EPA 747-B-98-001

December 1998

REVIEW OF STUDIES ADDRESSING

LEAD ABATEMENT EFFECTIVENESS:

UPDATED EDITION

Prepared by

BATTELLE

505 King Avenue

Columbus, Ohio 43201-2693

for

Technical Programs Branch

Chemical Management Division

Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Washington, DC 20460
ii

DISCLAIMER

The material in this report has been subject to Agency technical and policy

review, and approved for publication as an EPA report. Mention of trade names,

products, or services does not convey, and should not be interpreted as conveying,

official EPA approval, endorsement, or recommendation.

FURTHER INFORMATION

Additional copies of this report can be obtained by calling the National Lead

Information Center at 1-800-424-LEAD. This report and information about other

reports on lead can also be found on the World Wide Web at the address: 

http://www.epa.gov/lead.
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AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

This study was funded and managed by the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency. The review was conducted by Battelle Memorial Institute under contract to

the Environmental Protection Agency. Each organization’s responsibilities are listed

below.

Battelle Memorial Institute (Battelle)

Battelle was responsible for conducting the literature search, obtaining and

reviewing the identified articles and reports, developing the conclusions and

recommendations derived from the review, and preparing this report. In addition,

Battelle developed and utilized a biokinetic model of the mobilization of bone-lead

stores following an intervention.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

The Environmental Protection Agency was responsible for managing the

review, providing guidance on the objectives for the review and report, contributing

to the development of conclusions and recommendations, and coordinating the EPA

and peer reviews of the draft report. In addition, EPA provided access to study

results not yet available in the general literature. The EPA Work Assignment

Manager was Bradley D. Schultz. The EPA Project Officer was Sineta Wooten.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................. ix

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ..................................... 1

1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT ................................. 3

1.2 PEER REVIEW ............................................... 4

2.0 ASSESSING INTERVENTION EFFICACY .................................. 6

2.1 MEASURES OF INTERVENTION EFFICACY ........................... 6

2.2 PRIMARY VERSUS SECONDARY PREVENTION EFFICACY ................ 8

2.3 SOURCE APPORTIONMENT .................................... 11

3.0 REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE .................................... 14

3.1 SUMMARY OF PRIOR SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ........................ 14

3.2 RECENT LEAD HAZARD INTERVENTION STUDIES .................... 18

3.2.1 New York Paint Abatement Study ......................... 19

3.2.2 Baltimore Three-City Soil Abatement Study ................... 23

3.2.3. Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study .................. 26

3.2.4 Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study (Updated) ............. 30

3.2.5 Minneapolis Dust Intervention Study ....................... 36

3.2.6 Paris Paint Abatement Study ............................. 38

3.2.7 Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement Study .................. 40

3.2.8 Leadville/Lake County Educational Intervention Study ............ 42

3.2.9 Trail Dust Intervention Study ............................. 44

3.2.10 New Jersey’s Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction Dust Intervention

Study ............................................. 48

3.2.11 Boston Interim Dust Intervention Study ..................... 49

3.2.12 Rochester Educational Intervention Study .................... 53

3.2.13 Baltimore Repair & Maintenance Paint Abatement Study .......... 55

3.2.14 New Zealand Retrospective Paint Abatement Study ............. 59

3.2.15 East St. Louis Educational Intervention Study ................. 61

3.2.16 HUD Abatement Grant Program ........................... 63

3.2.17 Canadian Community-wide Approach (3 Studies) ............... 67

4.0 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE .................................. 72

4.1 ABATEMENT AND INTERIM CONTROL INTERVENTIONS ................ 73

4.2 EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS ................................ 80

5.0 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 82

5.1 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING EFFICACY OF LEAD HAZARD

INTERVENTION ............................................ 82

5.2 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING SPECIFIC INTERVENTION STRATEGIES ....... 87

5.2.1 Lead-Based Paint Intervention ............................ 87

5.2.2 Lead-Containing Dust Intervention ......................... 90

5.2.3 Lead-Containing Soil Intervention .......................... 91

5.3 ONGOING RESEARCH ........................................ 92

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...................... 94
TABLE OF CONTENTS

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6.0 REFERENCES ................................................... 97

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: ABSTRACTS OF STUDIES ADDRESSING LEAD ABATEMENT EFFECTIVENESS . A-1

A.1. NEW YORK PAINT ABATEMENT STUDY ........................... A-3

A.2. BALTIMORE THREE-CITY SOIL ABATEMENT STUDY ................... A-7

A.3. CINCINNATI THREE-CITY SOIL ABATEMENT STUDY ................. A-10

A.4. BOSTON THREE-CITY SOIL ABATEMENT STUDY .................... A-14

A.5. MINNEAPOLIS DUST INTERVENTION STUDY ....................... A-22

A.6. PARIS PAINT ABATEMENT STUDY .............................. A-26

A.7. BALTIMORE FOLLOW-UP PAINT ABATEMENT STUDY ................ A-30

A.8. LEADVILLE/LAKE COUNTY EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION STUDY ....... A-32

A.9. TRAIL DUST INTERVENTION STUDY ............................. A-34

A.10. NEW JERSEY’S CHILDREN’S LEAD EXPOSURE AND REDUCTION

DUST INTERVENTION STUDY ................................. A-40

A.11. BOSTON INTERIM DUST INTERVENTION STUDY .................... A-43

A.12. ROCHESTER EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION STUDY ................. A-47

A.13. BALTIMORE REPAIR & MAINTENANCE PAINT ABATEMENT STUDY ....... A-51

A.14. NEW ZEALAND RETROSPECTIVE PAINT ABATEMENT STUDY ........... A-56

A.15. EAST ST. LOUIS EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION STUDY ............... A-59

A.16. HUD ABATEMENT GRANT PROGRAM ............................ A-61

A.17. CANADIAN COMMUNITY-WIDE APPROACH (3 STUDIES) .............. A-68

APPENDIX B: SUMMARY OF BLOOD-LEAD CONCENTRATION, BODY-LEAD BURDEN,

AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA RESULTS FOR IDENTIFIED LEAD

HAZARD INTERVENTION STUDIES ............................... B-1

APPENDIX C: SUMMARIES/ABSTRACTS FROM 1995 REPORT ...................... C-1

C.1 SUMMARIES OF STUDIES ADDRESSING LEAD ABATEMENT EFFECTIVENESS . C-3

C.2 ABSTRACTS OF STUDIES ADDRESSING LEAD ABATEMENT EFFECTIVENESS C-36

APPENDIX D: REVIEW OF ABATEMENT METHODS ASSOCIATED WITH TEMPORARY

INCREASES IN BLOOD-LEAD LEVELS ............................. D-1

APPENDIX E: REVIEW OF PUBLISHED INFORMATION ON POST-INTERVENTION WIPE

DUST-LEAD LOADINGS ON FLOORS AND WINDOW SILLS .............. E-1

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1. Maximum Efficacy (%) of Primary Prevention For Blood-Lead Levels Observed at

25%, 50%, and 75% of Pre-Intervention Levels at 6, 12, 18, and 24 Months

(Estimated Standard Errors Shown in Parentheses) .................... 11

Table 4-1. Summary Information for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies ....... 74
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(Continued)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1. Selected Micro-Environments and Lead Hazards to Which a Child May Potentially

Be Exposed. ............................................... 13

Figure 3-1. Time-Line for the Lead Hazard Intervention Studies, Combined Over Both Reports,

with Studies Summarized in the Present Report Listed in Bold Face. ........ 20

Figure 3-2. Average Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) by Initial Home Environmental Score

(New York Paint Abatement Study). .............................. 22

Figure 3-3. Average Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) by Child’s HES Scores Consistently

Above or Below the Initial HES Median of 37 at All Three Household Assessments

(New York Paint Abatement Study) ............................... 23

Figure 3-4. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration by Sampling Round and Study Group

(Baltimore Three-City Soil Abatement Study). ........................ 25

Figure 3-5. Change in Blood-Lead Concentration Between Rounds 1 and 6 Plotted Against

Pre-Intervention Blood-Lead Concentration (Baltimore Three-City Soil Abatement

Study) ................................................... 26

Figure 3-6. Distribution of Interior Floor Dust-Lead Loading by Sampling Phase and Study Area

(Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study). ....................... 28

Figure 3-7. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration by Sampling Phase and Study Area

(Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study). ....................... 29

Figure 3-8. Change in Blood-Lead Concentration Plotted Against Pre-Intervention Blood-Lead

Concentration (Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study). ............. 30

Figure 3-9. Arithmetic Mean Blood-Lead Concentration Across Sampling Rounds and

Experimental Groups, Phase 1 (Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study

(Updated)) ................................................ 32

Figure 3-10. Arithmetic Mean Blood-Lead Concentration Across Sampling Rounds and

Experimental Groups, Phase I and II (Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study

(Updated)). ............................................... 33

Figure 3-11. Arithmetic Mean Environmental Lead Level (For Study Group) Across Sampling

Rounds (Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study (Updated)). ............ 34

Figure 3-12. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) for Pre- and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (Minneapolis Dust Intervention Study). ......... 37

Figure 3-13. Changes in Geometric Mean Floor Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Time Interval and

Surface Type (Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement Study). ............. 42

Figure 3-14. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration for All Children (n=66) and for

Children Who Received Educational Intervention (N=8) (Leadville/Lake County

 Educational Intervention Study). ................................ 43

Figure 3-15. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration for Pre- and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (Trail Dust Intervention Study). .............. 46

Figure 3-16. Mean Blood-Lead Concentration for Pre-Intervention and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (New Jersey’s Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction

Dust Intervention Study). ...................................... 49

Figure 3-17. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) for Pre- and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (Boston Interim Dust Intervention Study). ....... 52

Figure 3-18. Geometric Mean Floor, Window Sill, and Window Well Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

(Continued)

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for Pre- and Post-Intervention Measures, by Study Group (Boston Interim Dust

Intervention Study). ......................................... 52

Figure 3-19. Median Blood-Lead Concentration for Pre-Intervention and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (Rochester Educational Intervention Study) ...... 54

Figure 3-20. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration at Each Sampling Campaign, by

Study Group and Initial Blood-Lead Concentration (Baltimore Repair &

Maintenance Paint Abatement Study) ............................. 58

Figure 3-21. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration and Percentage of Children with

Blood-Lead Concentration $ 7.2 μg/dL, by Paint Removal Technique (New Zealand

Retrospective Paint Abatement Study) ............................ 60

Figure 3-22. Changes in Arithmetic and Geometric Mean Dust-Lead Loadings (μg/ft2) by Surface

Type and Sampling Round (East St. Louis Educational Intervention Study) .... 62

Figure 3-23. Median Dust-Lead Loading on Floors, Window Sills, and Window Troughs for

Units where Data were Reported at Pre-Intervention (Phase 1), Immediate

Post-Intervention (Phase 2), 6-Months Post-Intervention (Phase 3), and 12-Months

Post-Intervention (Phase 4) (HUD Abatement Grant Program) ............. 65

Figure 3-24. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentrations in Three Communities over Time

(Canadian Community-wide Approach (3 Studies)). .................... 69

Figure 5-1a. Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Lead Hazard

Abatement Studies and Interim Control Studies Targeting Lead-Based Paint. . . 84

Figure 5-1b. Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Cleaning and

Education Studies. .......................................... 85
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

This report updates the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency technical report, Review of

Studies Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness (EPA 747-R-95-006, July 1995), which

summarized the results of 16 lead hazard intervention studies. The original edition presented

results indicating that lead hazard interventions could reduce the blood-lead concentrations of

exposed children. However, only a limited variety of intervention strategies were documented in

the available literature and a number of data “gaps” were identified. Strategies seeking to prevent

a child from being exposed to the lead in her or his surrounding environment continue to be

studied and their resulting effectiveness is being reported in the scientific literature. This updated

report summarizes 19 additional studies available in the scientific literature. In deriving the

conclusions and recommendations cited in this updated report, all the available published data

were considered. The combined review presented herein was intended to aid in assessing the

potential benefits of rule-making under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), Title IV, and,

particularly, the §403 rule on lead hazards in paint, dust, and soil.

In this report, a lead hazard intervention is defined as any non-medical activity that seeks

to prevent a child from being exposed to the lead in his or her surrounding environment. The

literature on lead hazard intervention efficacy focuses on impeding the hand-to-mouth pathway of

childhood exposure to environmental lead sources by either abatement or interim controls. 

Abatement encompasses interventions that remove or permanently cover lead-based paint or soil

that contains lead. In contrast, interim controls may include paint stabilization (removal of only

deteriorated lead-based paint) or abatement of lead-containing dust, but the lead source is not

removed (e.g., intact lead-based paint or soil with elevated lead levels). Interim controls are

attractive in some cases because of their low up-front cost relative to many abatement techniques. 

This report also reviews the literature on educational interventions.

Whereas many of the studies summarized in the original technical report examined the

effectiveness of abating lead-based paint, the new studies tended to examine less extensive

intervention strategies utilizing paint stabilization or dust control efforts. Additional soil

abatement studies and educational studies are also now available. As a result, some of the data
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gaps identified in the earlier report have been at least partially filled. The new studies also

improve our understanding of how the many strategies may be used together in a comprehensive

lead hazard reduction program.

MAJOR FINDINGS

• There is a growing body of evidence that lead hazard interventions can reduce

exposed children’s blood-lead concentrations and dust-lead levels in homes.

• In many ways, the available data remain limited. Although there are now a number

of studies on the subject, few are large enough to provide substantial evidence of an

intervention’s effectiveness. No single intervention strategy stands out as markedly

superior. Given the limited data available, this does not imply that these strategies

are interchangeable. Rather, the comparability suggests that other relevant factors

should serve as the determinants of the strategy suitable for a given situation.

• Some approaches used in the past were hazardous and should be avoided. Methods

that have been clearly shown to be hazardous, such as open flame burning and types

of mechanical dry sanding, have been banned for lead abatement by EPA under

TSCA §402 and by some local governments. Moreover, certain other practices may

be ineffective, suggesting that care should be taken in choice of intervention strategy.

• The magnitude of the decline in an exposed child’s blood-lead concentration

observed following an intervention is a function of the child’s pre-intervention

blood-lead concentration. Greater declines are reported for children with higher

initial blood-lead concentrations. An intervention strategy reported as effective in

reducing the blood-lead concentrations of children above, say, 20 μg/dL, may not be

as successful among children with lower blood-lead concentrations.

• None of the intervention strategies studied to date have consistently brought

blood-lead concentrations below the level of concern (<10 μg/dL).

• It is possible that primary prevention, that is, preventing lead exposure before it

occurs in the first place, may be somewhat more successful than secondary

prevention. In addition, community wide efforts to reduce lead exposure might be

considerably more effective than efforts in individual homes in preventing elevated

blood-lead levels.

• Four critical data gaps remain: 1) no data exist regarding primary prevention

effectiveness rather than secondary; 2) little documentation is available regarding

the long-term effectiveness (i.e., greater than one year) of lead hazard intervention;

3) some promising intervention strategies, such as soil cover, encapsulation and

enclosure of lead-based paint, have received relatively little study; and 4) the reasons
xi

for blood-lead levels not being brought below 10 μg/dL are not well understood. 

However, some research is being done to address these critical data gaps.

DISCUSSION

Since the publication of the earlier review, a number of additional intervention strategies

have been studied and documented in the scientific literature. Some of these studies have helped

to fill some of the research “gaps” noted in the earlier review. Others, however, have

re-emphasized the need for investigation of certain remaining issues and prompted new questions. 

The research surrounding the effectiveness of lead hazard intervention strategies remains active

and large data gaps remain.

Though this report and the earlier edition summarize studies of the effectiveness of a range

of environmental and behavioral intervention strategies on their ability to reduce childhood lead

exposure, efficacy is measured only among already exposed children. The reported efficacy, then,

is termed “secondary prevention effectiveness.” Though most certainly noteworthy, secondary

prevention is not representative of the effectiveness being sought from the promulgation of lead

hazard control regulations such as the TSCA §403 standards for lead in dust, soil, and paint. The

§403 standards are primarily intended to prevent childhood lead exposure before it occurs and,

therefore, their efficacy will be assessed by measures of what is termed “primary prevention

effectiveness.” In the context of this report, primary prevention effectiveness is the prevention of

elevations in blood-lead concentrations associated with the conduct of the intervention before a

child has an elevated blood-lead level. Perhaps the most critical data gap, therefore, is the lack of

published results documenting primary prevention efficacy following an intervention. However,

primary prevention can be assumed to be at least as effective as secondary prevention and may be

considerably more effective.

When considering the effectiveness of an intervention, it is important to recognize that

childhood lead exposure stems from a number of media (e.g., interior paint, exterior paint,

including paint on windows, soil, interior house dust, exterior dust) across a range of

environments (e.g., child’s residence, school, playground, friend’s residence). Children may

derive their exposure primarily from a single residential source, which may be successfully

targeted by an intervention. Alternatively, incremental exposures to several lesser sources may be

sufficient to cause moderately elevated blood-lead levels. Unless an intervention targets all the
xii

sources of a child’s lead exposure, therefore, even an intervention that fully abates the targeted

source will not produce a 100% decline in the child’s blood-lead concentration (if such a decline

is even physiologically possible). If other sources of lead remain unaffected by the intervention,

lead exposure may continue and the child’s blood-lead concentration may remain at least partially

elevated. Caution should accompany any effort to extend results observed among children with

more elevated blood-lead concentrations to those with lower levels.

Declines in blood-lead concentration on the order of 25% were reported for extensive,

carefully managed projects which abated sources of lead, as well as for interim controls. A range

of lead hazard intervention strategies were documented to have a statistically significant positive

“effect” on the blood-lead concentrations of exposed children in comparison to a control group. 

Lead-based paint abatement, dust lead intervention, soil lead intervention, and educational

intervention were documented to have at least the potential for producing significantly greater

declines in blood-lead concentration among children benefitting from the intervention than among

a control population of children. The efficacy of these interventions is characterized as

“potential” because not every case of the type of intervention strategy was effective. The specific

details of the effective intervention strategies were critical. In addition, none of the studied

intervention strategies was consistently effective in reducing children’s blood-lead concentrations

to a level below the level of concern (< 10 μg/dL, as recommended by CDC, 1997).

It should be noted, finally, that the comparability in effectiveness of a range of intervention

strategies does not imply these strategies are interchangeable. Instead, it suggests that other

factors should determine which strategy is suitable for a given situation. These factors include the

strategy’s cost (both up-front and long-term), its viability, the type of lead exposure facing the

child, and the expected long-term efficacy.
1

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) technical report, “Review of Studies

Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness” (EPA 747-R-95-006), published in July 1995,

summarized the results of 16 lead hazard intervention studies. That report was a comprehensive

review of the scientific literature available at that time regarding the effectiveness of lead hazard

intervention. This report updates that literature review and summarizes 19 additional studies that

add to the body of scientific literature on this topic. This updated review is intended to aid in

assessing the potential benefits of rulemaking under Title IV of the Toxic Substances Control Act

(TSCA), specifically the TSCA §403 standards for lead in dust, soil, and paint. As in the original

edition, a lead hazard intervention is defined as any non-medical activity that seeks to prevent a

child from being exposed to the lead in his or her surrounding environment. An intervention,

therefore, may range from the abatement of lead-based paint to the education of parents and

children regarding the dangers of a young child’s hand-to-mouth activity. Intervention strategies

employed by specific studies may combine activities that attempt to remove or isolate a source of

lead exposure through abatement or interim controls with activities that attempt to reduce a

child’s lead exposure by modifying parental or child behavior patterns. In this report, abatement

encompasses interventions that are intended to remove or permanently cover lead-based paint or

soil that contains lead. While the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD,

1995) has adopted a stricter definition, many studies do not provide enough information to

determine whether the studied abatement meets that standard. Interventions that employ interim

controls may include paint stabilization (removal of only deteriorated lead-based paint) or

abatement of lead-containing dust, when the lead source (e.g., intact lead-based paint or soil with

elevated lead levels) is not removed.

Substantial effort has been focused on the development and demonstration of methods for

reducing childhood lead exposure and body-lead burden by applying interventions which seek to

address environmental lead hazards. It is expected that these interventions will prevent or reduce

(at least temporarily) further exposure and produce positive health outcomes. The extent to

which recently published scientific literature supports this expectation is characterized in this

report. Information on the effectiveness of lead hazard intervention in reducing childhood lead

exposure was compiled in the earlier technical report (USEPA, 1995a) and in other reports
2

covering much of the same material (Burgoon et al., 1995; Staes and Rhinehart, 1995). For

reference, substantial portions of the earlier U.S. EPA technical report are provided in

Appendix C, with minor revisions to improve format or to incorporate newly available

information. The studies included in these reports address the efficacy of specific intervention

strategies employed to reduce exposure to lead-based paint, elevated soil-lead levels, and elevated

dust-lead levels. Moreover, these studies all sought to characterize interventions targeting already

exposed children rather than unexposed children. As such, the studies measured “secondary”

rather than “primary” prevention efforts. That is, secondary prevention is defined as preventing

future lead exposure in a child who has already been exposed and has an elevated blood-lead

level. Primary prevention, on the other hand, is defined as preventing lead exposure before the

child has been adversely exposed to lead, that is, before the child has an elevated blood-lead level. 

The literature currently documents no primary prevention studies, though at least one such study

is under way.

In reviewing these studies, it is important to consider epidemiologic issues that may affect

the interpretation of reported results. These issues include the method of selecting subjects, the

method of assigning subjects to treatment groups, the presence of a control group, seasonal trends

in blood-lead concentrations, and age-related behavior patterns that are associated with lead

exposure. Practical constraints may dictate how a study is designed and how well the

investigators are able to control these factors. For example, most studies enroll children with at

least moderately elevated blood-lead levels. Thus, the study of primary prevention effectiveness is

difficult. In some cases, children cannot be randomly allocated to treatment groups. For ethical

reasons, children with greater elevations are automatically assigned more extensive interventions. 

In addition, controlling for factors such as seasonal and age-related trends can be incompatible

goals. The optimal follow-up period for minimizing seasonal variation is one year. Yet, in that

time, behavioral changes are likely to occur in young children, which can affect lead exposure. 

For this reason, it is best to include a comparable control population in the study. However, it is

not always possible to include a control group, particularly when the target population is children

with blood-lead concentrations above 20 μg/dL. Finally, many factors are beyond the control of

the investigators. These include families that move, problems in gaining the consent of both

tenants and landlords, and local regulations that limit options for studied interventions and group
3

assignments. These factors are inherent difficulties in the study of lead hazard intervention

effectiveness.

The earlier edition of this report noted evidence that indicated lead hazard interventions

could effectively reduce the blood-lead concentrations of exposed children. However, only a

limited variety of intervention strategies were documented and a number of data “gaps” were

identified in the body of research (e.g., long-term effectiveness and efficacy among children with

blood-lead concentrations less than 20 μg/dL). It was hoped that additional research might now

be available to address these issues. This updated edition was initiated to consider the latest

research regarding intervention effectiveness. This report summarizes both the newer and

previously reported studies related to intervention effectiveness.

1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

Following in Section 2 is a discussion of the measures for assessing the efficacy of an

intervention strategy, primary versus secondary prevention, and source apportionment. Section 3

is a review of the scientific evidence. Section 3.1 summarizes the results of the original 16 studies

that were presented in the 1995 technical report, including recent information from these studies. 

In Section 3.2, 19 additional studies are summarized that have examined the extent to which lead

hazard intervention results in reduced lead exposure and lower blood-lead levels in children. A

summary of the previous and additional scientific evidence is presented in Section 4. This

summary focuses on how the new information adds to the body of literature reviewed in the

technical report. Section 5 presents the conclusions and recommendations derived from the

review. Included at the end of the report are references, an Appendix A which contains abstracts

of the 19 studies, and an Appendix B which contains tables that summarize the blood-lead and

environmental-lead levels over all studies. Two additional appendices contain updated portions of

the 1995 technical report. Appendix C contains the 16 individual study summaries from

Chapter 3, as well as each study’s abstract from Appendix A of the 1995 edition. Appendix D

reproduces Appendix B of the 1995 edition, a review of abatement methods associated with

temporary increases in blood-lead levels. Appendix E contains a draft report that reviews

published information on post-intervention wipe dust-lead loadings on floors and window sills. 

This report was prepared to support efforts to re-evaluate and refine the §403 risk analysis
4

assumptions on post-intervention wipe dust-lead loadings. The material in this appendix should

be considered a preliminary, informational draft, unlike the rest of the report, which received

extensive review.

1.2 PEER REVIEW

This report was reviewed independently by members of a peer review panel. In general,

the peer reviewers concluded that the report was comprehensive, accurate, and relevant to current

policy concerns. However, the peer reviewers did provide useful suggestions for revisions, as

well as important issues to consider when interpreting the results. Comments that were either

important for interpreting the results or resulted in significant modifications to the report are

discussed below.

Many of the comments requested additional detail, clarification of the methods used,

improved figures, or additional interpretation of results reported by specific studies. To the extent

possible, we added the requested information. The largest item was probably the revision of the

summary of the HUD Abatement Grant program. The original review was based on data reported

in the Fourth Interim Report on that study, dated March 1997. The Fifth Interim Report came

out as we were completing the peer review draft of this report. The additional results were

incorporated in the report. In addition, one reviewer pointed out that we had not used the EPA

integrated analysis (USEPA, 1996e) in our summary of the “Three Cities” studies. Since these

studies are summarized separately in Section 3.2 and Appendix A, we added a brief summary of

the conclusions of that report in Section 4.1, where the studies are summarized together.

Several comments pointed out discrepancies in terminology between that used by HUD

and that used in this report: (1) we do not use HUD’s definition of abatement as a treatment

lasting 10-20 years; (2) lead-based paint inspections reported by specific studies may not conform

to HUD Guidelines (HUD, 1995) or may not have been performed by certified inspectors; and (3)

the clearance testing criteria used in specific studies may not be consistent with HUD Guidelines

recommendations. In general, we do not apply the HUD standards, as very few of the

intervention studies applied the HUD criteria. Even the most detailed reports fail to provide

enough information to determine whether the intervention would meet these standards. Although
5

we could not fully address these concerns, we felt it important to point out the discrepancy here,

as well as in the report.

One reviewer did not agree with our use of declines in blood-lead concentration as the

primary measure of intervention effectiveness and recommended we put more emphasis on

changes in dust-lead levels. Although we disagreed with the comment, we did review the

information presented and provided additional dust-lead results for some studies. A draft report

on post-intervention dust-lead loadings on floors and window sills was added in Appendix E in

response to this comment. We also revised Section 2.1 to better present our reasoning for

selecting blood-lead concentrations as our primary measure of effectiveness.

One reviewer pointed out that comparisons of dust-lead loadings between studies can be

difficult when different sampling methods are used and suggested that we recommend future

researchers use wipe sampling as at least one method. In response to this comment, we added

material to Section 5.4 making this recommendation and others that would improve comparability

of results across intervention studies.

Several comments pointed out the importance of control populations in assessing the

effect of an intervention in the presence of confounding factors, such as age and seasonal trends in

blood-lead levels. In response to these comments, we revised the discussion defining the “effect”

of an intervention as the change in blood-lead concentration beyond that observed in comparison

to a comparable control population (Section 2.1). We also modified the text to reinforce the

definition, wherever the term is used. In addition, we were careful to point out where control

populations were used and where they were not in the individual study summaries, Figure 5-1,

and Table 4-1.

EPA has established a public record for the peer review under Administrative Record 151. 

The record is available in the TSCA Nonconfidential Information Center, which is open from

noon to 4 PM Monday through Friday, except legal holidays. The TSCA Nonconfidential

Information Center is located in Room NE-B607, Northeast Mall, 401 M Street SW, Washington,

D.C.
6

2.0 ASSESSING INTERVENTION EFFICACY

2.1 MEASURES OF INTERVENTION EFFICACY

When reviewing studies assessing the effectiveness of lead hazard intervention, there are a

variety of environmental, behavioral, and/or physiological parameters that have been used to

quantify efficacy. The goal when summarizing these studies is to utilize a measure which

adequately reflects the potential benefit or detriment resulting from the intervention. 

Interventions are undertaken to reduce or eliminate environmental lead exposure, with the aim of

positively impacting the health of resident (either current or future) children or adults. Young

children (i.e., under six years of age) are the population most at risk from lead exposure and, as a

result, are the group expected to benefit from most of the intervention procedures commonly

employed. A suitable measure of efficacy, therefore, should reflect the impact of the intervention

on the health of affected children. For reasons discussed in this section, we have chosen to use

the change in blood-lead concentration of resident children as the primary measure of intervention

effectiveness in this report.

It would be ideal to precisely measure particular health outcomes stemming from lead

exposure, such as decreased learning deficits or increased motor coordination, among children

benefitting from an intervention. In fact, one study of moderately exposed children (Ruff et al.,

1993) reported increased cognitive function six months following a set of interventions. 

Unfortunately, identifying health outcomes following intervention is not always feasible; such

outcomes may not manifest themselves for a long period of time. More importantly, many of the

health benefits are subtle and, as such, are complicated and costly to measure and verify.

Recognizing lead-related health outcomes is particularly difficult if the child was not

exhibiting symptoms of adverse lead exposure before the intervention was initiated. In such

instances, intervention efficacy may have to be assessed using tests of learning aptitude or

intelligence quotient (IQ). This approach was utilized in the aforementioned study of cognitive

function (Ruff et al., 1993). The small differences usually recorded for these measures require

larger sample sizes to statistically verify the benefit following intervention. For these reasons, it

may be difficult and expensive to perform a sufficiently large study to demonstrate an

intervention’s effectiveness in this manner. As was seen in the earlier summary report and will be
7

seen in the reviews in Section 3.0, none of the identified studies (save the Ruff et al. study)

measured specific health outcomes associated with their interventional practice.

Consistent with these limitations, measures of body burden such as blood-lead

concentration usually are utilized as biomarkers of lead exposure and intervention effectiveness. 

Such measures indicate the extent to which the intervention impacts affected children and serve as

biomarkers of lead exposure. There is extensive evidence that measures of body-lead burden are

associated with lead levels in environmental media (USEPA, 1986; CDC, 1991, 1997). Three of

the measures of body-lead burden reported in the literature are bone-lead content, blood-lead

concentration, and erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) blood concentration. Bone-lead levels are

considered to be reflective of cumulative exposure to lead, but their determination is currently

either expensive or invasive. More importantly, the accuracy and representativeness of bone-lead

concentrations measured externally by an x-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument has been

questioned by many researchers (Wedeen, 1988). Blood-lead and EP levels can be more readily

measured, but reflect a varying mixture of long-term and more recent exposure (ATSDR, 1993;

Janin et al., 1985; Hernberg et al., 1970). Despite the complex interaction of prior and current

exposure evident in measured blood-lead concentrations, they are still the measure of choice for

most studies of intervention effectiveness.

There is an extensive body of literature relating blood-lead concentrations to specific

health outcomes stemming from lead exposure, though much of it examined children with levels

of exposure usually indicative of lead poisoning (USEPA, 1986). More recent evidence has been

reported suggesting that even low levels of exposure, as measured via blood-lead levels, are

associated with learning deficits (CDC, 1991, 1997; Goyer, 1993; Schwartz, 1994). The Centers

for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) state that, “Blood lead levels (BLLs) as low as

10 μg/dL are associated with harmful effects on children’s ability to learn” (CDC, 1997). Though

this documented association is not based on interventional studies (with the exception of Ruff et

al., 1993), it is strongly suggestive. Blood-lead concentration is associated with environmental

lead exposure and linked to health outcomes. Reductions in blood-lead concentration, therefore,

can be used to measure the results of intervention.

It is important to note that the effect of an intervention on blood-lead concentration is the

change in concentration above and beyond that due to factors other than the strategy itself. The
8

blood-lead concentration of a child may change due to factors unrelated to the intervention, such

as seasonal variation, the growth of the child, behavioral changes stemming from an increased

awareness of the health risk from lead, or simply random variation. In some studies, these

decreases unrelated to the intervention are characterized by examining a comparable control

population. For these studies, we are able to estimate the “effect” of an intervention, adjusting for

the blood-lead concentration change observed in the control population. As a number of the

identified studies did not examine a control population, we also report the blood-lead

concentration reductions of the study population as the “efficacy” or “effectiveness” of the

strategy employed.

When it is impractical or inappropriate to measure blood-lead concentrations, changes in

the lead levels of surrounding environmental media can provide valuable information. Such

measures cannot directly demonstrate the intervention’s impact on affected children. 

Environmental measures can, however, be used to evaluate and confirm the effectiveness of a

particular procedure in reducing or eliminating a targeted lead hazard. Environmental measures

are particularly appropriate for comparing different abatement procedures implemented on the

same lead hazards and for assessing how successfully a particular source of the lead hazard is

reduced. For example, dust-lead loading measurements on surfaces following their abatement can

be used to demonstrate the superiority of one practice over another.

In the reviews and discussions that follow, any result which appears useful in assessing

intervention efficacy is reported. However, the primary measure used in this report, as was the

case in the original report, is change in the blood-lead concentrations of exposed children. This

measure of body-lead burden is commonly employed when assessing lead exposure and was

collected in a majority of the identified studies.

2.2 PRIMARY VERSUS SECONDARY PREVENTION EFFICACY

Though this report and the earlier review summarize studies of the effectiveness of a range

of behavioral and environmental intervention strategies on their ability to reduce childhood lead

exposure, efficacy is measured only among already exposed children. The reported efficacy, then,

is termed “secondary prevention effectiveness.” Though most certainly noteworthy, secondary

prevention intervention effectiveness is not representative of the effectiveness being sought from
9

the promulgation of lead hazard control regulations such as TSCA Title IV. The Title IV (§403)

standards for lead in dust, soil, and paint are primarily intended to prevent childhood lead

exposure before it occurs and, therefore, their efficacy will be assessed by measures of what is

termed, “primary prevention effectiveness.” In the context of this report, primary prevention

effectiveness is the prevention of elevations in blood-lead concentrations stemming from conduct

of the intervention before a child has an elevated blood-lead concentration.

The absence of studies documenting the primary prevention effectiveness of an

intervention strategy is not surprising, since such a study is inherently difficult. How does one

document the increase in blood-lead concentrations prevented by an intervention? One approach

reportedly being utilized in a CDC study is to contrast the blood-lead concentrations of children

exposed to a lead hazard with that of their younger siblings (presumably not yet exposed to the

same hazard) benefitting from the intervention conducted once the hazard was identified. Such a

difference assumes no other differences (e.g., increased awareness of the hazard from

environmental lead or improved house cleaning practices) between the environments and

behaviors of the contrasted children. Given the challenges inherent to studying primary

prevention, it is likely only a few such studies will ever be available.

Secondary prevention efficacy results are not necessarily representative of those expected

from primary prevention because, as was noted earlier, lead present in blood is a combination of

current environmental exposure and internal sources of lead. A significant internal source of lead

is bone tissue. After prolonged exposure to lead, bone tissue retains much more lead than the

other body tissues (Barry and Mossman, 1970; Barry, 1975; Barry, 1981; Schroeder and Tipton,

1968; and Leggett et al., 1982). Nordberg et al. (1991) suggest that bone can become an internal

source of lead during periods of reduced external exposure to lead; (see also Hyrhorczuk et al.,

1985; Rabinowitz et al., 1976; and Rabinowitz, 1991). Any reported declines in blood-lead

concentration among already exposed children, therefore, may underestimate the primary

prevention effectiveness of the associated intervention strategy.

Given these issues one obvious question is whether secondary prevention results might be

“translated” into primary prevention results. Unfortunately, there is limited empirical evidence

regarding the extent to which bone-lead stores are able to keep blood-lead levels elevated

following an intervention, especially concerning children. One study (Markowitz et al., 1993)
10

measured bone-lead levels in children before and after an intervention, but found no significant

decline in the levels over a period of six weeks. Despite the lack of studies concerning children,

Nordberg et al. (1991) claim that “skeletal turnover is highest among children under 10 years of

age.” Several studies have been conducted to study bone-lead mobilization in adults (Wrenn

et al., 1972; Cohen et al., 1973; Rabinowitz et al., 1973; Batschelet et al., 1979; Heard and

Chamberlain, 1984; Marcus, 1985; Christoffersson et al., 1986; Cristy et al., 1986; Schutz et al.,

1987; Bert et al., 1989; Nilsson et al., 1991; and Gulson et al., 1995). For example, Gulson et al.

(1995) show that 45% to 70% of lead in the blood of adult women comes from long-term tissue

stores, primarily the bone tissue. A similar result was observed in another study on five adult

subjects undergoing knee and hip replacement (Smith et al., 1996).

If, despite the limited data, the contribution of mobilized bone-lead stores can be

characterized, it would be possible to translate the documented secondary prevention results into

estimated primary prevention results. An effort at such a translation was presented in the

sensitivity analysis of the TSCA §403 Risk Assessment report (USEPA, 1998b). The approach

was based on a bone-lead mobilization model developed (Rust et al., 1999) to estimate the degree

to which bone-lead stores could mask the full effectiveness of an intervention by mobilizing into

the child’s blood. Table 2-1 was the end result of this effort. In particular, Table 2-1 presents the

estimated primary prevention effectiveness (with the standard error of the estimate noted in

parentheses) associated with an intervention strategy documented to have a specific secondary

prevention effectiveness when measured a specific period of time following the intervention. For

example, from Table 2-1, if a 25% decline in blood-lead concentration is reported for exposed

two-year-old children 12 months following a given secondary prevention intervention, the

estimated primary prevention decline would be 33%. The estimated standard error for this

estimate would be 8% as shown in the parentheses. Using Table 2-1, it is possible to estimate the

primary prevention effectiveness associated with the intervention strategies documented in the

scientific literature given their reported secondary prevention effectiveness (if such effectiveness is

reported in terms of reduced blood-lead concentrations).

Empty cells in Table 2-1 indicate that those scenarios cannot possibly occur based on the

bone-lead mobilization model. For example, for a 7-year old, the impact of mobilized bone-lead 
11

Table 2-1. Maximum Efficacy (%) of Primary Prevention For Blood-Lead Levels

Observed at 25%, 50%, and 75% of Pre-Intervention Levels at 6, 12, 18,

and 24 Months (Estimated Standard Errors Shown in Parentheses)

Observed Efficacy

of Secondary

Prevention(a)

Child’s Age at Time

 of Intervention

(years)

Length of Time(b)

(months)

6 12 18 24

25%

1 39 (16) 30 (5) 28 (3) 27 (2)

2 47 (18) 33 (8) 30 (4) 28 (3)

3 56 (21) 36 (14) 31 (7) 29 (4)

4 67 (25) 41 (19) 34 (10) 31 (6)

5 79 (27) 47 (19) 37 (14) 33 (8)

6 91 (32) 53 (21) 40 (19) 35 (12)

7 59 (22) 44 (19) 37 (15)

50%

1 78 (32) 60 (9) 56 (5) 55 (4)

2 94 (36) 65 (16) 59 (8) 56 (6)

3 73 (27) 63 (13) 59 (8)

4 83 (37) 68 (21) 62 (13)

5 93 (38) 73 (29) 66 (17)

6 81 (37) 70 (24)

7 89 (37) 75 (31)

75%

1 90 (14) 84 (8) 82 (5)

2 98 (25) 89 (13) 85 (9)

3 94 (20) 88 (13)

4 93 (19)

5 98 (25)

6

7

Note: An empty cell means that the scenario is not possible according to model predictions.

 

(a) This is equivalent to the observed percent decline in an exposed child's blood-lead levels at a specified

time following the intervention.

 

(b) This is equivalent to the length of time following the intervention when the decline was observed.

stores would be estimated to preclude a 25% decline in blood-lead concentration at 6 months,

even for a 100% effective intervention. Estimates of primary prevention efficacy under these

“impossible” scenarios were not meaningful and, therefore, were not presented.

Consistent with the limited data available on bone-lead mobilization, the standard errors

reported parenthetically in Table 2-1 are quite large. This considerable degree of uncertainty

should be considered when interpreting any “translated” primary prevention efficacies derived

from published secondary prevention effectiveness results.
12

2.3 SOURCE APPORTIONMENT

When considering the effectiveness of an intervention strategy in reducing a child’s bloodlead concentration, it is important to recognize the many different avenues by which a child may

be exposed to lead. An intervention will be most efficacious if it targets those sources and

pathways of lead exposure most responsible for the child’s elevated lead burden. A child’s daily

lead exposure may occur across a number of micro-environments and lead hazards. Here, a

micro-environment is defined as a location where a child spends a portion of his/her time. A lead

hazard is defined as a potential source of lead exposure. Figure 2-1 presents an example of the

micro-environments and lead hazards to which a child may be exposed. The pathways of the

exposure are indicated by directional arrows. Note that the potential lead hazards can vary across

micro-environments. The studies discussed in this report each involve the abatement or

intervention of lead hazards at the primary residence of the child.

The actual micro-environments and lead hazards that constitute a child’s exposure may

vary from child to child. One child may play in dust containing high lead levels at her residence

and soil containing high lead levels at a day care center. A second child may obtain his exposure

largely from lead-contaminated dust at a friend’s house. As a result, an abatement can only

reduce a child’s lead exposure to a degree consistent with the extent to which the targeted source

of exposure represents a hazard to the child. For example, if lead-based paint in the primary

residence were responsible for 50% of a child’s lead exposure, even a 100% effective abatement

of the paint can only reduce the child’s lead burden by 50%.

The efficacy of an intervention within a particular micro-environment is affected by the

pathways of lead exposure targeted by the intervention. Each of the environmental lead hazards

can be categorized as either an original source of lead or an environmental medium which acts as

a reservoir for lead deposition. Major sources of lead in the environment include lead-based

paint, industrial emissions, gasoline, and solder, although the lead arising from these sources has

been reduced markedly during the time span of the reviewed studies. Lead from these sources

can then accumulate in environmental media such as soil, dust, air, food and water. When an

intervention strategy includes abatement of one of these environmental media, it is important to

determine whether or not the media will become recontaminated from unabated sources. For

example, abating lead-containing dust within a residence will potentially result in only transient 
13

 Child

 Soil

Exterior

Soil

Interior

Dust

 Soil

Playground

Primary Residence Friend's Residence

School/Day Care Center

Exterior

Dust

Interior

Dust

Exterior

Dust Soil

Interior

Dust

 Soil Exterior

Dust

Figure 2-1. Selected Micro-Environments and Lead Hazards to Which a Child May

Potentially Be Exposed.

declines in the blood-lead levels of resident children. If the unabated source of lead

(e.g., deteriorating lead-based paint) recontaminates the dust, the child’s blood-lead concentration

may rapidly return to its earlier level. In a similar way, an intervention may target an existing

reservoir of lead (e.g., lead-based paint), but not the intermediate media by which children are

exposed to that reservoir (e.g., lead contaminated dust). The effectiveness of the intervention

would then be delayed depending upon the rate at which the contamination of environmental

media dissipates.

Each of the interventions that are discussed in this report can be viewed as an attempt to

reduce or eliminate one or more of a child’s lead exposure pathways. Within a

micro-environment, the intervention should be targeted at those exposure pathways that have the

greatest effect on the health of the child. The success of an intervention is ultimately determined

by the magnitude of the reduction in the body-lead burden of a child. Potentially, an intervention

could be successful in reducing a particular environmental lead exposure and yet produce no

positive impact in a child only marginally exposed to the abated lead hazard.
14

3.0 REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

Strategies seeking to prevent a child from being exposed to the lead in her or his

surrounding environment continue to be studied and their resulting effectiveness reported in the

scientific literature. The original edition of this review contained a number of studies utilizing

relatively extensive intervention strategies such as lead-based paint abatement and leadcontaminated soil abatement. Since the publication of the original edition, additional lead hazard

intervention studies have been reported. Many of these new studies examine less extensive

interventions utilizing educational strategies, dust control efforts, paint stabilizations, and other

interim control measures. As a result, a number of the data gaps identified in the earlier report

have been at least partially filled. More importantly, a more robust picture of the relative

efficacies of paint, soil, dust and educational interventions is now available, as well as an enhanced

understanding of how the many strategies fit together in a comprehensive lead hazard reduction

program. However, many fundamental questions remain, some of which are being examined by

current studies.

Section 3.1 is a slightly updated summary of the original edition of this report and the

studies documented therein. This summary facilitates consideration of the recently published

studies. Section 3.2 provides a summary of each of the new studies, arranged in chronological

order. Each study summary reviews the study’s objective, design, results, and derived

conclusions. A more detailed abstract of each study is available in Appendix A. The

corresponding summaries and abstracts from the prior report are reproduced (with minor updates)

in Appendix C. Summary tables which had been included in the prior report have been expanded

to include the new studies. The expanded tables are presented in Section 4.0 and Appendix B.

3.1 SUMMARY OF PRIOR SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

The literature on lead hazard intervention efficacy available at the time of the original

review focused on impeding the hand-to-mouth pathway of childhood exposure to environmental

lead sources. The emphasis on this exposure pathway seems appropriate since it is recognized in

the literature as the predominant pathway in young children (USEPA, 1986; CDC, 1997; ATSDR,

1988; USEPA, 1998b). The pathway may be disrupted by a variety of means including the
15

abatement of lead-based paint, dust-lead level reduction procedures, and lead-contaminated soil

abatement.

The literature was limited in its scope. It only covered some of the many abatement types

and methods used in practice. However, the studies suggest that both abatement and interim

control methods were at least partially effective in reducing blood-lead concentrations. There was

no definitive evidence in the literature that one of these categories of methods was more

efficacious than the other, and yet there are disadvantages to both. For example, interim controls

require sustained effort to maintain their effectiveness. Abatement methods, in turn, sometimes

have an accompanying risk of at least short-term elevation of residents’ blood-lead levels that

must be factored into any summary of intervention effectiveness. The methods responsible for the

elevated blood-lead levels were identified and summarized in Appendix B of the original edition,

which has been reproduced in Appendix D of this updated edition. The hazardous methods

identified in this report are now prohibited under the TSCA §402 abatement practices standards

and by some local laws as well.

The results of 10 paint abatement studies were examined. The literature suggested that

the efficacy of these methods depended in part on the safeguards employed to protect the

occupants and their residential environment during abatement. In the 1984-1985 Boston

Retrospective (Amitai et al., 1991) and 1984-1985 Baltimore Traditional/Modified (Farfel and

Chisolm, 1990) paint abatement studies, average blood-lead levels were observed to increase 16%

to 19%, on average, during abatement and remain elevated following the intervention. The levels

in Baltimore were elevated one month following intervention, but in Boston they had decreased

by two months post-abatement. In the case of the Baltimore study, the authors suggested that the

increase stemmed from incomplete abatement or insufficient clean-up following the abatement. 

Dust-lead levels within the dwelling were exacerbated, which led the authors to the conclusion

that environmental exposure had merely been shifted from one medium to another. In both the

Boston and Baltimore studies, elevated blood-lead levels were associated particularly with the

dry-scraping and heat-gun abatement methods which were performed in 1984-1985.

In the Boston Retrospective study, lead-based paint abatement methods such as

encapsulation, enclosure, and replacement were associated with an average reduction of 2 to

3 μg/dL in blood-lead concentrations. The results of the HUD Abatement Demonstration (HUD
16

Demo) study (HUD, 1991, 1990) also suggest that clearance standards may be easier to meet via

encapsulation and enclosure methods than via removal methods. The Denver Comprehensive

Abatement Performance (CAP) study (USEPA 1996a, 1996b) indicated that long-term interior

dust-lead levels were somewhat higher, though not statistically higher, in encapsulation/enclosure

homes than in removal homes. However, this may have been largely a result of the more severe

initial conditions in encapsulation/enclosure houses. Still, in samples collected from floors and

window sills, both types of abatement methods resulted in 18- to 24-month follow-up dust-lead

levels below HUD Guidelines (HUD, 1990) standards. Since the HUD Demo and Denver CAP

studies followed units that were vacant before abatement, no changes in residents’ blood-lead

levels were available.

Lead-based paint removal methods were shown to lower the blood-lead levels of

inhabitants in the Boston Retrospective (Amitai et al., 1991), Central Massachusetts

Retrospective (Swindell et al., 1994), 1982 St. Louis Retrospective (Copley, 1983), 1990

St. Louis Retrospective (Staes et al., 1994), New York Chelation (Rosen et al., 1991; Markowitz

et al., 1993; Ruff et al., 1993), and Milwaukee (Schultz, 1993) studies. These studies reported

18% to 29% declines in the blood-lead concentration of affected residents. Comparable or larger

post-intervention declines were identified for other body-lead burden measures in the New York

Chelation (Rosen et al., 1991; Markowitz et al., 1993; Ruff et al., 1993) and 1982 St. Louis

Retrospective (Copley, 1983) studies. The declines were manifest as soon as 6 weeks after

abatement. The magnitudes of these reductions may be disappointing to some. The remaining

lead in the blood (20-29% declines leave about 75% of the lead still present) may be due to any

number of reasons including the mobilization of bone-lead stores, the incomplete abatement of the

lead-based paint and elevated dust-lead, and the potential for exposure from sources besides the

child’s primary residence. Since bone-lead stores could not by themselves keep blood-lead levels

elevated for 12 months post-abatement (Rust et al., 1999), the latter reasons seem plausible as

contributors to elevated blood-lead concentrations.

There was evidence to suggest that lead-based paint abatement, by itself, may not

completely eliminate lead exposure, because of the potential recontamination from unabated

sources. In the Denver CAP Study (USEPA, 1996a, 1996b), geometric mean lead concentrations

in unabated air ducts and soils were found to be significantly higher in abated houses as compared
17

to control houses that contained little or no lead-based paint. Moreover, geometric mean dustlead loadings in window wells were above HUD Guideline levels (800 μg/ft2

) for both abated and

control houses.

Interim control methods were employed in two studies. It seems unlikely that these

methods aggravate childhood lead exposure if performed improperly. Once such techniques are

discontinued, however, the dust-lead hazard may return. The Baltimore Dust Control Study

(Charney et al., 1983) focused on managing the dust-lead hazard after partial removal of the

lead-based paint hazard identified within the residence. The Baltimore study noted that, “in most

homes the initially high [dust-lead] levels were again present within 2 weeks after the first visit”

(Charney et al., 1983), although eventually dust-lead levels remained low between visits. 

Similarly, the one-time dust abatement and paint stabilization performed in the Boston 3-City Soil

Abatement study (Weitzman et al., 1993; Aschengrau et al., 1994, Aschengrau et al., 1997)

reduced window well dust-lead loadings for only a short period of time.

Regular, extensive dust-lead hazard management efforts by trained personnel produced an

18% decline in mean blood-lead concentration and a 29% decline in EP concentration for affected

residents; a control population exhibited only a 2% decline in mean blood-lead concentration (see

Baltimore Dust Control study (Charney et al., 1983)). The Seattle Track-In study (Roberts et al.,

1991) reported significantly lowered dust-lead levels after residents removed their shoes and used

a walk-off mat (no blood-lead measures were collected).

The three educational intervention studies employed in-home educational visits by trained

personnel. These in-home educational visits emphasized proper housecleaning methods to reduce

dust-lead levels, improved hygiene habits to reduce hand-to-mouth lead exposure, and educated

families on proper nutrition to reduce the lead exposure. No abatements were performed in the

study homes. The Granite City Educational Intervention Study (Kimbrough et al., 1992, 1994)

found a 32% drop in mean blood-lead level from extensive educational outreach (a drop from 15

μg/dL, on average). The implication of this decline was difficult to ascertain, however, since no

measurements were collected for a control group of children. Both the Milwaukee Retrospective

Educational Intervention Study (USEPA, 1996c; Schultz et al., 1999) and Milwaukee Prospective

Educational Intervention Study (Schultz et al, 1998) reported 21% and 23% declines,

respectively, in blood-lead concentrations following in-home educational visits. The declines
18

following educational intervention for these studies were significantly greater than declines

observed in control children.

The one study of soil abatement employed both abatement and interim controls. The

Boston 3-City Soil Abatement Study (Weitzman et al., 1993; Aschengrau et al., 1994,

Aschengrau et al., 1997) removed and replaced soil exhibiting elevated lead levels, but also

stabilized the peeling paint and wet mopped the interior dust. Soil-lead and floor dust-lead levels

in the abated residences remained low post-abatement. Blood-lead concentrations among affected

inhabitants oscillated after abatement, but did not return to pre-abatement levels. In fact, a

modest decline of 1 to 2 μg/dL in average blood-lead concentration (19% of pre-abatement levels,

on average) was reported approximately one year following the abatements in phase 1. Similar

temporal variation in the average blood-lead levels of residents of unabated dwellings used as

controls in the study was observed, with declines after 1 year of 7.1% and 5.6% for Comparison

Groups A and B, respectively. In phase 1, the control residences underwent the same one-time

paint stabilization procedure as the study residences. A subset of the comparison populations

underwent soil abatement in phase 2, and exhibited 41% (Comparison Group A) and 13%

(Comparison Group B) declines in mean blood-lead concentration nine months post-abatement. 

It was unclear exactly why the unabated residents experienced temporal variation in phase 1,

though seasonal variation of a comparable magnitude has been identified previously in children's

blood-lead levels (USEPA, 1995c, 1996d). This was a potential complicating factor in several of

the efficacy studies. Also, the reductions reported for the control populations may have reflected

the impact of age and behavioral factors stemming from an increased environmental awareness of

the health hazard from lead.

Summaries of each study described in this section are found in Appendix C.

3.2 RECENT LEAD HAZARD INTERVENTION STUDIES

A variety of approaches were employed in an attempt to identify new studies addressing

the effectiveness of lead hazard intervention. These included the authors’ knowledge of the

available literature, focused literature searches, an examination of the referenced articles cited in

identified studies, and additional material provided by EPA.
19

Nineteen new intervention studies are summarized in this section, including one previously

reported study for which additional information was available. A time-line graph locating the

period during which the interventions were conducted, for both the studies included in the original

edition and the new studies, is presented in Figure 3-1. Six of the new studies focused on leadbased paint abatement, four studies assessed dust abatement, three studies considered the

abatement of lead-contaminated soil, and three studies examined educational interventions. 

Finally, three studies examined extensive, community-wide soil and dust abatement measures

implemented in Canadian cities following the reduction or elimination of point source industrial

emissions. These three studies are summarized together, in order to emphasize the similarities in

approach and also because the primary source of lead was industrial emissions. Although

addressing industrial emissions is not the primary focus of this report, these studies are relevant,

because the intervention methods employed were similar to those being used to address leadbased paint hazards.

A detailed discussion of each of the 19 studies follows in chronological order, with the

exception that the three Canadian studies are summarized together at the end. The discussion

includes the pertinent study objectives, the sampled population, the intervention approach studied,

the environmental and body burden measures collected, the study design and results, and the

conclusions relative to the efficacy of the intervention performed. Additional details are included

in the study abstracts in Appendix A.

3.2.1 New York Paint Abatement Study

This study (Markowitz et al., 1996) sought to determine the effectiveness of a

combination of remediation of household lead hazards, educational intervention strategies, and

iron therapy on reducing blood-lead levels (PbB) in moderately lead poisoned children

(25-55 μg/dL) in the absence of chelation therapy. The study targeted children who were referred

to the Montefiore Medical Center Lead Clinic and were identified as having elevated blood-lead

concentrations (between 25-55 μg/dL) between 1986 and 1992. A total of 206 children received

a lead mobilization test with negative results, indicating none were qualified to receive chelation

therapy. Of the 206 children enrolled, 93 underwent chelation therapy at least once during this 
20

Figure 3-1. Time-Line for the Lead Hazard Intervention Studies, Combined Over Both Reports, with

Studies Summarized in the Present Report Listed in Bold Face.
21

study, and only 79 of the remaining 113 children completed the study. The final study population

consisted of 79 children ranging in age from 1 to 7 years (mean: 31.5 months at enrollment) who

had not received chelation therapy prior to or during the study. Approximately two-thirds of the

children were of Hispanic origin and one-third were African American.

Following inspection of the homes, the local Board of Health’s Lead Bureau was notified

to start the legal process needed to bring the home into compliance with existing health and

housing codes. No specific abatement protocol was enforced. Education on sources of lead, its

toxicity, and methods to reduce exposure to children was begun at the first clinic visit. Efforts

were also made to reduce the child’s exposure to lead hazards by placement in alternative

lead-free housing during abatement of the child’s residence. Nutritional counseling was begun at

the first clinic visit and parents of children with ferritin levels less than 16 μg/L at enrollment were

given supplies to provide their child with 5-6 mg/kg of elemental iron daily for 3 months for iron

therapy. The intensive medical and environmental follow-up program consisted of 10 visits over a

period of 6 months for each child and included three household visits by an XRF specialist and a

nurse practitioner for environmental data collection. Blood-lead levels were obtained at each visit

and ferritin levels were taken at 1, 7, and 24 weeks. The three home visits occurred at enrollment,

6 weeks, and at 24-25 weeks.

At each home visit, each residence was given a home environmental score (HES). This

score consisted of a combination of the paint status and XRF readings in the home. Each painted

surface was given a visual rating for its condition on a scale of 0 to 3. A score of 0 was given to

an intact surface, 1 if the surface had bubbles, 2 to a surface with cracks, and 3 to a surface with

peeling paint. The mean of triplicate XRF readings was calculated for each surface and then

multiplied by the visual rating score. The HES given to each individual household is the sum of

these products over all surfaces. Mean HES scores decreased throughout the study, as

interventions took place. At enrollment, ten percent of households had a HES of 0, whereas

25 percent had a HES of 0 at 6 weeks, and 20 percent had a HES of 0 at 6 months.

The median HES score of 37 at the time of enrollment was used as a reference point to

categorize the population into high- and low-level lead exposure. Mean blood-lead

concentrations were greater for children with high HES scores (e.g., > 37) than for children with

low HES scores. A significant correlation was found between PbB and HES at enrollment only 
22

Figure 3-2. Average Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) by Initial Home Environmental

Score (New York Paint Abatement Study).

(correlation=0.243, n=77, p<0.05). Average blood-lead levels declined for both HES groups

throughout the course of the study (Figure 3-2). By 6 months post-intervention, blood-lead levels

had declined to less than 25 μg/dL for two-thirds of the children, regardless of initial HES status. 

Only 7% of the children’s blood-lead levels were less than 15 μg/dL at the end of the study, with

the minimum blood-lead level at 9 μg/dL.

Two subgroups consisting of 10 children each whose HES scores were consistently above

or consistently below the initial median HES score of 37 were chosen for further analysis. 

Children who were consistently above the median HES score had higher initial blood-lead levels

than those who were consistently below the median HES score. However, mean blood-lead

concentrations for both subgroups declined at a similar rate (Figure 3-3) over the 6 months of the

study.

These results suggest that a combination of source abatement, educational intervention

strategies, and iron therapy result in a 27 percent reduction in blood-lead for children with

elevated blood-lead levels (between 22-55 μg/dL). Because comparable control population was 
23

Figure 3-3. Average Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) by Child’s HES Scores

Consistently Above or Below the Initial HES Median of 37 at All Three

Household Assessments (New York Paint Abatement Study).

evaluated, the magnitude of the reduction in children’s blood-lead levels may be confounded with

the effects of seasonal variation and the age of the child. Also, the authors note that no attempt

was made to quantify the amount of time the child spent in the primary residence and other

secondary residences. Although one measure of exposure was examined (HES), no measures

were reported for the dust-lead content in the household and on the child’s hands. It should be

noted that the HES score does not take into account the varying amounts of deteriorated paint on

the surfaces examined. A more reliable indicator would measure the area of deteriorated surfaces.

3.2.2 Baltimore Three-City Soil Abatement Study

This 1988-1991 study (USEPA, 1993b) was part of an EPA project examining whether a

reduction in residential soil-lead concentration would result in a statistically significant decrease in

blood-lead levels among children residing in the target homes. The cities of Baltimore, Cincinnati,

and Boston were selected for this project. Each community also included specific objectives of its

own in the project. For the Baltimore study, there was an additional interest in whether

decreasing soil-lead levels would result in a corresponding decrease in household dust-lead levels.
24

The study took place over the course of three years, beginning in the Fall of 1988. 

