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Booklet #4

Booklet #4

Model Sessions:

Skills Training

in observation,

interviewing, and

facilitation

Fundamental to learning about others and building relationships are good skills in observation, interviewing, and facilitation. GAD and PACA methodologies cannot be carried out

without them. In new cultural settings, old skills need to be

revisited, cultural assumptions challenged, and new culturally appropriate language and behaviors learned. The three

session plans that teach skills in these areas are designed to be

modified to fit each culture’s practices and norms.
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Contents

Skills Training: Observation .................................................................................. 3

Skills Training: Interviewing ............................................................................... 12

Skills Training: Facilitation .................................................................................. 25
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Booklet #4

Skills Training

– Observation

Rationale

The PACA techniques are successful only to the degree that they can be skillfully used. Skills

required are culturally appropriate (1) interviewing and (2) facilitation, and accurate (3)

observation. Observation is important in the richness of the data that can be gathered nonintrusively, the confirmation or questioning of information gained verbally, and the clues to

reliability and comfort of community members who are involved in PACA techniques.

This session, as all of the skills training sessions, should be modified and made culturally

appropriate by working with language and cross-cultural trainers. As language skills

permit, Trainees should be encouraged to record and describe their observations in the host

language.

This design is most appropriate for pre-service training (PST). However, the major points

should be reviewed when PACA tools are introduced at any time.

Time

1 1/2 hours

Several additional time periods, depending on how much

practice is planned (see Section IV)

Goal and Objectives

Goal

To see the importance, and difficulty, of objective observation which can add

to, confirm, or question verbal information received in community work.

Objectives

1. To identify influences on one’s perceptions.

2. To practice non-judgmental statements about observations.

3. To sharpen observation skills of community resources and infrastructure,

current forms of activity, and labor by gender and age.

Training session

Skills Training – Observation (Page 1 of 8)
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Session Outline

I. Introduction (30 minutes)

II. Filters (40 minutes)

III. Balancing for Filters (20 minutes)

IV. Suggested Observation Practice Opportunities (1-2 hours, throughout training)

Trainer Preparation

Review this session plan with language instructors and cross-cultural trainers.

1. Modify any parts that are inappropriate in the host culture.

2. Determine which video segment will be used in the introduction; if none of these

tapes appeal to you or you don’t have access to them, replace them with a similar

length clip from a video you prefer.

At one time or another, most posts have received copies of the following video tapes.

Short segments from each tape have been identified and described for possible use

in this training session. A short segment of any other video available can be used. The

important aspects of the video clip are that a number of things are occurring at the

same time or in close sequence, and that both men and women are involved.

The number cues are based on 0000 when the video starts, not from the title. Watch

the clips from the videos that you have. Determine which you will use and make your

own notes for the session.

Be sure to cue the video in advance of the session; use the numbers as well as the

description, as numbering systems may vary by machine.

Possible video segments include:

Road to Lamesen –

#0000-0060 A variety of scenes: man painting face, group singing and

playing instruments, market scene, city street.

Observables: roles of men, women, and children; dress;

activities

#0264-0360 Village gathering, faces singled out; walking through village;

outsiders interviewing villagers.

Observables: faces, clothing, roles, housing, outdoor furniture.

(There is some superscript but it can be ignored.)

#0480-0581 School room (children, adults), non-formal education, clinic

Observables: clothes, faces, roles

#0620-0680 Village gathering: singing, playing instruments, local theater

Observables: roles, dress, what is happening

Skills Training – Observation (Page 2 of 8)
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Booklet #4

Water of Ayole

#0159-0117 Getting water at river

Observables: roles (gender, ages), dress, equipment

#0656-0670 Celebration

Observables: Who is dancing, playing instruments; what

instruments there are; dress and jewelry

#0790-0846 Meeting

Observables: Who is there and speaking, behaviors (standing, raising hands)

(There are some subscripts but can be ignored.)

#0965-0993 Construction of building: making cement, bricks, carrying

water

Observables: tasks (gender, age); dress; tools

Gender Analysis —

Strengthening Winrock Projects

#0065-0390 Variety of scenes: different countries; both men and women

Observables: roles and tasks, dress

3. Determine culturally appropriate ways to practice observation skills in the community or host family.

Meet with other PST training staff to determine how and when this session, in whole

or in part, might be introduced, and when participants can practice the skills. It is

recommended that it be introduced very early, even the first week, as it has major

cross-cultural implications, and trainees start observing, and making judgments on

those observations, immediately in an effort to learn about, and understand, their host

country.

Consider having several trainers for this session, including at least one language or

cross-cultural trainer.

The practice sections, or others you create, can take place throughout the training; all

of the practice should not directly follow the instruction. As language skills permit,

encourage Trainees to record and describe their observations in the host language.

Materials

• Blank flip chart paper

• Markers

• Tape

• Video player and TV

• Video: The Water of Ayole, The Road to Lamesen, Gender Analysis–Strengthening Winrock Projects, or other of your choice

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Handouts

• Filters

Flip Chart

• Filters (chart and rectangles of colored paper with the following words written to attach:

life experiences, culture, respect, self-image, religion, prejudice, biases, background, trust,

parents, sex and gender roles, likes and dislikes)

Procedure

I. Introduction (30 minutes)

Explain:

This session will focus on observation skills we need to develop. You have already

done lots of observation in the time you have been in this country. Let’s see how we

can improve the quality of what you learn from observations.

