1((+%'1(#22.+'&567&+'5

Substance Use and Mental Health Characteristics by

Employment Status

&'2#46/'061(*'#.6*#0&*7/#05'48+%'5

5WDUVCPEG#DWUGCPF/GPVCN*GCNVJ5GTXKEGU#FOKPKUVTCVKQP
ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This publication was developed for the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services

Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied Studies (OAS), by the National Opinion Research

Center (NORC), under Contract No. 283-95-0002. Dean Gerstein, Ph.D. was the principal

investigator and Janet Greenblatt was the OAS project officer. The authors were Tara N.

Townsend, Ph.D., Julie D. Lane, Ph.D., Carolyn S. Dewa, Ph.D., Angela M. Brittingham, M.A.,

and Michael Pergamit, Ph.D.

PUBLIC DOMAIN NOTICE

All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied

without permission from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 

Citation of the source is appreciated.

OBTAINING ADDITIONAL COPIES OF PUBLICATIONS

Copies may be obtained, free of charge, from the National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug

Information (NCADI). NCADI is a service of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services

Administration (SAMHSA). Write or call NCADI at:

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information (NCADI)

P.O. Box 2345

Rockville, MD 20847-2345

(301) 468-2600 1-800-729-6686 1-800-487-4889 (TDD)

ELECTRONIC ACCESS TO PUBLICATION

This publication can be accessed electronically through the Internet Worldwide Web connections

listed below:

http://www.samhsa.gov

http://www.health.org

ORIGINATING OFFICE:

SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies

5600 Fishers Lane, Room 16-105

Rockville, MD 20857

June 1999
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

HIGHLIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTERS

1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................3

Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Overview of the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. METHODOLOGY ......................................................7

Summary of NHSDA Methodology .........................................7

Weighting Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Measurement of Employment Status .........................................9

Measurement of Substance Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Other Mental Health Diagnoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Measurement of Other Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Statistical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Limitations of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3. SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH CHARACTERISTICS BY

EMPLOYMENT STATUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Lifetime Substance Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Past-Year Substance Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Past-Month Substance Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Binge and Heavy Drinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Substance Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Other Mental Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4. SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH CHARACTERISTICS OF

AFDC RECIPIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Substance Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Binge and Heavy Drinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Substance Dependence and Other Mental Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
iv

5. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

APPENDICES

A. DEMOGRAPHIC AND INCOME CHARACTERISTICS BY EMPLOYMENT

STATUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

B. STANDARD ERROR TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 DSM-IV Criteria for Substance Dependence and the Corresponding

NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Represent Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 2.2 NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Screen for Probable Mental Health

Diagnoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Table 3.1a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year,

and Past-Month Substance Use by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . 29

Table 3.1b Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 Reporting

Lifetime, Past-Year, and Past-Month Substance Use by Category

(Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Table 3.2a Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and

Number of Days Had Five or More Drinks on the Same Occasion and

Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and Heavy Drinking for

Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 by Employment Status (Weighted),

1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Table 3.2b Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and

Number of Days Had Five or More Drinks on the Same Occasion and

Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and Heavy Drinking for Not in

Labor Force Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 by Category (Weighted),

1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table 3.3a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 with a Substance Dependence by

Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Table 3.3b Percentage of Past-Month Heavy Drinkers Age 18-64 with a Substance

Dependence by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Table 3.4 Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional

Distribution of Total Population Age 18-64 with and without a Substance

Dependence by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Table 3.5 Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women

Supporting a Family, who Received Supplementary Security Income (SSI)

and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a

Household that Received Food Stamps for Total Population Age 18-64 with

and without a Substance Dependence by Employment Status (Weighted),
vi

1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Table 3.6a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 with Probable Mental Health

Diagnoses by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Table 3.6b Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 with Probable

Mental Health Diagnoses by Category (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Table 4.1 Percentage of Population Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC) Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and PastMonth Substance Use by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . 41

Table 4.2 Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, PastYear, and Past-Month Substance Use who Received Aid to Families

with Dependent Children (AFDC) by Employment Status (Weighted),

1994-96, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Table 4.3 Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and

Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and Heavy Drinking for

Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC) by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . 43

Table 4.4 Percentage of Population Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC) with a Substance Dependence and Probable

Mental Health Diagnoses by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . 44

Table A.1a Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional

Distribution of Total Population Age 18-64 (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Table A.1b Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional

Distribution of Total Population Age 18-64 by Employment Status

(Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Table A.1c Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of

Total Population Age 18-64 by Gender within Employment Status

(Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Table A.1d Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution

of Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 by Category (Weighted),

1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Table A.2a Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single

Women Supporting a Family, who Received Supplementary Security
vii

Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and

who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total Population

Age 18-64 (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Table A.2b Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single

Women Supporting a Family, who Received Supplementary Security

Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and

who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total Population

Age 18-64 by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Table A.2c Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single

Women Supporting a Family, who Received Supplementary Security

Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and

who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total Population

Age 18-64 by Gender within Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . 58

Table A.2d Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single

Women Supporting a Family, who Received Supplementary Security

Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and

who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Not in Labor

Force Population Age 18-64 by Category (Weighted), 1994-96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Percent Distribution and Estimated Number of Working-Age Population by

Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Figure 2.2 Percent Distribution and Estimated Number of Not in Labor Force

Population by Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Figure 3.1 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in their

Lifetime by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Figure 3.2 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in the

Past Year by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Figure 3.3 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in the

Past Month by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Figure 3.4 Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank for

Working-Age Past-Month Alcohol Users by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Figure 3.5 Percentage of Working-Age Past-Month Alcohol Users Reporting PastMonth Binge and Heavy Drinking by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Figure 3.6 Percentage of Working-Age Population with a Substance Dependence

by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 3.7 Education Distribution of the Working-Age Population with and without a

Substance Dependence by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Figure 3.8 Percentage of Working-Age Population with Probable Mental Health 

Diagnoses by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Figure 4.1 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in their

Lifetime by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 4.2 Percentage of Working-Age AFDC Recipients Reporting Substance Use

in the Past Year by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Figure 4.3 Percentage of Working-Age AFDC Recipients Reporting Alcohol Use in

the Past Month by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Figure 4.4 Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Reporting Substance Use
ix

who Received AFDC by Substance Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Figure 4.5 Percentage of Working-Age Past-Month Alcohol Users Reporting

Past-Month Binge Drinking by Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1

HIGHLIGHTS

This report uses data from the combined 1994-96 National Household Survey on Drug

Abuse (NHSDA) to examine the prevalence of alcohol and illicit drug use/dependence and other

mental health concerns among the working-age United States population. The presented data are

derived from 38,501 NHSDA respondents, age 18-64, representing over 157 million people. 

Nearly three-quarters of this population (74%), representing approximately 117 million people,

had either full-time or part-time employment. The remainder were either unemployed (5% or

about 8.1 million people) or not in the labor force (i.e., full-time homemakers, non-working

students, retired, or disabled; 21% or about 32.5 million people). In addition to a detailed

comparison of the demographic, economic, substance use and mental health characteristics of the

working-age population by employment status, this report also provides an examination of the

prevalence of substance use/dependence and other mental health concerns of individuals who

received public assistance or welfare, specifically Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC). The principal findings from analysis of these data include the following:

• The unemployed and those not in the labor force were generally less educated (more than one

quarter had not graduated from high school compared to 12% of full-time workers and 15%

of part-time workers), had lower annual household incomes (more than 40% had annual

family incomes of less than $20,000 compared to 14% of full-time workers and 29% of parttime workers), and were more likely to receive government assistance (e.g, 26% of the

unemployed and 18% of those not in the labor force received food stamps compared to 4% of

full-time workers and 9% of part-time workers).

Substance Use

• The unemployed were the most likely to report lifetime, past-year, and past-month illicit drug

use. For example, 13 percent of the unemployed reported past-year illicit drug use, whereas 7

percent of part-time workers and 5 percent of full-time workers and those not in the labor

force reported illicit drug use in the past year.

• Full-time workers were more likely than part-time workers, the unemployed, and those not in

the labor force to report lifetime, past-year, and past-month alcohol use.

 

• Among current alcohol users, however, the unemployed generally consumed larger quantities

of alcohol than those employed full-time. Among past-month alcohol users, the unemployed

reported higher rates of binge drinking (46%) and heavy drinking (19%) than full-time

workers (35%, 12%, respectively), part-time workers (29%, 11%), and those not in the labor

force (30%, 12%). Rates of binge drinking and heavy drinking were high among two subsets

of the not in the labor force population--non-working students (50%, 22%) and the disabled

(40%, 26%).

Substance Dependence
2

• Consistent with the finding of a higher prevalence of illicit drug use for the unemployed, the

prevalence of illicit drug dependence was also higher for the unemployed (5%) than for fulltime workers (1%), part-time workers (2%), and those not in the labor force (2%).

• Consistent with the finding of a higher prevalence of binge and heavy drinking among the

unemployed, the unemployed had a higher prevalence of alcohol dependence (8%) than did

full-time workers (5%), part-time workers (5%), and those not in the labor force (3%).

• In all employment categories, there was a higher prevalence of substance dependence (34%

with alcohol dependence, and 9% with illicit drug dependence) among those who reported

past-month heavy drinking.

Other Mental Health Concerns

• The unemployed and those not in the labor force were more likely than those employed fulltime or part-time to report mental health symptoms consistent with probable diagnoses for a

major depressive episode, a general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic attacks. 

• In particular, the unemployed and those not in the labor force were substantially more likely

to report a major depressive episode in the past year (11% in each group) than full-time

workers (6%) and part-time workers (8%). Among those not in the labor force this syndrome

was particularly common for the disabled (22%).

AFDC Recipients

• There was a higher prevalence of illicit drug use, excluding marijuana use, among AFDC

recipients age 18 to 64 (28% lifetime, 9% past-year, 5% past-month) than the overall

working-age population (23% lifetime, 6% past-year, 3% past-month).

• By contrast, AFDC recipients, compared to the overall working-age population, did not have

a higher prevalence of past-month alcohol use (54% vs. 64% for full-time workers, 59% vs.

59% for part-time workers, 53% vs. 60% for the unemployed, and 40% vs. 43% for those not

in the labor force).

• AFDC recipients not in the labor force were more likely than non-AFDC recipients not in the

labor force to report having 2 or more drinks per day on the days they drank (79% vs. 59%).

• There was a high prevalence of substance dependence (8%) and other mental health

diagnoses (24%) among AFDC recipients compared to the overall working-age population

(5%, 11%, respectively).
3

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The relationship between substance abuse and labor market participation is an issue with

important policy implications, particularly in the areas of workplace drug policies and programs,

welfare reform, and substance abuse treatment. Data from the National Household Survey on

Drug Abuse (NHSDA) and other surveys, such as the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth

(NLSY), have consistently revealed differences in the rates of substance use among respondents

in different employment categories. The most prominent finding is that the unemployed

generally have higher rates of illicit drug and alcohol use than people in other employment

categories (Hoffman, Brittingham, & Larison, 1996; Office of Applied Studies, 1998a).

As presented in the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Statistics Source Book 1998,

NHSDA data from 1985-1993 show a slight decline in past-month heavy alcohol use by full-time

workers age 18-49. During the same period, there was an increase in past-month heavy alcohol

use among the unemployed. In 1996, 12.5 percent of unemployed adults age 18 and older were

current illicit drug users; 6.2 percent of full-time workers were current illicit drug users. Those

not in the labor force have consistently lower prevalence of past-month illicit drug and heavy

alcohol use (Office of Applied Studies, 1998b).

Many other studies have also found a relationship between employment status and

substance abuse. For example, levels of alcohol consumption have been linked with the stress

caused by unemployment (Perrucci & Perrucci, 1990). In another study, data collected from two

inner-city communities indicated that those who were not working (i.e., either out of the labor

force or unemployed) generally had higher rates of illicit drug use and considerably higher rates

of hard illicit drug use (Harrell & Peterson, 1992). This report further explores the prevalence

and patterns of alcohol and illicit drug use among the U.S. population age 18-64 by employment

status. The data presented in this report are taken from the combined 1994-96 National

Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA).

Statement of the Problem

Even though studies suggest that there is a higher prevalence of alcohol and drug use

among those who are not working, drug use among the employed is also an important public

health concern. A study conducted by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and the

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) found that in 1992 alcohol and

drug abuse cost the economy an estimated $245.7 billion. In particular, alcohol and drug abuse

had a profoundly negative effect on the workplace in terms of decreased productivity, increased

accidents, absenteeism, job turnover, and medical costs (Harwood, Fountain, Livermore et al.,

1998).
4

As measured by the SmithKline Beecham Drug Testing Index, the percentage of positive

drug tests among workers has declined from 18.1 percent in 1987 to 5.8 percent in 1996. 

Marijuana and cocaine are the most frequently detected drugs among those tested in the total

U.S. workforce. Since 1993, about 3.5 percent of drug tests conducted have tested positive for

marijuana. There has been a decline in the percentage of drug tests conducted that test positive

for cocaine from 2.4 percent in 1993 to 1.2 percent in 1996. In addition, even though the safetysensitive transportation workforce has had a lower rate of positive drug tests than the rest of the

workforce, since 1993, two to three percent of periodic and random drug tests conducted in the

transportation workforce have been positive (Office of Applied Studies, 1998b).

A study on workplace drug use, policies, and programs which used data from the 1991-93

NHSDA found that full-time workers age 18-49 with current illicit drug use (i.e., in the past 30

days) lacked job stability. These workers were more likely than full-time workers who did not

use illicit drugs to have worked for three or more employers in the past year, to have taken

unexcused absences in the past month, to have voluntarily left an employer in the past year, and

to have been fired in the past year. The study also reported similar findings for heavy alcohol

users (Hoffmann, Brittingham, & Larison, 1996).