Progress was measured through six rounds of blood sampling, with interventions conducted

between rounds 3 and 4. The population studied consisted of Baltimore children aged 6 to

72 months residing in otherwise comparable communities designated the control or study areas. 

The designated areas were chosen for comparable demographic, soil lead and housing

characteristics. An initial sample size of 408 children was chosen, with a total attrition of

294 children and total gain of 71 children through the six rounds of blood sampling. Sample sizes

immediately prior to and after the interventions were 270 children (round 3) and 197 children

(round 4). For the study group, intervention consisted of removing the top six inches of soil in

areas with lead concentration greater than 550 ppm and replacing it with clean soil (i.e., less than

50 ppm). For both groups, exterior paint stabilization and repainting were conducted to prevent

recontamination of the cleaned soil. The actual interventions occurred between rounds 3 and 4,

beginning in the Summer and Fall of 1990 for paint stabilization and soil abatement, respectively. 

Data gathered were of three types: environmental (soil-, dust-, paint- and water-lead levels),

biological (blood- and hand-lead levels) and questionnaire data. Biological and questionnaire data

were collected every round while environmental data were obtained only before and after the

abatements.

There was a statistically significant difference in study area soil-lead concentrations before

and after abatement (decrease of 470.1 ppm). However, the decrease in dust-lead levels was not

statistically significant for the study area, but was statistically significant for the control area. 

Decreases in blood-lead concentration for the study and control areas were observed at round 4,

January through March of 1991, three months following intervention. In round 5, May through

July, blood-lead levels increased slightly for both groups, remaining somewhat stable through

round 6 (Figure 3-4).

Six linear regression models, with the log of blood-lead level or the log of hand-lead level

as the response variable, were constructed. The independent variables included treatment group,

socio-economic status, gender, age, season, dust-lead level, and soil-lead level. For each model, 
25

Vertical line between rounds 3 and 4 indicates interventions were conducted at that time.

Figure 3-4. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration by Sampling Round and Study

Group (Baltimore Three-City Soil Abatement Study).

regression coefficients were calculated for all six rounds, separately for children who did and did

not participate in all six rounds. The geometric mean of the blood-lead levels, for children

participating in all six rounds, decreased from 9.44 μg/dL in round 3 to 8.36 μg/dL in round 4 for

the treatment group and, 9.28 μg/dL in round 3 to 7.59 μg/dL in round 4 for the control group.

Thus, on average, a child assigned to the treatment group had a decrease (from round 3

to 4) in blood-lead level of 14% compared to a decrease of 22% for a child assigned to the

control group. For the remaining two rounds, the geometric mean blood-lead levels for the

control group remained lower than for the study group, although the differences were not

statistically significant.

The results indicate soil abatement did not produce significant declines in the mean bloodlead concentrations of children benefitting from the abatements. The authors hypothesize that

perhaps this was due in part to the low levels of soil lead in the study area. Nevertheless, soil

abatement may not be an effective method for lowering the blood-lead levels of urban children. 

However, in some cases, soil abatement may serve as a helpful adjunct.
26

Figure 3-5. Change in Blood-Lead Concentration Between Rounds 1 and 6 Plotted

Against Pre-Intervention Blood-Lead Concentration (Baltimore Three-City Soil

Abatement Study).

Blood-lead concentration change from round 1 to round 6 appears to be negatively

associated with round 1 blood-lead concentration in an approximately linear fashion (Figure 3-5). 

In other words, children with low initial blood-lead concentration had an increase by round 6, 

while children with high initial blood-lead concentration had a decrease by round 6. This may be

due in part to “regression to the mean.”

3.2.3. Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study

This 1989-1991 study (USEPA, 1993c) was part of an EPA project examining whether

reduction of soil and dust-lead levels would result in a statistically significant decrease in

blood-lead levels of children. Three cities, Baltimore, Boston, and Cincinnati were selected for

this project, with each community setting additional study objectives. The Cincinnati study was

also interested in whether interim interior dust abatement, in conjunction with exterior dust and

soil abatement, would result in a greater reduction in blood lead than dust and soil abatement

alone.
27

Families with children under five years of age were recruited from three study areas (A, B,

and C) selected for similar demographic and housing characteristics. Also, areas chosen primarily

consisted of rehabilitated housing in which lead-based paint had been abated as a result of HUDsupported programs in the early 1970s. Rehabilitation involved the “gutting” of buildings and the

complete replacement of plumbing, wiring, and heating systems, and installation of new walls,

flooring, windows, and doors. Lead levels in rehabilitated housing are probably quite low,

however, lead-based paint could be present due to maintenance/repainting prior to the 1978 ban

of lead in residential paint. For intervention, area A received soil lead, exterior dust, and interior

dust abatement treatments in 1989. Soil-lead abatement consisted of the removal of the top 6

inches of soil if the 15 cm core average or top 2 cm lead concentration was greater than or equal

to 500 ppm. Interior dust abatement consisted of vacuuming and/or wet cleaning surfaces

including ledges, window wells and window sills and non-carpeted floors. Contaminated carpets

and selected furniture were replaced since vacuuming was determined ineffective for abatement. 

Exterior dust abatement consisted of vacuuming paved areas.

The study took place through nine phases of environmental and biological monitoring. An

earlier “phase”, phase 0, involved the project design and initial measurements. Two hundred and

twenty-five children were enrolled in phase 1 (June and July of 1989), of which 173 resided in

rehabilitated housing. One hundred of the initial 225 remained at the completion of the study in

October 1991. Also, 66 phase 5 recruits (January of 1990), of which 37 remained, and 16 new

births contributed to a final tally of 153 participants at the end of the study. Interior and exterior

dust and soil abatement for Area A and interior dust abatement for Area B took place between

phases 1 and 2. Exterior dust and soil abatement for Area B took place between phases 5 and 6. 

Area C served as a control, although all three forms of abatement were provided after phase 9.

For Area A, the geometric mean soil-lead concentration decreased from 200 ppm to

54 ppm between phases 0 and 5 for the top 2 cm core composite samples. This decrease was

statistically significant (p <0.05). For Area B, the geometric mean soil-lead concentration for the

top 2 cm core composite samples decreased from 161 ppm in phase 5 to 59.5 ppm in phase 9. 

The overall log of interior floor dust-lead loading decreased in Area A between phases 1 and 3

(Figure 3-6), remaining essentially constant in Area C, with the lowest original lead loading.
28

Figure 3-6. Distribution of Interior Floor Dust-Lead Loading by Sampling Phase and Study

Area (Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study).

For initial recruits living in rehabilitated housing and participating in phases 1 and 9, mean

differences in blood-lead concentrations, measured between both phases, were 0.64, -2.04, and -

1.72 (μg Pb /dL) for Areas A, B, and C, respectively. From baseline, these changes represent an

increase of 7% and decreases of 16.4% and 17.3% for Areas A, B, and C, respectively. The

difference between the changes in Areas A and B was statistically significant. However, in

comparing blood-lead concentrations for all children in the study, the median blood-lead

concentration was lower at phase 9 than at phase 1, for all study areas (Figure 3-7). The increase

in mean differences of blood-lead concentration for Area A children could be due to the fact that

mean blood-lead concentration was lower at baseline (9.44 μg/dL) for Area A children than for

Area B and C children (12.38 μg/dL and 9.96 μg/dL), respectively.
29

Figure 3-7. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration by Sampling Phase and Study Area

(Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study).

Results indicate soil abatement can be effective in the long term for reducing lead levels in

soil. However, there is no conclusive evidence that the abatement methods chosen were effective

in long-term reduction of interior and exterior dust lead. More importantly, there is no evidence

that the three forms of abatement together reduce blood-lead levels in the long term nor is there

evidence that such a combined abatement is more effective than interior dust abatement alone. 

Two possible contributing factors in the blood-lead concentration change are baseline blood-lead

concentration and season. First, the blood-lead concentration change from baseline to phase 9

appears to be negatively associated with baseline blood-lead concentration in a fairly linear

fashion. Children with low initial blood-lead concentration had an increase by phase 9, while

children with high initial blood-lead concentration had a decrease by phase 9 (Figure 3-8). Again,

the trend intercepts above zero. Second, the mean change in blood-lead concentration from phase

1 to phase 3 was -1.86, -l.86, and -2.55 for Areas A, B, and C, respectively (among initial recruits

living in rehabilitated housing and participating in both phases). However, 
30

Figure 3-8. Change in Blood-Lead Concentration Plotted Against Pre-Intervention

Blood-Lead Concentration (Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study).

phase 1 was conducted in June of 1989 while phase 3 was conducted in November of 1989. 

Thus, decreases in blood-lead level could have been in part due to seasonal variation.

3.2.4 Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study (Updated)

This 1989-1991 project (Weitzman et al., 1993; Aschengrau et al., 1994; Aschengrau

et al., 1997) assessed whether a significant reduction ($1000 ppm) in the concentration of lead in

residential soil will result in a significant decrease ($3 μg/dL) in the blood-lead concentration of

children residing at the premises, and also assessed the impact of residential lead-based paint

hazard remediation alone and in combination with soil abatement on children with mildly elevated

blood-lead levels. A total of 152 children were enrolled, each satisfying the following criteria: (1)

less than or equal to 4 years of age, (2) blood-lead concentration between 10 and 20 μg/dL with

no history of lead poisoning, and (3) a minimum median residential soil-lead concentration of

1500 ppm. The project employed four intervention procedures: (a) interior paint stabilization by

removing peeling or chipping paint, (b) interior dust abatement via wet mopping and HEPA

vacuuming, (c) soil removal (to a depth of 6 inches) and replacement, and (d) interior and exterior
31

lead-based paint abatement. Dispersal of soil during the abatement was retarded by wetting the

soil, preventing track-in by workers, containing the abatement site with plastic, and washing all

equipment. Extensive environmental media and body burden samples were collected, including

composite core soil samples, vacuum dust samples, first draw water samples, interior and exterior

paint assessment via portable XRF, venipuncture blood samples, and hand-wipe samples.

Each child enrolled was randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups: Study

(54 children), Comparison A (51 children), or Comparison B (47 children). During Phase I, the

Study Group received interior paint stabilization, interior dust abatement, and soil abatement. 

Comparison Group A received interior paint stabilization and interior dust abatement. 

Comparison Group B residences received only interior paint stabilization. During Phase II, which

began approximately 12 months after the Phase I interventions, both comparison groups received

soil abatement and all three experimental groups were offered lead-based paint abatement. 

Environmental media and body burden samples were collected at various times surrounding these

intervention activities. Occupants and their belongings were relocated off site during the interior

remediations.

During Phase I, the average blood-lead concentrations in all three experimental groups

decreased at the first (6 months) post-abatement measurement (Figure 3-9). The statistically

significant decreases were: 2.9 μg/dL for Study, 3.5 μg/dL for Comparison A, and 2.2 μg/dL for

Comparison B. The following increases in average blood-lead concentration were recorded

between the first and second (11 months) post-abatement measurements: 0.5 μg/dL for Study,

2.6 μg/dL for Comparison A, and 1.5 μg/dL for Comparison B. The increases for the two

comparison groups were significantly different from zero. The mean dust-lead levels from hand

wipe samples for all groups followed a similar pattern, though they exhibited considerably greater

variability.
32

Figure 3-9. Arithmetic Mean Blood-Lead Concentration Across Sampling Rounds and

Experimental Groups, Phase 1 (Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study

(Updated)).

By the end of Phase II, 91 children were still participating and living at the same premises

as when they were enrolled. Of these children, 44 received both soil and lead-based paint

abatement, 46 received only soil abatement, and 1 refused both interventions. For children whose

residence underwent soil abatement only, mean blood-lead concentrations decreased by 2.44

μg/dL for 52 children in the Study Group, 5.25 μg/dL for 18 children in Comparison Group A,

and 1.39 μg/dL for 13 children in Comparison Group B, between pre- and post-intervention

measures (Figure 3-10). Blood-lead measures were taken an average of 10 months postabatement for the Study Group (during Phase I) and an average of 9 months post-abatement for

the comparison groups (during Phase II).
33

Figure 3-10. Arithmetic Mean Blood-Lead Concentration Across Sampling Rounds and

Experimental Groups, Phase I and II (Boston Three-City Soil Abatement

Study (Updated)).

A repeated measures analysis was conducted using a restricted sample of 31 children from

Comparison Group A (N=18) and Comparison Group B (N=13) who received only soil

abatement during Phase II and who had blood-lead measures at the beginning of Phase I, the end

of Phase I, and the end of Phase II. Study Group data were excluded for lack of a control period. 

Mean blood-lead concentrations decreased by 0.64 μg/dL during Phase I (before the soil

abatements) and another 3.63 μg/dL during Phase II (a 33.9% decline overall). A trend in the

magnitude of the decline in blood-lead levels was apparent, with larger declines observed in

children with larger initial blood-lead levels.

The decline in median soil-lead concentration among Study Group residences immediately

post-abatement averaged 1790 ppm (range: 160 ppm to 5360 ppm). Although many yards had

evidence of recontamination both at 6-10 months and 18-22 months post-abatement, follow-up

median soil-lead concentrations were generally less than 300 ppm (Figure 3-11). The authors
34

Figure 3-11. Arithmetic Mean Environmental Lead Level (For Study Group) Across

Sampling Rounds (Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study (Updated)).

hypothesize that this increase was due to recontamination by lead contaminated soil still present in

surrounding yards. Similar results were observed for the comparison groups following the soil

abatements in Phase II. Dust-lead loadings were less consistent. Composite floor dust-lead

loadings declined significantly during the study. Comparable declines were seen in all three

groups during Phase I, despite Comparison Group B not receiving any interior house dust

abatement. Mean floor dust-lead loadings were relatively unchanged for Comparison Groups A

and B (P=0.95 and 0.15, respectively) during Phase II, despite the soil abatement. By

18-22 months post-abatement, mean levels in the Study Group had risen, but remained still

significantly below initial levels (P=0.02). Mean window well dust-lead loadings declined in

Comparison Group A following the soil abatement, but rose in the Study Group and in

Comparison Group B.

Mean blood-lead concentrations of Study Group children whose homes received paint

hazard remediation during Phase II were an average of 2.6 μg/dL higher than those of children
35

who received no Phase II interventions. Mean blood-lead concentrations for children whose

homes received both paint hazard remediation and soil abatement during Phase II were an average

of 1.4 μg/dL higher than that of children whose homes received soil abatement only (Comparison

Groups A and B combined).

To evaluate the effectiveness of lead-based paint abatement, a multivariate model analysis

was conducted for comparison of Phase II post-intervention blood-lead concentrations to Phase II

pre-intervention blood-lead concentrations. After controlling for confounding factors in the

model (e.g., age, sex, race, socioeconomic status, mouthing, hand-washing, housing

characteristics, and environmental sources of lead), paint hazard remediation was associated with

a statistically significant (p=0.05) increase of 6.5 μg/dL in blood-lead levels in the Study Group. 

Paint hazard remediation was associated with an increase of 0.9 μg/dL in blood-lead levels

(p=0.36) in Comparison Group A and B homes that received paint and soil abatement, compared

to those that received only soil abatement.

Although mean floor dust-lead loading levels showed an increase in all households

following the Phase II interventions, the increase was greater for homes that received paint hazard

remediation. Mean floor dust levels increased by 142% for Study Group households that received

paint interventions and by 75% for those not receiving paint interventions. Comparison Groups A

and B combined showed an increase of 42% for homes receiving paint and soil abatement and by

33% for homes receiving only soil abatement. Mean post-intervention window sill dust-lead

loading levels increased by 105% for the Study Group and remained unchanged (+2%) for

Comparison Groups A and B combined for those homes receiving paint hazard remediation, but

decreased in homes that did not (-42% for the Study Group and -41% for Comparison Groups A

and B combined). These increases in dust-lead leadings may be due to dust-generating abatement

practices, along with inadequate cleanup and clearance testing.

These results suggested that abatement of lead-based paint around homes may result in a

significant increase in blood-lead levels. However, the removal of lead-contaminated soil may

offset this increase. For Phase I, results indicate that abatement of lead-contaminated soil by itself

may result in a moderate decline in blood-lead levels. The reported declines, however, may be

influenced by seasonal variation in blood-lead levels. Seasonal variations in blood-lead

concentrations of comparable magnitude have been cited in other studies conducted in Boston and
36

Milwaukee (USEPA, 1995c, 1996d). In addition, relatively few children were available for the

Phase II analysis, which introduces the possibility of bias in the estimated declines due to low

participation at follow-up. Moreover, since no control populations were available for the Phase II

results, it is difficult to assess their variations.

3.2.5 Minneapolis Dust Intervention Study

This study (Mielke et al., 1994) sought to reduce children’s blood-lead concentrations by

reducing exterior soil and dust lead and interior dust lead at targeted residences in the

Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, inner-city areas. The study population consisted of

40 primarily minority children identified by the Twin Cities Mapping Project as living in high

soil-lead concentration communities. Twenty-three children from Minneapolis were targeted for

treatment by the dust control intervention, whereas 17 children from St. Paul received no dust

control treatment.

For the 23 treatment group children, interior dust control consisted of wet wiping walls to

remove loose paint chips, followed by a thorough vacuuming using a high efficiency particle

accumulator (HEPA) vacuum. Floors were mopped with a high phosphate detergent and some

carpets were removed from the household. Households with children exhibiting the highest

blood-lead concentrations were provided more intensive dust control treatment than those with

children exhibiting lower concentrations. Exterior interventions included covering bare soil with

sod or wood chips, the addition of a sandbox, and provisions to prevent soil from washing onto

sidewalks (thereby limiting the opportunity for dust track-in). Parents of children in the treatment

group were supplied with dust control information and cleaning supplies. Only prevention

information was provided to the parents of the control group children. Venous blood samples

were collected and analyzed by the Minneapolis Children’s Medical Center. Soil-lead loadings

were collected by a 2.5 cm deep soil scrape sample at foundation, mid-yard and street-side

locations. Interior dust lead samples were collected, however, those results were not reported.

Pre- and post-intervention blood-lead levels were taken during May-June and

September-November 1990, respectively. The distributions of pre- and post-intervention

blood-lead levels are displayed in Figure 3-12. Among treatment group children, 52% of the

children’s blood-lead concentrations decreased, 4% increased, and 44% remained the same
37

Figure 3-12. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) for Pre- and

Post-Intervention Measures, by Study Group (Minneapolis Dust

Intervention Study).

(follow-up measurement within ±1μg/dL of initial blood-lead concentration). In the control

group, 29% of the children had a reduction in blood-lead concentration, while 53% exhibited an

increase, and 18% remained the same. Blood-lead concentrations were said to decrease/increase

if the post- versus pre-intervention concentration difference exceeded the quality control limit of 1

μg/dL. By the end of the study, all children in the treatment group had blood-lead concentrations

less than 25 μg/dL and the percentage of children above 14 μg/dL was reduced from 39% to

30%. In the control group, the percentage of children above 14 μg/dL increased from 41% to

53% by the end of the study. Three of these children had follow-up blood-lead levels of 40, 41,

and 61 μg/dL, prompting medical intervention. Average differences between initial and follow-up

blood-lead concentrations in the treatment and control groups were statistically significant

(p=0.006) by the Fisher-Pitman test, suggesting that dust control procedures were effective.

Post-intervention soil-lead concentrations for the treatment group were significantly

(p<0.001) lower than initial concentrations. Foundation and mid-yard soil-lead concentrations
38

were reduced by a factor of three to four. Soil-lead loadings were also reduced. 

Post-intervention soil lead samples were not collected for the control group, but were assumed to

have remained unchanged. Interior dust-lead levels were not reported.

The dust control treatment program appears to have resulted in reductions in children’s

blood-lead concentrations for the treatment group as compared to the control group. By the end

of the study, all of the children in the treatment group had blood-lead levels less than 25 μg/dL,

while 24% of control group children had blood-lead levels greater than 25 μg/dL. Interpretation

of the study results is difficult, because interior dust-lead levels were not reported. Both interior

paint stabilization and the exterior intervention may have had an impact on children’s blood-lead

concentrations in the treatment group. While the reductions in the blood-lead concentrations

observed in some of the control group children may have been due to random variation, the

authors suggest that some of the reductions may be accounted for by information given to parents

on dust control. Also, some of the observed increases in blood-lead levels may be explained by

seasonal variation, since blood-lead levels tend to increase during Summer months. Although the

study had a control population, children were not randomly assigned to the treatment and control

groups. Thus, changes in blood lead due to treatment are confounded with any differences

between the two populations. There was no discussion on how comparable the two populations

were (i.e., age differences, gender, etc.). However, a Chi-square test of homogeneity did not

detect significant differences in the initial distribution of blood-lead levels between the treatment

and control groups. Although the sample sizes in this study were small, gross differences in the

initial distribution would be detectable using this test.

3.2.6 Paris Paint Abatement Study

This study (Nedellec et al., 1995) sought to determine the effectiveness that lead-based

paint abatement would have in reducing severely elevated blood-lead concentrations (PbB) in

children. The study targeted children less than 6 years of age who were identified as severely

lead-poisoned by the Maternal and Child Care Centers (PHI) of Paris between January 1990 and

February 1992. A total of 190 households were visited, from which, a subset of 59 homes

containing 205 children were considered priorities for intervention activities.
39

For the 190 households visited, a score (0 to 5) was given to each household to assess the

state of deterioration of the building and apartment. The score was determined as a function of

the general condition of the building, its maintenance, the cleaning of the floor, and the condition

of the paint on the walls and woodwork. Paint samples were collected in 147 of the 190 homes

visited, and the maximum lead content of paint was found to be greater than 1.5 mg/g in 93% of

the homes and greater than 10 mg/g in 77% of homes. The characteristics of the 59 homes

selected for abatement did not differ significantly from the total number evaluated in that the

maximum lead content in paint for the 59 homes exceeded 1.5 mg/g in 58 (98%) homes and

exceeded 10 mg/g in 52 (88%) of them.

The one-time intervention consisted of chemical stripping with caustic products,

encapsulation, replacement of antiquated elements and coatings of lead-based paints, and a final

dust cleaning. Stripping was used on 52% of the items abated, a combination of stripping and

encapsulation was used on 36% of the items abated, and a combination of encapsulation and

replacement on 12% of the abated items. Families were relocated during the performance of the

abatements. Dust samples were collected in 29 homes at baseline, during the intervention, 1 to

2 months, 3 to 6 months, and 7 to 12 months post-intervention. Venous blood samples were

taken at baseline and at least 2 times post-intervention.

Dust sample data were available for 24 of the 29 households in which samples were

collected. Characteristics of these 24 homes were compared to the other 35 homes for which dust

sample data were unavailable. Initial conditions appeared to be slightly less severe in homes

where dust samples were collected. Median dust-lead loadings measured 83.6 μg/ft2 at

pre-intervention and showed an increase of 697 μg/ft2 during the intervention activities. 

Post-intervention dust-lead loadings showed a median decrease of 33.9 μg/ft2 at 1 to 2 months

and 45.4 μg/ft2 at 3 to 6 months follow-up. For 11 homes that had an initial dust-lead loading

greater than 92.9 μg/ft 2, median decreases were 144 μg/ft2 one to two months and 157 μg/ft 2

3 to 6 months following intervention. By 6 to 28 months post-abatement the maximum dust-lead

loadings were less than 92.9 μg/ft2 for 40 out of 45 households sampled.

Pre- and post-intervention blood-lead levels were available for 78 of the 205 children

residing in 41 of the 59 homes. Compared to the other 18 households for which no postintervention blood data were available, households where blood-lead concentrations were
40

available for both pre- and post-intervention were significantly more deteriorated than for the

other families. In addition, the maximum pre-intervention blood-lead level was significantly

higher in these homes. The maximum paint lead content was lower; however, the paint lead

concentration was already very high for both groups. All of the children’s blood-lead

concentrations decreased significantly post-intervention, with the exception of 4 children (living in

2 of the 41 homes) whose blood-lead level increased.

A multiple linear regression model was conducted on the data from the 74 children whose

blood-lead levels decreased post-intervention. The model regressed the natural logarithm of

blood-lead levels on the following dependent variables: Time (weeks) after screening, Time

(weeks) after intervention, Age (0 for < 3 years, 1 for $ 3 years), After Chelation Therapy (0 for

no chelation performed, 1 for chelation performed), 15 < PbB < 45 (1 if 15 < PbB 45,

0 otherwise), PbB $ 45 (1 if PbB $ 45, 0 otherwise), and After Intervention (0 if pre-intervention,

1 if post-intervention). The 4 children whose blood-lead concentrations increased postintervention were excluded from the regression analysis, presumably because the children were

exposed to high levels of lead-contaminated dust during the intervention since their families may

not have been relocated.

The results suggest that the intervention was beneficial to severely lead poisoned children

exposed to severe pre-intervention conditions. The one time intervention seemed to have had a

lasting effect in reducing interior dust-lead levels. As noted by the substantial increase in dustlead loadings during the abatements, families should be relocated during the rehabilitation process. 

Since specific guidelines were not set for the abatement process itself, comparisons on a house-tohouse basis may not be feasible. The magnitude of the reduction in blood-lead levels may also be

confounded with seasonal variation, as sampling occurred at various time intervals. Furthermore,

the decline is confounded with chelation therapy, which was provided to some of the more severe

lead poisoned children.

3.2.7 Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement Study

This study (MDE, 1995) sought to evaluate the effectiveness of alternative lead-based

paint abatement procedures on long-term reduction in household dust-lead levels in homes in

Baltimore, Maryland. A total of 72 homes were included in the study. These homes were abated
41

between January 1, 1991, and June 30, 1992, using alternative methods. All households had at

least one clearance dust-lead measurement taken. The alternative intervention methods consisted

of floor to ceiling abatement of all interior and exterior surfaces where lead content of the paint

exceeded 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or 0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis. Several methods were

tested, including encapsulation, off-site and on-site stripping, and replacement. The abatements

took place either in unoccupied dwellings or the occupants were relocated during the abatement

process. Lead-contaminated dust was contained and minimized during the abatement, and

extensive clean-up activities included HEPA vacuuming and off-site waste disposal. Wipe dustlead loading samples were taken from floors, window sills, and window wells in rooms where the

child spent time. The study was limited to homes where at least one clearance sample was

available. Additional samples were collected in 75 homes where follow-up sampling had not been

conducted.

Sixty-nine of the 72 homes had at least one floor clearance sample, 67 had at least one

window sill clearance sample, and 57 had at least one window well clearance sample. Three time

intervals (approximately 6, 12, and 19 months post-intervention) were used to group the followup dust measurements. Figure 3-13 displays the changes in geometric mean floor, window sill,

and window well dust-lead loadings at each follow-up interval. Geometric mean floor dust-lead

loadings seemed to remain fairly constant over the course of this study at levels below 26 μg/ft2,

whereas window well dust-lead loadings showed recontamination fairly quickly. Clearance levels

for floors, window sills, and window wells were set at 200 μg/ft2, 500 μg/ft 2, and 800 μg/ft2,

respectively. By 19 months post-intervention, only 5% of the homes were above clearance for

floors, while 42% and 47% of the homes were above clearance levels for window sills and

window wells, respectively.

These results seem to indicate that for alternative abatement methods, dust-lead loadings

on floors can be kept fairly low over long-term time periods. Floor surfaces showed little

evidence of recontamination. However, reaccumulation of lead-containing dust occurred in 
42

Figure 3-13. Changes in Geometric Mean Floor Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by

Time Interval and Surface Type (Baltimore Follow-up Paint

Abatement Study).

window sills and window wells at each time interval examined. Reaccumulation was greatest for

window wells with 17%, 43%, and 47% of homes at or above clearance standards by the 6, 12,

and 19 month time intervals, respectively.

3.2.8 Leadville/Lake County Educational Intervention Study

This screening study (LCDH and UC, 1993) compared community blood-lead

concentrations in 1992 with those determined in 1991, and evaluated the effect of educational

intervention on blood-lead levels of children whose pre-intervention level was elevated, or who

lived in residences with unusually high concentrations of lead or arsenic in the surrounding soil. 

The sampled population consisted of 160 individuals, including 127 children. One hundred

thirteen of the 127 children were less than 72 months of age. If a child’s blood-lead concentration

was 10 μg/dL or higher, parents received instruction on methods to reduce their child’s lead

intake. Venous blood samples were taken during the two Fall screening clinics conducted one

year apart. A 20% random sample of families who had blood lead measurements during the 1991

Fall screening clinic were targeted for the 1992 screening.
43

Figure 3-14. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration for All Children (n=66) and for

Children Who Received Educational Intervention (N=8) (Leadville/Lake

County Educational Intervention Study).

A total of 66 children were tested in both 1991 and 1992. Blood-lead concentrations for

these children declined 9.8%, from a geometric mean of 5.02 μg/dL to 4.53 μg/dL, during the

year (Figure 3-14). Twenty-six of these children had not moved during the year. Their 

geometric mean blood-lead level declined 25%, from 5.83 μg/dL to 4.38 μg/dL. Eight children

were identified as having elevated (>10 μg/dL) blood-lead levels in 1991. These children showed

an average decline in blood-lead concentrations of 19%, from a geometric mean of 11.4 μg/dL to

9.3 μg/dL. Two of these children had reductions in blood-lead concentrations of 49% and 57%.

For children in the Leadville/Lake county areas, blood-lead concentrations declined on

average by approximately 10% during the one-year period. In comparison, 8 children benefitting

from educational intervention showed a 19% decline on average. These 8 children were targeted

because they exhibited elevated blood-lead concentrations at the initial survey, so the observed

decline may be due in part to non-interventional factors such as regression to the mean, or merely

age-related variation. The absence of a comparable control population makes assessment of these

issues difficult.
44

3.2.9 Trail Dust Intervention Study

A variety of intervention strategies (Hilts et al., 1995; 1998; Hilts, 1996) have been

implemented in Trail, British Columbia, with the goal of reducing children’s blood-lead levels in

the presence of ongoing emissions from a lead and zinc smelting facility. Intervention strategies

have targeted lead-containing house dust. Of particular interest is a study that sought to

determine the effectiveness of repeated vacuuming using high efficiency particle accumulator

(HEPA) vacuums in reducing both household dust-lead loading (PbD) and children’s blood-lead

concentrations (PbB) (Hilts et al., 1995). In addition, community education, greening, and dust

control programs have been implemented along with residential bare soil reduction and individual

case management programs (Hilts, 1996). Soil abatement was not performed, because of ongoing

smelter stack emissions.

HEPA Vacuum Study

The sample population for this study consisted of 207 households in higher risk areas of

Trail, British Columbia, with children under six years of age who had participated in a 1992 blood

lead screening. Of the 207 families, 122 agreed to participate in the study. The children were

randomly assigned to treatment and control groups (61 children in each group). Fifty-five

treatment group children and 56 control group children completed the study. Families in both

groups, however, received educational materials and recommendations to reduce childhood lead

body burden, and were advised to continue their normal cleaning habits throughout the course of

the study. In addition, the treatment group received a dust intervention consisting of HEPA

vacuuming of accessible finished floors once every six weeks over a period of ten months, from

November 1992 through August 1993. The control group did not receive these vacuumings. 

Hand wipe and floor dust-lead samples were collected three times during the study for both

treatment and control homes. Baseline and post-intervention venous blood samples were

collected at Fall screening clinics approximately one year apart. Additionally, a 19-part self report

survey was administered at the time of the post-intervention blood lead screening.

Small decreases in blood-lead concentrations were observed during the study in both study

groups (Figure 3-15), however, the difference in pre- and post-intervention changes in blood-lead

concentrations between the treatment and control group was not significant (p=0.85). During the
45

first vacuuming cycle carpet dust loading, carpet dust-lead loading, and carpet dust-lead

concentration were reduced by 34, 39, and 8 percent, respectively, as compared to their measures

prior to vacuuming. Similarly, carpet dust loading, carpet dust-lead loading, and carpet dust-lead

concentration were reduced by 34, 35, and 3 percent during the fourth vacuuming cycle, and by

46, 47, and 0 percent, respectively, during the seventh cycle. During the study, geometric mean

hand-wipe lead loading decreased significantly for the control group, while a marginally

significant increase was observed in the treatment group during the study. The authors

hypothesized that this may stem from families relaxing their hygiene efforts because of a perceived

reduction in exposure risk due to the intervention. Carpet dust loading increased for the control

group and decreased significantly for the treatment group (p<0.01). Carpet dust-lead loading also

decreased significantly for the treatment group (p<0.01).

Eighteen households were sampled weekly for evidence of recontamination for a period of

six weeks after the final vacuuming cycle in August 1993. In these 18 homes, carpet surface dustlead loadings had declined by approximately 50 percent immediately following the final

vacuuming. However, recontamination occurred within 2-1⁄2 to 3 weeks, on average. In addition

to the dust recontamination sampling, a self-report survey questionnaire was completed by 103 of

the study participants at the post-intervention blood lead screening. Children living in homes

where people removed their shoes at the door tended to have lower blood-lead levels and floor

dust-lead loading tended to be lower also. Children who had pets tended to have higher

blood-lead levels and higher floor dust-lead loadings.

Although HEPA vacuuming every 6 weeks did not have a significant impact on blood-lead

levels, there was some evidence to suggest that more frequent vacuuming might be beneficial. A

follow-up study was conducted in 17 homes located in high risk neighborhoods (Hilts, 1996). 

Families in the follow-up study received HEPA vacuuming, wet-mopping, and wet-wiping

biweekly during the summer months. The intervention strategy tested in the follow-up study was

effective in preventing a seasonal rise in dust-lead loadings on carpets, but less effective in

preventing a rise in blood-lead concentrations. The average carpet dust-lead loading stayed the

same in treated homes, but nearly doubled in 14 comparison homes during the study period. The

average blood-lead concentration rose by 2.9 Fg/dL in the treatment group and
46

Figure 3-15. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration for Pre- and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (Trail Dust Intervention Study).

by 4.2 Fg/dL in 10 comparison children between April and September 1993. Comparison

children and homes were in the same neighborhoods as the treatment homes, but the follow-up

study apparently did not assign homes randomly to treatment and control groups.

Other Interventions

Community education, greening, and dust control programs were designed to benefit all

children in Trail. Soil abatement was not performed, because recontamination was almost

inevitable from the 300 kg of lead per day in smelter stack emissions. However, seeding and

planting of public areas with high lead levels was implemented by a civic group. Community dust

levels were reduced by spraying magnesium chloride dust suppressant on unpaved alleys and

parking areas. In addition, a residential ground cover program implemented in 1993 provided a

50% rebate on cost of materials to householders who covered bare soil with turf, landscape fabric

and mulch, shrubs, concrete, or gravel.
47

Education and case management activities began in 1991 and have evolved over time. 

Community education efforts focused on contacts with elementary school or daycare

administrators, instructors, and students. Individual education and case management services are

available to children with elevated blood-lead levels (PbB>15, or PbB>10 for children under

1 year old) who are identified in annual Fall screening clinics. Eligible children receive blood-lead

monitoring and in-home educational visits. Since 1994, ground cover materials or cleaning

supplies, equipment, and services have been provided, as well. Cleaning services include biweekly

cleaning during summer and monthly cleaning the rest of the year, using the methods of the

follow-up study.

Geometric mean soil-lead levels did not change significantly between 1989 and 1992

(GM=725, n=19 and GM =713, n=213, respectively). Therefore, the 14% decline in blood-lead

concentrations from 1991 to 1992 and the additional 6% decline from 1992 to 1993 may be

attributed primarily to the education efforts. The ground cover subsidy program was open to all

families who had participated in the 1992 Fall blood clinic who also had bare soil in their yards. 

The participation rate was 23%, with 44 families completing projects. A follow-up assessment in

1994 found that the ground cover projects were being maintained adequately, however, 12 of the

44 properties had additional bare soil.

The lead loading of house dust may be reduced temporarily by thorough HEPA

vacuuming once every six weeks. In fact, carpet dust-lead loading was reduced by approximately

40 percent immediately following the vacuuming. However, with the on-going contamination

stemming from the operational smelter, these levels return to “normal” within a few weeks. 

Vacuuming every six weeks, even accompanied by education, had no effect on children’s bloodlead concentrations. The follow-up study with biweekly cleaning appeared to be successful in

preventing some of the expected summer rise in blood-lead concentrations, although the results

were not conclusive. The ground cover subsidy program had a 23% participation rate, with 44

families completing projects and maintaining them for at least one year. 

In 1991, a 14% decline in the average blood-lead concentration of Trail children aged 6 to

72 months was attributed primarily to the first year of community education and individual case

management efforts. However, declines in subsequent years for children whose families received

case management intervention for the first time were not as notable as that found in 1991.
48

3.2.10 New Jersey’s Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction Dust Intervention Study

This study (Rhoads et al., 1997, 1999; Lioy et al., 1998) sought to demonstrate the

effectiveness of a combined dust control and educational intervention strategy for children with

low to moderate blood-lead levels. The study targeted children under 3 years of age residing in

Jersey City, NJ, who were at risk for elevated blood-lead concentrations based on three criteria: 

1) having a sibling with a previously reported elevated blood-lead concentration greater than

10 μg/dL, 2) high lead contamination in the home, or 3) a measured blood-lead concentration

between 8 and 20 μg/dL. A total of 113 children were enrolled in the study and assigned at

random to the Lead Group (LG), which was offered biweekly assistance with home dust control

and a series of educational sessions about lead, or the (control) Accident Group (AG), which was

offered only education and home safety items related to accident prevention. The two groups

were very similar with respect to age, initial blood-lead concentration, number of children,

education, and the proportion speaking English. Both groups were followed for 1 year. Both

blood- and dust-lead measurements were collected during the course of the study.

The LG families received a median of 3 (range, 1-6) one-hour educational sessions and 17

(range, 0-42) cleaning visits. The baseline dust and dust-lead loadings were comparable among

the two groups, but by the one year follow-up dust and dust-lead levels were lower in LG homes

for floor, sill, and vacuum samples (decreases of 50% or greater for sills and vacuum samples)

while the changes in the AG were smaller and inconsistent. There was, however, an unexplained

large drop in the lead loading of vacuum samples in the AG group. Therefore, there was a

significant difference in the lead loadings between the LG and AG only for window sills.

As shown in Figure 3-16, blood-lead concentrations in the LG group decreased on

average from 12.4 μg/dL to 10.3 μg/dL during the first year of the study (17% decline). In

contrast, blood-lead concentrations in the AG group increased from 11.6 to 11.7 μg/dL on

average during that time (0.9% increase). The difference in the change in blood-lead

concentrations between LG and AG children was statistically significant (p<0.05). Also, the

reduction in blood-lead levels among the LG children was greater the more times their home was

cleaned. There was essentially no change in the blood lead levels for the 11 children living in

homes cleaned fewer than 10 times, as opposed to a 34% drop (-3.9 μg/dL) seen in the 16

children whose homes were cleaned 20 times or more.
49

Figure 3-16. Mean Blood-Lead Concentration for Pre-Intervention and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (New Jersey’s Children’s Lead Exposure and

Reduction Dust Intervention Study).

It appears that the combination of biweekly dust control and a series of lead-education

sessions was effective in reducing blood-lead levels in this population of children with moderately

elevated blood lead levels. The effect of seasonal variation was minimized by taking blood-lead

measurements one year apart.

3.2.11 Boston Interim Dust Intervention Study

This study (Aschengrau et al., 1998; Mackey et al., 1996) sought to determine the

effectiveness of low-technology lead hazard reductions activities targeting paint and household

dust in reducing modestly elevated blood-lead concentrations in children awaiting permanent

deleading of household paint in Boston, Massachusetts. Children under the age of four years

residing in the city of Boston were selected for possible enrollment. Each child had a venous

blood-lead concentration between 11 and 24 μg/dL at enrollment and no history of lead

poisoning. In addition, children must have lived in their homes for at least 3 months with no
50

definite plans to move within the next 3 months. The homes must not have been previously

deleaded or received lead hazard reduction activities and had lead-based paint on at least 2

window sills and/or window wells. The parents spoke English, Spanish, or Cape Verdean creole

as these were the language capabilities of the staff.

Sixty-three of the 402 children eligible for the study were enrolled. The study consisted of

three groups. Because of severe household lead hazards, 22 of the children were assigned to an

“automatic intervention” group. Severe hazards were characterized as paint chips on any floors,

severe amounts of loose dust or paint chips in any window well, or holes larger than one inch

wide in walls containing lead-based paint. The remaining 41 children were randomly assigned to

the remaining groups, 22 to the “randomized intervention” group and 19 to the “randomized

comparison” group. Only 32 of the initial 63 children originally enrolled were included in the

blood lead analysis because of absence of follow-up blood samples or their homes received nonstudy environmental interventions. For the final analysis, the automatic intervention, randomized

intervention, and randomized comparison groups consisted of 8, 11, and 13 children, respectively.

For both the randomized and automatic intervention groups, intervention consisted of

HEPA vacuuming all window well, window sill, and floor surfaces; washing window well and

window sill surfaces with a tri-sodium phosphate (TSP) and water solution; repairing holes in

walls; and re-painting window well and window sill surfaces to seal chipping or peeling paint.

Both intervention groups also received outreach and educational information including a

demonstration of effective housekeeping techniques and monthly reminders with instructions to

wash hard surface floors, window sills and wells with a TSP and water solution at least twice a

week. The randomized comparison group received only the outreach visit to visually assess the

home for lead hazards and to educate the family about the causes and prevention of lead

poisoning. They were also provided with cleaning instructions and a free sample of TSP cleaning

solution. Dust sample measurements were taken at baseline and 6 months post-intervention for all

study groups. Measurements were also taken at one month post-intervention for the two

intervention groups, but the results were not reported. Dust samples were taken from floors,

window sills, and window wells. Soil, water, and paint samples were taken at baseline. Dust,

soil, and water samples were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). 

Venous samples were obtained to determine blood-lead levels at baseline and an average of six
51

months after intervention. Additionally, trained staff members conducted standardized interviews

at enrollment to obtain demographic characteristics, and a 6-month post-intervention visit to

assess compliance with housekeeping instructions.

Mean blood-lead levels declined in all three groups 6 months after intervention. For

children in the automatic intervention group, mean blood-lead concentrations declined by 48% at

6 months post-intervention. Among children in the randomized intervention and randomized

comparison groups, mean blood-lead levels declined by 35% and 36%, respectively, at 6 months

post-intervention. Mean blood-lead levels decreased 0.3 μg/dL more in the randomized

intervention group and 2.5 μg/dL more in the automatic intervention group as compared to the

randomized comparison group (Figure 3-17). At the 6 months post-intervention measure,

geometric mean floor dust-lead loadings had decreased slightly for both intervention groups and

increased in the comparison group. Geometric mean window sill dust-lead loadings decreased in

all three groups, and geometric mean window well dust-lead loadings decreased for both

intervention groups, but remained the same for the comparison group (Figure 3-18). None of the

changes in dust-lead loadings were statistically significant.

The intervention program appears to have been beneficial to children exposed to severe

pre-intervention conditions, but did not have as significant an impact on children with less severe

exposure conditions (randomized intervention and comparison groups exhibited roughly the same

declines). The one time interventions seemed to have had a small impact on floor dust lead, an

intermediate impact on window sill dust lead, and a large effect on window well dust lead. The

blood and dust changes should be interpreted cautiously because the sample size was small and

none of the results were statistically significant. The magnitude of the reduction in blood-lead

levels may be confounded with seasonal variation as sampling occurred at approximately 6 month

time intervals.
52

Figure 3-17. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) for Pre- and PostIntervention Measures, by Study Group (Boston Interim Dust Intervention

Study).

Figure 3-18. Geometric Mean Floor, Window Sill, and Window Well Dust-Lead Loading

(μg/ft2) for Pre- and Post-Intervention Measures, by Study Group (Boston

Interim Dust Intervention Study).
53

3.2.12 Rochester Educational Intervention Study

This study (Lanphear et al., 1995, 1996) sought to determine the effectiveness of simple

dust control as a means of lowering blood-lead concentrations in children. The study population

consisted of 104 urban children, ages 12 to 31 months at enrollment, with low to moderate bloodlead levels. This population was identified and recruited from the 205 children who participated

in the Rochester, NY Lead-In-Dust Study. The families of the 104 children were randomly

assigned to either the Intervention or the Control Group. A trained interviewer visited families

assigned to the Intervention Group at the time of baseline sampling. The importance of dust

control as a means of reducing lead exposure was emphasized and cleaning supplies were

provided. These included paper towels, spray bottles and Ledisolv, a detergent developed

specifically for lead contaminated house dust. Families were instructed to clean the entire house

once every three months, interior window sills, window wells and floors near windows once every

month, and carpets once a week with a vacuum cleaner, if available. A brochure containing

information about lead poisoning and its prevention was provided to families assigned to the

Control Group. Baseline measurements of lead in blood, house dust, soil, water, and paint were

gathered and follow-up measurements of lead in blood and house dust gathered 7 months later. 

Blood-lead measurements were collected via venous blood samples. Household dust-lead

measurements were collected from entryway floors and the kitchen, as well as from the floors,

interior window sills and window wells of the child’s principal play area.

Of the 104 children, 95 had follow-up blood-lead measurements available. Only 80 of

these 95 lived in the same residence throughout the study period. Differences between baseline

and follow-up blood-lead concentrations and between dust-lead levels in the Intervention and

Control Groups were tested using (non-parametric) Wilcoxon tests with two-tailed p-values. At

baseline, median blood-lead levels were 6.85 μg/dL and 6.10 μg/dL for the Intervention and

Control Group, respectively. The post-intervention median blood-lead concentration was

6.20 μg/dL in both study groups (Figure 3-19). The median change in blood-lead levels for the

Intervention Group was -0.05 μg/dL, which was not statistically different from the median change

of -0.6 μg/dL for the Control group. The median change in blood-lead concentration for

28 children whose families used Ledisolv as instructed (at least once each month) and for the 
54

Figure 3-19. Median Blood-Lead Concentration for Pre-Intervention and Post-Intervention

Measures, by Study Group (Rochester Educational Intervention Study).

65 children whose families did not use Ledisolv as instructed or were assigned to the control

group were also -0.05 μg/dL and -0.6 μg/dL, respectively. Again the difference was not 

statistically significant. No statistical comparisons of blood-lead levels were made among the

subset of 80 children whose families did not move during the course of the study.

Comparisons of pre- and post-intervention dust-lead levels were restricted to homes of

children who did not move. The median change in dust-lead levels, averaged across all surfaces,

was +45 μg/ft2 for the Intervention Group and -67 μg/ft2 for the Control Group. For children

whose families did or did not use Ledisolv, the median change in dust-lead loading, averaged

across all surfaces, was -7 μg/ft2 and +2.7 μg/ft2, respectively. Neither comparison of dust-lead

levels averaged across all surfaces was statistically significant. However, some comparisons of

specific areas of homes showed significant or near significant differences by group. The median

percentage decrease for dust-lead levels of non-carpeted floors was greater among houses in the

intervention group (p=0.08). For families using Ledisolv versus other families, the difference in

median change in dust-lead levels on window sills was marginally significant (p=0.07). It was

noted that the difference in window well dust-lead loadings at baseline was statistically significant

(p=0.05) for these groups.
55

The results indicate that educational intervention conducted by providing families with

simple dust control supplies and information on lead poisoning did not lower blood-lead

concentrations for children with low blood lead concentrations more significantly than simply

providing families with written information on the hazards and prevention of lead poisoning. 

Several sources of difficulty include:

1. Since dust control is a simple procedure, families in the Control Group may have taken

it upon themselves to implement dust control.

2. It has been shown that vacuuming of lead contaminated carpets may lead to a

short-term increase in children’s exposure to lead-contaminated house dust (Ewers

et al., 1994).

3. It has been shown that blood-lead levels were more significantly reduced following

lead hazard intervention for children with higher blood-lead levels than those with

lower blood-lead levels. The mean blood-lead concentration for children in this study

was lower than that for most other studies.

4. Since declines in blood-lead levels have generally been constant in percentage terms,

the power of studies to detect differences will be lower at lower blood-lead levels,

unless a very large sample size is studied.

5. The 7-month time span of the experiment may be susceptible to seasonal trends in

blood-lead levels. A 12-month time span would minimize the effects of such trends.

It should be noted that a non-parametric approach was taken only after observing that

one child in the Control Group, whose mean blood-lead level increased from 14.6 μg/dL to

55.8 μg/dL, increased the change in the mean blood-lead concentration for the control group from

-0.55 μg/dL (95%CI = -1.61 to 0.51) without the outlier, to 0.42 with the outlier. The change in 

mean blood-lead level for the Intervention Group was -0.47 μg/dL (95% CI = -1.21 to 0.27). 

However, this outlier did not affect the study results enough to have changed the findings.

3.2.13 Baltimore Repair & Maintenance Paint Abatement Study

This study (USEPA, 1995b, 1997, 1998a) seeks to compare and characterize both the

short term (2-6 months) and longer term (greater than 12 months) effectiveness of three levels of 

repair and maintenance (R&M) interventions as a means of reducing childhood lead exposure. 
56

Children with blood-lead concentrations between 10 and 20 μg/dL were of primary interest, as

research on intervention strategies for such children is limited.

In January 1993, 75 homes with low-to-moderate monthly rent or mortgage were selected

from Baltimore City row houses. Each home was assigned to one of the three R&M intervention

groups. The R&M Level I intervention, the least expensive and extensive intervention strategy,

included wet scraping of deteriorating lead-based paint on interior surfaces, limited repainting of

scraped surfaces, installing entryway mats, wet cleaning and vacuuming with a HEPA vacuum,

exterior paint stabilization to the extent possible given budget considerations, and occupant and

owner education. In addition, cleaning kits for the occupant’s own cleaning efforts and the EPA

brochure “Lead Poisoning and Your Children” were provided. R& M Level II intervention

included, additionally, treatments to make floors smooth and easier to clean, along with window

and door treatments that reduce abrasion of lead painted surfaces. R&M Level III intervention

further included window replacement, encapsulation of exterior window and door trim with

aluminum coil stock and more durable floor and stairway treatments (e.g., coverings). 

In addition to the R&M intervention groups, two control groups were utilized. One

control group consisted of 16 households residing in older neighborhood housing which had

received comprehensive lead-paint abatement (PA) as part of a pilot abatement project in

Baltimore between May 1988 and February 1991. The other control group consisted of

16 households residing in modern urban (MU) homes built after 1979 and hence, presumably, free

of lead-based paint. The R&M Level III group consisted solely of families that moved into homes

unoccupied prior to intervention; the R&M Level II group consisted of both families that lived in

the abated homes prior to intervention and those that moved into homes unoccupied prior to

intervention; and the R&M Level I group consisted solely of families that lived in the abated

homes prior to intervention. Comparisons were based on data for all resident children, regardless

of whether they lived in the abated homes prior to intervention.

The 24-month study consists of seven sampling campaigns: Pre-R&M/Initial, Immediate

Post-R&M and 2, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months post R&M. Data collected for each campaign may

include (venous) blood, interior dust, soil, and water samples, and structured interview

questionnaire data. The study population consisted of 127 children at baseline, with a loss of

27 due to moving and a gain of nine via replacement recruiting, for a total of 109 at the 12-month
57

campaign. Newborns were enrolled when they reached the age of 6 months, and a total of 16 had

been added as of the 24-month follow-up. The median age of children residing in the study homes

ranged from 36 months to 43 months for the five groups at the 12-month follow-up. Blood-lead

data for 28 children whose baseline blood-lead concentrations were greater than 20 μg/dL were

analyzed separately from data for the 99 children whose blood-lead concentration was in the

primary study range of 10 to 20 μg/dL. For children with initial blood-lead levels below 20

μg/dL, geometric mean blood-lead concentrations changed only slightly between the preintervention and 24-month campaigns, for all R&M groups. Children with blood-lead

concentrations $ 20 μg/dL tended to show a decrease in blood-lead concentration over time

throughout the 24-month period. These decreases were greatest between pre-intervention and the

12-month campaign but were statistically significant also at the 24-month campaign (p<0.05) for

R&M I, II, and III and PA groups (MU not included because none of the children in this group

had initial blood-lead levels greater than 20 μg/dL). In an attempt to characterize the relationship

between blood-lead levels and possible influencing factors, several mixed models were fit to the

data. These models allowed for comparison of groups at each campaign over time. Principal

findings (for children with blood-lead concentrations < 20 μg/dL and controlling for age and

season) based on the statistical modeling are: 1) No statistically significant differences in

blood-lead levels were found among the R&M groups during the two years of follow-up, except

between R&M I and R&M III at 2 months, 2) No statistically significant changes in blood-lead

concentrations were found for the PA control group during the two years of follow-up, and

3) Children in MU houses had statistically significantly lower blood-lead levels than those in the

other four groups. Figure 3-20 presents the model predicted geometric means for each campaign.

Dust-lead loading levels decreased from pre-intervention levels for all R&M groups. The

geometric mean, based on weighted averages of floor, entryway, window sill, and window well

samples, decreased from 17,542; 25,214; and 478,500 μg/ft2 at the Pre-Intervention/Initial

campaign to 2,364; 1,252; and 176 μg/ft2 at the 24-month campaign, for Level I, II, and III R&M

groups, respectively.

The lack of change in the geometric mean of blood-lead concentrations for all five groups

could be a result of the fact that initial blood-lead levels were already at low to moderate levels or 
58

Figure 3-20. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration at Each Sampling

Campaign, by Study Group and Initial Blood-Lead Concentration

(Baltimore Repair & Maintenance Paint Abatement Study).

the children’s cumulative body lead burdens may have mediated the response. Comparisons were

made based on group assignment, regardless of whether or not the child lived in the abated home

prior to intervention. All R&M Level I children lived in the same home prior to

intervention, while all R&M Level III children did not move in until after invention. Thus, it is

not clear whether changes in blood-lead levels were due to pre-intervention residence or due to

group assignment. Apparently, this possible confounding factor was in part controlled by

comparing children with similar baseline blood-lead levels. It is worth noting that children with

baseline blood-lead concentrations greater than 20 μg/dL showed declines in blood-lead levels

over time, while children with baseline levels below 20 μg/dL tended to remain below 20 μg/dL. 

Although decreases in blood-lead concentration were statistically significant at the 24-month

campaign, for children with baseline blood-lead concentrations greater than 20 μg/dL in the R&M

I, II, III, and PA groups, any conclusion should be made with caution as the sample size of such

children for each group was small (n=0,8,7,11 and 9 for MU, PA R&M I, II and III groups,

respectively).
59

3.2.14 New Zealand Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

This study (Bates et al., 1997) sought to identify risk factors for elevated blood lead levels

in children, particularly which lead paint removal and clean up practices pose the greatest risk. 

The sampled population was children aged 12-24 months from Wellington, New Zealand, living in

homes more than 50 years old where interior or exterior paint removal had taken place in the last

two years. The paint removal was performed by either the resident, friends of the resident family,

or a contractor; and methods used were chemical stripping, scraping by hand, various types of

sanders, electric heat guns, waterblasting, and blowtorching. To be eligible, the child must have

been living in the residence for at least six months. A total of 187 children were identified as

eligible, 141 of these children participated in the study.

Blood samples were taken from the children, dust samples were collected from the

kitchen, and a questionnaire was administered to the caretaker regarding the general health of the

child and parental hobbies.

The overall geometric mean blood-lead level for the children in the study was 5 μg/dL. 

High blood-lead levels were defined as those $ 7.2 μg/dL and low levels as < 7.2 μg/dL. It was

found that significant differences in blood-lead levels existed with regard to income, with higher

income being associated with lower blood-lead levels. Parental hobbies like making stained glass

or lead lighting, or making lead shot or ammunition were associated with elevated blood-lead

levels. Interior and exterior paint abatement data were analyzed separately, and it was found for

both that the differences in blood-lead levels were not significant for any particular paint removal

method except blow torching. This method was also associated with significantly higher bloodlead levels when performed by the resident or friends, as opposed to contractors. Figure 3-21

shows the geometric means and percentage of children with high blood-lead levels for each paint

removal method examined. None of the clean up or disposal methods examined were associated

with high blood-lead levels.

The major purpose of this study was to identify specific paint removal and clean up

practices that were associated with children’s elevated blood-lead levels. None of the methods

were identified as hazardous in terms of blood-lead levels, except for high-temperature methods,

which have been known to be risky for some time. Chemical stripping is, of course, potentially

hazardous due to the chemicals involved, but was not associated with elevated blood-lead levels
60

Figure 3-21. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration and Percentage of Children with

Blood-Lead Concentration $ 7.2 μg/dL, by Paint Removal Technique (New

Zealand Retrospective Paint Abatement Study).

in this study. The authors also noted that there were a number of weak, non-statistically

significant results that suggested abatement work performed by family and friends is more likely

to be associated with elevated blood-lead levels than work done by contractors. This result could

be due to selection bias, as 30% of the contractors were not available to be interviewed about the

work they performed. Another notable result was the association of elevated blood-lead levels

with several parental hobbies. However, this apparent association is confounded with the fact that

two of the four children whose parents were engaged in “risky” hobbies also lived in the homes

where high-temperature abatement methods had been used. Since the number of families with

hobbies involving lead was quite small, it was impossible to assess the relative importance of these

factors.
61

3.2.15 East St. Louis Educational Intervention Study

This study (Copley, 1995, 1996) sought to determine whether an educational intervention,

which provided in-home instruction and identification of problem areas, could be successful in

reducing household dust-lead levels in a low socio-economic status, multi-ethnic community. 

Most residents of this predominantly African-American community receive some form of public

assistance. Children, with blood-lead concentrations between 10 and 19 μg/dL, were identified

through a screening program for children receiving public assistance. Fifty-four homes were

included in the study. These households consisted of approximately 124 young children and 117

adults.

During the initial visit, an XRF paint survey was conducted and areas with high lead

loadings were pointed out to the residents. Lead educators, hired from within the community,

provided instruction on cleaning and hygiene. Written materials and a videotape on reducing lead

exposure were also provided. Participating families were contacted regularly throughout the

course of the study to reinforce the importance of regular, thorough cleaning. Environmental

samples were collected at the initial visit. Three-month follow-up samples were collected in

homes where the residents reported that they had cleaned at least once using the recommended

procedures. No control population was evaluated, nor were follow-up samples collected in

homes where residents did not clean.

After repeated follow-up calls only 24 of the 54 families reported that they had cleaned at

least once during the three months using the recommended procedures. A total of 1,166 surfaces

were tested for lead-based paint in the 55 homes, of which 197 exterior and 145 interior surfaces

tested positive. In addition to lead paint surveys, dust samples were collected from 164 smooth

surfaces and from 69 carpets. Of the 164 smooth surfaces tested, 75 samples were below the

detection level of 5 μg/ft2, and 46 of the remaining 89 samples had dust-lead levels greater than

200 μg/ft 2 (Illinois clearance standard). Comparison of lead dust concentrations prior to cleaning

and after at least one conventional cleaning effort revealed a 56 percent decrease in the arithmetic

mean dust-lead loading (Figure 3-22). Mean floor dust-lead loadings decreased from 1095 μg/ft2

to 486 μg/ft 2 while the geometric mean decreased from 454 μg/ft2 to 58 μg/ft 2 for the 30 smooth

surfaces which had been cleaned at least one time by the residents. The mean carpet dust-lead 
62

Figure 3-22. Changes in Arithmetic and Geometric Mean Dust-Lead Loadings (μg/ft2) by

Surface Type and Sampling Round (East St. Louis Educational Intervention

Study).

loading decreased to 725 μg/ft2 from 2,268 μg/ft2 and the geometric mean declined to 16 μg/ft2

from 1,143 μg/ft2 at the three-month follow-up measure.

This study suggests education and residential cleaning by the homeowner can be effective

in reducing dust-lead levels in the home, thereby potentially reducing children’s lead exposure. 