Introduce the video segment:

We are going to watch about five minutes of a video. I would like for you just to watch.

After we watch the segment, I’ll give you a little time to make a few notes on what you

saw.

Start the video selected during trainer preparation at the indicated number.

After the video segment, give participants a few minutes to write down what they saw.

Explain:

Now please pull your chairs together in groups of five or six. Talk with each other

about what you saw, and prepare a list on a flip chart to share with the whole group.

You will have 15 minutes to complete this task.

After 15 minutes, have all flip charts brought to the front and posted. Have one group

read quickly through their list. Have each other group add only items not previously

mentioned.

Ask:

In your small group discussions and from these lists, do you find things that you

observed and others didn’t? or items other people noted that you did not see at all?

If so, what were they?

Why do you think this happened? (Note reasons on a blank flip chart.)

Explain:

We will be studying in more depth how our observations are colored, and how we

can work to become aware of more things going on around us that perhaps now

would go unnoticed.

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Booklet #4

II. Filters (40 minutes)

Explain:

As we have just seen, because we are all human beings, all raised differently, we do

not all perceive information (receive messages) the same way. For instance, if a car

backfires, one man may perceive it as a backfire. Another man may perceive it as a

gunshot, because he was in a war. One person may see the killing of a pretty song bird

as a cruel act against a pet; another may see it as procuring a meal.

Filters are biases, values, or beliefs that influence the way we see something. They

come from the concepts we learned in childhood and have acquired over the years

through experience. Filters shape our perceptions of how and what we see, what

people say and do, how we choose to participate, and our choices about whom to ask

questions of and listen to. Many of our filters are determined by our culture or

subculture(s). Others are individual values or tastes.

Filtering is automatic and will go unnoticed unless we make an effort to understand

it. It is important to understand our filters because they may cause us to distort

information, miss seeing things, or interpret things differently than they were

intended. Some filters are very positive, such as believing everyone is trustworthy.

In order not to let our filters interfere with our cross-cultural learning and interactions, we need to identify what our filters are. Then, if overly positive, we need to

question their situational applicability, or if overly negative, consciously try to

overcome them.

Use the flip chart “Filters” and the colored paper with topics on them to give

examples. If possible, get examples from the group. Hopefully, they will have

examples of some of these points from the exercise in the Introduction to this session.

As topics are mentioned, affix the label over part of the face.

Skills Training – Observation (Page 5 of 8)

Filters

LIFE

EXPERIENCES

BIASES

TRUST

VALUES

RELIGION

PARENTS SELF-IMAGE

SEX

PREJUDICES
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Samples of filters are:

• life experiences: what you have gone through, e.g., the example of the man

and the backfire.

• culture: the norms with which you were raised, e.g., if a certain culture teaches

that cleanliness is next to godliness, a person from that culture may have a very strong

reaction to another culture where sanitation standards are not high. That same person

may tend to listen more carefully to someone who is neatly dressed as opposed to

someone who appears unkempt and sloppy.

• respect: whom you are taught to respect and how you respect them, e.g., if a

person is taught to respect elders she or he may respond to and listen to someone who

is elderly, and show a good deal of courtesy even if what that person says is irrelevant

to the listener.

• self-image: how you perceive yourself, e.g., a low self-image or too high a selfimage may hinder a person’s ability to perceive objectively what is going on around

him or her.

• religion: the norms your religion teaches you, e.g., a person who is taught the

golden rule or “do unto others as you would have them do unto you” might approach

the world differently from someone who believes “an eye for an eye.”

• prejudice: the races, ethnic groups, and social groups you are prejudiced for or

against, e.g., a person who is taught that a certain race is lazy or crafty might have

difficulty dealing objectively with a person of that race.

• biases: the things you have a predilection for or against, e.g., a person may be

biased towards others like herself or himself who are young and take risks, and

therefore may easily communicate with these kinds of people. On the other hand, the

same person might have a bias against older, more conservative individuals, and thus

have more difficulty in viewing or communicating with them objectively.

• background: where, how, and with what groups you were raised, e.g., a person

from a very small town might have preconceived notions about large towns or people

from the city. There are certain barriers established even before communication is

initiated.

• trust: whom you learned to trust as a child. The things you learned affect who you

will and will not trust as an adult. For example, you may have learned it is a sign of

dishonesty not to look someone in the eyes, or that certain people in certain

occupations are untrustworthy.

• parents: you were taught many things by your parents, such as how to be polite.

You may therefore be drawn to people who demonstrate your idea of politeness

(speech, behavior). You might have a strong negative reaction to a person or culture

you perceive as rude.

• sex and gender roles: the way you react to sexes and gender roles, such

as not thinking very highly of a woman who is a mechanical engineer if you

think women should work in “gentler occupations” such as teaching. Also, how

you perceive the world based on your sex. There is a significant amount of research showing that men and women see things differently.

• likes and dislikes: if you like something or someone, you will tend to respond favorably, and vice versa.

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Booklet #4

Ask:

Can you think of other filters? (Add them to the flip chart.)

Distribute the handout “Filters”. Ask participants to review the handout and make notes

about any filters they know they have.

III. Balancing for Filters (20 minutes)

Ask:

What are some examples of observations you made in the first exercise that show

evidence of filters? (These probably include interpretation or judgments.) List them

on a flip chart.

How can we identify statements that show bias, or interpretation? (The words

describing the event include judgments or assign values.)