Drug use among the unemployed is a major public health concern with important

implications for welfare reform. Studies have shown that substance abuse is a substantial barrier

to economic self-sufficiency with deleterious effects for welfare recipients (Gerstein, Johnson,

Larison, Harwood, & Fountain, 1997). A study of the prevalence of alcoholism and drug abuse

among female Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) recipients in a welfare-to-work

program in Maryland revealed that 16.1 percent were alcoholics or drug abusers. An additional

26.8 percent were possible alcoholics and drug users (Sisco & Pearson, 1994). Data from the

1992 National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey (NLAES) revealed that while welfare

recipients had similar prevalence rates of alcohol abuse and dependence as the total population,

there was a higher prevalence of drug use and dependence among welfare recipients (Grant &

Dawson, 1996).

A study of data from the combined 1991-92 NHSDA also found that AFDC recipients

had a higher prevalence of substance abuse related impairments than individuals not receiving

AFDC. Approximately five percent of female AFDC recipients had significant functional

impairment related to substance abuse (i.e., alcohol and/or drug dependence), and an additional

11 percent of female AFDC recipients were somewhat impaired by substance abuse problems

(i.e., used alcohol and/or drugs on a weekly basis). The study points out that these levels of

impairment would significantly affect participation in proposed education and job training

programs for welfare recipients (Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation,

1994).
5

This report further examines the relationship between substance use and employment

status. Additionally, this report examines mental health characteristics by employment status and

the interaction between mental health issues and substance use. Finally, this report measures the

prevalence of substance use and dependence among individuals who receive public assistance or

welfare, specifically Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).

Overview of the Report

This report highlights statistically significant findings from the analysis of data from the

combined 1994-96 NHSDA. The goal of this report is to describe the substance use and mental

health characteristics of individuals age 18-64 by employment status, as well those individuals

receiving AFDC. Employment status is defined as: full-time employment (i.e., employed 35

hours or more a week), part-time employment (i.e., employed less than 35 hours a week),

unemployed (i.e., currently not working), or not in the labor force (i.e., full-time homemaker,

non-working student, retired, or disabled). Chapter 2 of this report describes the methodology

used in the analysis of the NHSDA data. Chapter 3 summarizes the substance use patterns and

mental health characteristics of the population by employment status. Chapter 4 presents

comparable information on the subgroup of NHSDA respondents who were AFDC recipients. 

The final chapter summarizes the findings of this report and discusses the relationship among

drug abuse patterns, employment status, and public assistance in terms of welfare reform policy

and drug treatment and prevention. The appendices provide a brief summary of the demographic

characteristics of the population by employment status and standard errors for all estimates

presented in this report which can be used to conduct further analysis of the data presented.
6

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the statistical methodology used in the collection and analysis of

the data presented in this report.

Summary of NHSDA Methodology

The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) is the principal source of

statistical information on the use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs in the United States. 

Conducted by the Federal Government since 1971, the NHSDA is administered to a

representative sample of the population age 12 and older at their place of residence. The

NHSDA has been directed by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services since October 1992. The

main goal of the survey is to estimate and monitor trends in the prevalence of substance use in

the United States. 

The sample for the NHSDA is selected so that the data may be used to make inferences

about the United States civilian, noninstitutionalized population age 12 and older. The NHSDA

sample consists of residents of households, persons living in non-institutional group quarters

(e.g., shelters, dormitories, rooming houses), and civilians living on military bases. The sample

excludes active military personnel, U.S. citizens living abroad, residents of institutional settings

(e.g., prisons and hospitals), and homeless persons not living in a shelter at the time of the

survey.

The NHSDA sample design is a multistage area probability sample. The basic design

involves five stages of sampling:

• The selection of primary sampling units (e.g., counties),

• The selection of subareas within selected primary sampling units (i.e., blocks or

block groups),

• The selection of listing units within selected subareas (i.e., housing units or

individual dwelling units within non-institutional group quarters occupied by one

or more civilians),

• The selection of age domains within sampled listing units (i.e., age groups 12-17,

18-25, 26-34, 35-49, and 50 and older), and

• The selection of eligible individuals within sampled age domains.
1 For additional information about the NHSDA sample design, see Office of Applied Studies (1996). 

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse Methodological Resource Book 1998. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department

of Health and Human Services.

7

The sampling design also incorporates a composite size measure methodology and a speciallydesigned within-dwelling selection procedure to ensure that desired sample sizes are achieved for

subpopulations defined by age and race/ethnicity. Oversampling is used to meet specified

precision constraints for subpopulations. For example, the 1994-96 NHSDA oversampled young

people age 12-34, African Americans, and Hispanics.1

The NHSDA interview takes approximately one hour to complete and incorporates

procedures designed to maximize truthful responses to potentially sensitive questions about illicit

drug use (e.g., the use of self-administered answer sheets). Data are collected on the recency and

frequency of use of various licit and illicit drugs, opinions about drugs, problems associated with

drug use, and drug treatment experiences. In addition to detailed information about substance

use, the NHSDA also collects basic demographic information on employment, race/ethnicity,

age, education, income, marital status, health status, mental health problems, health insurance,

utilization of health services, and access to health care.

Weighting Procedures

The estimates presented in this report are based on sample survey data, rather than data

for the entire population, and therefore must be weighted to obtain unbiased estimates of drug

use in the population represented by the NHSDA sample. The basic sampling weights are

equivalent to the inverse of the probabilities of selection of sample respondents. That is, the

smaller a respondent’s chance of entering the sample, the larger the weight of that respondent in

the calculation of unbiased estimates for the target population. The probability of selecting a

respondent is calculated as the product of the probabilities that the respondent would be selected

given each of the stages of sampling. The final sampling weights are created by adjusting the

basic sampling weights to reflect dwelling unit-level and individual-level nonresponse and to

ensure consistency with intercensal population projections obtained from the U.S. Bureau of the

Census. 

The final sampling weight can be interpreted as the number of persons in the NHSDA

target population that are represented by a particular respondent. The sum of weights for all

respondents estimates the size of the total target population. Given the near equivalence of

sample designs and sample sizes of the 1994, 1995, and 1996 surveys, the analytic weights for

the combined data set were calculated by dividing the final sampling weights for each year by

three.
8

All estimates presented in this report are weighted to account for the complex sampling

design of the NHSDA. Therefore, all estimates presented in this report are unbiased estimates

for the U.S. civilian population age 18-64 or for specified subgroups of that population.

Measurement of Employment Status

The following question was used to develop a measure of current employment status:

Which of these statements describes your present work situation:

• Working full-time, 35 hours or more a week

• Working part-time, less than 35 hours a week

• Have a job, but not at work because of extended illness, maternity leave, furlough, or strike

• Have a job but not at work because it is seasonal work

• Unemployed or laid off and not looking for work

• Full-time homemaker

• In School Only

• Retired

• Disabled for work

• Other (specify)?

Based on their responses to this question, respondents were classified into one of four

employment categories. Those respondents who selected the response option “working full-time,

35 hours or more a week” were classified as full-time workers. Those respondents who selected

the response option “working part-time, less than 35 hours a week” were classified as part-time

workers. All respondents who selected one of the following response options were classified as

unemployed: “have a job, but not at work because of extended illness, maternity leave, furlough,

or strike;” “have a job but not at work because it is seasonal work;” “unemployed or laid off and

not looking for work:” and “Other (in labor force).” Finally, those respondents who chose either

“full-time homemaker,” “in-school only,” “retired,” or “disabled for work” were classified as not

in the labor force.

The analysis in this report is limited to the 38,501 respondents age 18-64 from the 1994-

96 NHSDA who were classified in one of the four employment categories described above. 

These respondents represent more than 157 million working-age people. As indicated in Figure

2.2, nearly three-quarters of the surveyed population, representing approximately 117 million

people, reported that they were currently employed full-time or part-time. A reported five

percent of the surveyed population, representing approximately 8.1 million people, however,

were unemployed. About one out of five surveyed, or about 32.5 million people, was not in the

labor force.
9

Weighted Percentage Estimated Number (in 1000s)

Weighted Percentage Estimated Number (in 1000s)

As indicated in Figure 2.2, about half of the not in the labor force population were fulltime homemakers, representing about 16.5 million people. The remainder of those not in the

labor force were almost equally divided among non-working students, the retired, and the

disabled, with approximately five million people in each category.

Figure 2.1 Percent Distribution and Estimated Number of Working-Age Population by

Employment Status

See Table 3.1a

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA 1994-96.

Figure 2.2 Percent Distribution and Estimated Number of Not in Labor Force Population

by Category

See Table 3.1b

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.
10

Measurement of Substance Dependence

Substance dependence was determined using an algorithm developed by the Office of

Applied Studies (OAS), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA) based on a definition of substance dependence provided by the American Psychiatric

Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). 

The DSM-IV defines substance dependence as a maladaptive pattern of substance use

characterized by the concurrence of three or more of seven criteria for substance dependence

during a 12-month period. The 1994 NHSDA contains questions that approximate five of the

DSM-IV criteria and the 1995-96 NHSDA contain questions that approximate six of the DSMIV criteria. Respondents were classified as substance dependent for the 1994 NHSDA if they

met three of the five criteria measured. Respondents were classified as substance dependent in

the 1995-96 NHSDA if they met three of the six criteria measured. Table 2.1 shows the DSM-IV

criteria for substance dependence and the corresponding NHSDA questionnaire items that

represent them.

Other Mental Health Diagnoses

Mental health data are drawn from a module of the NHSDA questionnaire that contains a

series of questionnaire items designed to screen for the likely presence of four of the most

common mood and anxiety syndromes: major depressive episode, general anxiety disorder,

agoraphobia, and panic attacks. Even though the diagnostic questions presented in the NHSDA

do not detect the presence of a mental syndrome at the same level of certainty a complete

diagnostic interview would, they do discriminate with high probability whether with more

extensive examination a respondent would be diagnosed with a particular syndrome. Therefore,

if respondents have one or more of the mental health diagnoses, this indicates that their responses

to the relevant NHSDA screening questions indicate a high probability that they have the mental

syndrome. The NHSDA questionnaire items used in the determination of each of the mental

health diagnoses are outlined in Table 2.2.

Measurement of Other Variables

For the purpose of this analysis, never married, widowed, divorced, or separated women,

who live in a household with children (i.e., anyone younger than age 18) and no other person

designated head of household are classified as single women supporting a family.

There was no single questionnaire item that could be used to identify recipients of Aid to

Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). Therefore, the response patterns for the following

questions were examined in order to identify those respondents who were AFDC recipients:

• In the past 12 months, did you receive public assistance or welfare payments from the state

or local welfare office? Do not include SSI.
11

p

wI I

w I ds

i di si

i

i si

i

=

∑

∑ 100

• In the past 12 months, did any other family member living here receive public assistance or

welfare payments from the state or local welfare office? Do not include SSI.

• Did you or another family member living in your household receive Aid to Families with

Dependent Children, sometimes called AFDC or ADC, or was it some other type of

assistance payments in the past 12 months?

A crosstabulation of responses to these questions revealed that of the 3,940 individuals who

reported that either they or someone else in their household received AFDC, 3,035 also reported

that they received public assistance or welfare. The remaining 905 respondents reported that

another family member received public assistance or welfare payments. Based on this response

pattern, it can be concluded that 3,035 respondents, representing about five million people, were

AFDC recipients.

Statistical Testing

The estimates of substance use presented in this report for the NHSDA target population,

as well as subgroups of the target population, were calculated using the following formula:

where pds is the estimated percentage of respondents in “s” subgroup using substance “d”, wi

 is

the weight of sample respondent “i,” Isi is a variable coded “0” or “1” that takes on the value of

“1” if respondent “i” belongs to subgroup “s,” and Idi is a variable coded “0” or “1” that takes on

the value of “1” if respondent “i” reported using substance “d.” 

All of the estimates presented in this report were tested to determine whether they met a

required level of statistical precision. Low statistical precision typically occurs for small

subgroups of the population in which prevalence estimates are close to zero or 100 percent. An

estimate was considered “unreliable” if the relative standard error was greater than 17.5 percent

of the log transformation of the estimate. All estimates that were suppressed because of low

statistical precision are not discussed in the text and are indicated with an asterisk (*) in the data

tables.

Statistical tests were used to determine whether differences between estimates for various

subgroups were statistically significant. All findings reported in the text are significant at the .05
2 For a more detailed discussion of significance testing, see Appendix B.

12

level.2

 However, when two estimates are found to be significantly different it does not

necessarily imply that the difference is large or meaningful. Rather, statistical significance

means that one can conclude, with a small risk of error, that the two estimates would be found to

be different if the survey were replicated with different samples drawn from the same population,

using the same sampling procedures. That is, the differences cannot be attributed solely to

sampling error.

Limitations of the Data

Data from the NHSDA allow for the estimation of the national prevalence of substance

use among individuals in each employment category and among public assistance or welfare

recipients. However, the analyses presented in this report have several important limitations that

inhibit a complete understanding of the relationship among employment, AFDC receipt, and

substance use.

First, the data are self-reports of behavior, and their value depends on each respondent’s

truthfulness and memory. As stated earlier, however, the NHSDA incorporates administration

procedures that encourage honesty and recall. Nevertheless, some under-reporting and overreporting is very likely to have occurred. Second, the data are cross-sectional rather than

longitudinal. Therefore, the data provide an overview of behavioral prevalence at specific points

in time rather than a view of behavior changes over time for groups or individuals. Third, the

analyses presented in this report are purely descriptive, thus making causal inferences from the

observed relationships impossible. More complex analyses would allow for the effects of any

variables that could potentially confound the relationship of interest to be controlled.