However, educational interventions rely on the initiative of the family to implement the

recommended procedures. In this community, many families did not follow through with the

procedures; consequently, their children may not have benefitted from the educational

intervention. Because follow-up blood-lead measures were not collected and no control

population was evaluated, the effect of the intervention on children’s blood-lead levels cannot be

assessed.
63

3.2.16 HUD Abatement Grant Program

This ongoing study (NCLSH and UC, 1997; 1998) seeks to determine the effectiveness of

the various abatement methods used by State and local government HUD grantees to reduce

lead-based paint hazards in housing. Eighty-three state and local government agencies are

participating in the HUD Lead-Based Hazard Control Grant Program (HUD Grantee) and 14 out

of the 83 grantees are participating in the formal evaluation of the program. Each grantee is

responsible for designing a program applicable to its specific needs and objectives; including how

dwellings are enrolled. Thus, enrollment criteria varied among the different grantees and included

targeting high-risk neighborhoods, enrolling only homes with a lead-poisoned child, and

considering unsolicited applications. The grantees also have the flexibility to select the type and

intensity of the lead treatments for any particular unit. The interventions selected ranged from

taking no action in an area or simple cleaning, to window replacement or full lead-based paint

abatement. The grantees all follow the same sampling protocols when collecting the data, and use

standard forms developed specifically for the evaluation. Information is gathered four times

during the study: prior to intervention, immediately after intervention, and 6 and 12 months after

intervention. In addition, nine grantees will collect data at 24 and 36 months after intervention for

approximately 750 dwelling units.

Across all grantees there are currently 3,556 enrolled dwellings (of which 2,900 will be

part of the formal evaluation), 2,432 enrolled households, and 1,933 enrolled children under

age six. Through September 1, 1997, interventions had been completed in 2,297 of the 2,900

enrolled dwelling units. Information on the interior strategies was available for 1,506 units, and

current results indicate that 69% of the units have received extensive treatments that include

partial or complete replacement of windows rather than lower level interventions like specialized

cleaning and the stabilization of deteriorated paint. Either no interior work or full abatement of

the lead hazards was conducted in fewer than 4% of the units.

Information on exterior strategies was available for 810 buildings. In about 16% of these

no action was taken, and approximately 9% had full abatements performed. The majority of

grantees chose to perform mostly (60%) partial or complete stabilization of lead-based paint. Of

the 787 buildings with site/soil strategies reported, 686 (87%) received no soil treatment. When a

site intervention was performed, it was most commonly a low level strategy like providing soil
64

with a temporary cover such as mulch, although a small percentage of higher level treatments,

including total soil removal, have been performed.

Dust sampling results are reported for occupied dwellings, where the effectiveness of lead

interventions can be examined without the confounding effects of vacancy (vacant residences have

been estimated to have higher dust-lead loadings). The changes in dust-lead loading from preintervention (phase 1) to immediate post-intervention (phase 2), six months post-intervention

(phase 3) and twelve months post-intervention (phase 4) are presented for floors, window sills,

and window troughs in Figure 3-23. Dust-lead loadings from Phases 1 -3 for floors were

available from 892 occupied dwellings, and while interventions were found not to have much

impact on the median dust-lead loading (20 μg/ft2 pre-intervention and 18 μg/ft2 immediately

after), they did appear to greatly reduce levels at the upper end of the distribution. For example,

the 90th percentile floor dust-lead loading was reduced by 67% from 150 down to 50 μg/ft2. The

reported changes in the median level may have been limited by the analytical limits of detection. 

At 6-month post-intervention (phase 3) median levels had declined further, with a decrease from

18 μg/ft 2 in phase 2 to 14 μg/ft2 in phase 3, and an overall decrease of 30% from phase 1. 

Twelve-month post-intervention data were available for 557 units and showed little evidence of

reaccumulation between phase 3 and 4. Also, phase 4 levels remained well below pre-intervention

levels with an overall decrease of 26%.

Phase 1 through 3 dust-lead loadings for interior window sills were available for

877 occupied dwellings and there was an 82% decline in the median loading from phase 1 to 2. In

contrast to the results from the floor lead loadings, window sill lead loadings had a tendency to

rise from phase 2 to phase 3 in the available data. However, because of the large reduction in

levels from phase 1 to phase 2, the phase 3 loadings are still substantially lower than

pre-intervention levels (68% decline). Twelve-month post-intervention (phase 4) data were

available for 547 units and showed a slight decrease in the dust-lead loadings from phase 3 to

phase 4. However, the declines were fairly small and well within the margin of error of the dust

wiping protocol.

Dust-lead loadings for window troughs from Phases 1-3 were available for 731 dwellings

and there was a substantial (99%) decline in the median levels, as well as in the low and high ends

of the distribution. Window troughs showed a greater tendency toward reaccumulation than
65

Figure 3-23. Median Dust-Lead Loading on Floors, Window Sills, and Window Troughs for

Units where Data were Reported at Pre-Intervention (Phase 1), Immediate

Post-Intervention (Phase 2), 6-Months Post-Intervention (Phase 3), and

12-Months Post-Intervention (Phase 4) (HUD Abatement Grant Program).

window sills between phase 2 and 3, with the median trough loading increasing more than tenfold

(from 54 μg/ft2 to 603 μg/ft 2). Despite this increase, the phase 3 levels were still significantly

lower than pre-intervention levels with an overall decrease of 95%. In the 448 units with phase 4

data, an unexpected decline was seen in the dust-lead loadings between Phases 3 and 4. This

result warrants further investigation due to possible effects of the study design that cannot yet be

ruled out.

Results were presented as well for the clearance testing that was required after the

interventions were completed. Overall, 28% of the units failed to pass clearance for at least one

component on the first attempt. Initial clearance failure rates varied among the grantees, with
66

Rhode Island reporting an 8% failure rate, 5 additional grantees reporting approximately 20%

failure rates, and 7 grantees reporting failure rates from 36 to 50 percent. Overall, the initial

clearance failure rate for floors (18%) was higher than those reported for window sills (8%) or

troughs (10%).

Pre-intervention (phase 1) and 6-month post-intervention (phase 3) blood-lead results

were available for 541 out of the 1,933 children under age 6 enrolled and are presented in terms

of the number of children whose phase 1 and phase 3 blood-lead levels were the same (<3 μg/dL

difference), had a “small” difference (>3 μg/dL to 6 μg/dL), or had a “large” difference

(>6 μg/dL). The blood-lead changes were adjusted to reflect the expected changes due to the

time of year (season) and the child’s age. The percentage of children who had no change (defined

as <3 μg/dL due to measurement error) in adjusted blood-lead levels was approximately 59%. 

About five times as many children had “small” decreases (18%) than had “small” increases

(3.5%), and approximately four times as many had “large” decreases (16%) than had “large”

increases (4%). Twelve-month post-intervention data was available for 338 children and

approximately 50% had no change, six times as many had “small” decreases than increases, and

ten times as many had “large” decreases than increases.

This study is one of the largest and most comprehensive ever initiated with data collection

beginning in 1994 and continuing until 1999. Since the analysis of these data will continue

beyond 1999, results presented at this time should be considered preliminary. Also, an ideal

research project designed to test the effects over time of environmental intervention techniques on

dust-lead and blood-lead levels would have a randomly selected group of units to be treated, and

a control group that is similar. However, such research strategies were not compatible with the

program. Therefore, some additional data was collected so changes in lead levels could be

determined to be the result of the lead hazard control work and not other factors. Even so, the

findings from the evaluation will have to be interpreted carefully and causal relationships that may

be implied by the results will require confirmation in a more controlled investigation.

In terms of dust-lead loading, the interventions performed seem to be very effective at

immediately reducing window sill and trough dust-lead levels and very high floor dust-lead levels. 

The effect on the median floor dust-lead level was not apparent, and could be due to the fact that

the pre-intervention levels were relatively low. Reductions at low levels may commonly be
67

underestimated, as laboratories have limits on how much leaded dust can be detected. Floors

showed little reaccumulation of lead dust through six months post-intervention, and while some

lead dust did reaccumulate in the window sills and troughs, there was still a net reduction in dust

lead from pre-intervention levels. These results suggest that the interventions are reducing one of

the largest sources of exposure for children, and that the benefits of the interventions are greatest

in homes and on surfaces with the highest levels of contamination. It was also found that 28% of

units did not pass clearance on the first try. This reinforces the importance of performing

clearance tests and suggests that a further analysis of the causes of failure are needed. Failures

can have a substantial financial impact due to the cost of re-cleaning and re-testing the dwelling

and continued relocation of the families. Understanding the cause of the failures can help to

prevent and avoid these costs.

Changes in blood-lead levels are not considered the primary outcome measure in this study

because they are susceptible to so many factors. At six months post-intervention, 59% of the

children had blood-lead levels that were essentially the same as their pre-intervention level. This

result is not surprising as many of the enrolled children were previously exposed to lead and may

have had high internal body stores of lead. For such children, blood-lead levels may change very

slowly, even if the source of lead exposure is eliminated. However, for the children whose bloodlead levels did change, there were almost five times as many decreases than increases at 6-months

post-intervention, and eight times as many decreases than increases at 12-months

post-intervention.

3.2.17 Canadian Community-wide Approach (3 Studies)

Three studies are summarized together in this section. These studies (Langlois et al.,

1996; Goulet et al., 1996; Gangne, 1994) document community wide abatement programs

instituted in three Canadian cities following the reduction or elimination of industrial emissions. 

These studies are summarized together because of similarities in the programs and because the

targeted lead source was industrial rather than residential lead-based paint. These studies are

relevant, however, because the intervention methods employed are similar to those used to

address lead-based paint hazards.
68

The three Canadian study sites were the South Riverdale suburb of Toronto (Langlois and

Gould, 1996), St-Jean-sur-Richelieu (SJR) in Quebec (Goulet et al., 1996), and the Notre-Dame

district of Rouyn-Noranda (RN), Quebec (Gaugne, 1994). The Toronto and SJR studies reported

community-wide abatement programs that removed lead-contaminated soil and house dust from

most homes in the community. A community-wide soil abatement program was implemented

in RN. In addition, public education was a component of the SJR and RN studies. In SJR, the

source of the lead hazard was completely removed by closing and permanently covering the site of

a battery reclamation plant. The Toronto and RN sites had continued, but reduced, lead

emissions from active secondary lead and copper smelters, respectively. All three studies selected

homes based on their proximity to the industrial source. All three studies assessed program

effectiveness through community screening programs with high participation rates. Greater detail

is provided in separate abstracts of these studies in Appendix A (A.17a, b, and c).

In Toronto, soil abatements were performed between May and October 1988 for nearly all

of the approximately 970 properties in South Riverdale that qualified for the soil abatement

program. Professional housecleaning services were offered to all 1,029 households in the study

area, regardless of soil-lead level. Cleaning was performed between April and November 1989

for the 717 (69.7%) households that accepted this service. Blood-lead concentrations decreased

over time in all study groups. Two control groups were utilized in this study: a sociodemographically similar group of South Riverdale children who did not live near the smelter and a

sociodemographically dissimilar group of Toronto schoolchildren. Although the study area had

higher blood-lead concentrations than the control areas prior to abatement, by 1992 the geometric

mean blood-lead concentration was no longer significantly greater than control means. Geometric

mean blood-lead concentrations in the study area were 10.9 Fg/dL in 1987 (pre-abatement), 9.3 in

1988 (during abatement), 6.4 in 1990 (post-abatement), and 3.9 in 1992 (post-abatement) (Figure

3-24). Geometric mean blood-lead concentrations in the South Riverdale control area were 7.1

Fg/dL in 1988 and 4.2 Fg/dL in 1990. Geometric mean blood-lead concentrations in the Toronto

schools control group were 5.1 Fg/dL in 1988, 3.6 in 
69

Figure 3-24. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentrations in Three Communities over

Time (Canadian Community-wide Approach (3 Studies)).

1990, and 3.5 in 1992. In 1987, 57% of children in the study area had blood-lead levels greater

than 10 Fg/dL. In 1992, only 7% of children had blood-lead levels above 10 Fg/dL.

Several additional analyses were conducted using blood-lead data from the study area. 

For these analyses, children were categorized into one of four abatement groups: (a) soil

abatement, (b) dust abatement, (c) both soil and dust abatement, and (d) no abatement. 

Multiple blood-lead measurements from 160 children (415 samples) and single measurements

from 500 children were analyzed together, under the implicit assumption that all measurements

were independent. On average, throughout the study period, children with no abatement had the

lowest blood-lead concentrations. In addition, blood-lead concentrations of children with no

abatement declined more rapidly than those in the abatement groups. This result was seen

consistently across several statistical models considered by the authors. Because the blood-lead

screening took place while abatements were ongoing, comparisons were made between children

who had received the abatement and those who had not yet received the scheduled abatement. 

No significant differences were reported for these comparisons.
70

The validity of these results is unclear, since multiple, positively correlated measurements

over time from some children were treated as independent measurements. Within the study area,

45% of the data were not independent. The authors suggest, based on a sensitivity analysis, that

selection bias could explain some of the differences in trends among the abatement groups. 

Although multiple blood-lead measurements were available, no attempt was made to assess the

effect of the intervention using pre- and post-intervention measures from the same children.

In SJR, intervention activities included asphalting the plant yard, removing dust from the

roads and sidewalks, removing and replacing the contaminated soils, professional house cleaning,

and implementing a public health-education campaign. The geometric mean blood-lead

concentration was reported for children who had participated in both the 1988 and 1991

screenings. The geometric mean blood-lead concentration for children 6 months to 10 years of

age (n=75) dropped from 9.7 μg/dL in 1989 to 5.0 μg/dL in 1991. The geometric mean

blood-lead concentration for children aged 6 months to 5 years decreased from 9.8 μg/dL to

5.5 μg/dL. These differences were statistically significant (p<0.0001). In 1991, none of the

children had blood-lead levels of 15.0 μg/dL or greater; whereas in 1989, 21.3% of the children

were in this category. Two oral behaviors also changed significantly between 1989 and 1991. In

1989, pica was present in 35.5% of the children, but by 1991, this percentage had declined to

18.8% (p=0.004). In 1989, 46.2% of the children put things in their mouths, compared to 31.7%

in 1991 (p=0.03).

In RN, the Notre-Dame district is located within one kilometer of a 2,500 ton/day copper

smelter. Between 1979 and 1989, stack emissions were lowered by 50%. In 1990-91, it was

decided that all residential lots with greater than 500 mg/kg (ppm) soil lead levels would be

decontaminated and that from 1992 to 1995 air lead levels would be further reduced. Soil

abatement was completed in August 1991, with 80% of the 710 residential lots in the district

abated. From 1979 to 1989 the district geometric mean blood-lead concentration dropped from

21 μg/dL to 10 μg/dL in two to five year old children. However, in 1989 50% of all children still

had blood-lead concentrations above 10 μg/dL. By 1991, the geometric mean blood-lead

concentration had declined to 7.2 μg/dL for one to five year old children. Also in 1991, only 25%

of the children had blood-lead concentrations above 10 μg/dL and none had concentrations

greater than 20 μg/dL.
71

All three Canadian communities attained the primary objective of lowering the mean

blood-lead level of children who lived within the contaminated area. Although the Toronto study

area had higher blood-lead concentrations than the control areas prior to abatement, by 1992 the

mean blood-lead concentration in the study area was no longer significantly different from the

Toronto schools control mean. While no control population was available in St-Jean-surRichelieu, similar geometric mean blood-lead levels were observed in 1991 between children who

had lived in the area in 1989 and new residents (presumed to have no unusual lead exposure)

6 months to 10 years of age. This was a comparable result to the Toronto study. Blood-lead

concentrations showed a lesser decline in Rouyn-Noranda, where dust abatements were not part

of the intervention strategy and lead emissions from the local smelter continued during the time of

the study.
72

4.0 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

The available literature on lead hazard intervention efficacy focused on impeding the handto-mouth pathway of childhood exposure to environmental lead sources. The emphasis on this

exposure pathway seems appropriate, since it is recognized in the literature as the predominant

pathway in young children (USEPA, 1986, 1998b; CDC, 1991, 1997; ATSDR, 1988).

The hand-to-mouth exposure pathway may be disrupted by abatement or interim control

methods. Abatement methods include a variety of methods that remove the lead source, or

permanently cover it. In contrast, interim controls include paint stabilization (removal only of

deteriorated lead-based paint), abatement of lead-containing dust, and covering bare soil with

mulch or grass. These methods typically do not remove the lead source. Interim control

interventions have been studied alone and in combination with abatements. For example, paint

stabilization or dust control measures were implemented along with soil abatement in the “Three

City” soil abatement studies. Other studies have assessed the effectiveness of one-time or regular

cleaning by professionals using HEPA vacuums and wet wash. Interim control methods are

attractive because of the low up-front costs of interim controls relative to many abatement

techniques. However, because the source is not removed, the long-term cost of maintaining

interim controls may exceed the cost of abatement. In addition, there is evidence that

recontamination occurs quickly when regular cleaning is discontinued. A discussion of studies

that assess abatement and interim control strategies follows in Section 4.1.

Educational interventions target the hand-to-mouth pathway indirectly. These

interventions typically seek to educate family members on the sources of lead in the home and

emphasize the importance of regular cleaning and good hygiene in reducing lead exposure. The

interventions studied have been as simple as providing a brochure on lead-poisoning prevention,

or may have consisted of an in-home visit during which cleaning techniques are demonstrated and

problem areas identified. Educational interventions are often implemented as a component of a

studied abatement or interim control strategy, but have been evaluated independently. It should

be noted that when education is the primary intervention strategy, the intervention relies on the

initiative of the individual to follow through with recommended procedures and each new

occupant must receive the educational intervention. Studies that assess educational intervention

as the primary intervention strategy are summarized in Section 4.2.
73

The targeted sources of lead and types of interventions employed in each study are

summarized in Table 4-1. Summary tables of blood-lead concentration results and other

body-lead burden results are presented in Appendix B, Tables B-1 and B-2, respectively. 

Summaries of efficacy with respect to environmental lead measures are presented in Table B-3

and in Appendix E. Tables 4-1, B-1, B-2, and B-3 and the sections that follow include both the

studies summarized in the previous report and the additional studies summarized in this report.

4.1 ABATEMENT AND INTERIM CONTROL INTERVENTIONS

Six of the studies summarized in this report targeted lead-based paint hazards. These

additional studies reinforce conclusions drawn previously about paint abatement. Namely, paint

abatement is effective in reducing blood-lead levels of children above 20 Fg/dL, but may not be as

effective for children below 20 Fg/dL, at least in the short term as a secondary prevention

measure. Also, improperly performed abatements may lead to increases in blood-lead

concentrations.

In New York (Markowitz et al., 1996), a combined strategy of paint abatement,

education, and iron therapy resulted in a 27% decline in blood-lead concentrations in children with

elevated (25-55 Fg/dL) blood-lead levels. This study used a home environment score (HES),

based on condition of paint and lead content, to evaluate the extent of the lead hazard in each

home. As expected, children whose HES scores indicated greater lead hazards had higher preintervention blood-lead concentrations. By 6 months post-intervention, however, two-thirds of

the children had blood-lead levels below 25, regardless of the initial HES. HES scores declined

during the study, indicating that interventions took place. By week 24, 20% of homes had an

HES score of 0, indicating no lead hazard remained. In Paris (Nedellec et al., 1995), a

combination of chemical stripping, encapsulation, and component replacement strategies was used

to abate 59 homes, resulting in a 40% decline in floor dust-lead loadings 1-2 months

post-abatement. In follow-up sampling conducted 6-28 months post-abatement, maximum floor

dust-lead loadings remained below 100 Fg/ft2. Blood-lead levels of 74 of 78 resident children

declined significantly, but the actual levels were not reported. Similar results were reported by 
74

Table 4-1. Summary Information for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies

Primary

Targeted

Lead

Source Study Title

Intervention Strategy

Abatement

Included

Extensive

Clean-Up

Sources Abated BloodLead

Measures

Collected

Control

Group

Abatement Interim Controls

Encap

/

Enclo

Cmplt

Rmvl

Partial

Rmvl

HomeownerProfessional Soil Dust Paint

Paint

1982 St. Louis Retrospective M M M M

Baltimore Traditional/Modified M M M

Boston Retrospective M M M M M

Baltimore Experimental M M M M

New York Paint Abatement M M M

Central Massachusetts

Retrospective M M M M M

1990 St. Louis Retrospective M M M M M

HUD Demo Study M M M M

CAP Study M M M M M

Milwaukee Retrospective LBP M M M

New York Chelation M M M

Paris Paint Abatement M M M M M

Baltimore Follow-up M M M M

Baltimore R&M M M M M M M M M

New Zealand Retrospective M M M

HUD Abatement Grant Program M M M M M M M M M
75

Table 4-1. Summary Information for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (continued)

Primary

Targeted

Lead

Source Study Title

Intervention Strategy

Abatement

Included

Extensive

Clean-Up

Sources Abated BloodLead

Measures

Collected

Control

Group

Abatement Interim Controls

Encap

/

Enclo

Cmplt

Rmvl

Partial

Rmvl

HomeownerProfessional Soil Dust Paint

Dust

(Cleaning)

Baltimore Dust Control1 M M M M M M M

Seattle Track-In M M

Minneapolis Dust Intervention1 M M M M M M M

Trail Dust Intervention M M M M M M

NJ CLEAR M M M M M M

Boston Interim M M M M M M

Dust

(Education)

Milwaukee Retrospective Educ. M M M M

Granite City Educational M M M

Milwaukee Prospective Educ. M M M

Leadville/Lake County Educ. M M M

Rochester Educational M M M M

East St. Louis Educational M M

Soil

Baltimore 3-City2 M M M M M M

Cincinnati 3-City M M M M M

Boston 3-City M M M M M M M M M M

Toronto Soil and Dust M M M M M M

Rouyn-Noranda Soil M M M M

St. Jean-Sur-Richelieu Soil and

Dust M M M M M

1

 These residences received partial lead-based paint abatements and complete abatements of lead-containing dust.

2

 These residences received partial lead-based paint abatements and complete abatements of lead-containing soil.
76

the HUD Abatement Grant Program (NCLSH and UC, 1997; 1998). Declines of 26, 65,

and 95% were observed in dust-lead loadings on floors, window sills, and window troughs

12 months post-intervention. Only limited results on blood-lead levels of resident children were

reported at this time. A less than 3 Fg/dL change in blood-lead concentration was observed in

50% of 338 children, while blood-lead levels decreased by at least 3 Fg/dL in 45% of children and

increased by that amount in 5%. These are preliminary post-intervention results reported from

this large-scale, ongoing study. At the time of the report, interventions had been completed in

79% of the 2,900 enrolled dwelling units, however, data had been compiled for fewer units and

resident children.

Additional results reported for the Boston Three-City soil abatement study (Aschengrau et

al., 1997) provided an assessment of lead-based paint abatements performed during the second

phase of interventions. In this study, blood-lead levels of children who received both lead-based

paint and soil abatements in the second phase declined by 20%, while those of children who

received soil abatement alone declined 30%. Similarly, blood-lead levels of children who received

soil abatement in the first phase declined by an additional 20% in the second year with no

additional intervention, while a 4% increase was observed in those who had first phase soil

abatement and second phase paint abatement. These results are consistent with those reported in

the Central Massachusetts Retrospective Paint Abatement Study (Swindell et al., 1994), where

lead-based paint abatement was not effective for a small number of children with initial blood-lead

concentrations below 20 μg/dL. The ineffectiveness of paint abatements in the Boston Three-City

study may be explained, in part, by the increased dust-lead levels in the homes following paint

abatements. While floor dust-lead loadings increased in all study homes during Phase II, greater

increases were observed in homes that received paint abatements. Similarly, window sill dust-lead

loadings increases or stayed the same in homes that received paint abatements, but declined in

homes that did not.

The Baltimore Repair and Maintenance (R&M) Study (USEPA, 1995b, 1997, 1998a)

differed from previous studies by targeting children with blood-lead concentrations between

10 and 20 μg/dL and by examining interim control intervention strategies. While the R&M

Level I intervention was limited primarily to cleaning and paint stabilization, the R&M Level III

intervention was rather extensive, including window replacement and encapsulation of some
77

surfaces in addition to the treatments applied in other study homes, and rivaled paint abatement in

cost. Using a statistical model, small declines of 10 to 20% were estimated at 24 months

post-intervention in children with initial blood-lead concentrations below 20 Fg/dL, for the

three levels of R&M interventions and for previously abated homes. It should be noted that the

results reported for previously abated homes provide 4 to 6 year follow-up on the abatements

performed in these homes. A smaller number of children with initial blood-lead concentrations

above 25 μg/dL were included in the study and analyzed separately. For these children,

significant decreases in blood-lead concentration were reported at 12 and 24 months

post-intervention. After 24 months, dust-lead loadings in the study homes remained

approximately 90% below pre-intervention levels. The Baltimore Follow-up Study (MDE, 1995)

provides up to 24-month follow-up information on a group of previously abated homes, similar to

those included in the R&M study. In these homes, floor dust-lead loadings remained below

clearance levels through 14-24 months post-abatement. Dust-lead loadings on window sills and

wells remained below pre-abatement levels, but 42% and 47%, respectively, had increased to

levels above clearance standards during the same period. Although these homes had been

reoccupied post-intervention, blood-lead levels of resident children were not measured.

A New Zealand study (Bates et al., 1995) reported geometric mean blood-lead levels of

about 5 Fg/dL in resident children of homes that had been abated using chemical stripping, hand

or machine sanding, heat gun, water blasting, or blow torch (by professionals) methods. Elevated

blood-lead levels (geometric mean of 15.5 Fg/dL) were observed in 3 children whose homes were

abated by family or friends using blow torch methods. These results are consistent with the

discussion of hazardous methods in Appendix B of the previous report (reproduced in Appendix

D).

Although the results from all three cities participating in the EPA-sponsored Three-City

Urban Soil Lead Abatement Demonstration (3-City) Project are now available, the effectiveness

of soil abatement remains unclear. As previously reported, the studied intervention resulted in a

23% decline in blood-lead concentrations in Boston (Weitzman et al., 1993; Aschengrau et al.,

1994), with approximately 11.5% due to the soil intervention alone. In Baltimore (USEPA,

1993b), soil abatement did not produce significant declines in blood-lead concentrations, beyond

the effect of exterior paint stabilization. In Cincinnati (USEPA, 1993c), the soil abatement group
78

received both soil abatement and interior dust abatement. An initial decline in blood-lead

concentrations of the soil abatement group was followed by concentrations that were slightly

higher on average than initial levels. Declines of approximately 16.5% were observed in the

control groups, which received either no intervention or interior dust abatement. The EPA

integrated analysis of these studies (USEPA, 1996e) proposes several factors that may explain the

differing results among the three cities. First, the pre-abatement soil-lead concentrations were

much higher in Boston (approximately 2,400 ppm) compared to Baltimore (500-700 ppm) and

Cincinnati (300-800 ppm), while post-abatement soil-lead concentrations were similar. Thus, the

average decrease in Boston (approximately 2,300 ppm) was much greater than that in Baltimore

or Cincinnati. In addition, soil was clearly part of the exposure pathway in Boston, contributing

significantly to house dust. This was not the case in Cincinnati, where most soil parcels were not

adjacent to the housing units. Also, the interior paint stabilization and cleaning interventions

conducted along with soil abatement in Boston served to enhance and reinforce the impact of the

soil abatement. These treatments were not tested in Baltimore, so that a large reservoir of

contaminated house dust remained. These conditions led the authors to conclude that when soil is

a significant source of lead in a child’s environment, the abatement of that soil will result in a

reduction in lead exposure and, hence, a reduction in blood-lead concentration, under certain

circumstances. These conditions are not fully understood, but appear to be related to: 1) the

child’s exposure history, 2) the initial soil-lead concentration and magnitude of reduction, 3) the

interior dust-lead loading and magnitude of reduction, 4) the relative magnitude of other

exposure sources, and 5) the strength of the exposure pathway between soil and the child,

relative to other exposure pathways.

When soil lead is a significant source of lead, soil abatement appears effective in reducing

children’s blood-lead levels, as seen in three Canadian cities. Extensive, community-wide soil or

soil and dust abatements were implemented in each of these cities following the reduction or

elimination of an industrial source of lead contamination near a residential area. A 28% decline

was observed in Rouyn-Noranda (Gangne, 1994), where emissions were reduced and soil

abatements were performed. A 48% decline (17 months post-intervention) was reported in St.

Jean-sur-Richelieu (Goulet et al. 1996), where the industrial source was eliminated and both soil

and dust abatements were performed. At the post-intervention screening, blood-lead
79

concentrations of children who had lived in the community prior to the intervention were similar

to those of a small number of children who had moved to the community after the intervention

was completed. The pre- to post-intervention period was longer in the Toronto study (Langlois

and Gould, 1996), where emissions were reduced and both soil and dust abatements were

performed. A 64% decline in blood-lead concentrations was observed over a 5 year period

(1987-1992) in the study area. There is evidence that blood-lead concentrations were declining

prior to intervention in the Rouyn-Noranda and Toronto study areas, so that the reported declines

may overestimate the effect of the intervention. Two control populations were reported in the

Toronto study. Blood-lead concentrations were higher in the study area compared to control

areas prior to the intervention. Similar declines were observed in all three areas over a 2 year

period, during which interventions took place in the study area. Only one of the control areas was

available during the pre- and post-intervention period. Blood-lead levels in the study area

declined more slowly than those in the control area prior to the intervention and more rapidly

following the intervention.

The remaining studies examined a variety of interim control interventions targeting

lead-containing house dust. Four studies utilized professional cleaning. The Minneapolis Dust

Intervention Study (Mielke et al., 1994) reported declines in blood-lead concentrations following

one-time dust abatement, along with interior paint stabilization and low-cost exterior dust control

measures, including covering bare soil. Though average blood-lead concentrations were not

reported, the percentage of treatment group children with blood-lead levels greater than 14 μg/dL

declined from 39% to 30% during the study period. The percentage of control group children

with blood-lead levels greater than 14 μg/dL rose from 41% to 53%, with 24% above 25 μg/dL

at the end of the study. None of the treatment group children had a blood-lead concentration

above 25 μg/dL at the study end. The New Jersey Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction

Study (Rhoads et al., 1999; Lioy et al., 1998) reported a 17% decline in blood-lead

concentrations in the treatment group, compared with a 0.9% increase in the control group. In

addition, a 34% decline was reported for 16 children whose homes were cleaned more than

20 times during the study, compared to no change for 11 children whose homes were cleaned

fewer than 10 times. Dust control through biweekly professional cleaning, combined with

multiple education sessions, was effective in this group of children with moderately elevated
80

blood-lead concentrations. A twice-monthly cleaning intervention previously had been reported

to be successful in children with higher elevations, in the Baltimore Dust Control Study (Charney

et al., 1983). In contrast, the Trail Dust Intervention Study (Hilts et al., 1995) reported no

change in blood-lead concentration for either the treatment group, which received professional

cleaning every six weeks, or the control group, which received educational materials. A followup study (Hilts, 1996) found that biweekly cleaning during the summer months was successful in

preventing a seasonal rise in carpet dust-lead loadings and had a moderating effect on the seasonal

rise in blood-lead concentrations. An active lead smelter in this community provided a source of

continuing recontamination, which makes these studies difficult to compare with the other studies. 

However, in both the Baltimore (Charney et al., 1983) and Trail (Hilts et al., 1995) studies, dustlead levels declined during the study, but rose again within a few weeks after cleaning was

discontinued. Finally, the Boston Interim Study (Aschengrau et al., 1998; Mackey et al., 1996)

provides evidence that one-time cleaning prior to abatement may be effective in reducing lead

exposure of children until abatement can be performed. A 48% decline in blood-lead

concentration was observed among 8 children who were exposed to “severe” household lead

hazards and were assigned the intervention, compared to 35-36% declines in the randomized

intervention and control groups, who faced less severe hazards. Window sill dust-lead loadings

decreased in the control group, suggesting that residents may have done some cleaning. The

statistical power of this study was low due to the small number of children who completed the

study.

4.2 EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS

As reported in the original edition, intensive, in-home educational interventions appeared

to be successful in reducing blood-lead concentrations in the Milwaukee (USEPA, 1996c; Schultz

et al., 1998) and Granite City (Kimbrough et al., 1994) studies. A variety of educational

interventions have now been assessed in Leadville, (LCBH and UC, 1993), Rochester (Lanphear

et al., 1996), Trail (Hilts et al., 1995), and East St. Louis (Copley, 1995), with mixed results. A

19% decline was reported for a small number of children in Leadville, which is similar to

previously reported results in Milwaukee (19%) and Granite City (34%). Low-cost educational

interventions primarily consisting of distribution of educational materials were conducted in
81

Rochester and Trail (control group). Small or no declines in blood-lead concentrations resulted

from these interventions. In Rochester, the reported decline in the control group, which received

only a brochure, was larger than that reported for the treatment group, which received cleaning

supplies and instruction, although the reported results were not significantly different (from each

other nor from 0). This was a well-conducted study using randomized treatment and control

groups. It may be, however, that the sample size was insufficient to detect a small difference

between the studied treatment and control interventions.

Finally, the effectiveness of educational intervention relies on the willingness of the family

to follow through with the recommendations given. There is evidence that cleaning by residents

can reduce household dust-lead levels and children’s blood-lead levels. The East St Louis study

reported 50% declines in dust-lead loadings in the 44% of homes where the family reported that

they had cleaned according to instruction. No follow-up blood-lead measurements were

collected. In addition, a 36% decline in blood-lead concentrations and a 38% decline in window

sill dust-lead loadings were observed in control homes for the Boston Interim study (Mackey et

al., 1996), where the control population received an outreach visit, cleaning instructions, and a

free sample of cleaning solution. Minor increases in floor and window well dust-lead loadings

were observed. Floor dust-lead levels were initially low, so that the increase was inconsequential. 

Window well loadings, however, were initially high and remained so. Although blood-lead

concentrations did not decrease in the Rochester Study, 30 - 60% declines in dust-lead loadings

were reported for most surfaces (except window wells) following cleaning.
82

5.0 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

Any effort to derive conclusions and recommendations from the lead hazard intervention

effectiveness data summarized in Section 4.0 must recognize its scope as well as its limitations. 

Since publication of the earlier review, a surprising number and variety of intervention strategies

have been documented in the scientific literature. These studies have helped to fill some of the

research “gaps” noted in the earlier review. However, these same studies have also reemphasized

certain areas of remaining investigation and prompted new questions. The need for research

surrounding the effectiveness of the lead hazard intervention strategies remains.

Despite the remaining issues, there are some important conclusions that may be drawn

from the existing body of research. Section 5.1 documents the general conclusions regarding the

effectiveness of lead hazard intervention. Section 5.2, in turn, reviews those conclusions relevant

to specific intervention strategies targeting paint, dust, and soil. There are also on-going studies

that, when complete, may further supplement the conclusions. Section 5.3 discusses those

studies, known to the authors of this report, that were not complete (or publishable) at this time.

Finally, besides conclusions, the existing evidence suggests areas where research is still required

(i.e., data “gaps”). The remaining data “gaps” and recommendations for future research are made

in Section 5.4.

5.1 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING EFFICACY OF LEAD HAZARD INTERVENTION

Though there is substantial and varied evidence within the literature that lead hazard

intervention can reduce exposed children’s blood-lead concentrations, no single intervention

strategy stands out as markedly superior. A range of intervention strategies were shown to

reduce children’s blood-lead concentrations. However, not all intervention strategies studied

were effective. Short-term elevations in exposed children’s blood-lead concentrations did result

when abatements were performed improperly by current standards (e.g., Baltimore Traditional vs.

Modified). Other intervention strategies reported no efficacy in the targeted population

(e.g., Rochester Educational) or no greater effectiveness than their associated control populations

(e.g., Baltimore 3-City).

It was the case, however, that declines on the order of 25% were reported among children

benefitting from extensive, carefully managed projects which abated or isolated sources of lead, as
83

well as among children receiving regular cleaning procedures or extensive educational instructions

employed to alleviate their lead exposure (Figure 5-1a and 5-1b). Moreover, a range of lead

hazard intervention strategies was documented to have a statistically significant positive “effect”

on the blood-lead concentrations of exposed children, compared to control populations that did

not receive the intervention. In particular, lead-based paint abatement (e.g., 1990 St. Louis

Retrospective), dust-lead intervention (Baltimore Dust Control), soil-lead intervention (Boston 3-

City), and educational intervention (Milwaukee Retrospective) were documented to have at least

the potential for producing significantly greater declines in blood-lead concentration among

children benefitting from the intervention than among a control population of children. The

comparable efficacy is potential in that not all examples of each of these strategies were effective. 

Paint abatement was not effective in the Boston 3-City study, soil abatement was not effective in

Baltimore and Cincinnati 3-City studies, dust control was not effective in the Trail study, and

education was not effective in the Rochester study. The specific details of the effective

intervention strategies were critical. For example, paint intervention strategies that were effective

in children with blood-lead concentrations above 20 μg/dL were not necessarily effective in

children with lesser elevations (Baltimore R&M, Central Massachusetts Retrospective).

It should also be noted that the comparability in effectiveness of a range of intervention

strategies does not imply they are interchangeable. Instead, it suggests that other relevant factors

serve as the determinants of what strategy is suitable for a given situation. These factors include

the strategy’s cost (both up-front and long-term), its viability, the type of lead exposure facing the

child, and the expected long-term efficacy. Educational and interim control interventions are

generally regarded as requiring lower up-front expenses, but require continued performance at

regular intervals which may well result in higher long-term cost. Regular dust control was

effective in Baltimore, but ineffective in Trail where rapid recontamination may have almost

immediately overwhelmed the successful (in terms of dust-lead levels) cleaning efforts. 

Educational strategies can fail to retain their initial effectiveness as participants fail to continue

their cleanup efforts (East St. Louis). The appropriateness of a particular intervention strategy

must be considered beforehand in the specific context under which it is to be implemented if the 
84

Figure 5-1a.

Abatement Studies and Interim Control Studies Targeting Lead-Based Paint.Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Lead Hazard
85

Figure 5-1b.

Education Studies.Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Cleaning and
86

strategy is to have a reasonable chance of reproducing the effectiveness documented in the

literature.

The seemingly inconsistent effectiveness reported for a particular type of intervention

(e.g., education) may be explained, at least in part, by the wide variation in the specific details of

the intervention (e.g., a home visit by a physician versus a pamphlet left with the family). 

However, the potential confounding impact of the child’s initial blood-lead concentration should

also be recognized. As evidenced in Figures 3-5 and 3-8 above (and Figure 3-19 in the earlier

review, reproduced in Appendix C), greater declines in blood-lead concentrations are observed

among children with higher pre-intervention blood-lead concentrations. Also, the Baltimore

R&M, Central Massachusetts Retrospective, and 1990 St. Louis Retrospective studies all noted

that statistically significant declines in blood-lead concentration were observed for children with

initial blood-lead concentrations in excess of 20 μg/dL, while no mean decline was reported for

children with initial blood-lead levels less than 20 μg/dL. In fact, the Massachusetts

Retrospective study noted that the mean post-intervention blood-lead concentration among

children with initial blood-lead levels less than 20 μg/dL increased by 15%. The basis for this

trend is uncertain, though perhaps it stems from differences in the lead exposure mechanisms for

the two populations. Children with blood-lead concentrations in excess of 20 μg/dL may derive

their exposure primarily from a single residential source, which may be successfully targeted by an

intervention. Children with lower blood-lead concentrations, by contrast, may be exposed to a

wide range of sources. A blood-lead concentration below 20 μg/dL does not require a single

significant exposure source; incremental exposures to several lesser sources may well be

sufficient. Regardless, caution should accompany any effort to extend results observed among

children with elevated blood-lead concentrations to those with lower levels.
87

5.2 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING SPECIFIC INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Given the number of intervention efficacy studies reported, it is worthwhile to review the

conclusions that may be derived regarding the range of intervention strategies commonly cited as

relevant to regulatory efforts such as §403. The efficacy of particular methods is not always clear,

as many studies assessed a combined intervention strategy. To the extent possible, the scientific

evidence on efficacy of specific intervention techniques targeting lead-based paint, lead in dust,

and lead in soil is summarized below.

5.2.1 Lead-Based Paint Intervention

Strategies targeting lead-based paint sought to either permanently abate the lead hazard,

or prevent continued exposure for extended periods of time.

Hand-Scraping Removal with a Heat Gun. This procedure entails using a heat gun to

soften the paint, then using a hand-scraping tool to remove it. A respirator is required during this

procedure due to the reported potential release of volatile fumes (NIOSH, 1992). The procedure

had mixed success in abating paint from floors and window sills (HUD, 1991), and was associated

with slight (though not statistically significant) elevations in the blood-lead levels of resident

children within one month of abatement (Farfel and Chisolm, 1990). This method was not

associated with elevated blood-lead concentrations two years post-intervention (Bates et al.,

1997).

Mechanical Removal. Methods that mechanically remove the leaded paint include needle

guns, vacuum blasting, and abrasive (wet and dry) sanding. Devices for performing these

procedures are sometimes fitted with a high-efficiency particulate accumulator (HEPA) dust

collection system, since these methods can generate a great deal of dust (HUD, 1991). In some

instances, the surface is misted to contain dust and avoid aggravating the lead hazard

(Amitai et al., 1991). There is little data available on the effectiveness of these procedures. This

method was not associated with elevated blood-lead concentrations two years post-intervention

(Bates et al., 1997).
88

Chemical Removal. This procedure entails the application of a caustic chemical to the

painted surface, allowing the chemical to work its way into the paint, and then removing the paint

from the component. Worker protection is necessary against the caustic and flammable

chemicals. The procedure can produce a large amount of hazardous waste. The procedure may

be useful when historical preservation is necessary. Mixed success was exhibited in abating

floors, window sills, and window wells using chemical removal (HUD, 1991). This method was

not associated with elevated blood-lead concentrations two years post-intervention (Bates et al.,

1997). This method was successful when used in combination with encapsulation and component

replacement strategies (Nedellec et al., 1995).

Component Replacement. This strategy of abatement entails removing the component in

question (e.g., doors, windows, trim) and replacing it with a new component, or thoroughly

stripping the leaded paint at an off-site location and reinstalling the original component. Removal

and replacement has been a successful abatement strategy (HUD, 1991; Farfel, 1991), and

produced declines in resident children’s blood-lead levels within one month of abatement (Amitai

et al., 1991). Window replacement may be the most common application of this strategy

(USEPA, 1995b, 1997, 1998a; NCLSH and UC, 1997). Preliminary results of the HUD

Abatement Grant Program suggest that this strategy can be effective in reducing dust-lead levels

in the home and blood-lead levels of resident children (NCLSH and UC, 1998).

Enclosure. Enclosure as an abatement practice involves resurfacing or covering the

painted surface with a rigid, solid material (e.g., drywall, gypsum board, or plywood) and caulking

with durable materials at the corners and edges to prevent escape of leaded dust or paint chips. 

The enclosing material is fastened mechanically to the base substrate or underlying structural

component. Warning signs are placed underneath the enclosure materials in case of future

disturbances. Given the potential for penetrating the enclosure barrier, only durable enclosure

materials should be used on surfaces regularly subjected to abrasion (e.g., window wells). 

Enclosure has been successfully implemented as an abatement strategy (HUD, 1991; NCLSH and

UC, 1997, 1998) and was effective in lowering the blood-lead concentrations of resident children

one month following the intervention (Amitai et al., 1991). Dust-lead levels in residences
89

predominantly abated using encapsulation or enclosure methods were typically, though not

significantly, higher than those measured in residences primarily abated using removal methods

(USEPA, 1996a, 1996b). Preliminary results of the HUD Abatement Grant Program suggest that

this strategy can be effective in reducing dust-lead levels in the home and blood-lead levels of

resident children (NCLSH and UC, 1998).

Encapsulation. This method involves coating surfaces with durable coatings to prevent

the underlying lead from becoming part of house dust or accessible to children. The coatings are

specifically formulated to be elastic, long-lasting, and resilient to cracking, peeling, algae and

fungus. Rigid materials that are adhesively bonded (as opposed to mechanically fastened) to the

leaded paint surface are also considered encapsulants. It is not expected that encapsulants will

last as long as mechanically fastened enclosures. As with enclosure, encapsulation is not suitable

for friction surfaces. The limited data on the efficacy of encapsulation methods indicates

dust-lead levels in residences abated predominantly using encapsulation or enclosure methods

were typically, though not significantly, higher than those measured in residences abated primarily

using removal methods (USEPA, 1996a, 1996b). Encapsulation was successful when used in

combination with chemical stripping and component removal strategies (Nedellec et al., 1995). 

Preliminary results of the HUD Abatement Grant Program suggest that encapsulation can be

effective in reducing dust-lead levels in the home and blood-lead levels of resident children

(NCLSH and UC, 1998).

Interim Controls. This strategy seeks to manage the lead-based paint hazard rather than

abate it. Peeling or chalking leaded paint is removed (e.g., wet scraping and sanding) and the

surface repainted. Intact leaded paint is not disturbed. Specialized cleaning is also required. 

Whenever further leaded paint deterioration occurs, the same maintenance procedures are utilized. 

Interim control strategies have resulted in significant declines in residential dust-lead loadings and

concentrations, as well as modest declines in the blood-lead levels of resident children 9-15

months after the interventions (Weitzman et al., 1993; USEPA, 1993b, 1995b, 1997, 1998a). 

Preliminary results of the HUD Abatement Grant Program suggest that interim controls can be
90

effective in reducing dust-lead levels in the home and blood-lead levels of resident children

(NCLSH and UC, 1998).

5.2.2 Lead-Containing Dust Intervention

Dust may exhibit elevated lead levels due to migration from lead sources such as soil lead

or deteriorating leaded paint. Therefore, any intervention targeting elevated levels of dust lead

must be performed regularly, since the source of the lead is not abated by the intervention.

Removal. This strategy removes the lead-containing dust by thoroughly wet mopping the

residence, usually with a detergent solution. Alternatively, HEPA vacuuming, or a combination of

the two methods, may be employed. Surfaces of the residence (e.g., floors, table tops, counters,

window sills) exhibiting elevated levels of dust lead are wet wiped or mopped. This process must

be repeated regularly since residential dust can rapidly become recontaminated. Charney, et al.

(1983), noted that dust-lead concentrations had returned to original levels two weeks following a

thorough residential cleaning. If performed regularly, however, dust removal intervention can

significantly reduce residential dust-lead loadings (Charney et al., 1983). More importantly, it can

moderately reduce (18%) the blood-lead concentrations of exposed children by one year

following its initiation (Charney et al., 1983; Rhoads et al., 1999). The study reported by Rhoads,

et al., also found that conscientious, regular cleaning could result in a 50% decline in dust-lead

levels. Hilts et al. (1995) reported no change in blood-lead concentrations resulted from a less

frequent cleaning schedule (every six weeks). However, an active lead smelter provided a source

of continuing recontamination in this community that was not present in other study communities. 

One-time cleaning was successful in reducing blood-lead levels of children whose homes were

scheduled to be abated (Mackey et al., 1996).

Education. The effect of a dust lead hazard may be reduced by educating both the

children and their parents about the potential for exposure. This education may be quite varied in

both its character and the manner in which it is provided. Parents may be provided materials

about the danger from hand-to-mouth behavior and the benefits of washing the child’s hands

regularly. Alternatively, a cleaning kit may be provided to the family, accompanied by training on
91

how best to reduce residential dust-lead levels. In all instances, the goal is to halt the pathway of

lead from the residential dust to the child’s blood. Educational interventions rely on the initiative

of the family to implement the recommended procedures. Educational interventions have been

effective in reducing residential dust-lead hazards (Roberts et al., 1991; Copley, 1996; Lanphear

et al., 1996), as well as children’s blood-lead concentrations (Kimbrough et al., 1994; USEPA,

1996c; LCDH and UC, 1993; Mackey et al., 1996). Small or no declines in blood-lead

concentrations have also been reported following educational interventions (Lanphear et al., 1995,

1996; Hilts et al., 1995). However, note that the Lanphear et al., 1996 study investigated a very

limited educational intervention for children at quite low blood-lead levels and probably had

limited power for detecting any blood-lead effect, even if it existed. The Hilts et al., 1995

intervention in Trail, British Columbia, Canada, had an active lead smelter, which provided a

source of continuing recontamination that was not present in other study communities.

5.2.3 Lead-Containing Soil Intervention

Like leaded paint intervention, strategies targeting elevated soil-lead concentrations seek

to abate or manage a source of lead exposure. The lead reservoir in soil may be the result of

years of leaded gasoline emissions, peeling exterior leaded paint, and in some areas, mining or

smelting operations.

Removal and Replacement. Under this intervention strategy, the soil exhibiting elevated

levels of lead is removed and replaced with soil of minimal (or background) lead concentration. 

The contaminated soil is removed to a depth sufficient to either abate all the contamination or to

preclude contaminated soil from being readily uncovered. In addition, grass may be sown to

prevent erosion. Weitzman et al. (1993) document the implementation of a soil removal and

replacement strategy in Boston, MA, and the resulting moderate reduction (23%) in the

blood-lead concentrations of resident children 11 months following the abatement. Similar soil

removal and replacement strategies were less effective in other locations, where initial conditions

were less severe (USEPA, 1993b, 1993c). In these communities, control group children exhibited

declines in blood-lead concentration as large, or larger, than children receiving soil abatement 

Community-wide soil abatement projects following the reduction or elimination of industrial lead
92

sources have resulted in reduced blood-lead concentrations in resident children (Langlois and

Gould, 1996; Gangne, 1994; Goulet et al., 1996).

Enclosure. This strategy encloses the contaminated soil to prevent access to or

mobilization of the lead. The enclosure consists of long-term soil coverings such as asphalt or

concrete. Though such a procedure was employed for a small number of homes in the Baltimore

portion of the Three-City Soil Abatement Demonstration Study (USEPA, 1993b), the efficacy of

these interventions was not reported separately from removal and replacement interventions

performed for the remaining study homes. In addition, no results are currently available on the

degree to which such enclosures degrade over the long-term (e.g., 20 years).

Interim Controls. This strategy maintains a cover over the contaminated soil to prevent

access to or mobilization of the lead. Potential soil coverings include grass sod and gravel. If

grass is used it may be appropriate to provide a sprinkler system to help ensure the continued

survival of the grass. Such coverings depend upon continued effort to maintain the effectiveness

of the covering. An intervention that included both soil cover and interior dust abatement was

effective in reducing blood-lead concentrations in the study group five months after the

intervention as compared to a control group that received preventive information (Mielke et al.,

1994). Additional studies have implemented soil cover interventions (Hilts, 1996; Calder et al.,

1994), but the effectiveness of the soil cover intervention separately from other components of the

overall intervention strategy. No other studies that document the effectiveness of this intervention

strategy were identified in the scientific literature.

Education. A soil lead hazard may also be restricted by educating both the children and

their parents about the danger. Parents may be provided materials about the danger from

hand-to-mouth behavior or encouraged to take the child to safe playgrounds in the area. The goal

is to halt the pathway of lead from the residential soil to the child’s blood. Such educational

efforts may be conducted in combination with education on the danger of residential

lead-containing dust. Since the lead-containing soil has not been abated, the potential for
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contamination of the interior house dust remains. No literature was identified on the effectiveness

of this strategy.

5.3 ONGOING RESEARCH

The studies summarized in this report help to provide a more complete picture of the

effectiveness of lead hazard intervention than that presented in the prior summary. However, the

data are still limited. Additional studies are under way that focus on primary prevention, the

longer term effectiveness of lead hazard intervention, effectiveness of interventions for children

with moderately elevated blood-lead levels (i.e., 10-20 μg/dL), and the effectiveness of additional

low-cost (at least up-front) intervention methods. It is anticipated that these studies will help

complete and sharpen the remaining issues relevant to lead hazard intervention.

PRIMARY PREVENTION

The Baltimore R&M project has enrolled babies born into study homes. These babies will

be followed in order to assess primary prevention effectiveness. Other studies that have

been funded by government agencies include a matched cross-sectional study that utilizes

blood-lead screening and abatement information collected by the Massachusetts

Department of Health (funded by EPA and CDC) and a primary prevention project in

Providence, RI and Chicago, IL (funded by CDC and HUD).

LONGER TERM EFFECTIVENESS

Preliminary Results from the New Jersey Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction

(CLEAR) dust intervention study (Rhoads et al., 1999) were summarized in this report. 

This ongoing study will follow children for two years. The Baltimore R&M study

(USEPA, 1995b, 1997, 1998a) will continue follow-up beyond two years, with additional

funding from HUD. The HUD Abatement Grant Program is a large scale, ongoing study

that will provide 2-3 year follow-up of interventions conducted in 9 sites. Additional

ongoing studies in Cleveland and Massachusetts (state), jointly funded by EPA and CDC,

will measure blood and dust lead for up to two years following a variety of interventions.

MODERATELY ELEVATED BLOOD-LEAD CONCENTRATIONS

A prospective study, which includes a control population, will assess the efficacy of

educational outreach visits conducted by the Milwaukee Health Department in reducing

blood-lead concentrations, or preventing further increases, of children under two years of

age whose initial blood-lead concentration is between 15 and 19 μg/dL. The effectiveness
94

of these outreach visits has been demonstrated for children with blood-lead concentrations

above 20 μg/dL (Schultz et al., 1998; USEPA, 1996c).

A randomized trial of dust control involving 275 children followed from 6 months of age

until they attained 24 months of age was conducted by Lanphear and colleagues at the

University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, NY. Of the 275 children,

140 (51%) were randomly assigned to receive up to 8 visits by a trained dust control

advisor, cleaning equipment and supplies. The remaining 135 children were assigned to a

control group. Outcome measures include geometric mean blood-lead levels and the

percent of children having a blood-lead level in excess of 10 μg/dL, 15 μg/dL, and

20 μg/dL by group assignment (Lanphear et al., 1998).

LOW-COST INTERVENTIONS

The HUD Abatement Grant Program is encouraging state and local governments to

experiment with new and innovative low-cost intervention strategies (NCLSH and UC,

1997). One grantee plans to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention in improving

neurobehavioral functioning in Kansas City children. In addition, a study of low-cost

abatement methods is being conducted in Baltimore.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

While each research study has unique objectives, a goal in conducting research is always

to add to the body of knowledge in the subject area. Thus, comparisons are made between the

results of a new research study and those that preceded it. These comparisons may be made in a

review article or report, such as this one, or by another researcher in the course of planning a

study. Although the specific study objectives must always determine the primary outcome

measurements, we make recommendations in this section that could facilitate the comparison of

new study results to other research. In addition, we identify areas where additional research is

needed to provide a more complete understanding of lead hazard intervention effectiveness.

In order to compare results across studies, consistent outcome measurements must be

available. We have found that not only must the same endpoints (e.g., blood-lead concentration)

be measured, but that the timing relative to intervention and sampling method should be similar. 

For example, comparison of venous and capillary blood-lead measurements can be problematic. 

We note that some of the more common endpoints measured in the abatement literature were

blood-lead concentration and dust-lead loadings on floors, window sills, and window wells. 

Blood-lead concentration was most commonly measured by venous blood draws and we
95

recommend continued use of that method whenever possible. Dust-lead loadings were measured

using a variety of vacuum or wipe sampling methods. Although there are advantages to both

types of methods, wipe sampling is relatively inexpensive and attractive to many researchers for

that reason. Thus we recommend that, when environmental measures are included in a study, at

least some wipe samples be collected. Finally, the timing of measurements relative to the

intervention is very important. Pre-intervention measures should be collected to provide a basis

for comparison even within the study. The timing of post-intervention measures depends,

however, on the specific objectives of the study. Some time points, however, appear to be

globally important. For environmental measures, clearance samples are needed to verify that the

studied intervention did remove the targeted lead hazard. These samples also provide a baseline

for the assessment of recontamination of environmental media. Follow-up sampling at one year

post-intervention is recommended for both blood and dust measurements, to minimize the effect

of seasonal variability, at least for blood-lead measurements. In addition, random assignment of

homes into intervention and control groups is highly recommended wherever possible, the power

of the study to detect differences of interest should be considered, and, of course, other good

research practices implemented.

The body of research examining the effectiveness of lead hazard interventions still contains

substantial “gaps” that need to be addressed before a complete understanding of the issue is

possible. Certainly, there are intervention strategies that are employed today but not yet

documented in the scientific literature (e.g., covering soil exhibiting elevated lead concentrations). 

While such documentation would greatly facilitate EPA in its regulatory efforts, it is likely there

will always be some new strategy being considered that has not had its efficacy scientifically

documented. The rapid pace of technology and the continuing dissemination of information

regarding the benefits and/or dangers of studied interventions (e.g., via this report) will ensure

new strategies are constantly being developed. There are, however, other data gaps that are more

pressing given their fundamental implications to understanding lead hazard intervention.

There is little if any documentation regarding the long-term effectiveness of intervention. 

Some studies have examined efficacy for 2-3 years post-intervention and others are planned, or

are in progress. In addition, the Baltimore R&M study included a group of previously abated

homes, providing 4-6 year follow-up of those abatements. However, that is only one study and
96

even that length of time may be insufficient. Do interventions retain their efficacy for five years? 

Ten years? There are factors which challenge long-term efficacy. There is often the potential for

recontamination from neighboring residences not necessarily benefitting from any intervention. 

So too may the intervention strategy itself gradually lose its effectiveness. Dust cleaning practices

prompted by educational outreach may gradually be abandoned over time. Lead hazard

encapsulations may age, thereby losing some of their ability to shield the still present lead source. 

Long-term efficacy is also a question based on the uncertainties of human lead exposure. Bonelead stores have the potential to partially mask the effectiveness of an intervention for extended

periods of time (Rust et al., 1999; USEPA, 1998b). Given sufficient time, do blood-lead

concentrations eventually decline to levels consistent with the post-intervention environment? 

Until long-term efficacy is considered, it is difficult to fully anticipate the long-term consequences

of interventions.

It has already been noted that no data exist regarding primary prevention effectiveness

rather than secondary (Section 2.2). Too often an exposed child represents the first indication of

a lead hazard. EPA is working to rectify that with the promulgation of the §403 rule defining lead

hazards in paint, dust, and soil. It is hoped these definitions will permit identification of

residences requiring intervention before a child is exposed. What degree of effectiveness might be

expected from such interventions? This same question is relevant even without the §403 rule in

that new families routinely move into residences whose lead hazards have already been intervened. 

Given the role of retained lead in body stores, it is reasonable to expect primary prevention

efficacy to exceed secondary prevention efficacy. The extent to which it does, however, is

critical.
97

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Smith, D.R., Osterloh, J.D., Flegal, A.R., (1996) “Use of Endogenous Stable Lead Isotopes to

Determine Release of Lead from the Skeleton.” Environmental Health Perspectives. 

104(1):60-66.

Staes, C., Matte, T., Copley, G., Flanders, D., and Binder, S., (1994) “Retrospective Study of the

Impact of Lead-Based Paint Hazard Remediation on Children's Blood Lead Levels in St. Louis,

Missouri.” American Journal of Epidemiology. 139(10):1016-1026.

Staes, C., and Rinehart, R., (1995) “Does Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Work?”

Report to National Center for Lead-Safe Housing, April 1995.

Swindell, S.L., Charney, E., Brown, M.J., Delaney, J., (1994) “Home Abatement and Blood Lead

Changes in Children With Class III Lead Poisoning.” Clinical Pediatrics. September: 536-541.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (1991) “The HUD Lead-Based Paint

Abatement Demonstration (FHA).” Washington, D.C. August 1991.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (1990) “Comprehensive and Workable Plan

for the Abatement of Lead-Based Paint in Privately Owned Housing: Report to Congress.” 

Washington, D.C. December 1990.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (1995) “Guidelines for the Evaluation and

Control of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in Housing”. Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention, Washington, D.C., 1995.

