: During the first half of the 20th century, the blue 

whale was one of the most important cetaceans to the whaling industry, but 

it is now so rare that it will require probably half a century of complete 

protectior. to restore the stocks to a significant level. In the North 

Pacific Ocean, the population, which once numbered about 5,000, now contains 

about 1,700 individuals (Wada, 1975). This species apparently has been 

slowly increasing since 1966, the year it was first given complete protection. 

The population in the western North Atlantic (off eastern Canada), which 

originally numbered about 1,100 (Allen, 1970), now numbers only a few 

hundred. Estimates of the eastern North Atlantic population have not 

been made. 

The Southern Hemisphere population originally numbered about 200,000 

(Chapn~an, Allen, and Holt, 19641, but was severely depleted before complete 

protection was given the stock in 1965. The present population is estimated 

at about 9,000, half of which are pygmy blue whales (Masaki, 1975). 

General Bioloa: The blue whale is the largest mama1 that ever lived 

on Earth, reaching a known length of 29 m and a weight of 117.5 metric tonnes. 

is distinguished from the fin whale by its mottled blue-gray color dorsally 

and ventrally, its smaller dorsal fin, its broad flat snout, and its 
black baleen plates. Blue whales feed exclusively on euphausiids during 

the summer and fast during the winter. They become sexually mature at 

an average age of about 10 years, when males of the Antarctic stocks 

average 22.5 m and females 24.0 m; whereas the "pygmy blue whales" of 

the southern Indian Ocean average about 2 m less in length. Every 2 or 

3 years during the winter the female gives birth to a calf after a 12-month 

gestation period. At birth the calf is about 7 m long; when weaned 8 

months later it is about 15 m long. 

Ecological Problensr None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Observers aboard whaling and research vessels record 

sightings of blue whales and routinely report them to the International 

Whaling Commission. 

References: 

Allen, K. R. 1970. A note on baleen whale stocks of the northwest Atlantic. 

Rep. Int. Comm. Whaling 20:112-113. 

Chapman, D. G., K. R. Allen, and S. J. Holt. 1964. Reports of the Committee 

of Three Scientists on the special scientific investigation of the 

Antarctic whale stocks. Rep. Int. Corn. Whaling 14:32-106. 

Gulland, J. 1972. Future of the blue whale. New Sci. 54(793): 

198-199. 

Jonsgard, A. 1955. The stocks of blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) 

in the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent Arctic waters. Norsk Hvalfangst-Tid. 44:505-519. 

Mackintosh, N. A., and J. F. G. Wheeler. 1929. Southern blue and fin 

whales. Disc. Rep. 1:257-540. 

Masaki, Y. 1975. Japanese pelagic whaling and sighting in tire Antarctic, 

1974/75. Unpublished report submitted to Scientific committee, International Whaling Commission. 

Ohsumi, S., and S. Wada. 1972. Stock assessment of blue whales in the 

North Pacific. Unpublished report submitted to Scientific Committee, 

International Whaling Commission. 

Wada, S. 1975. Indices of abundance of large-sized whales in the North 

Pacific in 1974 whaling season. Unpublished report submitted to 

Scientific Committee, International Whaling Commission. 
HUMPBACK WHALE 

(Megaptera novaeangliae) 

Distribution and Higration: The humpback whale is found in almost all 

oceans from tropical waters to the edge of, but not into, the polar pack 

ice zones in the Northern and Soutllern Hemispheres. It makes extensive 

seasonal migrations between high latitude summering grounds and low 

latitude wintering grounds--the latter alony continental coasts or around 

islands. 

Three geographically isolated populations are recognized, one in the 

liorth Pacific Ocean, another in the North Atlantic Ocean, and a third 

in the Southern Hemisphere. Each population is comprised of several 

almost entirely discrete stocks. 

In the eastern North Pacific Ocean, the humpback whale ranges from the 

Chukchi Sea south to southern California during the summer, and from 

southern California south to the Islas Revillagigedo and Jalisco, Nexico, 

and also around the Hawaiian Islands, during the winter. 

In the western North Atlantic Ocean it ranges from Disko Bay in western 

Greenland south to Massachusetts during the summer, and from Hispaniola 

and Puerto Rico south to Trinidad during the winter. 

Abundance and Trends: The humpback whale was important, especially to 

shore stations, during the first half of the 20th century. Now, however, 

this mammal is so scarce that it will require a half century of complete 

protection for it to increase to a significant level. A few are killed 

in subsistence fisheries in Greenland, the Lesser Antilles, and the Tonga 

Islands. It has a minor value as a tourist attraction in ilawaii and 

southeastern Alaska. 

The original population size of the North Pacific Ocean tias about 15,000, 

but is now severely depleted co about 850 individuals. A summer resident 

population of about 60 animals occupies the inside waters of southeastern 

Alaska. About 500 spend the winiler around the main Hawaiian Islands. 

The original population size of the North Atlantic Ocean is unknown, and 

the western North Atlantic Ocean stock is now reduced to about 1,000 

animals (Winn, Edel, and Taruski, 1975). A small increase may have 

occurred in recent years. Estimates of the eastern North Atlantic Ocean 

population have not been made. 

The original population of the Southern Hemisphere, which probably numbered 

about 100,000, now contains about 2,500 individuals (blasaki, 1975). The stock has apparently not increased since complete protection was given 

the species in 1964. 
General Biolou: The humpback whale is much more heavy bodied than 

members of the genus Balaenoptera, and is characterized by its extrembly 

long flippers. It feeds mainly on euphausiids, but also eats anchovies 

and sardines when available. The species attains sexual maturity at an 

age of 6 to 12 years, when males average 11.6 m long and females 11.9 m. 

The mating and calving season is from October to March in the Northern 

liernisphere, and April to Septenber in the Southern ~emisphere. The gestation period is 12 to 13 months, and the calf nurses for about 11 months. 

The female rarely bears a calf 2 years in succession. 

The humpback whale is heavily infested with three species of ectocomensal 

barnacles and with whale lice. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None at present. 

Current Research: Observers aboard research vessels and foreign whaling 

ships record sightings of humpback whales and routinely report them to 

the International Whaling Commission. The National Marine Fisheries Service 

is conducting research on the summer grounds in southeastern Alaska and 

the winter grounds around the Hawaiian Islands. 

References : 

Allen, K. R. 1970. A note on baleen whale stocks of the Northwest Atlantic. 

Rep. Int. Com. Whaling 20:112-113. 

Chapman, D. G. In press. Status of research and baleen whale stocke in 

the Antarctic. Presented at IBP Conference on the Biology of Whales, 

Luray, Va., June 1971. 

Chittleborough, R. G. 1965. Dynamics of two populations of the humpback 

whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski) . Austr . J. Var. Freshw. 

Res. 16:33-128. 

Masaki, Y. 1975. Japanese pelagic whaling and sighting in the Antarctic, 

1974/75. Unpublished report submitted to Scientific Committee, 

International Whaling Commission. 

Nishiwaki, M. 1959. Humpback whales in Ryukyuan waters. Sci. Rep. Whales 

Res. Inst. 14:49-87. 

Winn, H.E., R.K. Edel, and A. G. Taruski. 1975. Populatior. estimate of 

the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the West Indies by 

visual and acoustic means. J. Fish. Res."Bd. Can. 32:499-506. 
BLACK RIGHT WHALE 

(Balaena glacialis) 

Distribution and Migration: This right whale inhabits all temperate waters 

of the world. It migrates between summering grounds in cool temperate waters 

and wintering grounds in warm temperate waters; the wintering grounds are 

rnostly along continental coasts or around islands. 

Three geographically isolated populations are recognized, one in the North 

Pacific Ocean, another in the North Atlantic Ocean, and a third in the 

Southern Hemisphere. 

In the eastern North Pacific Ocean, the right whale ranges from Bristol 

Bay and the Gulf of Alaska south to lat. 50O~ during the summer, and from 

Oregon south to central Baja California during the winter. 

In the western North Atlantic Ocean, it ranges from Labrador south to the 

Bay of Fundy during the summer, and Massachusetts.south to Florida and 

Bermuda during the winter. 

Abundance and Trends: The right whale was originally very abundant, but 

heavy exploitation, mostly during the 19th century, reduced all populations 

nearly to extinction by the turn of the century. At least some local 

stocks have increased in recent years. Present numbers are: North Pacific 

ocean--about 220 (Wada, 1975); North Atlantic Ocean--no estimater Southern 

Hemisphere--about 3,200 (Masaki, 1975). 

General Biology: The black right whale is a heavy-bodied animal up to 

18.0 m long and is characterized by lack of a dorsal fin and by a large 

head with a narrow arched rostrum. It feeds mainly on copepods. The 

reproductive biology is pmrly known. Body length at sexual maturity is 

about 15.2 m in males and 15.8 m in females. Mating and calving occur in 

the winter, so the gestation pariod is probably about 1 year. The female 

probably bears a calf only once every 2 (or more) years. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research! Research on the black right whale is being carried out 

by the South African Divison of Sea Fisheries and off AYgentina by a joint 

project of the National Geographic Society and the New York Zoological 

society. Observers aboard whaling and research vessels record sightings 

of right whales and routinely report them to the International Whaling 

Commission. 
References: 

Best, P. B. 1970. Exploitation and recovery of right whales Eubalaena 

australis off the Cape Province. S. Afr. Div. Sea Fish., Invest. 

Rep. 8081-20. 

Cummings, W. C., J. F. Fish, and P. 0. Thompson, 1972. Sound production 

and other behavior of southern right whales, Eubalaena glacialis. 

Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. ~ist. 17(l):l-13. 

Masaki, Y. 1975. Japanese pelagic whaling and sighting in the Antarctic, 

1974/74. Unpublished report submitted to Scientific Conunittee, International Whaling Cotmnission. 

Omura, H. S. Ohsumi, T. Nemoto, K. Nasu, and T. Kasuya. 1969. Black 

right whales in the North Pacific. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 21:l-78. 

Wada, S. 1975. Indices of abundance of large-sized whales in the North 

Pacific in 1974 whaling season. Unpublished report submitted to 

scientific committee, International Whaling cdssion. 
BOWHEAD WHALE 

(Balaena mysticetus) 

Distribution and Migration: The bowhead whale inhabits arctic and subarctic 

waters in four principal areas: (1) from Spitzbergen west to east 

Greenland; (2) in Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Hudson Bay, and adjacent waters; 

(3) in the Bering, Chukchi, Beaufort, and East Siberian Seas; and (4) in 

the Okhotsk Sea. These whales travel singly, in pairs or threes during 

thespring. In autumn they are generally scattered, but may occur in groups 

of up to 50. Bowheads migrate in association with the seasonal movement 

of arctic pack ice. 

Abundance and Trends: All bowhead whale populations were decimated by 

the end of the 19th century because of the great value of this species for 

oil and baleen (Tomilin, 1957). No commercial whaling for bowheads has 

taken place since about 1915. Bowhead whales have been completely 

protected from commercial whaling by the Convention for the Regulation of 

Whaling since 1947, and, subsequently, by the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. These acts allow 

for a subsistence harvest of these whales by the Indians, Aleuts, and 

Eskimos. In the last two decades the take of bowhead whales by Eskimos in 

Alaska has been (Maher and Wilimovsky, 1963; Marquett, ufipublished data): 

Year 

1952 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1966 

Whales 

taken Year 

Whales 

taken 

Whales 

Year taken 

The differences in take between years is primarily because of variation 

in hunting conditions, although in recent years an increase in hunting 

intensity has taken place. Bowhead whales are taken only occasionally 

by the USSR for their natives. 

The size of the bowhead whale population in the Bering Sea and western 

Arctic Ocean is unknown. Based upon counts of whales migrating past ice 

stations near Barrow, Alaska, it is estimated that about 800 whales 

passed in the near-shore lead during the survey period. This is not a 

complete estimate because some whales migrated before and after the survey 

while an unknown number migrated in offshore leads and along the Siberian 

coast. 

In the Spitzbergen area and thr Okhotsk Sea, only a few sightings have 

been made in recent years. 
General Biology: 

Species Statistics.-- The bowhead whale grows to 18 m in length. The color is 

generally black or dark gray, marked by some white, generally on the chin but 

sometimes also on the belly. 

Reproductive Data.-- Sexual maturity is reached at 11.6 m and 12.2 m in males 

and females, respectively. Mating probably occurs in early April or earlier. 

Gestation lasts 12 to 13 months, with a single calf (3 - 4.5 m long) born in 

April-May. The reproductive cycle is apparently 2 years long. 

Age-Growth Data.-- The calf is weaned at 6 months. Yearlings are from 6.7 to 

7.9 m long. These whales travel singly, in pairs or threes during the spring. 

In autumn they are generally scattered, but may occur in groups of up to 50. 

Feeding Habits.-- The species feeds mainly on euphausiids and other krill, but 

occasionally on bottom-dwelling invertebrates. 

Parasites and Diseases.-- Bowhead whales appear to be remarkably free of 

external and internal parasites. 

Ecological Problems: The north-slope oil project might alter the inshore 

southward migration should fall steamer and barge traffic increase to force 

the whales farther offshore. 

Allocatior? Problems: Some conflict of interest may exist between people who 

would like complete protection for bowhead whales and Eskimos who hunt these 

whales. 

Current Research: The National Marine Fisheries Service contracted with the 

University of Southern California to gather biological data on bowhead whales 

in 1973. In the spring of 1973 a group of scientists from United States and 

Canadian universities attempted to record underwater sounds of the bowhead 

whale. The Fisheries Research Board of Canada makes annual surveys from planes 

of bowhead whales in Canadian waters. In the spring of 1974 the National 

Marine Fisheries Service re-instituted a research program on bowhead whales. 

References : 

Bruemmer, F. 1971. Whalers of the North. Beaver 302(3):44-55. 

Davidson, A. No date. Eskimo hunting of howhead whales. Rural Alaska Comm. 

Action Program, Anchorage, Alaska. 37 p. 

Fiscus, C. H., and W. M. Marquette. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Service 

field studies relating to the bowhead whale harvest in Alaska, 1974. 

National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Center, Seattle, 

WA, 98112, 23 p. (Processed.) 
Maher, W. J., and N. J. Wilimuvsky. 1963. Annual catch of bowhead whales by 

Eskimos at Pt. Barrow, Alaska, 1928-1960. J. Mamal. 44:16-20. 

Mansfield, A. W. 1971. Occurrence of the bowhead or Greenland right whale 

(Balaena mysticetus) in Canadian arctic waters. J. Fish. Res. Bd. 

Can. 28:1,873-1,875. 

Marquette, W. M. 1976. Bowhead whale field studies in Alaska, 1975. Mar. 

Fish. Rev. 38(8) :9-17. 

Ross, W. G. 1974. Distribution, migration, and depletion of bowhead whales 

in Hudson Bay, 1860-1915. Arct. Alp. Res. 6(1):85-98. 

Scamon, C. M. 1874. Marine mammals of the northwestern coast of North 

America: together with an account of the American whale fishery. J. H. 

Carmany and Co., San Francisco, 319 p. 

Sonnenfeld, J. 1960. Changes in an Eskimo hunting technology, an introduction 

to implement geography. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. Ann. 50:172. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverli SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. IX,Cetacea.) Moscow, 

Akad. Nauk. USSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii rlus 

717 p.) 
GANGES SUSU 

(GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN) 

(Platanista gangetica) 

Distribution and Xigration: This species (with which the Indus dolphin, P. 

- minor, was formerly thought to be identical) is confined to the GangesBrahmaputra river system of India and Bangladesh, from tidal limits to the 

foothills, and the Karnaphuli River, a small river that empties into the Bay 

of Bengal east of-the mouth of the Ganges. During the summer monsoon season, 

these dolphins extend their distribution up stream into the smaller tributariesi 

during the winter dry season they retreat into the larger main streams. 

Abundance and Trends: No data are available on population size, but the 

species is still fairly numerous, and there is no indication that it is currently endangered. A few are captured incidentally in seines by fishermen, who 

attempt to release the dolphins alive. 

General Biology: Sexual maturity is attained at an average age (estimated 

from growth layers in the teeth) of 10 years, when females have attained a 

body length of 1.70 to 2.00 m, and males a iength of 1.70 m. Physical maturity is attained at an age of about 20 years, and a body length of 2.5 m, for 

females and 2.0 to 2.1 m for males. Mating is said to occur from July to 

September, and the single calf, .70 to .75 m long, is born between April and 

July after an apparent gestation period of 8 to 9 months. Such a short gestation period is highly questionable, and Pilleri (1971) suggests evidence for 

mating in April. The calves are weaned by the beginning of the next winter. 

The mean interval between successive calves is at least 2 years. These dolphins, which are blind, feed on shrimps and mud-frequenting fishes which they 

apparently catch by probing about in the bottom of the riuers. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None at present. 

Current Research: Several field studies have recently been made by biologists 

from the University of Tokyo, the Bangladesh Agricultural University, and the 

University of Berne . References: 

Anderson, J. 1878. A monograph of the two cetacean genera Platanista and 

Orcella, pp. 355-550. 2 Anatomical and Zoological Researches 1. 

Bernard Quaritch, London. 

Harrison, R. J. 1972. Reproduction and reproductive organs in Platanista 

- indi and Platanista gangetica. Cetacea 4: 7.1-82. 
Kasuya, T. 1972. Some informations on the growth of the Ganges dolphins with 

a comment on the Indus dolphin. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 24: 87-108. 

Kasuya, T., and A.K.M.A. Haque. 1972. Some informations on distribution and 

seasonal movement of the Ganges dolphin, Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 

24: 109-115. 

pier . 1970. Observations on the behavior of Platanista ganqetica in 

the Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers. Invest. Cetacea 2:27-60. 

- 

1371. Observation on the copulatory behavior of the Gangetic dolphin. 

Ylatanista gangetica. Invest. Cetacea 3: 31-33. 
INDUS SUSU 

(INDUS RIVER WLPHIN) 

(Platanista minor) 

Distribution and Migration: This species (which until recently was thought 

to be the same as the Ganges dolphin, P. gangetica) is confined to the 

Indus River system of Pakistan and indTa. It originally occurred throughout the system from tidal limits to the foothills, but is now absent from 

many sectors. Its movements have been restricted by the construction of 

many dams ("barrages"), which have split it into several separate populations. 

Abundance and Trends: In 1974 the total population was estimated to be 

between 450 and 500 animals; most (350-400) inhabited the 100-mile (160-km) 

sector of the lower Indus between the Sukkur Barrage and Gaddu Barrage. 

The population appears to be decreasing at a rate of about 10 percent per 

year (Kasuya and Nishiwaki, 1975). These dolphins are captured with hoop 

nets by the local people who eat the meat and use the oil for its alleged 

medicinal properties. 

General Biology: Almost nothing is known of the life history and ecology 

of this species, but it is presumably similar to the Ganges dolphin. The 

gestation period is said to be 1 year, with mating and calving in March 

and April. The annual reproductive rate has been roughly estimated at 

0.05, and the annual mortality rate at 0.16. 

Ecological Problems: The habitat has been greatly altered by the construction of weir as part of the extensive irrieation svstems in Pakistan. 

Allocation Problems: The marked lowering of the water during the dry 

season greatly limits the area available to the dolphins. The dolphins 

would be benefited by more economical use of the water for irrigation 

to maintain water levels above a certain minimum in the reserviors 

and main river channels. 

Current Research: Several field studies have recently been made by 

biologists from the University of ~okyo, the University of Berne, the 

California Academy of Sciences, and the International Union for the 

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 

References: 

Harrison, R. J. 1972. Reproduction and reproductive organs in Platanista 

- indi and Platanista ganqetica. Invest. Cetacea 4:71-82. 

Herald, E. S., R. L. Brownell, ~r., F. L. Frye, E. J. Morris, W. E. Evans, 

and A. B. Scott. 1969. Blind river dolphins: first side-swimming 

cetacean. Science 166(3911):1,408-1,410. 
KaSuya, T. 1972. Some informations on the growth of the Ganges dolphin with 

a comment on the Indus dolphin. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 24:87-108. 