A final potential limitation of these data is the manner in which employment status was

measured. In this report, employment status is defined in a manner that enables comparisons

with population estimates presented in the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse Main

Findings 1996 (Office of Applied Studies, 1997), as well as other reports summarizing NHSDA

data published through the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA). However, the definition of unemployment is not consistent with the definitions of

unemployment used in other national studies, such as the Current Population Survey (CPS). The

definition of unemployment used in the NHSDA encompasses more people than the definition

used in the CPS. This difference is primarily due to the distinction between active and passive

searches for work used in the CPS to distinguish the unemployed from those not in the labor

force. In the CPS, an individual must have engaged in specific employment-seeking activities

within the past month to be classified as unemployed, while in the NHSDA, a person only has to

report his or her present work situation as unemployed or laid off and looking for work to be
13

classified as unemployed. In addition, the following methodological differences between the

NHSDA and the CPS should be noted:

• The NHSDA estimates are for persons age 18 and older; the CPS estimates are for

persons age 16 and older.

• The NHSDA requests current employment status, essentially using no reference

period; the CPS uses a one-week reference period.

• The NHSDA is a continuing survey with separate samples allocated quarterly; the

CPS uses a monthly sample taken for the survey week which includes the 12th of

the month.
Table 2.1 DSM-IV Criteria for Substance Dependence and the Corresponding NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Rep

DSM-IV Criteria 1994-B NHSDA Questionnaire Items 1995-96 NHSDA Q

1. Tolerance, as defined by either of thefollowing:

(a) a need for markedly increased amounts of

the substance to achieve intoxication orthe desired effect

(b) markedly diminished effect with

continued use of the same amount of thesubstance.

Did you build up a tolerance for that drug so thatthe same amount of the drug had less effect thanbefore during the past 12 months?

Indicate whether you hafor the drug so that the aless effect than before dmonths.

2. Withdrawal, as manifested by either of thefollowing:

(a) the characteristic withdrawal syndrome

for the substance (refer to Criteria A andB of the criteria sets for Withdrawal forthe specific substances)

(b) the same (or closely related) substance is

taken to relieve or avoid withdrawalsymptoms.

3. The substance is often taken in larger amountsor over a longer period than was intended.

Did you use that kind of drug much more oftenor in larger amounts than you intended to duringthe past 12 months?

Indicate whether you hadrug much more often oyou intended to during t
Table 2.1 DSM-IV Criteria for Substance Dependence and the Corresponding NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Rep

DSM-IV Criteria 1994-B NHSDA Questionnaire Items 1995-96 NHSDA Q

4. There is a persistent desire or unsuccessfulefforts to cut down or control substance use.

In Column A mark the “Yes” box on the right ifyou wanted to cut down or stop using the drugin the past 12 months. Mark the “No” box onthe right if you did not want to cut down or stopusing that drug in the past 12 months. For each“Yes” box in Column A, indicate in Column Bif you were able to cut down or stop your use ofthat drug every time you wanted to in the past12 months. Mark the “Yes” box in Column B ifyou were able to cut down or stop your use ofthat drug every time you wanted to during thepast 12 months. Mark the “No” box if you wereunable to cut down or stop your use of that drugevery time you wanted to.

Indicate whether, during you have wanted or trieyour use of that drug bu

5. A great deal of time is spent in activitiesnecessary to obtain the substance (e.g., visitingmultiple doctors or driving long distances), usethe substance (e.g., chain smoking), or recoverfrom its effects.

Did you have a period of a month or moreduring the past 12 months when you spent agreat deal of time getting the drug, using thedrug, or getting over its effects?

Indicate whether you hamore during the past 12 a great deal of time gettdrug, or getting over its 

6. Important social, occupational, or recreationalactivities are given up or reduced because ofsubstance use.

Indicate whether your ukept you from working, care of children, or engaactivities during the pas
Table 2.1 DSM-IV Criteria for Substance Dependence and the Corresponding NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Rep

DSM-IV Criteria 1994-B NHSDA Questionnaire Items 1995-96 NHSDA Q

7. The substance use is continued despiteknowledge of having persistent or recurrentphysical or psychological problem that is likelyto have been caused or exacerbated by thesubstance (e.g., current cocaine use despiterecognition of cocaine-induced depression, orcontinued drinking despite recognition that anulcer was made worse by alcohol consumption).

a. Indicate whether yo

caused you any healiver disease, stomafeet tingling, numban accidental overdseizure or fit, hepatthe past 12 months.

b. Indicate whether yo

caused you to have psychological probuninterested in thinfeeling suspicious oparanoid, or having past 12 months.
17

Table 2.2 NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Screen for Probable Mental Health Diagnoses

Mental Health Syndrome NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Screen for Probable Diagnosis

Major Depressive Episode (a) During the past 12 months, was there ever a time when you felt sad, blue, or

depressed for two weeks or more in a row?

(b) During that time did the feeling of being sad, blue, or depressed usually last

all day long, about half the day, or less than half the day?

(c) Did you feel this way every day, almost every day, or less often during those

two weeks?

(d) During those two weeks did you lose interest in most things?

(e) Did you feel tired out or low on energy all the time?

(f) Did you gain/lose weight? About how much did you gain/lose?

(g) Did [you have more trouble falling asleep than you usually do] every night,

nearly every night, or less often during those two weeks?

(h) Did you have a lot more trouble concentrating than usual?

(i) At these times, people sometimes feel down on themselves, no good, or

worthless. Did you feel this way?

(j) Did you think a lot about death, either your own, someone else’s, or death in

general?

(k) During the past 12 months, was there ever a time lasting two weeks or more

when you lost interest in most things like hobbies, work, or activities that

usually gave you pleasure?

(l) During those two weeks, did you feel tired out, or low on energy all the time?

(m) During those two weeks, did you gain/lose weight? About how much did you

gain/lose?

(n) Did [you have more trouble falling asleep than you usually do] every night,

nearly every night, or less often during those two weeks?

(o) During those two weeks, did you have a lot more trouble concentrating than

usual?

(p) At these times, people sometimes feel down on themselves, no good, or

worthless. Did you feel this way?

(q) During those two weeks, did you think a lot about death, either your own,

someone else’s, or death in general?

General Anxiety Disorder (a) During the past 12 months, did you ever have a period lasting one month or

longer when most of the time you felt worried or anxious?

(b) Has that period ended or is it still going?

(c) How many months or years did it go on before it ended?

(d) During that period, did you worry about things that were not likely to

happen?

(e) Did you worry about things that were not really serious?

(f) During this period of worry or anxiety, did you have different worries on you

mind at the same time?

(g) How many months or years has it been going on?

(h) Do you worry about things that are not likely to happen?

(i) Do you worry a great deal about things that are not really serious?

(j) Do you have different worries on your mind at the same time?

(k) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (are/were) you also restless?
18

Table 2.2 NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Screen for Probable Mental Health Diagnoses (continued)

Mental Health Syndrome NHSDA Questionnaire Items Used to Screen for Probable Diagnosis

General Anxiety Disorder

(continued)

(l) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (are/were) you also keyed up or on

edge?

(m) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (are/were) you also irritable?

(n) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (does/did) your heart pound or

race?

(o) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (are/were) you also easily tired?

(p) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (do/did) you have trouble falling

asleep?

(q) When you (are/were) worried or anxious, (do/did) you feel faint or unreal?

Agoraphobia (a) During the past 12 months, did you have an unreasonably strong fear of

being in a public place, or a crowd or line?

(b) During the past 12 months, did you have an unreasonably strong fear of

leaving home or being away from home?

(c) During the past 12 months, did you have an unreasonably strong fear of

crossing bridges?

(d) Do you get very upset or badly frightened every time you are in (this/these)

situation(s), most of the time, or only some of the time?

(e) How long have you had (this/these) fear(s) % less than 1 year, between 1 and

5 years, or more than 5 years?

(f) About how many months have you had (this/these) fear(s)?

(g) When you are in (this/these) situation(s), are you afraid that you might faint,

lose control, or embarrass yourself in other ways?

(h) When you are in (this/these) situation(s), do you worry that you might be

trapped without any way to escape?

(i) When you are in (this/these) situation(s), do you worry that help might not be

available if you needed it?

Panic Attack (a) During the past 12 months, did you have a spell or an attack when all of a

sudden you felt frightened, anxious, or very uneasy when most people would

not be afraid or anxious?

(b) During the past 12 months, did you ever have a spell or attack when for no

reason your heart suddenly began to race, you felt faint, or you couldn’t catch

your breath?

(c) Did (this attack/these attacks) happen in a situation when you were not in

danger or not the center of attention?

(d) When you have attacks of the sort you just described, do they usually occur

in situations that cause you unreasonably strong fears?

(e) Did you ever have an attack in the past 12 months when you were not in a

situation that usually causes you to have unreasonably strong fears?

(f) When you have attacks, does you heart pound?

(g) When you have attacks, do you have tightness in your stomach?

(h) When you have attacks, do you sweat?

(i) When you have attacks, do you shake?

(j) When you have attacks, do you have hot flashes/chills?

(k) When you have attacks, do things seem unreal?
19

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

CHAPTER 3: SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH

CHARACTERISTICS BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS

This chapter provides data on the prevalence of substance use and substance dependence

and other mental health concerns among the working-age population by employment status. 

Substance use prevalence is measured by reported lifetime, past-year, and past-month use of

alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit drugs, including cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens,

inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives. More

detailed data about level of past-month alcohol use are also provided. As described in Chapter 2,

substance dependence is determined using definitions provided in the DSM-IV and the presence

of other mental health syndromes are determined from a series of questions designed to screen

for probable diagnoses of mood and anxiety syndromes.

Lifetime Substance Use

As indicated in Figure 3.1, the unemployed were the most likely to report drug use at

some point in their lifetime, while full-time workers were the most likely to report that they had

used alcohol on at least one occasion. By contrast, the not in the labor force population was

substantially less likely than the other groups to report that they had ever used any of the

substances examined (See Table 3.1a).

Figure 3.1 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in their

Lifetime by Employment Status
20

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Among those not in the labor force, the retired were the most likely to report that they had

used alcohol on at least one occasion in their lifetime (92%), while non-working students and the

disabled were more likely than full-time homemakers to report that had ever used marijuana or

other illicit drugs. Full-time homemakers were generally the least likely to report that they had

ever used any of these substances (See Table 3.1b). 

Past-Year Substance Use

The prevalence pattern for substance use during the past year was similar to that of

lifetime substance use. As indicated in Figure 3.2, the unemployed were the most likely to report

past-year use of marijuana or other illicit drugs and full-time workers were the most likely to

report that they had used alcohol on at least one occasion during the past year. By contrast, the

not in the labor force population was the least likely to report past-year alcohol or marijuana use

(See Table 3.1a).

Figure 3.2 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in the Past

Year by Employment Status

Also similar to the findings for lifetime substance use, within the not in the labor force

population, the retired were more likely than full-time homemakers and the disabled to report

that they had used alcohol on at least one occasion in the past year. However, non-working

students were just as likely as the retired to report past-year alcohol. Non-working students were
21

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

also substantially more likely than full-time homemakers and the disabled to report that they had

used marijuana or other illicit drugs during the past year (See Table 3.1b).

Past-Month Substance Use

The findings for past-month substance use, which is used as an indicator of current

substance use, are also similar to those for lifetime and past-year substance use. As shown in

Figure 3.3, the unemployed were the most likely to report current use of marijuana or other illicit

drugs; in fact, the unemployed were about three times as likely as full-time workers and those not

in the labor force to report past-month use of illicit drugs other than marijuana. Full-time

workers were the most likely to report current alcohol use, while those not in the labor force were

the least likely to report current use of alcohol or marijuana (See Table 3.1a). Within the not in

the labor force population, non-working students and the retired were more likely than full-time

homemakers and the disabled to report current alcohol use; while non-working students were

more likely than the disabled and full-time homemakers to report current marijuana use (See

Table 3.1b).

Figure 3.3 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in the Past

Month by Employment Status

Binge and Heavy Drinking

Even though full-time workers were the most likely to report current alcohol use, among

current alcohol users, the unemployed usually consumed more alcohol. As indicated in Figure

3.4, unemployed current alcohol users were the most likely to report that on the days that they
22

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

drank during the past month, they usually had at least five drinks. In addition, even though the

not in the labor force population was the least likely to report current alcohol use, among current

alcohol users, those not in the labor force were also more likely than full-time workers to have

usually consumed at least five drinks on those days that they drank (18% and 15%, respectively;

See Table 3.2a). Within the not in the labor force population, non-working students and the

disabled who were current alcohol users were nearly three times as likely as full-time

homemakers who were current alcohol users to have usually consumed at least five drinks on the

days they drank (See Table 3.2b).

Figure 3.4 Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank for WorkingAge Past-Month Alcohol Users by Employment Status

Binge drinking is defined as consuming five or more drinks on one occasion. Heavy drinking is

defined as binge drinking on five or more days in a 30-day period. As indicated in Figure 3.5,

almost half of the current alcohol users who were unemployed (46%) reported binge drinking

during the past month. The unemployed were the most likely to report binge drinking on more

than one day in the past month (See Table 3.2a); nearly one out of five of the unemployed (19%)

reported heavy drinking during the past month. 

Even though current alcohol users who were not in the labor force usually consumed

more alcohol than those employed full-time, full-time workers were more likely than those not in
23

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

the labor force to report past-month binge drinking. As shown in Table 3.2b, among those not in

the labor force, non-working students and the disabled were more likely than full-time

homemakers to report past-month binge and heavy drinking.