U.S. Department of Labor (1993) “Lead Exposure in Construction; Interim Final Rule.” Federal

Register. 88(84):26590-26649.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986) “Air Quality Criteria for Lead.” Environmental

Criteria and Assessment Office, USEPA, Research Triangle Park, NC. Volumes I-IV.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1987) “Baltimore Integrated Environmental Management

Project - Phase II Report: Reducing the Hazards from Abatement of Lead Paint.” Final Report.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993a) “Urban Soil Lead Abatement Demonstration

Project, Volume II: Boston Report (2 Parts),” EPA Report 600/AP-93/001b.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993b) “Urban Soil Lead Abatement Demonstration

Project, Volume III: Baltimore Report (2 Parts),” EPA Report 600/AP-93/001c.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993c) “Urban Soil Lead Abatement Demonstration

Project, Volume IV: Cincinnati Report,” EPA Report 600/AP-93/001d.
105

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995a), “Review of Studies Addressing Lead Abatement

Effectiveness,” EPA Report 747-R-95-006.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995b), “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and

Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Pre-Intervention Findings”, EPA Report 747-R-95-012.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995c), “Seasonal Rhythm of Blood-Lead Levels: Boston,

1979-1983,” EPA Report 747-R-94-003.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996a), “Comprehensive Abatement Performance Study,

Volume I: Summary Report,” EPA Report 230-R-94-013a.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996b), “Comprehensive Abatement Performance Study,

Volume II: Detailed Statistical Results,” EPA Report 230-R-94-013b.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996c), “Effect of In-Home Educational Intervention on

Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Milwaukee,” EPA Report 747-R-95-009.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996d), “Seasonal Trends in Blood Lead Levels in

Milwaukee,” EPA Report 747-R-95-010.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996e) “Urban Soil Lead Abatement Demonstration

Project, Volume I: EPA Integrated Report,” EPA Report 600/P-93/001aF.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997), “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and

Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Findings Based on the First Year of Follow-up”, EPA Report

747-R-97-001.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998a), “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and

Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Findings Based on Two Years of Follow-up”,

EPA Report 747-R-97-005.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998b), “Risk Analysis to Support Standards for Lead in

Paint, Dust, and Soil,” EPA Report 747-R-97-006.

Wedeen, R.P., (1988) “Bone Lead, Hypertension, and Lead Nephropathy.” Environmental Health

Perspectives. 78:57-60.

Weitzman, M., Aschengrau, A., Bellinger, D., Jones, R., Hamlin, J.S., Beiser, A., (1993)

“Lead-Contaminated Soil Abatement and Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels.” Journal of the

American Medical Association. 269(13):1647-1654.

Wrenn, M.E., Cohen, M., Rosen, J.C., Eisenbud, M., Blanchard, R.L., (1972) “In-vivo

Measurements of Lead-210 in Man. Assessment of Radioactive Contamination in Man.” IAEA. 

pp 129-146.
106

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A-1

APPENDIX A

ABSTRACTS OF STUDIES ADDRESSING

LEAD ABATEMENT EFFECTIVENESS
A-2

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A-3

A.1. New York Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Markowitz, M.E., Bijur, P.E., Ruff, H.A., Balbi, K., and Rosen, J.F. (1996)

“Moderate Lead Poisoning: Trends in Blood Lead Levels in Unchelated Children.”

Environmental Health Perspectives. 104(9):968-972.

Markowitz, M.E. (1998) Personal Communication. February 1998.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to determine the effectiveness of a combination

of remediation of household lead hazards, educational intervention strategies, and iron therapy on

reducing blood-lead levels (PbB) in moderately lead poisoned children (25-55 μg/dL) in the

absence of chelation therapy.

Sampled Population. The sample population consisted of 206 children who were referred to the

Montefiore Medical Center Lead Clinic and identified as having moderately elevated blood-lead

concentrations (25-55 μg/dL) between 1986 and 1992. All of the children received a lead

mobilization test with negative results, indicating none were qualified to receive chelation therapy. 

Of the 206 children enrolled, 93 underwent chelation therapy at least once, and only 79 of the

remaining 113 children completed the study. The final study population consisted of 79 children

ranging in age from 1 to 7 years (mean: 31.5 months at enrollment) with moderately elevated

blood-lead levels, who had not received chelation therapy prior to or during the study.

Approximately two-thirds of the children were of Hispanic origin and one-third were

African American.

Intervention Strategy. Following inspection of the homes, the local Board of Health’s Lead

Bureau was notified to start the legal process needed to bring the home into compliance with

existing health and housing codes. No specific abatement protocol was enforced. Education on 

sources of lead, its toxicity, and methods to reduce exposure to children was begun at the first

clinic visit. Efforts were also made to reduce the child’s exposure to lead hazards by placement in

alternative lead-free housing during abatement of the child’s residence. Nutritional counseling

was begun at the first clinic visit. Parents of children with ferritin levels less than 16 μg/L at

enrollment were given supplies to provide their child with 5-6 mg/kg of elemental iron daily for

3 months.

Measurements Taken. Lead content of paint was measured by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) using

an XK-3 instrument (Princeton Gamma Tech). The blood-lead concentrations were collected via

venipuncture and measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry using a Varian

Techtron atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Ferritin was measured by radioimmunoassay in

sera.

Study Design. In this study, moderately Pb-poisoned children (25-55 μg/dL) were followed for

6 months. Eligible Children received the following interventions: notification of the health

department to remediate lead hazards; reinforced educational efforts about the toxicity sources

and treatment of Pb during 10 clinic and 3 home visits; and iron therapy for children with ferritin

levels less than16 μg/L. Ten clinic visits scheduled during the 6 months occurred at: enrollment,
A-4

and 1, 4, 6, 7, 12, 16, 20, 24, and 25 weeks later for each child. The three home visits occurred

at: enrollment, 6 weeks, and at 24-25 weeks during the study. Primary outcome measurements

were Blood -lead levels, ferritin levels and home environmental score (HES). Blood-lead levels

were obtained at each clinic visit and ferritin levels were taken at 1, 7, and 24 weeks clinic visit.

At each home visit, each household was given a home environmental score (HES). This score

consisted of a combination of the household’s paint status and XRF value. Each painted surface

was given a visual rating for its condition on a scale of 0 to 3. A score of 0 was given to an intact

surface, 1 if the surface had bubbles, 2 to a surface with cracks, and 3 to a surface with peeling

paint. Each surface of each room was tested in triplicate at one location per surface for its lead

content. Surfaces tested included all walls, windows, doors, and baseboards. The XRF

instrument was calibrated hourly during the testing.

Study Results. The mean of the triplicate readings was calculated for each surface and then

multiplied by the visual rating score. The HES given to each individual household is the sum of

these products. Mean HES scores decreased throughout the study (Table A.1-1). At enrollment,

ten percent of households had a HES of 0, whereas 25 percent had a HES of 0 at 6 weeks, and

20 percent had a HES of 0 at 6 months. The median HES score of 37 at the time of enrollment

was used as a reference point to categorize the population into high- and low-level lead exposure.

Table A.1-1. Home Environmental Scores (HES) by Time

Time Minimum Maximum Mean ± SE Median

Enrollment 0 830 88 ± 16 37

Week 6 0 766 44 ± 11 14

Week 24 0 294 27 ± 5 17

Mean blood-lead concentrations were greater for children with high HES scores

(i.e., > 37) than for children with low HES scores. A significant correlation was found between

PbB and HES at enrollment only (correlation=0.243, n=77, p<0.05). Table A.1-2 displays the

frequency distribution for the high- and low-level HES groups by blood-lead level at enrollment

and at week 25. Average blood-lead levels declined for both HES groups throughout the course

of the study (Table A.1-3). By 6 months post-intervention, blood-lead levels had declined to less

than 25 μg/dL for two-thirds of the children, regardless of initial HES status. Only 7% of the

children’s blood-lead levels were less than 15 μg/dL at the end of the study, with the minimum

blood-lead level at 9 μg/dL.
A-5

Table A.1-2. Frequency Distribution for the High- and Low-Level HES Groups by

Blood-Lead Level at Enrollment and Week 25

PbB

(μg/dL)

HES # 37 HES > 37

Enrollment Week 25 Enrollment Week 25

< 15 0 14 0 0

15-24 5 53 0 67

25-34 90 31 80 30

35-44 5 0 15 3

> 44 0 3 5 0

Table A.1-3. Average Blood-Lead Levels (μg/dL) by Children Grouped in High- and

Low-Level HES Scores

Week of Study

HES # 37 (n=40) HES > 37 (n=39)

Mean

Standard

Deviation Mean

Standard

Deviation

0 25 3 31 5

1 26 4 29 5

4 25 7 27 5

6 24 5 26 5

7 24 6 26 4

12 23 5 25 5

16 22 5 25 4

20 21 6 22 5

24 21 7 23 5

25 21 7 23 4

Two subgroups consisting of 10 children each whose HES scores were consistently above

or consistently below the initial median HES score of 37 were chosen for further analysis. 

Children who were consistently above the median HES score had higher initial blood-lead levels

than those who were consistently below the median HES score. However, mean blood-lead

concentrations for both subgroups declined at a similar rate (Table A.1-4) over the 6 months of

the study.
A-6

Table A.1-4. Average Blood-Lead Levels (μg/dL) by Children Grouped in Consistently

High- and Consistently Low-Level HES Scores

Week of Study

Consistently Below HES Score of 37

(n=10)

Consistently Above HES Score of 37

(n=10)

Mean

Standard

Deviation Mean

Standard

Deviation

0 27 3 35 8

1 25 3 31 4

4 21 5 28 5

6 23 6 26 6

7 22 6 28 5

12 20 4 25 6

16 21 5 24 5

20 21 4 22 4

24 17 6 23 7

25 18 5 23 4

Conclusions (including caveats). These results suggest that a combination of source abatement,

educational intervention strategies, and iron therapy result in a 27 percent reduction in blood-lead

for children with moderately (22-55 μg/dL) elevated blood-lead levels. The magnitude of the

reduction in children’s blood-lead levels may be confounded with the effects of seasonal variation

and the age of the child. Also, the authors conclude that no attempt was made to quantify the

amount of time the child spent in the primary residence and other secondary residences. Although

one measure of exposure was examined (HES), no measures were reported for the dust-lead

content in the household and on the child’s hands.
A-7

A.2. Baltimore Three-City Soil Abatement Study

Reference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996e), “Urban Soil Lead Abatement

Demonstration Project, Volume I: EPA Integrated Report,” EPA Report 600/P-93/001aF.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993b), “Urban Soil Lead Abatement

Demonstration Project, Volume III: Baltimore Report (2 Parts),” EPA Report 600/AP-93/001c.

Pertinent Study Objectives. Baltimore was one of three urban cities participating in a project

examining whether a reduction in residential soil-lead concentration would result in a statistically

significant decrease of blood lead levels among children residing in the target homes. Each

community also included specific objectives of its own to the project. For the Baltimore study,

there was also interest in whether decreasing soil-lead levels would result in a corresponding

decrease in household dust-lead levels.

Sampled Population. Baltimore children aged 6 to 72 months residing in otherwise comparable

communities designated the control or study areas. The designated areas were chosen for

comparable demographic, soil lead and housing characteristics. An initial sample size of

408 children were chosen, with a total attrition of 294 children and total gain of 71 children

through 6 rounds of blood sampling. Sample sizes immediately prior to and after interventions

were 270 children (round 3) and 197 children (round 4).

Intervention Strategy. For the study group, the top 6 inches of soil in areas with lead

concentration greater than 550 ppm were removed and replaced with clean soil (i.e., less than

50 ppm). For both groups, paint stabilization via removal and repainting was implemented to

prevent recontamination of the cleaned soil.

Measurements Taken. Exterior and interior paint chip samples were collected and analyzed via

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). Soil core samples were collected and analyzed via energy dispersive

x-ray spectrometry. Interior vacuumed dust samples were collected and analyzed via wet

digestion atomic absorption spectrophotometry and laboratory XRF. First flush kitchen cold tap

water samples were collected and analyzed via graphite furnace atomic absorption

spectrophotometry. Venipuncture blood lead samples were collected from all participating

children and analyzed via anodic stripping voltammetry. Wet wipe hand lead samples were

collected from all participating children and analyzed via atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

Study Design. The study took place over the course of 3 years, beginning in the fall of 1988. 

Otherwise comparable study areas were designated as treatment and control areas. Study homes

in the treatment area received both soil abatement and paint stabilization interventions. Control

homes received only paint stabilization. Children with moderately elevated blood-lead levels were

enrolled in the study. Progress was measured through six rounds of sampling. The

interventions occurred between rounds 3 and 4, and began in the summer and fall of 1990. Data

gathered were of 3 groups: environmental (soil-, dust-, paint- and water-lead levels), biological

(blood- and hand- lead levels) and questionnaire data. Environmental data were obtained only

before and after the soil abatements. Biological and questionnaire data were collected every
A-8

round. Primary outcome measurements were blood-lead concentrations, soil-lead concentrations

and dust-lead loading.

Study Results. Although there was a statistically significant difference in study area soil-lead

concentrations before and after abatement (decrease of 470.1 ppm), the decrease in dust lead level

was not statistically significant for the study area, but was statistically significant for the control

area. Dust and soil lead changes are summarized in Table A.2-1.

Table A.2-1. Pre- and Post-Intervention Mean Soil-Lead Concentration and Dust-Lead

Loading*

Group

Pre-Intervention

Mean (SE)

PostIntervention

Mean (SE)

Mean

Difference

 (SE)

Soil-Lead

Concentration 

(ppm)

Treatment

n=57 

503.6 

(268.2)

33.6

(34.9)

470.1 

(269.8)

Control

 n=147

501.3

(312.1) - -

Dust-Lead Loading

(μg/ft2)

Treatment

n=33

165.8

(217.5)

90.7

(86.3)

75.1

(192.1)

Control

n=40

162.7

(294.4)

103.0

(137.6)

59.7

(287.0)

* Lead loadings converted from μg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.

As for the effects on blood-lead concentration, a decrease in blood-lead concentration for the

study and control areas were observed at round 4, January through March of 1990, three months

following intervention. In round 5, May through July, blood-lead levels increased slightly for both

groups, remaining somewhat stable through round 6.

Six linear regression models, with the log of blood-lead level or the log of hand-lead level

as the response variable, were constructed; the independent variables included treatment group,

socio-economic status, gender, age, season, dust-lead level, and soil-lead level. For each model, 

regression coefficients were calculated for all six rounds, and separately for children who did and

did not participate in all six rounds. The most relevant model, Model 1, measures the direct effect

of group assignment (treatment or control) on the log of blood lead:

LPbBij = b0jTi + b1jCi + eij

where for the ith child in round j,

 LpbBij = log of blood lead of child i in round j

Ti = 1 if child i is in treatment group, else 0

Ci = 1 if child i is in control group, else 0

eij = error term.
A-9

The model-predicted geometric mean of the blood-lead levels, for children participating in all

six rounds, decreased from 9.44 μg/dL in round 3 to 8.36 μg/dL in round 4 for the treatment

group and 9.28 μg/dL in round 3 to 7.59 μg/dL in round 4 for the control group. Thus, a child

assigned to the treatment group will have a decrease (from round 3 to 4) in blood-lead level of

11% versus a decrease of 18% for a child assigned to the control group. For the remaining

two rounds, the geometric mean log blood-lead levels for the control group remained lower than

for the study group, although the differences were not statistically significant. See Table A.2-2

for a summary of the geometric mean blood-lead levels for the subset of children who participated

in all six rounds.

Table A.2-2. Model-Predicted Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentrations for Children

Participating In All Six Rounds

Round

Geometric Mean of Blood Lead (μg/dL)

Treatment Group

(SE)

Control Group

(SE)

1

11.858

(0.7697)

11.3362

(0.60082)

2

10.8374

(0.67408)

10.2472

(0.50939)

3*

9.4404

(0.62156)

9.2813

(0.52328)

4

8.3602

(0.56731)

7.5989

(0.44263)

5

8.8375

90.59591)

8.0688

(0.4763)

6

9.3371

(0.61149)

8.3562

(0.5114)

* Interventions were conducted between rounds 3 and 4.

Conclusions (including caveats). The results indicate soil abatement did not produce significant

declines in the mean blood-lead concentrations of children benefitting from the abatements. The

authors hypothesize that perhaps this was due in part to the low levels of soil lead in the study

area. Nevertheless, soil abatement seems not to be an effective method for lowering the bloodlead levels of urban children. It could be, however, that soil abatement might serve as a helpful

adjunct. Also worth noting is that paint stabilization, which by itself could be considered a

“treatment”, was provided to both groups. Thus, it could be argued that no true control group

was used. Perhaps the lack of a statistically significant difference in the mean log of blood-lead

level between the control and treatment group are due to the effects of paint stabilization. As for

the 12 sets of coefficients (6 rounds, 2 subsets of children participating/not participating in all 6

rounds) given for each of the 6 models, perhaps a more useful approach would be 1 set of

coefficients per model. The 12 sets of coefficients and the 6 error terms per child results in a lack

of independence amongst the error terms, violating the usual assumption of independent error

terms for linear models. 
A-10

A.3. Cincinnati Three-City Soil Abatement Study

Reference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996e), “Urban Soil Lead Abatement

Demonstration Project, Volume I: EPA Integrated Report,” EPA Report 600/P-93/001aF.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993c), “Urban Soil Lead Abatement

Demonstration Project, Volume IV: Cincinnati Report,” EPA Report 600/AP-93/001d.

Pertinent Study Objectives. Cincinnati was one of three urban communities participating in an

EPA project examining whether reduction of soil and dust-lead levels would result in a

statistically significant decrease in blood lead levels of children. There was also interest in

whether interim interior dust abatement, in conjunction with exterior dust and soil abatement

would result in a greater reduction in blood lead than either alone.

Sampled Population. Families of children under 5 years of age were recruited from three study

areas (A, B, and C) selected for similar demographic and housing characteristics. Also, areas

chosen primarily consisted of rehabilitated housing in which lead-based paint was abated as a

result of Department of Housing and Urban Development-supported programs in the early 1970s. 

Rehabilitation involved the “gutting” of buildings, the complete replacement of plumbing, wiring,

and heating systems, and installation of new walls, flooring, windows, and doors. Two hundred

and twenty-five children were enrolled in phase 1 (June and July of 1989), of which 173 resided in

rehabilitated housing. One hundred of the initial 225 remained at the completion of the study in

October 1991. Also, 66 phase 5 recruits (January of 1990), of which 37 remained, and 16 new

births contributed to a final tally of 153 participants at the end of the study.

Intervention Strategy. Area A received soil lead, exterior dust, and interior dust abatement

treatments in 1989. Soil lead abatement consisted of the removal of the top 6 inches of soil if the

15 cm core average or top 2 cm lead concentration was greater than or equal to 500 ppm. 

Interior dust abatement consisted of vacuuming and/or wet cleaning surfaces including ledges,

window wells and window sills, and non-carpeted floors. Contaminated carpets and selected

furniture were replaced as vacuuming was determined ineffective for abatement. Exterior dust

abatement consisted of vacuuming paved areas.

Measurements Taken. Vacuumed exterior dust and surface and core soil samples were analyzed

via x-ray fluorescence (XRF). Air sampled interior dust samples were digested and analyzed by

flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). 30-minute and overnight stagnation water samples

were analyzed using Mg(NO3)2 and NH4HP04 as matrix modifiers and on a Perkin-Elmer Graphite

Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometer with Zeeman background correction. “Wet Wipes”

hand samples were analyzed with flame AAS. Paint samples were analyzed via XRF.

Study Design. The study took place through 9 phases of environmental and biological

monitoring.. An earlier “phase”, phase 00, involved the project’s design and initial measurements. 

Table A.3-1 presents a schedule of the sequential phases. Interior and exterior dust and soil

abatement for Area A and interior dust abatement for Area B took place between phases 1 and 2. 

Exterior dust and soil abatement for Area B took place between phases 5 and 6. Area C served as
A-11

a control, although all three forms of abatement were provided after phase 9. In this study,

interventions were assigned based on the location of the home in one of three neighborhoods. 

Primary outcome measurements were soil lead concentrations, dust lead loadings, dust lead

concentrations, and blood-lead concentrations

Table A.3-1. Schedule of Phases

Phase 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Time 9/88-5/89 6&7/89 9&10/89 11/89 2/90 6/90 9/90 11/90 2/91 6/91

Study Results. For Area A, the geometric mean soil-lead concentration decreased, between

phases 00 and 05, from 200 ppm to 54 ppm, for the top 2 cm core composite samples. This

decrease was statistically significant (p <0.05). For Area B, the geometric mean soil-lead

concentration for the top 2 cm core composite samples decreased from 161 ppm in phase 05 to

59.5 ppm in phase 09. The geometric mean soil lead concentration changes for the top 2 cm core

composite samples, as reported for each study area and phase, are summarized in Table A.3-2.

Table A.3-2. Geometric Mean Soil Lead Concentration (ppm) for Top 2 cm Core

Composite Samples

Phase Area A (95% C.I.) Area B (95% C.I.) Area C (95% C.I.)

0 200 (162-245) 103 (91-116) 140 (119-164)

Soil Abatement 

2 54 (46.1 -63.3) 148 (133-163) 163 (139-191)

5 51.8 (44.3-60.7) 161 (144-180) 145 (124-169)

Soil Abatement

9 58.8 (49.7-69.7) 59.5 (54.5-64.9) 161 (137-190)

Soil Abatement

The geometric means of the interior entry dust lead concentration for both Areas A and B (initial

recruits living in rehabilitated housing and participating in both phases) increased after interior

dust abatement (between phases 01 and 02). However, the geometric mean dust-lead loadings

decreased for both groups. As might be expected, exterior dust abatement produced no

discernible effect on dust-lead concentration. Exterior and interior dust abatement results are

summarized in Tables A.3-3a, A.3-3b, A.3-4.
A-12

Table A.3-3a. Geometric Mean Interior Entry-Dust Lead Loading (μg/ft2) and

Concentration (ppm) for Initial Recruits Living in Rehabilitated Housing and

Participating in Both Phases 1 and 2 

Phase

Area A Area B Area C

Concentration Loading Concentration Loading Concentration Loading

1 

323

 (221-472)

42.94

(11.62-

158.76)

547

(421-711)

22.49

(11.62-43.69)

278

(192-403)

12.73

(6.13-26.31)

2 757

(552-1,038)

25.93

(9.11-73.8)

614

(517-729)

5.02

(3.44-7.34)

36

(255-508)

10.04

(5.76-17.38)

 (95% C.I.)

Table A.3-3b. Geometric Mean Interior Entry Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) and

Concentration (ppm) for Initial Recruits Living in Rehabilitated Housing and

Participating in Both Phases 1 and 9

Phase

Area A Area B Area C

Concentration Loading Concentration Loading Concentration Loading

1 351

(244-506)

19.43

(3.53-107.27)

430

(321-577)

17.29

(7.71-38.95)

215

(122-378)

11.06

(4.83-25.28)

9 591

(371-942)

24.17

(8.55-68.23)

515

(411-645)

29.65

(15.24-57.63)

324

(255-410)

34.11

(12.92-89.88)

 (95% C.I.)

Table A.3-4. Geometric Means Exterior Dust-Lead Concentration (ppm) for All Locations

Phase Area A Area B Area C

1 1,314 (1,151-1,500) 1,905 (1,683-2,156) 586 (493-697)

Exterior Abatement

2 1,707 (1,530-1,905) 1,793 (1,615-1, 991) 520 (457-612)

5 1,312 (1,128-1,526) 1,970 (1,744-2,226) 594 (501-703)

Exterior Abatement

6 1,184 (1,025-1,369) 1,954 (1,745-2,188) 581 (490-690)

(95% C.I.)
A-13

The mean differences in blood-lead concentrations measured between phases 1 and 9 were 0.64,

-2.04, and -1.72 (μg Pb/dL) for Areas A, B and C, respectively. The difference between the

decreases in Areas A and B was statistically significant (level of significance not provided by the

authors). Results were for initial recruits living in rehabilitated housing and participating in both

phases. Measured differences in blood lead levels between phases are summarized in Table A.3-5.

Table A.3-5. Mean Differences in Blood Lead Levels (μg/dL) Between Phases for Initial

Recruits Living in Rehabilitated Housing and Participating in Compared

Phases

Compared

Phases A Area A (95% C.I.) B Area B (95% C.I.) C Area C (95% C.I.)

3 to 1 10.42 -1.86 (-3.07 to - 0.65) 

n=50 13.05 -1.86 (-2.61 to -1.11) n=77 9.47 -2.55 (-3.61 to -1.44)n=47

5 to 1 9.63 0.87 (-0.8 to 2.54)

n=43 12.54 -1.51 (-2.81 to -0.22)n=61 9.35 -0.96 (-2.47 to 0.54)n=41

7 to 1 9.38 0.76 (-1.16 to 2.67)

n=32 12.15 -2.46 (-3.75 to -1.17)n=53 9.36 -1.5 (-2.93 to -0.07)n=33

9 to 1 9.44 0.64 (-1.86 to 3.14)

n=27 12.38 -2.04 (-3.35 to -0.73)n=48 9.96 -1.72 (-3.53 to 0.09)n=26

A = Area A Phase 1 Mean for children participating in both phases

B = Area B Phase 1 Mean for children participating in both phases

C = Area C Phase 1 Mean for children participating in both phases

Conclusions (including caveats). Results indicate soil abatement can be effective in the

long-term for reducing lead levels in soil. However, there is no conclusive evidence that the

abatement methods chosen were effective in long-term reduction of interior and exterior dust

lead. More importantly, there is no evidence that the three forms of abatement together reduces

blood lead level in the long term nor is there evidence that such an abatement method is more

effective than interior dust abatement alone. Also, seasonal fluctuations should be noted when

considering changes in blood lead-levels. For example, phase 1 was conducted in June of 1989

while phase 3 was conducted in November of 1989. Thus, decreases in blood lead level as

indicated in Table A.3-5 could have been in part due to seasonal variation.
A-14

A.4. Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study

Reference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996e), “Urban Soil Lead Abatement

Demonstration Project, Volume I: EPA Integrated Report,” EPA Report 600/P-93/001aF.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993a), “Urban Soil Lead Abatement

Demonstration Project, Volume II: Boston Report (2 Parts),” EPA Report 600/AP-93/001b.

Weitzman, M., Aschengrau, A., Bellinger, D., Jones, R., Hamlin, J. S., Beiser, A. (1993)

“Lead-Contaminated Soil Abatement and Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels.” Journal of the

American Medical Association. 269(13):1647-1654.

Aschengrau, A., Beiser, A., Bellinger, D., Copenhafer, D., Weitzman, M. (1994) “The

Impact of Soil Lead Abatement on Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels: Phase II results from the

Boston Lead-In-Soil Demonstration Project.” Environmental Research. 67:125-148.

Aschengrau, A., Beiser, A., Bellinger, D., Copenhafer, D., Weitzman, M. (1997)

“Residential Lead-Based-Paint Hazard Remediation and Soil Lead Abatement: Their Impact

among Children with Mildly Elevated Blood Lead Levels.” American Journal of Public Health.

87(10):1698-1702.

Note: This summary was prepared from the papers listed above, two of which were available

before the study report was published.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This project endeavored to assess whether a significant reduction

( 1000 ppm) in the concentration of lead in residential soil results in a significant decrease

( 3 μg/dL) in the blood-lead concentration (PbB) of children residing at the premises and to

assess the impact of residential lead-based paint hazard remediation alone and in combination with

soil abatement on children with mildly elevated blood-lead levels.

Sampled Population. Volunteers were sought among children residing in areas in Boston

already known to have high incidence of childhood lead poisoning and elevated soil-lead

concentrations. A total of 152 children were enrolled, each satisfying the following criteria:

• less than or equal to four years of age,

• blood-lead concentration between 10 and 20 μg/dL with no history of lead

poisoning, and

• minimum median residential soil-lead concentration of 1500 μg/g (ppm).

Intervention Strategy. This project employed four lead hazard interventional procedures: 1) an

initial one-time interior paint stabilization by removing exposed paint chips; 2) one-time interior

dust abatement; 3) extensive soil abatement; and, finally, 4) lead-based paint abatement. Interior

paint stabilization consisted of vacuuming loose paint areas with a HEPA vacuum, washing loose

paint areas with a TSP solution, and painting the window wells with primer. Interior dust

abatement consisted of HEPA vacuuming walls, woodwork, floors, and rugs, wiping surfaces

with wet cloths and furniture with oil-treated cloths. Soil abatement consisted of removing
A-15

surface soil to a depth of 6 in., installing geotextile fabrics, replacing with top soil containing

minimum lead levels, and installing ground cover. Lead-based paint abatement was conducted on

exterior and interior areas where x-ray fluorescence readings exceeded 1.2 mg/cm2 or a sodium

sulfide chemical reaction was positive. For both interior and exterior areas, deleading consisted of

removing leaded paint from mouthable surfaces below 5 feet and making intact all paint above 5

feet. Occupants and their belongings were relocated off site during the interior remediations. 

Reoccupancy was permitted only if dust-lead levels in clearance wipe samples were below 200,

500, and 800 μg/ft2 on floors, window sills, and window wells, respectively. Additional cleanups

were conducted until these criteria were met.

Measurements Taken. Extensive environmental media and body burden samples were collected:

• composite core soil samples,

• vacuum dust samples,

• first draw water samples,

• interior and exterior paint assessment via portable XRF,

• venipuncture blood samples to assess blood lead concentration, and free

erythrocyte protoporphyrin (FEP) and ferritin levels; 

• an assessment of sources of lead exposure and behavioral factors related to lead

exposure was conducted at each blood draw; and,

• hand-wipe samples.

Soil and dust samples were analyzed by x-ray fluorescence. Blood-lead levels were determined by

graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry.

Study Design. This study was a randomized controlled trial of the effects of lead-contaminated

soil abatement on blood lead levels of children followed up for approximately 1 year after the

intervention. The interventions were soil abatement, interior dust abatement and loose paint

removal. Children were randomized to one of three groups: the study group, whose homes

received soil and interior dust abatement and loose paint removal; comparison group A, whose

homes received interior dust abatement and loose paint removal; and comparison group B, whose

homes received only interior loose paint removal. Main outcome measurements were blood lead

levels from pre-abatement and blood lead levels approximately 6 and 11 months after abatement. 

Table A.4-1 summarizes the interventions and timing for each experimental group.
A-16

Table A.4-1. Schedule of Activities

Phase Activity Study Group Group A Group B

Phase I

Baseline Blood

Sample

(9/89-1/90)

N=54/54 N=51/51 N=47/47

Intervention I

(9/89-1/90)

Soil and Interior Dust

Abatement, Loose

Paint Stabilization

N=54/54

Interior Dust

Abatement, Loose

Paint Stabilization

N=51/51

Loose paint

Stabilization

N=47/47

Post-Abatement

Blood Sample I

(7/90-11/90)

N=54/54 N=49/51 N=46/47

Phase II

Intervention II

(9/90-1/91)

Paint Deleading

N=23/54

Soil 

Abatement

N=47/49

Paint Deleading

N=18/49

Soil Abatement

N=42/46

Paint Deleading

N=16/46

Post-Abatement

Blood Sample II

(7/91-8/91)

N=33/54 N=32/49 N=26/46

During Phase II, which took place an average of 12 months after Phase I interventions,

both comparison groups received soil abatement and all three experimental groups were offered

lead-based paint abatement. Environmental media and body burden samples were collected at

various times surrounding the intervention activities. Soil samples were also collected

immediately following soil abatement to confirm its effectiveness. By the end of Phase II,

91 children were still participating and living at the same premises as when they were enrolled. Of

these children, 44 received both soil and lead-based paint abatement, 46 received only soil

abatement, and 1 refused both interventions. Mean blood-lead concentrations in all three

experimental groups were taken an average of 10 months post-abatement for Phase I and an

average of 9 months post-abatement for Phase II.

Study Results. For children whose premise underwent soil abatement but not lead-based paint

abatement, mean blood-lead concentrations decreased between pre- and post-intervention

measures (Table A.4-2). Study Group results are an average of 10 months post-abatement, and

both Comparison Group results are an average of 9 months post-abatement. Two children in the

study group and one child in comparison group B were excluded as outliers from this analysis.
A-17

Table A.4-2. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Experimental Group for Children

Whose Homes Received Soil Abatement, but not Lead-Based Paint

Abatement 

Group Sample Size Pre-abatement Post-abatement Mean Decline

Study 52 13.10 10.65 2.44

Comparison A 18 12.94 7.69 5.25

Comparison B 13 10.54 9.15 1.39

Study,

Comparison A

and B combined

83 12.66 9.77 2.89

 

A repeated measures analysis was conducted for the restricted sample (N=31) of children

from Comparison Group A (N=18) and Comparison Group B (N=13) who received Phase II soil

abatement but not lead-based paint abatement and who had PbB data at all three times. Study

Group data was excluded for lack of a control period. Mean blood-lead concentrations decreased

by 0.64 μg/dL during Phase I and another 3.63 μg/dL during Phase II (a 33.9% decline overall). 

For the 31 children of the restricted sample, a trend of large declines in blood-lead levels with

larger initial PbB levels was observed (Table A.4-3).

Table A.4-3. Change in Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Initial PbB and Sample

Period

Initial PbB

(μg/dL)

Change in PbB for Overall Percentile

Phase I Phase II Change

7-9 +0.30 -1.45 -18.1%

10-14 +0.18 -3.82 -31.8%

15-22 -2.50 -5.60 -30.3%

Following Phase II interventions, mean blood-lead concentrations of Study Group children

whose homes received paint hazard remediation during Phase II were an average of 2.6 μg/dL

higher than those of children who received no Phase II interventions. Mean blood-lead

concentrations for children whose homes received both paint hazard remediation and soil

abatement during Phase II were an average of 1.4 μg/dL higher than that of children whose

homes received soil abatement only (Comparison Groups A and B combined) (Table A.4-4).
A-18

Table A.4-4. Phase II Change in Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Experimental

Group and Interventions Performed

Group Subset

Sample

Size

Mean PbB

Before Phase II

Intervention(s)

(μg/dL)

Mean PbB

Following

 Phase II

Intervention(s)

(μg/dL)

Mean Change

in Blood-Lead

Levels

Study

Group*

Paint Hazard

Remediation 18 10.7 11.1 0.4

No Paint

Hazard

Remediation

13 10.8 8.5 -2.2

Comparison

Groups

A and B

Combined*

Paint Hazard

Remediation

and Soil

Abatement

25 11.2 9 -2.2

Soil

Abatement

only

31 11.9 8.3 -3.6

* Only paint hazard remediation was conducted during Phase II for the Study Group; soil abatement was

conducted during Phase I. For Comparison Groups A and B, both paint hazard remediation and soil

abatement were conducted during Phase II.

To evaluate the effectiveness of lead-based paint abatement, a multivariate model analysis

was conducted for comparison of Phase II post-intervention blood-lead concentrations to Phase II

pre-intervention blood-lead concentrations. After controlling for confounding factors in the

model (e.g., age, sex, race, socioeconomic status, mouthing, hand-washing, housing

characteristics, and environmental sources of lead), paint hazard remediation was associated with

a statistically significant (p=0.05) increase of 6.5 μg/dL in blood-lead levels in the Study Group. 

Paint hazard remediation was associated with an increase of 0.9 μg/dL in blood-lead levels

(p=0.36) in Comparison Group A and B homes that received paint and soil abatement, compared

to those that received only soil abatement. 

Although mean floor dust-lead loading levels showed an increase in all households

following the Phase II interventions, the increase was greater for homes that received paint hazard

remediation. Mean floor dust levels increased by 142% for Study Group households that received

paint interventions and by 75% for those not receiving paint interventions. Comparison Groups A

and B combined showed an increase of 42% for homes receiving paint and soil abatement and by

33% for homes receiving only soil abatement. Mean post-intervention window sill dust-lead

loading levels increased by 105% for the Study Group and remained unchanged (+2%) for

Comparison Groups A and B combined for those homes receiving paint hazard remediation, but

decreased in homes that did not (-42% for the Study Group and -41% for Comparison Groups A

and B combined).
A-19

Additional detail on environmental lead levels was reported (Aschengrau, et al., 1994) for

homes that received soil abatement but not lead-based paint abatement (Tables A.4-5 through

A.4-7). Although many yards had evidence of recontamination at both 6-10 and 18-22 months

post-abatement, follow-up median soil-lead concentrations were generally less than 300 ppm

(Table A.4-5). Floor dust samples from within the residence were composited to produce a single

dust measure for each residence. Floor dust-lead loadings declined significantly during the study

(Table A.4-6). Mean floor dust-lead loadings at 6-12 months post-abatement fell significantly for

the Study Group (P#0.001), but remained relatively unchanged for Comparison Groups A and B

(P=0.95 and 0.15, respectively). At 18-22 months post-abatement, mean levels in the Study

Group rose, but were still significantly below baseline (P=0.02). No significant declines were seen

in the lead loading, lead concentration, or dust loading measures for window well samples (Table

A.4-7).

Table A.4-5. Surface Soil-Lead Concentration (ppm) by Experimental Group and Sample

Period for Homes that Received Soil Abatement, but not Lead-Based Paint

Abatement

Group Period Sample Size Geo. Mean Std. Dev.

Study

Pre-Abate. 35 2206 1123

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 35 141 299

18-22 months

Post-Abate. 34 160 115

Comparison A

Pre-Abate. 31 2358 1203

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 32 171 172

18-22 months

Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

Comparison B

Pre-Abate. 26 2299 1129

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 26 180 127

18-22 months

Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A
A-20

Table A.4-6. Interior Floor Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Experimental Group and Sample

Period* for Homes that Received Soil Abatement, but not Lead-Based Paint

Abatement 

Group Period Sample Size Geo. Mean Std. Dev.

Study

Pre-Abate. 21 6.6 5

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 14 0.8 3.2

18-22 months Post-Abate. 11 1.8 2.1

Comparison A

Pre-Abate. 22 2.5 2.7

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 15 2.7 2.6

18-22 months Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

Comparison B

Pre-Abate. 22 2.3 4.2

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 12 2.5 2.5

18-22 months Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

* Lead loadings converted from μg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.

Table A.4-7. Interior Window Well Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Experimental Group

and Sample Period* for Homes that Received Soil Abatement, but not

Lead-Based Paint Abatement

Group Period Sample Size Geo. Mean Std. Dev.

Study

Pre-Abate. 19 99.5 13.3

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 15 248.3 7

18-22 months Post-Abate. 11 271.2 3.8

Comparison A

Pre-Abate. 22 244.9 5.4

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 15 133.1 8.5

18-22 months Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

Comparison B

Pre-Abate. 21 185.5 5.8

6-12 months

Post-Abate. 12 321.1 9.4

18-22 months Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

* Lead loadings converted from μg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.
A-21

Conclusions (including caveats). The authors state that lead-based-paint remediation alone was

associated with statistically significant blood lead increase of 6.5 μg/dL over the subsequent

9 months, but with an increase of only 0.9 μg/dL when combined with soil abatement. The

beneficial impact of soil abatement may account for the smaller increase when both interventions

were conducted. In Phase I, a soil lead reduction of 2060 ppm was associated with a 2.25 to

2.70 μg/dL reduction in blood-lead levels. The magnitude of reduction in blood-lead level

observed, however, suggests that lead-contaminated soil abatement is not likely to be a useful

clinical intervention for the majority of urban children in the United States with low-level lead

exposure. The geometric mean pre-intervention soil lead concentration in the 92 study homes

was 2,284 ppm, which is much greater than that observed in the Baltimore (approximately

500 ppm) and Cincinnati (100-200 ppm) Three-City studies. Furthermore, the decline is

confounded with the efficacy of lead-based paint stabilization and seasonal variation in blood-lead

levels.
A-22

A.5. Minneapolis Dust Intervention Study

Reference. Mielke, H.W., Adams, J.E., Huff, B., Pepersack, J., Reagan, P.L., Stoppel, D.,

Mielke, P.W. Jr. (1994) “Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb

Exposure.” Trace Substances in Environmental Health. Volume XXV:121-128.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to reduce children’s blood-lead concentrations

(PbB) by reducing exterior soil and dust lead and interior dust lead at targeted residences in the

Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota inner-city areas.

Sampled Population. The sample population consisted of 40 primarily minority children

identified by the Twin Cities Mapping Project as living in high soil-lead concentration

communities. Twenty-three children from Minneapolis were targeted for treatment by the dust

control intervention, whereas 17 children from St. Paul received no dust control treatment.

Intervention Strategy. For the 23 treatment group children, interior dust treatment consisted of

wet wiping walls to remove loose paint chips, followed by a thorough vacuuming, using a high

efficiency particle accumulator (HEPA) vacuum. Households in this group with children

exhibiting the highest blood-lead concentrations were provided more intensive dust control

treatment than those with children exhibiting lower concentrations. The floors were then mopped

with a high phosphate detergent and some carpets were removed from the household. 

Interventions at the residence’s exterior included covering bare soil with sod or wood chips, the

addition of a sandbox, and provisions to prevent soil from washing onto sidewalks (thereby

providing opportunity for dust track-in). Parents of children in the treatment group were supplied

with dust control information and cleaning supplies. Only prevention information was provided to

the parents of the control group children.

Measurements Taken. Venous blood samples were collected and analyzed by the Minneapolis

Children’s Medical Center. Soil-lead loadings were collected by a 2.5 cm deep soil scrape sample

at foundation, mid-yard and street-side locations. Though dust lead samples were collected, the

methods for interior dust-lead collection were not reported.

Study Design. This study was designed to test an approach that utilized interior and exterior

dust control as a means of reducing lead exposure of children. Two groups of children who lived

in high soil lead areas of the inner-city were recruited for the project. The Minneapolis children

(N=23) were the treatment group and received the dust control intervention. The St. Paul

children (N=17) were in the control group and received preventive information. Primary outcome

measurements were pre-intervention blood-lead levels, post-intervention blood-lead levels and

post-intervention soil-lead concentrations.

Study Results. In Minneapolis, 52% of the children’s blood-lead concentration decreased,

4% increased, and 44% remained the same. For the control group, 29% of the children had a

reduction in PbB, while 53% exhibited an increase, and 18% remained the same (Table A.5-1).
A-23

Table A.5-1. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) by Study Group and Time

Blood Lead

Level 

(μg/dL)

Treatment Group Control Group

Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention

N % N % N % N %

#6 4 17 6 26 - - 3 18

7-10 5 22 5 22 4 24 2 11

11-14 5 22 5 22 6 35 3 18

15-19 3 13 2 9 6 35 3 18

20-24 3 13 5 22 1 6 2 11

25-29 1 4 - - - - 1 6

30 2 9 - - - - 3 18

By the end of the study, all children in the treatment group had blood-lead concentrations less

than 25 μg/dL and the percentage of children above 14 μg/dL was reduced from 39% to 30%. 

Blood-lead concentrations were said to decrease/increase if the post- vs. pre-intervention

concentration difference exceeded the quality control limit of 1 μg/dL. Control group children

showed a definite increase in blood-lead levels. The percentage of children above 14 μg/dL

increased from 41% to 53% by the end of the study, and three of these children had follow-up

PbB levels of 40, 41, and 61 μg/dL (prompting medical intervention). Differences between initial

and follow-up blood-lead concentrations were statistically significant (p=0.0061) by the FisherPitman test, suggesting that dust control procedures were effective for the treatment group as

compared to the control group.

Post-intervention soil-lead concentrations for the treatment group were significantly

(p=0.0005) lower than initial concentrations (Table A.5-2). Foundation and mid-yard soil-lead

levels were reduced by a factor of 3 to 4. Soil-lead loadings were also reduced for the treatment

group (Table A.5-3). Post-intervention soil lead samples were not collected for the control

group, but were assumed to have remained unchanged. Interior dust-lead levels were not

reported.
A-24

Table A.5-2. Exterior Soil-Lead Concentration (ppm) by Location, Study Group, and Time

Media Study Group Timing N Median Range

Foundation

Treatment

Pre-intervention 12 795 34-2,240

Post-intervention 12 178 10-2,050

Control Pre-intervention 10 561 22-2,960

Mid-Yard

Treatment

Pre-intervention 12 272 6-680

Post-intervention 12 70 6-468

Control Pre-intervention 10 108 44-414

Street-Side

Treatment

Pre-intervention 10 255 96-373

Post-intervention 10 214 96-373

Control Pre-intervention 10 153 33-470

Table A.5-3. Exterior Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Location, Study Group, and Time

Media Study Group Timing N Median Range

Foundation

Treatment

Pre-intervention 12 320.8 14-904

Post-intervention 12 72.1 4-828

Control Pre-intervention 10 226 9-1195

Mid-Yard

Treatment

Pre-intervention 12 109.8 2-274

Post-intervention 12 28 2-189

Control Pre-intervention 10 43.1 18-167

Street-Side

Treatment

Pre-intervention 10 103.3 39-151

Post-intervention 10 86.1 39-151

Control Pre-intervention 10 61.4 13-189

Conclusions (including caveats). The authors conclude that the dust control treatment program

resulted in reductions in children’s blood-lead concentrations for the treatment group as compared

to the control group. By the end of the study, all of the children in the treatment group had

blood-lead levels less than 25 μg/dL. While the changes in the blood-lead concentrations of the

control group children may have been due simply to random variation, some of their reductions in

PbB may have been accounted for by the information given to parents on dust control prevention. 

Also, some of the increases in blood-lead levels may be explained by seasonal variations, since

blood-lead levels tend to increase during summer months. Interpretation of these results is

difficult because interior dust-lead results were not reported. Paint stabilization may have also
A-25

had an impact on children’s blood-lead concentrations in the treatment group. There was also no

discussion on how comparable the two different populations were (i.e., age differences, gender,

etc.). Although the study had a control population, children were not randomly assigned to the

treatment and control groups. Thus, differences in PbB due to the treatment are confounded with

any differences between the two populations. A chi-square test of homogeneity did not detect

significant differences in the initial distribution of blood-lead levels between the treatment and

control populations.
A-26

A.6. Paris Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Nedellec, V., Fontaine, A., Luciolli, E., Bourdillon, F., (1995) “Evaluation of

Abatement Interventions in 59 Homes of Lead Poisoned Children,” Rev. Epidem. Et Sante Publ.,

43:485-493.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to determine the effectiveness that lead-based

paint abatement would have in reducing severely elevated blood-lead concentrations (PbB) in

children.

Sampled Population. The sample population consisted of children less than 6 years of age who

were identified as severely lead-poisoned by the Maternal and Child Care Centers (PHI) of Paris

between January 1990 and February 1992. A total of 190 households were visited, from which, a

subset of 59 homes containing 205 children were considered priorities for intervention. Results

were available for 78 children residing in 41 homes.

Intervention Strategy. The one-time intervention consisted of chemical stripping with caustic

products, encapsulation (consisting of covering the toxic paint with coating material which

prevents the dispersion of chips and particles into the home), replacement of antiquated elements

and paint coatings of lead-based paints, and a final dust cleaning. Chemical stripping, using Peel

AwayTM, was used on 52% of the items abated, a combination of stripping and encapsulation was

used on 36% of the items abated, and a combination of encapsulation and replacement was used

on 12% of the abated items. Families were relocated during the performance of the abatements.

Measurements Taken. For the 190 households visited, a score (0 to 5) was given to each

household to assess the state of deterioration of the building. The score was determined as a

function of the general condition of the building (structure and equipment), of its maintenance, of

the cleaning of the floor, and the condition of the paint of the walls and woodwork. A similar

score was used to determine the state of deterioration of the apartments. Paint samples were

taken down to the substrate with a knife on the most degraded walls of the home and on surfaces

most likely to contain lead-based paint. Dust samples were collected in 29 homes with a paper

towel impregnated with alcohol by wiping the floor 1 meter from the wall, over an area of 30 cm

by 30 cm. Dust sample measurements were taken at baseline, during the intervention, 1 to

2 months, 3 to 6 months, and 7 to 12 months post-intervention. Venous blood samples were

taken at baseline and at least 2 times post-intervention.

Study Design. In this prospective study, 59 homes containing 205 children were selected for

lead-based paint abatement. Main outcome measurements were paint lead content,

pre-intervention dust-lead loading, post-intervention dust-lead loading, pre-intervention

blood-lead levels and post-intervention blood-lead levels. Paint samples were collected in 147 of

the 190 homes visited. Dust samples were collected in 29 homes and measurements were taken at

baseline, during the intervention, 1 to 2 months, 3 to 6 months, and 7 to 12 months

post-intervention. Blood samples were taken at baseline and 2 times post-intervention.
A-27

Study Results. The maximum lead content of paint was greater than 1.5 mg/g in 93% of the

homes and 77% had greater than 10 mg/g lead content. The characteristics of the 59 homes

selected for abatement did not differ significantly from the total number evaluated. Maximum

lead content in paint for the 59 homes exceeded 1.5 mg/g in 58 homes and exceeded 10 mg/g in

52 of them.

Dust sample data was available for 24 of the 29 households in which they were collected. 

Characteristics of these 24 homes were compared to the other 35 homes for which dust sample

data was unavailable (Table A.6-1). Initial conditions were slightly less severe in homes where

dust samples were collected. Median floor dust-lead loadings measured 83.6 μg/ft2 at

pre-intervention and showed an increase of 697 μg/ft2 during the intervention activities. 

However, post-intervention dust-lead loadings showed a median decrease of 33.9 μg/ft2 at 1 to

2 months follow-up and 45.4 μg/ft2 at 3 to 6 months follow-up. For 11 homes that had an initial

dust-lead loading greater than 92.9 μg/ft2, median decreases were 144 μg/ft2 1 to 2 months and

157 μg/ft 2

 3 to 6 months following intervention. By 6 to 28 months post-abatement, the

maximum dust-lead loadings were less than 92.9 μg/ft2 for 40 out of 45 households sampled.

Table A.6-1. Comparison of Housing Characteristics for Homes with Dust Samples

Collected to Other Abated Homes

Characteristic

Homes with 

Dust Samples 

(N=24)

Other Abated

Homes (N=35) p-value

All Homes

(N=59)

Building

Degradationa Score 1.7 2 0.03b 1.8

Apartment

Degradationa Score 2.2 2.6 0.06b 2.4

Scraping Traces in

Building (%) 62 74 0.33c 69

Scraping Traces in

Apartment(%) 79 86 0.51c 83

Maximum Paint

Lead Content

(mg/g)a

45 28 0.21b 44

Number of Children

< 6 yrsa 3 3 0.09b 3

Maximum PbB PreIntervention (μg/dL)a 52 60 0.88b 54

Monthly Rent

(FF/ft2)

a 5 5.1 0.71b 5

Area per Person

(ft2)

a 0.5 0.4 0.20b 0.4

a The median value is reported in the table.

b Mann-Whitney non-parametric test.

c Chi-squared test.
A-28

Pre- and post-intervention blood-lead levels were available for seventy eight of the

205 children residing in 41 of the 59 homes. Characteristics of these 41 homes were compared to

the other 18 households for which no post-intervention blood data was available (Table A.6-2). 

Households where blood-lead concentrations were available for both pre- and post-intervention

were significantly more deteriorated than for the other families. The maximum pre-intervention

blood-lead level was also significantly higher in those homes. Maximum paint lead content was

lower, however, lead concentrations of paint were already very high for both groups. Blood-lead

levels increased for 4 of the 78 children post-intervention. These 4 children resided in 2 of the 41

homes. All other children’s blood-lead concentrations decreased significantly post-intervention.

Table A.6-2. Comparison of Housing Characteristics for Homes with Both Pre- and

Post-Intervention Blood-Lead Levels Reported to Other Abated Homes

Characteristic

Homes with Both

Blood-Lead Levels

(N=41)

Other Abated

Homes

(N=18) p-value

All Homes

(N=59)

Building

Degradationa 2 1.6 0.05b 1.8

Apartment

Degradationa 2.6 2.2 0.09b 2.4

Scraping Traces in

Building (%) 73 61 0.35c 69

Scraping Traces in

Apartment(%) 88 72 0.14c 83

Maximum Paint

Lead Content

(mg/g)a

28 62 0.02b 44

Number of Children

< 6 yrsa 3 3 0.87b 3

Maximum PbB PreIntervention

(μg/dL)a

62 43.5 0.06b 54

Monthly Rent

(FF/ft2)

a 5 5.3 0.29b 5

Area per Person

(ft2)

a 0.4 0.37 0.40b 0.4

a The median value is reported in the table.

b Mann-Whitney non-parametric test.

c Chi-squared test.
A-29

A multiple linear regression model was conducted on the data collected for the 74 children

whose blood-lead levels decreased post-intervention (Table A.6-3). The model regressed the

natural logarithm of blood-lead levels on the following dependent variables: Time (weeks) after

screening; Time (weeks) after intervention; Age (0 for < 3 years, 1 for 3 years); After Chelation

Therapy (0 for no chelation performed, 1 for chelation performed); 15 < PbB < 45 (1 if 15 < PbB

45, 0 otherwise); PbB 45 (1 if PbB 45, 0 otherwise); and After Intervention (0 if preintervention, 1 if post-intervention). The 4 children whose blood-lead concentrations increased

post-intervention were excluded from the regression analysis, presumably because the children

were exposed to high levels of lead-contaminated dust during the intervention. Although families

were relocated during the abatement, the two families of these 4 children may not have been

relocated.

Table A.6-3. Multiple Linear Regression on Natural Logarithm of Blood-Lead Levels of

Children Pre- and Post-Interventiona,b

Model Input Variable Model Coefficient p-value

Constant 5.348 < 0.0001

Age 0.054 0.15

After Chelation Therapy 0.225 < 0.0001

15 < PbB < 45 0.367 < 0.003

PbB 45 0.884 < 0.0001

Time (weeks) After Screening -0.003 < 0.0001

After Intervention -0.237 0.0001

Time (weeks) After Intervention 0.001 0.25

a Analysis excludes 4 children whose blood-lead levels increased post-intervention.

b R2

 = 0.58.

Conclusions (including caveats). These results suggest that the intervention was beneficial to

severely lead poisoned children exposed to severe pre-intervention conditions. The one time

interventions seemed to have had a lasting effect in reducing interior dust-lead levels. As noted by

the substantial increase in dust-lead loadings during the abatements, families should be relocated

during the rehabilitation process. As no specific guidelines were set for the abatement process

itself, comparisons on a house to house basis may not be feasible. The magnitude of the reduction

in blood-lead levels may be confounded with seasonal variation as sampling occurred at various

time intervals. Furthermore, the decline is confounded with chelation therapy, which was

provided to some of the more severe lead poisoned children.
A-30

A.7. Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Maryland Department of the Environment (1995) Final Report on Grant H64/CCH

30 7067-03 to U.S. Department of health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for

Disease control and Prevention. March 1995.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of alternative

lead-based paint procedures on long-term reduction in household dust-lead levels.

Sampled Population. Environmental inspection records of 186 households from the Baltimore

area were reviewed. These homes, identified by the Baltimore City Lead Poisoning Prevention

Program, had previously been abated under a pilot program. Eighty-nine homes, which

underwent abatements between January 1, 1991 and June 30, 1992 and had at least one clearance

dust lead measurement, were selected from the review. Of the 89 homes, 75 were abated using

alternative methods, 13 used traditional methods, and for one home the method was unknown. 

Due to the small number of traditional abatements, this study was limited to households with

alternative abatements. A final sample size of 72 homes abated using alternative methods, for

which clearance tests were available, was used.

Intervention Strategy. Alternative abatement practices called for the floor to ceiling abatement

of all interior and exterior surfaces where lead content of the paint exceeded 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF

or 0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis. Several methods were tested, including

encapsulation, off-site and on-site stripping, and replacement. The abatements took place either

in unoccupied dwellings or the occupants were relocated during the abatement process. 

Lead-contaminated dust was contained and minimized during the abatement, and extensive cleanup activities included HEPA vacuuming and off-site waste disposal.

Measurements Taken. Wipe dust-lead loading samples were taken from floors, window sills,

and window wells in rooms where the child spent time.

Study Design. This study evaluated 72 homes that were abated using alternative methods

between January 1, 1991, and June 30, 1992, for which clearance tests were available. The

homes were abated under another program. Outcome measurements were wipe dust-lead loading

for floors, window sills, and window wells. Of the 72 homes, 69 had at least one floor clearance

sample, 67 had at least one window sill clearance sample, and 57 had at least one window well

clearance sample. Follow-up samples were collected in this study. Three time intervals were used

to group the follow-up dust measurements. These intervals were 5-7 months, 10-14 months, and

14-24 months, which were labeled by their midpoints as 6, 12, and 19 months, respectively.

Study Results. Table A.7-1 shows the geometric mean and 95% confidence interval on the mean

dust-lead loading results taken at clearance, for all homes and for homes with samples at both

clearance and the specified follow-up time interval. For example, 29 homes had both clearance

and 6-month follow-up floor samples taken, with geometric means of 19 μg/ft2 at clearance

reducing to 15 μg/ft2 by the 6-month follow-up. Geometric mean floor dust-lead loadings seemed

to remain fairly constant over the course of this study, whereas window sill and window well
A-31

dust-lead loadings showed recontamination fairly quickly. Clearance levels for floors, window

sills, and window wells were set at 200 μg/ft2, 500 μg/ft 2, and 800 μg/ft2, respectively. By 19

months post-intervention, only 5% of the homes were above clearance for floors, while 42% and

47% of the homes were above clearance levels for window sills and window wells, respectively.

Table A.7-1. Wipe Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Specified Time Interval and Surface

Type

Time Interval

Floors Window Sills Window Wells

N

Geo. Mean

(95% CI) N

Geo. Mean

(95% CI) N

Geo. Mean

(95% CI)

Clearance 69 24

(19,29) 67 34(27,44) 57 64(48,86)

6

Months

Clearance

29

19

(14,26)

27

31

(21,47)

23

65

(43,100)

Follow Up 15

(11,20)

42

(27,66)

123

(73,204)

12

Months

Clearance

27

26

(17,38)

26

31

(20,47)

21

73

(45,115)

Follow Up 14

(11,19)

26

(30,72)

180

(90,361)

19

Months

Clearance

22

16

(10,24)

19

31

(13,32)

15

35

(24,50)

Follow Up 23

(14,38)

79

(39,158)

347

(150,804)

Conclusions (including caveats). The results for the alternative abatement methods indicate that

dust-lead loadings on floors can be kept fairly low over long-term time periods. Floor surfaces

showed little evidence of recontamination. However, reaccumulation of lead-containing dust

occurred in window sills and window wells at each time interval examined. Reaccumulation was

greatest for window wells with 17%, 43%, and 47% of homes at or above clearance standards by

the 6, 12, and 19 month time intervals, respectively. Although the homes were reoccupied,

blood-lead concentrations of resident children were not collected since these children were not

present in the home prior to abatement.
A-32

A.8. Leadville/Lake County Educational Intervention Study

Reference. Lake County Department of Health and University of Cincinnati, “The

Leadville/Lake County Environmental Health Lead Study — Report of the 1992 Follow-up Lead

Screening.” July 12, 1993. 

 

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study’s relevant objectives were to compare the average

community blood-lead concentrations (PbB) with those determined in 1991 and evaluate the postintervention PbB levels of children whose pre-intervention PbB level was elevated, or who lived in

residences with unusually high concentrations of lead or arsenic in the surrounding soil.

Sampled Population. The sampled population consisted of 160 individuals, of which, 127 were

children. One hundred thirteen of the 127 children were less than 72 months of age.

Intervention Strategy. Only educational efforts targeting residential lead exposure were studied. 

If a child’s blood-lead concentration was found to be 10 μg/dL or higher, parents were informed

on methods to reduce their child’s lead intake.

Measurements Taken. Venous blood samples were taken during the two fall screening clinics

conducted one year apart.

Study Design. This screening study compared community blood-lead concentrations in 1992

with those determined in 1991 and evaluated the effect of educational intervention on blood-lead

levels of children whose pre-intervention level was elevated, or who lived in residences with

unusually high concentrations of lead or arsenic in the surrounding soil. A 20% random sample of

the families who had blood lead measurements during the 1991 fall screening clinic were targeted

for the 1992 screening. A total of 66 children were tested in both 1991 and 1992. If a child’s

blood-lead concentration was 10 μg/dL or higher, parents received instruction on methods to

reduce their child’s lead intake. Venous blood samples were taken during the two fall screening

clinics conducted one year apart. The main outcome measurement was blood-lead concentration.