Kasuya, T., and M. Nishiwaki. 1975. Recent status of the population of 

Indus dolphin. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 27:81-94. 

Pilleri, G. 1970. Observations on the behavior of Platanista gangetica in 

the Indus and Bramuputra avers. Invest. Cetacea 2:27-60. 

- 1972. Observations carried out on the Indus dolphin Plantanista &diin the winter of 1972. Invest. Cetacea 4:23-29. 
ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN 

(m bredanensis) 

Distribution and Migration: The rough-toothed dolphin inhabits tropical 

and warm temperate seas. It ranges in the western Atlantic Ocean from 

Virginia south. In the North Pacific Ocean it ranges north to southern 

Japan (35'N) where it is rare, and to the Hawaiian Islands where it is 

fairly common. It is known in the eastern Pacific from strandings near 

San Francisco and in the Galapagos Islands, and from several records in 

the tropical tuna fishery where it occasionally is captured together 

with bottlenosed, spotted, and spinner dolphins. 

Abundance and Trends: The rough-toothed dolphin is uncommon, but not rare 

t!roughout most of its range. It is caught infrequently in the Japanese 

dolphin fishery (Ohsumi, 1972). 

General Biology: 

Age-Growth Data. -- This dolphin grows to about 2.4 m. 

Feeding Habits. -- Very little is known about feeding habits of this 

species. The stomachs of specimens captured in the tuna fishery contained 

remains of fish and squid. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: Rough-toothed dolphins are occasionally trapped 

accidentally in commercial fishing gear. In this way, a small number 

are lost in the eastern Pacific international tuna seine fishery. 

Current Research: The Oceanic Institute in Hawaii is studying this Species 

in the wild and had a - Steno-Tursiops hybrid in captivity. Specimens 

retrieved from the incidental kill in the eastern Pacific international 

tuna fishery are examined at the Southwest Fisheries Center, La Jolla, 

California. 

References: 

Dohl, T. P., I:. S. Norris, and I. King. 1974. h porpoise hlbrid: Tursiops 5 

- Steno. J. Mammal. 55:217-221. 

NOAA. 1972. Observation on the status of stocks and a recommended program 

to reduce the incidental kill of porpoise taken in the eastern tropical 

Pacific tuna seine fishery. Report of the NOAA Tuna-Porpoise Review 

Committee, 63 p. 
Norris, K. S., and J. H. Prescott. 1961. Observations on Pacific cetaceans 

of California and Mexican waters. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 63:291-402. 

Ohsumi, S. 1972. Catch of marine maals, mainly of snall cetaceans by 

local fisheries along the coast cf Japan. Bull. Far Seas Fish. Res. 

Lab. No. 7:137-166. 

Perrin, W. F., and W. A. Walker. 1975. The rough-toothed porpoise, 

- Steno bredanensis, in the eastern tropical Pacific. J. Mammal. 56:905-907. 

Pryor, K. W., R. Haag, and J. O'Reilly. 1969. The creative porpoise: 

training for novel behavior. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 121653-661. 
BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIlJ 

(Tursiops truncatus) 

Distribution and Migration: The bottlenosed dolphin is widely distributed 

in temperate and tropical waters, but strays into much colder latitudes. 

In the western rlorth Atlantic, it ranges at least as far north as Nova 

Scotia and southern Greenland, but is best known from New England southward 

to Florida, westward throughout the Gulf of Mexim,and thence throughout 

the West Indies and-Caribbean to Venezuela. From about North Carolina 

northward this species begins to distribute offshore, and southward its 

members are nearshore, riverine, and estuarine with far fewer distributed 

to the edge of the continental shelf. In the eastern Atlantic, it is 

found frm the northeast Scandinavian coast to South Africa. In the eastern 

north Pacific it infrequently occurs in offshore currents, perhaps as far 

nort5 as southern Oregon, but is far more common south of Point Conception, 

where individuals may be encountered primarily within the coastal zone but 

also less frequently on the continental slope and beyond. The species is 

probably continuous to central Chile. In the western Pacific, it is found 

north to Japan and south to Australia and New Zealand. Its Pacific range 

includes the Hawaiian Islands, where it is said to be common. Nominal 

species have been named from the tropical IndoPacific (x. aduncus), and 

the northern Gulf of California and waters along the west coast of Baja 

California and southern California (2. e). The geographical ranges 

and characters delimiting these named forms are still poorly defined. 

The Small Cetaceans Subcommittee of the International Whaling Commission 

commented on the taxonomy of Tursiops, as follows: "The necessary 

taxonomic work has not yet been done, it seems likely that there is only 

one species of Tursiops, with sharply-defined geographical races varying 

in body size and tooth size and distributed differentially relative to 

sea temperature and depth. There is great need to gather materials that 

will allow definitive examination of the nominal species x. aduncus, 

- T. gilli, and - T. nunanu, and materials from as many other populations 

as possible. These names are currently used by some workers." Subjective 

impressions and limited data from regional surveys and radio and static 

tagging programs suggest that populations are localized within about 

a 100-mile radius and that this species does not make long migrations. 

Bottlenosed dolphins are often seen in large loose schools of several 

hundred animals, which appear to consist of aggregations of small groups 

of no more than a dozen individuals. Iiumpback and right whales traveling 

along the Atlantic coast of Florida and pilot whales off the southern 

California coast are almost always accompanied by bottlenosed dolphins. 

Gray whales along southern and Baja California are also frequently 

accompanied by one or more Tursiops. 

Abundance and Trends: In 1974-75, populations from 1,lobile Bay to Western 

Louisiana alone were estimated from aerial surveys to number 3,500 to 

10,000 animals (Leatherwood and Evans, 1976). ~opulation estimates currently are not available for other areas. 
In North carolina, from 500 to 1,500 animals were killed annually during the 

early 20th century (Townsend, 1914). A few bottlenosed dolphins are now 

taken for food in small open-boat pilot whale fisheries in the Lesser Antilles 

(St. Vincent, St. Luc~~, Dominica),and some are harvested by Venezuelan fishermen. In the past, several hundred bottlenosed dolphins have been taken 

each year off Florida, Mississippi, and Texas for display in marine aquariums 

and for research. Based on subjective data it is believed that local populations of the southwestern United States are not now being significantly 

affected by these activities (D. K. Caldwell, pers. corn.). 

Small numbers are taken for food off Baja California and mainland Mexico, 

in the nets of tuna fishermen in the eastern tropical Pacific, and for 

aquarium display in southern California and Hawaii. 

General Biologx: 

Reproductive Data. -- Gestation lasts about 1 year, and calves nay nurse for 

1.5 to 2 years, although they begin to take solid food at age 6 months. Breeding apparently occurs throughout the year, but the fact that most of the 

young are born during a certain time of year suggests that breeding, as well 

as calving, takes place in the spring and summer. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Bottlenosed dolphins are 1.0 m long at birth and grow 

to 3.6 m in length and 650 kg in weight. Captive animals have become 

sexually mature at 6 years, but recent evidence suggests that this species 

normally breeds at about 12 years. The estimated life span for this species 

is about 25 years, but it may be longer indicating that natural mortality is 

low. 

Feeding Habits. -- Bottlenosed dolphins feed on several species of fish, 

squid, and a few crustaceans. In many areas they are catholic in their food 

selection, seasonally capitalizing on the most abundant or accessible food 

species. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: Some fishermen state that bottlenosed dolphins harass 

fishing efforts by biting fish and shrimp nets, and some attempt to drive 

them away. Bottlenosed dolphins are occasionally trapped accidentally in 

comercial fishing gear. In this way, a small number are lost in the eastern 

Pacific international tuna seine fishery. As indicated in the Tursiops 

truncatus Assessment Workshop (Odell, et al., 1975), the effect on the population of taking these animals for display and research off the southeast 

United States requires further study. 

Current Research: Several agencies and institutions conduct or support 

research on the bottlenosed dolphin. Included are the Office of Naval 

Research, National Institutes of Health, and the National Science Foundation. 

The University of Florida concentrates its research on general life history, 

intraspecies comunication, and ecological studies. The U. 5. Fish and 
Wildlife Service is conducting similar detailed studies of the life history of 

the animals near Tampa Bay, Fla. The Florida State Museum is studying 

systematics. Pasearch on physiology, echolocation, anatomy, life history,and 

the behavior of captive and wild individuals has been done at Me Naval Undersea Centers in San Diego and Hawaii. These laboratories are also assessing 

numbers and viability of regional stocks. Texas A&M University is conducting 

a detailed population study of Aransas Bay, Texas. Studies on vision are 

being carried out by scientists from the University of Miami. The Dolfinarium 

at Hardewijk, Netherlands, has recently conducted studies of the physiology 

and handling of these animals. Specimens retrieved from the incidental kill 

in the eastern Pacific international tuna fishery are examined at the Southwest 

Fisheries Center, where studies are underway on their systematics, distribution, 

life history, and feeding habits. 

References: 

Anderson, H. T. (ad.). 1969. The biology of marine mammals. Academic Press, 

New YOrk, 511 p. 

Caldwell, D. K., and M. C. Caldwell. 1972. The world of the bottlenosed do:Lphin. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 157 p. 

Leatherwood, S. 1975. Aerial assessment of bottlenosed dolphins off Mississippi and western Louisiana, pp. 49-86. In D. K. Odell, D. B. Siniff, and 

G. H. Waring (eds.) , Final report ~ursiop~truncatus asessment Workshop. 

univ. Miami Contract Rep. uM-RSMAS-75042. 

Leatherwood, S. 1975. Some observations of feeding behavior of bottlenosed 

dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the northern Gulf of Mexico and 

(Tursiops of 2. e) off southern California, Baja California, and 

Nayarit, ~exico. Nar. Fish. Rev. 37(9):10-16. 

Leatherwood, S., and W. E. Evans. In press. The bottlenosed dolphin, TU~S~OPS 

truncatus: a synoptic account of the species. 2 S. H. Ridgeway and 

R. J. Harrison (eds.), A handbook of marine mammals of the world. 

Academic Press, New York. 

Leathemood, S., D. K. Caldwell, and H. E. Winn. 1976. Whales, dolphins, 

and porpoises of the western North Atlantic: a guide to their identification. NOAA Tech. Pep. NMFS Circ. 396, 176 p. 

Norris, K. S. (ed.). 1966. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. univ. California 

Press, Berkeley, 789 p. 

Odell, D. K., D. B. Siniff, and G. H. Waring (eds.). 1975. Final report 

Tursiops truncatus assessment workshop. Univ. Miami Contract Rep. UMRSMAS-75041, 141 p. 
Ridgeway, S. H. (ed.). 1972. Mammals of the sear biology and medicine. 

Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, 11 812 p. 

Sergeant, D. E., D. K. Caldwell, and M. C. caldwell. 1973. Age, growth, 

and maturity of bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) from northeast Florida. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 3081,009-1,011. 
SPINNER DCLPHlN 

(Stenella longirostris) 

Distribution and Migration.--The spinner dolphin inhabits tropical 

inshore and offshore waters around the world. In the United States, it 

has been recorded on the Gulf of Mexico but not on the U.S. Pacific 

Coast. In the eastern tropical Pacific, this species commonly associates 

with the spotted dolphin in mixed aggregations of up to several thousand 

animals. It is involved in the international tuna fishery in the eastern 

tropical Pacific, from Cabo San Lucas to Peru and west to about long. 

145'~. Little is known of its migrations. 

There are at least three races of spinner dolphin in the eastern 

Pacific and one in Hawaiian waters, differing modally in several characters. 

One form that occurs very near the coast of Central America, referred to 

below as the "Costa Rican" form, is relatively long, slender, and gray. 

A second race, called "eastern spinner" occurs along the coast oi 

Mexico and seaward about 800 km and is relatively short, slender, and 

gray. A third, called "whitebelly spinner," occurs in far offshore 

waters west to about long. 145'~ and is relatively short, robust, 

and white below. A fourth form, relatively long, robust,and white 

below, occurs in Hawaiian waters and possibly to the south and west. 

The ranges of the eastern and whitebelly forms overlap. In the area of 

overlap, the two forms are occasionally captured together. A few apparent 

intergrades have also been collected. The eastern and whitebelly forms 

are involved in the international tuna fishery. 

The maximum recorded straight-line movement of a single animal is 

280 miles (448 km) in 396 days. 

Abundance and Trends.--The size of the population of eastern spinner 

was estimated to be 1.2 million as of January 1, 1974. Projecting ahead 

to the beginning of 1977 on the basis of net reproducttve rate and 

annual kills of 22,000, 26,000,and 8,700 in 1974, 1975,and 1976, the 

population size was 1.289 million, indicating a recent annual increase 

of 3 percent. This population size was determined to be 55 percent of the 

pre-exploitation size in 1977 and, therefore, very near the lower limit of 

o?timum sustainable population (SWFC, 1976). 

The population size of whitebelly spinner dolphin was estimated to 

be 690,000 or 80 percent of its initial size as of January 1, 1977. his 

estimate was determined using the ratio of sightings of whitebelly spinner 

dglphin and offshore spotted dolphin in 1976 and the estimate of 

s?otted dolphin population size in 1976. The annual kills in 1974, 1975, 

and 1976 were 18,000, 39,000, and 40,200, respectively. Thus, it was 

determined that the population size of whitebelly spinners is decreasing 

at a rate of about 2 percent per year. Exploitation of whitebelly spinners 

has not been subjected to incidental mortality as long as the other 

forms of Stenella; therefore, the expected increase in reproduction 

due to a decreasing population size probably has not fully occurred yet. 
General Biology.--Average length at birth is .77 m. Gestation is 

10.6 months. Average length of males at attainment of sexual maturity 

is 1.7 m. Average length of adult males fs 1.75 m (range 1.6 to 1.9 

m). Average length of females at attainment of sexual maturity is 1.6 

m. Average length of adult females is 1.7 rn (range 1.5 to 1.8 m). Approximately 1 percent of adult females are postre~roductive. Estimates of 

annual pregnancy rate range from 0.450 (based on 1973 data) to 0.474 

(based on 1974 data). The pooled estimate for all years' data is 

0.461. The corresponding estimates of calving interval (reciprocal of 

pregnancy rate) are 2.22 years, 2.11 years, and 2.17 years. 

Estimates of gross annual reproductive rate based on the 1973. 1974, and 

1975 data are 0.099, 0.103, and 0.105, respectively. The estimate based 

on pooled data for the 3 years is 0.102. 

Feeding Habits.--The spinner dolphin feeds on small pelagic fishes 

and squids. 

Ecological Problems.--None known. 

Allocation Problems.--Because of its association with yellowfin 

tuna, this species is taken incidentally by fishermen from the United 

States, Canada, France, Japan, Mexico, Panama, and other countries in 

coastal and international waters of the eastern tropical Pacific. 

The foreign share of the tuna catch has been increasing in recent 

years resulting in an increasing proportion of the total incidental kill 

being caused by foreign fishermen. The increase is expected to continue. 

Current Research.--The National Marine Fisheries Service and the 

tuna fishing industry are assessing the effects of porpoise mortality 

and improving rescue methods and gear to eliminate losses associated 

with the tuna harvest. No other nation involved in the Pacific tuna 

fishery is conducting research aimed at improving rescue methods and 

gear to eliminate porpoise losses associated with the tuna harvest. 

Other research includes systematics and ecological studies by 

P.J.H. van Bree at the Zoological Museum in Amsterdam, W. Dawbin at 

Sydney University,and E.D. Mitchell at the Arctic Biological Station of 

the Fisheries Board of Canada in Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec; and 

ethological studies by K.S. Norris at the University of California at 

Santa Cruz. 
REFERENCES 

Bree, P.J.H. van. 1971. On skulls of Stenella longirostris (Gray 1828) 

from the eastern Atlantic. (Notes on Cetacea, Delphinoidea IV.) 

Beaufortia 19: 99-105. 

Fitch, J.E., and R.L. Brownell, Jr. 1968. Fish otoliths in cetacean 

stomachs and their importance in interpreting feeding habits. 

J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 25: 2,561-2,574. 

Green, R.E., W.*. Perrin, and B. Petrich. 1971. The American tuna purse 

seine fishery. Hilman Hristjonsson (ed.) Modern fishinq qear of 

the world, Vol. 3. United Nations FAO, Fishing Books, Ltd, London. 

Hester, F.J., J.R. Hunter, and R.R. Whitney. 1963. Jumping and Spinning 

behavior in the spinner porpoise, J. Mammal. 44: 586-588. 

Mizue, K., K. Yoshida, and S. Sonoda. 1964. Studies on the little-toothed 

whales in the West Sea area of Kyusyu. X. About Prodelphinus 

sp., so-called "Hashinaga Iruka" in Japan caught in the sea area 

around Goto Is., Nagasaki Pref. Bull. Fac. Fish. Nagasaki Univ. 

17: 10-24. 

Morris, R.A., and L.S. Mowbray. 1966. An unusual barnacle attachment on 

the teeth of the Hawaiian spinning dolphin. Norsk Hvalfanqst-Tid. 

55 (1) : 15-16. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1972. Report of the 

NOAA Tuna-Porpoise Review Committee. Processed report, 63 p. 

. 1975. Progress of research on porpoise mortality incidental to 

tuna purse-seine fishing for fiscal year 1975. Southwest Fisheries 

Center Administrative Report No. LJ-75-68, 98 p. 

Perrin, W.F. 1969. Using porpoise to catch tuna. World Fish. 

18 (6) : 42-45. 

. 1972. Color patterns of spinner porpoise (Stenella cf. 

S. longirostris) of the eastern Pacific and Hawaii, with comments 

on delphinid pigmentation. Fish. Bull. (U.S.) 70: 983- 1,003. 

. 1972. Variation and taxonomy of spotted and spinner porpoises 

of the eastern tropical Pacific and Hawaii. Ph.D. dissertation, 

Univ. Calif., Los Angeles, xxvi + 590 p. 

Perrin, W.F., and E.L. Roberts. 1972. Organ weights of noncaptive 

porpoise (Stenella spp.). Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Bull. 71: 19-32. 

Southwest Fisheries Center(SWFC). 1976. Report of the workshop on stock assessment of porpoises involved in the eastern tropical Pacific yellowfin 

tuna fishery. Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative Report NO. 

LJ-76-29, 105 p. 
SPOTTED DOLPHIN 

(Stenella attenuata, 5. frontali?, - S. graffmani, -- S. dubia) 

Distribution and Migration.--lQiowledge of the spotted dolphins is 

scanty, and their taxonomy is confused, but two species probably exist 

The taxonomy used here is provisional. One form is confined to warm 

waters of the Atlantic and probably is Stenella plagiodoq which is 

discussed in a separate status report. The other apparent species 

occurs in all tropical waters of the world, including the Atlantic 

Ocean, and has been identified as belonging to the four above-listed 

nominal species. Taxonomists do not agree on the taxonomy. The two 

apparent species differ in basic color pattern, but both have 

spots. 

The spotted dolphin occurs in the Gulf Stream adjacent to the U.S. 

east coast. Nothing is known of its migrations. It has not been recorded 

from the U.S. Pacific coast, but it is the primary cetacean species 

involved offshore in the international yellowfin tuna fishery in the 

eastern tropical Pacific, from Cabo San Lucas to Peru and west to about: 

long. 1.45'~. In the eastern tropical Pacific, this species commonly 

associates with the spinner dolphin in mixed aggregations of up to 

several thousand animals. 

Skull measurements and other features indicate that there are at 

least two races of spotted dolphin in the eastern Pacific and another in 

Hawaiian waters. They differ in several features. A coastal form is 

relatively large and robust, has heavy jaws and teeth, and is restricted 

to onshore waters from Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, to northern Peru. An 

of.fshore race is relatively small and slender, has lightly built jaws 

and teeth, is spotted to varying degrees, and occurs in offshore waters 

west to about long. 145~~. The races of the two forms may overlap, 

or the boundary between them may move seasonally or from year to year. 

They have not been observed or captured together, but in the central 

latitudes of the range the coastal form has been collected as far offshore 

as 50 km and the offshore form as far inshore as 20 km from the coast. 