Figure 3.5 Percentage of Working-Age Past-Month Alcohol Users Reporting Past-Month

Binge and Heavy Drinking by Employment Status

Substance Dependence

As indicated in Figure 3.6, the unemployed were the most likely to report a substance

dependence. Eight percent of the unemployed had an alcohol dependence. Furthermore, while

only two percent of the working-age population had a drug dependence, the unemployed were

more than twice as likely to have a drug dependence. Those not in the labor force were the least

likely to have a substance dependence (See Table 3.3a).

As also indicated in Figure 3.6, there was a substantially higher prevalence of substance

dependence among heavy drinkers (i.e., those who consumed at least five drinks on one occasion

on five or more days in the past month). More than one-third (34%) of the working-age pastmonth heavy drinkers had an alcohol dependence; nearly ten percent (9%) had a drug dependence

(See Table 3.3b). Among heavy drinkers, the unemployed and part-time workers were more

likely than full-time workers and those not in the labor force to have a drug dependence.
24

Entire Population Past-Month Heavy Drinkers

Figure 3.6 Percentage of Working-Age Population with a Substance Dependence by

Employment Status

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Tables 3.4 and 3.5 contain demographic and socioeconomic data for those with a

probable substance dependence compared to those without a probable substance dependence

within each employment status. There were several differences in the demographic composition

of these two groups regardless of employment status. In general, these differences were expected

given the demographic characteristics of substance users. In every employment category, a

higher percentage of those with a substance dependence than of those without a substance

dependence were male, young, never married, and had received food stamps in the past year (See

Tables 3.4 & 3.5). Except for individuals not in the labor force, in every employment category a

higher percentage of those with a substance dependence compared to those without a substance

dependence did not graduate from high school (See Figure 3.7). In addition, in every

employment category except for part-time, a higher percentage of individuals with a substance

dependence had an annual family income of less than $10,000 (See Table 3.5).

The only racial difference between individuals with and without a substance dependence

was for those not in the labor force. Among those not in the labor force, a proportionately higher

percentage of those with a substance dependence than of those without a substance dependence

was black (See Table 3.4). There was also a regional difference between individuals with and

without a substance dependence for those not in the labor force. Individuals not in the labor

force who also had a substance dependence were more likely to be from the West than

individuals not in the labor force without a substance dependence. 
25

Substance Dependent Not Dependent

Figure 3.7 Education Distribution of the Working-Age Population with and without a

Substance Dependence by Employment Status

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Other Mental Health Concerns

As indicated in Figure 3.8, the unemployed and those not in the labor force were more

likely than full-time and part-time workers to have probable diagnoses for a major depressive

episode, agoraphobia, and panic attacks. In fact, the unemployed and those not in the labor force

were nearly twice as likely as full-time workers to have a probable diagnosis for a major

depressive episode and three times as likely to have a probable diagnosis for agoraphobia (See

Table 3.6a).

Within the not in the labor force population, the disabled were the most likely to have

probable mental health diagnoses. The disabled were twice as likely as full-time homemakers

and non-working students to have a probable diagnosis for a major depressive episode (See Table

3.6b). In fact, while eight percent of the total population had a probable diagnosis for a major

depressive episode (See Table 3.6a), the disabled were three times as likely to have the same

probable diagnosis. The disabled were also about three times as likely as full-time homemakers

and non-working students to have a probable diagnosis for an anxiety disorder (i.e., general

anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, or panic attacks).
26

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Figure 3.8 Percentage of Working-Age Population with Probable Mental Health

Diagnoses by Employment Status
27

Table 3.1a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and Past-Month

Substance Use by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

Substance Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

TOTAL

(in 1000s) 96,533 56,731 40,161 20,295 5,920 14,375 8,126 4,317 3,809 32,541 9,334 23,208

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 92.4% 94.1% 90.0% 88.1% 87.2% 88.5% 88.7% 91.0% 86.1% 81.2% 89.0% 78.0%

Past Year 77.7 79.7 75.0 74.2 76.2 73.4 74.5 78.0 70.5 59.3 67.8 55.9

Past Month 64.4 69.0 58.1 58.9 61.9 57.7 60.3 67.3 52.4 43.3 56.7 37.9

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 43.3% 47.2% 37.9% 37.4% 41.6% 35.7% 47.3% 55.8% 37.6% 27.2% 29.5% 26.2%

Past Year 9.3 11.3 6.5 11.7 19.7 8.3 18.2 24.1 11.5 6.8 11.0 5.1

Past Month 5.0 6.3 3.0 6.7 12.5 4.3 11.3 14.8 7.4 3.9 6.8 2.8

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS2

Lifetime 24.9% 28.0% 20.5% 23.6% 30.3% 20.9% 31.2% 36.3% 25.4% 15.6% 17.5% 14.9%

Past Year 5.4 6.1 4.5 6.9 11.8 4.8 12.7 14.5 10.7 4.6 7.0 3.7

Past Month 2.4 2.7 2.0 3.2 6.2 * 6.3 7.2 5.3 2.3 3.6 1.8

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
28

Table 3.1b Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and

Past-Month Substance Use by Category (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time

Homemaker

Non-Working

Student Retired Disabled

Substance

Total

(in 1000s)

Weighted

Percent

Total

(in 1000s)

Weighted

Percent

Total

(in 1000s)

Weighted

Percent

Total

(in 1000s)

Weighted

Percent

TOTAL 16,545 100.0% 5,284 100.0% 5,432 100.0% 5,089 100.0%

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 12,762 77.1 4,291 81.2 5,003 92.1 4,231 83.1

Past Year 9,030 54.6 3,817 72.2 3,769 69.4 2,581 50.7

Past Month 6,108 36.9 3,000 56.8 2,994 55.1 1,926 37.8

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 4,455 26.9 1,988 37.6 * * 1,723 33.9

Past Year 720 4.4 1,052 19.9 * * 408 8.0

Past Month 377 2.3 603 11.4 * * 281 5.5

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS1

Lifetime 2,568 15.5 1,273 24.1 * * 1,037 20.4

Past Year 554 3.4 540 10.2 * * 346 6.8

Past Month 297 1.8 206 3.9 * * * *

1 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
Table 3.2a Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Number of Days Had Five or More Dri

Occasion and Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and Heavy Drinking for Past-Month Alcohol Users AEmployment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed 

Alcohol Use

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 93,158 100.0% 62,211 100.0% 11,961 100.0% 4,902 100.0% USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PERDAY ON DAYS DRANK 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

1 drink 29,103 32.6 18,517 31.0 4,032 35.4 1,101 23.6 2 - 4 drinks 45,821 51.4 32,317 54.1 5,587 49.0 2,364 50.7 5 or more drinks 14,299 16.0 8,931 14.9 1,781 15.6 1,196 25.7 

NUMBER OF DAYS HAD FIVE ORMORE DRINKS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

0 days 57,973 66.3 38,380 65.5 8,044 70.8 2,432 54.4 1 day 8,303 9.5 6,122 10.5 732 6.4 410 9.2 2 - 4 days 10,743 12.3 7,172 12.2 1,394 12.3 774 17.3 5 or more days 10,445 11.9 6,881 11.8 1,187 10.5 859 19.2 

REPORTED BINGEDRINKING2 29,490 33.7 20,175 34.5 3,313 29.2 2,043 45.6 

REPORTED HEAVYDRINKING3 10,445 11.9 6,881 11.8 1,187 10.5 859 19.2 

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Had five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 3 Had five or more drinks on one occasion on five or more days.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
Table 3.2b Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Number of Days Had Five or More Dri

Occasion and Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and Heavy Drinking for Not in Labor Force Past-Mo18-64 by Category (Weighted), 1994-96

Not in Labor Force Full-time Homemaker Non-working Student 

Alcohol Use

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 14,029 100.0% 6,108 100.0% 3,000 100.0% USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PER DAY ON DAYS DRANK 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

1 drink 5,424 40.6 2,843 49.7 667 23.4 

2 - 4 drinks 5,537 41.5 2,254 39.4 1,319 46.3 5 or more drinks 2,383 17.9 628 11.0 863 30.3 

NUMBER OF DAYS HAD FIVE OR MORE DRINKS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

0 days 9,088 69.7 4,540 80.4 1,432 50.4 

1 day 1,036 7.9 364 6.5 369 13.0 2 - 4 days 1,396 10.7 505 8.9 428 15.1 5 or more days 1,514 11.6 236 4.2 612 21.6 

REPORTED BINGE DRINKING1 3,946 30.3 1,105 19.6 1,409 49.6 

REPORTED HEAVY DRINKING2 1,514 11.6 236 4.2 612 21.6 

Note: Data for the retired were omitted from this table due to low statistical precision.

1 Had five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 2 Had five or more drinks on one occasion on five or more days.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
Table 3.3a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 with a Substance Dependence by Employment Status (Weighted), 

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed 

SubstanceDependence 2

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 157,495 100.0% 96,533 100.0% 20,295 100.0% 8,126 100.0% ALCOHOLDEPENDENCE 7,023 4.5 4,408 4.6 959 4.7 623 7.7 ILLICIT DRUGDEPENDENCE3 2,763 1.8 1,349 1.4 462 2.3 406 5.0 

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for substance depe

period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). 3 Includes dependence on marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.Table 3.3b Percentage of Past-Month Heavy Drinkers Age 18-64 with a Substance Dependence by Employment Status (

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed 

SubstanceDependence 2

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 10,445 100.0% 6,881 100.0% 1,187 100.0% 859 100.0% ALCOHOLDEPENDENCE 3,572 34.2 2,318 33.7 475 40.0 305 35.5 ILLICIT DRUGDEPENDENCE3 967 9.3 528 7.7 148 12.4 143 16.6 

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for substance depe

period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). 3 Includes dependence on marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
32

Table 3.4 Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total Population

Age 18-64 with and without a Substance Dependence1

 by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force2

Demographic

Characteristic

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

TOTAL 91,461 5,072 19,065 1,230 7,299 827 31,199 1,342

GENDER 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Male 57.3 78.8 27.2 59.1 51.9 63.5 27.6 54.9

Female 42.7 21.2 72.8 40.9 48.1 36.5 72.4 45.1

AGE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

18-19 Yrs 1.7 5.9 10.6 21.3 7.9 13.1 6.9 17.1

20-24 Yrs 8.4 20.6 16.0 33.5 16.0 26.0 9.5 25.4

25-44 Yrs 58.2 62.1 44.8 36.1 50.7 55.6 36.5 38.3

45-64 Yrs 31.7 11.4 28.5 * 25.4 * 47.1 *

RACE/ETHNICITY 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

White 76.0 77.5 76.6 74.3 59.3 64.0 71.7 67.6

Black 11.0 10.4 9.2 11.3 21.4 23.1 11.9 17.9

Hispanic 9.2 9.4 9.4 11.4 13.5 9.9 11.9 9.2

EDUCATION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<High school 11.5 18.7 14.6 23.1 26.6 39.5 28.6 32.8

 High school grad 33.5 38.7 31.0 29.5 36.7 36.4 35.2 25.2

 >High school 54.9 42.6 54.4 47.4 36.8 24.1 36.2 42.0

MARITAL STATUS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Married 64.6 37.7 56.7 24.9 44.5 17.4 68.2 22.0

Wid./Div./Sep. 14.1 17.8 11.1 * 15.2 22.7 12.3 19.9

Never married 21.3 44.5 32.1 63.6 40.3 59.8 19.5 58.1

REGION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Northeast 19.6 16.4 21.8 18.9 22.6 16.6 19.5 16.3

North Central 24.6 25.0 26.0 25.6 19.5 21.6 21.5 18.3

South 34.5 34.0 29.4 33.6 32.8 36.0 39.1 36.5

West 21.4 24.6 22.9 22.0 25.1 25.8 20.0 28.8

1 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). Includes dependence on alcohol,

marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives. 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
33

Table 3.5 Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent

Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total Population

Age 18-64 with and without a Substance Dependence1

 by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force2

Income

Characteristic

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

TOTAL 91,461 5,072 19,065 1,230 7,299 827 31,199 1,342

ANNUAL FAMILY

INCOME 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<$10,000 2.6 4.4 12.5 16.8 21.7 32.5 17.6 43.3

$10,000 - $19,999 10.4 18.7 16.3 23.1 23.4 21.1 23.2 24.7

$20,000 - $29,999 14.4 16.3 14.1 17.4 16.5 14.7 17.5 *

$30,000 - $49,999 32.5 31.8 26.3 22.2 18.9 21.1 22.2 13.4

$50,000+ 40.1 28.8 30.8 20.6 19.5 * 19.5 *

SINGLE WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY3 1.2 * 1.2 * 2.7 * 2.1 *

RECEIVED SSI * * * * 3.9 * 8.3 17.9

RECEIVED AFDC 0.9 * 2.9 * 11.0 13.2 7.9 10.7

RECEIVED FOOD

STAMPS 3.9 6.2 8.9 13.1 25.4 32.8 17.7 25.8

1 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). Includes dependence on alcohol,

marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives. 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 3 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
Table 4.3 Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge 

Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) by Emp(Weighted), 1994-96

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed 

Alcohol Use

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTE

PERCENT

TOTAL 2,339 100.0% 465 100.0% 357 100.0% 487 100.0% USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PER DAYON DAYS DRANK 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

1 drink 488 22.8 * * * * 108 23.5 2 - 4 drinks 1,136 53.0 223 55.4 * * 221 48.0 5+ drinks 517 24.2 * * * * 131 28.4 

REPORTED BINGEDRINKING2 765 37.2 149 37.5 113 33.5 192 45.1 

REPORTED HEAVYDRINKING3 275 13.4 * * * * * * 

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Had at least five drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 3 Had at least five drinks on one occasion on at least five days.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
Table 4.4 Percentage of Population Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) with a Su

Probable Mental Health Diagnoses by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed 

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTE

PERCENT

TOTAL 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Substance Dependence2 373 7.5 69 * 51 * 109 12.0 

Other Mental Health Concern3 1,209 24.2 134 15.5 161 26.6 188 20.6 

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for substance depe

period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). Includes dependence on alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, inhalants, analgesics, tranqusedatives. 3 Includes major depressive episode, general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic attack. See Chapter 2 for description of how diagnoses 

* Estimate suppressed due to low precisionOffice of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
36

Overall Population AFDC Recipients

CHAPTER 4: SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH

CHARACTERISTICS OF AFDC RECIPIENTS

Substance use among welfare recipients may have important implications for welfare

reform, especially welfare-to-work programs. As stated earlier, substance-use related

impairment may substantially affect participation in education and job training programs

(OASPE, 1994). This chapter describes the substance use and mental health characteristics of

welfare recipients, specifically those who receive Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC). Three percent of the total population age 18-64 received AFDC. The unemployed,

followed by those not in the labor force, were the most likely to be AFDC recipients (See Table

A.2b). In this chapter, where possible, the patterns of substance use and mental health concerns

of AFDC recipients are compared with non-recipients and those of the overall working-age

population. Implications of the findings are discussed in Chapter 5.