Study Results. Of the children whose blood-lead concentration was measured at both

screenings, the geometric mean blood-lead concentration declined from 5.02 μg/dL to 4.53 μg/dL

during the year. Twenty-six of these targeted children had not moved during the year. Their

geometric mean blood-lead levels declined by 25%, from 5.83 μg/dL to 4.38 μg/dL. Eight

children were identified as having elevated (>10 μg/dL) blood-lead levels in 1991. These children

showed an average decline in PbB of 19% from a geometric mean of 11.4 μg/dL to 9.3 μg/dL. 

Two of these children had reductions in blood-lead concentrations of 49% and 57%.

Conclusions (including caveats). For children in the Leadville/Lake county areas, blood-lead

concentrations declined by an average of approximately 9 percent over the one year period. In

comparison, eight children benefitting from educational intervention showed a 19% decline on

average. These 8 children were targeted since they exhibited elevated blood-lead concentrations

at the initial survey, so the decline may be due to other non-interventional factors such as

regression to the mean, or merely age-related variation. The absence of a comparable control

population makes assessment of these issues difficult.
A-33

A.9. Trail Dust Intervention Study

Reference. Hilts, S.R., Hertzman, C., Marion, S.A. (1995) “A Controlled Trial of the Effect of

HEPA Vacuuming on Childhood Lead Exposure.” Canadian Journal of Public Health.

86(5):345-350.

Hilts, S.R. (1996) “A Co-operative Approach to Risk Management in an Active

Lead/Zinc Smelter Community.” Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 18(1):17-24.

Hilts, S.R., Bock, S.E., Oke, T.L., Yates, C.L., Copes, R.A. (1998) “Effect of

Interventions on Children’s Blood Lead Levels.” Environmental Health Perspectives. 

106(2):79-83. February.

Pertinent Study Objectives. A variety of intervention strategies have been implemented in Trail,

British Columbia, with the goal of reducing children’s blood-lead levels in the presence of

ongoing emissions from a lead and zinc smelting facility. Intervention strategies have targeted

lead-containing house dust. Of particular interest is a study that sought to determine the

effectiveness of repeated vacuuming using high efficiency particle accumulator (HEPA) vacuums

in reducing both household dust-lead loading (PbD) and children’s blood-lead concentrations

(PbB) (Hilts et al., 1995). In addition, programs of education and case management, community

greening and dust control, and residential bare soil reduction have been implemented (Hilts,

1996).

Sampled Population. HEPA Vacuum Study: The sample population consisted of

207 households in higher risk areas of Trail, British Columbia, with children under six years of age

who had participated in a 1992 blood lead screening. Of the 207 families, 122 agreed to

participate in the study. The children were randomly assigned to a treatment and a control group

(61 children in each group). Fifty-five treatment group children and 56 control group children

completed the study. A follow-up study was conducted in 17 homes located in high risk

neighborhoods (Hilts, 1996).

Other interventions: Community education, greening, and dust control programs were

designed to benefit all children in Trail. Education and case management services were available

to children with elevated blood-lead levels (PbB>15, or PbB>10 for children under 1 year old)

who are identified in annual fall screening clinics.

Intervention Strategy. HEPA Vacuum Study: Dust intervention for the treatment group

consisted of HEPA vacuuming of accessible finished floors once every six weeks over a period of

ten months, from November 1992 through August 1993. During the first vacuuming cycle,

carpeted floors were vacuumed at a rate of 22 seconds per square meter (s/m2), but was thereafter

slowed to 32 s/m2. Non-carpeted floors were vacuumed at an average rate of 4 s/m2. The control

group did not receive these vacuumings. Families in both groups, however, received educational

materials and recommendations to reduce childhood lead body burden, and were advised to

continue their normal cleaning habits throughout the course of the study. Families in the
A-34

follow-up study received HEPA vacuuming, wet-mopping, and wet-wiping biweekly during the

summer months.

Other interventions: Soil interventions were not performed, because recontamination was

almost inevitable from the 300 kg of lead per day in smelter stack emissions. However, seeding

and planting of public areas with high lead levels was implemented by a civic group. In addition, a

residential ground cover program implemented in 1993 provided a 50% rebate on cost of

materials to householders who covered bare soil with turf, landscape fabric and mulch, shrubs,

concrete, or gravel. Community dust levels were reduced by spraying magnesium chloride dust

suppressant on unpaved alleys and parking areas. 

Education and case management activities began in 1991 and have evolved over time. 

Community education efforts focused on contacts with elementary school or daycare

administrators, instructors, and students. Individual education and case management activities

include blood-lead monitoring and in-home educational visits. Since 1994, ground cover

materials or cleaning supplies, equipment, and services have been provided, as well. Cleaning

services include biweekly cleaning during summer and monthly cleaning the rest of the year, using

the methods of the follow-up study.

Measurements Taken. HEPA Vacuum Study: Hand wipe and floor dust-lead samples were

collected three times during the study for both treatment and control homes. Floor dust samples

were collected from three carpeted areas where the child spent time, using the ‘microvac’ method. 

In treatment homes, floor dust-lead levels were collected immediately before and after HEPA

vacuuming. In addition, the contents of the vacuum bag were weighed and analyzed for lead

content by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Baseline and

post-intervention venous blood samples were collected at fall screening clinics approximately one

year apart. Blood samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Additionally, a 19-

part self report survey was administered at the time of the post-intervention blood lead screening. 

This included questions on household practices and lead exposure assessment.

Other interventions: Soil-lead measurements were taken in 1989 and 1992 to assess

directly the effectiveness of community greening, dust-control, and ground cover subsidy

interventions. Community blood-lead screening clinics were held in the fall of 1989, 1991, 1992,

1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996. Participation in these clinics has been high, with 75-80% of children

participating and 85-90% of eligible children participating in follow-up clinics for children with

elevated blood-lead levels.

Study Design. HEPA Vacuum Study: The study was designed to assess benefit of repeated

house vacuuming using HEPA vacuum cleaners. The 55 treatment homes received thorough

vacuuming of finished accessible floors areas once every 6 weeks for 10 months, while 56 control

homes did not. A follow-up study was conducted in 17 homes located in high-risk

neighborhoods. Families in the follow-up study received HEPA vacuuming, wet-mopping, and

wet-wiping once every 2 weeks over the summer months. There was no random assignment to a

control group in the follow-up study, although 10 children living in the same neighborhoods were

available for comparison.
A-35

Other interventions: The other interventions were available or benefitted all members of

the community. Soil-lead measurements were sampled in 1989 and 1992 to assess the

effectiveness of the other interventions.

Primary outcome measurements for both studies were blood-lead concentration, dust

loading and dust-lead loading.

Study Results. HEPA Vacuum Study: A marginally significant decrease in blood-lead

concentrations was observed during the study in the treatment group, with a lesser decline in the

control group (Table A.9-1). However, the difference in pre- and post-intervention changes in

blood-lead concentrations between the treatment and control group was not significant (p=0.85).

Table A.9-1. HEPA Vacuum Study: Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Study Group and

Time

Study Group Sample Size

Pre-Intervention

Geometric Mean

Post-Intervention

Geometric Mean

p-value for

Change

Treatment 55 11.9 11 0.06

Control 56 11.3 10.7 0.23 

Floor dust-lead loading was measured prior to and immediately after vacuuming in

treatment households. For treatment homes, vacuuming showed an immediate reduction in carpet

surface dust-lead loading and total dust loading by an average of about 40 percent. There was no

significant reduction in carpet dust-lead concentration (p=0.41). Results for the first vacuuming

cycle are shown in Table A.9-2. During the first vacuuming cycle carpet dust loading, carpet

dust-lead loading, and carpet dust-lead concentration were reduced by 34, 39, and 8 percent,

respectively, as compared to their measures prior to vacuuming. Carpet dust loading, carpet dustlead loading, and carpet dust-lead concentration were reduced by 34, 35, and 3 percent during

vacuuming cycle 4, and 46, 47, and 0 percent, respectively, for the seventh cycle. In addition,

hand lead and dust-lead levels were measured three times during the course of the study for both

the control and treatment groups. These measurements were conducted during the first, fourth,

and seventh vacuumings.
A-36

Table A.9-2. HEPA Vacuum Study: Change in Carpet Surface Dust as an Immediate

Result of Cycle One HEPA Vacuuming

Parameter Sample Size Range

Pre-intervention

Geometric Mean

Percent Change 

in Parameter

Carpet Dust Loading

(μg/ft2) 56 1951-1205138 52862 -34

Carpet Dust-Lead

Loading (μg/ft2) 56 <2.51-694 52 -39

Carpet Dust-Lead

Concentration (ppm) 56 <0.027-12931 971 -8

Geometric mean hand-wipe lead loading decreased significantly for the control group,

while a marginally significant increase was observed in the treatment group during the study. 

Carpet dust loading increased for the control group and decreased for the treatment group. 

Carpet dust-lead loading decreased for both the control and treatment groups (Table A.9-3).

Table A.9-3. HEPA Vacuum Study: Geometric Mean Dust-Lead Loadings Prior to Cleaning

by Vacuuming Cycle and Treatment Group

Study

Group Parameter

Vacuuming Cycle p-value for

Change

(Pre-Post)

PreIntervention Mid-ProjectPostIntervention

Control

Hand-Wipe

Lead Loading

(μg)

10 9 6 0.005

Carpet Dust

Loading (μg/ft2) 33724 44315 41156 0.25

Carpet DustLead Loading

(μg/ft2)

25.1 25.1 21.4 0.21

Treatment

Hand-Wipe

Lead Loading

(μg)

11 13 15 0.08

Carpet Dust

Loading (μg/ft2) 52862 38648 30193 0.01

Carpet DustLead Loading

(μg/ft2)

52 34.4 33.4 0.01
A-37

Eighteen households were sampled weekly for evidence of recontamination for a period of

six weeks after the final vacuuming cycle in August 1993. In these 18 homes, carpet surface dustlead loadings had declined by approximately 50 percent immediately following the final

vacuuming. However, recontamination occurred within 2 1⁄2 to 3 weeks, on average. In addition

to the dust recontamination sampling, a self-report survey questionnaire was completed by 103 of

the study participants at the post-intervention blood lead screening. Children living in homes

where people removed their shoes at the door tended to have lower blood-lead levels and floor

dust-lead loading tended to be lower also. Children who had pets tended to have higher

blood-lead levels and higher floor dust-lead loadings.

Although HEPA vacuuming every 6 weeks did not have a significant impact on blood-lead

levels, there was some evidence to suggest that more frequent vacuuming might be beneficial. 

The follow-up study, which provided biweekly cleaning in 17 homes during the summer months,

was effective in preventing a seasonal rise in dust-lead loadings on carpets, but less effective in

preventing a rise in blood-lead concentrations. The average carpet dust-lead loading stayed the

same in treated homes, but nearly doubled in 14 comparison homes during the study period (Table

A.9-4). The average blood-lead concentration rose by 2.9 g/dL in the treatment group and by

4.2 g/dL in 10 comparison children between April and September 1993. Comparison children

and homes were in the same neighborhoods as the treatment homes, but the follow-up study did

not randomly assign homes to treatment and control groups.

Table A.9-4. Follow-up HEPA Vacuum Study: Change in Carpet Dust-Lead Loadings by

Study Group and Time 

Study Group Sample Size

Pre-Intervention

Average

Post-Intervention

Average

p-value for

Change

Treatment 17 43.7 39 0.6

Comparison 14 48.3 83.6 0.01

Other interventions: Geometric mean soil-lead levels did not change significantly between

1989 and 1992 (GM=725, n=119 and GM =713, n=213, respectively). Therefore, the 14%

decline in blood-lead concentrations from 1991 to 1992 and the additional 6% decline from 1992

to 1993 may be attributed primarily to the education efforts. The ground cover subsidy program

was open to all families who had participated in the 1992 Fall blood clinic who also had bare soil

in their yards. The participation rate was 23%, with 44 families completing projects. A follow-up

assessment in 1994 found that the ground cover projects were being maintained adequately,

however, 12 of the 44 properties had additional bare soil.

Conclusions (including caveats). The lead loading of house dust may be reduced temporarily by

thorough HEPA vacuuming once every six weeks. In fact, carpet dust-lead loading was reduced

by approximately 40 percent immediately following the vacuuming. However, with the on-going

contamination stemming from the operational smelter, these levels return to ‘normal’ within a few
A-38

weeks. Vacuuming every six weeks, even accompanied by education, had no effect on children’s

blood-lead concentrations. The follow-up study with biweekly cleaning appeared to be successful

in preventing some of the summer rise in blood-lead concentrations, although the results were not

conclusive. The ground cover subsidy program had a 23% participation rate, with 44 families

completing projects and maintaining them for at least one year.

In 1991, a 14% decline in the average blood-lead concentration of Trail children aged 6 to

72 months was attributed primarily to the first year of community education and individual case

management efforts. However, declines in subsequent years for children whose families received

case management intervention for the first time were not as notable as that found in 1991.
A-39

A.10. New Jersey’s Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction Dust Intervention Study

Reference. Rhoads, G.G., Ettinger, A.S., Weisel, C.P., Buckley, T.J., Goldman, K.D.,

Adgate, J., Lioy, P.J., (1999) “The Effect of Dust Control on Blood Lead in Toddlers: A

Randomized Trial.” Pediatrics. 103(3):551-555.

Lioy, P.J., Yiin, L., Adgate, J.,Weisel, C.P., Rhoads, G.G., (1998), “The Effectiveness of

a Home Cleaning Intervention Strategy in Reducing Potential Dust and Lead Exposures.” 

Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology. 8(1):17-35..

Rhoads, G.G., Ettinger, A.S., Goldman, K.D., Weisel, C.P., Buckley, T.J., and Lioy, P.J.

(1996), “The Effect of a Dust Lead Control Program Combined with Health Education on Blood

Lead in Toddler: A Randomized Study.” Presented at the American Public Health Association

Conference, New York City, New York. November,1996 (Submitted NJM, 1997).

Buckley, T.J., (1996) “Significant Findings from the Children’s Lead Exposure and

Reduction Study (CLEARS).” U.S. EPA Memorandum. May 2, 1996.

Buckley, T.J., (1996) “Selection Criteria for CLEARS Relating to Blood-Pb.” Personal

Communication to Brad Schultz. March 22, 1996.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to demonstrate the effectiveness of a combined

dust control and educational intervention strategy for reducing blood lead levels and potential

dust and lead exposures in children with low to moderate blood-lead levels.

Sampled Population. The study targeted children between 6 months and 3 years of age residing

in Jersey City, NJ who were at risk for elevated blood-lead concentrations. Subjects were eligible

for participation if they met at least one of the following criteria: (1) having a sibling with a

previously reported blood-lead concentration greater than 10 μg/dL, (2) high lead contamination

in the home, or (3) a measured blood-lead concentration between 8 and 20 μg/dL. Out of

211 families visited, 113 were deemed eligible and enrolled in the study. They were assigned at

random to the Lead Group (LG), which was offered biweekly assistance with home dust control

and a series of educational sessions about lead, or the (control) Accident Group (AG), which was

offered only education and home safety items related to accident prevention. The two groups

were followed for 1 year. 

Intervention Strategy. The lead hazard intervention consisted of biweekly assistance with home

dust control (which included wet mopping of floors, damp-sponging of walls and horizontal

surfaces, and vacuuming with a high-efficiency particle accumulating (HEPA) vacuum) and a

series of educational sessions about lead. The cleaning teams provided the education during the

course of their visits and mainly focused on teaching the caretakers how to clean the home. 

Measurements Taken. Dust wipe floor samples were collected from uncarpeted locations in the

kitchen and one other room frequented by the enrolled child. Additional samples were collected

from interior window sills when time allowed, and if carpets were present, vacuum samples were
A-40

collected from those locations where the child was likely to play. A baseline venous blood

specimen was also obtained from the enrolled child. Dust samples were collected once during the

course of the intervention, and blood and dust measurements were taken once again after one year

(when the intervention was completed).

An “LWW” sampler was used for collection of dust wipe samples. This method was

chosen because it allows separate quantification of total dust and lead loading. In side-by-side

comparisons, the LWW sampler yielded lower lead loading estimates than the wipe sampling

method recommended by HVD (Freeman et al., 1996).

Study Design. In this study, 56 families were assigned to the lead group (LG) and 57 to the

accident group (AG). The two groups were followed for 1 year. A combined dust control and

educational intervention method was used in this project. The LG families received

1 to 5 (median 3) one hour educational sessions and 0 to 42 (median 17) cleaning visits. The

two groups were very similar with respect to age, number of children, education, and proportion

speaking English. The mothers also had a similar baseline knowledge of lead poisoning. Main

outcome measurements were dust-lead loading and blood-lead concentration.

Study Results. The geometric means of dust and dust-lead loadings are shown in Table A.10-1

for all homes in each group where samples were obtained. Baseline levels were comparable

among the LG and AG. By the one year follow-up, the dust and dust-lead levels were lower in

the LG group for floor, sill and vacuum samples. The decrease in floor dust and dust-lead

loadings was not very large, but the decreases in loadings on sills and carpets were 50% or larger

for the LG. The changes in the AG dust and dust-lead loadings were smaller and inconsistent. 

For reasons that are not clear, there was a substantial drop in the lead loading of the vacuum

samples from the AG. This narrowed the difference between the LG and AG. Thus, there was

not a significant difference in carpet lead loading between these two groups. However, there

were significant differences in the dust loadings for sills and carpets between the two groups, and

there was a significant difference in the sill lead loading between the LG and the AG.
A-41

Table A.10-1. Household Dust Results and Analysis

Type of Dust

Measurement

Time

Sampled

Sample

Type

Lead Group Accident Group

 N

Geometric Mean

(μg/ft2) N

Geometric Mean

(μg/ft2)

Dust Loading

Initial

Visit

Floor Wipe 42 38547 42 39391

Sill Wipe 39 70327 40 77016

Vacuum 27 784095 28 683017

Final Visit

Floor Wipe 40 35117 45 36696

Sill Wipe 36 35303 40 53698*

Vacuum 22 282423 27 736994**

Dust-Lead

Loading

Initial

Visit

Floor Wipe 42 22 42 26

Sill Wipe 39 75 40 61

Vacuum 27 469 28 466

Final

 Visit

Floor Wipe 40 15 45 19

Sill Wipe 36 24 40 48**

Vacuum 22 150 27 214

Significance of differences between intervention and control groups shown as: * p<0.1; ** p<0.05

The paper by Lioy, et al. presented a more detailed analysis of the dust samples that were

obtained as part of the NJ CLEARS. An analysis of the vacuum and wipe sample dust and

dust-lead loadings from the LG and AG groups was performed for a subset of homes where

sampling data were available for all surfaces for all three visits. This analysis indicated that a

thorough cleaning program will reduce the geometric mean of the dust and lead loading and found

that 68%, 75%, and 81% of the LG homes had a reduction in lead loading on the kitchen floors,

bedroom floors, and window sills, respectively. Seventy-eight percent of the vacuum samples

from LG homes had a reduction in lead loading, while the sampling results for the AG homes did

not show any consistent trends over time for any surface type.

As shown in Table A.10-2, baseline blood levels were slightly higher in the LG, but the

difference between this group and the AG was not significant. After 1 year of intervention the

blood-lead concentrations in the LG group had decreased on average from 12.4 μg/dL to

10.3 μg/dL (a 17% decline). In contrast, blood-lead concentrations in the AG group increased

from 11.6 to 11.7 μg/dL on average during that time (0.9% increase). The difference in the

change in blood-lead concentrations between LG and AG children was statistically significant

(p<0.05). Also, the reduction in blood-lead levels among the LG children was greater the more

times their residence was cleaned. There was essentially no change in blood lead levels

(-0.2 μg/dL) for the 11 children whose homes were cleaned less than 10 times, as opposed to a

34% drop (-3.9 μg/dL) in blood lead for the 16 children whose homes were cleaned 20 or more

times.
A-42

Table A.10-2. Initial Blood-Lead Concentration and Change in Blood-Lead Concentration

at One Year Follow-up 

Treatment Group

Initial Blood-Lead Concentration

(μg/dL)

Change in Blood-Lead

Concentration at One Year

Follow-up (μg/dL)

N Mean SD Mean SD

Lead 46 12.4 5.7 -2.1 5.7

Accident 53 11.6 6.2 0.1 6.3

Conclusions (including caveats). It appears that the combination of biweekly dust control and a

series of lead-education sessions was effective in reducing blood-lead levels and the dust and lead

loadings on surfaces in the homes of this population of children with moderately elevated blood

lead. The effect of seasonal variation was minimized by taking blood lead measurements one year

apart. However, the effect of the intervention cannot be separated from the effect of changing

mouthing behavior in young children over the course of a year. Since a similar decline was not

observed in the control group, the decline in blood lead may reasonably be attributed to the

intervention. 
A-43

A.11. Boston Interim Dust Intervention Study

Reference. Aschengrau, A., Hardy, S., Mackey, P., and Pultinas, D. (1998) “The Impact of

Low Technology Lead Hazard Reduction Activities among Children with Mildly Elevated Blood

Lead Levels.” Environmental Research. 79:41-50.

Mackey, P., Aschengrau, A., Balasko, C., Pultinas, D., Hardy, S. (1996) “Blood Lead

Levels Following Environmental Intervention Study”, Final Report on Grant H64/CCH 108235-

03 to U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to determine the effectiveness of low-technology

lead hazard reduction activities targeting paint and household dust in reducing modestly elevated

blood-lead concentrations in children awaiting permanent deleading of household paint.

Sampled Population. Children residing in the city of Boston who were less than four years of

age were selected for possible enrollment, each satisfying the following criteria:

venous blood-lead level between 11 and 24 μg/dL, with no history of lead

poisoning,

lived in home for at least 3 months with no definite plans to move within the next

3 months,

lived in home that had not been previously deleaded, or received lead hazard

reduction activities, and that had lead-based paint on at least 2 window sills and/or

window wells, and

the parents spoke English, Spanish, or Cape Verdean creole.

A total of 402 children screened for lead from May 1993 to April 1995 met the eligibility

criteria. Sixty-three of these children were enrolled. Of the 339 not enrolled, 163 families were

unable to be contacted, 64 were unable to communicate effectively because of language barriers,

and 112 families declined to participate. Twenty-two of the 63 children were assigned to the

‘automatic intervention’ group, because of severe household lead hazards. Severe hazards were

characterized as paint chips on any floors, severe amounts of loose dust or paint chips in any

window well, or holes larger than one inch wide in walls containing lead-based paint. The

remaining 41 children were randomly assigned to two groups, 22 to the ‘randomized intervention’

group and 19 to the ‘randomized comparison’ group. Thirty-two of the 63 children originally

enrolled were included in the blood lead analysis and others were excluded because no follow-up

blood samples were taken or their homes received non-study environmental interventions. For

final analysis, the automatic intervention, randomized intervention, and randomized comparison

groups contained 8, 11, and 13 children, respectively.

Intervention Strategy. The one-time intervention, received by both the randomized and

automatic intervention groups, consisted of HEPA vacuuming all window well, window sill, and

floor surfaces; washing window well and window sill surfaces with a tri-sodium phosphate (TSP)

and water solution; repairing holes in walls; and re-painting window well and window sill surfaces
A-44

to seal chipping or peeling paint. The study intervention groups also received outreach and

educational information including a demonstration of effective housekeeping techniques and

monthly reminders with instructions to wash hard surface floors, window sills and wells with a

TSP and water solution at least twice a week. The randomized comparison group received only

the outreach visit to visually assess the home for lead hazards and to educate the family about the

causes and prevention of lead poisoning. They were also provided with cleaning instructions and

a free sample of TSP cleaning solution.

Measurements Taken. Dust sample measurements were taken at baseline and 6 months

post-intervention for all study groups. Measurements were also taken at one month

post-intervention for the two intervention groups, but the results were not reported. Dust

samples were taken from floors, window sills, and window wells. Soil, water, and paint samples

were taken at baseline. Dust, soil, and water samples were analyzed using atomic absorption

spectrophotometry (AAS). Venous samples were obtained to determine blood-lead levels at

baseline and an average of six months after intervention. Additionally, trained staff members

conducted standardized interviews at enrollment to obtain demographic characteristics, and at a

6-month post-intervention visit to assess compliance with housekeeping instructions.

Study Design. The purpose of the environmental intervention was to significantly reduce

children’s exposure to household lead hazards by first removing lead-contaminated dust and loose

paint chips from the window and floor areas and second instructing care givers to maintain clean

window and floor surfaces over the follow-up period. A total of 402 screened for lead from May

1993 to April 1995 met the eligibility criteria. Sixty-three of these children were enrolled. Of the

339 not enrolled, 163 families were unable to be contacted, 64 were unable to communicate

effectively because of language barriers, and 112 families declined to participate. Twenty-two of

the 63 children were assigned to the ‘automatic intervention’ group, because of severe household

lead hazards. Severe hazards were characterized as paint chips on any floors, severe amounts of

loose dust or paint chips in any window well, or holes larger than one inch wide in walls

containing lead-based paint. The remaining 41 children were randomly assigned to two groups,

22 to the ‘randomized intervention’ group and 19 to the ‘randomized comparison’ group. Thirtytwo of the 63 children originally enrolled were included in the blood lead analysis and others were

excluded because no follow-up blood samples were taken or their homes received non-study

environmental interventions. For final analysis, the automatic intervention, randomized

intervention, and randomized comparison groups contained 8, 11, and 13 children, respectively. 

Main outcome measurements were blood-lead concentration, dust-lead loading, soil-lead

concentration and water-lead level.

Study Results. Mean blood-lead levels declined in all three groups 6 months after intervention

(Table A.11-1). Mean blood-lead concentrations for children in the automatic intervention group

declined by 48% at 6 months post-intervention, and declined by 35% and 36% for the randomized

intervention and randomized comparison groups, respectively. Mean blood-lead levels decreased

0.3 μg/dL more in the randomized intervention group and 2.5 μg/dL more in the automatic

intervention group as compared to the randomized comparison group.
A-45

Table A.11-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Study Group and Time

Study Group

Sample

Size

Pre-Intervention

Geometric Mean

Post-Intervention

Geometric Mean

Percent Decrease

(%)

Automatic

Intervention 8 17.5 9.1 48

Randomized

Intervention 11 17.6 11.5 35

Randomized

Comparison 13 16.3 10.4 36

Table A.11-2 presents environmental dust-lead loadings for floors, window sills, and

window wells. At the 6 month post-intervention measure, geometric mean floor dust-lead

loadings had decreased slightly for both intervention groups and increased in the comparison

group. Geometric mean window sill dust-lead loadings decreased in all three groups, and

geometric mean window well dust-lead loadings decreased for both intervention groups, but

remained the same for the comparison group. None of the changes in dust-lead loadings were

statistically significant. Baseline soil-lead concentrations and water-lead levels for each group are

reported in Table A.11-3.

 Table A.11-2. Environmental-Lead Levels by Study Group and Time

Parameter Study Group

Sample

Size

Pre-Intervention

Geometric Mean

Post-Intervention

Geometric Mean

Floor DustLead Loading

(μg/ft2)

Automatic Intervention 10 21.5 16.1

Randomized Intervention 9 23.8 20.5

Randomized Comparison 13 15.8 16.4

Window Sill

Dust-Lead

Loading

 (μg/ft2)

Automatic Intervention 10 344 108

Randomized Intervention 9 106 61.6

Randomized Comparison 13 85.6 53

Window Well

Dust-Lead

Loading

(μg/ft2)

Automatic Intervention 10 8955 2644

Randomized Intervention 9 1119 561

Randomized Comparison 8 1495 1510
A-46

Table A.11-3. Baseline Environmental-Lead Levels by Study Group

Parameter

Randomized

Intervention Group

(N=11)

Automatic

Intervention Group

(N=8)

Randomized

Comparison Group

(N=13)

Soil-Lead

Concentration (ppm) 2112 2278 2465

Water-Lead Level

(μg/L) 6.3 4.6 7.7

Conclusions (including caveats). These results suggest that intervention was beneficial to

children exposed to severe pre-intervention conditions, but did not have as significant an impact

on children with less severe exposure conditions (randomized intervention and comparison groups

exhibited roughly the same declines). The one time interventions seemed to have had a small

impact on floor dust lead, an intermediate impact on window sill dust lead, and a large effect on

window well dust lead. The blood and dust changes should be interpreted cautiously because the

sample size was small and none of the results were statistically significant. The magnitude of the

reduction in blood-lead levels may be confounded with seasonal variation as sampling occurred at

approximately 6 month time intervals.
A-47

A.12. Rochester Educational Intervention Study

References. Lanphear, B.P., Winter, N.L., Apetz, L.J., Eberly, S., Weitzman M. (1995) “A

Randomized Trial of the Effect of Dust Control on Children’s Blood Lead Levels.” Report on

Grant NYLPR002-94 submitted to U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,

Washington, D.C. and National Center for Lead-Safe Housing, Columbia, MD.

Lanphear, B.P., Winter, N.L., Weitzman M. (1996) “A Randomized Trial of the Effect of

Dust Control on Children’s Blood Lead Levels.” Pediatrics. 98(1):35.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to determine the effectiveness of simple dust

control as a means of lowering blood-lead concentrations in children.

Sampled Population. The study population consisted of 104 urban children, ages 12 to

31 months at enrollment, with low to moderate blood-lead levels. This population was identified

and recruited from the original 205 children that participated in the Rochester, NY, Lead-In-Dust

Study. 

Intervention Strategy. A trained interviewer visited families assigned to the Intervention Group

at the time of baseline sampling. The importance of dust control as a means of reducing lead

exposure was emphasized and cleaning supplies were provided. These included paper towels,

spray bottles and Ledisolv, a detergent developed specifically for lead contaminated house dust.

Families were instructed to clean the entire house once every three months, interior window sills,

window wells and floors near windows once every month, and carpets once a week with a

vacuum cleaner, if available. For families assigned to the Control Group, only a brochure was

provided containing information about lead poisoning and its prevention.

Measurements Taken. Blood lead measurements were collected via venous blood samples. 

Household dust lead measurements were collected (using a K-mart brand of baby wipes) from

entryway floors and the kitchen, as well as from the floors, interior window sills and window

wells of the child’s principal play area.

Study Design. One hundred four children, 12 to 31 months of age at baseline were followed

for seven months in this study. They were randomly assigned to either the intervention group or

the control group. Families of children in the intervention group received cleaning supplies,

information about cleaning areas that are often contaminated with lead, and a cleaning

demonstration. Families in the control group received only a brochure about lead poisoning

prevention. Baseline measurements of lead in blood, house dust, soil, water, and paint were taken

from both groups. Seven months after enrollment, a second blood lead assay was obtained, and

lead levels in household dust were measured. The main outcome measures were change in blood

lead levels and dust lead levels by study group.

Study Results. Baseline and follow-up blood-lead levels are summarized in Table A.12-1 and

A.12-2. Differences between baseline and follow-up blood-lead concentrations and dust-lead

levels in the Intervention and Control Groups were tested using (non-parametric) Wilcoxon tests
A-48

with two-tailed p-values. The median change for the Intervention Group was -0.05 μg/dL

compared with -0.6 μg/dL for the Control group, which was not a statistically significant

difference (p=0.95). The median change in blood-lead concentration for 28 children whose

families used Ledisolv as instructed (at least once each month) and for the 65 children whose

families did not use Ledisolv as instructed or were assigned to the control group were also

-0.05 μg/dL and -0.6 μg/dL, respectively. Again the difference was not statistically significant

(p=0.74). No statistical comparisons of blood-lead levels were made among the subset of

80 children whose families did not move.

Table A.12-1. Percentage of Children With Blood-Lead Concentrations Exceeding

Various Blood Lead Levels at Baseline and Follow-Up, by Study Group

 

Intervention Group Control Group

Baseline Follow-up Baseline Follow-up

No. (%) > 10 μg/dL 13 (25%) 11 (21%) 12 (28%) 12 (28%)

No. (%) > 15 μg/dL 3 (6%) 3 (6%) 7 (16%) 6 (14%)

No. (%) > 20 μg/dL 2 (4%) 1 (2%) 2 (5%) 6 (14%)

Table A.12-2. Median Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) at Baseline and Follow-Up, by

Study Group

Group

Baseline

(interquartile

range)

Follow-up 

(interquartile

range)

Change

(interquartile

range)

Percent Change

(interquartile

range)

Intervention

Group (n=52)

6.85

(4.35, 9.9)

6.2

(3.95, 9.45)

-0.05

(-2, 0.7)

-0.8

(-24.3, 13.5)

Control Group

(n=43)

6.10

(4.2, 11.3)

6.2

(3.4, 10.4)

-0.6

(-1.9, 1)

-14.3

(-27.3, 20)

Among children who did not move, the median change in dust-lead levels, averaged across

all surfaces was 45 μg/ft2 and -67 μg/ft2 for the Intervention and Control Groups, respectively. 

Among children who did not move and whose families used Ledisolv as instructed, the median

difference in change in dust-lead loading, averaged across all surfaces was -7 μg/ft2 and 2.7 μg/ft2

for children whose families did not use Ledisolv. Both comparisons by group were found not to

be statistically significant (p=0.41 and p=0.83). These results are summarized in Table A.12-3.
A-49

Table A.12-3. Median Change in Dust-Lead Loadings Averaged Across All Surfaces, for

a Subset of 80 Children Who Lived in Same Residence at Baseline and

Follow-Up 

Measurement

By Treatment Group By Use of Ledisolv

Intervention

Group

Control

Group p

Did not use

Ledisolv

Used

Ledisolv p

Median Absolute Change

(μg/ft2)

(interquartile range)

45

(-336, 1,921)

-67

(-4,382,

1,574)

0.41

2.7

(-2,004,

1,694)

-7

(-217, 555) 0.83

Median Percent Change (%)

(interquartile range)

12.9

(-68.9, 158.2)

-27.3

(-63.8, 57.8) 0.43 8.1(-59.6, 79.2)

-23.1

(-70.2, 80.2) 0.70

For measurements of specific areas of homes of children who did not move, a few

comparisons showed significant or near significant differences by group. The median percentage

change for dust-lead levels of non-carpeted floors was significantly greater among houses in the

intervention group (p=0.08). For families using Ledisolv versus other families, the difference in

median change in dust-lead levels on window sills was statistically significant (p=0.07). It was

also noted that the baseline levels on window wells were also statistically different (p=0.05) for

these groups. These results are summarized in Table A.12-4.

Table A.12-4. Median Change in Dust-Lead Loadings on Specific Surfaces, for a Subset

of 80 Children Who Lived in Same Residence at Baseline and Follow-Up

Measurement Surface

By Group By Use of Ledisolv

Intervention

Group

Control

Group P

Did not use

Ledisolv Used Ledisolv P

Median

Absolute

Change

(μg/ft2) 

(interquartile

range)

Noncarpeted

Floors

-9.9

(-19.7, -2.3)

-4.5

(-14.9, 1.1) 0.19 -5.8(-16, -0.1) 

-10.2

(-13.9, 2 ) 0.78

Carpeted

Floors

-6.9

(-10.2, -2.5)

-7.8

(-10.9, -0.9) 0.72 -7.9(-10.8, -1.5)

-6.4

(-9.2, -2.6)

0.76

Interior

Window Sills

-58

(-154, -10)

-57

(-243, 19.4) 0.95 -47(-208, 51)

-72

(-193, -21) 0.41

Window

Wells

261

(-1,027, 5,845)

-153

(-13,653,

5,627)

0.4

159

(-7,446,

6,044)

32

(-733, 2,369) 0.91

Median

Percent

Change (%)

(interquartile

range)

Noncarpeted

Floors

-56.3

(-79.1, -26.1)

-31.7

(-67.7, 6.2) 0.08 41.6(-68.1, -2.6)

-61.4

(-8.19, 13.6) 0.45

Carpeted -60.1

(-82.9, -30)

-46.6

(-80.3, -18.2) 0.46 -56.9(-80.5, -19.8)

-55.5

(-71.9, -22.6)

0.81

Interior

Window Sills

-37.8

(-76.2, -7.6)

-39.4

(-77.2, 45.4) 0.82 -30.2(-66.2, 53.4)

-63.8

(-81.4, -17.3) 0.07
A-50

Window

Wells

16.9

(-71.6, 139.2)

-33.1

(-62.6, 62.5) 0.41 7.7(-58.3, 80.9)

-14.7

(-71.6,

121.6)

0.88

Conclusions (including caveats). The results indicate that educational intervention as conducted

via providing families with simple dust control supplies and information on lead poisoning does

not lower blood-lead concentrations for children with mild to moderate elevated blood lead more

significantly than providing families with written information on the hazards and prevention of

lead poisoning. Moreover, the documented declines are minor as compared to those resulting

from other intervention strategies such as paint abatement and dust control.

Several possible sources of difficulty include: (1) Since dust control is a simple procedure,

families in the Control Group may have taken it upon themselves to undergo dust control; (2) it

has been shown that vacuuming of lead contaminated carpets may lead to short-term increase in

children’s exposure to lead-contaminated house dust (Ewers et al.); (3) it has been shown that

blood-lead levels were more significantly reduced following lead hazard intervention for children

with higher blood-lead levels than those with lower blood-lead levels. The mean blood-lead

concentrations for children in this study were lower than that for most other studies; (4) the large

variability of dust-lead levels between households in urban areas; and (5) the 7-month time span of

the experiment may be susceptible to seasonal trends resulting in seasonal changes in blood-lead

levels. A 12-month time span would minimize the effects of such trends.

It should be noted that a non-parametric approach was taken only after observing that one

outlier in the Control Group, whose mean blood-lead level increased from 14.6 μg/dL to

55.8 μg/dL, affected the change in the mean blood-lead concentration for the control group from

-0.55 μg/dL (95% CI= -1.61 to 0.51) without the outlier, to 0.42 with the outlier. The change in

mean blood-lead level for the Intervention Group was -0.47 μg/dL (95% CI = -1.21 to 0.27).
A-51

A.13. Baltimore Repair & Maintenance Paint Abatement Study

Reference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995b), “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Pre-Intervention Findings”, EPA Report

747-R-95-012.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997), “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair

and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Findings Based on the First Year of Follow-up”,

EPA Report 747-R-97-001.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998a), “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Findings Based on Two Years of Follow-up”,

EPA Report 747-R-97-005.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This on-going study seeks to compare and characterize the short

term (2-6 months) and longer term (longer than 12 months) effectiveness of three levels of repair

and maintenance (R&M) interventions as a means of reducing childhood lead exposure. Children

with blood lead concentration between 10 and 20 μg/dL were of primary interest as research on

intervention strategies for such children is lacking.

Sampled Population. In January 1993, 107 non-Hispanic black households with

low-to-moderate monthly rent or mortgage (mean $324) were selected from Baltimore City row

houses. The 75 R&M households were similar in demographic characteristics and lead levels in

blood and environmental samples. A target of 37 occupied houses were to be randomly assigned

to either R&M Level I or II interventions and a target of 38 unoccupied houses were randomly

assigned to either R&M level II or III interventions. The randomization scheme was designed to

ensure each level consisted of 25 households. All unoccupied study homes were reoccupied postintervention. Two control groups were utilized. One control group consisted of 15 households

residing in older neighborhood housing which received comprehensive lead-paint abatement (PA)

as part of a pilot abatement project in Baltimore between May 1988 and February 1991. The

other control group consisted of 15 households residing in modern urban (MU) houses built after

1979 in modern urban subdivisions and hence, are presumably free of lead-based paint. The

median age of children residing in the study homes ranged from 36 months to 43 months for the

five groups at the 12-month follow-up. The study was also designed to enroll newborns during

the follow-up phase once they reach the age of 6 months in order to assess the potential for

primary prevention. As of the 24 month follow-up, 16 newborns had been added to the study

(ranging in age from 6-18 months) and across all groups most of these children had blood lead

concentrations less than 10 μg/dL.

Intervention Strategy. R&M Level I intervention, the least expensive and extensive intervention

strategy, included wet scraping of deteriorating lead-based paint on interior surfaces, limited

repainting of scraped surfaces, installing entryway mats, wet cleaning and vacuuming with a

HEPA vacuum, exterior paint stabilization to the extent possible given budget considerations, and

occupant and owner education. In addition, cleaning kits for the occupant’s own cleaning efforts

and the EPA brochure “Lead Poisoning and Your Children” were provided. R& M Level II
A-52

intervention included, additionally, floor treatments that make them smooth and easier to clean

and window and door treatments that reduce abrasion of lead painted surfaces. R&M Level III

intervention further included window replacement, encapsulation of exterior window and door

trim with aluminum coil stock and more durable floor and stairway treatments (e.g., coverings). 

The state agency funding the interventions imposed cost caps for R&M Levels I-III so the work

to be done was prioritized and completed within cost constraints.

Measurements Taken. Interior dust samples were collected using a modified high volume

cyclone sampler (HVS-3). Composite soil core samples were collected from three randomly

selected locations. Dust and soil samples were analyzed using Inductively Coupled

Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP) and /or Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption

Spectrometry (GFAA). Water samples collected from first flush, 2 hours after running cold water

for two minutes, were analyzed by GFAA. Venous blood samples were also analyzed by GFAA.

Study Design. This prospective 24-month study consisted of 7 sampling campaigns (rounds)

conducted at Pre-R&M/Initial, Immediate Post R&M and 2, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months post R&M. 

Three interventions, R&M level I, R&M level II and R&M level III, were used in this study. The

75 R&M households were randomly assigned to these three interventions. The R&M Level I

group consisted solely of families that lived in the abated homes prior to intervention, the R&M

Level II group consisted of both families that lived in the abated homes prior to intervention and

those that moved into homes unoccupied prior to intervention, and the R&M Level III group

consisted solely of families that moved into homes unoccupied prior to intervention. As of the

24-month campaign, data were available from 21 households in the R&M Level I group, 22 in

R&M Level II, 31 in R&M Level III, 14 MU control houses and 13 PA control households. The

main outcome measurements were blood-lead concentration and dust-lead loading.

Study Results. Comparisons were based on figures for all children, regardless of whether or not

they lived in the abated homes prior to intervention. One hundred twenty-seven children were

available at baseline, with a loss of 27 due to moving and a gain of 9 via replacement recruiting,

for a total of 109 at the 12-month campaign and a total of 123 at 24 months. Data for children

whose blood lead concentration was not in the primary study range of 10 to 20 μg/dL were

analyzed separately. At baseline there were 99 children with a blood-lead level < 20 μg/dL and

28 children with a blood-lead level 20 μg/dL. At the 12-month campaign there were

74 children with a blood-lead level < 20 μg/dL and 0, 8, 7, 11 and 9 children with a blood-lead

level 20 μg/dL in the MU, PA, and R&M Level I , II and III groups, respectively. By

24 months, there were 130 children with blood-lead levels < 20 μg/dL and 19 were 20 μg/dL. 

Also, at 24 months there were 20, 20, 34, 27, and 29 children with blood lead levels < 20 μg/dL

and 0, 3, 1, 8, and 7 children with levels 20 μg/dL in the MU, PA, and R&M Level I , II, and

III groups, respectively.

Overall dust lead loading levels for all three R&M groups decreased from pre-intervention

levels. The geometric mean, based on weighted averages of floor, entryway, window sill and

window well samples decreased from 17542, 25214, and 478500 (μg/ft2) at the PreIntervention/Initial campaign to 2364,1252, and 176 (μg/ft2) at the 24-month campaign, for Level
A-53

I, II, and III R&M groups, respectively. Additional details on the dust-lead data are provided in

Table B-3.

For all groups, the geometric mean of blood-lead concentrations appeared to decrease

slightly from the pre-intervention campaign to the 12-month campaign. Pre-intervention

geometric blood-lead levels decreased for all groups by 12 months post-intervention (Table A.13-

1).

Table A.13-1. Geometric Mean Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) By Group

Study Group Initial 12 Month 24 Month *

R&M Level I

(min, max) n

10

(2,22) 33

8

(2,20) 24

6

(2,15) 15

R&M Level II

(min, max) n

14

(4,36) 32

11

(4,31) 30

10

(6,15) 12

R&M Level III

(min, max) n

14

(2,42) 33

12

(4,30) 34

10

(6,15) 17

PA

(min, max) n

13

(4,28) 23

12

(1,53) 24

10 **

(6,13) 12

MU

(min, max) n

5

(2, 10)19

3

(2,6) 14

3

(2,6)15

* 24 month values are only for children with initial PbB < 20 μg/dL.

** excludes one child who received chelation at 12 months due to PbB of 53 μg/dL.

In attempting to characterize the relationship between blood-lead levels and possible

influencing factors, several mixed models were fit to the data. The most relevant one, a

comparison model (fit separately for children with PbB< 20 μg/dL and 20 μg/dL) , is 

ln(PbB)iklm = $0 + $1*age iklm + $2*age2

iklm + $3*summeriklm + $4 *maleiklm + $5*groupk

 + $6*campaignl + bi*house i + bm(i)child m(i) + eiklm 

where $0 -$6 are coefficients for fixed effects and bi and bm(i) are coefficients for random effects;

with each coefficient measuring the rate at which one unit change in an effect changes the natural

log of blood-lead concentration. Findings (for children with PbB< 20 μg/dL and controlling for

age, gender, and season) based on this model are:

1. No statistically significant blood-lead differences were found between the three R&M

groups during the two years of follow-up, except between R&M I and R&M III at

two months.
A-54

2. Compared to the baseline, children in PA houses had no statistically significant

changes in geometric mean blood lead concentrations during the two years of

follow-up.

3. Children in MU houses had PbB levels that were statistically significantly lower than

the other four groups. No statistically significant changes in children’s blood lead

concentration were found within this group during the two year follow-up.

Children with PbB 20 μg/dL tended to show a decrease in blood-lead concentration over time. 

These decreases were greatest between baseline and 12 months. Tables A.13-2 and A-13.3

display predicted blood lead concentrations at various campaigns. These numbers seem to fit well

with the unadjusted results above.

Table A.13-2. Predicted Blood Lead Concentration (PbB, μg/dL) by Group and by

Campaign in Children with Initial PbB<20 μg/dL

Study

Group

Initial 

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

2-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95% CI)

n

6-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

12-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

18-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

24-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

R&M 1 8.8

(7.5 to 10.2)

34

8.7

(7.3 to 10.3)

28

8.9

(7.5 to 10.5)

26

7.6

(6.0 to 9.6)

17

7.5

(5.7 to 9.8)

15

7.0

(5.4 to 9.0)

15

R&M II 10.5

(9.3 to 11.9)

27

11.2

(9.7 to 12.8)

20

11.6

(10.2 to

13.1)

21

10.3

(9.0 to 11.7)

18

10.2

(8.6 to 12.1)

15

9.4

(7.8 to 11.3)

12

R&M III 11.4

(10.0 to

13.0)

29

12.6

(10.6 to

14.8)

22

12.1

(10.4 to

14.2)

25

10.9

(9.4 to 12.8)

21

9.6

(8.2 to 11.3)

20

9.6

(8.2 to 11.1)

17

Previously

Abated

11.8

(10.7 to

13.0)

20

N/A 14.0

(12.4 to

15.7)

18

12.4

(11.0 to

13.9)

17

12.4

(10.5 to

14.7)

13

10.2

(8.5 to 12.1)

13

Modern

Urban

3.4

(2.9 to 4.0)

20

N/A 3.9

(3.2 to 4.7)

16

3.7

(3.1 to 4.3)

14 

3.5

(2.9 to 4.2)

15

3.2

(2.7 to 3.8)

15
A-55

Table A.13-3. Predicted Blood Lead Concentration (PbB, μg/dL) by Group and by

Campaign in Children with Initial PbB>20 μg/dL

Study Group

Initial

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

2-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95% CI)

n

6-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

12-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

18-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

24-Month

Campaign

Predicted PbB

(95%) CI)

n

R&M 1 20.0

-

1

18.8

-

1

16.6

-

1

13.4

-

1

12.4

-

1

0

R&M II 28.3

(21.9 to

36.7)

7

22.7

(15.7 to

33.0)

4

19.0

(15.4 to

23.5)

7

16.2

(12.2 to

21.3)

6

15.1

(11.8 to

19.4)

7

14.5

(11.0 to

19.1)

6

R&M III 29.5

(24.8 to

35.1)

8

25.2

(21.3 to

29.9)

6

21.0

(17.4 to

25.5)

6

18.2

(14.6 to

22.6)

6

17.2

(13.8 to

21.3)

6

15.5

(12.3 to

19.7)

6

Previously

Abated

29.1

(22.3 to

37.9)

3

Not

applicable

22.6

(20.4 to

25.0)

3

19.6

(14.5 to

26.4)

3

18.5

(15.1 to

22.8)

3

16.8

(13.7 to

20.7)

3

Modern

Urban

0 Not

applicable

0 0 0 0

Conclusions (including caveats). The lack of a significant change in the geometric mean of

blood-lead concentrations of children with initial levels < 20 μg/dL for all five groups could be a

result of the fact that initial blood-lead levels were already at low to moderate levels. Cumulative

body lead burdens may also be a factor that mediated the children’s blood lead responses to the

R&M interventions. Comparisons were made based on group assignment, regardless of whether

or not the child lived in the abated home prior to intervention. All R&M Level I children lived in

the same home prior to intervention, while all R&M Level III children did not move in until after

invention. Thus, it is not clear whether changes in blood-lead levels were due to pre-intervention

residence or due to group assignment. An attempt was made to control for this possible

confounding factor by comparing children with similar baseline blood-lead levels. Although these

groups still may not be comparable, it is worth noting that children with baseline PbB 20 μg/dL

showed declines in blood-lead levels over time, while children with baseline PbB < 20 μg/dL

tended to remain below 20 μg/dL. Although decreases in blood-lead concentration were

statistically significant at the 12- and 24-month campaigns for children with baseline PbBs 20

μg/dL in the R&M II and III and PA groups, any conclusion should be made with caution as the

sample size of such children for each group was small (n=0,8,7,11 and 9 for MU, PA R&M I, II,

and III groups, respectively).
A-56

A.14. New Zealand Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Bates, M.N., Wyatt, R., Garrett, N. (1997) “Old Paint Removal and blood lead levels

in children.” New Zealand Medical Journal. 110(1053):373-377.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to identify risk factors for elevated blood lead

levels in children, particularly which lead paint removal and clean up practices pose the greatest

risk.

Sampled Population. The sampled population were children aged 12-24 months from

Wellington, New Zealand, living in homes more than 50 years old where interior or exterior paint

removal had taken place in the last two years. To be eligible, the child must have been living in

the residence for at least six months. One hundred eighty-seven children were identified as

eligible, and the caretakers of 141 of these children agreed to let them participate in the study.

Intervention Strategy. The method of lead paint removal was up to the resident. Abatements

were performed by either the resident or a contractor. Strategies included: chemical stripping,

scraping by hand, various types of sanders, electric heat guns, waterblasting, and blowtorching. 

Measurements Taken. A licensed phlebotomist visited each participating family and collected a

venous sample of blood from the child using a standard protocol. A dust sample was collected

from the kitchen floor using a standard wipe sampling procedure. Finally, a questionnaire was

administered to the caregiver, and dealt with subjects like the child’s health, development and

normal behaviors, the parental hobbies and occupations, and the paint removal and clean up that

had taken place. If the paint removal had been performed by a contractor, that person was

contacted to answer the questions about removal and clean up.

Study Design. This retrospective study assessed risk factors, particularly paint removal and clean

up practices, for elevated blood lead levels in children. No abatements were performed ,

however, homes of participating children had been abated which two years preceding data

collection. Information about paint removal and clean up methods was used to assess risk. Care

givers were interviewed, a blood sample was collected from the child’s arm, and a dust wipe

sample was collected from the kitchen floor. Blood and dust samples were analyzed for lead

content. The main outcome measurement was blood-lead concentration.

Study Results. From the results of a previous study, a ratio of 1:3 of high lead (blood lead

10 μg/dL) to low lead (blood lead < 10 μg/dL ) blood levels were expected. Thus, it was

proposed to enroll about 200 children in the study, which would yield approximately 50 children

with elevated blood-lead levels and 150 children with low blood-lead levels, which would be

sufficient to perform the desired statistical analyses. The overall geometric mean blood-lead level

in the 141 children participating in the study was 5 μg/dL. Only 11% had blood lead levels

exceeding 10 μg/dL, less than the 25% expected. Therefore, to provide their statistical analysis

with sufficient power the authors redefined high blood-lead levels as those 7.2 μg/dL and low

blood-lead levels as < 7.2 μg/dL.
A-57

The authors first looked for demographic differences in the blood-lead levels. After

examining the number of high and low lead children with respect to gender, ethnicity, age

(12-18 months vs. 19-24 months), and income (less than $30,000, between $30,000 and $40,000,

and more than $40,000), it was found that significant differences existed only with regard to

income. Higher income was associated with lower blood-lead levels. They also found that

several parental hobbies, like making stained glass or lead lighting and making lead shot or

ammunition, were associated with elevated blood-lead levels.

The abatement data were analyzed separately, depending on whether paint was removed

from the interior or exterior of the dwelling. Table A.14-1 shows some results for exterior paint

removal, and includes work done either by family and friends or by contractor.

The differences in the blood lead levels of children exposed vs. children not exposed were

not significant for any particular paint removal method, except that there was an association with

the use of a blow torch for paint removal and elevated blood-lead levels, when work done by

contractors was not included in the analysis. Results for the interior paint removal were reported

to be similar to those for the exterior work. Once again, none of the methods seemed to be

associated with high blood-lead levels except for one case where a blowtorch was used. Finally,

none of the clean up or disposal methods for old paint that were examined were associated with

high blood- lead levels. Detailed results for interior paint removal and cleanup methods were not

provided.

Table A.14-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Initial PbB and Exterior Paint

Removal Method (Total Subjects = 80)

Paint Removal

Method Response N

Blood Lead Levels (μg/dL) 

# Children 

7.2

# Children <

7.2

Geometric

Mean (GM) 

P-Value for

Comparison

of GM

Chemical paint

stripper?

Yes 6 1 5 4.6

0.63

No 74 20 54 5

Sanding/Scraping

by Hand?

Yes 80 21 59 5

N/A

No 0 0 0 N/A

Machine sander?

Yes 43 12 31 5

0.97

No 37 9 28 5

Blow torch?

Yes 8 3 5 7

0.08

No 72 18 54 4.8

Blow torch?

(excluding work

done by

contractors)

Yes 3 3 0 15.5

0.0003

No 63 17 46 5

Electric heat gun?

Yes 28 9 19 5.8

0.16

No 52 12 40 4.8

Waterblasting?

Yes 16 6 10 5.8

0.25

No 64 15 49 4.8
A-58

Conclusions (including caveats). The primary objective of this study was to identify specific

paint removal and clean up practices that were associated with children’s elevated blood-lead

levels. The analysis of the results indicated that none of methods used in paint removal or clean

up were strongly associated with elevated blood-lead levels, except for methods involving a blow

torch. This is not surprising as the use of high-temperature methods are known to be risky and

generally are not used, as they have been replaced by safer alternatives. The risk with this method

appeared to be particularly great when performed by family or friends, as opposed to contractors. 

It should be noted that only a small number of people in the study used blowtorches, which

somewhat lessens the strength of the conclusions from this set of data. 

The authors note that a number of weak, non-statistically significant results suggested that

abatement work done by family and friends was more likely to be associated with elevated 

blood-lead levels than work done by a contractor. This result could, however, be due to selection

bias, as 30% of the contractors were not available for interview.

Finally, another notable result was the strong association of elevated blood-lead levels

with several parental hobbies. Four of the five children with the highest blood-lead levels had

parents with hobbies involving the use of lead, in particular, glazing pottery and ceramic work and

the making of lead shot and ammunition. However, this apparent association is confounded with

the fact that two of these four children lived in homes where a blowtorch had been used in the

paint removal. Since the number of families with hobbies involving lead was so small, it was

impossible to assess the relative importance of this factor.
A-59

A.15. East St. Louis Educational Intervention Study

Reference. Copley C. (1995) “East St. Louis Lead Dust Reduction in Homes of At-Risk

Children.” Report on Grant NE995974-01 to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

October 1995.

Copley, C. (1996), Personal Communication. June 1996.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to determine whether an educational

intervention, which provided in-home instruction and identification of problem areas, could be

successful in reducing household dust-lead levels in a low socio-economic status, multi-ethnic

community.

Sampled Population. Most residents of this predominantly African-American community

receive some form of public assistance. Children, with blood-lead concentrations between 10 and

19 μg/dL, were identified through a screening program for children receiving public assistance. 

Fifty-four homes were included in the study. These households consisted of approximately 124

young children and 117 adults.

Intervention Strategy. During the initial visit, an XRF paint survey was conducted and areas

with high lead loadings were pointed out to the residents. Lead educators, hired from within the

community, provided instruction on cleaning and hygiene. Written materials and a videotape on

reducing lead exposure were also provided. Participating families were contacted regularly

throughout the course of the study to reinforce the importance of regular, thorough cleaning.

Measurements Taken. Environmental samples were collected at the initial visit. Three-month

follow-up samples were collected in homes where the residents reported that they had cleaned at

least once using the recommended procedures. At each visit, at least three dust wipe samples

were collected from smooth surfaces in the home. In addition, two vacuum (HVS-3) samples

were collected from carpets in the entry and bedroom, or other play area. Follow-up blood

samples were not collected.

Study Design. Fifty-four homes of children with moderately elevated blood-lead levels were

included in the study. An educational intervention, which consisted of an in-home educational

visit, was provided to participating families. The main outcome measurement was dust-lead

loading.

Study Results. After repeated follow-up calls only 24 of the 54 families reported that they had

cleaned at least once during the three months using the recommended procedures. A total of

1,166 surfaces were tested for lead-based paint in the 55 homes, of which 342 surfaces tested

positive, including 197 exterior and 145 interior surfaces. In addition to lead paint surveys, dust

samples were collected from 164 smooth surfaces and from 69 carpets. Of the 164 smooth

surfaces tested, 75 samples were below the detection level of 5 μg/ft2, and of the remaining

89 samples, only 46 had dust-lead levels greater than 200 μg/ft2 (Illinois clearance standard). 

Comparison of lead dust concentrations prior to cleaning and after at least one conventional
A-60

cleaning effort revealed a 56 percent decrease in arithmetic mean dust-lead loadings on smooth

surfaces and a 68 percent decrease on carpets (Table A.15-1). Mean floor dust-lead loadings

decreased from an average of 1,095 μg/ft2 to 486 μg/ft 2 for the 30 smooth surfaces which had

been cleaned at least one time by the residents, while the geometric mean decreased from

454 μg/ft 2 to 58 μg/ft 2. The mean carpet dust-lead loading decreased to 725 μg/ft2 from

2,268 μg/ft 2 and the geometric mean declined to 16 μg/ft2 from 1,143 μg/ft2 at the three-month

follow-up measure.

Table A.15-1. Floor Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Surface Type and Sampling Round

Sample Type Parameter

Initial

Sample

Follow-up

Sample

Difference

Between Initial

and Follow-up

Smooth Surfaces Arithmetic Mean

Geometric Mean

N

1,095

454

(30)

486

58

(30)

-56 %

-87 %

---

Carpet (HVS-3) Arithmetic Mean

Geometric Mean

N

2,268

1,143

(27)

725

16

(27)

-68 %

-99 %

---

Conclusions (including caveats). This study suggests education and residential cleaning by the

homeowner can be effective in reducing dust-lead levels in the home thereby, hopefully, reducing

children’s lead exposure. The results suggest that it is easier to control dust levels on smooth

surfaces rather than carpets. However, educational interventions rely on the initiative of the

family to implement the recommended procedures. In this community, many families did not

follow through and their children may not have benefitted from the educational intervention.
A-61

A.16. HUD Abatement Grant Program

Reference. The National Center for Lead-Safe Housing and The University of Cincinnati

Department of Environment Health. “Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control

Grant Program”, Fourth Interim Report. Prepared for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development. March 1997.

The National Center for Lead-Safe Housing and The University of Cincinnati Department

of Environment Health. “Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Grant

Program”, Fifth Interim Report. Prepared for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development. March 1998.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This ongoing study seeks to determine the effectiveness of the

various abatement methods used by State and local government HUD grantees to reduce

lead-based paint hazards in housing.