One way to address our filters is to rewrite to eliminate our interpretation. That is, to

try and state what happened as objectively as possible. (Work on several of the

statements listed until they are objectively stated.)

Example, (take from the video)

Another is to look at our objective statements, and think of more than one possible

interpretation. This forces us to be conscious of other frames of reference than the one

we hold.

Example, (take from the video)

Take the examples given from the earlier exercise and ask participants to think of possible

explanations for the behaviors noted.

iv. Suggested Observation Practice Opportunities

(1-2 hours throughout training)

Planned opportunities to observe, describe, and discuss should be built into the

training program as time permits. Learning to become more objective and open with

observations is a skill that needs practice and reinforcement. Wherever possible,

include focus on gender roles.

Some opportunities may include the following:

1. In the classroom:

Repeat the first exercise with another video segment; have the participants work in

pairs to review their observations, rewrite statements to make them objective, and

explore several possibilities for the actions they observed.

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2. In their host families:

a. Have trainees observe specific times: for example, meal times, other “family”

times, mornings before people leave for work or school. (Caution against taking

notes if that would be inappropriate.)

b. Observe activities of specific family members at various times: mother, children

of various ages, grandparents.

c. Observe and describe how typical household chores are done: washing clothes,

cleaning house, meal preparation.

3. In the community:

a. Neighborhood streets at different times of day, evening, weekends.

b. Community places: markets, bus or taxi stands, churches, restaurants, etc.

c. At a worksite typical for their job with the Peace Corps: who is there, what are the

tasks, the time schedule, etc.

References

1. Nonformal Education Manual, pages 57-58, [ICE – M0042].

2. The New Role of the Volunteer in Development, pages 106-112, [ICE – T0005].

Notes

T

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HANDOUT Booklet #4

Filters Handout (Page 1 of 1)

Filters

No two people perceive the same external stimuli in the same way. Filters are what make us

perceive information differently; we all have them.

Filters are biases, values, or beliefs that influence the way we see something. They come from

the concepts we learned in childhood and have acquired over the years through experience.

Filters shape our perceptions of how and what we see, what people say and do, how we

choose to participate, and our choices about whom to ask questions of and listen to. Many

of our filters are determined by our culture or subculture(s). Others are individual values or

taste.

Filtering is automatic and will go unnoticed unless we make an effort to understand it. It is

important to understand our filters because they may cause us to distort information, miss

seeing things, or interpret things differently than they were intended. Some filters are very

positive, such as believing everyone is trustworthy. In order not to let our filters interfere

with our cross-cultural learning and interactions, we need to identify what our filters are.

Then, if overly positive, we need to question their situational applicability, or if overly

negative, consciously try to overcome them.

Samples of filters are:

• life experiences: what you have gone through.

• culture: the norms with which you were raised.

• respect: who you are taught to respect and how you respect them.

• self-image: how you perceive yourself.

• religion: the norms your religion teaches you.

• prejudice: the races, ethnic groups, social, and other groups you are prejudiced

for or against.

• biases: the things you have a predilection for or against.

• background: where, how, and with what groups you were raised.

• trust: whom you learned to trust and distrust as a child.

• parents: the many things you were taught by your parents.

• sex and gender roles: the way you react to sexes and gender roles; how

you perceive the world based on your sex.

• likes and dislikes: your personal likes and dislikes.
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Skills Training –

Interviewing

Rationale

The PACA techniques are successful only to the degree that they can be skillfully used. Skills

required are culturally appropriate (1) interviewing and (2) facilitation, and accurate (3)

observation. Though interviewing individuals is not part of PACA techniques, the interviewing skills of building rapport, appropriate question forms, and showing respect for the

interviewee are just as critical for successful group discussions (which might be considered

“group interviews” in some ways) as for individual interviews.

This session, as all of the skills sessions, should be modified and made culturally appropriate

by working with language and cross-cultural trainers. The skills should be introduced and

practiced in English, if necessary, but also practiced in the host country language as soon as

possible.

This design is most appropriate for pre-service training (PST). However, the major points

should be reviewed when PACA tools are introduced at any time.

Time

2 hours for session

Several additional time periods during training, depending on how much practice

is planned (see Section V).

Goals and Objectives

Goal 1

To learn culturally appropriate ways to establish rapport and ask questions.

Objectives

1. To identify appropriate and inappropriate statements and questions that help to establish rapport with host country people.

2. To use several indirect question structures.

3. To use open-ended questions.

4. To interview several host country people to practice the isolated skills.

Goal 2

As able, to conduct short interviews in the host country language.

Skills Training – Interviewing (Page 1 of 9)
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Booklet #4

Session Outline

I. Introduction (15 minutes)

II. Essential parts of interviewing (30 minutes)

III. Question structures (30 minutes)

IV. Practice in groups (45 minutes)

V. Individual practice interviews (1-3 hours, throughout training)

Trainer Preparation

Review this session plan with language instructors and cross-cultural trainers.

1. Modify any parts that are inappropriate in the host culture.

2. Determine culturally appropriate rapport building, language structures, and topics.

3. Determine culturally appropriate ways to practice interviewing skills at the training

site or in host families.

Meet with other PST training staff to determine how and when this session, in whole or in

part, might be introduced, and when participants can practice the skills. It is recommended

that it be introduced very early, even the first week, as it has major cross-cultural implications, and trainees will start asking questions immediately to learn more about their host

country.

Consider having several trainers for this session, including at least one language or crosscultural trainer.