The offshore form predominates in the eastern tropical Pacific yellowfin 

tuna fishery. Another race inhabits the waters around Hawaii and may 

extend into the South Pacific and to the west. This form also is small. 

and slender, but relatively lightly spotted. 

Abundance and Trends.--The size of the offshore spotted dolphin was 

estimated by a stock assessment workshop (SWFC, 1976) to be 3.5 million 

animals at the start of 1974. Projecting forward on the basis of net 

reproductive rate and annual mortalities of 72,000, 93,500 and 85,400 

in 1974, 1975,and 1976, respectively, the population size as of 

January 1, 1977, was estimated to be 3.655 million (65%) of initial 

size with a range of 2.379 to 5.069 million based upon two standard errors. 

Using the above midpoint estimates, a recent annual increase in 

population size of 1.6 percent as indicated. Additionally, the 

population was determined to be within the lower end of the range of 

optimum sustainable population (SWFC, 1976). 
Results of the 1977 aerial/shipboard survey will provide new 

population estimates. The estimates coupled with mortality data and a 

critical analysis of assumptions about stock boundaries, school sizes, 

and non-U.S. kill rates will allow a complete reassessment of the 

abundance and trends. 

General Biology.--Average length at birth is 82.5 cm. Gestation is 

11.5 months. Average length at 1 year is 1.3 m. Age is estimated from 

dentinal layers in thin sections of teeth. A two-phase Laird-Gompertz 

growth model has been fitted to layer-length data. Direct calibration 

of the dentinal layers beyond the first year (two layers) is not possible, 

and three alternative hypotheses are considered: (1) two layers per 

year, until pulp cavity occluded, (2) two layers per year in first year, 

and then one per year thereafter, and (3) two layers per year until 

puberty, and one per year thereafter. The second alternative is most 

probably the correct one, but reproductive parameters below are estimated 

in terms of dentinal layers. Breeding is diffusely seasonal, with prolonged 

calving seasons in spring and fall and a pronounced low in winter. A 

third calving season may exist in the summer. Average age at attainment 

of sexual maturity of males is approximately 12 dentinal layers (average 

length about 1.9 m and average weight about 75 kg); females attain sexual 

maturity on the average at about 9 dentinal layers and 1.8 m. Apparently post 

reproductive females are encountered in the samples. Corpora albicantia 

of ovulation and pregnancy persist indefinitely in the ovaries. It is 

not possible to distinguish between the two types of corpora. Ovulation 

rate changes with age, from about four per dentinal layers in very youilg 

adult females to about one per dentinal layer in older females. The average 

reproductive cycle lasts 26 months and consists of 11.5 months of pregnancy, 

11.2 months of lactation, and 3.3 months of "resting" (not pregnant or lactating). About 4 percent of lactating females are pregnant. Pregnancy rate 

decreases with age, from about 0.6 per year at 8 to 10 dentinal layers, to 

about 0.3 at 16 layers. The sex ratio in the population overall is 44 percent 

males and 55.1 percent females. Sex ratio cnanges with age, from near parity 

at birth, indicating higher mortality rates for males. Average gross annual 

production of calves, 1973-75, based on age and sex structures of the 

sample and the estimated pregnancy rate, is 13.1 percent of the per 

Year'. No evidence has been found of age or sex segregation in schooling. 

The estimated parameters differ in a consistent way from those estimated 

for a population of Stenella attenuata in the western Pacific, possibly 

reflecting the exploitation in the eastern Pacific. 

Feeding Habits.--Spotted dolphins feed on small mesopelagic and 

epipelagic fishes and squids. 
Ecological Problems.--None known. 

Allocation Problems.--Because of their association with yellowfin 

tuna, many of these mammals are taken incidentally during tuna harvesting 

operations by fishermen from the United States, Canada, France, Japan, 

Mexico, Panama, and other countries in coastal and international waters 

in the eastern tropical Pacific. 

The foreign share of the tuna catch has increased in recent 

years.resulting in an increasing proportion of the total incidental kill 

being caused by foreign fishermen. 

Current Research.--The National Marine Fisheries Service and the tuna 

industry are assessing the effects of porpoise mortality and are improving 

rescue methods and gear to eliminate losses associated with the tuna 

harvest. No other nation involved in the Pacific tuna fishery is conducting 

research aimed at improving rescue methods and gear to eliminate porpoj-se 

losses associated with the tuna harvest. 

Other research includes systematic and ecological studies by P.J.A. 

van Bree at the Zoological Museum in Amsterdam, W. Dawbin at Sydney 

University, and E.D. Mitchell at the Arctic Biological Station of the 

Fisheries Research Board of Canada in Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec. I 

I REFERENCES 

Best, P.B. 1969. A dolphin (Stenella attenuata) from Durban, South 

Africa. Ann. S. Air. Mus. 52(5): 121-135. 

Caldwell, D.K., M.C. Caldwell, W.F. Rathjen, and J.R. Sullivan. 1971. 

Cetaceans from the Lesser Antillean Island of St. Vincent. Fish. 

Bull. (U.S.) 69:303-312. 

Eraser, F.C. 1950. Description of a dolphin Stenella frontalis (Cuvisr) 

from the coast of French Equatorial Africa. Atlantide-Report No. 1 

Scientific Results of the Danish Expedition to the coasts of troprical 

West. Africa 1945-1946. Danish Press, Copenhagen, 83 p. 

Green, R.E., W.F. Perrin, and B. Petrich. 1971. The American tuna 

purse seine fishery. In Hilman Kristjonsson (ed.). Modern fishing 

gear of the world, ~01.3. United Nations FAO, Fishing Boats, Ltd. 

~asu~a, T. N. Miyazaki, and W.H. Dawbin. 1974. Growth and reproduct.ion 

of Stenella attenuata in the Pacific coast of Japan. Sci. Rep. 

Whales Res. Inst. (Tokyo) 26: 157-226. 

Mizue, K., and K. Yoshida. 1962. Studies on the little-toothed whales 

in the West Sea area of Kyusyu. IX. About Prodelphinus sp., socalled "Madara Iruka" in Japan caught at Ariko Wa in Got0 Is., 

Nagasaki Pref. Bull. Fac. Nagasaki Univ. 13: 1-8. 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adninistration. 1972. Report of the 

NOAA Tuna-Porpoise Review Committee. Processed report, 63 p. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1975. Progress of 

research on porpoise mortality incidental to tuna purse-seine 

fishing for fiscal year 1975. Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative 

Report No. LJ-75-68, 98 p. 

Nishiwaki, M. 1966. A discussion of rarities among the smaller cetaceans 

caught in Japanese waters, pp. 192-202. - In Norris, K.S., (ed.). -. 

Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley and 

Los Angeles. 

Perrin, W.F. 1969. Using porpoise to catch tuna. World Fish. 

18 (6) : 42-45. 

. 1970. Color pattern of the eastern Pacific spotted porpoise, 

Stenella graffmani Lonnberg (Cetacea, Delphinidae). Zoologica 

54 (4) : 134-152. 

. 1975. Distribution and differentiation of population of dolphins 

of the genus Stenella in the eastern tropical Pacific. J. Fish. 

Res. Bd. Can. 32:1,05Y-1,067. 

Perrin, W.F., J.M. Coe, and J.R. Zweifel. 1976. Growth and reproduction 

of the spotted porpoise, Stenella attenuata, in the offshore eastern 

tropical Pacific. Fish. Bull. (U.S.) 74: 22-269. 

Perrin, W.F., T.D. Smith, and G.T. Sakagawa. 1974. Status of populations 

of spotted dolphin, Stenella attenuata, and spinner dolphin, Stenella 

longirostris, in the eastern tropical Pacific. Working document 

presented at meeting of Ad Hoc Consultants Group on Small Cetaceans 

and Sirenians (Ad Hoc Group 2), Working Party on Marine Mammals, 

ACMRR, FAO, La Jolla, Calif., 16-19 Dec. 1974, 22 p. (proc.). 

Perrin, W.F., R.R. Warner, C.H. Fiscus, and D.B. Holts. 1973. Stomach 

contents of porpoise Stenella spp., and yellowfin tuna, Thunnus 

albacares, in mixed-species aggregations. Fish. Bull. (U.S.) 

71: 1,077-1,092. 

Southwest Fisheries Center (SWFC). 1976. Reno* of the workshnn on stock 

assessment of porpoises involved in the eastern tropical Pacific 

yellowfin tuna fishery. Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative 

Report No. ill-76-29, 105 p. 
ATLANTIC SPOTTED WLPHIN 

(Stenella plagiodon) 

Distribution and Migration: The Atlantic spotted dolphin (exact taxonomic 

position not yet known) is probably confined to tropical and subtropical 

waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It occurs on the U.S. Gulf coast and off the 

east coast in Gulf Stream waters, and may be restricted to continental 

waters, being replaced in the West Indies by some other species in this 

genus (probably Stenella frontalis). Seasonal inshore-offshore migrations 

occur in Florida waters, and perhaps elsewhere in the Gulf of Mexico, with 

animals moving close to shore in late spring. 

Abundance and Trends: Population estimates have not been made for this 

species. The only known fishery for the species has taken 12 or fewer 

animals per year for displays however, these animals do not easily withstand 

handling and captivity. Thus, an increased fishery for display animals ia 

not likely. 

General Biology: The newborn are about 0.8 m long, and the adults reach 

2.0 to 2.2 m in length. Little is known of the life history of this species. 

Except for the annual spring migrations to near shore, this species is considered a mammal of the outer continental shelf or adjacent high seas. 

Spotted dolphins appear to feed primarily on squid in the wild, but they 

readily adopt to a fish diet in captivity. Newborn and young animals are 

not spotted, but progress through a series of color changes until the adults 

become spotted all over except for the ventral surface near the belly. This 

species is subject to infestations externally by barnacles and whale lice, 

internally by trematodes in the stomach, liver, and pancreas, and nematodes 

in the lungs and stomach. In captivity and in cold weather, these animals 

easily contract pneumonia. 

Ecological Problems: Little is known about the ecology of this dolphin, 

but because it normally lives well offshore, it seems likely that it is 

little affected by man. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Some information on this species has been gathered 

incidental to studies by the Office of Naval Research on the bottlenosed 

dolphin. Most of the recent research has been on various aspects of Sound 

production by this species. However, David K. and t4elba C. Caldwell have 

long been gathering general biological information at the Marine Mammal 

Center of the Comunication Sciences Laboratory of the University of 

Florida located at Marineland, Florida (near St. Augustine). 
References: 

Cadenat, J. 1959. Rapport sur lea ptits Cetaces ouest-africains. Resultats 

des recherches entreprises sur ces animaw jusqu'au mois des mars 1959. 

Bull. I.F.A.N., Ser. A 21!1,367-1,409. 

Caldwell, D. R., and M. C. Caldwell. 1966. Observations on the distribution, coloration, behavior and audible sound production of the spotted 

dolphin, Stenella plagiodon (Cope). Los Angeles County Mus., Contr. 

Sci. 104, 28 p. 

- 1971. Underwater pulsed sounds produced by captive spotted dolphins, 

Stenella plagiodon. Cetology 121-7. 

Caldwell, H. C., D. K. Caldwell, and J. F. Miller. 1973. Statistical 

evidence for individual signature whistles in the spotted dolphin, 

Stenella plagiodon. Cetology 1681-21. 

Caldwell, M. C., N. R. Hall, and D. K. Caldwell. 1971. Ability of an 

Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin to discriminate between, and potentially 

identify to individual, the whistles of another species, the spotted 

dolphin. Cetology 6:l-6. 

Perrin, W. F. 1972. Variation and taxonomy of spotted and spinner porpoises 

of the eastern tropical Pacific and Hawaii. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. 

Calif., Los Angeles, xxvi + 590 p. 

Zam, S. G., D. K. Caldwell, and M. C. Caldwell. 1971. Some endoparasites 

from small odontocete cetaceans collected in Florida and Georgia. 

Cetology 2:l-11. 
STRIPED DOL.PHIN 

(Stenella coeruleoalba) 

Distribution and migration.--The striped dolphin inhabits temperate 

and tropical waters around the world and has been recorded from both 

U.S. coasts. Nothing is known about the movements of striped dolphins 

in waters contiguous to the United States. 

Abundance and Trends.--Population estimates were made for the striped 

dolphin involved in the eastern tropical Pacific yellowfin tuna fishery 

(SWFC, 1976). The estimate was 248,000. The annual kill averages about. 

700 in this area, indicating no major impact. 

General Biology.--Biological data are based on studies carried out 

on the population off Japan. 

Reproductive Data.--The gestation period is 12 months long. Lactation 

lasts about 18 months, and the mean length of the reproductive cycle is 

about 3 years. Schools of striped dolphins segregate somewhat by age 

and sex. 

Age-Growth Data.--The mean length of the newborn is 1 m. The mean 

age at sexual maturity in males and females is 9 years at 2.2 and 2.1 m, 

respectively. 

Feeding Habits.--The stomachs of 27 specimens taken off Japan contained 

remains of mesopelagic fishes, squids, and crustaceans; myctophid fishes 

dominated. 

Ecological Problems.--None known. 

Allocation Problems.--The striped dolphin is involved in the eastern 

Pacific international tuna fishery to a minor extent. 

Current Research.--A Federal program of research recently begun by 

Japan is expected to yield an estimate of population size in the northwestern 

Pacific Ocean. Studies of striped dolphins incidentally killed in the 

international tropical tuna fishery are underway at the Southwest Fisheries 

Center. 

REFERENCES 

Fraser, F.C., and B.A. Noble. 1970. Variation of pigmentation pattern 

in Meyen's dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen), p. 147-164.In - 

Pilleri, G. (ed.) Investigations on Cetacea, Vol. 11, Bentelli, 

Berne. 
Girh, M., and G. Pilleri. 1969. On the anatomy and biometry of Stenella 

Gray and Delphinus delphis L. (Cetacea, Delphinidae) of the 

western Mediterranean, pp. 15-65. - In Pilleri, G. (ed.), Investigations 

of Cetacea, Vol. I. Bentelli, Berne. 

Hubbs, C.L., W.F. Perrin, and K.C. Balcomb. 1973. Stenella coeruleoalba 

in the eastern and central tropical Pacific. J. Mammal. 54: 549-552. 

Kasuya, T. 1972. Growth and reproduction of Stenella coeruleoalba (sic) 

based on the age determination by means of dentinal growth layers. 

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 24: 57-79. 

Miyazaki, N., T. Kasaka, and M. Nishiwaki. 1973. Food of Stenella 

coeruleoalba. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 25: 265-275. 

Miyazaki, N., T. Kasuya, and M. Nishiwaki. 1974. Distribution and 

migration of two species of Stenella in the Pacific coast of Japan. 

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 26: 227-243. 

Southwest ~isheries Center (SWFC1.1976. Report of the workshop on stock 

assessment of porpoises involved in the eastern tropical Pacific 

yellowfin tuna fishery. Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative 

Report No. LJ-76-29, 105 p. 
COY>!OX DOLPHIN-; (WHITEBELLY POWOISE) 

(Delphinus delphis) 

~istsibution and Kigration.--This species is worldwide in distribution 

in temperate to tropical waters of from 12'to 28'~. There may be more than 

one species; pronounced variation in size, shape, and coloration has been 

demonstrated for three distinct populations in the eastern Pacific (W.E. 

~vans, pers. corn.). In the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, where this 

aninal is also known as the saddleback dolphin, this mammal ranges from 

~ewfoundland to the Caribbean Sea. In the northeastern Pacific Ocean, 

the pri&ry distribution of this species is from the California-Oregon 

border to Costa Rica, but one stranded animal was found in British Columbia. 

Large populations occur off southern California (Santa Barbara to San 

Diego), the west coast of Baja California, Mexico (Cedros Island to Cape 

San Lucas), and Costa Rica. A relatively large population also occurs in, 

and may be a resident of, the Gulf of California. In southern California 

waters Delphinus is present throughout the year,but is most abundant 

from August to January. An observed decrease in herd size during the 

spring and summer may be due primarily to the animals breaking up into 

small subgroups of 50 to 200 animals, and a general movement offshore 

and northwkd. 

Abundance and Trends.-Population estimates were made for the common 

dolphin involved in the eastern tropical Pacific yellowfin tuna fisheiry 

(SWC. 1956). The estimate was 1.4 million. The average annual kill of 

cumon dolphin in this area is about WOO animals. This indicates that 

there is probably no major impact. 

General Biology: 

Reproductive Dab.--Males and females may segregate between mating 

seasons, especially when the latter are nursing calves or are about to 

bear their young. The gestation period lasts 10 to 11 months with a postpzrturition estrus. The young dolphin is weaned at about age -5 to 6 months 

(110-120 cm overall length), but may stay with the female up 'to 1 year. 

L? the northeastern Pacific Ocean, this species appears to have two 

nating seasons (January-April and August-November) and two calving. 

seasons (March-May and August-October). 

Age-Grokth Data.--The young are .75 to .85 m at birth. The males grow 

to 2.6 m and are m average of .14 m longer than females. l'he' average 

indivi6u.ual of the northeaste-n Pacific Ocea is larger than that of the 

Elack and Kediterrane~! Seas. The largest known specimen from the Black 

Sea was 2.1 m; however, in th~? northeastern Pacific Ocean a male 2.5 m 

long was taken. 
Parasites and Disease.--Parasit,ism has been im2licated in natural 

z~rtality. Tne brains of 12 strar.ded specirzeris contained flukes and 

their eggs, which in most cases had caused abscesses and lesions. 

Feeding Habits.--This ST~C~~S is seldom found inside the 100-fathom 

line, but it frequents seamounts, escarpments, and other prominent 

offshore features. The animal makes most of its dives in excess of 10 

fathoms after sunset. The deepest dive recorded is 140 fathoms, but the 

everage dive is to 30 fathoms. Durino feeding the animal stays under 

vater for 2 to 3 minutes, but dives of 5 minutes have been recorded. It 

feeds mainly on anchovy, sprat, pelagic pipefish, and cephalopods in the 

Black Sea: whiting, horse mackerel, sardine, and hake in the Atlantic 

Ocean; and anchovy, cephalopods, myctophids, and hkke in the northeastern 

Pacific Ocean. 

Ecological Problems.--None known. 

Allocation Problems.--Because the northern anchovy and squid constitute 

the bulk of this mamnal's diet in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, a substantial increase in the fishery for these resources might have a noticeable 

effect on the porpoise populations. Delphinus is the third most inportant 

species of porpoise taken incidentally in the eastern tropical Pacific 

international tuna purse-seine fishery. 

The final estimated incidental kill in the international tuna 

fishej during 1974 was 4,000 animals. Estimates of incidental kills in 

previous years are 4,000 animals in 1971, 9,000 animals in 1972, and 

22,000 animals in 1973. 

Current Research.--The Natsonal Marine Fisheries Service and Me 

tuna fishing industry are assessing the effects of porpoise mortality 

and improving rescue methods and gear to elininate losses associated 

with the tuna harvest. studies of behavior, distribution, and abundance 

have been made by the Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, California 

'since 1968. This research terminated at the end of FY '73 at hTC,but 

will continue at the Southwest Fisheries Center. 

~J&?s, W.E. 1971. Orientation behavior of Celphinus: ra-7io telerretric 

studies. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 188: 142-162. 

. 1975. Distribution, differentiation of po?1112tio;1sr 2nd 

other aspects of tha'natura; history of Delphinus dslphis Lir.n=eus 

in the northsastern Pacific. P'~.D. dissertation, University of 

Calif. , Los Angeles, 145 p. 
Gikr, !.I., md G. Pilleri. 1969. On the matony znci Sionetry of Stenella 

Gray zd Del?:?inus delphis L. (Cetacea, Delphinidze) of the 

xeste& Ilediterr~rieart, pp. 15-65 In Pilleri, G. (ed.). Investigations 

on Cetacea, v01. I. Bentelli, Beme. 

Naticnal Oceanic ad Atzospheric Ahinistration. 1972. Report of the 

NO= Tuna-Torpoise Review Cornnittee. Processed report, 63 p. 