Sampled Population. There are 83 state and local government agencies participating in the

HUD Lead-Based Hazard Control Grant Program. However, due to budgetary constraint, only

14 out of the 83 grantees are participating in the formal evaluation of the program and consist of:

Alameda County, CA; Baltimore, MD; Boston, MA; California; Chicago, IL; Cleveland, OH;

Massachusetts; Milwaukee, WI; Minnesota; New Jersey; New York City, NY; Rhode Island;

Vermont; and Wisconsin. It was HUD’s desire to emphasize local control of the individual

programs, so each grantee is responsible for designing a program applicable to its specific needs

and objectives; including how dwellings are enrolled. Thus, enrollment criteria varied between the

different grantees and included targeting high-risk neighborhoods, enrolling only homes with a

lead-poisoned child, and considering unsolicited applications. The specific criteria used by each of

the grantees and the current number of units enrolled are summarized in Table A.16-1. Through

September 1, 1997, there were 3,556 dwellings (only 2,900 will be part of the evaluation

however), 2,432 households, and 1,933 children under age six enrolled by the 14 reporting

grantees.

Intervention Strategy. In this study, grantees were given the flexibility to select the type and

intensity of the lead treatments for any particular unit. The intensity of an intervention is reported

by location (interior, exterior, or site) and consists of a number representing the type of

intervention performed in that location. The interventions range from taking no action, and

simple cleaning, to window replacement or full lead-based paint abatement. Table A.16-2

summarizes the different strategies available for each location. Some cost information was

reported. For example, the median lead hazard control and total project cost of a level 02 interior

cleaning intervention was $721. As additional work was performed, median costs increased to

$5,000 (level 03), $7,604 (level 04), and $9,935 (level 05) for the total cost of lead hazard

intervention, by level of interior intervention strategy.

Measurements Taken. All grantees recorded the basic characteristics of the dwelling unit and

resident household, the dwelling condition, paint inspection and dust sample information, the type

of intervention performed, family interview and occupant protection/relocation information, and
A-62

blood lead results. The collection of soil-lead measurements was optional. The grantees followed

the same sampling protocols when collecting the data, and used standard forms developed

specifically for the evaluation.

Table A.16-1. Enrollment/Recruitment Criteria of the HUD Grantee Programs

Grantee Enrollment Plan

Number of

Units Enrolled

Alameda

County Targeting 4 high-risk cities, many units contain a lead-poisoned child 223

Baltimore Targeting 3 neighborhoods, two of which have histories of leadpoisoning 561

Boston Enrolling only units which have received an order to abate based on

the identification of a lead-poisoned child 111

California Targeting older homes in low-income neighborhoods 129

Chicago Targeting 5 neighborhoods; units are selected based on reports of a

lead-poisoned child 156

Cleveland Sub-grantee 1 - targeting units with a lead-poisoned child;

sub-grantee 2 - targeting homes in one neighborhood 205

Massachusetts Primarily enrolling units under existing orders to abate because of the

presence, at some time, of a lead-poisoned child 154

Milwaukee Targeting several of the lowest income neighborhoods; units are

selected from referrals of families with a lead-poisoned child 364

Minnesota Sub-grantees 1 and 2 - targeting units with a lead-poisoned child;

Sub-grantee 3 - targeting units with deteriorated housing conditions 191

New Jersey Selecting units in conjunction with concurrent comprehensive housing

renovation/rehabilitation 105

New York City

Targeting neighborhoods with the highest percentages of lead

poisonings; one of two programs is specifically targeting families with

newborn babies living in deteriorated housing

333

Rhode Island Enrolling only units that meet Section 8 Housing Quality Standards,

and the owner cannot own more than 12 units 198

Vermont

Considering referrals of families with lead-poisoned children, nonprofit

housing developers who learn of the program when applying for federal

HOME funds, and unsolicited applications

583

Wisconsin Each of the 12 sub-grantees within the state uses own criteria (not

defined in this report) 243
A-63

Table A.16-2. Intervention Strategy Codes and Descriptions

Strategy Definition

Interior

1 No Action

 2 Cleaning, Spot Paint Stabilization Only

3 Level 02 plus Complete Paint Stabilization, Floor Treatments

4 Level 03 plus Window Treatments

 5 Level 04 plus Window Replacement, Wall Enclosure/Encapsulation

6 All Lead-Based Paint Enclosed, Encapsulated, or Removed 

(Meets Public Housing Abatement Standards)

7 All Lead-Based Paint Removed

Exterior

 0 No Action

1 Spot or Partial Paint Stabilization

 2 Complete Paint Stabilization, Porch Treatments

3 Level 02 plus Porch/Trim Enclosure, Stabilization or Encapsulation

4 All Lead-Based Paint Enclosed, Encapsulated, or Removed

5 All Lead-Based Paint Removed

Site

0 No Action

1 Cover Soil with Temporary Cover (Mulch, Stone)

2 Level 01 plus Seed, Install Barriers (Bushes, Fencing)

 3 Level 02 plus Partial Soil Removal, Plant Sod

4 Complete Soil Removal or Enclosure with Asphalt, Concrete

Study Design. Grantees gathered information four times during this prospective study: prior to

intervention, immediately after intervention, 6 and 12 months after intervention. In addition, to

fully assess the costs and benefits of the different strategies, nine grantees were selected to collect

data at 24 and 36 months after intervention. The participants in this follow-up study are Alameda

County, Baltimore, Boston, California, Minnesota, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Milwaukee, and

Vermont. The method of intervention assignment varied, as the grantees were allowed to select

the type and intensity of the lead treatment for each dwelling. The primary outcome

measurements to be studied are the dust-lead loadings from floors, window sills, and troughs, and

the enrolled children’s blood lead levels.
A-64

Study Results. Through September 1, 1997, interventions had been completed in 2,297 of the

2,900 enrolled dwelling units. Information on the interior strategies was available for 1,506 units,

and results indicate that 69% of the units have received treatments that include partial or complete

replacement of windows (levels 04-05) rather than lower level interventions like specialized

cleaning and the stabilization of deteriorated paint (levels 02-03). However, either no interior

work (level 01) or full abatement of the lead hazards (levels 06-07) was conducted in fewer than

4% of the units. 

Information on exterior strategies was available for 810 buildings. In about 16% of these

buildings, no action was taken, and approximately 9% had a full abatement performed

(levels 04-05). The majority of grantees chose to perform mostly (60%) partial or complete

stabilization of lead-based paint (levels 01-02). Of the 787 buildings with site/soil strategies

reported, 686 (87%) received no soil treatment. When a site intervention was performed, it was

most commonly a low level strategy like providing soil with a temporary cover such as mulch

(level 1).

Dust sampling results are reported for occupied dwellings, where the effectiveness of lead

interventions can be examined without the confounding effects of vacancy (vacant residences have

been estimated to have higher dust-lead loadings). The changes in dust-lead loadings from preintervention (Phase 1) to immediate post-intervention (Phase 2), six months post-intervention

(Phase 3), and twelve months post-intervention (Phase 4) are presented in Table A.16-3 for

floors, window sills, and window troughs.

Table A.16-3. Median Dust-Lead Loadings (μg/ft2) and Percent Declines by Study Phase

and Location

Location #Units

Median Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) Percent

Decline (Phase

1 to 2)

Percent

Decline

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 (Overall)

Floors

892 20 18 14 N/A 10 30

557 19 17 14 14 11 26

Window

Sills

877 257 46 81 N/A 82 68

547 258 52 97 90 80 65

Window

Troughs

731 11559 54 603 N/A 99 95

448 14350 61 770 657 99 95

Dust-lead loadings from Phases 1 through 3 for floors were available from 892 occupied

dwellings, and while interventions were found to have a small impact on median dust-lead

loadings (20 μg/ft2 pre-intervention and 18 μg/ft2 immediately after), they did appear to greatly

reduce levels at the upper end of the distribution. For example, the 90th percentile floor dust-lead
A-65

loading was reduced by 67% from 150 to 50 μg/ft2. The reported changes in the median level

may have been limited by the analytical limits of detection. In the 557 occupied dwellings with 12

months post-intervention data, the overall Phase 4 levels were lower than Phase 1 and there was

little indication of reaccumulation from Phase 2 to Phase 3 or Phase 3 to Phase 4.

Phase 1 through 3 dust-lead loadings for interior window sills were available for

877 occupied dwellings and there was an 82% decline in the median lead loading from Phase 1 to

Phase 2. In contrast to the results from the floor lead loadings, window sill lead loadings had a

tendency to rise from Phase 2 to Phase 3 and from Phase 2 to Phase 4 in the 547 dwellings with

this data available. However, because of the large reduction in levels from Phase 1 to Phase 2, the

Phase 3 and Phase 4 loadings are still substantially lower than pre-intervention levels (65%

decline). There was also an unexpected slight decline in levels between Phase 3 and Phase 4. It

should be noted that the declines were usually very small and within the margin of error of the

dust wiping protocols. Yet, even if the decreases are the result of sampling variability, there is

still strong evidence there was little change in the dust lead levels between Phases 3 and 4. 

Dust-lead loadings for window troughs from Phases 1 through three were available from

731 dwellings and there was a substantial (99%) decline in the median levels, as well as in the low

and high ends of the distribution. In 448 dwellings with window trough results for Phases 1-4,

there was greater than a tenfold increase in the median dust-lead loading between Phases 2 and 4. 

Although the median lead loading remained below the clearance level of 800 μg/ft2, the 90th

percentile rose from 319 μg/ft2 to 8,170 μg/ft2 between Phases 2 and 4. Despite this increase, the

Phase 4 levels were much lower than pre-intervention levels. The window trough loadings also

showed a decline between Phases 3 and 4, similar to that seen in the window sills.

Pre-intervention (Phase 1) and 6-month post-intervention (Phase 3) blood lead results

were available for 541 of the 1,933 children under age 6 enrolled and 12-month post-intervention

(Phase 4) results are available for 338 children. These results are detailed in Table A.16-4. In this

preliminary stage, blood-lead results were presented in terms of the number of children whose

Phase 1 vs. Phase 3 and Phase 1 vs. Phase 4 blood lead levels were the same (<3 μg/dL

difference), had a “small” difference (>3 μg/dL to 6 μg/dL), or had a “large” difference

(>6 μg/dL). The blood lead changes were adjusted to reflect the expected changes due to the

time of year (season) and the child’s age. The percentage of children who had no change (defined

as < 3 μg/dL due to measurement error) in adjusted blood-lead levels was approximately 60%

between Phases 1 and 3 and was about 50% between Phases 1 and 4. About five times as many

children had “small” decreases (17.6%) than had “small” increases (3.5%), and approximately

four times as many had “large” decreases (16%) than had “large” increases (4%) between Phase 1

and Phase 3.
A-66

Table A.16-4. Change in Children’s Blood Lead Levels (μg/dL) Pre-Intervention (Phase 1)

to Six Months Post-Intervention (Phase 3) and Twelve Months

Post-Intervention (Phase 4)

Change in Blood Lead (μg/dL) Level

<-6 <-3 to -6 -3 to 3 >3 to 6 >6 Total

Phase 3 -

Phase 1

Number of

Children 86 95 321 19 20 541

Percentage

of Children 15.9 17.6 59.3 3.5 3.7 100

Phase 4 -

Phase 1

Number of

Children 72 80 168 12 6 338

Percentage

of Children 21.3 23.7 49.7 3.6 1.8 100

Conclusions (including caveats). This study is one of the largest and most comprehensive ever

initiated. Data collection began in 1994 and will continue until 1999. This report only contained

analysis of data collected as of September 1, 1997, and so results should be considered

preliminary. In terms of dust-lead loading, the interventions performed seem to be very effective

at immediately reducing window sill and trough dust-lead levels and very high floor dust-lead

levels. The effect on the median floor dust-lead level was not apparent, and could be due to the

fact that the pre-intervention levels were relatively low. Reductions at low levels may commonly

be underestimated, as laboratories have limits on how much leaded dust can be detected. Floors

showed little reaccumulation of lead dust through six months post-intervention, and while some

lead dust did reaccumulate in the window sills and troughs, there was still a net reduction in dust

lead from pre-intervention levels. The declines seen between Phases 3 and 4 in window sills and

troughs need to be further investigated, as they may possibly have been influenced by the season,

or the study design. The study protocol called for half of a window to be wiped in Phase 2, the

other half to be wiped in Phase 3, and then the original half wiped again in Phase 4. Therefore,

the half that wiped in Phase 4 had also been wiped immediately after intervention, while the Phase

3 half had not. The specific protocols have not always been followed consistently, but at this time

the possible effects of the study design cannot be ruled out. However, the results still suggest that

the interventions are reducing one of the largest sources of exposure for children, and that the

benefits of the interventions are greatest in homes and on surfaces with the highest levels of

contamination. It was also found that 28% of units did not pass clearance for at least one

component on the first try. This not only reinforces the importance of performing clearance tests,

but suggests that a further analysis of the causes of failure are needed. Failures can have a

substantial financial impact due to the cost of re-cleaning and re-testing the dwelling and the

continued relocation of the families. Understanding the cause of the failure can help to prevent

them and avoid these costs.

 
A-67

The changes in blood-lead levels are not considered the primary outcome measure in this

study because they are susceptible to so many factors. At six months post-intervention, 59% of

the children had blood lead levels essentially the same as their pre-intervention level. However,

the authors note that this result is not surprising as many of the enrolled children were previously

exposed to lead and may have had high internal body stores of lead. For such children, bloodlead levels may change very slowly, even if the source of lead exposure is eliminated. For the

children whose blood-lead levels did change, there were almost five times as many decreases than

increases at 6 months post-intervention, and 8 times as many decreases than increases at 12

months post-intervention. 

Finally, an ideal research project designed to test the effects of environmental intervention

techniques on dust-lead and blood-lead levels over time would have a randomly selected group of

units to be treated, and a control group that is similar. However, such research strategies were not

compatible with the program’s intent to have flexible, locally designed treatment strategies. 

Therefore, some additional data was collected so changes in lead levels could be determined to be

the result of the lead hazard work and not other factors. Even so, the findings from the evaluation

will have to be interpreted carefully and causal relationships that may be implied by the results will

require confirmation in a more controlled investigation.
A-68

A.17. Canadian Community-wide Approach (3 Studies)

A.17a. Toronto Soil and Dust Abatement Study

Reference. Langlois, P. and Gould, R. (1996) “Blood Lead Levels in Toronto Children and

Abatement of Lead-Contaminated Soil and House Dust.” Archives of Environmental Health. 

51(1):59-67.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to determine the impact of a large,

community-wide abatement program that removed lead-contaminated soil and house dust from

most homes in the community.

Sampled Population. Study homes were located in the South Riverdale suburb of Toronto, near

an active secondary lead smelter. Children who resided within the boundaries of the

community-wide abatement program area were included in the study, whether or not their home

was abated. Two control populations were identified: 1) a sociodemographically similar

population of children who resided in South Riverdale, but not near the smelter, and 2) a

sociodemographically dissimilar population of children who attended one of five Toronto schools. 

All study children were under 6 years of age.

Intervention Strategy. Soil abatement consisted of removal of the top 30 cm of soil from areas

where the soil-lead concentration exceeded 500 ppm. No details of the dust cleaning intervention

were provided.

Measurements Taken. Blood-lead measurements were collected via finger prick samples, in

community screenings in 1984, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, and 1992 in the South Riverdale study

(SRS) area; in 1988 and 1990 in the South Riverdale control (SRC) area; and in 1984, 1988,

1990, and 1992 at five Toronto schools. Soil-lead concentrations in the SRS area were utilized in

the analysis, but not reported. 

Study Design. Three groups, the South Riverdale Study (SRS), South Riverdale Control

(SRC), and Toronto Schools Control (TSC), were followed in this study. The Intervention

methods used were soil abatements and housecleaning. Soil abatements were performed between

May and October 1988, for nearly 970 properties in South Riverdale that qualified for the soil

abatement program. Professional housecleaning was performed between April and

November 1989 for the 717 households that accepted this service. The main outcome

measurement was blood-lead concentrations.

Study Results. Blood-lead concentrations decreased over time in all study groups

(Table A.17a-1). Although the SRS area had higher blood-lead concentrations than the control

areas prior to abatement, by 1992, the SRS mean blood-lead concentration was no longer

significantly greater than the Toronto Schools control means. Prior to abatement, blood-lead

levels in the SRS area did not decrease as quickly as in the Toronto Schools control (TSC) area. 

However, in the post-abatement period, blood-lead levels in the SRS area dropped significantly

more quickly than in the TSC area.
A-69

Table A.17a-1. Summary of Blood-Lead Concentrations in Study Communities

Study Group Year

Sample

Size

Mean PbB

(μg/dL)

Number of Children (Percent):

 10 μg/dL 20 μg/dL

South Riverdale Study 

(SRS)

1984 214 14 183 (86) 39 (18)

1987 154 10.9 87 (57) 17 (11)

1988 136 9.3 58 (43) 1 (1)

1989 162 6.5 29 (18) 3 (2)

1990 148 6.4 24 (16) 1 (1)

1992 110 3.9 8 (7) 0 (0)

South Riverdale Control

(SRC)

1988 157 7.1 36 (23) 3 (2)

1990 177 4.2 7 (4) 0 (0)

Toronto Schools Control

(TSC)

1984 173 11.9 119 (69) 13 (8)

1988 258 5.1 18 (7) 2 (1)

1990 249 3.6 8 (3) 1 (<1)

1992 222 3.5 18 (8) 1 (1)

Additional analyses were conducted using blood lead data from the SRS area. SRS

children were categorized into one of four abatement groups: (a) soil abatement, (b) dust

abatement, (c) both soil and dust abatement, and (d) no abatement. Multiple blood-lead

measurements from 160 children (415 samples) and single measurements from 500 children were

analyzed together, under the implicit assumption that all measurements were independent. On

average, throughout the study period, children with no abatement had the lowest blood-lead

concentrations. In addition, blood-lead concentrations for children with no abatement declined

more rapidly than for those in the abatement groups. This result was reported consistently by

several models fitted by the authors. Because the blood-lead screening took place while

abatements were ongoing, comparisons were made between children who had received the

abatement and those who had not yet received the scheduled abatement. No significant

differences were reported for these comparisons. No attempt was made to assess the effect of the

intervention using pre- and post-intervention measures from the same children.

Conclusions (including caveats). Although the SRS area had higher blood-lead concentrations

than the control areas prior to abatement, by 1992 the SRS mean blood-lead concentration was no

longer significantly greater than the TSC mean. Despite the abatement, blood-lead levels in the

SRS and SRC areas declined by about the same amount between 1988 and 1990. In the

post-abatement period, blood-lead levels in the SRS area dropped significantly more quickly than

in the TSC area. These results suggest that the intervention was effective in reducing blood-lead

concentrations in the community. However, within the SRS area, children with no abatement had
A-70

the lowest blood-lead concentrations. In addition, blood-lead concentrations among these

children declined more rapidly on average than among those in the abatement groups. The

validity of these results is unclear, as multiple, positively correlated, measurements over time from

some children were analyzed together with single measurements from other children and treated

as independent measurements. Within the SRS area, 45% of the data were not independent. The

authors suggest, based on a sensitivity analysis, that selection bias could explain some of the

differences in trends among the abatement groups. Although multiple blood-lead measurements

were available, no attempt was made to assess the effect of the intervention using pre- and postintervention measures from the same children.
A-71

A.17b. St. Jean-Sur-Richelieu Soil and Dust Abatement Study

Reference. Goulet, L., Gaudreau, J. and Messier, A. (1996). “Results of a Lead

Decontamination Program,” Archives of Environmental Health, 51(1):68-72.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a

community-wide soil and house dust abatement intervention undertaken in a residential area near

a battery reclamation plant.

Sampled Population. Two contaminated residential areas of St-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec

were identified based on surface soil sampling conducted in May 1989. Area 1, located

150 meters from the plant, was more severely contaminated than Area 2, which was located

150 to 600 meters from the plant. Children who were six months to ten years of age and who

lived within 600 meters of the battery reclamation plant were identified for the public health

program. Blood-lead concentrations were measured in 510 children (approximately 81.6% of

those eligible) in the 1989 survey, including 169 who lived in Area 1.

A second epidemiologic survey was conducted to evaluate the impact of the public health

program on the blood-lead levels of the children living in Area 1, at the end of August 1991. Of

the 101 children tested in 1991 (79.2% of those eligible), 75 had their blood-lead levels tested in

1989, 11 were born after 1989, and 9 had moved to the area after 1989. 

Intervention Strategy. In August-September 1989, the plant was closed and the plant yard was

asphalted, thus eliminating the source of lead. A public information campaign provided

information on the sources and dangers of lead. Between October 1989 and March 1990,

115 houses in areas 1 and 2 that housed children with blood levels 15 ug/dL were cleaned

professionally. The cleaning operations included HEPA vacuuming of ceilings and walls, heating

and air-conditioning ducts, floors, window seals, carpets, and furniture surfaces. Carpets and

furniture were steam-cleaned twice and floors were also damp-mopped twice. All accessible

objects were washed prior to reuse, and clothing in closets were vacuumed. Other intervention

strategies were specific to each area:

1. Area 1: In September 1989 the street dust was removed. Between 10 and 30 cm of

all accessible surfaces were moved and replaced, except grass and gravel, regardless

of lead concentration. Grass and gravel with lead concentrations 500 ppm or greater

were replaced. Between March 1990 and December 1992, homes with children who

were 0-6 years of age or with pregnant women were offered professional cleaning

services, if they had not been cleaned in the previous phase. In addition to the overall

public-information campaign, individual meetings were conducted with parents of

children who were less than 6 years of age.

2. Area 2: Accessible surfaces were replaced if lead concentrations exceeded 400 ppm,

and grass and gravel were replaced if lead levels were equal to or greater than

1,000 ppm.
A-72

Measurements Taken. Blood samples were taken by venipuncture, using 3-mm pediatric

vacutainers. Blood-lead levels were determined by flameless atomic absorption

spectrophotometry. Information on the demographic and behavioral characteristics of the

children and their parents was collected by interviewers trained for that purpose. A total of

28 surface soil (0-5 cm), 4 household dust, and 6 water samples were collected in May 1989. 

Details on additional environmental sampling were not reported.

Study Design. Two areas of contamination were included in the study. Area 1, located within

approximately 150 m from the plant site, was contaminated severely; and area 2, which was

150-600 m from the plant site, showed less contamination. At the end of September 1989, an

epidemiologic survey was conducted to evaluate the effect of the contamination on the health of

the children. Interventions began in September 1989, as well. House cleaning interventions were

conducted between October 1989 and March 1990 in homes of children with blood-lead levels

greater than 15 μg/dL. House cleaning was provided to all other children less than 6 years of age

and to pregnant women between March 1990 and December 1992. At the end of August 1991, a

second epidemiologic survey was conducted in area 1 to evaluate the impact of the public health

program on the blood lead levels of the children. This study provides the results of both survey.

Eligible participants were children, who were 6 months to 10 years of age who lived in

area 1 as of August 1991. Municipal census listings were used to identify all eligible children. 

Parents were reached by personal phone calls and an extensive information campaign was

conducted in the local media. Information on the demographic and behavioral characteristics of

the children and their parents was collected by interviewers trained for that purpose. Activities

for intervention included asphalting the plant yard, removing dust from the roads and sidewalks,

removing and replacing the contaminated soils, professional cleaning of the houses, and

implementing a public health-education campaign. The main outcome measurement was

blood-lead concentration.

Study Results. The mean blood-lead concentration of children who were 6 months to 10 years

of age and who participated in both surveys (n=75) dropped from 9.7 μg/dL in 1989 to 5.0 μg/dL

in 1991 (Table A17b-1). The mean blood-lead concentration for children aged 6 months to

5 years in 1991 decreased from 9.8 μg/dL in 1989 to 5.5 μg/dL in 1991. The differences were

statistically significant (p<0.0001). In 1991, none of the children had blood-lead levels

15.0 μg/dL or greater, whereas in 1989, 21.3% of the children were in this category. Two oral

behaviors also changed significantly between 1989 and 1991. In 1989, pica was present in 35.5%

of the children; in 1991 this percentage fell to 18.8% (p=0.004). In 1989, 46.2% of the children

put things in their mouths, compared with 31.7% in 1991 (p=0.03).
A-73

Table A.17b-1. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Age and Sampling

Round

Children Tested in Both 1989 and 1991 All Children Tested in 1991

Age (y) in 1991 n 1989 Mean PbB 1991 Mean PbB n 1991 Mean PbB

< 1 0 - - 2 2.7

35796 8 6.1 5.2 23 5.2

35857 16 12.8 5.7 18 5.4

35920 17 9.8 5.5 23 5.4

35983 22 9.5 4.3 23 4.3

36047 12 9.4 4.9 12 4.9

0-10 (95% CI) 75 9.7 (8.6-10.9) 5.0a(4.5-5.6) 101 5.0(4.5-5.4)

6 mos- 5 yr

(95% CI)

24 9.8 (8.6-11.2) 5.5a (4.9-6.3) NA NA

 a Represents a significant change in 1991 from the 1989 values

Conclusions (including caveats). The results of the 1991 survey revealed that the

lead-poisoning prevention program reached its main objective, which was to lower the mean

blood-lead level of children who lived in the contaminated area to a value that ranged from 5.0 to

8.0 μg/dL. The mean blood-lead concentration of children who were 6 months to 10 years of age

dropped from 9.2 μg/dL to 5.0 μg/dL in 1991. Similar geometric mean blood lead levels were

observed in children who had lived in the area in 1989 and in new residents 6 months to 10 years

of age. The 1989 and 1991 surveys were conducted in late summer/early fall, when blood-lead

concentrations are highest. Thus, seasonality of blood-lead concentrations was not a factor in this

study.
A-74

A.17c. Rouyn-Noranda Soil Abatement Study

Reference. Gangne, D., “Blood Lead Levels after Removal of Contaminated Soil.” Canadian

Journal of Public Health. 85(3):163-166.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study assesses the evolution of blood-lead concentrations in

the Notre-Dame district of Rouyn-Noranda, site of an active copper smelter, following the

implementation of reduced air emissions since 1979, and soil removal and replacement in

1990-1991. This study compares the results of three blood-lead screenings: 1979, 1989, 1991.

Sampled Population. In 1979, 29 children were sampled within the Notre-Dame district. In

1989, 117 of 124 (94%) two to five year old children residing in the district participated in the

study. In 1991, 87 of 96 (90%) one to five year old children in the district participated. All

participants had lived in the district for at least six months.

Intervention Strategy. All residential lots with greater than 500 mg/kg (ppm) soil lead were

abated. Soil abatement consisted of removal of the first 10 cm of yard soil and replacement with

uncontaminated soil. Yard areas were covered with grass and parking areas with gravel. Soil

abatement was completed in August 1991 at an average cost of $5000/lot, including landscaping. 

In all, 80% of the 710 residential lots in the district were abated.

Measurements Taken. Blood samples were taken in September 1979, 1989, 1991. Blood

samples were analyzed by atomic absorption (deuterium corrected) and zinc protoporphyrins by

hematoflourometer. Socioeconomic characteristics of families were obtained by questionnaire. 

Atmospheric dust was collected in plastic cylinder gauges suspended 3 m from the ground. Dust

samples were analyzed in a water-methanol mixture by atomic absorption on a monthly basis.

Study Design. The Notre-Dame district is located within 1 km of a 2,500 ton/day copper

smelter. The district contains approximately 700 residential lots. This study compared the results

of the three screening campaigns (1979, 1989, and 1991) and provided an overview of upcoming

activities in 1995. All three screenings took place in mid-September and focused on children

between two and five years of age (except in 1991 when one-year-olds were also included), living

in the district of concern for at least six months. All three screening campaigns were based on a

common strategy: recruiting children living in the affected district, taking blood samples, and

documenting certain socioeconomic characteristics of their families through a questionnaire. The

main outcome measurement was blood-lead concentrations.

No organized effort was made to reduce soil contamination from 1979 to 1989. Between

1979 and 1989, the stack emissions had been lowered by 50% and lead was banned from gasoline

during this time period. In 1990-91, it was decided that all residential lots having more than 500

mg/kg (ppm) of lead would be decontaminated and that from 1992 to 1995 air lead levels would

be lowered.
A-75

Study Results. From 1979 to 1989 the district geometric mean blood lead concentration

dropped from 21 μg/dL to 10 μg/dL in two to five year old children (Table A.17c-1). However,

in 1989 50% of all children still had PbB greater than 10 μg/dL. In 1991, the geometric mean

dropped to 7.2 μg/dL for one to five year old children. Also in 1991, 75% of children had PbBs

which were less than 10 μg/dL, and none had PbBs greater than 20 μg/dL.

Table A.17c-1. Distribution of Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) in 1979, 1989, and

1991 

Year N

Geometric Mean,

(PbB, μg/dL) Median

95th Percentile

(μg/dL) Intervention

1979 29 21 22.3 29 Lead in gas elimination

1989 117 10 10.4 20 Stack lead reduction

1991 89 7.3 7.2 14.7 Soil (>500 ppm)

removal

Conclusions (including caveats). This study showed that it was possible to decrease

significantly PbB in previously exposed children by soil decontamination in the Notre-Dame

district of Rouyn-Noranda in Quebec, Canada. This reduction in PbB was not as effective as that

achieved in at St-Jean-sur-Richelieu during the same time period. However, in St-Jean-surRichelieu, the lead hazard source was eliminated after decontamination. In Rouyn-Noranda,

atmospheric lead emission from the smelter continued during the time of the study.
A-76

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B-1

APPENDIX B

SUMMARY OF BLOOD-LEAD CONCENTRATION, 

BODY-LEAD BURDEN, AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA RESULTS 

FOR IDENTIFIED LEAD HAZARD INTERVENTION STUDIES
B-2

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B-3

Table B-1. Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies

Study Group

Initial 1-6 Month Post-Intervention Follow-Up

>6 Month Post-Intervention 

Follow-Up

Sample

Size

Mean Level

(μg/dL)

Sample

Size

Months PostInterventionMean %

Change Sample Size

Months

Intervention

Mean %

Change

Baltimore Dust Control

Abated and Dust

Control 14 39 14 6 -14% 14 12 -18%

Abated 35 39 33 6 +1% 35 12 -2%

1982 St. Louis

Retrospective

Abated 61 48 -- -- nc 61 6-12 -23%

Unabated 41 43 -- -- nc 41 6-12 -3%

Baltimore

“Traditional”/“Modified”

“Traditional” 27 37 27 1 +18% - - nc

“Modified” 19 34 19 1 +3% - - nc

Combined 29 33 -- -- nc 29 6 -6%

Boston Retrospective Study 114 36 114 1 -8% -- -- nc

No Chelation 59 36 59 During -13% 59 8 -28%

New York Paint Abatement

“Low” HES Score

(#37) 40 25 40 6 -16% -- -- nc

“High” HES Score

(>37) 39 31 39 6 -26% -- -- nc

Central Massachusetts 

Retrospective Abated 132 26 132 3-52 weeks -18% -- -- nc

Baltimore 3-City Soil

Abatement (2)

Treatment -- 9.44 -- 3 -11% -- 8-15 -1%

Control -- 9.28 -- 3 -18% -- 9-15 -10%

Cincinnati 3-City Soil

Abatement (3)

Area A 50 10.42 50 3 -18% 27 23-24 +7%

Area B 77 13.05 77 3 -14% 48 23-24 -16%

Area C 46 9.47 47 3 -27% 26 23-24 -17%

Toronto Soil and Dust South Riverdale

Study 154 10.9 -- -- nc 110 60 -64%

1990 St. Louis (1)

Retrospective

Abated -- na – – nc 49 10-14 -23%

Unabated -- na – – nc 22 10-14 -12%

Boston 3-City Phase I

Study 52 13 52 6 -22% 52 10 -19%

Comparison A 51 12 48 6 -28% 49 10 -7%

Comparison B 47 12 46 6 -18% 46 10 -6%

Boston 3-City Phase II Comparison A 18 13 -- -- nc 18 9 -41%

Comparison B 13 11 -- -- nc 13 9 -13%
B-4

 Table B-1. Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group

Initial 1-6 Month Post-Intervention Follow-Up

>6 Month Post-Intervention 

Follow-Up

Sample

Size

Mean Level

(μg/dL)

Sample

Size

Months PostInterventionMean %

Change Sample Size

Months

Intervention

Mean %

Change

Milwaukee Retrospective

LBP Study 104 34 -- -- nc 104 3-12 -24%

New York Chelation

No Chelation 103 29 103 1.5 -9% -- -- nc

No Chelation

(Subset) 30 29 30 1.5 -21% 30 6 -28%

Rouyn-Noranda Soil Study 117 10 -- -- nc 89 24 -27%

St. Jean-Sur-Richelieu Soil

and Dust Study 75 9.7 -- -- nc 75 24 -48%

Milwaukee Retrospective

Education

Educational

Outreach 195 22 195 2-15 -18% -- -- nc

Control 236 22 236 2-15 -5% -- -- nc

Granite City Educational

Study 59 15 54 4 -45% 29 12 -32%

Children with

Complete Data 24 15 24 4 -47% 24 12 -40%

Leadville/Lake County

Educational Intervention (2)

Community 66 5.02 -- -- -- 66 12 -10%

Intervention 8 11.4 -- -- -- 8 12 -19%

Trail Dust Intervention (2)

Treatment 55 11.9 -- -- -- 55 12 -8%

Control 56 11.3 -- -- -- 56 12 -6%

NJ’s Children’s Lead

Exposure and Reduction

Dust Intervention

Lead 46 12.4 -- -- -- 46 12 -17%

Accident 53 11.6 -- -- -- 53 12 +1%

Boston Interim Dust

Intervention

Automatic

Intervention 8 17.5 8 6 -48% -- -- --

Randomized

Intervention 11 17.6 11 6 -35% -- -- --

Randomized

Comparison 13 16.3 13 6 -36% -- -- --

Rochester Educational

Intervention (4)

Intervention 52 6.85 -- -- -- 52 7 -1%

Control 43 6.1 -- -- -- 43 7 -14%
B-5

 Table B-1. Summary of Blood-Lead Concentration Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group

Initial 1-6 Month Post-Intervention Follow-Up

>6 Month Post-Intervention 

Follow-Up

Sample

Size

Mean Level

(μg/dL)

Sample

Size

Months PostInterventionMean %

Change Sample Size

Months

Intervention

Mean %

Change

Baltimore R&M Paint

Abatement (5) Initial PbB

< 20

R&M Level I 34 8.8 26 6 +1% 15 24 -20%

R&M Level II 27 10.5 21 6 +10% 12 24 -10%

R&M Level III 29 11.4 25 6 +6% 17 24 -16%

Previously 

Paint-Abated 20 11.8 18 6 +19 13 24 -14%

Modern Urban 20 3.4 16 6 +15% 15 24 -6%

Baltimore R&M Paint

Abatement (5) Initial PbB $

20

R&M Level I 1 20 1 6 -17% 0 24

R&M Level II 7 28.3 7 6 -33% 6 24 -49%

R&M Level III 8 29.5 6 6 -29% 6 24 -47%

Previously 

Paint-Abated 3 29.1 3 6 -22% 3 24 -42%

Modern Urban 0 0 6 0 24

Milwaukee 

Prospective Education

Educational

Outreach 54 22 54 2 -18% -- -- nc

Control 122 22 122 2 -5% -- -- nc

Pre-abatement

Educational

Outreach

28 29 28 2-6 -19% -- -- nc

(1) Follow-up measurements were collected 10-14 months after diagnosis of elevated blood-lead levels (and ensuing educational intervention). 

 The timing of the abatements was not available.

(2) Geometric mean blood-lead concentration provided

(3) Follow-up figures based on data from subset of children participating in both follow-up and initial study periods. Initial mean based on data from

 subset of children participating in both 3-month post-intervention follow-up and baseline study periods.

(4) Median blood-lead concentration provided.

(5) Model predicted blood-lead concentration provided.

nc Measurements were not collected during these time intervals.

na Insufficient information is available in the literature to allow determination of these values.
B-6

Table B-2. Summary of Other Body-Lead Burden Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies

Study Measure Group

Initial

1-6 Month Post-Intervention FollowUp>6 Month Post-Intervention

Follow-Up

Sample

Size

Mean

Level

Sample

Size

Months PostInterventionMean

% Change

Sample

Size

Months PostInterventionMean

% Change

Baltimore

 Dust Control FEP (μg/dL)

Abated and Dust

Control 14 203 14 6 -22% 14 12 -29%

Abated 35 231 33 6 -6% 35 12 -10%

1982 St. Louis

Retrospective ZPP (μg/dL)

Abated 61 119 -- -- -- 61 6-12 -32%

Unabated 41 99 -- -- -- 41 6-12 -3%

New York

Chelation

EP (μg/dL) No Chelation

(subset) 30 80 30 1.5 +2% 30 6 -48%

Bone-lead

(corrected

net counts)

No Chelation

(subset) 30 117 30 1.5 +3% 30 6 +3%
B-7

Table B-3. Summary of Environmental Media Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies

Study Group Media Units

Initial First Post-Abatement Measure Second Post-Abatement Measure

No.

of

Houses

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

Baltimore

“Traditional”/

“Modified”

Paint

Abatement

Study

“Traditional”

Paint

Abatement

Floor Dust μg/ft2 53 280 251 1.07 271 1440 1.1 48 Hrs 234 316 1.07 6

Window Sill

Dust μg/ft2 53 249 1338 1.1 246 3595 1.12 48 Hrs 199 1542 1.13 6

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 53 150 15496 1.17 139 14353 1.14 48 Hrs 100 12468 1.19 6

“Modified”

Paint

Abatement

Floor Dust μg/ft2 18 82 288 1.18 50 650 1.21 48 Hrs 57 316 1.16 6

Window Sill

Dust μg/ft2 18 95 1802 1.16 64 604 1.18 48 Hrs 66 1644 1.21 6

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 18 37 18274 1.31 24 8083 1.33 48 Hrs 32 24879 1.31 6

Baltimore

“Experimental”

Paint

Abatement

Study

“Experimental”

Up to 9

Months

Floor Dust μg/ft2 6 70 520 1.17 70 130 1.18 (1) 63 56 1.17 6

Window Sill

Dust μg/ft2 6 34 4608 1.26 35 325 1.36 (1) 31 409 1.32 6

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 6 28 29422 1.31 31 938 1.33 (1) 24 1003 1.42 6

Baltimore

"Experimental"

Paint

Abatement

Study

“Experimental”

1.5-3.5 Years

Floor Dust μg/ft2 13 42 254 -- 47 13.9 --

(1) 71 40.9 -- 18-42

Window Sill

Dust μg/ft2 13 53 1041 -- 54 13 --

(1) 59 103 -- 18-42

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 13 31 14214 -- 41 34.4 --

(1) 49 600 -- 18-42

Baltimore(2)

3-City Soil

Abatement 

Treatment

Comp. Soil ppm 57 57 503.6 268.2 57 33.6 34.9 1 week -- -- -- --

Comp.

Interior Dust μg/ft2 33 33 165.8 217.5 33 90.7 86.3 1 week -- -- -- --

Control

Comp. Soil ppm 147 147 501.3 312.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Comp.

Interior Dust μg/ft2 40 40 162.7 294.4 40 103 137.5 1 week
B-8

Table B-3. Summary of Environmental Media Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group Media Units

Initial First Post-Abatement Measure Second Post-Abatement Measure

No.

of

Houses

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

Cincinnati 

3-City Soil

Abatement

Area A

Entry μg/ft2 32 32 42.9 -- 32 25.9 -- 3 mo. 18 24.2 -- 24 mo.

Floor μg/ft2 32 32 17.5 -- 32 7.1 -- 3 mo. 25 6.5 -- 15 mo.

Windows μg/ft2 32 32 97.3 -- 32 50.3 -- 3 mo. 25 495.2 -- 15 mo.

Exterior

Dust-Lead ppm 217 217 1314 -- 309 1707 -- 3 mo. 167 1184 -- 15 mo.

Top 2 cm

Soil Core

Composite

ppm 195 195 200 -- 160 54 -- 9 mo. 159 58.8 -- 30 mo.

Area B

Entry μg/ft2 65 65 22.8 -- 63 5.2 -- 3 mo. 32 28 -- 24 mo.

Floor μg/ft2 66 66 12.8 -- 63 2.4 -- 3 mo. 32 4.6 -- 15 mo.

Windows μg/ft2 63 63 276.9 -- 63 55 -- 3 mo. 37 909.5 -- 15 mo.

Exterior

Dust-Lead ppm 304 304 1905 -- -- 1793 -- 3 mo. 305 1954 -- 15 mo.

Top 2 cm

Soil Core

Composite

ppm 230 230 103 -- 372 148 -- 9 mo. -- 59.5 -- 30 mo.

Area C

Entry μg/ft2 42 42 13.9 -- 38 9.8 -- 3 mo. 22 41 -- 24 mo.

Floor μg/ft2 42 42 4.3 -- 38 3.2 -- 3 mo. 22 2.8 -- 15 mo.

Windows μg/ft2 42 42 172.2 -- 39 115 -- 3 mo. 22 727.4 -- 15 mo.

Exterior

Dust-Lead ppm 186 186 586 -- 520 -- 3 mo. -- 581 -- 15 mo.

Top 2 cm

Soil Core

Composite

ppm 232 232 140 -- -- 163 -- 9 mo. -- 161 -- 30 mo.
B-9

Table B-3. Summary of Environmental Media Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group Media Units

Initial First Post-Abatement Measure Second Post-Abatement Measure

No.

of

Houses

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

Boston(3)

3-City Soil

Abatement

Project

Study

Soil μg/ft2 34 35 2206 1123 35 141 299 10 34 160 115 20

Floor Dust μg/ft2 21 21 6.6 5 14 0.8 3.2 10 11 1.8 2.1 20

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 19 19 99.5 13.3 15 248.3 7 10 11 271.2 3.8 20

Comparison A

Soil μg/ft2 31 31 2358 1203 32 171 172 9 

Floor Dust μg/ft2 22 22 2.5 2.7 15 2.7 2.6 10

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 22 22 244.9 5.4 15 133.1 8.5 10

Comparison B

Soil μg/ft2 26 26 2299 1129 26 180 127 9 26 180 127 9

Floor Dust μg/ft2 22 22 2.3 4.2 12 2.5 2.5 10

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 21 21 185.5 5.8 12 321.1 9.4 10

Minneapolis(4)

Dust

Intervention

Treatment

Ext. Soil

Foundation ppm 12 12 795 -- 12 795 -- 4.5 mo. -- -- -- --

Ext. Soil

Mid-Yard ppm 12 12 272 -- 12 70 4.5 mo. -- -- -- --

Ext. Soil

Street-Side ppm 10 10 255 -- 10 214 -- 4.5 mo. -- -- -- --

Ext. Dust

Foundation ppm 12 12 320.8 -- 12 72.1 -- 4.5 mo. -- -- -- --

Ext. Dust

Mid-Yard ppm 12 12 109.8 -- 12 28 -- 4.5 mo. -- -- -- --

Ext. Dust

Street-Side ppm 10 10 103.3 -- 10 86.1 -- 4.5 mo. -- -- -- –
B-10

Table B-3. Summary of Environmental Media Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group Media Units

Initial First Post-Abatement Measure Second Post-Abatement Measure

No.

of

Houses

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

Minneapolis(4)

Dust

Intervention

(Cont’d)

Control

Ext. Soil

Foundation ppm 10 10 561 --

Ext. Soil

Mid-Yard ppm 10 10 108 --

Ext. Soil

Street-Side ppm 10 10 153 --

Ext. Dust

Foundation

Ext. Dust

Mid-Yard

Ext. Dust

Street-Side

ppm 10 10 226 --

ppm 10 10 43.1 --

ppm 10 10 61.4 --

Paris, France

Paint

Abatement

Study Floor Dust μg/ft2 24 24 83.6 24 49.7 1-2 mo. 24 38.2 3-6 mo.

Baltimore

Follow-Up Paint Study

Floor Dust μg/ft2 22 16 immed. 22 23 19 mo.

Window Sill

Dust μg/ft2 19 31 immed. 19 79 19 mo.

Window

Well Dust μg/ft2 15 35 immed. 15 347 19 mo.

Trail Dust

Intervention

Control Carpet Dust

Lead μg/ft2 55 55 25.1 -- 55 25.1 -- 6 mo. 55 21.4 -- 12 mo.

Treatment Carpet Dust

Lead μg/ft2 56 56 52 -- 56 34.4 -- 6 mo. 56 33.4 -- 12 mo.
B-11

Table B-3. Summary of Environmental Media Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group Media Units

Initial First Post-Abatement Measure Second Post-Abatement Measure

No.

of

Houses

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

New Jersey

CLEARS Dust

Lead

Floor Dust μg/ft2 42 42 22 40 15 12 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 39 39 75 36 24 12 mo.

Carpet/

Vacuum

Dust

μg/ft2 27 27 469 22 150 12 mo.

Accident

Floor Dust μg/ft2 42 42 26 45 19 12 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 40 40 61 40 48 12 mo.

Carpet/

Vacuum

Dust

μg/ft2 28 28 466 27 214 12 mo.

Baltimore 

R&M Paint

Abatement

R&M Level I

Floor Dust μg/ft2 52 52 205 53 94 12 mo. 43 43 58 24 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 50 50 4305 49 470 12 mo. 40 40 460 24 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 43 43 156019 45 16698 12 mo. 35 35 9828 24 mo.

Soil Lead μg/g 5 5 1355 6 1173 6 mo. 6 1161 18 mo.

R&M Level II

Floor Dust μg/ft2 46 46 585 46 76 12 mo. 44 44 59 24 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 46 46 6020 46 237 12 mo. 44 44 195 24 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 45 45 203916 46 2587 12 mo. 42 42 2122 24 mo.

Soil Lead μg/g 5 5 1755 6 1101 6 mo. 4 1844 18 mo.

R&M Level III

Floor Dust μg/ft2 54 54 3052 54 50 12 mo. 53 53 53 24 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 54 54 14438 54 29 12 mo. 54 54 26 24 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 54 54 300594 54 220 12 mo. 53 53 164 24 mo.

Soil Lead μg/g 2 2 1491 4 946 6 mo. 3 710 18 mo.

Previously

Abated

Floor Dust μg/ft2 32 32 118 28 77 12 mo. 26 26 48 24 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 31 31 145 28 75 12 mo. 26 26 35 24 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 31 31 1816 28 1164 12 mo. 26 26 938 24 mo.

Soil Lead μg/g 2 2 2192 2 669 6 mo. 3 529 18 mo.

Modern Urban

Floor Dust μg/ft2 33 33 15 31 8 12 mo. 29 29 5 24 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 31 31 11 30 9 12 mo. 28 28 6 24 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 30 30 347 30 208 12 mo. 28 28 154 24 mo.

Soil Lead μg/g 10 10 61 10 67 6 mo. 10 69 18 mo.
B-12

Table B-3. Summary of Environmental Media Results for Identified Lead Hazard Intervention Studies (Continued)

Study Group Media Units

Initial First Post-Abatement Measure Second Post-Abatement Measure

No.

of

Houses

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

No.

of

Samples

Geom.

Mean

Geom.

SD

Timing

PostAbate.

Boston Interim

Dust

Automatic

Intervention

Floor Dust μg/ft2 10 10 21.5 10 16.1 6 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 10 10 344 10 108 6 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 10 10 8955 10 2644 6 mo.

Soil Lead ppm 8 8 2278

Randomized

Intervention

Floor Dust μg/ft2 9 9 23.8 9 20.5 6 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 9 9 106 9 61.6 6 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 9 9 1119 9 561 6 mo.

Soil Lead ppm 11 11 2112

Randomized

Comparison

Floor Dust μg/ft2 13 13 15.8 13 16.4 6 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 13 13 85.6 13 53 6 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 8 8 1495 8 1510 6 mo.

Soil Lead ppm 13 13 2465

HUD

Abatement

Grant Program

Study

Floor Dust μg/ft2 256 256 25 256 21 immed. 256 15 6 mo.

Sill Dust μg/ft2 245 245 196 245 54 immed. 245 90 6 mo.

Well Dust μg/ft2 198 198 13300 198 69 immed. 198 732 6 mo.

(1) Measurements were collected after clean-up procedures were completed.

(2) Arithmetic mean provided in geometric mean column.

(3) Arithmetic means and standard deviations are reported, instead of geometric means and standard deviations.

(4) Median provided in geometric mean column.

A = Non-Carpeted Floor Dust

B = Carpeted Floor Dust

C = Interior Window Sill Dust

D = Window Well Dust
C-1

APPENDIX C

SUMMARIES/ABSTRACTS FROM 1995 REPORT
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This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-3

APPENDIX C

C.1 SUMMARIES OF STUDIES ADDRESSING LEAD ABATEMENT EFFECTIVENESS

3.1.1. Baltimore Dust Control Study

This 1981 study (Charney et al., 1983) sought to assess whether periodic dust-control

measures in addition to lead-based paint abatement would be more effective in reducing

blood-lead concentrations than lead-based paint abatement alone. Forty-nine children aged 15 to

72 months with at least two confirmed blood-lead concentrations between 30 and 49 μg/dL

formed the study population. Their residences had all undergone lead-based paint abatement

entailing the removal of all peeling, lead-containing interior and exterior paint from the residence,

and the removal of all lead-containing paint from chewable surfaces below 4 feet. No extensive

clean-up procedures were required following the abatement. In addition to the abatement, the

homes of 14 children in the experimental group received periodic dust-control measures involving

two monthly visits by a dust-control team which wet-mopped all rooms in the residence where the

dust-lead loading was identified in an initial survey as exceeding 100 μg/ft2.

Venous blood samples were collected during regular visits to the clinic, approximately

every 3 months during the course of the study. After 6 months, there was a significant reduction

of 5.3 μg/dL in mean blood-lead concentration among the 14 children in the experimental group

(wet-mopping and abatement) and a further decrease of 1.6 μg/dL after 1 year (Figure 3-2). In

contrast, the mean value for the abatement only group did not change significantly over the

12 months. Residential dust-lead loadings were collected for the experimental group during

recruitment. To assess the success in cleaning, dust-lead loading measurements were also

obtained from all areas within the residence where the child spent a significant amount of time. 

These measurements were taken both before and after the dust-control teams completed their

work. The samples were collected with alcohol-treated wipes within a 1 ft2 area of floor or from

the entire window sill. Within experimental residences, the bimonthly dust-control efforts reduced

the dust-lead loading on measured surfaces (Figure 3-3). Dust measures were not 
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-4

Figure 3-2. Arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL) since abatement by study

group (Baltimore Dust Control Study).

Figure 3-3. Percentage of experimental homes with arithmetic mean dust-lead loadings

(μg/ft2) in the defined range (Baltimore Dust Control Study).

collected in the abatement only group in order to avoid drawing attention to dust as a potential

source of lead exposure.
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-5

3.1.2 1982 St. Louis Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

This 1982 study (Copley, 1983) sought to demonstrate a significant difference between

the children living in abated environments after lead hazard intervention compared to children still

exposed to lead hazards. The comparison was made among children measured to have a bloodlead concentration greater than 25 μg/dL. These children were enrolled in the St. Louis Health

Division Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program. The intervention entailed the abatement

of the lead-based paint hazard, identified using XRF, within the residence. Surfaces with peeling

or broken lead-based paint were enclosed, replaced, or had their lead-based paint removed. No

extensive clean-up procedures necessarily accompanied the abatement. Blood-lead concentration

measurements were collected during routine venipuncture screening.

A retrospective study compared those blood measurements which identified the child as

lead poisoned to follow-up samples collected 6 to 12 months following the initial identification. A

total of 102 children had sufficient samples collected to allow this comparison. Follow-up bloodlead concentrations in children whose lead hazards had been abated were found to be an average

of 11.29 μg/dL lower than their initial levels (Figure 3-4). Blood-lead levels decreased on

average only 1.24 μg/dL for children whose hazards had not yet been abated. The difference in

these mean decreases was statistically significant (p<0.001).

The results indicated that abatement of lead-based paint hazards did significantly reduce

the lead burden being borne by children with elevated blood-lead levels. The magnitude of the

mean reported difference between initial and follow-up samples is impacted by the varying amount

of time that passed between the sample collections and their timing relative to the abatement.
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-6

Figure 3-4. Pre- and post-identification arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL)

by status of residence abatement (1982 St. Louis Retrospective Paint

Abatement Study).

3.1.3 Baltimore “Traditional”/“Modified” Paint Abatement Study

The goal of this 1984-1985 study (Farfel and Chisolm, 1990) was to evaluate the health

and environmental impact of “traditional” and “modified” Baltimore practices for the abatement of

lead-based paint. The study examined children residing in 71 residences abated in urban

Baltimore (53 traditional abatements, 18 modified abatements). Prior to abatement, all the

residences had multiple interior surfaces coated with lead-based paint and housed at least one

child with a blood-lead concentration greater than 30 μg/dL. “Traditional” Baltimore abatement

practices called for addressing deteriorated paint on surfaces up to 4 feet from the floor, and all

hazardous paint on accessible surfaces which may be chewed on. Paint with a lead content

greater than 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or 0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis was determined

hazardous. Open-flame burning and sanding techniques commonly were used to remove

hazardous paint. Modified abatement procedures included the use of heat guns for paint removal

and the repainting of abated surfaces. In addition, the modified procedures called for protection
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-7

of furnishings during abatement and thorough clean-up including wet mopping with

high-phosphate detergent, vacuuming with standard shop vacuums, and disposal of debris off-site. 

Clean-up following traditional abatement procedures typically entailed at most dry sweeping. 

Dust samples were obtained using a alcohol-treated wipe within a defined area template (1 ft2). 

Blood samples were collected via venipuncture.

Serial measurements of lead in interior house dust (lead loading), and children's blood-lead

concentration were collected. Average increases of 1200 μg/ft2 in floor dust-lead loadings were

measured immediately following traditional abatements (usually within 2 days) on or in close

proximity to abated surfaces (Figure 3-7), with 10-100 fold changes at individual sites. Dust-lead

levels measured after modified abatements were an average of 360 μg/ft2 higher than preabatement levels. Thus, modified abatement procedures resulted in elevated floor dust-lead

loadings, but not to the extent seen for traditional practices. At 6 months post-abatement,

average dust-lead loadings were 65 μg/ft2 higher than pre-abatement loadings for traditional

abatements and 28 μg/ft2 higher than pre-abatement loadings for modified abatements.

Pre- and post-abatement blood-lead concentrations were available for 46 children who

lived in the abated residences and had not yet undergone any chelation therapy. The

post-abatement samples were collected within one month following the completion of the

abatement activities. For traditional abatements, average blood-lead levels in 27 children rose

6.84 μg/dL (from 36.88 μg/dL to 43.72 μg/dL) while a rise of only 1.03 μg/dL (from

34.40 μg/dL to 35.43 μg/dL) was observed for 19 children exposed to modified abatements

(Figure 3-5). Moreover, a large number of children required chelation therapy. Six months after

abatement, a subset of 29 children (14 traditional, 15 modified) who had not undergone any

chelation therapy exhibited blood-lead concentrations (mean, 30.67 μg/dL) that were not

significantly different from their pre-abatement levels (mean, 32.53 μg/dL). The 6-month results

should be viewed with caution, since blood-lead levels were available for relatively few

non-chelated children six months after abatement, primarily due to the large number of children

requiring chelation therapy.
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-8

Figure 3-5. Arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL) post-abatement by population

considered (Baltimore “Traditional”/“Modified” Paint Abatement Study).

Despite the implementation of improved practices, modified abatements, like traditional

abatements, did not result in any long-term reductions of levels of lead in house dust or the blood

of children with elevated pre-intervention blood-lead concentrations.

3.1.4 Boston Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

This 1984-1985 study (Amitai et al., 1991) sought to evaluate the extent to which the lead

poisoning of children is exacerbated during the abatement of lead-based paint within their

residence. The study population consisted of 114 children ranging in age from 11 to 72 months

(median age of 24 months) with at least one blood-lead concentration (above 25 μg/dL) obtained

prior to deleading, one blood-lead sample collected during deleading, and one blood-lead

determination following the completion of the deleading process. The deleading process

consisted of the removal or permanent coverage of any paint with a lead content greater than

1.2 mg/cm2 which was loose and peeling (at any height), or present on chewable surfaces
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-9

Figure 3-6. Arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL) post-abatement by study

population considered (Boston Retrospective Paint Abatement Study).

accessible to a child (below 4 ft). Clean-up using wet washing with tri-sodium phosphate (TSP)

was stressed, but not uniformly performed following the abatement. Blood-lead concentration

measurements were collected via venipuncture.

The mean blood-lead level in the 114 children rose 5.7 μg/dL during deleading and then

fell 8.6 μg/dL approximately 2 months following the completion of the deleading activities 

(Figure 3-6). The statistically significant (p<0.05) decrease in mean blood-lead concentration

post-deleading is due in part to 42 children who underwent chelation therapy between the

mid- and post-deleading measurements.

In an effort to determine the effect of deleading activities alone, a subset of 59 children

who underwent no chelation therapy were examined. In this subset, an additional follow-up

measure was collected 236 to 264 days after completion of the deleading work. There was no

evidence of a change in mean blood-lead concentration during deleading. However, blood-lead
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-10

levels fell an average of 4.5 μg/dL at the post-deleading collection (approximately 2 months) and

fell an additional 5.5 μg/dL by the follow-up (approximately 8 months) deleading collection

(Figure 3-6). Caution is warranted when considering the results for the non-chelated children. 

By excluding children whose blood-lead levels rose (the children were already bordering the point

where chelation therapy was appropriate), the declines in blood-lead concentration are not

altogether surprising.

For 80 of the children, the specific method of deleading was available. Blood-lead levels

in affected children were considerably elevated by dry scraping and sanding methods (mean

increase in 41 homes of 9.1 μg/dL) and torches (35.7 μg/dL in 9 homes). By comparison,

children exposed to encapsulation, enclosure, or replacement abatement procedures (12 homes)

experienced a mean decrease of 2.25 μg/dL in their blood-lead burden during deleading. The

study's results indicated that deleading may produce a significant, transient elevation of blood-lead

in many children. It was most dangerous if accomplished with the use of torches, sanding, or dry

scraping. The deleading may have been efficacious long-term, however, in that blood-lead

concentrations declined significantly 2 months after deleading.

The stability of blood-lead levels prior to deleading activities was characterized for a

subset of 32 children who had two blood samples prior to deleading. The mean blood-lead

concentration rose from 35.4±1.3 μg/dL to 36.0±1.1 μg/dL during the interval between these

samples (73±23 days), however, this change was not statistically significant (p>0.5).

3.1.5 Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement Studies

These studies (Farfel and Chisolm, 1991; USEPA, 1987; Farfel, el al., 1994) sought to

demonstrate and evaluate experimental lead-based paint abatement practices developed in

response to the inadequacies uncovered for traditional Baltimore abatement procedures

(see Section 3.1.3). The literature examines two distinct sets of dwellings in urban Baltimore that

were abated according to the experimental method.

The first study (Farfel and Chisolm, 1991) evaluated the short-term efficacy (up to

9 months) of the experimental abatement procedures in six older dwellings, built in the 1920s, that

received abatements in 1986-1987 as part of a pilot study examining the experimental procedures. 
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-11

Each dwelling was a two-story six-room row home in poorly maintained condition with multiple

lead-based paint hazards. Four of the residences were vacant, two housed lead-poisoned children.

The second study (Farfel, el al., 1994) evaluated the longer-term efficacy (1.5 to

3.5 years) of the experimental abatement procedures in 13 dwellings, which had received

experimental abatements by local pilot projects between 1988 and 1991. At least 6 pairs of

pre- and immediately post-abatement dust-lead loading measures, taken from the same locations,

were available for each dwelling. The dwellings were occupied and had not undergone major

renovations since those associated with the experimental abatement. Dust lead samples were

collected in the 13 dwellings during December 1991 and January 1992 in the same locations,

where possible, that had been sampled pre- and immediately post-abatement.

The experimental abatement procedure called for the floor to ceiling abatement of all

interior and exterior surfaces where lead content of the paint exceeded 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or

0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis. Lead-contaminated dust was contained and minimized

during the abatement, and extensive clean-up and disposal activities were utilized. Alcoholtreated wet wipes were used to collect dust-lead loading samples from household surfaces within

each residence. In addition, surface soil samples were collected at the 13 dwellings in the second

study. 