Substance Use

As indicated in Figure 4.1, similar to the overall working-age population, AFDC

recipients who were not in the labor force were the least likely to report that they had ever used

alcohol or marijuana. As indicated in Figures 4.2 and 4.3, AFDC recipients who were not in the

labor force were also the least likely to report past-year and past-month alcohol use (See Table

4.1). However, there were no other significant differences in the reported substance use of

AFDC recipients by employment status.

Figure 4.1 Percentage of Working-Age Population Reporting Substance Use in their

Lifetime by Employment Status

Source: OAS,

SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.
37

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Figure 4.2 Percentage of Working-Age AFDC Recipients Reporting Substance Use in the

Past Year by Employment Status

Figure 4.3 Percentage of Working-Age AFDC Recipients Reporting Alcohol Use in the

Past Month by Employment Status
38

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Generally, the prevalence of substance use among AFDC recipients was similar to the

prevalence of substance use among the unemployed. In order to further examine the prevalence

of substance use among AFDC recipients relative to the overall working-age population, Table

4.2 contains the percentage of the working-age population reporting substance use who were

AFDC recipients. If substance use were not more common among AFDC recipients, then these

percentages should roughly approximate the percentage of AFDC recipients in the overall

working-age population. 

In fact, substance use was not more common among AFDC recipients with full-time or

part-time employment or those who were unemployed. As shown in Table 4.2, approximately

one percent of those employed full-time, three percent of those employed part-time, and 11

percent of the unemployed who reported lifetime, past-year, and past-month substance use were

AFDC recipients. These percentages roughly approximate the overall percentage of AFDC

recipients in each of these employment categories (1%, 3%, and 11%, respectively). By

contrast, while eight percent of those not in the labor force were AFDC recipients, between 12

and 16 percent of those not in the labor force who reported illicit drug use were AFDC recipients

(See Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Reporting Substance Use who

Received AFDC by Substance Used
39

Overall Population AFDC Recipients

Binge and Heavy Drinking

Among AFDC recipients who were past-month alcohol users, more than half of full-time

workers and those not in the labor force reported that they usually consumed between two and

four drinks on the days they drank (55% for both groups; See Table 4.3). Nearly one-quarter of

AFDC recipients who were not in the labor force and current alcohol users (24%) usually

consumed five or more drinks per day. As indicated in Figure 4.5, more than one-third of AFDC

recipients in each employment category who were current alcohol users reported past month

binge drinking (See Table 4.3). This prevalence of binge drinking was similar to that of the

overall working-age population (See Table 3.2a).

Figure 4.5 Percentage of Working-Age Past-Month Alcohol Users Reporting Past-Month

Binge Drinking by Employment Status

Source: OAS, SAMHSA, NHSDA, 1994-96.

Substance Dependence and Other Mental Health Concerns

Among AFDC recipients, the unemployed were more likely than those not in the labor

force to have a substance dependence. Twelve percent of unemployed AFDC recipients were

dependent on alcohol or drugs. By contrast, AFDC recipients who were part-time workers or not

in the labor force were more likely than AFDC recipients with full-time employment to have a

probable diagnosis for a major depressive episode, a general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, or

panic attack. More than one-quarter of part-time workers and those not in the labor force who

were AFDC recipients (27% and 28%, respectively) had one of these syndromes.
40

Table 4.1 Percentage of Population Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC) Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and Past-Month Substance Use by Employment Status

(Weighted), 1994-96

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

Substance

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 4,990 100.0% 865 0.9% 605 3.0% 911 11.2% 2,608 8.0%

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 4,083 81.8 775 89.6 530 87.6 772 84.7 2,005 76.9

Past Year 3,238 64.9 669 77.3 470 77.6 615 67.5 1,485 56.9

Past Month 2,339 46.9 465 53.7 357 58.9 487 53.4 1,030 39.5

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 2,233 44.7 422 48.7 302 49.9 460 50.5 1,049 40.2

Past Year 693 13.9 139 16.1 88 14.5 143 15.7 323 12.4

Past Month 429 8.6 * * * * 77 8.4 209 8.0

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS2

Lifetime 1,418 28.4 255 29.5 180 29.8 287 31.5 559 26.6

Past Year 468 9.4 * * * * 102 11.1 227 8.7

Past Month 233 4.7 * * * * * * * *

Note: Table reads, “81.8 percent of AFDC recipients used alcohol on at least one occasion in their lifetime.”

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
41

Table 4.2 Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and Past-Month

Substance Use who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) by Employment

Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

Substance

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 4,990 3.2% 865 0.9% 605 3.0% 911 11.2% 2,608 8.0%

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 4,083 2.9 775 0.9 530 3.0 772 10.7 2,005 7.6

Past-Year 3,238 2.8 669 0.9 470 3.1 615 10.2 1,485 7.7

Past-Month 2,339 2.5 465 0.7 357 3.0 487 9.9 1,030 7.3

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 2,233 3.6 422 1.0 302 4.0 460 12.0 1,049 11.9

Past-Year 693 4.6 * * * * 143 9.7 323 14.6

Past-Month 429 5.1 * * * * 77 8.3 209 16.2

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS2

Lifetime 1,418 3.9 255 1.1 180 3.8 287 11.3 559 13.7

Past-Year 468 5.1 805 1.5 59 4.2 102 9.8 227 15.0

Past-Month 233 5.5 * * * * * * 104 13.8

Note: Table reads “2.9% of respondents who reported using alcohol in their lifetime were AFDC recipients.”

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
Table 4.3 Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge 

Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) by Empl(Weighted), 1994-96

Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed 

Alcohol Use

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTE

PERCENT

TOTAL 2,339 100.0% 465 100.0% 357 100.0% 487 100.0% USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PER DAYON DAYS DRANK 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

1 drink 488 22.8 * * * * 108 23.5 2 - 4 drinks 1,136 53.0 223 55.4 * * 221 48.0 5+ drinks 517 24.2 * * * * 131 28.4 

REPORTED BINGEDRINKING2 765 37.2 149 37.5 113 33.5 192 45.1 

REPORTED HEAVYDRINKING3 275 13.4 * * * * * * 

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Had at least five drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 3 Had at least five drinks on one occasion on at least five days.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
43

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS

This report examines data from the combined 1994-96 National Household Survey on

Drug Abuse (NHSDA) to estimate the prevalence of alcohol and illicit drug use/dependence and

other mental health issues among the working-age population. Data were taken from 38,501 

NHSDA respondents age 18-64, who represent over 157 million people. In general, the

prevalence of both drug use and dependence were higher for the unemployed than for those with

either full-time or part-time employment. However, the prevalence of alcohol use was higher for

those with full-time employment than for the unemployed. Those not in the labor force (i.e., fulltime homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled) were the least likely to

report alcohol and/or illicit drug use.

Even though those employed full-time had the highest prevalence of past-month (i.e.,

current) alcohol use, current alcohol users who were unemployed or not in the labor force

reported consuming larger quantities of alcohol than current alcohol users who were employed

full-time. Nearly half of unemployed current alcohol users reported past-month binge drinking. 

Greater alcohol use among those not in the labor force was due primarily to the high prevalence

of binge and heavy drinking among non-working students and the disabled. Half of non-working

students who were current alcohol users reported past-month binge drinking, and more than onequarter of current alcohol users who were disabled reported past-month heavy drinking.

As stated earlier, drug dependence was most common among the unemployed. In

addition, alcohol dependence was also more common among the unemployed. In all employment

categories, substance dependence was more prevalent among past-month heavy drinkers. In

general, regardless of employment status, those who were substance dependent were predictably

younger, and more likely to be male, never married, and the past-year recipients of food stamps.

In every employment category except for not in the labor force, compared to those without a

substance dependence, those with a substance dependence were less educated.

The unemployed and those not in the labor force were more likely than those employed

full-time or part-time to report other mental health issues. In particular, the unemployed and

those not in the labor force were more likely to have experienced a probable major depressive

episode in the past year. More than ten percent of both the unemployed and those not in the labor

force had experienced a major depressive episode. Among those not in the labor force, mental

health syndromes were most common among the disabled. The disabled were two to three times

as likely as the entire not in the labor force population to report one of the four mental health

syndromes examined.
44

Consistent with earlier studies, the prevalence of illicit drug use, but not alcohol use, was

higher among recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) than among the

overall population. The prevalence of substance dependence and other mental health syndromes

was also higher among AFDC recipients than the overall population. However, unlike in the

overall population, there were few differences in reported substance use by employment status

for AFDC recipients.

The data presented in this report may be used to guide the development of appropriate

policies and prevention/intervention programs. However, there are several limitations to the data

and analyses presented in this report that must be considered when interpreting the findings.

Consistent with earlier research, the data presented in this report indicate that the

unemployed have higher rates of illicit drug use than the working; and those not in the labor

force have the lowest rates of substance use. These data also suggest that the unemployed, nonworking students, and the disabled also have high rates of heavy alcohol use. Unfortunately,

these data do not allow for causal statements about unemployment and drug use. The

unemployed and the disabled are generally less educated and have lower incomes, characteristics

that are also associated with higher rates of substance use. The data and analyses presented in

this report do not allow for the determination of whether the differences in substance use patterns

are related to employment status or these other demographic characteristics. We also cannot

determine whether the substance abuse and mental health issues precede the unemployment or

vice versa. Further analysis is needed in order to make any causal inferences, as well as to

control for the effects of any variables that may confound the relationship of interest.

Unfortunately, the unemployed do not have access to the same types of

programs/resources available to the working population (e.g., health care and employee

assistance programs). Therefore, targeting efforts to this group is difficult. The disabled and

non-working students may be more easily targeted through, for example, school organizations

and programs sponsored by the Social Security Administration.

Finally, the data presented in this report suggest the need for targeted substance abuse

treatment efforts for welfare recipients. As stated earlier, substance use can be viewed as a major

obstacle to economic self-sufficiency. Given the higher prevalence of illicit drug use among

AFDC recipients and the lack of a relationship between employment status and substance use for

AFDC recipients, there would be substantial economic benefits to providing treatment to

substance-abusing AFDC recipients in order to foster and facilitate the goals of welfare reform:

work and responsibility (Grant & Dawson, 1996; Gerstein et al., 1997).
45

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric

Association.

Gerstein, D. R., Johnson, R. A., Larison, C. L., Harwood, H. J., & Fountain, D. (1997). Alcohol

and Other Drug Treatment for Parents and Welfare Recipients: Outcomes, Costs, and

Benefits (A final report prepared under contract HHS-100-95-0036). Rockville, MD:

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for

Planning and Evaluation.

Grant, B. F., & Dawson, D. A. (1996). Alcohol and Drug Use, Abuse, and Dependence among

Welfare Recipients. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1450-1454.

Harrell, A.V., & Peterson, G. E. (eds.) (1992). Drugs, Crime, and Social Isolation: Barriers to

Urban Opportunity. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press.

Harwood, H., Fountain, D., Livermore, G. et al. (1998). The Economic Costs of Alcohol and

Drug Abuse in the United States, 1992. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse

and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

Hoffmann, J. P., Brittingham, A., & Larison, C. (1996). Drug Use Among U.S. Workers:

Prevalence and Trends by Occupation and Industry Categories. Rockville, MD: U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services

Administration, Office of Applied Studies.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA. (1998a). National Household Survey on Drug Abuse:

Main Findings 1996. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA. (1998b). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Statistics

Source Book 1998. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA. (1997). National Household Survey on Drug Abuse

Methodological Resource Book. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services.
46

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA. (1996). National Household Survey on Drug Abuse

Methodological Resource Book. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services.

Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. (1994). Patterns of Substance

Abuse and Substance-Related Impairment among Participants in the Aid to Families with

Dependent Children Program (AFDC). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services.

Perrucci, R., & Perrucci C. C. (1990). Unemployment and Mental Health: Research and Policy

Implications. In J. R. Greenley (ed.), Mental Disorder in Social Context (pp 237-264).

Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Sisco, C. B., & Pearson, C. L. (1994). Prevalence of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse among Female

AFDC Recipients. Health & Social Work, 19(1), 75-77.
47

APPENDIX A: DEMOGRAPHIC AND INCOME

CHARACTERISTICS BY EMPLOYMENT STATUS

This appendix presents combined data from the 1994-96 NHSDA on the demographic

and income characteristics of 38,501 NHSDA respondents age 18-64, who represent more than

157 million working-age persons. The purpose of this chapter is to describe demographic and

economic differences among the four employment categories that may be related to differences in

the prevalence of substance abuse and mental health concerns in these groups.

Table A.1a presents the demographic distribution of the entire working-age population. 

Table A.1b presents demographic distributions within each employment status, while Table A.1c

presents demographic distributions by gender within each employment status, and Table A.1d

presents demographic distributions within each not in the labor force category.

Gender

Although only slightly more than half (52%) of the working-age population was female

(See Table A.1a), about seven out of 10 part-time workers and of those not in the labor force

were female (71% in each group; See Table A.1b). The not in the labor force population was

predominately female because nearly all full-time homemakers, who were about half of the not in

the labor force population, were female (See Table A.1d).

Age

Those not in the labor force were generally older than the remainder of the working-age

population. As indicated in Table A.1b, those not in the labor force were more likely than fulltime and part-time workers to be age 55-64, and less likely than all others to be age 25-44. 

However, as indicated in Table A.1c, within the not in the labor force population, males were

generally older than females. Males who were not in the labor force were 4.5 times as likely as

males with full-time employment to be age 55-64, while females who were not in the labor force

were only 2.5 times as likely as females employed full-time to be age 55-64. This is primarily

because within the not in the labor force population, the retired and the disabled, which were

predominately male groups, were more likely than full-time homemakers, which was an almost

entirely female group, to be age 55-64 (See Table A.1d).

Race/Ethnicity

Given that nearly three-quarters (74%) of the working-age population was non-Hispanic

white (See Table A.1a), the unemployed were disproportionately nonwhite (See Table A.1b). In

particular, non-Hispanic blacks were disproportionately unemployed relative to their

representation in the overall population (22% of the unemployed vs. 12% of the entire workingage population). As shown in Table A.1d, within the not in the labor force population, the retired
48

were the most likely to be non-Hispanic white, while the disabled were the most likely to be nonHispanic black.

Education

As indicated in Table A.1b, the unemployed and those not in the labor force generally had

less education than those with either full-time or part-time employment. Both the unemployed

and those not in the labor force were less likely than full-time and part-time workers to be college

graduates (17% and 13% vs. 31% and 23%, respectively). In addition, the not in the labor force

population was the most likely to have less than a high school education. As shown in Table

A.1d, within the not in the labor force population, the disabled generally had the least amount of

education.

Marital Status

As shown in Table A.1b, the unemployed were the least likely to be married (42%) and

the most likely to have never been married (42%). Conversely, the not in the labor force

population was the most likely to be married (66%), while both those not in the labor force and

full-time workers were the least likely to have never been married (21% and 23%, respectively). 

For the not in the labor force population, this pattern was due primarily to the fact that full-time

homemakers, half of the not in the labor force population, were very likely to be married (83%;

See Table A.1d). As indicated in Table A.1c, however, there were gender differences in marital

status within the employment categories. Among females, the pattern was the same as in the

total population (i.e., not in labor force were the most likely to be married and the least likely to

have never been married). By contrast, among males, full-time workers were the most likely to

be married, while part-time workers were the most likely to have never been married.

Region

Full-time and part-time workers were more likely than the unemployed and those not in

the labor force to be from the North Central region of the country (25% and 26% vs. 20% and

21%, respectively), and those not in the labor force were the most likely to be from the South

(39%; See Table A.1b). Within the not in the labor force population, the disabled were more

likely than full-time homemakers and non-working students to be from the South. In fact, nearly

half (47%) of the disabled were from the South (See Table A.1d).

Table A.2a presents the income distribution of the entire working-age population. Table

A.2b presents income distributions within each employment status, while Table A.2c presents

income distributions by gender within each employment status, and Table A.2d presents income

distributions within each not in the labor force category.
49

Annual Family Income

The unemployed and those not in the labor force generally had lower annual family

incomes than those with either full-time or part-time employment. The unemployed were the

most likely to have an annual family income less than $10,000 (23%). By contrast, full-time

workers were the most likely to have an annual family income of at least $30,000 (72%; See

Table A.2b). Within the not in the labor force population, the disabled generally had the lowest

annual family incomes (See Table A.2d).

Single Women Supporting a Family

As shown in Table A.2a, two percent of the total population age 18-64 were designated

single women supporting a family. A significantly higher percentage of the unemployed and

those not in the labor force than of full-time or part-time workers were single women supporting

a family (See Table A.2b). In fact, six percent of all unemployed women were single women

supporting a family (See Table A.2c).

Additional Sources of Income

Those not in the labor force were more than twice as likely as the unemployed to receive

Supplemental Security Income (SSI; See Table A.2b). In fact, males who were not in the labor

force were particularly likely to receive SSI. Males who were not in the labor force were five

times as likely as the total population to receive SSI (15% and 3%, respectively; See Tables A.2a

and A.2c). This finding is due primarily to the fact that more than one-third of the disabled

(35%), which was a predominately male group, received SSI (See Table A.2d).

The unemployed were the most likely to receive Aid to Families with Dependent

Children (AFDC). In fact, the unemployed were more than 10 times as likely as full-time

workers to receive AFDC (11% and 1%, respectively; See Table A.2b). The not in the labor

force population was also more likely than full-time and part-time workers to receive AFDC (8%

vs. 1% and 3%, respectively).

The unemployed were also the most likely to live in a household that received food

stamps. As shown in Table A.2b, the unemployed were nearly 6.5 times as likely as full-time

workers to live in a household that received food stamps (26% and 4%, respectively). In

addition, the not in the labor force population was nearly 4.5 times as likely as full-time workers

to live in a household that received food stamps (18% and 4%, respectively). This was due

primarily to the fact that nearly 40 percent of the disabled lived in a household that received food

stamps (See Table A.2d).
50

Table A.1a Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total

Population Age 18-64 (Weighted), 1994-96

Demographic

Characteristic

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 157,495 100.0%

GENDER 100.0%

Male 75,942 48.2

Female 81,553 51.8

AGE 100.0%

18-19 Yrs 7,200 4.6

20-24 Yrs 16,894 10.7

25-34 Yrs 39,799 25.3

35-44 Yrs 41,631 26.4

45-54 Yrs 30,616 19.4

55-64 Yrs 21,355 13.6

RACE/ETHNICITY 100.0%

White 117,075 74.3

Black 18,192 11.6

Hispanic 15,752 10.0

Other 6,477 4.1

EDUCATION 100.0%

<High School 26,200 16.6

 High School Grad 53,179 33.8

Some College 38,240 24.3

College Grad 39,876 25.3

MARITAL STATUS 100.0%

Married 97,056 61.6

Wid./Div./Sep. 21,486 13.6

Never Married 38,954 24.7

REGION 100.0%

Northeast 31,186 19.8

North Central 37,577 23.9

South 54,658 34.7

West 34,074 21.6

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
51

Table A.1b Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total

Population Age 18-64 by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

Demographic

Characteristic

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 96,533 61.3% 20,295 12.9% 8,126 5.2% 32,541 20.7%

GENDER 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Male 56,371 58.4 5,920 29.2 4,317 53.1 9,334 28.7

Female 40,161 41.6 14,375 70.8 3,809 46.9 23,208 71.3

AGE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

18-19 Yrs 1,854 1.9 2,290 11.3 682 8.4 2,373 7.3

20-24 Yrs 8,727 9.0 3,464 17.1 1,386 17.1 3,317 10.2

25-34 Yrs 27,074 28.0 4,270 21.0 2,266 27.9 6,189 19.0

35-44 Yrs 29,309 30.4 4,718 23.2 1,896 23.3 5,707 17.5

45-54 Yrs 20,630 21.4 3,134 15.4 1,426 17.5 5,427 16.7

55-64 Yrs 8,939 9.3 2,418 11.9 * * 9,528 29.3

RACE/ETHNICITY 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

White 73,428 76.1 15,509 76.4 4,861 59.8 23,277 71.5

Black 10,586 11.0 1,900 9.4 1,756 21.6 3,950 12.1

Hispanic 8,923 9.2 1,934 9.5 1,065 13.1 3,830 11.8

Other 3,596 3.7 952 4.7 445 5.5 1,484 4.6

EDUCATION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<High School 11,505 11.9 3,066 15.1 2,265 27.9 9,364 28.8

 High School Grad 32,614 33.8 6,277 30.9 2,978 36.6 11,311 34.8

Some College 22,928 23.8 6,261 30.9 1,546 19.0 7,506 23.1

College Grad 22,486 30.5 4,691 23.1 1,338 16.5 4,361 13.4

MARITAL STATUS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Married 60,973 63.2 11,123 54.8 3,392 41.7 21,567 66.3

Wid./Div./Sep. 13,808 14.3 2,267 11.2 1,296 15.9 4,115 12.6

Never Married 21,752 22.5 6,905 34.0 3,439 42.3 6,859 21.1

REGION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Northeast 18,730 19.4 4,381 21.6 1,785 22.0 6,292 19.3

North Central 23,770 24.6 5,265 25.9 1,604 19.7 6,942 21.3

South 33,260 34.5 6,021 29.7 2,689 33.1 12,680 39.0

West 20,770 21.5 4,628 22.8 2,048 25.2 6,623 20.4

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
52

Table A.1c Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total Population Age

18-64 by Gender within Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Total Population Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

Demographic

Characteristic Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

TOTAL (in 1000s) 75,942 81,553 56,371 40,161 5,920 14,375 4,317 3,809 9,334 23,208

AGE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

18-19 Yrs 5.0 4.2 2.0 1.8 19.0 8.1 8.8 7.9 12.5 5.2

20-24 Yrs 10.9 10.5 8.8 9.3 26.1 13.3 16.1 18.2 11.5 9.7

25-34 Yrs 25.5 25.1 28.8 27.0 19.2 21.8 27.7 28.0 8.5 23.2

35-44 Yrs 27.1 25.8 31.1 29.4 15.8 26.3 24.7 21.8 11.5 20.0

45-54 Yrs 18.4 20.4 19.9 23.4 10.8 17.4 16.5 18.7 14.6 17.5

55-64 Yrs 13.1 14.0 9.4 9.1 * 13.1 * * 41.4 24.4

RACE/

ETHNICITY 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

White 74.8 73.9 77.0 74.7 67.8 80.0 60.6 59.0 72.5 71.2

Black 10.7 12.3 9.2 13.4 12.1 8.2 19.9 23.5 14.4 11.2

Hispanic 10.4 9.6 10.2 7.9 13.8 7.8 13.7 12.4 8.1 13.2

Other 4.1 4.2 3.5 4.0 6.3 4.0 * * 5.1 4.4

EDUCATION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<High School 16.8 16.5 13.3 10.0 20.9 12.7 29.5 26.0 29.3 28.6

High School Grad 32.4 35.0 32.7 35.4 26.7 32.7 36.6 36.7 32.7 35.6

 Some College 23.2 25.2 22.8 25.1 32.6 30.1 16.0 22.4 23.2 23.0

 College Grad 27.6 23.2 31.2 29.6 19.8 24.5 17.9 14.8 14.8 12.9

MARITAL

STATUS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Married 61.3 61.9 67.3 57.3 30.4 64.8 41.7 41.8 53.5 71.4

Wid./Div./Sep. 10.2 16.8 9.7 20.8 11.2 11.2 10.6 22.0 12.5 12.7

Never Married 28.5 21.2 23.0 21.9 58.4 24.0 47.7 36.2 34.1 15.9

REGION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Northeast 19.1 20.4 19.2 19.7 17.7 23.2 21.4 22.6 18.8 19.6

North Central 23.7 24.0 24.6 24.6 24.4 26.6 21.1 18.2 19.0 22.3

South 34.3 35.1 33.6 35.7 29.2 29.9 32.4 33.9 42.5 37.6

West 22.9 20.4 22.7 19.9 28.7 20.4 25.2 25.2 19.7 20.6

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
53

Table A.1d Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Not in Labor

Force Population Age 18-64 by Category (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time Homemaker Non-Working Student Retired Disabled

Demographic

Characteristic

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 16,545 51.1% 5,284 16.3% 5,432 16.8% 5,089 15.7%

GENDER 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Male * * 2,602 49.2 3,458 63.7 3,050 59.9

Female 16,400 99.1 2,683 50.8 1,974 36.3 2,039 40.1

AGE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

18-19 Yrs 316 1.9 1,998 37.8 * * * *

20-24 Yrs 1,244 7.5 1,922 36.4 * * * *

25-34 Yrs 4,584 27.7 922 17.5 * * 638 12.5

35-44 Yrs 3,957 23.9 * * * * 1,394 27.4

45-54 Yrs 3,105 18.8 * * * * 1,507 29.6

55-64 Yrs 3,339 20.2 * * 4,767 87.8 1,419 27.9

RACE/ETHNICITY 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

White 12,020 72.7 3,391 64.2 4,405 81.1 3,348 65.8

Black 1,322 8.0 855 16.2 637 11.7 1,108 21.8

Hispanic 2,552 15.4 512 9.7 * * 457 9.0

Other 651 3.9 526 10.0 * * * *

EDUCATION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<High School 4,916 29.7 970 18.3 1,184 21.8 2,255 44.3

 High School Grad 6,146 37.1 1,312 24.8 2,031 37.4 1,766 34.7

Some College 3,199 19.3 2,172 41.1 1,229 22.6 852 16.7

College Grad 2,284 13.8 831 15.7 * * * *

MARITAL STATUS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Married 13,700 82.8 828 15.7 4,468 82.3 2,496 49.0