The practice sections, or others you create, can take place throughout training; all of the

practice should not directly follow the instruction. As language skills permit, revisit parts of

the session, teaching the question structures in the foreign language and doing practice in

that language.

Look for as many opportunities as possible within different phases of training (crosscultural, technical, language, personal safety, etc.) to give practice in interviewing with

feedback.

Materials

• Blank flip chart paper

• Markers

• Tape

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Handouts

• Essential Characteristics of Interviewing

• Question Structures

• Group Task

• Interview Observation Guide

Flip Charts

• Essential Characteristics of Interviewing

• Question Structures

Procedure

I. Introduction (15 minutes)

Do a quick demonstration.

1. Walk up to one or two Trainees, introduce yourself (name only) and ask a few

questions. Use questions that might seem somewhat invasive if asked by a total

stranger, such as “Do you have brothers and sisters? What does your father do? Does

your mother work?”

2. Ask Trainees who were approached how they felt.

3. Ask Trainees who observed how they felt.

4. List their comments on a flip chart.

Ask:

Why do we ask questions? (Answers may include: get specific information, learn

more in general about a country and people, establish a relationship by looking for

commonalities.)

Explain:

In this session they will be learning about culturally appropriate ways to establish

rapport and ask questions.

II. Essential parts of interviewing (30 minutes)

State:

Asking questions, or more formally interviewing people, is the form of communication most basic to getting to know people. We use it constantly as we meet new

people. If done well, we can

• establish trust;

• create a human bond; and

• begin a partnership between ourselves and those we came to work with.

Skills Training – Interviewing (Page 3 of 9)
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Booklet #4

Ask:

What are the results of inappropriate question asking? (Ideas should have been noted

above after the demonstration.)

The skills we need to develop, or make more appropriate in our new setting, for asking

questions and interviewing include the following: (flip chart)

Essential Characteristics

of Interviewing

Demonstrate respect

Develop rapport

Use familiar, non-threatening topics

Use appropriate, non-threatening question forms

Read non-verbals

Listen more than you talk

Distribute the handout “Essential Characteristics of Interviewing.” Encourage trainees

to follow along and make notes during the discussion of these points.

Review each of the points in a question and answer format, adding appropriate cultural

information.

1. Demonstrate respect.

What are some ways you have used to display respect to other people? (Answers may

include behavior, dress, use of titles or other polite speech, concern for someone else’s

time, etc.)

Are there any specific behaviors or language patterns you have noticed here that are

important to showing respect?

(Add others provided by cultural informants.)

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2. Develop rapport.

How would you develop rapport with someone at home? (Initial questions or

statements, behaviors.)

Here you are an outsider, foreigner. It is important to try to dispel all false or

misinterpretable expectations which that status might bring. What are the attitudes

towards foreigners here? Do they vary according to where in the country you are? By

social classes, gender, age, or ethnic groups?

What are ways to begin to develop rapport through behavior, conversation, and

questions that are non-threatening?

(Add notes from cultural informants.)

3. Use familiar, non-threatening topics.

In our demonstration, what made you uncomfortable about the topics?

What might have been more appropriate topics for you (for a relative stranger) to ask?

The topics that are familiar and non-threatening differ by cultures and their particular history. Why do you think most Americans begin with the question “What do you

do?” (Culturally for most Americans, what one does is how one is known, as opposed

to what family they are from. This probably evolved out of a combination of the

mobility of most Americans—their family would be unknown—and a conscious

effort by many to value someone by their own efforts as opposed to who they are—

egalitarianism rather than classism.)

If we need to begin the interview with topics that people enjoy talking about and

which neither pose a threat nor break an acceptable cultural level of intimacy, we

need to identify those in this cultural context.

(Add appropriate notes below.)

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Booklet #4

4. Use appropriate, non-threatening question forms.

Not all people are comfortable with personal questions, such as “What do you think

about the health care in this town?” etc. A less personal question form may be more

appropriate, such as “What are people saying about the health care in this town?”

Does the form of a question make a difference to you? Does it depend on the topic?

We will spend much more time on this in the next part of the session.

(Add additional notes below.)

5. Read non-verbals.

In our demonstration, were there any non-verbals that the interviewer might have

picked up?

What examples of non-verbals have you experienced that gave you a clear message

during a conversation or an interview? (Expressions of boredom, uncomfortableness

with questions, etc.)

(Add notes on specific non-verbals in this culture that trainees may not recognize.)

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6. Listen more than you talk.

How do you feel about silence?

What can you do to keep from “jumping in” with another question when your

interviewees may just need some time to think and answer?

(Add any notes on tolerance for silence in this culture.)

III. Question structures (30 minutes)

Introduce the topic with the flip chart:

Question Structures

Closed questions: (yes or no)

Do you like to eat goat?

Do you use the health clinic?

Either/or questions:

Do women... or do they... ?

Is the clinic free or is there a fee?

Open questions: (why, what, when, where, how)

What are some foods you like to eat?

When might you take your children to the

health clinic?

Personal question forms:

Do you throw your trash in the river?

How many children do you have?

Generalized question forms:

Do people throw trash in the river?

How many children do most families have?

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Booklet #4

Present culturally appropriate question formats, language structures, and when and

where they each might be appropriately used, if ever. Though the Trainees may need to

do this in English, have them learn somewhat equivalent structures, if possible, so that

they practice the correct patterns.

Discuss question sequencing:

1. Sometimes starting with yes or no questions is a good way to start a discussion,

followed by open questions.