In the 6 homes from the first study, serial measurements of lead in interior dust were made

immediately before abatement, during the abatement, after the final clean-up, and 1, 3, and

6-to-9 months following the abatement. Floor dust-lead loadings immediately post-abatement

were an average of 390 μg/ft2 lower than pre-abatement levels (Figure 3-7). By 6 to 9 months

following the abatements, average levels had decreased a further 74 μg/ft2. The dust-lead loading

monitoring before, during, and after the abatement activities also provided information on the

effectiveness of particular measures. All floor and window treatments were associated with

significant (p<0.05) decreases in dust-lead loading over time. Results also suggested that window

replacement may have been more effective in reducing dust-lead loading than stripping the leadbased paint. In addition, vinyl floor coverings may have produced lower dust-lead loadings than

sealing old wooden floors with polyurethane.
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-12

Figure 3-7. Geometric mean floor dust-lead loading (μg/ft2) post-abatement by

abatement practice performed (Baltimore “Traditional”/“Modified” and

Experimental Practices Studies).

In the 13 homes considered in the second study, geometric mean PbD levels 1.5 to

3.5 years post-abatement were significantly less than pre-abatement levels, despite some

reaccumulation of lead in dust. The geometric mean floor dust-lead loading was 40.9 μg/ft2

1.5 to 3.5 years post-abatement, compared with the pre- and immediately post-abatement levels of

254 μg/ft2 and 13.9 μg/ft2, respectively. Similarly, the geometric mean window sill dust-lead

loading was 103 μg/ft2 1.5 to 3.5 years post-abatement, compared with the pre- and immediately

post-abatement levels of 1,041 μg/ft2 and 13.0 μg/ft2, respectively. Greater reaccumulation was

observed for window wells, where the geometric mean dust-lead loading was 600 μg/ft2 1.5 to

3.5 years post-abatement, compared with the pre- and immediately post-abatement levels of

14,214 μg/ft2 and 34.4 μg/ft2, respectively. Seventy-eight percent of all dust-lead loading

measurements 1.5 to 3.5 years following intervention were within Maryland's interim

post-abatement clearance standards (200 μg/ft2 for floors, 500 μg/ft2 for window sills, and
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-13

800 μg/ft2 for window wells); twenty-one of the 39 readings above the clearance levels were from

window wells. Soil-lead concentration was not found to be a significant factor in explaining the

change in dust-lead levels.

The results suggest that comprehensive lead paint abatement is associated with

longer-term as well as short-term control of residential dust-lead hazards. The experimental

methods resulted in substantial reductions in interior surface dust-lead levels immediately

post-abatement which were found to persist throughout a 6 to 9 month post-abatement period. 

Dust-lead levels were not uniformly reduced to desired levels, particularly on window sill and

window well surfaces that were abated using paint removal methods by the 1.5 to 3.5 year

post-abatement measures, however, 78% of all readings remained below target levels. The

magnitude of the decline in dust-lead loadings following abatement may have been exaggerated in

the first study since vacant units are likely to contain more dust than occupied units.

3.1.6 Central Massachusetts Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

This 1987-1990 retrospective study (Swindell et al., 1994; Charney, 1995) examined the

effectiveness of residential lead-based paint abatements as conducted between 1987 and 1990 in

central Massachusetts. More stringent home deleading regulations were enacted in Massachusetts

in 1988, during the period covered by the study. The sample population consisted of 132

children, 12 to 91 months of age, with a confirmed blood-lead concentration exceeding 25 μg/dL,

and whose homes were abated between 1987 and 1990. In addition, the children had at least one

venous blood-lead determination within 6 months prior to abatement and at least one venous

blood-lead determination 2 weeks to 6 months after the completion of abatement. Children who

received chelation therapy during that time, or who moved during the study period, were

excluded from the study. Although a venous blood-lead level above 25 μg/dL was a criterion for

this retrospective study, blood-lead concentrations immediately prior to abatement were less than

25 μg/dL for some children. In these cases, the authors suggest that the pre-abatement measure

might have reflected some early abatement or education effects. Abatements prior to 1988

consisted of the removal or permanent coverage of any paint with a lead content greater than 1.2

mg/cm2 which was loose or peeling, or present on chewable surfaces accessible to the child
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(below 4 ft). No standard abatement methods, dust-control measures, or cleanup procedures

were mandated. The 1988 regulations required licensing of abatement contractors (after

completing a 3-day course and passing a certifying exam), specifically prohibited torching or

machine sanding of paint, permitted only hand-scraping and replacement as removal methods, and

required all occupants to vacate the dwelling during the entire abatement and cleaning process. 

There were no dust samples required after abatement, but the mandated cleanup entailed

vacuuming all surfaces with a high-efficiency particle air (HEPA) filter vacuum, followed by wetmopping and sponging with a trisodium phosphate cleaning solution, and then a second HEPA

vacuuming.

Children's blood-lead concentration measures at most 6 months prior to initiation of

abatement were compared to the last measurement collected within one year following abatement. 

The specific timing of post-abatement measures ranged from 3 to 52 weeks after abatement. The

mean blood-lead level for the 132 children declined significantly (p<0.001) following abatement,

from 26.0 μg/dL to 21.2 μg/dL. Figure 3-8 summarizes the magnitude of the documented

changes in blood-lead concentrations. Although blood-lead levels declined in 103 children (78%)

within one year of abatement, the proportion who experienced a decline varied with initial bloodlead levels: 32 of 33 children (97%) with initial blood-lead levels exceeding 30 μg/dL, 64 of 79

(81%) with initial levels between 20 μg/dL and 29 μg/dL, and only 7 of 20 (35%) with initial

levels below 20 μg/dL experienced a decline following abatement. In fact, as shown in Figure 3-

9, among children with initial levels below 20 μg/dL, mean blood-lead levels increased from 16.7

μg/dL to 19.2 μg/dL following abatement (p=0.053). The calendar year of abatement did not

appear to significantly impact the measured declines. In 1987, before the regulations were

enacted, 29 children experienced a mean decline of 5.3 μg/dL. This is comparable to mean

declines of 5.7 μg/dL in 1988 (n=48) and 4.7 μg/dL in 1989 (n=42). The mean decline among 13

children whose residences were abated in 1990 was influenced by two children whose levels

increased markedly (from 16.0 and 17.0 μg/dL to 29.0 and 31.0 μg/dL). A 2.0 μg/dL median

decline was measured for this group.
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Figure 3-9. Pre-abatement and post-abatement blood-lead concentration by

pre-abatement blood-lead level (Central Massachusetts Retrospective

Paint Abatement Study).

Figure 3-8. Distribution of the absolute change in blood-lead concentrations

(Central Massachusetts Retrospective Paint Abatement Study).
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Among 72 children with more than one pre-abatement measure, 40 children whose levels were

declining (defined as a decrease greater than 5 μg/dL) prior to abatement exhibited only a modest

further mean decline of 1.9 μg/dL. A more significant mean decline of 8.2 μg/dL was observed

for the 32 children whose initial levels were relatively constant.

The study's results are consistent with other studies reporting declines in blood-lead

concentrations following lead-based paint abatement. The significant decline among 32 children

with stable levels prior to abatement suggests that regression to the mean cannot fully account for

the observed decline. Moreover, the anticipated efficacy appears to depend on the child's initial

blood-lead concentration. Children with high pre-abatement blood-lead concentrations were more

likely to experience declines (and of greater magnitude) than children with lower pre-abatement

blood-lead levels. In addition, it appears that stricter lead-based paint abatement regulations did

not immediately result in significantly greater effectiveness. It also appears that even carefully

performed abatements may result in post-intervention elevations in the blood-lead concentrations

of children whose initial levels are below 20 μg/dL. Some caution in interpreting these results is

warranted, however, because of the highly variable timing of the post-abatement measures. The

children's blood-lead concentrations were measured anywhere between 3 and 52 weeks following

completion of the abatement. Seasonal and age variation in blood-lead concentrations could

significantly impact the observed decline, depending upon the period of time between the

measures and the season in which the measures were collected.

3.1.7 Seattle Track-In Study

This study (Roberts et al., 1991) sought to determine the extent to which low cost

dust-control measures successfully lowered household dust-lead loading. Forty-two homes in

Seattle and Port Townsend, Washington, built before 1950 formed the population studied from

1988-1990. The three abatement procedures considered were strictly low-cost dust reduction

procedures, namely, use of a vacuum cleaner with an agitator bar in normal cleaning, removal of

shoes at the entrance to the residence, and installation of walk-off mats. Dust samples were

collected from rugs within the residence using a Hoover Convertible vacuum cleaner. Soil

samples were scraped from within 1 foot of the residence's foundation.
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The study employed step-wise regression analysis to assess which factors determine the

dust-lead loading within a residence. Significant associations were found between log

transformed dust-lead loading and removing shoes at the door and the presence of a walk-off mat

(e.g., hall carpet in an apartment building). Lower fine dust-lead levels (sieved before analysis)

were found in homes where the residents removed their shoes (29 μg/ft2) and/or used a walk-off

mat (54 μg/ft2) compared to those in homes whose residents did not (994 μg/ft2).

The occupants of three homes tested in the study began removing their shoes upon entry

for at least 5 months prior to the collection of a second dust-lead measurement from their carpets. 

In addition, the occupants of one of these homes installed walk-off mats at both entrances and

began vacuuming twice weekly. The geometric mean dust-lead loading fell from 1588.6 μg/ft2 to

23.2 μg/ft2 in these homes.

The data suggested that controlling external soil and dust track-in by removing shoes

and/or using a walk-off mat reduced the lead exposure from house dust. Lacking any blood

measurements, it was difficult to assess the impact these interventions may have had on childhood

lead exposure.

3.1.8 1990 St. Louis Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

This 1989-1990 study (Staes et al., 1994) attempted to assess, via a retrospective cohort

study, the effectiveness of lead-based paint abatement in reducing children's blood-lead levels. 

The sample population consisted of children under 6 years of age who were identified by the

St. Louis City Health Department as having a blood-lead concentration of at least 25 μg/dL, and

residing in dwellings with lead-based paint hazards. The intervention entailed the abatement of

the lead-based paint hazard, identified using XRF, within the residence. Surfaces with peeling or

broken lead-based paint were enclosed, replaced or had their lead-based paint removed. No

extensive clean-up procedures necessarily accompanied the abatement. The blood-lead

concentrations were collected via venipuncture.

The geometric mean blood-lead concentration among the 185 children selected was

33.6 μg/dL. Seventy-one of these children, 49 whose homes were abated and 22 whose homes

had not been abated, had blood-lead measures 10-14 months following the initial diagnosis. The
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Figure 3-10. Pre- and post-identification arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration

(μg/dL) by status of residence abatement (1990 St. Louis Retrospective

Paint Abatement Study.)

geometric mean blood-lead concentration of the 49 children from abated dwellings decreased by

23%, from 34.9 to 26.7 μg/dL. This decline (Figure 3-10) was significantly greater (p=0.07) than

the 12% reduction, from 35.1 to 30.9 μg/dL, observed among the 22 children residing in unabated

dwellings.

A multiple linear regression model predicting the change in geometric mean blood-lead

concentration at 10-14 months following diagnosis was fitted. The dwelling's abatement status at

the time of the follow-up blood sample (e.g., abated or unabated) and whether the blood-lead

level at diagnosis exceeded 35 μg/dL were statistically significant (p<0.10) factors in the analysis. 

The geometric mean blood-lead concentration of children residing in abated dwellings was

estimated to decrease 13% (95% CI, -25% to 1%) more than that of children residing in unabated

dwellings. Moreover, the geometric mean blood-lead concentration of children with an initial
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blood-lead concentration $35 μg/dL was estimated to decline by 17% (95% CI, -27% to -5%)

more than that of children with lower blood-lead concentrations.

For lead-poisoned children in St. Louis, the decline in geometric mean blood-lead

concentration was greater for children whose dwellings underwent lead-paint hazard abatement

than for children whose dwellings did not. The magnitude of the efficacy appears to depend upon

the child's initial blood-lead concentration. The reported differences between initial and follow-up

samples were impacted by individual differences in the amount of time that passed between the

sample collections and their timing relative to the abatement. Many of the follow-up measures

were collected less than six months following the abatement.

3.1.9 Boston Three-City Soil Abatement Study

This 1989-1991 project (Weitzman et al., 1993; Aschengrau, et al., 1994) assessed

whether a significant reduction ($1000 ppm) in the concentration of lead in residential soil will

result in a significant decrease ($3 μg/dL) in the blood-lead concentration of children residing at

the premises. A total of 152 children were enrolled, each satisfying the following criteria: (1) less

than or equal to 4 years of age, (2) blood-lead concentration between 10 and 20 μg/dL with no

history of lead poisoning, and (3) a minimum median residential soil-lead concentration of

1500 ppm. The project employed four intervention procedures: (a) interior paint stabilization by

removing peeling or chipping paint, (b) interior dust abatement via wet mopping and HEPA

vacuuming, (c) soil removal (to a depth of 6 inches) and replacement, and (d) interior and exterior

lead-based paint abatement. Dispersal of soil during the abatement was retarded by wetting the

soil, preventing track-in by workers, containing the abatement site with plastic, and washing all

equipment. Extensive environmental media and body burden samples were collected: composite

core soil samples; vacuum dust samples; first draw water samples; interior and exterior paint

assessment via portable XRF; venipuncture blood samples; and, hand-wipe samples.

Each child enrolled was randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups: Study

(54 children), Comparison A (51 children), or Comparison B (47 children). During Phase I, the

Study Group received interior paint stabilization, interior dust abatement, and soil abatement.

Comparison Group A received interior paint stabilization and interior dust abatement. 
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Figure 3-11. Arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL) across sampling rounds

and experimental groups, Phase 1 (Boston 3-City Soil Abatement Project).

Comparison Group B residences received only interior paint stabilization. During Phase II, which

began approximately 12 months after the Phase I interventions, both comparison groups received

soil abatement and all three experimental groups were offered lead-based paint abatement. 

Environmental media and body burden samples were collected at various times surrounding these

intervention activities.

During Phase I, the average blood-lead concentrations in all three experimental groups

decreased at the first (6 months) post-abatement measurement (Figure 3-11). The statistically

significant decreases were: 2.9 μg/dL for Study, 3.5 μg/dL for Comparison A, and 2.2 μg/dL for

Comparison B. The following increases in average blood-lead concentration were recorded

between the first and second (11 months) post-abatement measurements: 0.5 μg/dL for Study,

2.6 μg/dL for Comparison A, and 1.5 μg/dL for Comparison B. The increases for the two

comparison groups were significantly different from zero. The mean dust-lead levels from hand
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wipe samples for all groups followed a similar pattern, though they exhibited considerably greater

variability.

By the end of Phase II, 91 children were still participating and living at the same premises

as when they were enrolled. Of these children, 44 received both soil and lead-based paint

abatement, 46 received only soil abatement, and 1 refused both interventions. Although some

premises underwent lead-based paint deleading during Phase II, no results on the additional

efficacy of lead-paint abatements were reported.

For children whose residence underwent soil abatement only, mean blood-lead

concentrations decreased by 2.44 μg/dL for 52 children in the Study Group, 5.25 μg/dL for

18 children in Comparison Group A, and 1.39 μg/dL for 13 children in Comparison Group B,

between pre- and post-intervention measures (Figure 3-12). Blood-lead measures were taken an

average of 10 months post-abatement for the Study Group (during Phase I) and an average of

9 months post-abatement for the comparison groups (during Phase II).

A repeated measures analysis was conducted using a restricted sample of 31 children from

Comparison Group A (N=18) and Comparison Group B (N=13) who received only soil

abatement during Phase II and who had blood-lead measures at the beginning of Phase I, the end

of Phase I, and the end of Phase II. Study Group data were excluded for lack of a control period. 

Mean blood-lead concentrations decreased by 0.64 μg/dL during Phase I (before the soil

abatements) and another 3.63 μg/dL during Phase II (a 33.9% decline overall). A trend in the

magnitude of the decline in blood-lead levels was apparent, with larger declines observed in

children with larger initial blood-lead levels.

The decline in median soil-lead concentration among Study group residences immediately

post-abatement averaged 1,790 ppm (range: 160 ppm to 5,360 ppm). Although many yards had

evidence of recontamination both at 6-10 months and 18-22 months post-abatement, follow-up

median soil-lead concentrations were generally less than 300 ppm (Figure 3-13). Similar results

were observed for the comparison groups following the soil 
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Figure 3-12. Arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL) across sampling rounds and

experimental groups, Phase I and II (Boston 3-City Soil Abatement Project).

abatements in Phase II. Dust-lead loadings were less consistent. Composite floor dust-lead

loadings declined significantly during the study. Comparable declines were seen in all three

groups during Phase I, despite Comparison Group B not receiving any interior house dust

abatement. Mean floor dust-lead loadings were relatively unchanged for Comparison Groups A

and B (P=0.95 and 0.15, respectively) during Phase II, despite the soil abatement. By 18-22

months post-abatement, mean levels in the Study Group had risen, but remained still significantly

below initial levels (P=0.02). Mean window well dust-lead loadings declined in Comparison

Group A following the soil abatement, but rose in the Study Group and in Comparison Group B.
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Figure 3-13. Arithmetic mean environmental lead level (for Study Group) across sampling

rounds (Boston 3-City Soil Abatement Project).

These results suggested that abatement of lead-contaminated soil around homes may result

in a modest decline in blood-lead levels. The reported declines, however, may be influenced by

seasonal variation in blood-lead levels. Seasonal variations in blood-lead concentrations of

comparable magnitude have been cited in other studies conducted in Boston and Milwaukee

(USEPA, 1995c; Schultz, 1993). In addition, relatively few children were available for the Phase

II analysis, which introduces the possibility of bias in the estimated declines due to low

participation at follow-up. Moreover, since no control populations were available for the Phase II

results, it is difficult to assess their larger declines.

3.1.10 HUD Abatement Demonstration (HUD Demo) Study

This study (HUD, 1991; HUD, 1990) was designed to determine and evaluate the overall

suitability and effectiveness of various methods of lead-based paint abatement. These methods

were tested in 1989-1990 in 172 FHA-foreclosed, single family housing units in seven urban
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areas: Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Seattle, Tacoma, Indianapolis, Denver, and Birmingham. 

Six abatement procedures were employed: (1) encapsulation by sealing the surfaces with durable

coatings, (2) abrasive removal of lead-based paint using mechanical removal equipment, (3) handscraping with a heat gun to loosen and remove the lead-based paint, (4) chemical removal of leadbased paint using a chemical stripper, (5) enclosure or covering the surface, and (6) removal of

contaminated building components and replacing with new or deleaded components. Because of

the diversity of housing components containing lead-based paint, it was generally true that no

single abatement method could be used uniformly throughout a given housing unit. Therefore an

abatement strategy, consisting of decision rules for choice of abatement method, was randomly

assigned to each house. The method used to characterize the unit abatement strategy was always

the first-choice method and was used on all components to the extent feasible. Second, third and

fourth choice methods were also specified for each strategy. XRF devices were used to identify

components covered by paint with a lead content greater than 1.0 mg/cm2. These components

were abated in the houses selected for the study. Following completion of the abatement, the

units were extensively cleaned using HEPA vacuums and wet washing with TSP. Surfaces were

wet wiped to obtain dust-lead loading samples within a defined area and core soil samples were

collected. No blood-lead measures were collected, however, since the units were vacant prior to

abatement.

Pre-abatement dust-lead loadings generally were not collected. Once the lead-based paint

had been abated and the area cleaned, clearance wipe samples were collected to verify acceptable

dust-lead levels (Figure 3-14). The resulting dust-lead loading was compared to the appropriate

standard in the HUD Guidelines (HUD, 1990) -- 200 μg/ft2 for floors, 500 μg/ft2 for window sills,

and 800 μg/ft2 for window wells. On average, 80% of floor wipe samples, 85% of window sill

samples, and 65% of window well samples passed the initial clearance test by measuring below

the appropriate standard. Additional cleaning, or other measures, were required for surfaces that

did not pass. There were significant differences in failure rates among the different abatement

methods. The highest failure rates were generally for components abated using chemical stripping

(22.7%, 24.1%, and 45.7% for floors, sills, and wells) and heat gun removal (28.8%, 24.4%, and

44.5% for floors, sills, and wells).
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Figure 3-14. Percentage of components successfully abated to HUD Guidelines Standards

by abatement method and sampling location (HUD Demo Study).

With the exception of abrasive sanding (the machines kept clogging), all the methods were

successfully implemented. To do so, however, required varying degrees of effort. Chemical

stripping and heat gun methods had lower success rates in meeting the HUD Guidelines than did

encapsulation, enclosure and replacement methods.

3.1.11 Denver Comprehensive Abatement Performance (CAP) Study

The 1992 Denver CAP study (USEPA, 1996a, 1996b) assessed the long-term

effectiveness of two lead-based paint abatement strategies: (1) encapsulation and enclosure

methods and (2) removal methods. Fifty-two FHA foreclosed, single family residences in Denver,

Colorado, were examined. Thirty-five of the residences were abated using the aforementioned

methods as part of the HUD Demonstration study. Each house was primarily classified according

to the abatement category (i.e., encapsulation/ enclosure versus removal methods) accounting for
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the largest square footage of interior abatement. The remaining 17 residences were unabated

homes identified in the HUD Demonstration as containing little or no lead-based paint. At the

time of the environmental sampling approximately 1.5 to 2 years following the abatements, the

units were occupied. Vacuum dust-lead levels were measured at the interior and exterior

entryways, floor perimeters, window sills, window wells, and air ducts of each residence. Core

soil samples were collected at the foundation, entryway, and boundary of the home. No bloodlead measures were collected because the units were not reoccupied until several months after

their abatement.

The Denver CAP Study found geometric mean lead concentrations in abated houses to be

significantly higher than those in unabated houses only at sampling locations where no abatement

was performed (Figure 3-15). Specifically, the differences were statistically significant for dust in

the air ducts and for soil at the foundation and boundary areas. Geometric mean dust-lead

loadings on floors and exterior entryways were also significantly higher in abated houses than

unabated houses, but these differences were attributed to higher dust loadings. It should be noted

that both floor and window sill geometric mean dust-lead loadings in abated houses were found to

be below their respective HUD interim standards of 200 and 500 μg/ft2. Geometric mean floor

dust-lead loadings were also below the EPA guidance (EPA, 1994) level of 100 μg/ft2. In

contrast, geometric mean window well dust-lead loadings in both abated and unabated houses

were found to be well above the HUD value of 800 μg/ft2.

Lead levels were somewhat higher, though not significantly higher, in houses abated by

encapsulation/enclosure methods than in houses abated by removal methods. When interpreting

these results it should be noted that encapsulation/enclosure houses typically had larger amounts

of abatement performed than removal houses. Therefore, the differences in lead levels noted

above may have been largely a result of the more severe initial conditions in encapsulation/

enclosure houses.
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Figure 3-15. Estimated geometric mean dust-lead and soil-lead concentration (μg/g) in

typical abated and unabated homes by sampling location (CAP Study).

3.1.12 Milwaukee Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

This on-going study is examining the effectiveness of the lead-based paint abatement

strategies implemented in the Milwaukee area in 1989-1992 (Schultz, 1993). Damaged, painted

surfaces with lead loadings exceeding 1.0 mg/cm2 were abated. Abatement method and clean-up

procedures varied depending upon the practices of the particular abatement contractor. Only

preliminary results from this study were available, but are worth noting. Blood-lead

concentrations were collected from 104 children before and (mostly) 3 to 12 months after the

lead-based paint abatement. The arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration reduced from

34 μg/dL pre-abatement to 26 μg/dL post-abatement, a 24% decline.
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3.1.13 New York Chelation Study

This 1989-1990 study (Rosen et al., 1991; Markowitz et al., 1993; Ruff et al., 1993) was

an effort to ascertain the efficacy of a particular chelation therapy procedure on moderately

lead-poisoned children. Two hundred and one children with blood-lead levels between 25 and

55 μg/dL were administered a lead mobilization test (LMT) to determine whether chelation

therapy might prove effective. Children with a positive LMT underwent chelation therapy. For

all children enrolled, visual and XRF inspections of the paint in their residences were performed. 

Residences of 89% of the children had sufficient lead-based paint to warrant an abatement. In

addition to taking blood-lead measurements, the authors measured cognitive ability and bone-lead

content, using the net corrected photon count (CNET) by L-XRF for the latter.

The reported results for this study emphasized overlapping subsets of the enrolled

population. The first set of analyses examined a subset of 174 children (71 chelated, 103 control). 

Six to seven weeks following enrollment, average blood-lead levels among the 103 non-chelated

children had fallen 2.5 μg/dL (mean at enrollment, 29.0 μg/dL) and average bone-lead levels had

fallen 3.3 CNET (mean at enrollment, 125.3 CNET). The second set of analyses considered a

subset of 154 children (61 chelated, 93 control). Cognitive index rose 3.6 points (from 79.0 to

82.6), on average, among a subset of 126 children (both chelated and non-chelated) six months

following enrollment. The authors concluded that cognitive index increased approximately one

point for every 3 μg/dL decrease in blood-lead level. The third subset was of 59 children, 30 of

whom were non-chelated. Mean blood-lead levels among the 30 non-chelated children had fallen

6 μg/dL by 6 weeks post-enrollment (from 29 μg/dL to 23 μg/dL) and fell an additional 2 μg/dL

(to 21 μg/dL) by 24 weeks post-enrollment (Figure 3-16). This represents a 28% decline as

compared to an average decline of 37% among the chelated children (39.5 μg/dL to 25 μg/dL). 

Mean bone-lead levels did not change among the non-chelated children during this time period.

Though sifting through the various subsets is difficult, there was evidence that lead-based

paint abatement lowered blood-lead levels. Furthermore, the authors concluded that the results

suggest an association between declines in blood-lead levels and positive health outcomes (in

addition to the lowered blood-lead concentration).
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Figure 3-16. Arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL) by population considered

(New York Chelation Study).

3.1.14 Milwaukee Retrospective Educational Intervention Study

This study assessed the effectiveness of in-home education efforts in Milwaukee in

1991-1994. The sample population consists of 413 children, 7 years of age and under, who were

identified by the Milwaukee Health Department as having blood-lead concentrations between

20-24 μg/dL, had a follow-up blood-lead measure, and had not moved before the follow-up

measure. Of these, 187 children received an in-home educational visit and had a follow-up bloodlead measure after the in-home visit. The control group of 226 children did not receive a health

department in-home visit, either because they were identified before the educational outreach

program was in place, or because the family could not be contacted after three attempts. The inhome educational visits were conducted by para-professionals. Visits lasted approximately one

hour and included education on nutrition and behavior change, as well as housekeeping

recommendations to reduce childhood lead exposure. Both venous and capillary blood-lead
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measurements were used. Follow-up measurements were collected 2-15 months after initial

blood-lead measures. Blood-lead concentrations were adjusted for the effects of age and seasonal

variations.

Blood-lead levels decreased for 154 of the 187 (82%) children who received an in-home

educational visit, compared to 124 of the 226 (55%) children in the control group. The arithmetic

mean blood-lead concentration for the Educational Outreach group declined by 21%, from

20 μg/dL to 16 μg/dL, compared to the Control group decline of 6%, from 21 μg/dL to

20 μg/dL. The difference between these declines is highly statistically significant (p=0.001). 

These results imply that educational intervention is effective in reducing children's blood-lead

levels, although blood-lead concentrations usually remained above 10 μg/dL.

3.1.15 Granite City Educational Intervention Study

This 1991 study (Kimbrough, 1992, 1994; IDPH, 1995) included an effort to evaluate the

efficacy of educational interventions in reducing blood-lead concentrations in exposed individuals. 

Children, under six years of age and recruited in Granite City, Illinois, constituted the sampled

population. Most homes in the community were built prior to 1920 and contained lead-based

paint. In addition, a secondary lead smelter had been in operation until 1983. Extensive

educational efforts were aimed at the children and families exposed to elevated levels of lead in

the surrounding environment. Instruction included identifying where lead-based paint was

commonly found, explaining available abatement procedures, detailing how to perform house

cleaning procedures, and reviewing hygienic procedures for young children. Venous blood

samples, soil samples, dust samples from within the residence, tap water samples, and an

assessment of the lead content in interior paint were collected. When possible, follow-up

blood-lead measures were collected from children with elevated blood-lead levels 4-months and

12-months after the initial sample.

Blood-lead levels were initially measured during the months of August and

September 1991. Of the 490 children under age 6 years, 78 (16%) had blood-lead levels greater

than 9 μg/dL. Of these, 5 had levels greater than 25 μg/dL. Between the initial and 4-month

samples, the families of children with elevated blood-lead levels received extensive counseling in
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Figure 3-17. Initial and follow-up arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration (μg/dL)

(Granite City Educational Intervention Study).

the prevention of lead exposure. Mean blood-lead concentrations decreased significantly from an

initial level of 14.6 μg/dL to 7.8 μg/dL at the 4-month post-abatement measurement, but rose

again to 9.6 μg/dL by the 12-month measure, as shown in Figure 3-17. Despite the rise in

blood-lead levels, the 12-month averages remained significantly below initial levels.

In addition, four month follow-up blood-lead concentrations were significantly lower than

initial levels in a small number of older children with elevated blood-lead levels. For 7 children

aged 6 to 14 years, the arithmetic mean decrease was 5.9 μg/dL, and for 3 children age 15 years

or older, blood-lead levels decreased 7.0 μg/dL.
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Figure 3-18. Absolute (on left) and percent change in blood-lead concentrations at

4-month and 12-month follow-up (Granite City Educational Intervention

Study).

The absolute decrease and percent decrease at the 4-month and 12-month follow-up

measures are shown in Figure 3-18 for a subgroup of 24 children under age 6 years with initially

elevated blood-lead concentrations, for whom both follow-up measures were available. The

magnitude of the decrease in blood-lead concentration appears to be directly related to the

magnitude of the initial blood-lead concentration, as shown in Figure 3-19.

The striking declines in blood-lead levels provide evidence of the effectiveness of

educational efforts. The full implications of these declines in blood-lead concentration, however,

could not be ascertained since no measurements were collected for a control group of children. 

The one year follow-up results for the subset of children suggest that seasonal variation alone

does not account for the observed decline in blood-lead concentrations, but may very well explain

why the levels at 4 months were lower than those at 12 months.
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Figure 3-19. Change in blood-lead concentration at 4-month and 12-month follow-up

plotted against initial blood-lead concentration (Granite City Educational

Intervention Study).

3.1.16 Milwaukee Prospective Educational Intervention Study

This study sought to assess the effectiveness of in-home educational efforts by an

educational outreach program established in Milwaukee in 1991 (Schultz et al., 1998). Children

between 9 and 72 months of age were identified by the Milwaukee Health Department in

June 1993. The children selected for this prospective study had a blood-lead concentration

greater than 20 μg/dL but had not received a in-home educational visit in the previous year. Nor

had their dwelling been abated in the previous year. Two groups of children were prospectively

examined.

(a) Standard In-home Educational Outreach.

The Educational Outreach group consisted of 54 children whose initial blood-lead

concentration was between 20-24 μg/dL. Follow-up blood-lead measures were collected an
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-34

average of 2 months after the in-home visit for these children. For comparison, a control group of

122 children was selected from those previously identified in the Milwaukee Retrospective Study

(see Section 3.1.14), whose follow-up blood-lead measurement was taken within approximately 3

months of the initial measurement. Children received in-home educational visits conducted by

para-professionals. Visits lasted approximately one hour and educated the families on nutrition,

behavior change, and housekeeping recommendations to reduce childhood lead exposure. Both

venous and capillary blood-lead measurements were used. Blood-lead levels were adjusted for

the effects of seasonal variation.

Only preliminary results from this study were available, but are worth noting. Both the

Educational Outreach and Control groups had initial mean blood-lead levels of approximately

22 μg/dL. On average, a significantly greater decline between initial and follow-up blood-lead

concentration was observed for the Educational Outreach group than for the Control group. The

decline was about 3 μg/dL more in the Educational Outreach group.

(b) Pre-abatement Educational Outreach.

The Pre-abatement Educational Outreach group consisted of 28 children whose initial

blood-lead concentration was between 25 μg/dL and 40 μg/dL. Lead-based paint abatements

were required for these children, but had not been implemented at the time of the in-home visit

and follow-up blood-lead measurement. Follow-up blood-lead measures were collected

2-6 months after the initial measurement for the Pre-abatement Educational Outreach group. 

Children in the Pre-abatement Educational Outreach group received the same visit as the

study (a), plus an additional visit from a Public Health Nurse, who conducted a general health

assessment of the child and family and also answered any questions about lead. In addition, a

paint inspection was performed in all pre-abatement homes. Both venous and capillary blood-lead

measurements were used, and blood-lead levels were adjusted for the effects of seasonal variation.

Again, only preliminary results from this study were available. Mean blood-lead

concentrations for the Pre-abatement Educational Outreach group started at 29 μg/dL and 

declined by 19%. No control group was available for the Pre-abatement Educational Outreach

group, as extensive efforts were made to contact all families where children had blood-lead levels
This material was updated from Section 3.1 of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-35

at or above 25 μg/dL. Approximately the same percentage decline in blood-lead levels was

observed in both the Educational Outreach and Pre-abatement Educational Outreach groups. On

average, larger absolute declines were observed in the Pre-abatement group, suggesting that

greater declines on an absolute scale may be associated with higher initial blood-lead

concentrations. This is consistent with results reported for other lead-hazard intervention

methods.

The results of these studies imply that educational intervention is effective in reducing

children's blood-lead levels, although blood-lead concentrations usually remained above 10 μg/dL.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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C.2 ABSTRACTS OF STUDIES ADDRESSING LEAD ABATEMENT

EFFECTIVENESS

A.1 Baltimore Dust Control Study

Reference. Charney, E., Kessler, B., Farfel, M., and Jackson, D. (1983) “Childhood Lead

Poisoning: A Controlled Trial of the Effect of Dust-Control Measures on Blood Lead Levels.”

New England Journal of Medicine. 309:1089-1093.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to assess whether periodic dust-control

measures in addition to lead-based paint abatement would be more effective in reducing

blood-lead concentrations than lead-based paint abatement alone.

Sampled Population. Forty-nine children aged 15 to 72 months with at least two confirmed

blood-lead concentrations between 30 and 49 μg/dL formed the study population. All the

children were patients at the Lead Poisoning Clinic of the John F. Kennedy Institute in Baltimore,

Maryland.

Intervention Strategy. Both the experimental and control group underwent lead-based paint

abatement which entailed removing all peeling lead-containing interior and exterior paint from the

residence. In addition, all child accessible surfaces (below 1.2 m) which may be chewed on were

covered or rendered lead-free. For the experimental group only, periodic dust-control involved

twice monthly visits by a dust-control team who wet-mopped all rooms in the residence where the

dust-lead loading was greater than 100 μg/sq.ft.

Measurements Taken. Dust-lead loading measurements were collected from all areas within the

residence where the child spent time. The samples were collected with alcohol-treated wipes

within a 1 ft2 area of floor or from the entire window sill. Blood-lead (PbB), free erythrocyte

protoporphyrin (FEP), and hematocrit levels were measured during regular visits to the clinic.

Study Design. The children involved in this prospective study were randomly divided into an

experimental group of 14 children and a control group of 35 children. Measurements of PbB,

FEP and hematocrit were taken approximately every three months during the course of the

12-month study. Residential dust-lead loadings were collected for the experimental group during

recruitment. No dust-lead measurements were collected in the control residences so as to avoid

drawing attention to dust as a source of lead exposure. To assess the success in cleaning,

dust-lead loading measurements were also obtained before and after the dust-control teams

completed their work. The primary outcome measures were the blood-lead and FEP levels and

the residential dust-lead loadings.

Study Results. For the experimental group, there was a significant reduction in mean PbB and

FEP after six months, and a further decrease after one year (Tables A.1-1, A.1-2). In contrast,

the mean value for the control group did not change significantly over the twelve months.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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For many of the children, PbB levels six months prior to the study were available. 

Although the PbB levels for most children were stable prior to the study, a mean increase of

1.0 μg/dL was reported in each group, but these increases were not statistically significant. At the

start of the study, PbB levels for 8 of 11 children in the experimental group and 15 of 24 children

in the control group remained within 3 μg/dL of their respective levels six months before.

The residential dust-lead loadings obtained before and after the dust-control teams

completed their work proved the cleaning to be immediately effective; however, elevated levels

returned in most homes within two weeks following cleaning. It took several months before all

the study residences had persistent reductions in dust-lead levels. After 12 months, however, the

cleaning was effective. Within experimental residences, the bimonthly dust-control efforts

reduced the dust-lead loading on measured surfaces (Table A.1-3).

Table A.1-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Study Group and Time

Group Time N Mean Std. Error

Experiment

Start 14 38.6 5.2

6 months 14 33.3 3.6

12 months 14 31.7 2.6

Control

Start 35 38.5 5.2

6 months 33 38.7 2.6

12 months 35 37.8 7.9

Table A.1-2. Free Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin Concentration (μg/dL) by Study

Group and Time

Group Time N Mean Std. Error

Experiment

Start 14 203 99

6 months 14 158 76

12 months 14 144 82

Control

Start 35 231 103

6 months 33 216 125

12 months 35 208 130
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Table A.1-3. Number of Experimental Residences by Maximum Dust-Lead

Loading and Time

Max. PbD (μg/ft2) Study Inception After 12 months

<100 1 5

100-200 1 4

200-400 1 1

400-800 3 4

800-1600 4 0

$1600 4 0

Conclusions (including caveats). The lead loading of house dust may be reduced by regular and

focused dust-control efforts within the residence, and the blood-lead levels in children residing in

those homes can be significantly lowered. The children examined in this study were already leadpoisoned, so it is unclear how efficacious such procedures would be with children exhibiting

lower blood-lead concentrations. The dust-lead loadings return rapidly to elevated levels if the

cleaning procedures are discontinued.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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A.2 1982 St. Louis Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Copley, C. G. (1983) “The Effect of Lead Hazard Source Abatement and Clinic

Appointment Compliance on the Mean Decrease of Blood Lead and Zinc Protoporphyrin Levels.”

Mimeo. City of St. Louis, Department of Health and Hospitals, Division of Health, Office of the

Health Commissioner, St. Louis, Missouri.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to demonstrate a significant difference between

the children living in abated environments after lead hazard intervention compared to children still

exposed to lead hazards.

Sampled Population. Children enrolled in the St. Louis Health Division's Childhood Lead

Poisoning Prevention Program and measured to have a blood-lead concentration greater than

25 μg/dL.

Intervention Strategy. The lead hazard intervention entailed the enclosure or removal of paint

from surfaces with peeling or broken leaded paint. Chewable surfaces with evidence of damage

were completely stripped. Extensive cleanup procedures were not required and were likely

implemented infrequently at best. Replacement of building components in question (e.g., window

sills, baseboards) was recommended, but used infrequently.

Measurements Taken. The blood-lead concentration measurements were collected during

routine venipuncture screening. Lead containing paint was identified using XRF.

Study Design. This retrospective study compared those blood measurements which identified the

child as lead poisoned to follow-up samples collected six to twelve months following the initial

identification. A total of 102 children had sufficient samples collected to allow this comparison. 

The blood measures (blood-lead and zinc protoporphyrin) were the primary outcome measures

studied.

Study Results. Follow-up blood-lead concentrations in children whose lead hazards had been

abated were found to be significantly lower than their initial levels (Table A.2-1). This was not

the case for children whose hazards had not yet been abated. Blood-lead concentrations fell

significantly in children regardless of the extent to which their guardians successfully met their

scheduled appointments. Similar results were seen for zinc protoporphyrin concentrations

(Table A.2-2).
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Table A.2-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Study Group

Study Group Sample Size

Initial Sample Arith.

Mean 

Follow-up Sample

Arith. Mean

All Children 102 46.13 38.87

Abated Homes 61 48.31 37.02

Unabated Homes 41 42.88 41.63

Compliance $50% 63 47.60 38.82

Compliance #50% 39 43.74 38.95

Table A.2-2. Zinc Protoporphyrin Concentration (μg/dL) by Study Group

Study Group Sample Size

Initial Sample 

Arith. Mean 

Follow-up Sample

Arith. Mean

All Children 102 111.04 87.19

Abated Homes 61 119.43 81.56

Unabated Homes 41 98.56 95.56

Compliance $50% 63 126.10 96.06

Compliance #50% 39 86.72 72.85

Conclusions (including caveats). The results indicate that abatement of lead-based paint

hazards does significantly reduce the lead burden being borne by lead-poisoned children. The

magnitude of the reduction, however, is confounded with the timing of the sampling (seasonal

variation may play a role) and the age of the children (PbB levels usually peak at 2 years of age).
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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A.3 Baltimore Traditional/Modified Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Farfel, M. R., and Chisolm, J. J. Jr. (1990) “Health and Environmental Outcomes of

Traditional and Modified Practices or Abatement of Residential Lead-Based Paint.” American

Journal of Public Health. 80(10):1240-1245.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The goal of this study was to evaluate the health and

environmental impact of traditional and modified practices for the abatement of lead-based paint.

Sampled Population. The study examined children residing in 71 residences abated in urban

Baltimore (53 traditional abatements, 18 modified abatements). Prior to abatement all the

residences had multiple interior surfaces coated with lead-based paint and housed at least one

child with a blood-lead concentration greater than 30 μg/dL.

Intervention Strategy. Traditional abatement practices called for addressing deteriorated paint

on surfaces up to four feet from the floor, and all hazardous paint on accessible surfaces which

may be chewed on. Paint with a lead content greater than 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or 0.5% by weight

by wet chemical analysis was denoted hazardous. For traditional abatements, blow torches and/or

dry sanding were commonly used, the abated surfaces were not repainted, and clean-up typically

entailed, at most, dry sweeping. Modified practices excluded the use of open-flame burning and

sanding techniques and included the repainting of abated surfaces. In addition, it called for more

extensive clean-up efforts entailing wet-mopping with a high phosphate detergent, vacuuming

with a standard shop vacuum, and disposal of debris off-site. In addition, worker training,

protection, and supervision were provided.

Measurements Taken. Dust samples were obtained using a alcohol-treated wipe within a

defined area template (1 ft2). Blood samples were collected via venipuncture.

Study Design. In this prospective study, serial measurements of lead in interior house dust-lead

loading (PbD), and children's blood-lead concentration (PbB) were collected. In order to assess

blood-lead concentration, an additional 25 modified practices abated residences were considered. 

No dust samples were collected in these residences. All the residences under consideration

housed a total of 151 children eligible for PbB analysis. Seventy-eight of these children had

sufficient follow-up venous samples to allow their consideration in at least one component of the

analysis. Forty-six children who did not undergo any chelation therapy had pre- and

post-abatement samples. The post-abatement samples were collected within one month following

the completion of the abatement activities. Dust-lead loadings and blood-lead concentration were

the primary outcome measures.

Study Results. Increased dust-lead loadings were measured immediately following traditional

abatements (usually within two days) on or in close proximity to abated surfaces (Tables A.3-1,

A.3-2, and A.3-3). Dust-lead levels measured after modified abatements were also higher than

pre-abatement levels, but not to the extent seen for traditional practices. At six months
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-42

post-abatement, PbD levels were comparable to, or greater than, their respective pre-abatement

loadings in both study groups. It should be noted that neither traditional nor modified practices

entailed the abatement of window wells within the residence.

Table A.3-1. Floor Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Group and Time*

Time Period Study Group Sample Size

Geometric

Mean

95% Conf.

Interval

Pre-Abatement Traditional 280 251 (223, 288)

Modified 82 288 (204, 390)

Post-Abatement Traditional 271 1440 (1198, 1719)

Modified 50 650 (455, 920)

6 Months PostAbatementTraditional 234 316 (269, 362)

Modified 57 316 (242, 418)

Table A.3-2. Window Sill Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Group and Time*

Time Period Study Group Sample Size Geometric Mean

95% Conf.

Interval

Pre-Abatement Traditional 249 1338 (1096, 1616)

Modified 45 1802 (1356, 2406)

Post-Abatement Traditional 246 3595 (2889, 4459)

Modified 64 604 (446, 818)

6 Months PostAbatementTraditional 199 1542 (1226, 1942)

Modified 66 1635 (1152, 2323)

Table A.3-3. Window Well Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) by Group and Time*

Time Period Study Group Sample Size Geometric Mean

95% Conf.

Interval

Pre-Abatement Traditional 150 15496 (11585, 20745)

Modified 37 18274 (11316, 29515)

Post-Abatement Traditional 139 14354 (11223, 18348)

Modified 24 8083 (4887, 13369)

6 Months PostAbatementTraditional 100 12468 (9012, 17243)

Modified 32 24879 (15301, 40450)

 

*

 Dust-lead loading results were converted from mg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-43

 In residences abated using either practice, PbB levels in resident children rose significantly

(Table A.3-4). At six months following abatement, 29 children with no history of chelation

therapy (14 residing in traditionally abated dwellings, 15 in modified) continued to suffer from

elevated PbB levels (arithmetic mean: 32.53 μg/dL) which were not significantly different from

their pre-abatement measures (arithmetic mean, 30.67 μg/dL).

Table A.3-4. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Group and Time*

Study Group Sample Size

Pre-Abatement

One Month

Post-Abatement

Arith. Mean Std. Error Arith. Mean Std. Error

Traditional 27 36.88 1.45 43.72 2.69

Modified 19 34.40 2.07 35.43 2.49

 

*

 Blood lead concentrations were converted from μmol/L to μg/dL by multiplying by 20.72.

Conclusions (including caveats). Despite the implementation of improved practices, modified

abatements, like traditional abatements, did not result in any long-term reductions of levels of lead

in house dust or the blood of children with elevated pre-abatement PbB levels. In addition, the

activities further elevated blood-lead concentrations.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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A.4 Boston Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Amitai, Y., Brown, M. J., Graef, J. W., Cosgrove, E. (1991) “Residential Deleading: 

Effects on the Blood Lead Levels of Lead-Poisoned Children.” Pediatrics. 88(5):893-897.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to evaluate the extent to which the lead

poisoning of children is exacerbated during the abatement of lead-based paint within their

residence.

Sampled Population. The study population consisted of 114 children ranging in age from 11 to

72 months (median: 24 months) with at least one blood-lead concentration above 25 μg/dL

obtained prior to deleading, one blood-lead sample collected during deleading, and one blood-lead

determination following the completion of the deleading process. All the children were enrolled in

the Massachusetts Department of Public Health's Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program.

Intervention Strategy. The deleading process consisted of the removal or permanent coverage

of any paint with a lead content greater than 1.2 mg/cm2 which was loose and peeling, or present

on chewable surfaces accessible to the child (below 4 ft). Abatement was accomplished using an

unspecified combination of methods including dry scraping and sanding, blow torch burning, and

replacement or permanent enclosure of building components. Detailed cleanup practices

(i.e., HEPA vacuuming and TSP washing) and relocation of the occupants during the abatements

were recommended, but not uniformly followed.

Measurements Taken. The blood-lead concentration measurements were collected via

venipuncture.

Study Design. Post-deleading measures in this retrospective study were determined an average

of 49±8 days (mean±standard error) after the deleading activities were completed. The

mid-deleading measures were obtained 63±4 days following the pre-deleading samples. In an

effort to determine the effect of deleading activities alone, a subset of 59 children who underwent

no chelation therapy were examined. In this subset, an additional follow-up measure was

collected 250±14 days after completion of the deleading work. These blood-lead concentrations

were the primary outcome measure.

Study Results. The geometric mean PbB in the 114 children rose during deleading and fell

following the completion of the deleading activities (Table A.4-1). The decrease in geometric

mean PbB post-deleading is due in part to 42 children who underwent chelation therapy between

the mid- and post-deleading measurements.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Table A.4-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Time

Time Period Geometric Mean Standard Error

pre-deleading 36.4 0.6

mid-deleading 42.1 1.5

post-deleading 33.5 1.0

In the subset of 59 children who underwent no chelation therapy, no evidence of a change

in geometric mean PbB was found, but blood-lead levels did fall at the post-deleading collection

and fell even further by the follow-up deleading collection (Table A.4-2).

Table A.4-2. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Time

Time Geometric Mean Standard Error

pre-deleading 35.7 0.9

mid-deleading 35.5 0.8

post-deleading 31.0 1.0

follow-up 25.5 0.9

For 80 of the children, the specific method of deleading was available. Dry scraping and

torches considerably elevated the blood-lead levels of the affected children (Table A.4-3). By

comparison, children exposed to encapsulation, enclosure, or replacement abatement procedures

experienced a mean decrease in their blood-lead burden. The stability of PbB prior to deleading

activities was characterized for a subset of 32 children who had two blood samples prior to

deleading. The mean PbB rose from 35.4±1.3 μg/dL to 36.0±1.1 μg/dL during the interval

between these samples (73±23 days).

Table A.4-3. Change in Mid-Deleading PbB (μg/dL) by Method of Abatement

Method # of Homes Arith. Mean Std. Error

dry scraping and sanding 41 +9.1 2.4

encap, enclose, or

replace

12 -2.25 2.4

torches employed 9 +35.7 10.8
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Conclusions (including caveats). Deleading may often produce a significant, transient elevation

of PbB in many children. It is most dangerous if accomplished with the use of torches, sanding,

or dry scraping. The results for non-chelated children should be viewed with caution, since their

long-term reductions may be due to reasons other than paint abatement. Perhaps the children

were not chelated because their levels were falling naturally.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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A.5 Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Farfel, M. R. and Chisolm, J. J. Jr. (1991) “An Evaluation of Experimental Practices

for Abatement of Residential Lead-Based Paint: Report on a Pilot Project.” Environmental

Research. 55:199-212.

Farfel, M. R., Chisolm, J. J. Jr., and Rohde, C. A. (1994) “The Longer-Term Effectiveness

of Residential Lead Paint - Abatement.” Environmental Research. 66:217-221.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The study sought to demonstrate and evaluate experimental

lead-based paint abatement practices developed in response to the inadequacies uncovered for

traditional abatement procedures (see A.3).

Sampled Population. The literature on this study examined two distinct subsets of dwellings in

urban Baltimore. The first set is composed of six older dwellings in Baltimore City which were

built in the 1920s. Each dwelling was a two-story six-room row home in poorly maintained

condition with multiple lead-based paint hazards. Four of the residences were vacant, two housed

lead-poisoned children. The second set consisted of 13 dwellings which had previously been

abated between 1988 and 1991 according to Maryland regulations. Each dwelling had (1) at least

six pairs of dust-lead loading (PbD) measures taken from the same locations pre- and immediately

post-abatement; (2) no major renovations performed since abatement; and (3) occupancy by a

family providing written informed consent.

Intervention Strategy. The experimental practices called for the floor to ceiling abatement of all

interior and exterior surfaces where lead content of the paint exceeded 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or

0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis. Several methods were tested, including encapsulation,

off-site and on-site stripping and replacement. The abatements took place either in unoccupied

dwellings or the occupants were relocated during the abatement process. Lead-contaminated dust

was contained and minimized during the abatement, and extensive clean-up activities included

HEPA vacuuming and off-site waste disposal. In addition, extensive worker training and

protection were provided.

Measurements Taken. Alcohol-treated wet wipes were used to collect dust-lead loading

samples from household surfaces within each residence. Soil samples were taken with a 15.24 cm

stainless steel probe.

Study Design. This abstract considers the reported results for the two non-overlapping subsets

of this prospective study. The first set of analyses (Farfel et al., 1991) examined serial

measurements of lead in interior dust samples in six homes. Dust samples were collected

immediately before initiating abatement (pre-abatement), during the abatement, after the final

clean-up (post-abatement), and one, three, and six to nine months following the abatement. The

second set of analyses (Farfel et al., 1994) examined wipe-dust samples (n=179) collected from

thirteen study dwellings between December 1991 and January 1992. These measures were made
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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prior to abatement, immediately post-abatement, and 1.5 to 3.5 years post-abatement. The

dust-lead loadings from various surfaces in the dwellings were the primary outcome measures.

Study Results. In the first set of analyses (Farfel et al., 1991) examining interior dust-lead over

time, dust-lead loadings immediately post-abatement were significantly lower than pre-abatement

levels (Tables A.5-1 through A.5-3). By six to nine months following the abatements, these levels

either improved further or remained unchanged.

PbD monitoring before, during, and after the abatement activities also provided

information on the effectiveness of particular measures. All floor and window treatments were

associated with significant decreases in PbD over time (Tables A.5-4a,b). Window replacement

was reported to be more effective in reducing dust lead loading than stripping the lead-based

paint. In addition, vinyl floor coverings produced lower dust-lead loadings than sealing old

wooden floors with polyurethane.

Table A.5-1. Floor Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) in Six Homes by Time Period*

Time Period Sample Size Geometric Mean 95% Conf. Int.

Pre-abatement 70 520 (390, 697)

Post-abatement 70 130 (102, 176)

6 Months Post 63 56 (46, 74)

Table A.5-2. Window Sill Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) in Six Homes by Time Period*

Time Period Sample Size Geometric Mean 95% Conf. Int.

Pre-abatement 34 4608 (3019, 7024)

Post-abatement 35 325 (195, 557)

6 Months Post 31 409 (242, 669)

Table A.5-3. Window Well Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2) in Six Homes by Time Period*

Time Period Sample Size Geometric Mean 95% Conf. Int.

Pre-abatement 28 29422 (18060, 47938)

Post-abatement 31 938 (567, 1561)

6 Months Post 24 1003 (548, 1849)

 

*

 Dust-lead loading results were converted from mg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-49

In the second set of analyses (Farfel et al., 1994) examining wipe-dust samples, dust-lead

loadings 1.5 to 3.5 years post-abatement were significantly lower from pre- and immediately

post-abatement levels (Table A.5-5). Soil-lead concentration which ranged from 209 to

1,962 μg/g (GM=688 μg/g, Log SD=0.69) was not found to be a significant factor in explaining

the change in dust-lead levels. 1.5 to 3.5 years following intervention 78% of all dust lead loading

measurements were within Maryland's interim post-abatement clearance standards (200 μg/ft2 for

floors, 500 μg/ft2 for window sills, and 800 μg/ft2 for window wells). Twenty-one of the 39

readings above the clearance levels were from window wells. Ratios of dust-lead loadings at 1.5

to 3.5 years post-abatement to those pre- and immediately post-abatement were calculated (Table

A.5-6). Despite some reaccumulation of lead in dust, geometric mean PbD levels 1.5 to 3.5 years

post-abatement were significantly less than pre-abatement levels.

Table A.5-4a. Geometric Mean PbD Loadings (μg/ft2) in Six Homes by Type of

Surface and Treatment*

Surface and Treatment

Pre-Abatement Post-Abatement Post-Treatment Post Clean-up

N G. Mean N G. Mean N G. Mean N G. Mean

Floors

Urethane 58 492 58 2313 56 28 58 139

Vinyl tile 12 688 12 3391 12 622 12 102

Window Sills

On-site caustic strip 26 4069 27 10043 24 1133 27 316

Off-site caustic strip 8 6912 - 7 1115 8 372

Window Wells

New Window 11 15580 13 2230 13 1208 14 502

On-Site caustic strip 17 44361 16 29376 12 5639 17 1589
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

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Table A.5-4b. Geometric Mean PbD Loadings (μg/ft2) in Six Homes by Type of Surface

and Treatment*

Surface and Treatment 1 Month Post 3 Months Post 6-9 Months Post

N G. Mean N G. Mean N G. Mean

Floors

Urethane 43 102 54 93 51 74

Vinyl tile 10 46 12 37 12 19

Window Sills

On-site caustic strip 24 418 25 539 23 353

Off-site caustic strip 6 1143 8 483 8 604

Window Wells

New Window 10 251 13 474 14 465

On-Site caustic strip 15 5314 15 7107 10 2945

 

*

 Dust-lead loading results were converted from mg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.

Table A.5-5. Geometric Mean PbD Loadings (μg/ft2) in Thirteen Homes by Surface Type*

Surface Type

Pre-abatement PbD Post-abatement PbD

1.5 to 3.5 Years 

Post-abatement

N

G. Mean

(95% CI) N

G. Mean

(95% CI) N

G. Mean

(95% CI)

Floor 42 254

(143,452)

47 13.9

(7.4,25.1) 71 40.9

(25.1,68.8)

Window Sill 53 1041

(542,2007)

54 13.0

(7.4,22.3) 59 103

(66,161)

Window Well 31 14214

(7339,27778)

41 34.4

(22.3,53.0) 49 600

(345,1041)
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-51

Table A.5-6. Ratios of 1.5 to 3.5 Year Dust-Lead Loadings (PbD) to Those Pre- and

Post-abatement for Thirteen Homes.

Surface

 Type

 1.5 to 3.5 Years 

Pre-abatement

(95% CI)

 1.5 to 3.5 Years 

Immediate Post-abatement

(95% CI)

Floor 0.16

(0.09,0.31)

2.9

(1.5, 6.3)

Window Sill 0.10

(0.05, 0.20)

7.9

(4.4, 15)

Window Well 0.04

(0.02, 0.08)

17

(9.1,31)

 

*

 Dust-lead loading results were converted from mg Pb per m2 to μg Pb per ft2.

Conclusions (including caveats). The experimental methods resulted in substantial reductions in

interior surface dust-lead levels immediately post-abatement which were found to persist

throughout a 6- to 9-month post-abatement period. By the 1.5 to 3.5 year post-abatement

measures, 78% of the readings remained below target levels (<140 μg/ft2). Dust-lead

concentrations at this time were reduced to 16, 10, and 4% of pre-abatement levels for floors,

window sills, and window wells, respectively. This suggests that comprehensive lead-paint

abatement is associated with short-term as well as the longer-term control of residential dust-lead

hazards. Reaccumulation of dust was greatest for window wells. The magnitude of the decline in

dust-lead loadings following abatement may have been exaggerated for the first subset since

vacant units are likely to contain more dust than occupied units.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-52

A.6 Central Massachusetts Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Swindell, S. L., Charney, E., Brown, M. J., Delaney, J. (1994) “Home Abatement

and Blood Lead Changes in Children With Class III Lead Poisoning.” Clinical Pediatrics. 

September:536-541.

Charney, E., (1995) Personal Communication. February 1995.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This retrospective study was designed to assess the effect of

residential lead-based paint abatements practiced between 1987 and 1990 in central

Massachusetts. More stringent home deleading regulations were enacted in Massachusetts in

1988 during the conduct of the study.

Sampled Population. The sample population consisted of 132 children ranging in age from 12 to

91 months (mean: 35 months) who were identified by the Massachusetts Department of Public

Health as having a blood-lead concentration (PbB) $25 μg/dL between 1987 and 1990, and

whose homes were abated during this period. Moreover, the child must have had at least one

venous PbB determination within 6 months prior to abatement; at least one venous PbB

determination 2 weeks to 6 months following abatement; must not have received chelation

therapy during that time period; and must have resided in the same dwelling throughout the study

period.

Intervention Strategy. Interventions prior to 1988 consisted of the removal or permanent

coverage of any paint with a lead content greater than 1.2 mg/cm2 which was loose or peeling, or

present on chewable surfaces accessible to the child (below 4 ft). No standard abatement

methods, dust-control measures or cleanup procedures were mandated. After 1988, only

hand-scraping and replacement of parts were acceptable removal methods and all occupants were

removed from the dwelling during the entire deleading and cleaning process. Cleanup involved

vacuuming all surfaces with a high-efficiency particle air (HEPA) filter vacuum, followed by wetmopping and sponging with a trisodium phosphate cleaning solution and then a second HEPA

vacuuming. Abatement contractors were licensed, which required completion of a 3-day course

and passing a certifying exam.

Measurements Taken. Blood-lead concentration measurements were collected via

venipuncture.