Norris, K.S., ad J.H. Prescott. 1961. Observations on Pacific cetaceans 

of California ad Mexican waters. Univ. Cal. Publ. 2001. 63(4): 

291-402. 

Sleptsov. M.M. 1940. Determination of the age of el phi nus delphis 

L. Bull. Soc. Moscow, S. Biologique. 49(2): 43-61. (Fish. Res. Bd. 

Can. hansl. No. 46 1957.) 

Tomilin, A.G. 1948. On the bioloq and physiology of the Black Sea 

dolphin. 2001. Zhur. 27: 53-64. 

southwest Fisheries Center (SWFCI. 1976. Report ofthe workshop o? stock 

assessment of.porpoises involved in the eastern tropical Pacific 

yellowfin tuna fishery. Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative 

Report No. W-76-29, 105 p. 
FRASER'S (SARAWAK) DQLPHIN 

Distribution and Migration: Only a single specimen of Fraser's dolphin, 

from Borneo, was known to science until 25 of the mammals were taken in a 

tuna purse seine in the eastern tropical Pacific. Since then, it has been 

recorded from several widely separated localities in the Pacific and Indian 

Oceansr Durban, South Africa) near Sydney, Australia, Tokyo, Japan) and the 

central Pacific south of Hawaii. 

Abundance and Trends: The animal is rare in collections and presumably not 

common in its habitat (Perrin, et al., 1973). 

General Bioloz: 

Age-Growth Data. -- Length at birth is about 1 m, and the adults are about 

2.5 m long. 

Feeding Habits. -- This dolphin feeds on deep-living fishes and squids. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems; Loss of Fraser's dolphins in the eastern Pacific international tuna fishery is minor in terms of absolute numbers, but may be 

significant considering the apparent extreme rarity of the animal. Of 34 

identified specimens worldwide, 29 have been taken incidentally by tuna seiners. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Fraser, F. C. 1956. A new Sarawak dolphin. Sarawak Mus. J. 7:478-503. 

Perrin, W. F., P. B. Best, W. H. Dawbin, K. C. Balcomb. R. Gambel, and 

G. J. B. ROSS. 1973. Rediscovery of Fraser's dolphin, Laqenodelphis 

hosei. Sarawak Mus. J. Nature. 241(5388):345-350. 
WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN 

(Lagenorhynchus albirostris) 

Distribution and Migration: The white-beaked dolphin inhabits the coastal 

waters of the North Atlantic Ocean from the Barents Sea and Davis Strait to 

France and Massachusetts. It is most common in the North Sea from the east 

coast of the United Kingdom to the Faroe Islands, and may winter in the 

southerly parts of the North Atlantic Ocean. It appears in Davis Strait in 

the spring and sunnner after thebelukha and narwhal migrate north and leaves 

in autumn sometimes as late as November. It apparently ranges farther north 

into Arctic waters than its relative, the white-sided dolphin. 

Abundance and Trends: This species is one of the more abundant of North 

Atlantic toothed whales. Schools of as many as 1,500 have been reported from 

the coast of Norway where it is attracted by herring (Fraser, 1949). 

Tomilin (1957) reports schools of several hundred and states that this Species 

is taken commercially in Norway, but gives no statistics on the catch. He 

also mentions that it was once taken commercially in Davis Strait. Mitchell 

(1975) summarized a small-scale harvesting in Newfoundland. 

General Biology: This gregarious species grows to 3.0 m and matures at 2.0 m 

or larger; the calves are as long as 1.2 m when born. The mating period is 

long, but limited to the warmer half of the year. Most of the calves are born 

during midsummer. Food is mainly fish such as herring, cod, whiting, and 

capelin, but also crustaceans and mollusks such as hermit crabs, whelks, and 

squids. 

Ecological Problems: Strandings of schools of up to 30 animals have been 

reported. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Fraser, F. C. 1949. Whales and dolphins. Part II.In J. R. Norman and F. (3. 

Fraser, Field book of giant fishes, pp. 201-34z G. Putnam's Sons, 

New York. 

Mitchell, E. 1975. Porpoise, dolphin and small whale fisheries of the world, 

status and problems. Int. Union Conserv. Nat. bsour., Morges, 

Switzerland, Monogr. 3:l-129. 

Plorzer Bruyns, Capt. W. F. 3. 1971. Field guide of whales and dolphins. 

Amsterdam, Uitgeverij to/N. V. Uitgeverij v.h.c.a. mees, 258 p. 
~ishiwaki, M. 1972. General biology, Chap. l., pp. 1-204. In S. H. 

Ridgeway (ed.), Mammals of the sea, biology and medicin;;: Charles C. 

Thomas, Springfield, 111. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957, Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries, Vol. IX. Cetacea.) Moscow, 

Akad. Nauk. SSBR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii + 

717 pp.) 

Van Bree, P. J. H. 1970. UberWeisschnauzdelphine (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) 

von den deutschen Nordseekusten. Natur. Mus. 100:264-268. 
ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED WLPHIN 

(Lagenorhynchus acutus) 

Distribution and Migration: The Atlantic white-sided dolphin ranges the 

coastal waters of the North Atlantic Ocean from the Barents Sea and Davis 

Strait south to France and Cape Cod. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown. According to 

Tomilin (19571, "this dolphin is taken only in summer in the waters of Norway: 

the animals are trapped in the fjords, which they enter in vast schools pursuing herring. The take may reach 1,500 individuals at a time.' It is sometimes 

taken in association with pilot whales in Newfoundland drive fisheries (Sergeant and Fisher, 1957). 

General Biolo~r This species grows to 3.0 m. Gestation is 10 months. The 

young are born mostly in midsummer and are about 1.0 m long. The age of a 

1.5-m animal was estimated at 3 years (Sergeant and Fisher, 1957). It feeds 

mostly on squid, pelaqic and benthopelagic fish such as mackerel, salmonids, 

and herring, and some crustaceans and mollusks such as Pagurus and Buccinum. 

Schools in excess of 1,000 animals have been reported while they were feeding1 

groups of 10 to 50 are normally seen. 

Ecological Problems: Stranded schools of up to 30 have been reported. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Sergeant, D. E., and H. D. Fisher. 1957. The smaller cetacea of eastern Canadian waters. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14:83-115. 

Tomilin, A, G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Nanunals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. IXCetacea.) Moscow, 

Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii + 717 p.) 

Utrecht, W. L. van, and A. M. Husson. 1968. Strandingen van Cetacea in het 

Voorjaar van 1967 op de Nederlandse Kusten. Lutra 10:7-17. 
PACIFIC WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN 

(Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) 

Distribution and Migration: The Pacific white-sided dolphin ranges the 

northern North Pacific from the coast of Japan and Baja California northward. 

It is found year-round off California and Washington and in Alaska and Kurile 

Islands waters during the summer, but has not been reported from the Bering 

Sea. It frequents the waters of the continental shelf and slope, but on 

occasion has been sighted in large schools in offshore waters. Small numbers, 

which are "resident" from Point Conception south to Cedros Island, appear to 

be morphologically different from northern forms (being larger and more KObust). These resident stocks are supplemented in southern California and 

Baja California by migrants coming south and inshore. Inshore migrations into 

Nonterey Bay and the central California continental shelf also apparently 

occur during midwinter. 

Abundance and Trends: Norri.5 and Prescott (1961) report the species as common 

off southern California in inshore waters in winter and spring and offshore 

in summer and fall. According to sighting reports in the files of the National 

Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle, the University of California, Santa Cruz, 

and the Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, as reported by Pike and ~MacAskie 

(1969), this species may be the most abundant dolphin north of southern California. No estimate of the size of the population along the west coast of 

North America has been made. 

Nishiwaki (1972) estimates the population in Japanese waters to be between 30,000 

and 50,000. Klumov (1959) reports that the Pacific white-sided dolphin 

is one of the two most numerous dolphins found in the late summer and fall 

in the Kurile Islands area, and forms schools of up to several thousand animals. 

A few of these animals are taken for display in ocean aquaria. 

General Biology: This species grows to 2.3 m, and weighs up to 181 kg. A 

male 1.2 m long with milk in its stomach was taken off Washington. It probably 

breeds in late spring to autumn, with a gestation period of 10 to 12 months. 

Schools of thousands are seen, often together with common and right-whale 

dolphins and less frequently with Grampus. It is active day and night, frolics, 

follows ships, dashes across ships' bows, and occasionally jumps clear of the 

surface. It adapts well to captivity. This dolphin feeds primarily on 

cephalopods and small fish such as herring, sardine, anchovy, and saury. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: A study of the natural history and behavior has been funded 

by the Marine Mammal Commission. 
References: 

Klumov, 5. K. 1959. Commercial dolphins of the far east. Pac. Sci. Res. 

Inst. Fish. Econ. Oceanogr. (TINRO) Izv. 472154-160, (Transl. by 

L. V. Sagen, 1962.) 

Nishiwaki, N. 1972. General biology. Chap. I, pp. 1-204. S. H. 

Ridgeway (ed.), Mammals of the sea, biology and medicine. Charles C. 

Thomas, Springfield, Ill. 

Norris, K. S., and J. H. Prescott. 1961. Observations of Pacific cetaceans 

of california and Mexican Waters. Univ. calif. Publ. Zool. 63:291-402. 

Pike, G. C., and I. B. MacAskie. 1969. Marine mammals of British Columbia. 

Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 171, 54 p. 

Scheffer, V. B. 1950. The striped dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens 

Gill, 1865, on the coast of North America. Am. Midl. Nat. 44:750-758. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. 

Kitoobraznye. (Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. IX. 

Cetacea.) Moscow, Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, 

Jerusalem, 1967, xxii plus 717 p.) 
NORTHERN RIGHT WHALE DOLPHIN 

(Lissodelphis borealis) 

Distribution and Migrationr Little is known about the distribution of the 

northern right whale dolphin other than that it inhabits temperate waters 

of the North Pacific Ocean. 

In the western North Pacific Ocean, the northern right whale dolphin is 

found from Cape Inubo, Japan, north as far as Etorofu and Paramushir 

Islands, from which it apparently migrates southward in autumn or winter 

to near the southern Kurils and is common, at least seasonally, in the 

northern Sea of Japan. 

In the eastern North Pacific, this species has been reported from lat. 29- 

to 50°N, though mostly from California. It occurs in the southern california continental borderland only from October or November to about April. 

Though it is also oceanic, the right whale dolphin has been observed mst 

frequently along the continental slope and near such features as seamounts 

and banks. It has been seen close to the California Channel Islands and 

the mainland coast near San Diego and Palos Verdes. Two sightings and one 

specimen from the central Pacific suggest that the species may be 

continuously distributed across the temperate North Pacific. 

Abundance and Trends: Groups of 200 are most common, but herds of an 

estimated size of from 300 to 1,000 off Japan and up to 2,000 off southern 

California have been seen. Although the species was once thought to be 

uncommon, aerial surveys have revealed that it is abundant off the Pacific 

Coast of North America (Leatherwood, pers. corm.). This species is 

reportedly conrmon in the northern Sea of Japan (Okada and nanaoka, 19401, 

where it is harvested. 

General Biology: Newborn animals are about 0.6 m long and generally 

lighter in color than adults. They grow to 3.1 m. The species is gregarious and is frequently reported in close association with the whitesided dolphin, with which it shares an extensive common range. 

Right whale dolphins may reach speeds in excess of 25 knots in bursts. 

One entire herd averaged more than 15 knots for 30 minutes while attempting 

escape from a helicopter. When approached, the animals may move away 

quietly or in a series of low angle leaps, each covering as much as 7 m. 

Individuals that are widely scattered when approached bunch together tightly 

while fleeing from the cause of their disturbance. 

Food is primarily squid, but also miscellaneous fishes, including myctophids 

and engraulids. Parasites include trematodes and cestodes. 
Ecological Problems: If migrations are food dependent, as they appear to 

be, decimation or contamination of food Supplies in the sowthern end of 

its range could adversely affect the species. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Researchr The only research known is an unfunded examination of 

all museum materials, collection of beached specimens, and survey of literature being conducted by J. S. Leathemood, NUC, San Diego, R. F. Green, 

Ventura College, California, and W. A. Walker, Palos Verdes, California. 

References : 

Brownell, R. L. 1964. Observations of odontocetes in central California 

waters. Norsk Hvalfangst-Tid. 3:60-66. 

Fiscus, C. H., and K. Niggol. 1965. Observations of cetaceans off California, 

Oregon, and Washington. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 

408, 27 p. 

Leatherwood, S., and R. F. Green. In press. The right whale dolphins, 

Lissodelphis %.: a synoptic account of the genus. % S. H. Ridgeway 

and R. J. Harrison (eds.), A handbook of marine mammals of the world. 

Academic Press, New York, 

Nishiwaki, M. 1972. General biology8 Cetacea,pp.3-204. 2 Sam H. Ridgeway 

(ed.), Mammals of the sea, biology and medicine, Charles C. Thomas, 

Springfield. 

Norris, K. S., and J. H. Prescott. 1963. Observations of Pacific cetaceans 

in California and Mexican waters. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 63:291-402. 

Okada, Y., and T. Hanaoka. 1940. A study of Japanese ~elphinidae. Sci. 

Rep. Tokyo Bunrika Daijaku 4 (77) 8285-306. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh Stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. 1X.Cetacea.) Moscow, 

Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii plus 

717 p.) 
RISSO'S TOI,PHI!I 

(Grampus ?riseus) 

Distribution and Migration: Risso's dolphin ranges throush all temperate and 

tr~:picaI. seas. In western North n.merica,its northern limit is British Colusibia. It is sighted during the winter in central California. In the 

eastern iinited States it ra.nges fror Massachusetts south. Strandinqs in 

Eritain ere most common durinq the sutw1er. The species Frobably mivrates to 

hiaher latitudes in the warmer ncnths. 

Abilndance and Trends: Risso's dolphin was described in 1894 as "abnndarit" near 

Monterey EaY, Calif. (Daugherty, 1972). The species is uncommon but not 

rare throughout most of its range. Over 200 of these animals were sichted in 

one group riurinq 1972 off the Washington coast (Fiscus, unpublished fielf! notes, 

1972). 

- General Biol.ogy: Risso's dolphin grows to 3.6 to 4.0 nl. Its skin comonly 

has lonq, narrow, white marks believed to be scars caused by others of the 

same species. Solitary animals or scnools of 12 or less are generally observed. This species is frolicsome, and sometimes leaps clear of the water. 

Known foods are almost exclusively cephalopods. 

- Ecnloqical F-robl.ems : Wone known. 

Allocation Problems: lone known. 

C;:rrent Pesea*: studies of distribution and ab-ndance in the eastern Pacific -- 

are currently underway by K. S. ?:orris and a aroup of co-worker~ at KTniversity 

of California, Santa Cruz, an2 by :. S. :,eatherwoo6 oi the Yaval Undersea Center, C. S. Hubbs of Scripps Institution of Oceanography,and the Southwest 

Fisheries Center. 

-- References: 

Dauqherty, A. E. 1972. Marine mammals of California. State Calif. Res. 

Agency, Dept. Fish Garz.e, 91 p. 

Orr, R. T. 1966. Risso's dolphin on the Pacific coast of !iorth America. 

J. Mamal. 47:341-343. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSil i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Namnals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. IX. retacea.) Moscow, 

Adak. Ilauk. SSSR, 756 p. (TranSl. by IPS-, .?erusalem, 1967, xxii plus 

717 p.) 
MELON-HEADED WHALE 

(Peponocephala electra) 

Distribution and Migration! 

Indian, and Pacific Oceans. 

Peponocephala inhabits the tropical Atlantic, 

Abundance and Trends ! 

it is apparently rare 

The status of 

(Nishiwaki and 

this species is 

Norris, 1966) . unknown, except that 

General Biolowt Unknown. 

Ecological Problems; None known. 

Allocation ~roblems, A few are taken annually in the eastern Pacific international purse seine fishery for tuna. This small take is probably insiqnificant. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

~ishiwaki, M., and K. S. Norris, 1966. A new genus Pepo~cephala for the 

odontocete cetacean species Electra electra. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 

20:95-100. 

Perrin, W. F. 1976. First record of the melon-headed whale, ~eponocephala 

electra, in the eastern Pacific, with a surmaary of world distribution. 

Fish. (U.S. ) 74:457-458. 
PYGMY KILLER WHALE 

(Feresa attenuata) 

Distribution and Migration: The pygmy killer whale probably inhabits most 

tropical waters. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown except that 

it is apparently rare (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1971). The species has been 

captured for exhibit in the oceanaria of Hawaii and Japan. In the continental United States it has been recorded only three times, twice in Florida, 

once in Texas. 

General Biolox: The adults reach about 2.4 m. In appearance they resemble 

a small false killer whale. They are aggressive in captivity, with captives 

of other species showing fright reactions tn them. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: This species has been reported as captured to a very 

minor extent in the yellowfin tuna fishery in the eastern tropical Pacific. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Best, P. B. 1970. Records of pygmy killer whale, Feresa attenuata, from 

southern Africa, with nates on behavior in captivity. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 

57 (1) : 1-14. 

Caldwell, D. K., and M. C. Caldwell. 1971. The pygmy killer whale, Feresa 

attenuata. in the western Atlantic, with a summary of world records. 

3. Mmal. 528206-209. 

- 1975. Pygmy killer whales and short-snouted spinner dolphins in Floricla. 

Cetology, No. 18, 5 p. 

James, P., F. W. Judd, and J. C. Moore. 1970. First western Atlantic occurrence of the pygmy killer whale. Fieldiana, Zoology 58:l-3. 

Nishiwaki, M., T. Kasuya, T. Kamiya, T. Tobayama, and M. Nakajima. 1965. 

- Feresa attenuata captured at the pacific Coast of Japan in 1963. Sci. 

Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 19:65-90. 

Perrin, W. F., and C. L. Hubbs. 1969. Observations on a young pygmy killer 

whale (Feresa attenuata Gray) from the eastarn tmpical Pacific Ocean. 

Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 15(18):297-308. 
FALSE KILLER WHALE 

(Pseudorca crassidens) 

Distribution and Migration: The false killer whale ranges through all 

temperate and tropical seas. It is an oceanic form, found on the Atlantic 

side of the United States from North Carolina south, and on the Pacific side 

from the Aleutian Islands south. 

Abundance and Trends: This species is uncommon throughout most of its 

range. It is seldom caught in the Japanese small-whale fishery, but is common on the Pacific side of Honshu (Ohsumi, 1972). 

General Biolo~r The males grow to 6.1 m and the females to 4.9 m# adult 

animals weigh up to 1,360 kg. Mating appears to be over a protracted period, 

with young born at about 1.8 m. False killer whales are found in schools 

of both sexes and all ages. They have been seen eating dolphinfish (mahimahi) off Hawaii. 

Ecological Problems: Schools of up to 835 of these animals have stranded. 

Allocation Problems: The Japanese state that a toothed whale (shachi), 

which may or may not be the false killer whale, does much damage to their 

longline tuna industry by feeding on hooked fish. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Bullis, H. H., and H. C. Moore. 1956. Two occurrences of false killer whales, 

and a sutanary of American records. Am. MUS. NOV. 1756; 5 P. 

Mizue, K., A. Takemura, and K. Nakasai. 1969. Studies on the little-toothed 

whales in the West Sea area of Kyushu. XVI. Underwater sound of the 

false killer whale. Bull. Fac. Fish., Nagasaki Univ. 28:19-29. 

Ohsumi, S. 1972. Catch of marine mammals, mainly of small cetaceans, by 

local fisheries along the coast of Japan. Bull. Far Seas Fish. Res. 

Lab. No. 7: 137-166. 

Ymaguchi, Y. 1964. On the predation of tuna longline catches by the smaller toothed whales (Sachi).Maguro Gyogyo (Tuna Fishing) 27259-73. 