2. If a discussion starts to falter, yes or no questions and either/or questions are a way

to get people talking again and summarizing what perspectives have been presented.

3. Sometimes open ended questions can be vague and difficult to answer. It may be

necessary to move back to more closed questions.

(Add other notes.)

IV. Practice in groups (45 minutes)

Explain:

To practice what we’ve been learning, you will work in small groups of three or four

persons.

Form that size groups and sit together.

After they have moved, distribute the handout “Group Task”, and review it with them.

Together you will do the following:

Group Task

1. Select a topic you think would be interesting and appropriate (in the host country’s view) for you to ask about.

2. Determine who you might interview about that topic.

3. Prepare an outline of how you would conduct the interview about this topic, planning each step from the list of

essential characteristics.

4. Write your questions to conform with cultural norms.

Prepare no more than eight questions.

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T

You will have 15 minutes to prepare.

Trainers should circulate, keeping groups on task, and giving help if necessary. Host

country staff can be particularly helpful in determining cultural appropriateness of

what Trainees are planning.

After 15 minutes, either have pairs of groups present to each other, or if there are less

than five groups, have each group present to all of the rest. They should describe their

interview situation and go through the points, including reading their questions.

Discussion of the presentations should focus on how well they addressed the essential

characteristics, as well as on the appropriateness of the questions.

V. Individual Practice Interviews

(Suggested Methods and Opportunities)

(1-3 hours, over time)

Opportunities for practice using appropriate behavior, language, and topics for interviewing should be provided throughout training. Trainees need to prepare for practice

interviews, have their preparation reviewed, and their interviews debriefed, so that they

are learning and improving with each experience. An “Interview Observation Guide”

handout is provided for Trainee feedback on interview practice.

As Trainees are able, they should practice in the language of the host culture.

Some suggested interview situations are the following:

1. In the classroom setting, practice interviews in trios: one interviewer, one

interviewee, and one observer. The observer uses the “Interview Observation

Guide” handout. At the end of each interview, the observer gives feedback from

the form and then gives the interviewer the form. The three change roles and

repeat the exercise until each person has had a chance to interview.

2. Practice interviews with host national training staff.

3. Practice interviews with host family members.

4. Practice interviews related to technical area with relevant person.

References

1. Nonformal Education Manual, pages 59-64, [ICE – M0042].

Notes

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HANDOUT Booklet #4

Essential Characteristics

Of Interviewing

Demonstrate respect

Develop rapport

Use familiar, non-threatening topics

Use appropriate, non-threatening question forms

Read non-verbals

Listen more than you talk

Essential Characteristics of Interviewing Handout (Page 1 of 1)
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Question Structures

Closed questions: (yes or no)

Do you like to eat goat?

Do you use the health clinic?

Either/or questions:

Do women... or do they... ?

Is the clinic free or is there a fee?

Open questions: (why, what, when, where, how)

What are some foods you like to eat?

When might you take your children to the health clinic?

Personal question forms:

Do you throw your trash in the river?

How many children do you have?

Generalized question forms:

Do people throw trash in the river?

How many children do most families have?

HANDOUT

Question Structures Handout (Page 1 of 1)
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Booklet #4

Group Task

1. Select a topic you think would be interesting and appropriate

(in the host country’s view) for you to ask about.

2. Determine who you might interview about that topic.

3. Prepare an outline of how you would conduct the interview

about this topic, planning each step from the list of essential

characteristics.

4. Write your questions to conform with cultural norms. Prepare no more than eight questions.

HANDOUT

Group Task Handout (Page 1 of 1)
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Interview Observation Guide

Interviewer:

Observer:

Make specific notes (e.g., specific behaviors, questions) related to each topic:

Rapport:

Familiar, non-threatening topics:

Question forms:

Attention to non-verbals:

Listening:

Evidence of respect:

HANDOUT

 Interview Observation Guide Handout (Page 1 of 1)
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Booklet #4

Skills Practice –

Facilitation

Training session

Rationale

For Peace Corps Volunteers to be effective, they must be able to communicate with their host

country colleagues and community, to establish rapport and trust, and to listen to what

people need and want to do for themselves. To be able to facilitate discussions among groups

of people is a critical skill; it is the key to using PACA methodologies effectively.

Facilitation is a skill which encourages the members of a group to express and discuss their

own ideas. It requires the use of questions that elicit ideas, probe, and encourage everyone

to participate and express views. It also requires paraphrasing and summarizing. It demands

attention to the process of the group, including encouraging quiet and reticent people, and

controlling dominant or disruptive participants. It builds on the skills that were introduced

and practiced in the interviewing session.

This session, as all of the skills sessions, should be modified and made culturally appropriate

by working with language and cross-cultural trainers. The skills should be introduced and

practiced in English, if necessary, but also practiced in the host country language as soon as

possible.

This design is most appropriate for pre-service training (PST). However, the major points

should be reviewed when PACA tools are introduced at any time.

Time

2 hours

Several additional time periods, depending on how much practice is planned

(see Section VII).

Goals and Objectives

Goal 1

To learn how to facilitate discussions.

Objectives

1. To identify differences or similarities between interviewing and facilitating.

2. To use several phrases that redirect, verify, and summarize ideas raised in a group

discussion.

3. To identify types of difficult (non-participating) members of a group and strategies for

working with them.

4. To facilitate a discussion among a group of adults.

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Goal 2

As able, to facilitate short group discussions in the host country language.

