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##  Self-Regulation through Goal Setting. ERIC/CASS Digest.                      

INTRODUCTION
Self-regulation, or systematic efforts to direct                  thoughts, feelings, and actions, toward the attainment of one's                 goals (Zimmerman, 2000), has assumed increasing importance in the               psychological and educational literatures. What began with research             on self-control in therapeutic contexts has expanded to such diverse            areas as education, health, sports, and careers (Bandura,                       1997). 
Most theories of self-regulation emphasize its inherent                link with goals. A goal reflects one's purpose and refers to                    quantity, quality, or rate of performance (Locke & Latham, 1990).               Goal setting involves establishing a standard or objective to serve             as the aim of one's actions. Goals are involved across the different            phases of self-regulation: forethought (setting a goal and deciding             on goal strategies); performance control (employing goal-directed               actions and monitoring performance); and self-reflection (evaluating            one's goal progress and adjusting strategies to ensure                          success (Zimmerman, 1998). 
This article addresses the operation of            goals in self-regulation to include the influence of goal properties            and other goal-related factors. Acquiring self-regulatory competence            is an important developmental task and enhances human functioning               across the life span (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). By              understanding the role of goals, counselors, teachers and other                 practitioners will be able to work with students and clients to                 assist them in learning effective ways to manage their                          lives. THEORY AND RESEARCH EVIDENCEGoals enhance                          self-regulation through their effects on motivation, learning,                  self-efficacy (perceived capabilities for learning or performing                actions at given levels), and self-evaluations of progress (Bandura,            1997; Schunk, 1995). Initially people must make a commitment to                 attain a goal because it will not affect performance without this               commitment (Locke & Latham, 1990). Goals motivate people to exert               effort necessary to meet task demands and persist over time. Goals              also direct individuals' attention to relevant task features,                   behaviors to be performed, and potential outcomes, and goals can                affect how people process information. Goals help people focus on               the task, select and apply appropriate strategies, and monitor goal             progress. 
As people work on a task they compare their current                 performance with the goal. Self-evaluations of progress strengthen              self-efficacy and sustain motivation. A perceived discrepancy                   between present performance and the goal may create dissatisfaction,            which can enhance effort. Although dissatisfaction can lead to                  quitting, this will not happen if people believe they can succeed               such as by changing their strategy or seeking assistance. Goal                  attainment builds self-efficacy and leads people to select new,                 challenging goals. 
Despite these benefits, goals do not                       automatically enhance self-regulation. Rather, the goal properties              of specificity, proximity, and difficulty are                                   critical. 
Specificity. Goals that incorporate specific performance            standards are more likely to enhance self-regulation and activate               self-evaluations than are such general goals as "do my best" or "try            hard" (Locke & Latham, 1990). Specific goals raise performance                  because they specify the amount of effort required for success and              boost self-efficacy by providing a clear standard against which to              determine progress. 
A wealth of evidence in various domains                   supports the preceding benefits of specific goals (Bandura, 1997;               Boekaerts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000; Locke & Latham, 1990). The one            exception is when specific goals are overly easy to accomplish, in              which case they are less effective than general but difficult                   goals (Locke & Latham, 1990). 
Proximity. Goals are distinguished              by how far they project into the future. Proximal, short-term goals             are achieved more quickly, and result in higher motivation and                  better self-regulation than more temporally distant, long-term                  goals. As with specificity, there is evidence from various domains              supporting this prediction (Bandura, 1997; Boekaerts et al., 2000;              Locke & Latham, 1990). 
At the same time, some research shows that             proximal goals do not promote performance better than distant                   goals (Locke & Latham, 1990). One suggestion is that individuals                working toward distant goals may subdivide them, which produces the             benefits. Proximal goals strengthen self-efficacy because they allow            clear and frequent self-evaluations of progress. It often is                    difficult to determine progress toward a distant goal (Schunk,                  1995). 
Difficulty. Unlike specificity and proximity, goal                     difficulty does not bear a linear relationship to performance.                  Overly easy goals do not motivate; neither are people motivated to              attempt what they believe are impossible goals (Schunk, 1995).                  Assuming that people have the requisite skills, goals that are                  moderately difficult seem to have the best effects on motivation and            self-regulated performance (Locke & Latham, 1990). 
Self-set goals.            Researchers have found that allowing individuals to set their goals             enhances motivation and self-regulation, perhaps because self-set               goals produce higher goal commitment (Schunk, 1995). Other research,            however, has not substantiated this conclusion (Locke & Latham,                 1990). When people accept the legitimacy of assigned goals and                  commit themselves to attaining them the benefits are as strong as               when they set goals themselves. 