(Transl. by T. Otsu, NWS, Hawaii, June 1972). 
LONG-FINNED PILOT WHALE 

(Globicephala melaena) 

Distribution and Migration: This pilot whale ranges from Greenland, IceTand, and the Barents Sea south to Virginia and the Mediterranean. It is 

a schooling mammal and appears regularly off the Canadian and United States 

coasts. It also inhabits temperate waters of the Southern Ocean. It generally favors pelagic regions, hut often moves close to shore in search of food. < 

Abundance and Trends: Mercer (1975) estimates the original Newfoundland 

stock prior to 1947 at fewer than 60,000. There are no estimates for other 

parts of its range. About 40.000 were killed from 1951 to 1959 in local 

Newfoundland fisheries (Sergeant, 1962), but only 6,902 have been taken between 1962 and1973. About 177,000 were taken in the Faeroe Islands from 

1584 to 1883 (Tomilin, 19571, and 16,564 were taken by Noway and Denmark between 1962 and 1973 (Christensen, 1975). A total of 468 were driven ashore in 

Ireland in 1840, 1844, 1851, 1853, and 1957; one school of undetermined number was taken in 1965 (OIRiordan, 1975). 

General Bioloprr The adults grow to about 6.5 m; females are usually mature 

at 6 to 7 years and males at about age 12. Calves are about 1.8 m long 

at birth, in July to August, although full-term fetuses have been found year 

round. Cows probably bear calves every 3 years, gestation period is about 

16 months, and lactation lasts about 2 years. Pilot whales are gregarious 

and occur in schools of hundreds and thousands. They have a distinct social 

organization; however, the sex ratio is not always equal in stranded groups. 

They are believed polygynous, with bachelor males sometimes forming separate 

schools. They travel in tight schools when not feeding, and disperse into 

scattered groups when on feeding grounds. captive pilot whales feed at night 

and sleep days. They have a top swiwning speed of more than 25 mph, and a longevity of about 50 years. They feed almost exclusively on squids. but also eat 

small fish such as clupeids and gadids. Sergeant (1962) estimates food intake 

per year at about 11.5 times the weight of the animal. 

Ecological Problems: Whole schools sometimes strand. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Christensen, I. 1975. Preliminary report on the ~owegian fishery for small 

whales: expansion of Norwegian whaling to Arctic and northwest Atlantic 

waters, and Norwegian investigations of the biology of small whales. 

J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 3281,083-1,094. 

Sergeant, D. E. 1962. The biology of the pilot or pothead whale Globicephala 

melaena (Traill) in Newfoundland waters. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 

132 , vii+84p. 
Mercer, M. C. 1975. Modified Leslie-De~ury population models of the longfinned pilot whale (Globicephala melaena) and annual production of the 

short-finned squid (m illecebrosus) based upon their interaction at 

Newfoundland. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 32:1,145-1,154. 

08Riordan, C. G. 1975. Long-finned pilot whales, Globicephala melaena, 

driven ashore in Ireland, 1800-1973. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 32a1.101- 

1,103. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. 1X.Cetacea.) Moscow, 

Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii plus 

717 p.) 
SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE 

(Globicephala macrorhynchus) 

Distribution and Migration: In the North Atlantic Ocean, this pilot whale 

has been reported frm New Jersey (though it is far more common south of 

Cape Hatteras) and Madiera and ranges south to at least northern Brazil 

nd Dakar, Senegal. In the North Pacific Ocean it is found from Japan and 

the Aleutian Islands to probably Peru. It is an oceanic species with a very 

wide range. Schools of pilot whales appear regularly off U. S. coasts. It 

generally favors offshore waters, but often moves closer to land in search of 

food. Greatest numbers are seen in the eastern North Pacific in winter, fewer 

in summer. 

Abundance and Trends! The status of this species is unknown except that it is 

fairly abundant around the California Channel Islands (Norris and Prescott, 

1961). The population of pilot whales around the Channel Islands has been 

fished for live specimens to supply U. S. oceanaria since about 1955. Many 

pilot whales are taken in the Japanese small-whale fishery. This species is 

also taken in the lesser Antilles. 

General Biolow The adults grow 4.6 to 6.7 m. Little work has been done on 

this species, but indication9 are that the general biology is similar to 2. 

melaenq. 

Ecological Problems: Schools of this species often strand. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research! The taxonmy of Pacific Globicephala is being studied by 

R. L. Bmwnell and D. K. Caldwell in the United States, and T. Kasuya and I!. 

Nishiwaki in Japan. The U. S. Naval Undersea Center is studying the behavior 

and distribution of the pilot whale in southern and Baja California. 

References 8 

Bree, P. J. H. van. 1971. On Globicephala seiboldi Gray, 1846, and other species of pilot whaie (Notes on Cetacea, Delphinoidea 111). Beaufortia 

19 (249) 279-87. 

Norria, K. S., and J. H, Prescott. 1961. Observations of Pacific cetaceans 

of Californian and Mexican waters. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 63:291-402. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. 

(Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Vol. 1X.cetacea.) Moscow, 

Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii plus 

717 p.) 
KILLER WHALE 

(Orcinus orca) 

Distribution and Migration: The killer whale is worldwide and ranges north 

and south to polar ice. It is more common in cooler waters, and in more productive coastal areas. The Strait of Georgia in British Columbia, Prince 

William Sound in Alaska, and Puget Sound in Washington State are areas of 

concentration. Migratory habits probably depend on food supply, and killer 

whales are most numerous in Puget Sound in November and late summer. In Japan, 

most of these mammals are taken from April to November, with the greatest nunber from August to November. In the Nomay fishery, killer whales seem dependent on distribution and migration of herring, capelin, and cod. 

Abundance and Trends: Authoritative estimates of the world population are not 

available. A limited cooperative effort of the Fisheries Research Board of 

Canada and the Washington State Department of Game primarily in the inside 

waters of Washington and British Columbia gave counts of 459 killer whales in 

1971, 255 in 1972. and 249 in 1973. About 65 individuals have been removed 

from inside waters of British Columbia and northern Washington State since 

1962 for display by marine aquariums in 25 captive operations. Eleven of 

these whales were killed during U. S. capture operations, mostly during the 

early years. Two killer whales were killed in Canadian dapture operations. 

The Japanese fishery took 1,439 killer whales from the Okhotsk Sea to south Of 

Japan from 1948 to 1974. Norwegians took 2,096 in the northeastern North 

Atlantic between 1938 and 1974. The USSR took 444 animals in the Antarctic 

and North Pacific between 1958 and 1974. South Africa took 27 whales from 

1972 to 1974. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- Females grow to 7.0 m and males to 8.2 m. Males weigh 

up to about 8,000 kg, with about 4,000 kg the apparent limit for females. An 

adult male dorsal fin may be 1.8 m high, considerably higher than that of the 

female. The body has conspicuous white markings on a black background. 

Reproductive Data. -- Breeding appears to occur year-round although it may 

peak in May to July# gestation lasts 13 to 16 months. In the Northern Hemisphere births occur mostly in autumn. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Newborn calves are ahout 2.4 m long and weigh about 180 kg. 

~eeding ~abits. -- Killer whales usually are found in groups of 10 to 100 or 

even more. The males are probably polygynous. Killer whales hunt successfully in packs, but there are no records of attacks on people. 

The stomach contents of 364 killer whales taken off Japan from 1948 to 1957 

included (in order of occurrence): fish (mostly cod, flatfish, and sardines), 

squid, octopus, dolphins, whales, and seals. Salmon constituted 1.6 percent 

of all stomach contents. Soviets in the Kurils recorded "fish and squid", but no 
marine maaunal remains in 10 animal$. Of eight killer whales examined by the 

National Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle, six adult males had only marine 

mammal remains except for one squid; one adult female and one immature male 

had only fish remains. Food consumption has been estimated at 4 percent of 

the body weight per day. 

Parasites and Diseases. -- The most common diseases are those caused by 

wearing of tooth crowns and denudation of the pulp cavity, which results in 

abscesses. Other diseases include bony outgrowths and bone tumors. Parasites include nematodes, cestodes, and trematodes. One Puget Sound killer 

whale stomach contained 5,000 nematodes. 

Ecological Problems: This species haa no natural enemies except man. Stranding probably is the greatest nonhuman hazard. 

Allocation Problems: Public interest in killer whales was stimulated by the 

first live capture in 1964 in British Columbia. Growing public interest is 

increasing in killer whales as a recreational resource, especially in Puget 

sound (Haley, 1970). The animals are commercially valuable in the United 

States for display in oceanariums. United States, Japanese, and Canadian 

fishermen contend that the whales cause gear damage and interfere with salmon 

and tuna longline fisheries. Many consider killer whales an important predator of salmon and herring; others defend them as the natural enemy of other 

fish eaters, including harbor seals and sea lions. Some sports salmon fishermen claim their presence spoils fishing. 

Current Research: The National Marine Fisheries Service and the Fisheries 

Research Board of Canada are studying killer whale distribution in western 

United States and Canadian u7aters. 

References: 

Bigg, M. A., and A. A. Wolman. 1975. Live-capture killer whale fishery, 

British columbia and Washington, 1962-73. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 32: 

1.213-1,221. 

Haley, D. 1970. Views on the killer whale dispute. Pac. Search 5(l):l-3. 

~onsg&d, k., and P. B. Lyshoel. 1970. A contribution to the knowledge of 

the biology of the killer whale Orcinus orca (L). Nytt Mag. 2001. 

18841-48. 

~ishiwaki, M., and C. Handa. 1958. Killer whaler caught in the coastal waters 

off Japan for recent 10 years. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 13x85-96. 

Rice, D. W. 1968. Stornach contents and feeding behavior of killer whales in 

the eastern North Pacific. Norsk Hvalfangst-Tid. 57x35-38. 
HARBOR PORPOISE 

(Phocoena phocoena) 

~istribution and Migration: The harbor porpoise is circumpolar in distribution in ice-free seas, ranging south in the Atlantic Ocean to the Delaware 

River and the Mediterranean Sea. In the Pacific Ocean it is found south to 

Japan and southern California, although it is not abundant south of San Prancisco. 

The harbor porpoise is an inshore species, frequenting coastal waters, the 

mouths of large rivers, harbors, and bays, and sometimes ascending freshwater 

streams. 

Abundance and Trends: The harbor porpoise is especially abundant in the 

waters of Washington (Scheffer and Slipp, 1948) and western Canada (Pike and 

Mac~skie, 1969). It is Common at certain sites off the coast of Maine 

during the summer (Gaskin, Arnold, and Blair, 1974). Tomilin (1957) reports 

single catches of 2,000 to 2,500 harbor porpoises at the time they migrate 

between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. 

Mohl-Hansen (1954) reporting on biological investigations of the harbor 

porpoise in Danish waters examined 188 harbor porpoises in 1941-42, 230 in 

1942-43, and 212 in 1943-44, so at least those numbers were commercially harvested in Denmark during those years. He also states that these harbor porpoises were from the Baltic Sea populations. 

Catches of - P. phocoena in west Greenland recently have averaged over 2,500 

annually. During 1972, an estimated 1,500 animals were taken in the nonGreenlandic salmon driftnet fishery. No estimates are available for Greenlandic driftnetters. In addition, about 1,000 are taken annually in direct 

catches (Kapel, 1975). In the Black Sea, where a moratorium has existed 

since 1967, an estimate of the present population is 25,000 to 30,000. Incidental catches of P. sinus have ranged from tens to the low hundreds annually. 

General Biolow This species grow to 1.8 m, and weighs up to 72 kg. The 

females are sexually mature at about age 3 to 4 years. Newborn calves are 

half the length of the mother. They breed annually during late spring and 

summer. The gestation period is 10 to 11 months, and the calves nurse up to 

8 months. Harbor porpoises travel in pairs and schools of up to 200 or more, 

especially on the feeding grounds. This species is less playful than most 

dolphins or porpoises; they seldom jump out of the water, and usually ignore 

passing boats. Schools containing all "bachelors" are common; the females 

stay in groups of mixed sex. Usually they swim just below the surface, 

rising about four times per minute to breathe when not feeding. They feed 

mainly on bottomfishes such as cod, herring fry, flounder, and occasionally 

on invertebrates such as squids, clams, and crustaceans. Parasites of the 

alimentary canal and respiratory system are comn (Gaskin, Arnold, and Blair, 

1974). 
Ecological Problems: These animals occasionally strand for unknown reasons, 

and because of their feeding habits, a few tend to get trapped in fishermen's 

nets. (See Abundarice and Trends.) They are preyed upon to an unknown degree 

by Greenland sharks, great white sharks, and killer whales. Significant residues of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides and PcB's have been recorded from 

the Baltic, United Kingdom, and Bay of Fundy. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References : 

Fisher, H. D., and R. J. Harrison. 1970. Reproduction in the common porpoise 

(Phocoena phocoena) of the North Atlantic. J. 2001. 161~471-486. 

Gaskin, D. E., P. W. Arnold, and B. A. Blair. 1974. Phocoena phocoena. Mammalian Species, (A,,,. Soc. Marmn.) No. 42, 8 p. 

Kapel, F. 0. 1975. Preliminary notes on the occurrence and exploration of 

smaller cetacea in Greenland. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 32:1,079-1,082. 

Lear, W. H., and 0. Christensen. 1975. By-catches of harbour porpoise 

(Phocoena phocoena) in salmon driftnets at West Greenland in 1972. J. 

Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 3211,223-1,228. 

Mohl-Hansen, U. 1954. Investigations on reproduction and growth of the porpoise (Phocaena phocaena L) from the Baltic. Vidensk. Medd. Dan. Naturhist. , Foren. 1168369-396. 

Norris, K. S., and W. N. McFarland. 1958. A new harbor porpoise of the genus 

Phocoena fmsn the Gulf of California. J. Mammal. 39122-39. 

Pike, G. c., and I. B. MacAskie. 1969. Marine mammals of ~ritish Columbia. 

Fish. Res, Bd. Can., Bull. 171, 54 p. 

Scheffer, V. B., and J. W. Slipp. 1948. The whales and dolphins of Washington 

State with a key to the cetaceans of the weet coast of North America. 

Am. Midl. Natur. 398257-337. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobrazyne. (Mammals of the USSR and adjacent coutries. Vol. Ix. Cetacea.1 

~oscow, Akad. Nauk, SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1967, xxii 

plus 717 p.) 
DALL PORPOISE 

(Phocoenoides dallii) 

Distribution and Migration: The Dall porpoise inhabits the North Pacific 

Ocean from Japan and central Baja California north into the Bering and 

Okhotsk Seas. In both areas the southern limits of distribution appear to 

expand with the cooling of waters to at least 56OF, and individuals are seen 

in areas having surface temperatures of up to 62-F. It has been observed in 

the Bering Sea in locations and at periods when surface waters were 36-F. 

In the northeastern Pacific, Dall porpoises are year-round residents as far 

south as the northern Channel Islands,but are found further south and further 

inshore, as far as Cedros and Guadalupe Islands, from about October to late 

May. They are observed off Monterey Bay throughout the year, though there 

appears to be a separation of smaller juveniles inshore from more heterogenous 

groups offshore, and apparent inshore migrations tend to increase numbers of 

all animals there during winter and early spring. Dall porpoises are reported 

off San Francisco Bay from at least March through November. The southern and 

inshore movements appear closely related to movements of squid, a primary food 

item. The species is found offshore of the eastern Pacific coast to at least 

l.047 km. The Marine Mammal Division has many records of Dall porpoise ranging from the Bering Sea and the eastern Aleutian Islands south to lat. 34- in 

California waters (MMD files, Marine Mammal Observations, 1958-72). The NMFS 

Southwest Fisheries Center and the Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, have 

similar detailed records of occurrences south to Cedros and Guadalupe Islands. 

Abundance and Trends: The Dall porpoise is one of the most abundant small 

cetaceans found in Alaska inside waters (U. S. Forest Service) and in British 

Columbia waters (Pike and MacAskie, 1969). It is comnonly seen off northern 

california (W. J. Houck, pers. comni.). The species appears to be abundant 

throughout its range. Kasuya (1974) also stated that between 4,500 and 7,500 

are caught annually in coastal eastern Japan waters, but there has been a 

decrease in catch per unit effort in recent years. 

General Biology: There may be two forms of Dall porpoise (P. dallii and 

-- P. truei). They grow to lengths of about 2.2 m and weights of about 218 kg. 

They and the killer whale have the most conspicuous color patterns among 

cetaceans. Calves are born in the spring and sumner, and young are observed 

in August. These animals are usually found in groups of 2 to 20, but occasionally 200 or more are seen on favorable feeding grounds. It plays in the 

bow waves of ships, and is among the swiftest of all marine mammals. This 

rnannnal consumes squid and such fish as saury, hake, herring, jack mackerel, 

and bathypelagic and deepwater benthic fish. 

Ecol~gical Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: Kasuya (1974) reports on annual accidental catch of 

more than 20,000 Dall porpoises in the Japanese high-seas salmon gillnet 

fishery in the northern North Pacific and Bering Sea west of long. 17S0W. 
Mizue and Yoshida (1965) state the Dall porpoise is abundant east of long. 

17S0W,but that the Japanese fishing fleet does not operate east of the 

boundary. 

Current Research: W. J. Houck is studying P. dallii and -- P. truei at Humboldt 

State College in California, and M. Nishiwaki is studying these species in 

Japan. G. V. Morejohn is studying feeding habits, migration, behavior, and 

morphology of the species at the Moss Landing Marine Station, California. 

S. Leathewood is monitoring seasonal movements of the species into waters 

of southern and Baja California. 

References r 

Kasuya, T. 1974. Biology, catch, and populations of Phocoenoides in the 

western North Pacific. FAO/ACMRR Report, Doc. 2, 20 p. 

Leathemood, S., and M. R. Fielding. 1974. Distribution and movements of 

the Dall porpoise Phocoe~ides dallii in the temperate eastern Pacific. 

Working paper submitted by FAO/ACMRR Group, Dec. 1974, La Jolla, Calif. 

Mizue, K., and K. Yoshida, 1965. On the porpoises caught by the salmon fishing gillnet in Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean. Bull. Fac. Fish. 

Nagasaki Univ. 19x1-36. 

Mizue, K., K. Yoshida, and A. Takemura. 1966. On the ecology of the Dall's 

porpoise in Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean. Bull. Fac. Fish. 

Nagasaki Univ. 2181-21. 

Pike, G. C., and I. B. Mac~skie. 1969. Marine mammals of aritish Columbia. 

Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 171, 54 p. 

U. S. Forest Service. 1972. Marine mammal observations in southeastern 

Alaska and Prince William Sound. Unpublished field records. 
WHITE WHALE 

(BELUGA, BELUKHA) 

(Delphinapterus leucas) 

Distribution and Migration: The beluga inhabits the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, including the Okhotsk and Bering Seas, Cook Inlet, Hudson Bay, 

and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Belugas ascend several hundred miles up the large 

rivers of Siberia and Alaska. Populations of white whales from different 

areas show marked size differences through the Arctic. Three races are recognized by some authorities: dorofeevi from the Okhotsk Sea, marisalbi in the 

Barents and White Seas, and leucas in the rest of the range. In the Pacific, 

belugas are common along Alaska as far south as Bristol Bay1 the population 

found in Cook Inlet is apparently separate. 

Abundance and Trends: The population in the Soviet Arctic and Far East is 

estimated at between 32,000 and 58,000 (Yablokov, 1974). The population in 

the Canadian Arctic numbers at least 30,000 animals (Sergeant and Brodie, 

1975). The Cook Inlet, Alaska, population is estimated at 300 to 5001 in 

Bristol Bay the population is estimated at 1,000 to 1,500 and is considered 

stablei the size of the beluga population in Alaska north of Bristol Bay is 

unknown, but is much greater than that residing in Bristol Bay (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973). In Alaska belugas have be-en used as a source 

of muktuk, meat, and oil for both people and dogs by residents of villages on 

the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean coasts and along rivers that belugas periodically ascend. Belugas also provide a significant amount of fresh and preserved food for native peoples in the ~ackenzie River delta region and Baffin 

Island, where beluga hunting is culturally and economically important (~rodie, 

pers. comm.). In recent years the demand for beluga products has been reduced in the Arctic. In Bristol Bay only a few belugas are now taken, and the 

estimated annual harvest of the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean coasts of Alaska is 

150 to 300 (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973). Sergeant (1962) States 

that from 1948 to 1960 the catch of belugas in the Canadian ~rctic averaged 

1,200 annually. The present catch in Arctic Canada averages 500 animals per yei 

(Sergeant and Brodie, 1975). A few animals are occasionally taken from the St. 