Session Outline

I. Introduction (10 minutes)

II. The Facilitator’s Role (20 minutes)

III. Language Patterns (10 minutes)

IV. Practice (30 minutes)

V. Working with Difficult Group Members (20 minutes)

VI. Practice Working with Difficult Group Members (30 minutes)

VII. Other Practice Suggestions and Opportunities (4-6 hours, spread out during training)

Trainer Preparation

Review this session plan with language instructors and cross-cultural trainers.

1. Modify any parts that are inappropriate in the host culture.

2. Determine culturally appropriate rapport building, language structures, and explanations for and ways of handling difficult members of a group.

3. Determine culturally appropriate ways to practice facilitation skills at the training

site or with host families.

Meet with other PST training staff to determine how and when this session, in whole or in

part, might be introduced, and when participants can practice the skills. It should follow the

Skills Practice – Interviewing session as it builds on those skills.

If possible, have a host country trainer lead or assist with this session. Every aspect of the

material needs to be culturally appropriate, and, as questions arise, a host country informant

is the best source of information.

Two practice sections are included in the session. The first is to practice language forms and

keep the conversation moving within the group. The second is to practice dealing with

difficult group members. Other practice suggestions, or ones you create, can take place

throughout training. Look for as many opportunities as possible within different phases of

training (cross-cultural, technical, language, personal safety, etc.) to give practice in facilitating. For example, let Trainees take turns conducting discussions following small group work

and field work, employing facilitation skills.

As language skills permit, revisit parts of the session, teaching the language patterns in the

host country language and doing the practice in that language.

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Booklet #4

Materials

• Blank flip chart paper

• Markers

• Tape

Handouts

• Facilitation

• Key Steps in Facilitating a Group

• Facilitation Observation Guide

• Working with Difficult Group Members

Flip Charts

• Differences between Leading and Facilitating a Discussion

• Language Patterns

• Key Steps in Facilitating a Group

Procedure

I. Introduction (10 minutes)

Explain:

In this session we are going to discuss and work on a very important skill: facilitation.

What does the word “facilitate” bring to your mind? (List on blank flip chart.)

Being able to facilitate discussions will be an important skill for you to have as you

begin to work with your community and colleagues. In this session, we will further

define how we use the term, why we employ this methodology, and begin to learn

how to do it.

II. The Facilitator’s Role (20-30 minutes)

Use the flip chart “Differences between Leading and Facilitating a Discussion” and

discuss what each diagram implies and what each leader role would be useful for.

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Possible ideas generated by the group may be:

Leader-centered: Facilitator:

Introduce new ideas Help group process own ideas

Lead through series of steps Knowledge resides in group

Test knowledge Manage process, not content

Review activity Encourages all to participate

Ask:

Have any of you had experiences with facilitating group discussions? What were the

situations?

When would you lead a group and when would you facilitate?

Explain:

In PACA, both types of group leader styles are used. The leader may direct the group

through a series of steps to arrive at information, such as creating a map or a calendar.

Then the role changes and a facilitation style is employed because the group has the

knowledge; the facilitator helps them discuss it, make comparisons, and draw

conclusions.

Distribute the handout “Facilitation” and review the roles the facilitator takes.

III. Language Patterns (10 minutes)

Use the flip chart “Language Patterns”, the handout “Facilitation”, and the notes below

to discuss the types of questions and phrases that facilitators use.

Skills Training – Facilitation (Page 4 of 8)

Leader Facilitator
29

Booklet #4

LANGUAGE PATTERNS

1. Question asking

Open ended: Can you give some examples of ...?

Probing: Will you explain a little more about that?

Moving to other participants: Who has other ideas about this?

Encouraging other points of view: Can anyone provide another

point of view about this?

Summarizing: Will someone summarize the points presented so

far?

2. Paraphrasing

Paraphrase starters:

What I heard you say was.... Is that correct?

I think you said that.... Is that right?

It seems to me your point of view is.... Is that stated correctly?

You differ from (Mary) in that you think.... Is that right?

3. Summarizing

Starter phrases for summaries:

If I understand, you feel this way about the situation.

There seem to be the following points of view about this.

We seem to have presented the following issues so far.

I think we agree on this decision: what we are saying is that

we....

1. Question asking

Facilitators use questions to help group members bring out relevant information,

clarify points of view, summarize information, and draw conclusions.

2. Paraphrasing

By paraphrasing, the facilitator demonstrates that she or he understands what

participants have said and may clarify issues. The process of paraphrasing is

much like catching a ball and throwing it back. It requires very careful listening.

3. Summarizing

The purpose of summarizing is to:

a. pull important ideas, facts, or information together;

b. establish a basis for further discussion or make a transition;

c. review progress; or

d. check for clarity or agreement.

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Summarizing requires careful listening as it requires organization

and systematic reporting back of information expressed. Summarized information ensures that everyone is clear about what

transpired in that portion of the discussion. Whenever possible,

encourage someone in the group to do the summarizing.

Ask:

How is facilitating different from interviewing? (Some suggestions may include the

following:)

Facilitating: Interviewing:

Group Individuals (usually)

Less directed questions More specific questions

Ideas represent group Ideas or opinions of one person

What are some benefits of group discussion when trying to understand other

people’s reality? problems?

For you?

For the group?

IV. Practice (30 minutes)

Post flip chart and distribute the handout “Key Steps in Facilitating a Group.” Go

through the steps.