In working with students and                  clients it may be necessary initially to assign goals while                     simultaneously teaching them goal-setting strategies. As people                 learn to set realistic goals we might expect that self-set goals                would produce higher self-efficacy and better self-regulated                    performance than assigned goals because they will be committed to               attaining their goals and feel efficacious about doing                          so. 
Multiple goals. In recent years researchers have investigated             how people deal with multiple goals. Individuals can accomplish more            than one goal at a time assuming that they have the cognitive and               physical capabilities to do so and the goals do not                             conflict (Locke & Latham, 1990). 
The situation becomes trickier               when each goal alone is attainable but together cause conflict; for             example, an adolescent who wants to be socially popular but also                achieve well in school. More research is needed on this situation,              but we might expect that goal importance would affect which goal is             pursued more vigorously. 
Learning and performance goals.                      Educational researchers have investigated the differences between               mastery or learning goals, which involve learning skills or                     strategies, and ego or performance goals, which focus on performing             well to avoid appearing incompetent (Dweck, 1999). Although                     performance goals can exert powerful motivational effects, learning             goals are especially effective in enhancing self-efficacy and                   self-regulation (Schunk, 1995). Future research will help clarify               their operation in educational and therapeutic                                  settings. RECOMMENDATIONSTheory and research suggest a short              list of ways to use goal setting effectively as a component of                  self-regulation. The following strategies are especially useful. 
*            Subdivide a long-term goal into proximal sub-goals. Help learners               determine what sub-goals must be accomplished to attain their                   long-term goals. 
* View the goals as reasonable and commit to                 attempt to attain them. Provide verbal encouragement (e.g., "You can            do this.") to learners to help motivate them to accomplish their                goals. 
* Self-monitor progress. Students must learn how to gauge              progress in learning or performance. Provide progress feedback on               tasks where it is difficult for learners to gauge progress on their             own. 
* Use strategies for coping with difficulties. When progress             is minimal students might seek help, attempt to determine a more                effective strategy, or re-evaluate the goal and timelines. 
*                  Self-evaluate capabilities. The perception of progress will                     strengthen self-efficacy, which is critical for continued motivation            and self-regulation. CONCLUSIONGoal setting is an integral                component of self-regulation. Setting goals is a generic strategy               that can be applied in various domains. Effective goal setting                  requires that people set a long-term goal, break it into short-term,            attainable sub-goals, monitor progress and assess capabilities,                 adjust the strategy and goal as needed, and set a new goal when the             present one is attained. This multi-step plan is a key to promoting             healthier human functioning, higher motivation and perceived                    self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning and performance across               the life span. REFERENCESBandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy:               The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. 
Boekaerts, M.,                    Pintrich, P. R., & Zeidner, M. (Eds.) (2000). Handbook of                       self-regulation. San Diego: Academic Press. 
Dweck, C. S. (1999).              Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and                       development. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. 
Locke, E. A., &                  Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance.            Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 
Schunk, D. H. (1995).                    Self-efficacy and education and instruction. In J. E. Maddux (Ed.),             Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: Theory, research, and                application (pp. 281-303). New York: Plenum Press. 
Schunk, D.                 H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self-regulatory                competence. Educational Psychologist, 32, 195-208. 
Zimmerman, B.              J. (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation:            An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D. H. Schunk & B.             J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self- regulated learning: From teaching to                 self-reflective practice (pp. 1-19). New York: Guilford                         Press. 
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A                  social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M.             Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). San Diego:             Academic Press. 
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ERIC Digests are in the public domain and             may be freely reproduced and disseminated. This publication was                 funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational               Research and Improvement, Contract No. ED-99-CO-0014. Opinions                  expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions of            the U.S. Department of Education, OERI, or ERIC/CASS.                        **Title:** Self-Regulation through Goal Setting. ERIC/CASS Digest.                      **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Counseling and Student Services Clearinghouse, University of               North Carolina at Greensboro, 201 Ferguson Building, P.O. Box 26171,            Greensboro, NC 27402-6171. Tel: 336-334-4114; Tel:                              800-414-9769 (Toll Free); Fax: 336-334-4116; e-mail:                            [email protected]; Web site: http://ericcass.uncg.edu.                       **Descriptors:** Aspiration, Counseling, Counseling Theories, Elementary Secondary               Education,  Goal Orientation,  Learning Strategies, School                      Counseling,  Self Motivation, Student Educational Objectives                 **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests,  Self Regulation                                               
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