Lawrence '~iver estuary population, which numbers 500 to 1,000 animals. In the 

late 1950's the annual catch of belugas averaged 3,000 to 4,nnO in the U.S.S.R., 

500 to 800 in Greenland, and 100 to 200 from Spitsbergen (Kleinenberg, et al., 

1964). Present catches in the Asian Arctic range from 530 to 825 annually. 

General Biology: Males grow to 4.6 m and the females to 4.0 m in the Beaufort 

Sea, and to 5.2 m and 4.6 m, respectively, in the Soviet Arctic. The beluga 

is polygamous, breeds in the spring, and has a gestation period of 15 months; 

newborn are about 1.5 m long. Lactation lasts about 20 months, with a 3-year 

reproductive cycle. They are gregarious and travel in groups of two or three 

to hundreds. Belugas feed from midwater to the bottom, with a diet including 

fish such as salmon, capelin, cisco, pike, char, cod, squid, crustaceans, and 

nereid worms. 

They frequently occur in shallow areas with a bottom of mud, sand, and stones. 

The beluga produces high-pitched whistles and squeals, ticking and clucking 

sounds, and have been given the name "sea-canary." Animals break the ice 

with their backs to reach air for breathing. 
Parasites include nematodes in the respiratory organs, ears, circulatory 

system, intestine, and urogenital system! trematodes are found in the intestine, as well as cestodes and acanthocephalpns. Helminths are apparently 

one cause of mortality. 

Ecological Problems: Known natural enemies include the killer whale and 

polar bear. 

Allocation Problems: These manunals take salmon at the mouths of large Alaska 

rivers, and are important predators of salmon smolt in Bristol Bay, Alaska. 

Recorded killer whale sounds have been used experimentally to prevent beluga 

predation in the Kvichak River. 

Current Research: Research on the beluga is being conducted by the Fisheries 

Research Board of Canada. 

References : 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Marine mama1 status reports. 

unpublished, Juneau, Alaska. 

Brodie, P. F. 1971. A reconsideration of aspects of growth, reproduction, 

and behavior of the white whale (Delphinapterus leucas), with reference 

to the Cumberland Sound, Baffin Island, population. J. Fish. Res. Bd. 

Can. 2881,309-1,318. 

Fish, J. F., and J. S. Vania. 1971. Killer whale, Orcinus orca, sounds 

repel white whales, Delphinapterus leucas. Fish. ~ulln. S. 69 : 531-536. 

Kleinenberg, S. E., A. V. Yablokov, B. M. Belekovich, and M. N. Tarasevich. 

1964. Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) investigation of the species. 

Akad. Nauk ESR. CTransl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 1969, 376 p.) 

 linkh hart, E. G. 1966. The beluga whale in Alaska. unpublished report, 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, Alaska. 

Sergeant, D. E. 1962. The biology and hunting of beluga or white whales in 

the Canadian ~rctic. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., circ. 8, 13 p. 

- 1973. Biology of white whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in western Hudson Bay. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 3081,065-1,090. 

Sergeant, D. E., and P. F. Brodie. 1969. Body size in white whales, 

Delphinapterus leucas. J. Fish. Res. Ed. Can. 2622,561-2,580. 

- 1975. Identity, abundance and present status of populations of white 

whales, Delphinapterus leucai, in North America. J. Fish. Res. Ed. 

Can. 3281.047-1.054. 

Yablokov, A. V. 1974. Present status of beluga and narwhal in USSR Arctic 

and Pacific waters. FAO/ACMRR Report, Doc. 39. 
NARWHAL 

(Monodon monoceros) 

~istribution and Migration: The narwhal is the most northern cetacean and 

occurs in north polar seas, mainly in the North Atlantic sector. It is mat 

common in northwestern Greenland and the eastern Canadian Arctic, particularly 

Jones and Lancaster Sounds, the north and east coasts of Baffin Island, Repulse Bay, and occasionally in northern Foxe Basin and Hudson strait. Narwhals 

also occur near Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya. They are rare in the 

Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. 

Abundance and Trends: The Canadian and northwest Greenland population is at 

least 10,000 (Mansfield, 1975). Numbers elsewhere are unknown. Rare occurrences in Great Britain (4) and Holland (1) are documented. Narwhals are 

hunted in Greenland and the eastern Canadian Arctic for dog food, muktuk, 

sinew, and ivory. 

General Biology: Females attain a length of 4.0 m and a weight of 900 kg. 

Each female bears a single calf about once every 3 years. Mating takes 

place in April, and the 1.5-m-long young are born in July after a 14.5-month 

gestation period. Lactation probably lasts about 20 months. Narwhals are 

gregarious, forming schools of up to 1,000 to 2,000, and made up of small 

groups of up to about 20 (Mansfield, pers. corn.). Food of the narwhal consists mainly of cephalopods, Arctic cod, Greenland halibut, and shrimps. 

Ectoparasitic whale lice occur in cuts, skinfolds, and around the base of 

the tusk. Endoparasitic nematodes occur occasionally in the stomach, and 

frequently in basicranial sinuses. 

E~010gical Problems: Narwhals are occasionally trapped in large numbers by 

rapid freeze-up. In such situations, Greenlanders may kill entire groups of 

these mammals. Although it is not adapted to drift ice areas, the killer 

whale probably occurs there and may be a natural enemy of the narwhal. 

~llocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: The narwhal is being studied by the Fisheries Research 

Board of Canada. 

Best, R. C., and H. D. Fisher. 1974. Seasonal breeding of the narwhal 

(Monodon monoceros L.). Can. J. Zwl. 53~429-431. 

Degerbol, M., and P. Freuchen. 1935. Maarmals: Report of the Fifth Thule 

Expedition, 1921-24. Vol. 2, Nos. 4 & 5. Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen, 

278 p. 
Mansfield, A. W., T. G. Smith, and B. Beck. 1975. The narwhal, Monodon 

monoceros, in eastern canadian waters. J. Fish. Rea. Ed. Can. 3221,041- 

1,046. 

Peterson, R. L. 1966. The maanuals of eastern Canada. Oxford univ. Press, 

Toronto, 465 p. 

Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Zverii SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran. Tom 9. Kitoobraznye. (Mamuals of the U. S. S. R. and adjacent countries. Vol. IX. 

Cetacea.) Moscow, Akad. Nauk SSSR, 756 p. (Transl. by IPST, Jerusalem, 

1967, xxii plus 717 p.) . Vibe, C. 1950. The narwhal, pp. 77-84. The marine mammals and marine 

fauna in the Thule District (Northwest Greenland) with observations on 

ice conditions in 1939-41. Medd. Gronl. 150(6). 
SPERM WHALE 

(Physeter macrocephalus) 

Distribution and Migration: The sperm whale is nearly worldwide in distribution except for the pack ice of the polar regions. Females and immature 

animals are generally found between lat. 40°S and 50O~. Sperm whales appear 

to migrate north during the northern summer and south during the northern 

winter. In the North Pacific, male sperm whales are found as far north as 

the Bering and Okhotsk Seas; in the North Atlantic they move into Davis 

Strait and near Spitsbergen. 

Abundance and Trends: In 1946,,the world stock of exploitable males (i.e., 

males over the legal length limit of 9.2 m) and sexually mature females 

was over 1 million, of which almost half were males. The present stock is 

about 700,000, of which only about one third are males. These are distributed 

by major ocean areas as follows (Mitchell, 1974; Chapman, 1976; International 

Whaling Commission, 1977) : 

1946 Current Ocean populatiqn populatjon 

North Atlantic (22?)=/ 2 22/ 

North Pacific 400 300 

south Atlantic 120 90 

Indian 220 140 

South Pacific 360 180 

- a/ Estimate of total population, including immature 

animals. All figures in thousands. 

The total populations of each sex, including undersized males and immature 

females, are approximately 2.5 times the number of exploitable males and 

1.67 times the number of mature females (Gambell, 1976). 

The sperm whale is currently the most important species of the world whaling 

industry. Stocks in most areas are at or above maximum sustainable yield 

levels. Catches of sperm whales in recent seasons have been: 

Southern Southern 

Season North North oceans, land 

a/ Pacific Atlantic pelagic stations 

1970 14,815 649 5,891 4,135 

1971 10,890 831 7,335 4,498 

1972 6,323 691 8,172 2,695 

1973 8,567 613 9,394 2,652 

1974 8,127 23&/ 8,930 a/ 2,891- 

1976 5,854 111 4,075 e/ 70- 

- a/ Southern ocean catches are for the seasons 1970-71 

through 1975-76. 

- b/ No data from Azores or Madeira. 

- C/ NO data from Azores, Madeira, or Spain. 

- 

d/ No data from Chile. 

- e/ No data fiom Peru. 
In most areas, males dominate the catches, and in the Antarctic (south of 

lat. 40's) the catch is almost exclusively males. 

General Biology: 

Species Statistics. -- The sperm whale's large squarish head is distinctive 

because it bears a tanklike "case" containing spermaceti. The lower jaw is 

long and narrow, and has about 25 pairs of teeth. Females reach 11.6 m in 

body length, males 16.8 m. 

Reproductive Data. -- The females mature sexually about age 8 to 11 years 

when body length is about 8.5 to 9.1 m, physically at 25 to 30 years and 

body length of 11.0 In. Males are not sexually mature until about 10 years 

and 11.9 m, and are not "socially" mature until about age 25 years. Females 

and juveniles of both sexes form schools of 10 to 50 animals, averaging about 

25. Younger, sexually mature males (ca. 11.0 - 13.4 m, age 15 - 25 years) 

form "bachelor" schools usually containing not more than 10 animals. Older 

males (13.7 m, 22 - 27 years) are usually solitary except when with schools 

of females for breeding for about 5 months in the spring and early summer. 

The female bears a calf (about 4.0 m) once every 3 to 5 years. Gestation 

lasts 14 to 15 months, and the calf nurses 1 to 2 years and is weaned at about 

6.7 m long. 

Age-Growth Data. -- Newborn calves are about 3.5 to 5 m, and weigh about 

1,000 kg. Growth of males continues until they are 45 to 60 years old, and 

about 15.5 m long. 

Feeding Habits. -- This species dives to at least 1,000 m, can remain submerged 

for about an hour, and feeds mainly on large squid. It also consumes significant quantities of octopuses and demersal and mesopelagic fishes. 

Ecological Problems8 None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: The National Marine Fisheries Service is studying'the life 

history of the sperm whale. Other organizations carrying out research on 

this species are the Japanese Whales Research Institute and Japanese Far Seas 

Fisheries Research Laboratory (North Pacific and Antarctic), Fisheries Research Board of Canada (~orth Atlantic), British National Institute of Oceanography (South Africa and western South America), South African ~ivision of 

Sea Fisheries (South Africa), Australian commonwealth Scientific and Industrial 

Research organization (Australia) , the University of Chile (Chile), the 

Marine Institute of Peru (Peru), and the Marine Department of New Zealand 

(New Zealand) . References r 

Berzin, A. A. 1971. Kashalot. Izdatel'stvo. Pishchevaya Promyshelennost, 

Moscow, 368 p. 
Chapman, D. G. 1976. Summary of North Pacific sperm whale assessments. 

,Unpublished report submitted to Scientific Committee, International 

Whaling Commission. 

Gambell, R. 1976. World whale stocks. Mammal Rev. 6 (1) :41-53. 

International Whaling Commission. (In press) Report of the Sperm Whale 

Meeting, La Jolla, Calif-, 16-25 March 1976. Rep. Int. Comm. Whaling 

27. 

Mitchell, E. 1974. Canada, progress report on whale research, May 1972 to 

May 1973. Rep. Int. Corn. Whalinq 24:196-213. 

Ohsumi, S., and Y. Fukuda. 1974. Revised sperm whale population model and 

its application to the North Pacific sperm whale. Rep. xnt. corn. 

Whaling 24:91-101. 
PYGMY SPERM WHALE 

(Kogia breviceps) 

Distribution and Migration: The pygmy sperm whale occurs in all the warmer 

seas of the world. In the Pacific Ocean it ranges north to Washington and 

Japan8 in the Atlantic Ocean it ranges north to Nova Scotia and the Netherlands. Its southern range limit is not well known. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown other than the 

fact that it is apparently rather rare. There are many more records of 

stranding than there are for Kogia simus, the dwarf sperm whale (C. 0. 

Handley, Jr., pers. comm.). This species is occasionally taken in the 

Japanese small-whale fishery (Yamada, 1954). 

General Biology: Adult pygmy sperm whales are 2.7 to 3.4 m long. Their dorsal fin is low and posterior to the center of the back. This species was 

long confused with the dwarf sperm whale, and the following composite statement is based on both species. They are usually solitary or in small pods. 

They feed mostly on squid,but also take pelagic crustaceans such as shrimps 

and giant mysids. Females simultaneously pregnant and lactating have been 

found, suggesting that they may bear a calf 2 years in succession. 

Parasites include tapeworm cysts in the blubber, roundworms in the stomach, 

and giant kidney worms. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: D. K. Caldwell and M. C. Caldwell have been gathering 

data on the life history in Florida (D. K. Caldwell, pers. mmm., 1974). 

D. K. Caldwell, M. C. Caldwell, and C. 0. Handley, Jr., have been working on 

the distribution (seasonal as well as geographical) in southeastern United States 

(Caldwell, pers. comm., 1974). 

References: 

Allen, G. M. 1941. Pygmy sperm whale in the Atlantic. '2001. Ser., Field 

Mus. Nat. nist. 27:17-36. 

Handley, C. O., Jr. 1966. A synopsis of the genus (pygmy sperm whales), 

pp. 62-69.In K. S. Norris (ed.), Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. ~niv. 

Calif. press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 

Yamada, M. 1954. Some remarks on the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia. Sci. Rep. 

Whales Res. Inst. 9837-58. 
DWARF SPEW WHALE 

(Kogia simus) 

Distribution and Migration: The dwarf sperm whale apparently has a discontinuous distribution around the world. It has been found in the seas adjacent to South Africa, India, Ceylon, Japan, Hawaii, South Australia, and the 

west and east coasts of the United States. On the west coast it has been 

recorded only from cab0 San Lazaro, Baja California, and San Luis Obispo 

County, California. On the east coast it ranges from Cape Henry, Virginia, 

south and west to Texas. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown other than the 

fact that it is apparently rather rare over much of its range. However, it 

strands rather frequently on the southeast coast of the United States and is 

taken in the Japanese small-whale fishery (Yamada, 1954). 

General Biology: Adult dwarf sperm whales are 2.1 to 2.7 m long. Their 

dorsal fin is high and near the center of the back. This species was long 

confused with the pygmy sperm whale, and the following is a composite statement based on bofh species. They are usually solitary or in small pods. 

They feed mostly on squid, but also take pelagic crustaceans such as shrimps 

and giant mysids. Females simultaneously pregnant and lactating have been 

found, suggesting that they may bear a calf 2 years in succession. 

Parasites include tapeworm cysts in the blubber, roundworms in the stomach, 

and giant kidney worms. 

Ecol~gical Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: D. K. '~aldwell and M. C. Caldwell have been gathering 

data on the life history in Florida (D. K. Caldwell, pers. comm., 1974). 

D. K. Caldwell, M. C. Caldwell, and C. 0. Handley, Jr., have been working on 

the distribution (seasonal as well as geographical) in southeaste~n~United States 

(Caldwell, pers. corn., 1974) . References: 

Handley, C. O., Jr. 1966. A synopsis of the genus (Pygmy sperm whales), 

pp. 62-69. In K. S. Norris (ed.), Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. 

Univ. calif.Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 

yamada, M. 1954. Some remarks on the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia. Sci. Rep. 

Whales Res. Inst. 9837-58. 
BAIRD'S BEAKED WHALE 

GIANT BOTTLENOSE WHALE 

(Berardius bairdii) 

Distribution and Migration: The giant bottlenose whale is endemic to the 

North Pacific Ocean, where it ranges from St. Matthew Island in the Bering 

Sea south to central Honshu on the western side and southern California on 

the eastern side. Its migrations are poorly known. 

Abundance and Trenas: The status of this species is unknown except that it 

is unconnnon.but not rare. According to information taken from the Bureau of 

Inte.nationa1 Whaling Statistics, between 100 and 400 giant bottlenose whales 

have been taken annually in the Japanese small-whale fishery during the past 

20 years. 

General Biology: This species is the largest of the beaked whales. Males 

attain a maximum length of 11.9 m and females 12.8 m. Their long narrow beak, 

bulging forehead, and size distinguish them from other species of beaked 

whales in the North Pacific Ocean. They usually travel in tight schools of 

up to 30 individuals. Their main foods are deepwater fishes and squids. 

Males attain sexual maturity at a length of about 10.0 m, and females at 

about 10.3 m. Sexual maturity is not attained earlier than age 3 years, and 

probably much later. Mating takes place mostly in February, and calves are 

born in December. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Research on this species has been conducted incidentally 

to other studies in Japan by the Whales Research Institute and the Ocean 

Research Institute; in California by the National Marine Fisheries Service; 

and in British Columbia by the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 

References: 

Betesheva, E. I. 1960. Pitanie kashalota (Physeter catodon L.) i berardiusa 

(Berardius bairdii Stejneger) v raione Kuril'skoi gryady. Trudy Vses. 

Gidrobiol. Obshch. 10,227-234. 

Bureau of International Whaling Statistics 1952-1972. International Whaling 

Statistics. 

Nishiwaki, M., and N. Oguro. 1971. Baird's beaked whales caught on the 

coast of Japan in recent 10 years. Sd. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 23,111- 

122. 

Omura, H., K. Fujino, and S. ~imura. 1955. Beaked whales ~erardius bairdii 

of Japan, with notes on Ziphius cavirostris. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 

10:89-132. 
CWIER'S BEAKED WHALE 

(Ziphius cavirostris) 

Distribution and Migration: The goose-beaked whale is found in all oceans 

except Arctic and Antarctic waters. In the North Pacific Ocean it ranges 

north to nokkaido, the Comander and Aleutian Islands, and the Queen Charlotte 

Islands. In the North Atlantic Ocean it ranges north to Cape Cod, 

Mass., on the western side and the Shetland and Orkney Islands on the 

eastern side. Its migrations are not understood. 

Abundance and Trends* The status of this species is unknown. The goosebeaked whale is the most frequently observed ziphiid, at least in the eastern 

North Pacific Ocean, and throughout its range has been found stranded far 

more often than any other species of the family (Mitchell, 1968). Between 

13 and 16 goose-beaked whales have been taken annually in the Japanese smallwhale fishery during a recent 5-year period (Nishiwaki and Oguro, 1072). 

General Biology: The goose-beaked whale is distinguishable from other 

ziphiids by its relatively short beak, the dorsal profile of which forms an 

almost straight line with the steeply sloping forehead, and by its brown 

coloration; older males have snow-white heads. The maximum body length in 

both sexes is about 7.0 m. These whales usually travel in tight schools of 

up to about 10 individuals, but old males are often solitary. Their main 

foods are squids and deepwater fishes. Sexual maturity is attained at a length 

of about 5.5 m in both sexes. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: Research on this species has been conducted incidentally 

to other studies in Japan by the Whales Research Institute and the Ocean 

Research Institute. 

References r 

Mitchell, E. 1968. Northeast Pacific stranding distribution and seasonality 

of Cuvier's beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris. Can. J. 2001. 46:265-279. 

Nishiwaki, M., and N. Oguro. 1972. Catch of Cuvier's beaked whales off 

Japan in recent years. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 24835-41. 
NORTH ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSE WHALE 

(Hyperoodon ampullatus) 

Distribution and Migration: This species of bottlenose whale is endemic 

to the colder waters of the North Atlantic Ocean. On the western side it 

ranges from Davis Strait south to Rhode Island, on the eastern side it ranges 

from Novaya Zemlya south to the Azores and English Channel. It migratas 

south in the autumn and north in the spring. 