Key Steps in Facilitating a Group

Arrival of group

(Build rapport)

Introductions

(Demonstration of respect)

Facilitation of Discussion

Summarizing

Closure

Explain that they will have a chance to participate in a facilitated discussion.

For the practice, create groups of approximately five participants plus one facilitator and

one observer. Ask the participants to divide themselves into groups of seven. Have them

pull their chairs together. Ask each group to identify one facilitator and one observer.

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Booklet #4

Give the facilitators a topic that the groups can easily discuss, such as ways

to improve the training site. Let them think through how they will begin.

Ask the observers to meet you at one side of the room. Give them each a copy

of the handout “Facilitation Observation Guide.” Go through it with them.

Ask them to sit just outside of their group, and make notes as the discussion

proceeds. At the end they will lead a discussion with the group about the

process, not the content.

The groups will look like the following:

Once the observers are in place, ask the facilitators to begin. After 10 minutes,

ask the facilitators to pull the discussion to a close. Then have observers join

their groups and discuss how the facilitation met its purpose.

As a total group, discuss what went well and what did not. Ask:

What things were difficult for the facilitators?

How can those things be addressed?

Thank the group and take a break, or end the session here and begin another session with

Step V.

V. Working with difficult group members (20 minutes)

Distribute and review the handout “Working with Difficult Group Members.” If

possible, have a host country trainer in this part of the session to be able to answer

questions.

VI. Practice working with difficult group members (30 minutes)

Repeat the practice set-up from Part IV, using a different discussion question, different

facilitators, and different observers. Ask facilitators and observers to leave the room to

prepare for a few minutes. When they are gone, assign one or two specific roles to

members of each group: someone who is not willing to participate, a dominant or

disruptive person.

Conduct the practice with 10 minutes for discussion, 10 minutes of observer-led

debriefing, and 10 minutes of general discussion.

Ask one or more participants to summarize the major points about facilitating, including

the roles the facilitator plays, important language structures, and rules for dealing with

difficult participants.

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VII. Other practice suggestions and possibilities

(4-6 hours spread throughout training)

Opportunities for practice using appropriate facilitation behavior and language should

be provided throughout training. In each case, the Trainees need to prepare for their

roles, have an observer, and receive feedback so that they are learning and improving

with each experience.

As they are able, Trainees should practice in the language of the host culture.

Some suggestions for opportunities include:

1. In the classroom setting:

• Weekly Trainee evaluation and recommendations during training.

• Language staff or other trainers discussing site, making group decisions.

2. With their host families:

• Group discussions about culturally appropriate topics, such as the meaning

and celebration of holidays.

3. During site visits:

• Group discussion with school children about important things in their lives,

at school, etc.

References

1. Nonformal Education Manual, pages 65-71, [ICE – M0042].

2. How to Make Meetings Work, pages 88-124, [ICE – CD021].

Notes

T

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Booklet #4

Facilitation

Facilitation of a group discussion is a technique that encourages the group to express and

discuss their own ideas. The group is the reservoir of knowledge and creativity; the facilitator

“serves” the group by building trust, remaining neutral, and not evaluating or contributing

her or his own ideas. The role of the facilitator is to encourage the discussion, help clarify

when necessary, and assist the group in summarizing their ideas. The facilitator is concerned

about the process—what is going on in the group; he or she does not control the content.

Facilitation requires skills in asking questions, paraphrasing, and summarizing. It also

demands careful attention to what is happening in the group. The facilitator may need to

encourage quiet people, move the conversation away from dominant persons, and deal with

disruptive persons.

There is not a prescription for good facilitation. There are rules and descriptions. Skills can

be learned and practiced. Then each situation depends on the facilitator’s personality, the

situation, and the nature of the people in the group.

The group should do 95 percent of the talking. Facilitators need to be aware of how much they

talk. They should not be dominating the conversation, or be a focal point of the conversation.

The diagrams below show the difference between controlling and facilitating a conversation.

Facilitators need to tolerate silence. Silence can mean various things: lack of understanding

of a question or of the process, confusion, thinking or reflecting, or needing time to translate

ideas and language.

Facilitators need to encourage participation by all group members.

“In community gatherings the ‘expectation theory’ often sabotages

participation. That is, the poor and uneducated go to meetings with

the expectation that the professionals (teachers, principals, city planners, government officials) and other well-educated people will naturally display their verbal prowess and dominate the meeting. Likewise, the latter will expect the minority group to be passive and listen.

Handout

Facilitation Handout (Page 1 of 3)

Leader Facilitator
34

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It becomes a self-fulling prophecy. The same can happen when people

from different levels of a hierarchical organization get together.

“Skillful facilitation can greatly broaden the participation in these

situations. As the process guide, you [the facilitator] can hold back the

highly verbal and aggressive people while you encourage responses

from the rest. At first, it’s like pulling teeth, but after a while people

will feel more at ease and less shy. What’s more important, as their

self-confidence increases, people get used to the reality of participating. Then they begin to expect and demand it.”

from How to Make Meetings Work, pages 101-102.

Facilitators need to consider how the group views them. Often, non-verbal behaviors—such

as nodding the head negatively, or gesturing toward a point one supports—shows the group

the facilitator’s point of view, or what he or she expects from the group.

Specific verbal skills that facilitators need are the following:

1. Question asking

Facilitators use questions to help group members bring out relevant information,

clarify points of view, summarize information, and draw conclusions. These types of

questions are particularly useful:

Open ended: Can you give some examples of .... ?