Wid./Div./Sep. 1,503 9.1 252 4.8 858 15.8 1,489 29.2

Never Married 1,344 8.1 4,204 80.0 * * 1,105 21.7

REGION 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Northeast 3,398 20.5 937 17.7 * * 900 17.7

North Central 3,607 21.8 1,010 19.1 1,331 24.5 952 18.7

South 5,924 35.8 1,931 36.5 2,360 43.4 2,419 47.5

West 3,616 21.9 1,407 26.6 * * 818 16.1

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
54

Table A.2a Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent

Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total

Population Age 18-64 (Weighted), 1994-96

Income

Characteristic

TOTAL

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 157,495 100.0%

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME 100.0%

<$10,000 13,108 8.3

$10,000 - $19,999 23,292 14.8

$20,000 - $29,999 23,819 15.1

$30,000 - $49,999 45,306 28.8

$50,000+ 51,970 33.0

SINGLE WOMAN SUPPORTING A

FAMILY1 2,379 1.5

RECEIVED SSI 3,889 2.5

RECEIVED AFDC 4,991 3.2

RECEIVED FOOD STAMPS 13,753 8.7

1 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
55

Table A.2b Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent

Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total

Population Age 18-64 by Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

Income

Characteristic

TOTAL 

(in

1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 96,533 61.3% 20,295 12.9% 8,126 5.2% 32,541 20.7%

ANNUAL FAMILY

INCOME 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<$10,000 2,595 2.7 2,587 12.7 1,851 22.8 6,075 18.7

$10,000 - $19,999 10,456 10.8 3,387 16.7 1,881 23.1 7,568 23.3

$20,000 - $29,999 13,984 14.5 2,898 14.3 1,330 16.4 5,608 17.2

$30,000 - $49,999 31,342 32.5 5,294 26.1 1,533 19.1 7,117 21.9

$50,000+ 38,155 39.5 6,129 30.2 1,512 18.6 6,174 19.0

SINGLE WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY2 1,184 1.2 284 1.4 215 2.6 696 2.1

RECEIVED SSI * * * * 308 3.8 2,842 8.7

RECEIVED AFDC 865 0.9 605 3.0 911 11.2 2,609 8.0

RECEIVED FOOD

STAMPS 3,910 4.1 1,865 9.2 2,124 26.1 5,854 18.0

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
56

Table A.2c Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent

Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Total

Population Age 18-64 by Gender within Employment Status (Weighted), 1994-96

Total Population Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

Demographic

Characteristic Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

TOTAL(in 1000s) 15,938 22,563 11,359 10,678 1,655 3,622 1,333 1,613 1,591 6,650

ANNUAL

FAMILY

INCOME 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<$10,000 6.9 9.7 2.0 3.7 18.2 10.5 20.3 25.5 23.0 16.9

$10,000-$19,999 13.5 16.0 10.2 11.7 22.5 14.3 26.0 19.9 22.2 23.7

$20,000-$29,999 14.5 15.7 13.6 15.7 15.7 13.7 17.3 15.3 17.6 17.1

$30,000-$49,999 29.0 28.5 32.3 32.7 20.6 28.3 17.9 20.4 19.6 22.8

$50,000+ 36.1 30.1 41.9 36.3 23.0 33.2 18.4 18.8 17.6 19.5

SINGLE

WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY2

N/A 2.9 N/A 2.9 N/A 2.0 N/A 5.6 N/A 3.0

RECEIVED SSI 2.6 2.3 0.5 0.4 * * * * 14.9 6.2

RECEIVED

AFDC 1.1 5.1 * 1.5 * 3.4 5.6 17.5 * 10.3

RECEIVED

FOOD STAMPS 6.4 10.9 3.3 5.1 11.3 8.3 22.6 30.1 14.3 19.5

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
57

Table A.2d Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent

Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for Not in Labor

Force Population Age 18-64 by Category (Weighted), 1994-96

Full-time Homemaker Non-Working Student Retired Disabled

Income

Characteristic

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 

(in 1000s)

WEIGHTED

PERCENT

TOTAL 16,545 51.1% 5,284 16.3% 5,432 16.8% 5,089 15.7%

ANNUAL FAMILY

INCOME 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

<$10,000 2,129 12.9 1,867 35.3 * * 1,724 33.9

$10,000 - $19,999 3,742 22.6 987 18.7 1,013 18.6 1,772 34.8

$20,000 - $29,999 2,975 18.0 643 12.2 1,266 23.3 688 13.5

$30,000 - $49,999 4,009 24.2 975 18.5 1,481 27.3 620 12.2

$50,000+ 3,691 22.3 813 15.4 * * * *

SINGLE WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY1

471 2.8 * * * * * *

RECEIVED SSI 541 3.3 * * * * 1,788 35.1

RECEIVED AFDC 1,693 10.2 471 8.9 * * 386 7.6

RECEIVED FOOD

STAMPS 3,031 18.3 778 14.7 * * 1,889 37.1

1 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
3

 See Shah, B.V., Barnwell, B.G., Hunt, P.N., & LaVange, L.M. (1994). SUDAAN User’s Manual:

Release 6.4. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute.

58

z

p p

SE p SE p = −+

1 2

1

2

2

2 () ()

APPENDIX B: STANDARD ERROR TABLES

This report presents results of tests of statistical significance for comparisons of

prevalence estimates. Differences were tested for statistical significance using Z tests. The Z

test takes into account the sizes of the subsamples being compared and the degree of variation

among sample members. Statistical significance refers to the probability that a difference as

large as that observed would occur due to random error in the estimates if there were no

difference in the prevalence rates in the groups being compared. Unless otherwise noted,

differences discussed in the text were statistically significant at the .05 level or lower. That is, a

sample difference equal to or larger than the observed sample difference is likely to occur fewer

than 5 times in 100 by chance alone (.05 level). Analogous definitions apply to significance at

the .01 and .001 levels.

Standard errors of the estimates are not presented in the main text of this report. 

However, this appendix contains standard errors for the estimates presented in this report. These

standard errors were calculated using SUDAAN.3 The reader may use these standard error tables

to perform additional hypothesis testing. The difference in the prevalence rates may be

determined using the standard difference in percentages test expressed as:

where p1 is the estimated percentage of the first subgroup (e.g., the estimated percentage of fulltime workers with a drug dependence), p2 is the corresponding estimate for the second group

(e.g., the unemployed), SE(p1) is the standard error of p1, and SE(p2) is the standard error of p2. 

So, using our example, Table 4.3a states that 1.4 percent of full-time workers had a drug

dependence, compared to 5.0 percent of the unemployed. Table SE4.3a reports that the standard

errors for these two estimates are .10 and .50, respectively. Using the equation above, it follows

that z=7.06, which is greater than the critical value of 1.96. Hence, the difference between the

two prevalence estimates is statistically significant at the .05 level; in fact, the difference is

significant at the .001 level.

The standard error tables are numbered to correspond with the data tables. For example,

the standard errors for Table 3.1a are found in Table SE3.1a.
59

Table SE3.1a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and PastMonth Substance Use by Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

Substance Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 0.40 0.40 0.62 1.01 1.79 1.01 0.94 1.34 1.33 0.98 1.22 1.18

Past Year 0.61 0.77 0.82 1.45 2.60 1.44 1.62 2.40 2.09 1.33 2.40 1.45

Past Month 0.71 0.89 0.91 1.46 2.61 1.56 1.86 2.56 2.56 1.14 2.42 1.22

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 0.64 0.83 0.83 1.23 2.42 1.41 1.75 2.69 2.12 0.95 2.01 0.97

Past Year 0.29 0.42 0.31 0.67 1.54 0.63 1.03 1.73 1.04 0.43 0.99 0.36

Past Month 0.23 0.33 0.22 0.47 1.23 0.44 0.75 1.21 0.87 0.30 0.71 0.25

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS2

Lifetime 0.51 0.70 0.60 1.14 2.08 1.20 1.58 2.36 2.07 0.66 1.23 0.75

Past Year 0.21 0.30 0.26 0.45 0.99 0.48 0.84 1.18 1.12 0.34 0.81 0.30

Past Month 0.13 0.20 0.16 0.27 0.63 * 0.50 0.77 0.61 0.23 0.53 0.24

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
60

Table SE3.1b Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and

Past-Month Substance Use by Category (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Substance

Full-Time

Homemaker

Non-Working

Student Retired Disabled

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 1.34 1.45 2.09 2.17

Past Year 1.58 1.83 3.74 3.09

Past Month 1.43 2.02 3.87 2.85

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 1.21 1.48 * 2.59

Past Year 0.41 1.45 * 1.08

Past Month 0.25 1.01 * 0.96

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS1

Lifetime 0.93 1.14 * 1.63

Past Year 0.39 1.00 * 0.84

Past Month 0.30 0.51 * 0.59

1 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
61

Table SE3.2a Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Number of Days Had

Five or More Drinks on the Same Occasion and Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and

Heavy Drinking for Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 by Employment Status

(STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Alcohol Use Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PER DAY ON DAYS DRANK

1 drink 0.66 0.77 1.82 2.35 1.94

2 - 4 drinks 0.60 0.70 1.68 2.36 1.89

5 or more drinks 2.46 0.46 1.08 1.87 1.34

NUMBER OF DAYS HAD FIVE OR MORE DRINKS

0 days 0.66 0.74 1.43 2.23 1.79

1 day 0.35 0.44 0.62 1.24 0.83

2 - 4 days 0.34 0.39 1.04 1.62 1.06

5 or more days 0.33 0.40 0.86 1.44 1.13

REPORTED BINGE

DRINKING2 0.66 0.74 1.43 2.23 1.79

REPORTED HEAVY

DRINKING3 0.33 0.40 0.86 1.44 1.13

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Had five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 3 Had five or more drinks on one occasion on five or more days.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
62

Table SE3.2b Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Number of Days Had

Five or More Drinks on the Same Occasion and Percentage Reporting Past-Month Binge and

Heavy Drinking for Not in Labor Force Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 by Category

(STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Alcohol Use Not in Labor Force

Full-time Homemaker Non-working

Student Disabled

USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PER DAY ON DAYS DRANK

1 drink 1.94 2.40 1.90 4.78

2 - 4 drinks 1.89 2.31 2.39 4.35

5 or more drinks 1.34 1.39 2.64 3.99

NUMBER OF DAYS HAD FIVE OR MORE DRINKS

0 days 1.79 1.86 2.61 4.55

1 day 0.83 0.92 1.36 *

2 - 4 days 1.06 1.29 1.48 *

5 or more days 1.13 0.68 2.42 4.13

REPORTED BINGE DRINKING1 1.79 1.86 2.61 4.55

REPORTED HEAVY DRINKING2 1.13 0.68 2.42 4.13

Note: Data for the retired were omitted from this table due to low statistical precision.

1 Had five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 2 Had five or more drinks on one occasion on five or more days.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
63

Table SE3.3a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 with a Substance Dependence by Employment

Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Substance Dependence1 Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force2

ALCOHOL

DEPENDENCE 0.17 0.22 0.36 0.61 0.35

ILLICIT DRUG

DEPENDENCE3 0.09 0.10 0.23 0.50 0.20

1 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 3 Includes dependence on marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.

Table SE3.3b Percentage of Past-Month Heavy Drinkers Age 18-64 with a Substance Dependence by

Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Substance Dependence1 Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force2

ALCOHOL

DEPENDENCE 1.25 1.57 3.32 3.99 3.63

ILLICIT DRUG

DEPENDENCE3 0.72 0.88 1.89 2.59 1.48

1 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 3 Includes dependence on marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
64

Table SE3.4 Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total

Population Age 18-64 with and without a Substance Dependence1

 by Employment Status

(STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force2

Demographic

Characteristic

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

GENDER 

Male 0.56 1.56 1.38 3.34 1.94 3.35 1.18 4.16

Female 0.56 1.56 1.38 3.34 1.94 3.35 1.18 4.16

AGE

18-19 Yrs 0.08 0.68 0.49 2.28 0.60 1.82 0.43 2.51

20-24 Yrs 0.24 1.28 0.87 2.97 0.93 3.43 0.56 3.90

25-44 Yrs 0.66 1.94 1.33 3.06 1.79 3.91 1.14 3.94

45-64 Yrs 0.68 1.92 1.61 * 2.19 * 1.43 *

RACE/ETHNICITY

White 0.72 1.46 1.13 2.95 2.08 2.91 1.17 3.29

Black 0.51 0.92 0.54 1.79 1.38 2.28 0.74 2.51

Hispanic 0.33 0.74 0.50 1.90 0.83 1.84 0.52 1.36

EDUCATION

<High school 0.47 1.48 0.91 2.82 1.58 3.55 1.42 4.19

 High school grad 0.69 1.87 1.12 2.96 1.80 3.51 1.23 3.01

 >High school 0.92 1.85 1.39 3.36 2.09 3.59 1.39 4.58

MARITAL STATUS

Married 0.64 2.21 1.47 2.97 2.04 3.39 1.12 3.34

Wid./Div./Sep. 0.41 1.61 1.00 * 1.26 3.72 0.74 4.57

Never married 0.46 2.06 1.15 3.24 1.60 4.08 0.91 4.75

REGION

Northeast 0.85 1.99 1.50 2.90 1.83 2.16 1.51 3.50

North Central 1.06 2.51 1.66 3.59 1.93 2.92 1.24 3.32

South 0.93 2.26 1.37 3.56 1.91 3.50 1.69 4.74

West 0.84 2.32 1.38 3.20 1.72 3.32 1.11 4.29

1 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). Includes dependence on alcohol,

marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives. 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
65

Table SE3.5 Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for

Total Population Age 18-64 with and without a Substance Dependence1

 by Employment

Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force2

Income

Characteristic

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

Not

Dependent Dependent

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

<$10,000 0.16 0.66 1.02 2.41 1.51 3.47 0.94 4.21

$10,000 - $19,999 0.34 1.65 1.04 2.63 1.34 2.75 1.21 3.10

$20,000 - $29,999 0.45 1.39 0.93 2.79 1.25 3.01 0.99 *

$30,000 - $49,999 0.66 2.14 1.20 2.55 1.40 2.75 0.95 2.44

$50,000+ 0.88 2.05 1.57 2.70 1.99 * 1.20 *

SINGLE WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY3 0.09 * 0.18 * 0.30 * 0.17 *

RECEIVED SSI * * * * 0.57 * 0.68 4.32

RECEIVED AFDC 0.08 * 0.32 * 0.92 2.00 0.38 1.76

RECEIVED FOOD

STAMPS 0.19 0.76 0.74 1.88 1.54 3.11 0.92 3.17

1 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). Includes dependence on alcohol,

marijuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives. 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 3 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
66

Table SE3.6a Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 with Probable Mental Health Diagnoses by

Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Mental Health

Syndrome1 Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force2

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE

EPISODE 0.23 0.26 0.54 0.80 0.68

GENERAL ANXIETY

DISORDER 0.13 0.15 0.27 0.39 0.41

AGORAPHOBIA 0.12 0.10 0.23 0.51 0.44

PANIC ATTACK 0.17 0.17 0.30 0.84 0.43

1 See Chapter 2 for description of how diagnoses were determined. 2 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.