Abundance and Trends: The initial population in all waters east of Greenland is estimated to have been between 40,000 and 100,000; by 1915 it was 

reduced to about half its initial size (Christensen, 1974). It is not 

known whether it has since increased. Norwegian catches in the North Atlantic ranged from 2,000 to 3,000 annually between 1890 and 1900. Catches 

ranged from 20 to 100 per year from 1920 to 1954. From 1955 to 1971, a few 

hundred have been caught annually, peaking at about 700 in 1965. Catches 

have been near zero since then. A few individuals are sometimes taken by 

whalers operating from Nova Scotia and the Faeroe Islands. 

General Biology: The bottlenose whale is easily recognized by a conspicuous 

beak that is sharply demarked from the high bulging forehead which, in old 

males, becomes almost vertical and flattened in front and slightly overhangs 

the base of the beak. Bottlenose whales are black when young, turn brown 

when adult and almost yellow with a white head when very old. Males attain 

a maximum length of 10.7 m, and females 9.7 m. Females attain sexual maturity at about 9 years, males at 9 to 11 years. Mating occurs in April, and 

the 3.0-m calf is born about 12 months later. Bottlenose whales usually 

travel in small herds of 4 to 10, but the adult males are often by themselves. 

Their food appears to be mainly squids. Females attain sexual maturity when 

about 6.5 m long. The calves are born from early spring to early suamer. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: This species is being studied by the Statens Instituter 

for Hvalforskning, Oslo, Noway. 

References: 

Bureau of International Whaling Statistics. 1936-1972. International 

Whaling Statistics. 

Benjaminsen, T. 1972. On the biology of the bottlenose whale, Hyperoodon 

ampullatus (Forster). Now. J. 2001. 20:233-241. 

Christensen, I. 1973. Age determination, age distribution and growth of 

bottlenose whales, Hyperoodon ampullatus (Forster), in the Labrador 

Sea. Now. J. Zool. 21:331-340. 
- 1974. The history of exploitation and the initial status of the 

northeast Atlantic bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus). FAO/ACMRR 

Report, Wc. 21, 23 p. 

Gray, D. 1882. Notes on the characters and habits of the bottlenose whale 

(Hyperwdon rostratus). Proc. Zwl. Soc., London, 18828725-731. 

0 

Jonsgard, A. 1952. Om bottlenosen (Hyperoodon rostrata) og spekkoggern 

(Orcinus s) . Fauna (1) r 1-18. 

Murray, J., and J. Hjort. 1912. The depths of the ocean. ~acMillan and Co., 

London, 821 p. 
TRUE'S BEAKED WHALE 

(Mesoplodon - mirus) 

~istribution and Migration: The True's beaked whale has been found in the 

western North Atlantic Ocean from Nova Scotia south to Northern Florida, and 

in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean from the Outer Hebrides south along the 

west coast of Ireland. There is another population off the coast of South 

Africa. Its migrations are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that 

it is apparently rare (Moore, 1966; 1968). 

General Biology: These whales are known mostly from stranded individuals, 

which suggest that they are usually solitary. Otherwise, nothing is known 

of their biology. 

Ec~l~gical Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Moore, J. C. 1966. Diagnoses and distributions of beaked whales of the genus 

Mesoplodonknown from North American waters, pp. 32-61. - In K. S. Norris 

(ed.), Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkely and 

Los Angeles. 

- 1968. Relationships among the living genera of beaked whales with classifications, diagnoses and keys. Fieldiana: 2001. 53(4):209-298. 
ANTILLEAN BEAKED WHALE 

(Mesoplodon europaeus) 

Distribution and Migration: The Antillean beaked whale ranges from Trinidad, 

Jamaica, and the Gulf of Mexico, north to Long Island, New York. One record 

for the English Channel has been obtained. Its migrations are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that it 

is apparently rare (Moore, 1966). 

General Biology: These whales are known mostly from stranded individuals, 

which suggest that they are usually solitary. Otherwise, nothing is known of 

their biology. 

Ec010gical Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Problems: None. 

References: 

Moore, J. C. 1966. Diagnoses and distributions of beaked whales of the 

genus Mesoplodon known from North Iunerican waters, pp. 32-61. In K. S. 

Norris (ed.) , Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. Calif. P~ZS, 

Berkeley and Los Angeles. 
GINKGO-TOOTHED WHALE 

(Mesoplodon ginkgodens) 

~istribution and Migration: The ginkgo-toothed whale has been recorded 

from Ceylon, in the western North Pacific Ocean from Taiwan to the Sa~iku 

coast of Hokkaido, and in the eastern North Pacific Ocean at Del Mar in 

southern California. Its migrations are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that 

it may not be so rare in the western part of the North Pacific as once thought 

(Nishiwaki, et al., 1972) . General Bioloqv: These whales are known mostly from stranded individuals, 

which suggest that they are usually solitary. Otherwise, nothing is known of 

their biology. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

All~cati~n Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. Present knowledge is based on opportunistic examination of specimens. 

Ref erences : 

Moore, J. C., and R. M. Gilmore. 1965. A beaked whale new to the western 

hemisphere. Nature 205 (4977) rlJ39-1240. 

Nishiwaki, M., and T. Kamiya. 1958. A beaked whale stranded at Oiso Beach, 

Japan. Sci. Rep. Whales Res* Inst. 13:53-83. 

Nishiwaki, M., T. Kasuya, K. Kureha, and N. Ogara. 1972. Further comments on 

Mesoplodon ginkgodens. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 24:43-56. 
ARCH-.BEAKED WHALE 

(Mesoplodon carlhubbsi) 

Distribution and Migration: The arch-beaked whale has hen recorded only 

in the North Pacific Ocean, from the Sanriku coast of Hokkaido on the western side and from British Columbia south to southern California on the 

eastern side. Its migrations are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that it 

is apparently rare (Moore, 19661 1968). 

General Biolo~r These whales are known mostly from stranded individuals, 

which suggest that they are usually solitary. Otherwise, nothing is known 

of their biology. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

Moore, J. C. 1963. Recognizing certain species of beaked whales of the Pacific Ocean. An. Midl. Natur. 708396-428. 

- 1966. Diagnoses and distribution of beaked whales of the genus Eplodon known from North American waters, pp. 32-61. In K. S. Norris 

(ed.) , Whales, dolphins and porpoises. Univ. Calif. zess, Berkeley and 

Los Angeles. 

- 1968. Relationships among living genera of beaked whales with classifications, diagnoses and keys. Fieldiana: 2001. 538209-298. 

Pike, G. c., and I. B. MacAskie. 1969. ~arine mammals of British Columbia. 

Fish.Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 171, 54 p. 
BERING SEA BEAKED WHALE 

(Mesoplodon s te jnegeri) 

Distribution and Migration: The Bering Sea beaked whale is endemic to the 

North Pacific Ocean. It ranges from the Commander and Pribilof Islands, 

Bristol Bay, and the northern Gulf of Alaska south to the Sea of Japan on 

the western side and Oregon on the eastern side. Its migrations are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that it 

is apparently rare (Moore, 1966) 1968) . General Biology: These whales are known mostly from stranded individuals, 

which suggest that they are usually solitary. Otherwise, nothing is known 

of their biology. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

Allocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

Moore, J. C. 1963. Recognizing certain species of beaked whales of the 

Pacific Ocean. Am. Midl. Natur. 70(2) 2396-428. 

- 1966. Diagnoses and distributions of beaked whales of the genus 

Mesoplodon known from North American waters, pp. 32-61. - In K. S. Norris 

(ed.), Whales dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. Calif. Press. Berkeley 

and Los Angeles. 

- 1968. Relationships among living genera of beaked whales with classifications, diagnoses and keys. Fieldiana: Zool. 53(4): 209-298. 

i 

~ishimura, S., and M. Nishiwaki. 1964. Records of the beaked whale Mesoplodon 

from the Japan Sea. Publ. Set0 Mar. Biol. Lab. 12(4)1323-334. 
NORTH SEA BEAKED WHAT,E 

(Mesoplodon bidens) 

Distribution and Migration: The North Sea beaked whale ranges mostly from 

the western Baltic Sea and central Noway south to the Bay of Biscay. It. 

has been recorded in the western North Atlantic Ocean from Newfoundland and 

Massachusetts. Its migrations are unknown. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that 

it is apparently rare (Moore, 1966). 

General Bi01~1 This species is the only one of its genus for which even 

rudimentary life history data are available. The baked whales attain a 

maximum length of 5.5 m for males and 4.9 m for females. Mating and birth 

usually take place in late winter and spring. The gestation period is about 

1 year. At birth the calf is between 1.8 and 2.1 m long, nurse6 for about 

1 year, and at weaning is probably about 3.0 m long. 

Ecological Problems: None known. 

~llocation Problems: None known. 

Current Research: None. 

References: 

0 

Jonsgbrd, A., and P. Hoidal. 1957. Strandings of Sowerby's whale Mesoplodon 

bidens on the west coast of Noway. Norsk Hvalfangst-Tid. 462507-512. 

Kukenthal, W. 1914. Zur Kentniss des Mesoplodon bidens (Sowerby). Jenaische 

Z. NatuIWiss. 51193-122. 

Moore, J. C. 1966. Diagnoses and distribution of beaked whales of the genus 

Mesoplodon known from North American waters, pp. 32-61. In K. S. Norris 

(ed.) , Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. Calif. ~zss, Berkeley 

and Ms Angeles. 

Nishiwaki, M., and N. Oguro. 1972. Catch of the Cuvieres beaked whales off 

Japan in recent years. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 24135-41. 

Omusa, H., K. Pujino, and S. Kimura. 1955. Beaked whale Berardius bairdi of 

Japan, with notes on Ziphius cavirostris. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 

10189-132. 
DENSE-BEAKED IWLE 

(Mesoplodon densirostris) 

~istribution and Migration: The dense-beaked whale is widely, but perhaps 

discontinuously, distributed in tropical and warm temperate waters around 

the world. In the North Pacific Ocean it has been recorded from Taiwan, 

Japan, and Midway Island. In the North Atlantic Ocean it has been recorded 

from Nova Scotia south to the Bahamas on the western side, and from Madeira 

on the eastern side. 

Abundance and Trends: The status of this species is unknown, except that it 

is apparently rare (Besharse, 1971; Moore, 1966). 

General Biologyr These whales are known mostly from stranded individuals, 

which suggest that they are usually solitary. Otherwise, nothing is known 

of their biology. 

Ecological Problems8 None known. 

Allocation Problems; None known. 

Current Research; None. 

Besharse, J. C. 1971. Maturity and sexual dimorphism in the skull, mandible, 

and teeth of the beaked whale, Mesoplodon densirostris. J. Mammal. 

52:297-315. 

Moore, J. C. 1966. Diagnoses and distributions of beaked whales of the genus 

blesoplodon known from North American waters, pp. 32-61. 5 K. S. Norris 

(ed.), Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley 

and Los Angeles. 
Contributors outside Department of Commerce 

(to the status of stocks report) 

Brodie, Paul F., Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Marine Ecology Laboratory, Bedford Institute, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. 

Brooks, James W., Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Subport Building, 

Juneau, AK 99801. 

Brownell, Robert L., Jr., Division of Mammals, National Museum Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. 20560 

Burns, John J., Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701. 

Caldwell, David K., Comunication Sciences Laboratory, Route i, Box 122, St. 

Augustine, FL 32804. 

Caldwell, Melba C., Communication Sciences Laboratory, Mute 1, Box 122, St. 

Augustine, FL 32804. 

Carlisle, John G., California State Fisheries Laboratory, Marine Resources 

Region, 350 Golden Shore, Long Beach, CA 90802. 

Chapan, Douglas G., College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, 

WA 98195. 

Drury, William H., Massachusetts Audubon Society, Lincoln, MA 01773. 

Durham, Floyd, Department of Biology, University of Southern California, Los 

Angeles, CA 90007. 

Evans, William E., Naval Undersea Research and Developlnent Center, San Diego, 

CA 92132. 

Fay, Francis H., university of Alaska, College, AK 99701. 

Gates, Doyle, California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Resources Region, 

350 Golden Shore, Long Beach, CA 90802. 

Handley, Charles O., Jr., Department of Vertebrate Zoology, SmithSonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 20560. 

~ouck, Warren J., Division of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, 

Arcata, CA 95521. 

Kenyon, Karl W., 11964 Lakeside Place NE., Seattle, WA 98125. 
Leatherwood, J. Stephen, Marine Life Sciences Laboratory, Naval Undersea 

Research and Development Center, San Diego, CA 92132. 

Mansfield, Arthur W., ~rctic Biological Station, Fisheries Research Board 

of Canada, P. 0. Box 400, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, P. Q., Canada. 

Mead, James G., smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, 

Washington, DC 20560. 

Norris, Kenneth S., University of California at Santa Cruz, Santa CruZ, 

CA 95060. 

Ray, G. Carleton, Department of Pathobiology, Johns Hopkina University, 615 

North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205. 

Scheffer, Victor B., 14806 SE. 54th Street, Bellevue, WA 98006. 

Siniff, Don B., Department of Ecology and Behavior, JFB Museum of Natural 

History, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 

Vania, John S., Marine Mammal Studies, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

1018 International Airport Road, Anchorage, AK 99502. 

Ximenez, Isaias, SOYP Depto Cientifico y Tecnico del Servicio, Oceanografico 

y de Pesca, Juan Lindolfo Cuestas 1409, Montevideo, Uruguay. 
PART IV. APPENDIXES 

Appendix A - Tables 

Tables 1-3 - Incidental Take of Marine Mammals in the Course of 

Commercial Fishing Operations 

Tables 4-10 - Scientific Research and Public Display Permits 
INCIDENTAL TAKE OF MARINE MANIIALS IN THE COURSE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING OPERATIONS 

General Permits - 1977 

(Except Category 2; Encircling Gear, Yellowfin Tuna) 

Category 1 

Fishermen's Marketing Association 

of Washington 

National Federation of 

Medium Trawlers (Japan) 

Japan Deep Sea Trawlers 

Association 

Applications Permit 

Number Number 

- Date Requested Date Granted 

12/22/76 535 3/14/77 220 

North Pacific Fisheries Development 2/18/77 728 3/28/77 728 

Association (Korea) 

Sovrybflot (U.S.S.R.) 3/24/77 &515 6/17/77 . l,515 

S.E.E. Okeansky Ribolov (Bulgaria) 5/26/77 42 10/20/77 42 

V.E.B. Fischkombinat Rostock 5/23/77 45 10/20/77 45 

(East Germany) 

SUBTOTAL g86 4873 

Category 3 

United Fishermen of Alaska 

Category 4 

United Fishermen of Alaska 

SUBTOTAL '$go 845 

North Pacific Fisheries Development 2/18/77 0 3/28/77 0 

Association (Korea) 21 - 

SUBTOTAL 160 80 

Category 5 

United Fishermen of Alaska 

Hokyuo Lon line-Gilbert Association ij (Japan) - 

North Pacific Fisheries Development 

Asscciation (~orea)?/ 

Japan Federation of Salmon Fisheires 4/06/77 2$10 7/27/77 560 

3 / Cooperative AssociationsSUBTOTAL - W60 

TOTAL ly76 - - 7956 

- 

11 Applications for domestic general permits requested total animals to be taken. 

Applications for foreign general permits requested number of animals be killed. 

All permits granted were given limits on numbers which could be killed only. 

- 2/ Requested harassment only; no mortality intended. 

- 31 Request for 2950 Dall porpoise denied. 

NOTE: These permits apply to marine mammals taken within the 20C-mile zone. 
Table 2 

INCIDENTAL TAKE OF MARINE HAMHALS IN THE COURSE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING 01 

Psnual Quotas According to Species 

Specieslstock-management units - Take 

Calendar Year 1978 

1. Spotted dolphin (coastal) 11 0 

2. Spotted dolphin (off-shore)- 14,006,000 

3. Spinner dolphin (Costa Rican) 0 

4. Spinner dolphin (eastern) 21 0 

5. Spinner dolphin (whitebelly)- 4,365,000 

6. Coramon dolphin (northern) 192,000 

7. Comon dolphin (central) 31 900,000 

8. Comon dolphin (southern)- 2,688,000 

9. Striped dolphin (northern) 41 48.000 

lo. Striped dolphin (north-equatorial)- 480,000 

11. Bottlenosed dolphin 72,000 

12. Rough-toothed dolphin 6,000 

13. Praser's dolphin 6,000 

14. Risso's dolphin 6,000 

15. Pacific white-sided dolphin 2.649 

16. Short-finned pilot whale 6,000 

17. Melon-headed whale 0 

18. Pygmy killer whale 0 

Total 

Calendar Year 1979 

1. spotted dolphin (coastal) 0 

2. Spotted dolphin (off-shore)- 14,006,000 

3. Spinner dolphin (Costa Rican) 0 

4. Spinner dolphin (eastern) 21 0 

5. Spinner dolphin (whitebelly)- 4,365,000 

6. Co-n dolphin (northern) 192,000 

7. Common dolphin (central) 31 900,000 

8. Camon dolphin (southern)- 2,688,000 

9. Striped dolphin (northern) 41 48,000 

10. Striped dolphin (north-equatorial)- 480,000 

11. Bottlenosed dolphin 72,000 

12. Rough-toothed dolphin 6,000 

13. Eraser's dolphin 6,000 

14. Rissa's dolphin 6,000 

15. Pacific white-sided dolphin 2,649 

16. Short-finned pilot whale 6,000 

17. Melon-headed whale 0 

18. Pygmy killer whale 0 

Total 

Calendar Year 1980 

Encirclement 

1. Spotted dolphin (coastal) 11 0 0 

2. Spotted dolphin (off-shore)- 14,006,000 5,400,000 

3. Spinner dolphin (Costa Rican) 0 0 

4. Spinner dolphin (eastern) 21 0 0 

5. Spinner dolphin (whitebelly)- 4,365,000 1,400,000 

6. Common dolphin (northern) 192,000 32,000 

7. Comon dol~hin (central) . . 900,000 600,000 - 51 8. Comon dolphin (southern)- 

9. Striped dolphin (northern) 41 lo. Striped dolphin (north-equatorial)- 

11. Bottlenosed dolphin 

12. Rough-toothed dolphin 

13. Fraser's dolphin 

14. Risso's dolphin 

15. Pacific vhite-sided dolphin 

16. Short-finned pilot whale 

17. Melon-headed whale 

18. Pygmy killer whale 

Total 

- 1/ Including the tentatively Identified Southwestern stock. 

- 21 Including the tenratively identified Southwestern stock. 

Mortality 

- 31 Including the tentatively identified Equatorial-Oceanic stock. 

- 41 Including the tentatively identified South-Equatorial stock. 
INCIDENTAL TAKE OF MARINE MAMMALS IN THE COURSE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING 

OPERATIONS 

Yellowfin Tuna and Tuna Products Importation Prohibition 

Status of Nations Determined To Be Operating Tuna Purse Seiners in the 

Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP). 

Nation 

Bermuda 

Canada 

Costa Rica 

Ecuador 

France 

Ghana 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands Ant. 

21 New ZealandNicaragua 

Panama 

Peru 

Senegal 

Spain 

Venezuala 

Importation Prohibition 

IATTC VSLS . Removed Removed Effective 

Member From ETP. (Finding) Jan. I., 1978 

X 

X X 

X X 

X X. 

X 

- 11 Vessel identification error. No purse seiners under Ghanian flag. 