Probing: Will you explain a little more about that?

Moving to other participants: Who has other ideas about this?

Encouraging other views: Can anyone provide another point of view about this?

Summarizing: Will someone summarize the points presented so far?

2. Paraphrasing

By paraphrasing, the facilitator demonstrates that she or he understands what

participants have said and may clarify issues. The process of paraphrasing is much

like catching a ball and throwing it back. It requires very careful listening.

Paraphrase starters:

What I heard you say was.... Is that correct?

I think you said that.... Is that right?

It seems to me your point of view is.... Is that stated accurately?

You differ from (Mary) in that you think.... Is that right?

Facilitation Handout (Page 2 of 3)

Handout
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Booklet #4

3. Summarizing

The purpose of summarizing is to:

• pull important ideas, facts, or information together;

• establish a basis for further discussion or make a transition;

• review progress; or

• check for clarity or agreement.

Summarizing requires careful listening as it requires organization and systematic

reporting back of information expressed. Summarized information ensures that

everyone is clear about what transpired in that portion of the discussion. Wherever

possible, encourage someone in the group to do the summarizing.

Starter phrases for summaries:

If I understand, you feel this way about the situation.

There seem to be the following points of view about this.

We seem to have presented the following issues so far.

I think we agree on this decision: what we are saying is that we...

Facilitation Handout (Page 3 of 3)

Handout
36

peace corps Handout

Key Steps in Facilitating a Group

Arrival of group

(Build rapport)

Introductions

(Demonstration of respect)

Facilitation of Discussion

Summarizing

Closure

Key Steps in Facilitating a Group Handout (Page 1 of 1)
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Booklet #4

Facilitation Observation Guide

Facilitator:

Observer:

I. Arrival

Has seating in circular or other informal configuration.

Greets people as they enter; develops rapport.

II. Introduction

Formally greets group, thanks them for coming.

Introduces self.

Explains purpose of meeting.

Has participants introduce themselves.

III. Discussion

Reinforces that group has knowledge and he or she is there to help them.

Begins discussion with opening question or statement.

Uses open, probing, redirecting questions. (List specific examples.)

(continued)

Handout

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Paraphrases. (List specific examples.)

Encourages quiet members. (List specific examples.)

Controls dominant members in culturally appropriate ways.

(List examples.)

Handles other difficult participants while maintaining their self-esteem.

(List examples.)

IV. Pulls discussion to close

Summarizes, or has participants summarize.

Asks participants the value of what was done.

V. Closure

Indicates next meeting time and date, or next steps.

Thanks participants.

Modified from Promoting Powerful People,

Peace Corps, USAID, and the Academy for Educational Development.

Handout

Facilitation Observation Guide Handout (Page 2 of 2)
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Handout Booklet #4

Working with Difficult

Group Members

Ideally, in a discussion all group members participate equally. Rarely does the ideal happen.

The term “difficult” is used to indicate group members that either do not participate or have

disruptive or controlling behaviors. It is the facilitator’s role to encourage active and equal

participation, working to keep disruptive or controlling behaviors in check so that they do

not prevent the group from completing its task(s).

Below are some general guidelines for facilitators to keep in mind as they encounter difficult

participants:

1. Keep in mind the goal:

• To eliminate or minimize the behavior so that it does not continue to disrupt the

group process or isolate some members from participating.

2. Diagnose accurately: take time to think through

• What is the ‘problem’ behavior?

• Why is it happening?

3. Wait to respond.

• Give yourself time to assess the situation carefully.

• Give the person a chance to change his or her behavior.

• Give the group a chance to control the behavior themselves.

4. Care about everyone in the group.

• Everyone has needs and should be respected.

• Try to address all group members according to what they need.

• Maintain the self-esteem of the person causing the problem by intervening

carefully and appropriately.

5. Take appropriate action and follow-up:

• Identify possible alternatives.

• Select best alternative to minimize disruption while maintaining everyone’s selfesteem.

See the following page for descriptions of behaviors and potential actions to alleviate

problems.

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Possible Reasons Possible action

of Facilitator

Type of Behavior

Domineering

Controlling

Argumentative

Uncooperative

Silent

Side conversationalists

Eager

Well-informed

Formal or informal leader

in community

Combative personality

Hidden agenda

Personally upset by some

other situation

Threatened

Forced participation

Timid, insecure

Never given a voice (due to

age, gender, social class,

ethnic group)

Thinking about content

Insecure about language or

needing to translate

Uninterested

Angry, hostile

Need to clarify, maybe

through translation

Not interested in discussion

Culturally appropriate

Keep silent; let group

respond

Recognize contribution

and redirect to someone

else

Avoid looking directly at

person

Establish a procedure

whereby everyone

contributes one idea

before group discusses

Ask person to summarize

ideas so others can

contribute

Find areas of agreement

Direct conversation away

from person

Let group handle him or

her

Set and reinforce rule that

all ideas are acceptable

Encourage with eye

contact or invitation to

speak

Speak to privately to find

what thinking or feeling

Use ice breakers to make

environment more

comfortable

Direct questions to this

person when he or she

has particular expertise

or shows non-verbal

willingness to speak

Set guidelines at beginning of meeting

Stop meeting and say

everyone needs to hear

everything

Address needs for translation beforehand

Make sure points are

clarified throughout

discussion

Handout

Working with Difficult Group Members Handout (Page 2 of 2)