Table SE3.6b Percentage of Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 with Probable Mental Health

Diagnoses by Category (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Mental Health

Syndrome1

Not in Labor Force

Population

Full-Time

Homemaker

Non-Working

Student Disabled

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE

EPISODE 0.68 0.91 0.88 1.94

ANXIETY DISORDER2 0.41 0.45 0.31 1.83

1 See Chapter 2 for description of how diagnoses were determined. 2 Includes general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic attack.

Note: Data for the retired were omitted from this table due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
67

Table SE4.1 Percentage of Population Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC) Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and Past-Month Substance Use by Employment

Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Substance Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 1.13 1.80 2.49 1.98 1.74

Past Year 1.56 2.80 3.18 3.39 2.07

Past Month 1.55 5.14 4.23 3.57 1.77

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 1.40 4.31 4.45 3.53 1.69

Past Year 0.95 2.34 2.82 2.55 0.99

Past Month 0.70 * * 1.34 0.83

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS2

Lifetime 1.34 3.50 3.51 3.81 1.61

Past Year 0.59 * * 1.34 0.76

Past Month 0.46 * * * *

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimates suppressed due to low precision.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
68

Table SE4.2 Percentage of Total Population Age 18-64 Reporting Lifetime, Past-Year, and Past-Month

Substance Use who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) by

Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Substance Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

ALCOHOL

Lifetime 0.13 0.08 0.33 0.95 0.40

Past Year 0.13 0.09 0.38 0.97 0.46

Past Month 0.13 0.08 0.42 1.12 0.50

MARIJUANA

Lifetime 0.20 0.10 0.53 1.40 0.75

Past Year 0.37 * * 1.69 1.53

Past Month 0.47 * * 1.28 2.02

OTHER ILLICIT DRUGS2

Lifetime 0.29 0.18 0.60 1.87 1.13

Past Year 0.41 0.39 1.17 1.74 1.83

Past Month 0.65 * * * 2.55

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes cocaine, crack, heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, and non-medical use of analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and

sedatives.

* Estimates suppressed due to low precision.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
69

Table SE4.3 Distribution of Usual Number of Drinks per Day on Days Drank and Percentage Reporting

Past-Month Binge and Heavy Drinking for Past-Month Alcohol Users Age 18-64 who

Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) by Employment Status

(STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Alcohol Use Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

USUAL NUMBER OF DRINKS PER DAY ON DAYS DRANK

1 drink 1.74 * * 3.63 2.40

2 - 4 drinks 1.98 5.07 * 4.53 3.13

5+ drinks 1.78 * * 4.24 2.63

REPORTED BINGE

DRINKING2 2.21 5.61 6.09 5.12 3.03

REPORTED HEAVY

DRINKING3 1.29 * * * 1.84

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Had five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day. 3 Had five or more drinks on one occasion on five or more days.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
70

Table SE4.4 Percentage of Population Age 18-64 who Received Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC) with a Substance Dependence and Probable Mental Health Diagnoses by

Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Substance

Dependence Total Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

Substance Dependence 2 0.66 * * 1.94 0.72

Other Mental Health Concern3 1.47 2.52 4.09 2.77 2.11

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Substance dependence is a maladaptive pattern of substance use characterized by the concurrence of three or more criteria for

substance dependence during a 12-month period, as defined in the DSM-IV (See Chapter 2). Includes dependence on alcohol,

marijuana, cocaine, heroin, inhalants, analgesics, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives. 3 Includes major depressive episode, general anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic attack.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
71

Table SEA.1b Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total

Population Age 18-64 by Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Demographic

Characteristic Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

GENDER 

Male 0.53 1.32 1.70 1.15

Female 0.53 1.32 1.70 1.15

AGE

18-19 Yrs 0.08 0.49 0.57 0.46

20-24 Yrs 0.24 0.89 0.89 0.64

25-34 Yrs 0.47 0.77 1.22 0.52

35-44 Yrs 0.56 1.08 1.44 0.91

45-54 Yrs 0.53 1.27 1.99 0.76

55-64 Yrs 0.51 1.40 * 1.39

RACE/ETHNICITY

White 0.70 1.11 1.92 1.18

Black 0.51 0.53 1.29 0.73

Hispanic 0.31 0.51 0.79 0.52

Other 0.36 0.75 1.14 0.54

EDUCATION

<High School 0.47 0.90 1.49 1.36

 High School Grad 0.67 1.04 1.69 1.16

Some College 0.48 1.29 1.50 1.02

College Grad 0.89 1.06 1.80 0.92

MARITAL STATUS

Married 0.64 1.48 1.91 1.16

Wid./Div./Sep. 0.41 0.95 1.22 0.75

Never Married 0.47 1.17 1.47 1.02

REGION

Northeast 0.83 1.44 1.64 1.52

North Central 1.08 1.67 1.83 1.25

South 0.93 1.35 1.82 1.68

West 0.83 1.34 1.66 1.12

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
72

Table SEA.1c Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Total Population Age

18-64 by Gender within Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Total Population Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

Demographic

Characteristic Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

AGE

18-19 Yrs 0.23 0.16 0.12 0.13 1.20 0.52 0.82 0.84 1.09 0.34

20-24 Yrs 0.37 0.31 0.30 0.33 1.76 0.81 1.29 1.25 1.32 0.54

25-34 Yrs 0.48 0.43 0.58 0.63 1.36 0.92 1.62 1.77 0.69 0.60

35-44 Yrs 0.57 0.62 0.73 0.81 1.43 1.38 2.27 1.82 1.08 1.11

45-54 Yrs 0.65 0.54 0.72 0.83 2.27 1.41 2.72 2.80 1.53 0.93

55-64 Yrs 0.75 0.71 0.77 0.76 * 1.58 * * 2.93 1.42

RACE/ETHNICITY 

White 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.84 2.13 1.06 2.52 2.39 2.08 1.23

Black 0.52 0.56 0.48 0.65 1.04 0.56 1.64 1.63 1.39 0.70

Hispanic 0.37 0.32 0.40 0.30 1.16 0.50 1.10 1.00 0.75 0.62

Other 0.39 0.34 0.40 0.46 1.52 0.74 * * 1.15 0.55

EDUCATION

<High School 0.69 0.62 0.60 0.49 1.92 0.92 2.24 1.82 2.47 1.41

High School Grad 0.74 0.59 0.84 0.84 1.81 1.22 2.25 2.31 2.30 1.31

 Some College 0.60 0.61 0.65 0.78 2.20 1.46 1.78 2.43 2.06 1.10

 College Grad 0.91 0.73 1.07 1.05 2.18 1.38 2.59 2.13 1.99 0.88

MARITAL STATUS

Married 0.79 0.66 0.77 0.90 2.69 1.39 2.64 2.67 2.69 1.05

Wid./Div./Sep. 0.44 0.41 0.48 0.67 1.81 0.88 1.42 1.87 1.52 0.78

Never Married 0.62 0.51 0.55 0.65 2.72 1.12 2.37 1.98 2.33 0.79

REGION

Northeast 0.96 0.91 1.00 0.83 2.66 1.57 2.35 2.12 2.17 1.56

North Central 1.21 0.96 1.23 1.09 3.07 1.63 2.44 2.06 2.00 1.34

South 1.14 0.94 1.13 1.01 2.31 1.43 2.65 2.26 2.92 1.66

West 0.90 0.79 0.96 0.84 2.81 1.19 2.10 2.29 2.00 1.34

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
73

Table SEA.1d Gender, Age, Racial/Ethnic, Educational, Marital, and Regional Distribution of Not in Labor

Force Population Age 18-64 by Category (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Demographic

Characteristic

Full-Time

Homemaker

Non-Working

Student Retired Disabled

GENDER 

Male 0.35 1.65 3.60 2.45

Female 0.35 1.65 3.60 2.45

AGE

18-19 Yrs 0.20 1.58 * *

20-24 Yrs 0.45 1.90 * *

25-34 Yrs 0.89 1.41 * 1.02

35-44 Yrs 1.40 * * 2.06

45-54 Yrs 1.23 * * 2.17

55-64 Yrs 1.72 * 2.35 2.92

RACE/ETHNICITY

White 1.44 2.22 2.28 2.90

Black 0.64 1.38 1.78 2.06

Hispanic 0.86 0.71 * 0.95

Other 0.69 1.21 * *

EDUCATION

<High School 1.70 1.59 3.15 3.14

 High School Grad 1.44 1.44 4.08 2.86

Some College 1.19 1.80 2.99 2.05

College Grad 1.16 1.30 * *

MARITAL STATUS

Married 0.85 1.64 2.70 2.94

Wid./Div./Sep. 0.65 0.64 2.57 2.49

Never Married 0.48 1.81 * 1.74

REGION

Northeast 1.80 2.19 * 2.56

North Central 1.69 2.72 3.34 2.42

South 2.00 3.51 3.96 3.74

West 1.68 2.52 * 2.60

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
74

Table SEA.2b Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for

Total Population Age 18-64 by Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Income Characteristic Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed Not in Labor Force1

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

<$10,000 0.15 1.03 1.38 1.02

$10,000 - $19,999 0.34 1.00 1.26 1.18

$20,000 - $29,999 0.43 0.87 1.19 0.97

$30,000 - $49,999 0.64 1.15 1.27 0.92

$50,000+ 0.85 1.51 1.83 1.17

SINGLE WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY2

0.08 0.22 0.28 0.16

RECEIVED SSI * * 0.52 0.72

RECEIVED AFDC 0.08 0.31 0.87 0.38

RECEIVED FOOD

STAMPS

0.19 0.73 1.44 0.94

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
75

Table SEA.2c Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for

Total Population Age 18-64 by Gender within Employment Status (STANDARD ERRORS),

1994-96

Total Population Full-Time Part-Time Unemployed

Not in Labor

Force1

Demographic

Characteristic Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

<$10,000 0.48 0.41 0.15 0.26 2.03 0.89 1.80 1.96 2.16 0.84

$10,000-$19,999 0.49 0.54 0.42 0.51 2.06 1.01 1.94 1.38 1.81 1.30

$20,000-$29,999 0.47 0.46 0.51 0.65 1.40 1.04 1.78 1.51 1.86 1.04

$30,000-$49,999 0.69 0.59 0.77 0.83 1.79 1.40 1.80 1.83 1.80 1.04

$50,000+ 0.92 0.89 0.96 1.12 2.02 1.84 2.66 2.52 2.31 1.22

SINGLE

WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY2

N/A 0.13 N/A 0.19 N/A 0.32 N/A 0.61 N/A 0.23

RECEIVED SSI 0.26 0.18 0.11 0.06 * * * * 1.65 0.58

RECEIVED

AFDC 0.10 0.23 * 0.16 * 0.33 1.28 1.30 * 0.54

RECEIVED

FOOD STAMPS 0.38 0.46 0.21 0.32 1.30 0.71 2.01 1.92 1.55 0.93

1 Includes full-time homemakers, non-working students, the retired, and the disabled. 2 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.
76

Table SEA.2d Annual Family Income Distribution and Percentage Designated Single Women Supporting a

Family, who Received Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC), and who Lived in a Household that Received Food Stamps for

Not in Labor Force Population Age 18-64 by Category (STANDARD ERRORS), 1994-96

Income Characteristic

Full-time

Homemaker

Non-Working

Student Retired Disabled

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

<$10,000 0.67 3.45 * 2.53

$10,000 - $19,999 1.40 1.26 3.34 2.70

$20,000 - $29,999 1.10 1.11 3.66 2.10

$30,000 - $49,999 1.23 1.59 3.25 1.99

$50,000+ 1.51 1.47 * *

SINGLE WOMAN

SUPPORTING A

FAMILY1 0.24 * * *

RECEIVED SSI 0.55 * * 2.67

RECEIVED AFDC 0.58 0.80 * 0.85

RECEIVED FOOD

STAMPS 1.00 1.30 * 2.68

1 Includes never married, widowed, divorced and separated women who live in a household with one or more children in which

there is no other person designated as head of the household.

* Estimate suppressed due to low precision.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1994-96.