- 

21 Notified of requirement for a finding in November 1977. 

Importation prohibition effective July 1, 1978. 
Table 4 

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF 

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH/PUBLIC DI 

CETACEANS 

COMMON NAME 

Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin 

Baird's Beaked Whale 

Black Right Whale 

Blainville 's Beaked Whale 

Blue Whale 

Bottlenose Dolphins 

Bottlenose Whales 

Bowhead Whale 

Bryde's Whale 

Common Dolphin 

Cuvier's Beaked Whale 

Dall Porpoise 

Dusky Dolphin 

Dwarf Sperm Whale 

False Killer Whale 

Fin Whale, Finback 

Finless Porpoise 

Fraser's (Sarawak) Dolphin 

Gray Whale 

Harbor Porpoise 

Hubb's Beaked Whale 

Humpback Whale 

Killer Whale 

Lagenorhynchine Dolphins 

Long-Finned Pi1 ot Whale 

Melon-Headed Whale, Electra 

Minke Whale 

Northern Right Whale Dolphin 

Pacific White-Sided Dolphin 

Pilot Whales 

Pygmy Killer Whale 

Pygmy Sperm Whale 

Right Whales 

Risso's Dolphin, Grampus 

Rough-Toothed Dolphin 

Sei Whale 

Short-Finned Pilot Whale 

Southern Right Whale 

Sperm Whale 

Spinner Dolphin 

MARINE MAMMALS INVOLVED IN 

SPLAY PERMIT APPLICATIONS 

SCIEh'TIFIC NAME 

Lagenorhynchus acutus 

Berardius bairdii 

Balaena glacialis 

Mesoplodon densirostris 

Balaenoptera musculus 

Tursiops sp. 

Hyperoodon sp. 

Ziphius cavirostris 

Phocoenoides dallii 

Lagenorhynchus obscurus 

KO& S~IDUS 

Pseudorca crassidens 

Balaenoptera physalus 

%ophocaena phocaenoides 

Lagenodelphis he 

Eschrichtius robustus 

Phocoena phocoena 

Mesoplodon 

- carlhubbsi 

Megaptera nwaeangliae 

Orcinua oLagenorhynchus sp. 

Globicephala melaena 

peponocephala electra 

Balaenoptera acutorostrata 

Lissodelphis borealis 

Lagenorhynchus obliquidens 

Globicephala sp. 

Feresa attenuata 

Rogia breviceps 

Balaena sp. 

Grampus riseu us 

- ~teno bredanens is 

Balaenoptera borealis 

Globicephala macrorhynchus 

Balaena australis 

Physeter catodon 

Stenella longirostris 
Table 4 (con.) 

CETACEANS 

COMMON NAME 

Spotted Dolphin 

Stenelline Dolphins 

Striped Dolphin, Streaker 

Unspecified Cetacea 

Unspecified Toothed Whales 

Vaquita, Cochito 

White Whale 

White-Beaked Dolphin 

PINNIPEDS 

Amsterdam Island Fur Seal 

Arctocephaline Fur Seals 

Baikal Seal 

Bearded Seal 

California Sea Lion 

Caspian Seal 

Crabeater Seal 

Gray Seal 

Guadalupe Fur Seal 

Harbor Seals 

Harp Seal, Greenland Seal 

Hawaiian Monk Seal 

Kerguelen Fur Seal 

Largha Seal, Spotted Seal 

Leopard Seal 

Northern Elephant Seal 

Northern Fur Seal 

Northern Sea Lion 

Ribbon Seal 

Ringed Seal 

Ross Seal 

South African Fur Seal 

South Arnexican Sea Lion 

Southern Elephant Seal 

Unspecified Marine Mammals 

Unspecified Pinnipedia 

Weddell Seal 

SCIENTIFIC NAME 

Stenella attenuata 

Stenella sp. 

Stenella coeruleoalba 

Cetacea 

Odontoceti 

Phocoena sinus 

Delphinapterus leucas 

Lagenorhynchus albirostris 

Arctocephalus tropicalis 

Arctocephalus sp. 

Phoca sibirica 

Erignathus barba tus 

Zalophus californianus 

Pa caspica 

Lobodon carcinophaaus 

Halichoerus grypus 

Arctocephalus townsendi 

Phoca vitulina 

Ph- groenlandica 

Monachus schauinslandi 

Arctocephalus gazella 

Phoca largha 

Hydrurga leptonyx 

Mirounga angustirostris 

Callorhinus ursinus ---- 

Eumetopias jubatus 

Ph* fasciata 

Ph* hispida 

Ommatophoca rossii 

Arctocephalus pusillus 

Otaria flavescens 

Mirounva leonina 

Unspecified Marine Mammals 

Pinnipedia 

Leptonychotes weddelli 
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pasaa1w pw oaqer 

dawadw 07 pamx 

any18 adax pus uaqa~ 

SUTTTTX ~q uavL 

:asaqL 30 

(~eao~) panolddv s1~m-1-v 

auypoaa suoya==yrddv 

pahozddv nuayae~y1ddv 

payuaa euoyas~y~ddy 

rsaaxmqns ~U~TJTJJ~S~I 

oa ana paulnaan SuoyaeJyIddv 

auamaa~sv d~uaSszaau1 

qSnolqa paA1osa suoyas~y1ddV 

~o~aq oa paxla3an suayas~y1ddv 

saaeas 

oa paxza3w woyae~y~ddv 

~JTTPIM pm qsra 

oa palzarau suoyaaarIddv 

onelpwrfl swyaoaTIddv 

ooyssv-3 w-n enraw 6q panawq auoyae~y~ddv 

wyssvw 1-eH J'JTlPH oa papl~UOd eooyas~y~ddv 

unar WTaJV 

passom" 

paladm1 

~a~uezas~earl~eaa 

PEW Punod 

pawavu pw U~TL 

6aTAyade3 my adax 

ahyw adax pue uarleL 

SUTIIT~ Kq UaTL :083U JO 

(rsaor) Paasanb- s1w-v 

paaapqns woyaeJrIddv 
Table 6 

CETACEANS REQUESTED IN SCIENTIFIC RESEILBCH/PUBLIC DISPLAY PERMIT APPLICATIONS 

Reques red 

(as of March 31, 1977) 

Requested 

(April 1, 1977,thru March 31, 1978) 

Taken 

Taken and Killed Taken 

Taken 

Taken and Killed Taken Curnula tive 

by Kept in and Pound by Kept in and Found Total 

Killing Captivity Released Daad Xilling Alive Captivity Released Dead Requested 

Baird's Beaked Whale 

Black Bight Whale 

Blue Whale 

Bottlenose Dolphins 

Bowhead Whale 

Bryde's Whale 

Common Dolphin 

Cuvier's Beaked Whale 

Dall Porpoise 

Dusky Dolphin 

False Killer Whale 

Fin Whale. Pinback 

Pinless Porpoise 

Fraser's (Sarawak) Dolphin 

Gray Whale 

Harbor Porpoise 

Hubb's Beaked Whale 

Humpback Whale 

Killer Whale 

~ong-Fimed Pilot Whale 

Melon-Headed Whale. Electra 

Minke Whale 

Northern Bight Whale Dolphin 

Pacific White-Sided Dolphin 

Pilot Whales 

Pygmy Killer Uhale 

Pygmy Sperm Whale 

Biaso's Dolphin, Grampus 

Bough-Toothed Dolphin 

Sei Whale 

Short-Pinned Pilot Whale 

Sperm Whale 

Spinner Dolphin 

Spotted DolpNn 

Stenelline Dolphins 

Striped Dolphin, Streaker 

Unspecified Cetecea 

Vaquita, Cochito 

White Whale 

White-Beaked Dolphin 

a~lease refer to Table 4 of this appendix for the appropriate scientific names. 

here permit applicants requested e total number of animals to be thn without specifying the nder to be taken 

from a.particu1.r species, the number requested war, listed der Urmpecified Cetacea. 

'A single application requeated 432,850 cetaceans and accounts for nearly the total number of cetaceane requested 

in the Taken and Rcleased category during this reporting period. 
Table 7 

PINNIPEDS REQUESTED IN SCIENTIFIC RESP,ARCN/PUBLIC DISPLAY PERMIT APPLICATIONS 

Requested 

(as of &reh 31, 1977) 

Requested 

(April 1. 1977,thru March 31, 1978) 

Taken 

Taken 

and 

Kept 

Alive 

----- 

----- 

----- 

398 

----- 

----- 

30 

92 ----- 2 ----- 

----- 2 

13 

22 ----- 

8 

6 ----- 9 ----- 

----- 

----- 

25 

607 

Killed Taken Taken 

by 

Killing 

2 ------ 90 ------ 

------ 

2.610 

------ 90 ------ 

------ 

125 ------ 

510 

------ 

------ 

------ 90 

90 

252 ------ 

------ 

127 ------ 

------ 

505 

4.491 

Taken 

and 

Kept 

Alive 

----- 4 ----- 

39 

2 ----- 

----- 9 

40 ----- 

----- 

----- 6 ----- 

10 ----- 

----- 

----- 

----- 6 ----- 

----- 

----- 

----- 

----- 

116 

Killed 

in 

captivity 

Taken 

and 

Released 

20 ------ 

------ 

------ 

Cumulati~e 

Total 

Requested 

82 

4 

990 

2,395 

2 

9,553 

30 

5,230 

40 

982 

881 

100 

1,736 

9,337 

35 

13,133 

330 

1.547 

849 

16 

9 

393 

50 

12 

6,674 

54.410 

Found 

Dead 

----- 

----- 

10 

243 

----- 

----- 

23 

in 

captivity 

and 

Released 

Arctocephaline Fur Seals 

Baikal Seal 

Bearded Seal 

California Sea Lion 

Caspian Seal 

Crabeater Seal 

Gray Seal 

Harbor Seals 

Harp Seal, Greenland Seal 

Hawaiian Hank Seal 

Kerguelen Fur Seal 

Largha Seal, Spatted Seal 

Leopard Seal 

Northern Elephant Seal 

Northern Fur Seal 

Northern Sea Lion 

Ribbon Seal 

Ringed Seal 

ROBS sea1 

South African Fur Seal 

South American Sea Lion 

Southern Elephant Seal 

Unspecified Marine Mammals 

Unspecified Pinnipedia 

Weddell Seal 

TOTALS :b 

a Please refer to Table 4 of this appendix for the appropriate scientific names. Where permit applicants requested a total number of animals to be taken without specifying the number to be taken from a particular species, 

the number requested was listed under Unspecified Pinnipeds or Unspecified brine Ha-ls.if cetaceans also were involved. 
Table 8 

Authorized 

(as of March 31. 1977) 

Authorized 

(April 1, 1977, thru March 31, 1978) 

Taken 'Taken 

Taken and Killed Taken Taken and Killed Taken Cumulative 

by Kept in and Pound by Kept in and Found Total 

Common Namea Killing - Alive Captivity Released Dead Killing. Alive Captivity Released Dead Requested 

Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin 

Black Right Whale 

Blue Whale 

Bottlenose Dolphins 

Bowhead Whale 

Bryde's Whale 

Common Dolphin 

Dall Porpoise 

Dusky Dolphin 

False Killer Whale 

Pin Whale, Finback 

Fraser' s (Sarawak) Dolphin 

Gray Whale 

Harbor Porpoise 

Humpback Whale 

Killer Whale 

Long-Finned Pilot Whale 

&lon-Headed Whale. Electra 

MI& Whale 

Northern Right Whale Dolphin 

Pacific White- Sided Dolphin 

Pysmy Killer Whale 

Msso' a Dolphin, Grampus 

Rough-Toothed Dolphin 

Sei Whale 

Short-Pinned Pilot Whale 

Sperm gale 

Spinner Dolphin 

Spotted Dolphin 

Stenelfine Dolphina 

Striped Dolphln, Streaker 

Unspecifi ?d Cetecea 

Vaquita. Cochito 

White Whale 

White-Beaked Dolphin 

Please refer to Table 4 of this appendix for the appropriate scienttfic na~s. b Where a permit specified the total number of animals to be taken without specifying the number to be taken from a perticular 

species, the number authorized vaa listed under Unspecified Cetacea. 

A single permit authorized 432.850 cetaceans and accounts for nearly the total number authorized in the Taken and Released 

category. 
Table 9 

PXNNIPEDS AUTKORIZED IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH/PUBLIC DISPLAY PERMIT APPLICATIONS 

Requested Requested 

(as of March 31, 1977) (April 1, 1977,thru March 31, 1978) 

Taken Taken 

Taken and Killed Taken Taken and Killed Taken 

by Kept in and Found by Rep t in and Found 

Conexan ~ame~ Killing Alive Captivity Released Dead Killing Alive Captivity Released Dead 

Arctocephaline Fur Seals 

Baikal Seal 

Bearded Seal 

California Sea Lion 

Caspian Seal 

Crabeater Seal 

Gray Seal 

Harbor Seals 

Harp Seal, Greenland Seal 

Hawaiian Monk Seal 

Kerguelen Fur Seal 

Largha Seal. Spotted Seal 

Leopard Seal 

Northern Elephant Seal 

Northern Fur Seal 

Northern Sea Lion 

Ribbon Seal 

Ringed Seal 

Ross Seal 

South African Fur Seal 

South American Sea Lion 

Southern Elephant Seal 

Unspecified Marine Maimnals 

Unspecified Pinnipedia 

Weddell Seal 

TOTALS :b 2,961 449 4 9 33,236 5 70 4,491 70 0 12,200 0 

Cumulative 

Total 

Requee ted 

a~lease refer to Table 4 of this appendix for the sr --vpriate scientific names. 

bWhere a permit specified the total number of mima: , be taken without specifying the number to be taken from a 

particular species, the number authorized was lis~ .-der Unspecified Pinnipeds or Unspecified Marine Mammals 

if cetaceans were also involved. 
Table 10 

Bottlenose Dolphins 

Common Dolphin 

False Killer Whale 

Fraser's (Sarawak) Dolphin 

Melon-Headed Whale. Electra 

Pacific White-Sided Dolphin 

Pygmy Xiller Whale 

Rieso'a Dolphin, Grampus 

Rough-Toothed Dolphin 

Short-Finned Pilot Whale 

Spinner Dolphin 

Spotted Dolphin 

Striped Dolphin, Streaker 

Unspecified Cetecea 

TOTALS : 

SUMWRY OF PEWITS FOR PERHANEW REREMVAL FROM TRE WILD - CETACEANS 

Permits 

Expired 

15 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Current 

27 

5 

4 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

2 

Requested 

328 

186 

12 

70 

49 

17 

49 

76 

79 

87 

2,946 

4.925 

100 

346 

Number of AnIraale 

Authorized Replacements 

Authorization 

Expired 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

9 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Take 

Remaining 

173 

160 

11 

70 

49 

14 

49 

76 

77 

74 

2.877 

4,816 

100 

327. 

a Pleaae refer to Tehle Ir of this appendix for the appropriate scientific names. 

Several permits were isewd fathe permanent removal of more than one species. Therefore, the number of permits issued 

for each species is accurarqbut the totar number insued, expired, and current includes theae dtlplicstione. 
Arctocephaline fir Seala 

Bearded Seal 

California Seal Lion 

Crabeater Sial 

Harbor Seals 

Kerguelen Fur Seal 

Largha Seal, Spotted Seal 

Leopard Seal 

Northern Elephant Seal 

Northern fir Seal 

Northern Sea Lion 

Ribbon Seal 

Ringed Seal 

Rosa Seal 

Southern Elephant Seal 

Unspecified Marine Kamals 

Unspecified Pinnipedia 

Weddell Seal 

SUML4RY OP PEBNITS POR PERMANENT BEHOVAL PROM TEE WILD - PINNIPEDS 

Permits Number of Animals 

Authorization Take 

Issued Expired Current Bequested Authorized Replacements Expired Taken Remaining 

a Please refer to Table 4 of this appendix for the appropriate scientific names. 

Several permits were issued for the permanent renova1 of more than one species. Therefore, the number of permits 

issued for each species is accurate,but the total number issued. expired, and current includes these duplications. 
Appendix B - Notices and Regulations 

The following rules and regulations initially published in the FEDERAL 

REGISTER are reprinted each year in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). 

Also, copies of rules, regulations, and notices are available from the 

Marine Mammal Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, DC 

20235. 

B-1. Notices and regulations relating to the bowhead whale. 

Notice of proposed designation, June 10, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 29946. 

Notice of public hearings and availability of Draft Environmental 

Impact Statement, August 18, 1977 FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 41655. 

Final rule, November 25, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 60149. 

Proposed rules, November 25, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 60185. 

Withdrawal of proposed rules, January 30, 1978, FEDERAL 

REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 3921. 

Proposed rules, March 3, 1978, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

43 F.R. 9172. 

Final rules, March 8, 1978, FEDEW REGISTER reference 43 F.R. 

9481. 

B-2. Notices and regulations relating to the incidental taking of 

marine manrmals in the course of commerical fishing operations. 

Final notice of methodology for monitoring porpoise mortality 

quotas, May 4, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 22573. 

Final notice of enforcement policy, May 4, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 22575. 
Interim final rule, May 16, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 24742. 

Notice of modification of permit, June 3, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 28566. 

Proposed amendments, June 6, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 28904 and 29533. 

Notice of proposed designation, June 10, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 29946. 

Expedited procedures for consideration of amended Regulation 

July 13, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 35967. 

Final rule, July 18, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 

36835. 

Notice of Application for General Permit, July 27, 1977, 

FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 38201. 

Interim final rule, August 4, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 39394. 

Notice of modification of permit, August 9, 1977, FEDERAL 

REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 40230. 

Final rulemaking, August 15, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 41128. 

Notice of public hearing, August 19. 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 41879. 

Notice of prohibition of take of rough-toothed dolphin, 

August 23, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 42370. 

DEIS correction notice, August 24, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

42 F.R. 42707. 

Final rule, October 5, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 54294. 
Notice of increase of incidental catch rate, October 17, 1977, 

FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 55488. 

Final rule, October 27, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 56617. 

Notice of prohibition on take of Fraser's dolphin, 

November 8, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 58195. 

Recommended decision, November 9, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 58419. 

Final rule, December 22, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 64121. 

Final decision, December 23, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 42 F.R. 64548. 

Notice of issuance of a general permit, December 30, 1977, 

FEDERAL REGISTER reference 42 F.R. 65237. 

Final rule--Panama, January 6, 1978, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 43 F.R. 1093. 

Notice of applications for general permits, January 24, 1978, 

FEDERAL REGISTER reference 43 F.R. 3301. 

Final rule--Bermuda, January 26, 1978, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 43 F.R. 3566. 

Final rule--Costa Rico, February 9, 1978, FEDERAL REGISTER 

reference 43 F.R. 5521. 

Notice of receipt of application, February 23, 1978, FEDERAL 

REGISTER reference 43 F.R. 7472. 

Notice of receipt of application, March 9, 1978, FEDERAL 

REGISTER reference 43 F.R. 9632. 

Notice of prohibition on take of rough-toothed dolphin, 

March 9, 1978, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 43 F.R. 9632. 
B-3. Notices axid regulations relating to state management of marine 

mammals. 

Proposed rules, July 20, 1977, FEDERAL REGISTER reference 

42 F.R. 37215. 
Appendix C 

The following table details the status of authorization and funding 

for fiscal year 1978-79. 
Appendix C - Funding 

MAR1 NE MAMMAL CONSERVATION 

($ in thousands) 

FY 1977 FY 1978 FY 1979 

Base Base Base 

Authorization Legislation Positions Funding Positions Funding Positions Funding Authorization */ 

Marine Mammal Protection Act 

Section 110 0 1,667.0 200.0 200.0 

Section 114 - 77 2,778.0 84 5,166.0 - 90 6,842.0 11,500.0 

MMPA Subtotal 77 4,445.0 84 5,166.0 90 7,042.0 

Endangered Species Act 6 294.0 1' 5,000.0 

Fur Seal Act 14 595 .O 14 595.0 14 595.0 open 

c 

?' Saltonstall-Kennedy Funding - 600.0 2/ - - 

Other Authorization Subtotal 20 1,489.0 14 595 .O 14 595.0 2 $! - - - 

2 Marine Mammal Conservation 

Total 97 5,934.0 9 8 5,761.0 104 7,637.0 -31 tl 

2 

8 1/ Reflected in Section 114 in FY 1978 n - 

,. 

r, nn - 2/ One-time funds from OMB unapportioned $K reserve 

w * 

co - 3/ Includes increase of 6 pos. & $1,49DK 0 

open 

- 4/ Sections 110 and 114 MMPA authorizations and the Endangered Species Section 14 authorization expire on 9/30/78 u w 2 

O NOTE: "K" equals $1,000