Study Design. In this retrospective study, the 132 children’s blood-lead concentration measures

from at most 6 months prior to the initiation of abatement were compared to the last blood-lead

measurement collected within one year following abatement. The actual range of post-abatement

measures was 3 to 52 weeks following abatement. Although a venous PbB level of $25 μg/dL

was chosen as a criterion for this retrospective study, blood-lead concentration immediately prior

to the abatement were less than 25 μg/dL for some children. In these cases, the authors suggest
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-53

that the pre-abatement PbB measure might have reflected some early abatement or education

effects. The primary outcome measure was the blood-lead concentration of the involved children.

Study Results. Of the total 132 children, 103 (78%) showed a reduction in PbB within one year

following intervention. Table A.6-1 presents the number of children whose blood-lead levels

increased or decreased between pre- and post-abatement measures. However, this reduction

varied with pre-abatement level (Table A.6-2). In fact, mean blood-lead levels for subjects with

initial PbB $20 μg/dL decreased, while mean blood-lead concentrations for subjects with

pre-abatement PbB <20 μg/dL increased from 16.7 to 19.2 μg/dL.

Table A.6-1. Number of Children Whose PbB Changed Between Pre- and 

Post-abatement Measurements by Amount of Change

Change in PbB Between 

Pre- and Post-abatement levels (μg/dL) Number of Children

Decrease

>12 12

9-12 20

5-8 31

1-4 40

No Change 0 4

Increase

1-4 9

5-8 5

9-12 5

>12 6

Table A.6-2. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Pre-abatement Level

Pre-abatement

PbB Level 

Sample

Size

# (%) in Sample

with Decreased

Post-abatement

PbB

Mean PbB Level

Mean

Change in

PbB Level

Pre-abatement Post-abatement (%)

Complete

Sample

132 103

(78%)

26.0 21.2 -4.8

(-18%)

$ 30 33 32

(97%)

34.2 23.2 -11.0

(-32%)

20 - 29 79 64

(81%)

24.9 20.8 -4.1

(-16%)

< 20 20 7

(35%)

16.7 19.2 +2.5

(+15%)
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-54

There were no significant differences in the reduction of blood-lead concentration between

males and females, nor were there indications of differences among age groups. However, all age

groups showed significant decreases post-abatement. Despite the more stringent regulations

beginning in 1988, reduction in PbB levels by calendar year of abatement were not found to be

meaningful (Table A.6-3). The increase of 0.1 μg/dL in 1990 was significantly different from the

decreases observed in the three previous years. This increase was accounted for by a small

sample size (n=13) and the presence of two children whose levels increased markedly (from 16.0

and 17.0 μg/dL to 29.0 and 31.0 μg/dL). The median change from pre- to post-abatement

measures was a decrease of 2.0 μg/dL in that year, while the mean PbB remained relatively

unchanged when the two children were excluded.

Among 72 children with more than one pre-abatement measure, 40 children whose levels

were declining (defined as a decrease greater than 5 μg/dL) prior to abatement exhibited only a

modest further mean decline of 1.9 μg/dL. A more significant mean decline of 8.2 μg/dL was

observed for the 32 children whose initial levels were relatively constant.

Table A.6-3. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) Change by Year

Year Sample

Size

Mean PbB Level Mean Change in PbB

Pre-abatement Post-abatement Absolute Percent

1987 29 27.5 22.2 -5.3 -19%

1988 48 26.1 20.4 -5.7 -21%

1989 42 24.3 19.6 -4.7 -19%

1990 13 23.9 24.0 +0.1 +0.4%

Table A.6-4. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Timing of Post-Abatement Measure

# of Days 

Post-abatement Sample Size

Mean PbB Level Mean Change

Pre-abatement Post-abatement in PbB

14-90 29 24.2 21.2 -3.0

91-180 47 25.3 20.0 -5.3

181-270 31 27.5 23.4 -4.1

271-365 25 25.8 19.4 -6.4
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-55

Seasonal variations in blood-lead concentrations may be a factor in confounding the

declines, especially since post-abatement measures were taken from 3 to 52 weeks after the

abatement process (Table A.6-4). But all mean blood-lead concentrations decreased by their

post-abatement measure indifferent of timing.

Conclusions (including caveats). These results demonstrate that abatement of

lead-contaminated paint in residential homes is associated with a modest decline in blood-lead

levels. The significant decline among 32 children with stable levels prior to abatement suggests

that regression to the mean cannot fully account for the observed decline. Moreover, the

magnitude of the decline appears to depend upon the child's initial PbB. For children with bloodlead levels $25 μg/dL, and particularly above 30 μg/dL, lead-based paint abatement as practiced

between 1987 and 1990 was associated with an approximate 18% mean decline in blood-lead

concentrations. The decline was not as significant in children whose pre-abatement PbB levels

were less than 25 μg/dL, and particularly below 20 μg/dL. The decline may be confounded by the

quality of the abatement process itself. Although more stringent regulations were enacted in

1988, the prescribed methods may not have been used immediately. Also, seasonal and age

variation in blood-lead concentrations could significantly impact the observed decline, depending

upon the period of time between the measures and the season in which the measures were

collected.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-56

A.7 Seattle Track-In Study

Reference. Roberts, J. W., Camann, D. E., Spittler, T. M. (1991) “Reducing Lead Exposure

from Remodeling and Soil Track-In in Older Homes.” Presented at the 84th Annual Meeting of

the Air and Waste Management Association. June 16-21, 1991.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The study sought to determine the extent to which low cost

dust-control measures successfully lower household dust-lead loading (PbD).

Sampled Population. Forty-two homes in Seattle and Port Townsend, Washington built before

1950 formed the sample populations.

Intervention Strategy. The abatement procedures considered between 1988 and 1990 were

strictly low-cost dust reduction procedures: use of a vacuum cleaner with an agitator bar,

removing shoes at the entrance to the residence, and installation of walk-off mats.

Measurements Taken. Vacuum dust and soil samples were collected, and total dust-lead

loadings and fine dust-lead loadings (sieved before analysis) were measured. 

Study Design. Low cost dust-control measures were implemented in the forty-two homes that

were part of this prospective study and samples were taken from the homes at various times

between 1988 and 1990. The dust samples were collected from rugs within the residence using a

Hoover Convertible vacuum cleaner. Soil samples were scraped from within one foot of the

residence’s foundation. The dust-lead loadings were the primary outcome measure.

Study Results. The study employed piece-wise regression analysis to assess which factors

determine the dust-lead loading within a residence. Significant pairwise correlations were found

between ln(PbD) and removing shoes at the door (r=-0.62) and the presence of a walk-off mat at

the home's entrance (r=-0.48). Lower dust-lead levels were found in homes where the residents

removed their shoes and/or utilized a walk-off mat (Table A.7-1).

Table A.7-1. Dust Levels within Residences by Abatement Procedure

Measure Shoes Off Shoes On Walk-off Mat

Number of Homes 5 32 6

Total Dust Loading (mg/ft2)*325.2 2415.5 622.5

Fine Dust Loading (mg/ft2)*74.3 929 157.9

Fine Dust-Lead Loading (μg/ft2)*28.8 994.1 53.9

Fine Dust-Lead Concentration (ppm) 320 780 430

 

*

 Loadings converted from amount Pb per m2 to per ft2.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-57

The occupants of three homes tested in the study began removing their shoes upon entry

for at least five months prior to the collection of a second PbD measurement from their carpets. 

In addition, the occupants of one of these homes installed walk-off mats at both entrances and

began vacuuming twice weekly. The geometric mean dust-lead loading fell from 1,588.6 μg/ft2 to

23.2 μg/ft2 in these homes.

Conclusions (including caveats). The data presented here suggest that the control of external

soil and dust track-in by removal of shoes and/or the use of a walk-off mat will reduce the lead

exposure from house dust. Lacking any blood measurements, the impact these interventions may

have had on childhood lead exposure are somewhat difficult to ascertain.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-58

A.8 1990 St. Louis Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

Reference. Staes, C., Matte, T., Copley, G., Flanders, D., and Binder, S. (1994) “Retrospective

Study of the Impact of Lead-Based Paint Hazard Remediation on Children’s Blood Lead Levels

in St. Louis, Missouri.” American Journal of Epidemiology. 139(10):1016-1026.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The study attempted to assess, via a retrospective cohort study, the

effectiveness of lead-based paint abatement in reducing children's blood-lead concentration.

Sampled Population. The sample population consisted of 185 children under six years of age

who were identified by the St. Louis City Health Department’s Childhood Lead Poisoning

Prevention Program as having a blood-lead concentration $25 μg/dL between January 1, 1989,

and December 31, 1990. Moreover, the child had to reside, for six months prior and six months

following diagnosis, in a dwelling with an identified lead-based paint hazard (at least one chipping

or peeling paint surface with a lead content $0.7 mg/cm2). Children who experienced chelation

therapy were excluded.

Intervention Strategy. Interventions entailed the abatement of peeling or chipping lead-based

paint (as identified by XRF to have a lead content $0.7 mg/cm2) within the dwelling via enclosure

or removal and replacement. No extensive clean-up procedures, other than removal of obvious

remediation debris, accompanied abatement. Most likely, the families were not relocated from the

dwelling during the intervention. In addition, educational interventions were initiated following

the child’s diagnosis of elevated blood-lead levels.

Measurements Taken. The blood-lead concentrations (PbB) were collected via venipuncture.

Study Design. Of the 185 children who met the criteria for this retrospective study, 71 had

follow-up blood-lead measures 10-14 months following the initial diagnosis. 49 of these

71 children lived in dwellings which had been abated prior to follow-up measures. Blood-lead

concentration was the primary outcome measure.

Study Results. The geometric mean PbB among the 185 children selected was 33.6 μg/dL

(range, 25-53 μg/dL). Blood-lead levels for children living in abated dwellings decreased by 23%

(Table A.8-1). This decline was significantly (p=0.07) greater than the 12% reduction observed in

geometric mean PbB among the 22 children residing in unabated dwellings.

Table A.8-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dl) by Abatement Group

Group N Range Geo. Mean

Follow-up

Geo. Mean

Percent

Decline

Abated 49 25-51 34.9 26.7 23%

Unabated 22 28-45 35.1 30.9 12%
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-59

A multiple linear regression model predicting the change in geometric mean PbB at 10-14 

months following diagnosis was fitted. The dwelling’s abatement status at the time of the followup blood sample (e.g., abated or unabated) and whether the blood-lead level at diagnosis

exceeded 35 μg/dL were statistically significant (p<0.10). The geometric mean PbB of children

residing in abated dwellings was estimated to decrease 13% (95% CI, -25% to 1%) more than

that of children residing in unabated dwellings. Moreover, the geometric mean PbB of children

with an initial PbB $35 μg/dL was estimated to decline by 17% (95% CI, -27% to -5%) more

than that of children with lower PbB.

The decline in PbB 10-14 months following diagnosis was found to increase as the length

of time since the lead-based paint abatement had occurred increased. The abatements usually

occurred sometime after diagnosis. Finally, the reported 10-14 month post-diagnosis declines

may be underestimates, since children with such extended follow-up measures were found to

experience smaller declines in PbB at 2-4 months post-diagnosis than children without such

extended measures.

Conclusions (including caveats). For lead-poisoned children in St. Louis, the decline in

geometric mean PbB is greater for children whose dwellings undergo lead-paint hazard abatement

than for children whose dwellings do not. The magnitude of the efficacy appears, however, to

depend upon the child’s initial blood-lead concentration. The follow-up measures were reported

with respect to the timing of the diagnosis, rather than the abatement, so the potential masking

effect of bone-lead mobilization cannot be assessed. The reference suggests many of the followup measures were collected less than six months following the abatement.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-60

A.9 Boston 3-City Soil Abatement Project

Reference(s). Weitzman, M., Aschengrau, A., Bellinger, D., Jones, R., Hamlin, J. S., Beiser, A.

(1993) “Lead-Contaminated Soil Abatement and Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels.” Journal

of the American Medical Association. 269(13):1647-1654.

Aschengrau, A., Beiser, A., Bellinger, D., Copenhafer, D., Weitzman, M. (1994) “The

Impact of Soil Lead Abatement on Urban Children's Blood Lead Levels: Phase II results from the

Boston Lead-In-Soil Demonstration Project.” Environmental Research. 67:125-148.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This project endeavored to assess whether a significant reduction

($1,000 ppm) in the concentration of lead in residential soil results in a significant decrease

($3 μg/dL) in the blood-lead concentration (PbB) of children residing at the premises.

Sampled Population. Volunteers were sought among children residing in areas in Boston

already known to have high incidence of childhood lead poisoning and elevated soil-lead

concentrations. A total of 152 children were enrolled, each satisfying the following criteria:

• less than or equal to four years of age,

• blood-lead concentration between 10 and 20 μg/dL with no history of lead poisoning,

and

• a minimum median residential soil-lead concentration of 1500 μg/g (ppm).

Intervention Strategy. This project employed four lead hazard intervention procedures: (1) an

initial one-time interior paint stabilization by removing exposed paint chips; (2) one-time interior

dust abatement via wet mopping and HEPA vacuuming; (3) extensive soil abatement; and finally

(4) interior and exterior lead-based paint abatement. Interior paint stabilization consisted of

vacuuming loose paint areas with a HEPA vacuum, washing loose paint areas with a TSP

solution, and painting the window wells with primer. Deleading consisted of removing leaded

paint from mouthable surfaces below 5 feet, and making intact all paint above 5 feet inside the

home, and exterior areas. Soil abatement consisted of removing surface soil to a depth of 6 in. for

homes, and replacing with top soil containing minimum lead levels. Dispersal of soil during the

abatement was retarded by wetting the soil, preventing track-in by workers, containing the

abatement site with plastic, and washing all equipment.

Measurements Taken. Extensive environmental media and body burden samples were collected:

• composite core soil samples,

• vacuum dust samples,

• first draw water samples,

• interior and exterior paint assessment via portable XRF,

• venipuncture blood samples to assess blood lead concentration, and free erythrocyte

protoporphyrin (FEP) and ferritin levels; and,

• hand-wipe samples.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-61

Study Design. Each child enrolled in this prospective study was randomly assigned to one of

three experimental groups: Study (54 children), Comparison A (51 children), or Comparison B

(47 children). During Phase I, the Study group received interior paint stabilization, interior dust 

abatement, and soil abatement. Comparison Group A received interior paint stabilization and

interior dust abatement. Only interior paint stabilization was performed for Comparison Group B. 

During Phase II, which took place an average of 12 months after Phase I interventions, both

comparison groups received soil abatement and all three experimental groups were offered

lead-based paint abatement (Table A.9-1). 

Environmental media and body burden samples were collected at various times

surrounding the intervention activities. Soil samples were also collected immediately following

soil abatement to confirm its effectiveness. The blood and soil lead concentrations, and dust-lead

loadings were the primary outcome measurements.

Table A.9-1. Schedule of Activities.

Phase Activity Study Group Group A Group B

Phase I

Baseline Blood Sample

(9/89-1/90) N=54/54 N=51/51 N=47/47

Intervention

I

(9/89-1/90)

Soil and Interior Dust

Abatement, Loose

Paint Stabilization

N=54/54

Interior Dust

Abatement, Loose

Paint Stabilization

N=51/51

Loose paint

Stabilization

N=47/47

Post-Abatement Blood

Sample I

(7/90-11/90)

N=54/54 N=49/51 N=46/47

Phase II

Intervention 

II

(9/90-1/91)

Paint Deleading

N=23/54

Soil 

Abatement

N=47/49

Paint Deleading

N=18/49

Soil

Abatement

N=42/46

Paint

Deleading

N=16/46

Post-Abatement Blood

Sample 

II

(7/91-8/91)

N=33/54 N=32/49 N=26/46
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-62

Study Results. During Phase I, the average blood-lead concentrations in all three experimental

groups decreased at the first (6 months) post-abatement measurement. The statistically significant

decreases were: 2.9 μg/dL for Study, 3.5 μg/dL for Comparison A, and 2.2 μg/dL for 

Comparison B. The following increases in average blood-lead concentration were recorded

between the first and second (11 months) post-abatement measurements: 0.5 μg/dL for Study,

2.6 μg/dL for Comparison A, and 1.5 μg/dL for Comparison B. The increases for the two

comparison groups were significantly different from zero. The mean dust-lead levels from

hand-wipe samples for all groups followed a similar pattern, though they exhibited considerably

greater variability.

By the end of Phase II, 91 children were still participating and living at the same premises

as when they were enrolled. Of these children, 44 received both soil and lead-based paint

abatement, 46 received only soil abatement, and 1 refused both interventions. Mean blood-lead

concentrations in all three experimental groups were taken an average of 10 months

post-abatement for Phase I and an average of 9 months post-abatement for Phase II. Although

some premises underwent lead-based paint deleading during Phase II, no results on the additional

efficacy of lead-paint abatements were reported. 

For children whose premise underwent soil abatement only, mean blood-lead

concentrations decreased between pre- and post-intervention measures (Table A.9-2). Study

Group results are an average of 10 months post-abatement, and both comparison group results

are an average of 9 months post-abatement. Two children in the Study Group and one child in

Comparison Group B were excluded as outliers from this analysis.

Table A.9-2. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Experimental

Group and Sample Period*

Group Sample Size Pre-abatement Post-abatement Mean Decline

Study 52 13.10 10.65 2.44

Comparison A 18 12.94 7.69 5.25

Comparison B 13 10.54 9.15 1.39

Study, Comparison A

and B combined 83 12.66 9.77 2.89

 

* Study Group results are from Phase I and both Comparison 

Group results are from Phase II.

A repeated measures analysis was conducted for the restricted sample (N=31) of children

from Comparison Group A (N=18) and Comparison Group B (N=13) who had PbB data at all

three times. Study Group data was excluded for lack of a control period. Mean blood-lead

concentrations decreased by 0.64 μg/dL during Phase I and another 3.63 μg/dL during Phase II (a
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-63

33.9% decline overall). For the 31 children of the restricted sample, variation was seen in the

decline of blood-lead levels depending upon initial PbB (Table A.9-3). A trend in the magnitude

of the decline in blood-lead levels was apparent, with larger declines observed in children with

larger initial blood-lead levels.

Table A.9-3. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Experimental Group and Sample

Period

Initial PbB

Change in PbB for Overall Percentage

Phase I Phase II Change

7-9 +0.30 -1.45 -18.1%

10-14 +0.18 -3.82 -31.8%

15-22 -2.50 -5.60 -30.3%

Although many yards had evidence of recontamination both at 6-10 and 18-22 months

post-abatement, follow-up median soil-lead concentrations were generally less than 300 ppm

(Table A.9-4). Similar results were observed for the comparison groups during Phase II. 

Dust-lead loadings were less consistent. Floor dust samples from within the residence were

composited to produce a single dust measure for each residence. Dust-lead loadings declined

significantly during the study (Table A.9-5). Comparable declines were seen in all three groups

during Phase I, despite Comparison Group B not receiving any interior house dust abatement. 

Mean floor dust-lead loadings at 6-12 months post-abatement fell significantly for the Study

Group (P#0.001), during Phase I, but remained relatively unchanged for Comparison Groups A

and B (P=0.95 and 0.15, respectively) during Phase II, despite the soil abatement. At

18-22 months post-abatement, mean levels in the Study Group rose, but were still significantly

below baseline (P=0.02). No significant declines were seen in the lead loading, lead

concentration, or dust loading measures for window well samples (Table A.9-6).
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-64

Table A.9-4. Surface Soil-Lead Concentration (ppm) by Experimental Group and

Sample Period

Group Period Sample Size Arith. Mean Std. Dev.

Study

Pre-Abate. 35 2206 1123

6-12 months Post-Abate. 35 141 299

18-22 months Post-Abate. 34 160 115

Comparison A

Pre-Abate. 31 2358 1203

6-12 months Post-Abate. 32 171 172

18-22 months Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

Comparison B

Pre-Abate. 26 2299 1129

6-12 months Post-Abate. 26 180 127

18-22 months Post-Abate. N/A N/A N/A

Conclusions (including caveats). These results demonstrate that a reduction of 2,060 ppm in

lead-contaminated soil around homes is associated with a modest decline in blood-lead levels. 

The magnitude of reduction in blood-lead level observed, however, suggests that

lead-contaminated soil abatement is not likely to be a useful clinical intervention for the majority

of urban children in the United States with low-level lead exposure. Furthermore, the decline is

confounded with the efficacy of lead-based paint stabilization and seasonal variation in blood-lead

levels.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-65

A.10 HUD Abatement Demonstration (HUD Demo) Study

Reference(s). U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. “The HUD Lead-Based

Paint Abatement Demonstration (FHA).” Washington, D. C. August 1991.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. “Comprehensive and Workable

Plan for the Abatement of Lead-Based Paint in Privately Owned Housing: Report to Congress.”

Washington, D. C. December 1990.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The study was designed to determine and evaluate the overall

usability and effectiveness of various methods of lead-based paint abatement.

Sampled Population. 172 FHA-foreclosed, single family housing units in seven urban areas:

Baltimore, MD; Washington, D. C.; Seattle, WA; Tacoma, WA; Indianapolis, IN; Denver, CO;

and Birmingham, AL. Units included in the study were those found to have a large number of

structural components covered by paint with a high concentration ($ 1.0 μg/cm2) of lead.

Intervention Strategy. Six abatement procedures were employed: 

1) encapsulation - coating and sealing of surfaces with durable coatings,

2) abrasive removal - removal of lead-based paint using mechanical removal

equipment,

3) hand-scraping with a heat gun - removal of lead-based paint using a heat gun to

loosen the paint,

4) chemical removal - removal of lead-based paint using a chemical stripper,

5) enclosure - resurfacing or covering of the surface, and

6) removal and replacement - removing contaminated substrates and replacing with

new or deleaded components.

Following the abatements, units were cleaned using HEPA vacuums and a high phosphate

wash until HUD clearance standards were met. Debris was disposed of off-site. In practice,

abrasive removal was not feasible for most surfaces and was not used.

Measurements Taken. X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) determination of lead content in paint, wet

wipe sampling of surfaces within a defined area, and core soil samples were collected.

Study Design. The 172 home abatements in this prospective study occurred between 1989 and

1990. Three of the houses had only pilot abatements performed, while the other 169 were

completely abated. The specific units to be abated were selected by first identifying older housing

likely to contain lead-based paint and then testing painted surfaces for lead using portable XRF. 

An abatement strategy, consisting of decision rules for choice of abatement method, was

randomly assigned to each house. The method used to characterize the unit abatement strategy

was always the first-choice method and was used on all components to the extent feasible. 
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-66

Second, third, and fourth choice methods were specified for each strategy. Because of the

diversity of housing components containing lead-based paint, it was generally true that no single

abatement method could be used uniformly throughout a given housing unit.

Once the lead-based paint had been abated from a component and the area cleaned,

clearance wipe samples were collected to verify the abatement. The resulting dust-lead loadings

were compared to the appropriate standard in the HUD Guidelines: 200 μg/ft2 for floors,

500 μg/ft2 for window sills, and 800 μg/ft2 for window wells. Also, core soil samples were

collected before and after the abatement procedures were employed. The wipe and soil sample

results were the primary outcome measures.

Study Results. Eighty percent of floor wipe clearance samples passed by measuring below the

200 μg/ft2 standard (Table A.10-1). Units predominantly abated using replacement methods were

most often measured to have floor dust-lead loading below the standard, 87.5%. The differences

seen in the rates at which particular methods failed to meet the standard are statistically significant

(p<0.001).

Table A.10-1.

Distribution of Wipe Samples (μg/ft2) on Floors by Clearance Standard on Initial

Wipe Test by Predominant Unit Abatement Strategy

Wipe Value Encaps. Enclose Chemical

Scrape w

Heat Gun Replacement Total

< 200

μg/ft2

188 

(86.2%)

96

(80.0%)

276

(77.3%)

163

(71.2%)

203

(87.5%)

926

(80.1%)

$ 200

μg/ft2

30

(13.8%)

24

(20.0%)

81

(22.7%)

66

(28.8%)

29

(12.5%)

230

(19.9%)

ALL

218

(100%)

120

(100%)

357

(100%)

229

(100%)

232

(100%)

1156

(100%)

The highest failure rates among window sill wipe clearance samples were for chemical

stripping and heat gun removal units (Table A.10-2). Overall, the window sill samples passed

84.7% of the time. There were significant differences among the different abatement methods.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-67

Table A.10-2.

Distribution of Wipe Samples (μg/ft2) on Window Sills by Clearance Standard

on Initial Wipe Test by Predominant Unit Abatement Strategy

Wipe Value Encaps. Enclose Chemical

Scrape w

Heat Gun Replacement Total

< 500

μg/ft2

157

(95.2%)

78

(91.8%)

173

(75.9%)

124

(75.6%)

137

(92.6%)

669

(84.7%)

$ 500

μg/ft2

8

(4.8%)

7

(8.2%)

55

(24.1%)

40

(24.4%)

11

(7.4%)

121

(15.3%)

ALL

165

(100%)

85

(100%)

228

(100%)

164

(100%)

148

(100%)

790

(100%)

Window well clearance wipe samples were more problematic than the other sample types;

only 65% were measured below 800 μg/ft2 (Table A.10-3). Units predominantly abated using

chemical stripping and heat gun removal methods had approximately 45% of their clearance wipes

above the standard. This is significantly different than the 21% failure rate encountered for units

predominantly abated using replacement methods.

Table A.10-3.

Distribution of Wipe Samples (μg/ft2) on Window Wells by Clearance Standard

on Initial Wipe Test by Predominant Unit Abatement Strategy

Wipe Value Encaps. Enclose Chemical

Scrape w

Heat Gun Replacement Total

< 800

μg/ft2

75 

(74.3%)

45

(76.3%)

95

(54.3%)

61

(55.5%)

79

(79.0%)

355

(65.1%)

$ 800

μg/ft2

26

(25.7%)

14

(23.7%)

80

(45.7%)

49

(44.5%)

21

(21.0%)

190

(34.9%)

ALL

101

(100%)

59

(100%)

175

(100%)

110

(100%)

100

(100%)

545

(100%)

 An examination of the core soil samples on a subset of 130 homes suggests that the

abatement procedures may have elevated lead levels in the surrounding soil (Table A.10-4).
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-68

Table A.10-4.

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Abatement Soil Lead Concentration (ppm) by

Urban Area

Urban Area

Number of

Homes

Arithmetic

Mean Change

in PbS

Number with

Increased PbS

Levels

Percent with

Increased PbS Levels

Baltimore / Washington 17 179.67 11 64.7

Birmingham 23 61.76 12 52.2

Denver 38 54.55 28 73.7

Indianapolis 27 122.59 24 88.9

Seattle / Tacoma 25 227.39 22 88.0

Conclusions (including caveats). Five of the six methods successfully abated the lead-based

paint hazard, but required varying degrees of effort. Abrasive sanding was not successfully

implemented because the machines kept clogging. If encapsulation and enclosure methods are

found to exhibit long-term efficacy, their low-cost and minimal waste make them ideal for most

abatement tasks. There is evidence that soil-lead levels surrounding the residences increased due

to the abatement procedures.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-69

A.11 Denver Comprehensive Abatement Performance (CAP) Study

Reference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996a), “Comprehensive Abatement

Performance Study, Volume I: Summary Report,” EPA Report 2130-R-94-013a.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996b), “Comprehensive Abatement Performance

Study, Volume II: Detailed Statistical Results,” EPA Report 2130-R-94-013b.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The Denver CAP Study sought to assess the long-term

effectiveness of two lead-based paint abatement strategies: (1) encapsulation and enclosure

methods, and (2) removal methods.

Sampled Population. Fifty-two FHA foreclosed, single family residences in Denver, Colorado,

were examined. 

Intervention Strategy. Surfaces identified via XRF to contain lead-based paint were abated

using either encapsulation, enclosure, or one of four removal methods (chemical stripping,

abrasive stripping, heat-gun stripping, and complete removal or replacement of painted

components).

Measurements Taken. Vacuum dust samples within a specified area (to permit both lead

loading and lead concentration calculations) and core soil samples were collected.

Study Design. Of the fifty-two residences selected for this prospective study, thirty-five were

abated using the aforementioned methods as part of the HUD Abatement Demonstration (HUD

Demo) Study. The remaining 17 residences were control (unabated) homes identified in the HUD

Demo Study to contain little or no lead-based paint. 

Since there is such diversity in housing components containing lead-based paint, it was

generally true that no single abatement method could be used uniformly throughout a given

housing unit. For the Denver CAP Study, each house was primarily classified according to the

abatement category (i.e., encapsulation/enclosure versus removal methods) accounting for the

largest square footage of interior abatement. However, at many HUD Demonstration houses, a

great deal of exterior abatement was also performed. Therefore, the data interpretation also

considered which specific methods were used on both the interior and exterior of the house.

Dust-lead levels were measured in two abated and one unabated room in each abated

residence, and two rooms in each control residence. In each room, air duct, floor, window sill,

and window well samples were obtained. Interior and exterior dust samples were also collected at

the entryway to the residence. Soil samples were taken at the foundation, entryway, and boundary

of the home. These dust-lead and soil sample levels were the primary outcome measures.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-70

Study Results.

The study results may be summarized as follows:

• Lead levels were often found to be higher in abated houses than in control houses,

primarily in sampling locations where no abatements were performed. The most

significant differences in dust-lead loadings were found for air duct vacuum samples

and exterior entryway vacuum samples. The most significant differences in lead

concentrations were found for air duct vacuum samples (Table A.11-1).

• Soil-lead concentrations were significantly higher at abated houses than at control

houses (Table A.11-1).

• Only for air duct samples was there a significant difference in lead concentrations

between houses abated by different methods. The most significant differences in

dust-lead loadings were found for air duct vacuum samples and floor vacuum

samples. However, it should be noted that for almost every sample type where lead

concentrations were higher in abated houses than in control houses, lead

concentrations were also typically higher in houses abated by encapsulation/

enclosure methods than in houses abated by removal methods. The same was true

for lead loadings. (Table A.11-1).

• Lead levels were often lower, and sometimes significantly lower, in control rooms

of abated houses (i.e., rooms that did not require abatement) than in abated rooms

of these same houses, although the differences observed were only of marginal

significance (10% level). There were no statistically significant differences in lead

concentrations, and lead loadings were (marginally) lower in window well samples

and floor vacuum samples. (Table A.11-2)

• Floor dust-lead loadings in abated houses were below the HUD interim standard of

200 μg/ft2, as well as the EPA guidance level (July 14, 1994) of 100 μg/ft2. 

Window sill dust-lead loadings also were below the HUD interim standard of

500 μg/ft2. However, window well dust-load loadings in both abated and unabated

houses were typically greater than the HUD interim standard of 800 μg/ft2.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-71

Table A.11-1. Summary of Effects of Significant Primary Abatement Factors

Component

Geometric Mean in Control

Houses Based on Model

Estimates

Ratio of Levels in Abated

Houses

1 to Those in

Control Houses

Ratio of Levels in E/E

Houses to Those in

Removal Houses

Lead

Load

μg/ft2

Lead

Conc.

μg/g

Dust

Load

mg/ft2

Lead

Load

μg/ft2

Lead

Conc.

μg/g

Dust

Load

mg/ft2

Lead

Load

μg/ft2

Lead

Conc.

μg/g

Dust

Load

mg/ft2

Dust

Air Duct 76 332 202 4.70** 1.59** 3.11** 3.99** 2.01** 1.80Window Well 1604 851 1857 0.86 0.98 0.88 0.54 1.46 0.37Window Sill 38 416 92 1.84 1.70 1.09 2.51 1.77 1.42Floor (Wipe) 11.3 ... ... ... ... ... 0.93 ... ...Floor (Vacuum) 16 137 118 1.76

* 1.03 1.65

* 2.02** 1.30 1.55

Interior Entryway 191 183 1055 1.05 0.85 1.19 1.15 0.95 1.24Exterior Entryway 220 184 1152 2.24

* 1.19 1.95** 1.09 1.01 1.07

Soil

Entryway (Soil) ... 126 ... ... 1.48

*

... ... 1.26 ...

Foundation (Soil) ... 86 ... ... 1.82** ... ... 0.81 ...Boundary (Soil) ... 86 ... ... 1.63** ... ... 1.27 ...
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-72

Table A.11-2. Ratio of Levels of Control Rooms to Those in Abated Rooms

Component Lead Loading Lead Concentration Dust Loading

Air Duct 0.73 0.79 0.91 

Window Channel 0.39*0.61 0.65 

Window Stool 0.67 0.69 0.96 

Floor (Vacuum) 0.56*0.87 0.65*

Interior Entryway 1.63 1.28 1.31 

 

*

 Significant at the 10 percent level.

Conclusions (including caveats). While, lead levels typically remained higher for abated houses

than for control homes the abatement methods appear efficacious in the long-term. The study

results also indicate that the lead levels after encapsulation/ enclosure abatement were typically,

though not significantly, higher than those with removal abatement. When interpreting these

results it should be noted that encapsulation/enclosure houses typically had larger amounts of

abatement performed than removal houses. Therefore, the differences in lead levels noted above

may be largely a result of the more severe initial conditions in encapsulation/enclosure houses,

that is, the greater amount of abatement required in encapsulation/enclosure houses. In addition,

abated houses were, on average, 17 years older than control houses. Thus, differences in soil-lead

levels between abated and control houses could be due to the differences in age, the current or

past presence of lead paint, or both.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-73

A.12 Milwaukee Retrospective Paint Abatement Study

References. Schultz, B.D. (1993). “Variation in Blood Lead Levels by Season and Age.” Draft

Memorandum on data from the Milwaukee Blood Screening Program. June, 1993.

Pertinent Study Objectives. Examine the effectiveness of the lead-based paint abatement

strategies implemented in the Milwaukee area in 1989-1992.

Sampled Population. Children residing in houses whose lead-based paint hazard has been at

least partially abated.

Intervention Strategy. Damaged, painted surfaces with lead loadings exceeding 1.0 mg/cm2

were abated. The exact method of abatement was not available. Clean-up procedures varied

depending upon the practices of the particular abatement contractor.

Measurements Taken. Blood-lead measurements were taken.

Study Design. Blood-lead results from children in homes where a lead-based paint abatement has

taken place were used in this retrospective study. Pre- and post-abatement blood samples were

examined, with most of the post abatement samples having been collected 3 to 12 months

following abatement. The primary outcome measure is the blood-lead level of the participating

children.

Study Results. Only preliminary results are available at this time. Blood-lead concentrations

were collected from 104 children. The arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration fell from

34 μg/dL pre-abatement to 26 μg/dL post-abatement which represents a 24% decline.

Conclusions (including caveats). The above results seem to imply that lead-based paint

abatement does reduce blood-lead levels. However, as mentioned previously the results are

preliminary at this time.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-74

A.13 New York Chelation Study

References. Markowitz, M.E., Bijur, P.E., Ruff, H.A., Rosen, J.F. (1993). “Effects of Calcium

Disodium Versenate (CaNa2EDTA) Chelation in Moderate Childhood Lead Poisoning.”

Pediatrics. 92(2):265-271.

Ruff, H.A., Bijur, P.E., Markowitz, M.E., Ma, Y., Rosen, J.F. (1993). “Declining

Blood-Lead Levels and Cognitive Changes in Moderately Lead-Poisoned Children.” Journal of

the American Medical Association. 269(13):1641-1646.

Rosen, J.F., Markowitz, M.E., Bijur, P.E., Jenks, S.T., Wielopolski, L., Karlef-Ezra, J.A.,

and Slatkin, D.N. (1991). “Sequential Measurements of Bone Lead Content by L-X-Ray

Fluorescence in CaNa2EDTA-Treated Lead-Toxic Children.” Environmental Health Perspectives.

91:57-62

Pertinent Study Objectives. The study was an effort to ascertain the efficacy of a particular

chelation therapy procedure on moderately lead-poisoned children. Effectiveness was assessed

both short-term (6-7 weeks post-treatment) and long-term (6 months post-treatment).

Sampled Population. The study examined a subset of the children, 1 to 7 years of age, referred

by their physicians to the Montefiore Medical Center Lead Clinic. A child was eligible for the

study if their blood-lead levels were between 25 μg/dL and 55 μg/dL, their erythrocyte

protoporphyrin (EP) levels were greater than 35 μg/dL and the child had not required chelation

therapy before.

Intervention Strategy. Paint hazard abatements were initiated at the child's residence following

identification that the child was moderately lead-poisoned. The abatements were either completed

before the child was released from the hospital following chelation therapy or lead-free alternative

housing was found until the abatement had been completed. The specific details of the abatement

procedure were not cited in the reference.

Measurements Taken. Measurements of the lead-based paint loading on interior residential

surfaces were collected via XRF, and LXRF tibial bone, EP, blood, and urinary measurements

were collected from each child. In addition, an index of cognitive functioning was administered.

Study Design. A total of 201 children were enrolled in this prospective study. Each enrolled

child was administered an 8-hour edetate calcium disodium (CaNa2EDTA) lead mobilization test

(LMT) and tested for iron deficiency or depletion. A positive LMT suggested chelation therapy

might prove effective in reducing their blood-lead levels, and iron deficiency was treated with iron

supplements. The New York Department of Health used visual inspection and XRF

measurements to assess whether the child's residence required lead-based paint abatement. It was

determined that the residences of 89% of the children in this study required abatement.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-75

This abstract considers the reported results for three overlapping subsets of this study. 

These subsets were cited in the three journal articles outlining the results of this study. The first

subset is addressed in Markowitz et al (1993), the second in Ruff et al (1993), and the third in

Rosen et al (1991). The first set of analyses examined a subset of 174 children. Seventy-one of

these children had a positive LMT and underwent chelation therapy. The remaining 103 children

underwent no chelation therapy and were used as a control population. Twenty-two of the

chelated children and 50 of the non-chelated children were administered iron supplements. For all

the children enrolled, body burden and environmental measures were collected (Table A.13-1). 

The environmental measures were collected both at enrollment and six weeks after (the leadbased paint abatement was performed and completed within that time), while the body burden and

cognitive function measures were collected from each child at enrollment, 6-7 weeks postenrollment, and 6 months post-enrollment. The environmental, body burden, and cognitive results

were all primary outcome measures.

Table A.13-1. Pre-Treatment Measures by Treatment Group

Measure

Chelated Group (n=71) Control Group (n=103)

Mean

Standard

Deviation Mean

Standard

Deviation

Blood-Lead

Level (μg/dL)

37.3 8.1 29.0 5.6

EP Level

(μg/dL)

143.3 88.0 78.0 43.2

Bone-Lead CNET1191.4 105.4 125.3 87.1

HES2164.4 193.8 110.6 153.3

1

 Corrected net counts.

2

 Home environment scale (XRF reading multiplied by 0-3 score for paint's condition, 0=intact, 3=peeling,

summed across all surfaces assessed within the residence).

Study Results. Six to seven weeks following enrollment, mean blood-lead levels among the

103 non-chelated children had fallen 2.5 μg/dL and mean bone-lead levels had fallen 3.3 CNET

(Table A.13-2). An analysis of the measured changes found significant differences for blood-lead

concentration, bone-lead counts, and EP concentration between the chelated and control groups

(p<0.05). The differences in HES were not statistically significant between the two groups. 

Average HES did fall from 129 to 82 among the abated residences, but 79% of the residences

were still identified as having a problem with peeling paint following abatement. Recall that the

control and chelated groups had significantly different initial mean levels for blood-lead, bonelead, and EP levels (Table A.13-1). To assess this disparity, the declines six weeks postenrollment were re-examined after developing chelated and control groups matched by initial

levels. The reanalysis found the declines were not significantly different across the two groups for

any of the measured parameters.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-76

Table A.13-2. Mean Change in Body Burden Measures at 6 Weeks Post-Treatment, by

Treatment Group

Measure Chelated Group (n=71) Control Group (n=103)

Blood-Lead (μg/dL) -7.2 -2.5

Bone-Lead (CNET) -44.9 -3.3

EP (μg/dL) -37.4 -12.6

The second subset consisted of 154 of the 201 children enrolled, 126 of which had

complete data. Sixty of the 154 children were iron deficient, 93 underwent no chelation therapy,

35 were treated once, 19 were treated twice, and 7 were chelated three times. In addition to

results at enrollment and 6-7 weeks post-enrollment, 6 month post-enrollment measurements were

cited for this subset (Table A.13-3). Despite finding no association between blood-lead levels and

cognitive index (CI) at enrollment, the authors did note that mean CI increased to a small but

significant degree over the six months following enrollment. More importantly, though changes in

CI were not related to changes in blood-lead level short-term, CI was stated to increase as bloodlead concentration decreased long-term (Table A.13-4). Furthermore, the authors suggested that

CI increased approximately 1 point for every 3 μg/dL decrease in blood-lead level.

Table A.13-3. Mean and Standard Deviation Measures, by Time Point

Measure1 Enrollment

6 Weeks

Post-Enrollment

6 Months

Post-Enrollment

Blood-Lead Level (μg/dL) 31.2

(6.5)

26.9

(6.3)

23.9

(6.5)

Cognitive Index 79.0

(13.0)

83.1

(13.6)

82.6

(13.3)

Bayley Score

(n=56)

76.9

(14.0)

78.4

(14.1)

76.6

(13.3)

Stanford-Binet Score (n=53) 83.5

(10.2)

87.0

(10.3)

88.1

(11.2)

 

1

 Subset of 126 children seen at all three time points.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-77

Table A.13-4. Mean and Standard Deviation Cognitive Index, by Treatment Group and

Time Point

Treatment Group Enrollment 6 Month Post-Enrollment

Non-Chelated

(n=80)

78.8

(11.4)

81.5

(12.3)

Chelated

(n=49)

79.2

(15.1)

83.8

(14.8)

The third subset was of 59 children, 30 of which were non-chelated. In addition to

enrollment and 6-7 week post-enrollment results, 6 month post-enrollment results for blood-lead,

bone-lead, and EP levels were reported (Table A.13-5). Some of the 29 chelated children in the

subset underwent two rounds of chelation therapy. Mean blood-lead levels among the

30 non-chelated children had fallen 6 μg/dL by 6 weeks post-enrollment and an additional

2 μg/dL by 6 months post-enrollment. Mean bone-lead levels did not change significantly among

the non-chelated children neither by 6-weeks nor 6-months post-enrollment.

Table A.13-5. Mean Blood-Lead, Bone-Lead and EP Levels, by Treatment Group and

Sampling Period

Blood-Lead Level

(μg/dL) Control (n=30) Chelated Once1

Chelated

Twice1

At Enrollment 29 37 42

After 6 Weeks 23 26 32

After 6 Months 21 24 26

Bone-Lead

(CNET) Control (n=30) Chelated Once1

Chelated

Twice1

At Enrollment 117 211 217

After 6 Weeks 120 132 161

After 6 Months 121 125 115

EP

(μg/dL) Control (n=30) Chelated Once1

Chelated

Twice1

At Enrollment 80 110 138

After 6 Weeks 82 100 88

After 6 Months 42 45 43

 

1

 References did not specify the sample size of these two groups, though together they equal the 29 chelated children.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-78

Conclusions (including caveats). Since the lead-based paint abatements were not the focus of

this study, hypotheses surrounding the abatement's efficacy were not tested. The reported results,

however, did suggest the abatements were effective. There is evidence that blood-lead, bone-lead

and EP levels declined following the partial abatement of residential lead-based paint. More

importantly, the blood-lead declines were associated with increases in cognitive index among

moderately lead-poisoned children. In addition, the study's authors determined that initial bonelead levels impacted the extent to which bone-lead declined following intervention. It should be

noted, however, that seasonal variation may have played a role in the body burden declines cited 6

months post-enrollment.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-79

A.14 Milwaukee Retrospective Educational Intervention Study

Reference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996c). “Effect of In-Home Educational

Intervention on Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Milwaukee.” EPA Report 747-R-95-009.

Schultz, B.D., Pawel, D., and Murphy, A., (1999) “A Retrospective Examination of InHome Educational Visits to Reduce Childhood Lead Levels.” Environmental Research (in

press).

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to assess the effectiveness of in-home education

efforts in Milwaukee in 1991-1994.

Sampled Population. The sample population consists of 413 children under 7 years of age, who

were identified by the Milwaukee Health Department as having initial blood-lead concentrations

between 20-24 μg/dL, and who had a follow-up blood-lead measure and had not moved before

the follow-up measure. 

Intervention Strategy. The in-home educational visits were conducted by para-professionals. 

The visits lasted approximately one hour and educated the families on nutrition, behavior change,

and housekeeping recommendations to reduce childhood lead body burden. 

Measurements Taken. Venous and capillary blood-lead measurements were taken.

Study Design. Out of the 413 children involved in this retrospective study, 187 received an 

in-home educational visit and had a follow-up blood-lead measure after the in-home visit. The

control group of 226 children did not receive a health department in-home visit, either because

they were identified before the educational outreach program was in place, or because the family

could not be contacted after several attempts. The follow-up blood-lead concentrations (PbB)

were collected 2-15 months after initial PbB measures. The primary outcome measurement were

these blood-lead measures.

Study Results. The arithmetic mean blood-lead concentration for the Educational Outreach

group declined by 21 percent, as compared to the Control group decline of 6 percent

(Table A.14-1). The difference between these decline is highly statistically significant. Also,

blood-lead levels decreased for 154 of the 187 (82%) children in the Educational Outreach group,

compared to 124 of the 226 (55%) children in the Control group. Blood-lead concentrations

were adjusted for the effects of age and seasonal variations.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-80

Table A.14-1. Blood-Lead Concentrations (μg/dL) by Study Group

Study Group N

Mean Initial PbB

(μg/dL)

Mean Decline in

PbB

Mean % Decline

in PbB

Educational Outreach 187 20 4 21

Control 226 21 1 6

Conclusions (including caveats). The results indicate that educational intervention can reduce

blood-lead levels, at least for children with blood-lead levels between 20 and 24 μg/dL before

intervention. Although children receiving visits receive significant health benefits on average,

their blood-lead concentrations were still usually above 10 μg/dL and even above 15 μg/dL.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-81

A.15 Granite City Educational Intervention Study

Reference. Kimbrough, R.D., LeVois, M., and Webb, D.R. (1994) “Management of Children

with Slightly Elevated Blood-Lead Levels.” Pediatrics. 93(2):188-191.

Statement of Dr. Renate D. Kimbrough, Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight,

Committee on Public Works and Transportation, U. S. House of Representatives. June 9, 1992.

Kimbrough, R.D., (1995) Personal Communication. January 1995.

Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH) (1995). Additional information on the

Granite City Educational Intervention Study was provided by John R. Lumpkin, M.D., Director,

and the Staff of the IDPH.

Pertinent Study Objectives. The study's objectives included an effort to evaluate the efficacy of

educational interventions to reduce blood-lead concentrations (PbB) in exposed individuals.

Sampled Population. 827 volunteers, including 490 children under six years of age, were

recruited from 388 households in Granite City, Illinois. Most homes in the community were built

prior to 1920 and contained lead-based paint. In addition, a secondary lead smelter was closed in

1983 and had been declared a superfund site.

Intervention Strategy. During home visits where the entire family was present, extensive and

intensive educational efforts were aimed at the children and families exposed to elevated levels of

lead in the surrounding environment. Instruction included identifying where lead-based paint was

commonly found, how to perform house cleaning procedures, and hygienic procedures for young

children. Suggestions were also made to carefully remove peeling paint or make it inaccessible by

installing barriers.

Measurements Taken. Venous blood samples, soil samples, dust samples from within the

residence, tap water samples, and an assessment of the lead content in interior paint were

collected.

Study Design. Initial blood samples were taken from the 490 children involved in this

prospective study and when possible, follow-up measures were collected at four months and

twelve months after this initial sample. Between the initial and four month samples, the families of

these children received extensive counseling in the prevention of lead exposure. The primary

outcome measurement was the blood-lead level of the children.

Study Results. Of the 490 children under age 6, 78 (16%) had PbB levels greater than 9 μg/dL. 

Of these 5 had PbB levels greater than 25 μg/dL. The four and twelve month follow-up measures

were available for a subset of 59 children. Two groups were considered for analysis. The first

group consisted of all 59 children, and the second group consisted of a total of 24 who had data

for all three measures. Mean blood-lead concentrations in both groups decreased significantly
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-82

(P=0.001) at the four month post-abatement measurement, and rose again by the twelve month

measure (Table A.15-1). Despite the rise in blood-lead levels, the 12-month averages remained

significantly (P=0.001) below initial levels. For all 59 children, variation was seen in the decline

of blood-lead concentrations depending upon initial PbB (Table A.15-2). A trend in the

magnitude of the decline in blood-lead levels was apparent, with larger declines observed in

children with larger initial blood-lead levels.

In addition, four month follow-up blood-lead concentrations were significantly lower than

initial levels for a small number of older children with elevated blood-lead levels. For 7 children

aged 6 to 14 years, the arithmetic mean decrease was 5.9 μg/dL, and for 3 children 15 years or

older, blood-lead levels decreased 7.0 μg/dL.

Conclusions (including caveats). There is evidence to suggest that the educational efforts

lowered blood-lead levels. These differences, however, cannot be separated from possible

seasonal or age variations. In addition, the full implications of the observed declines in blood-lead

concentration are somewhat difficult to ascertain without a control group.

Table A.15-1. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Time Period

Timing Period Measurement

Sampling Group

All Children Complete

Pre-intervention

N 59 24

Geo. Mean

(LSD)

13.83

(0.31701)

14.17

(0.37112)

Arith. Mean

(SD)

14.6

(5.37)

15.25

(6.81)

4 Months 

Post-intervention

N 54 24

Geo. Mean

(LSD)

7.36

(0.33440)

7.72

(0.29324)

Arith. Mean

(SD)

7.76

(2.42)

8.03

(2.20)

Arith. Decline 6.83 7.23

Arith. % Decline 44.8% 47.4%

12 Months

Post-intervention

N 29 24

Geo. Mean

(LSD)

9.08

(0.33822)

8.73

(0.34014)

Arith. Mean

(SD)

9.58

(3.08)

9.20

(2.94)

Arith. Decline 5.59 6.05

Arith. % Decline 32.1% 39.7%
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-83

Table A.15-2. Blood-Lead Concentration (μg/dL) by Initial PbB 

Initial PbB

4 Months 12 Months

Sample

Size

(N)

Arith.

Mean

Decline

Percent

Decline

(%)

Sample

Size

(N)

Arith.

Mean

Decline

Percent

Decline

(%)

<10*10 4.11 42.6 4 1.68 17.2

10-15 26 5.10 41.7 14 2.87 24.1

15-20 9 7.62 43.5 6 8.07 46.3

20-25 7 11.69 55.0 3 8.67 42.5

>25 2 22.45 65.9 2 20.40 59.9

 

*

 All children were between 9 and 10 μg/dL.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-84

A.16 Milwaukee Prospective Educational Intervention Study

Reference. Schultz, B.D., Peppard, P.E., Kanarek, M.S., Murphy, A., White, K.K., and Stroup,

C.R., (1998) “A Prospective Study of the Effectiveness of In-Home Educational Visits to Reduce

Lead Levels in Children.” Draft manuscript.

Pertinent Study Objectives. This study sought to assess the effectiveness of in-home education

efforts in Milwaukee in 1993.

Sampled Population. Children selected were between 9 and 72 months old with blood-lead

levels greater than 20 μg/dL, had not received a in-home visit in the previous year, and their

dwelling had not undergone an abatement within the previous year. 

Intervention Strategy. The in-home educational visit was conducted by para-professionals. The

visits lasted approximately one hour and educated the families on nutrition, behavior change, and

housekeeping recommendations to reduce childhood lead body burden. No paint abatements

were performed in these homes. Children in the 25-40 μg/dL range received an additional visit

from a Public Health Nurse, who conducted a general health assessment of the child/family and

also answered any questions about lead. 

Measurements Taken. Venous and capillary blood-lead measurements were taken.

Study Design. Three separate groups of children were examined in this prospective study. The

Educational Outreach Group contained 54 children whose initial PbB was between 20-24 μg/dL. 

For comparison, a Control Group of 122 children was selected from those previously identified in

the Milwaukee Retrospective Study, whose follow-up blood-lead measurement was taken within

3 months of the initial measurement. The Pre-abatement Educational Outreach Group consisted

of 28 children who had an initial PbB between 25-40 μg/dL. Abatements were required for these

children, but had not been implemented at the time of the in-home visit and follow-up PbB

measurement. The primary outcome measurement was the blood-lead level of the participating

children. Blood-lead measures were collected an average of 2 months after the in-home visit for

the Educational Outreach and Control Groups and an average of 2 to 6 months for the Preabatement Educational Outreach Group.

Study Results. Both the Educational Outreach and Control Groups had initial mean PbB levels

of approximately 22 μg/dL. The Educational Outreach Group mean decline was about 3 μg/dL

more than the Control Group at the 2 month follow-up. This difference was statistically

significant. Mean blood-lead concentrations for the Pre-abatement Educational Outreach Group

declined by 19.3% (from 28.9 to 22.6 μg/dL). Both the Educational Outreach and Pre-abatement

Educational Outreach Groups had approximately the same percentage drop. However the

Pre-abatement Group had a greater absolute decline, suggesting greater declines with greater

initial blood-lead concentrations. Blood-lead levels were adjusted for the effects of age and

seasonal variations.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-85

Conclusions (including Caveats). These results seem to imply that educational intervention

does appear to reduce blood-lead levels, although blood-lead concentrations usually remained

above 10 μg/dL.
This material was updated from Appendix A of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

C-86

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D-1

APPENDIX D

REVIEW OF ABATEMENT METHODS ASSOCIATED WITH

TEMPORARY INCREASES IN BLOOD-LEAD LEVELS
D-2

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This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-3

In some cases residential lead-based paint abatement has resulted in a temporary increase

in blood-lead (PbB) levels in children and abatement workers. Abatement methods most

associated with this phenomenon include sanding, dry scraping, and the use of heat guns or

torches to soften paint so that it may be scraped more easily. These procedures can create large

amounts of lead contaminated dust or airborne lead, which is not easily removed from the

residence. 

The following paragraphs provide short descriptions of the use of sanding, dry scraping,

heat guns, and torches in lead-based paint abatements, followed by a summary of the scientific

evidence on each abatement method. In addition to the prospective and retrospective studies

cited, there are many case reports in the literature that document elevated PbB in children or

abatement workers following the removal of leaded paint using these methods (e.g., Rey-Alvarez

and Menke-Hargrave, 1987; Fischbein, et al, 1981; Feldman, 1978; Amitai, et al, 1987). Other

sources document such elevated PbB levels, but do not associate the elevated levels with specific

abatement practices (e.g., Rabin, et al, 1994; Swindell, et al, 1994).

In some cases, sample personal air exposure (PAE) data were available. These data may

be compared to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure

limit (PEL) of 50 μg/m3 or the OSHA action limit of 30 μg/m3. The OSHA PEL is the current

standard to protect construction workers against chronic exposure to airborne lead. Medical

monitoring of PbB levels is required for workers who are exposed to lead levels above the action

limit. Both the PEL and action limit are based on time weighted average exposure over an eight

hour work day.

B.1 SANDING

B.1.1 Description of Sanding

Leaded paint can be removed by manual sanding, or machine sanding with ordinary

circular, reciprocating, belt, or palm sanders. Related methods include the use of needle guns,

grinders, brushes, or abrasive blasting tools to abrasively or percussively remove leaded paint. 

Power tools used for lead-based paint abatement are sometimes fitted with a high-efficiency

particulate accumulator (HEPA) dust collection system. In some instances, the surface is misted
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-4

to contain dust and avoid aggravating the lead hazard. Use of a respirator is recommended when

applying any of these abrasive removal methods. A more powerful respirator may be required

when using power tools without HEPA dust collection systems (Labor, 1993).

B.1.2 Scientific Evidence on Sanding

Use of this method was limited in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development (HUD) Demonstration, because many surfaces were not flat, or could not endure

abrasive action (e.g., drywall). When applied, abrasive removal by machine sanding was found to

generate a large amount of potentially hazardous dust and HEPA attachments to collect this dust

were found to be ineffective in most instances (HUD, 1991).

Personal air lead exposure data, for housing abatement projects where power tools with

HEPA dust collection systems were in use, were reported for 28 samples, averaging 185 μg/m3

with individual sample exposures ranging from .2 μg/m3 to 1596 μg/m3. PAEs for vacuum

blasting were reported for 4 samples, averaging 169 μg/m3 with individual sample exposures

ranging from 2 μg/m3 to 665 μg/m3 (Labor, 1993).

Sanding is frequently used in combination with other abatement methods. Consequently,

studies reporting results from such abatements do not always distinguish among the methods

applied. Additional results on abatements where sanding was employed, including documented

increases in PbB levels of resident children following abatement, are presented in the sections on

dry scraping and torch methods.

B.2 DRY SCRAPING

B.2.1 Description of Dry Scraping

Dry scraping is the traditional method of surface preparation for home renovation and

remodeling, whereby paint is removed by hand-scraping with a putty knife or similar tool. In

terms of lead-based paint abatement, this method is time-consuming and generates a large amount

of lead containing dust. Wet scraping, where the surface is misted to reduce dust levels, is

preferred for work on lead-based paint surfaces (HUD, 1995). However, dry scraping usually has

been deemed acceptable for small surfaces, e.g., near electrical outlets.
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-5

B.2.2 Scientific Evidence on Dry Scraping

In a retrospective study of preschool children in Boston, dry scraping and sanding were

associated with an increase of 9.1 μg/dL in the PbB levels of 41 children during abatement,

compared with their pre-abatement levels. Abatements were performed in accordance with state

regulations at the time, which required that lead-based paint be removed from or permanently

covered on all chewable surfaces below 4 feet and that loose or peeling paint be made intact on all

other surfaces. For these abatements, dry scraping was used to remove paint and sanding was

used to feather the edges to prevent additional deterioration and prepare the surface for

repainting. As such, the effects of dry scraping and sanding cannot be isolated. The PbB level

during abatement was determined about 2 months after the pre-abatement PbB measurement. 

Abatements were usually completed in 3 to 4 months (Amitai, et al, 1991).

PAEs for dry scraping were reported for 6 samples, averaging 45 μg/m3 with individual

sample exposures ranging from 6 μg/m3 to 167 μg/m3 (Labor, 1993).

B.3 HAND SCRAPING WITH HEAT GUN

B.3.1 Description of Hand Scraping with Heat Gun

This procedure entails using a heat gun to soften the paint, which may then be removed by

hand-scraping. Heating the paint can generate high levels of volatilized lead, which creates a risk

hazard to the abatement worker and makes the final cleanup process more difficult. Commercial

heat guns typically produce air temperatures of approximately 1000 F at the gun nozzle. A

respirator is strongly recommended during this procedure due to the potential release of

volatilized lead and organic compounds (HUD, 1991; NIOSH, 1992; Labor, 1993).

B.3.2 Scientific Evidence on Handscraping with Heat Gun

Despite softening the paint, this procedure had mixed success in abating lead-based paint

from floors and windows in the HUD Demonstration. Residences abated by hand-scraping with

heat gun failed the initial clearance test 28.8, 24.4, and 44.5 percent of the time for floors,

window sills, and window wells, respectively. In comparison, residences abated by replacement
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-6

of building components coated with lead-based paint failed the initial clearance test 12.5, 7.4, and

21.0 percent of the time for floors, window sills, and window wells (HUD, 1991).

Although a 700"F temperature restriction was placed on heat guns used in the HUD

Demonstration, PAEs exceeded the OSHA action limit in 17.5 percent of 360 samples collected

by HUD contractors when a heat gun was in use. In addition, 6 of 10 PAE samples collected by

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) investigators during interior heat

gun work exceeded the OSHA PEL. The PAE samples collected by HUD contractors and

NIOSH investigators tended to be over short time periods, however it was assumed that the

sampling periods were representative of full shift exposure (NIOSH, 1992; HUD,1991).

A slight (though not statistically significant) increase in mean PbB was observed within

one month of abatement for 19 children living in 18 Baltimore homes abated by this method, even

with thorough (wet cleaning with high-phosphate detergent together with dry vacuuming with

standard shop vacuums) cleanup following the abatements. Post-abatement dust-lead levels in

these homes showed decreases in window sill and window well dust-lead levels, but increased

levels on floors. By six months post-abatement, dust-lead levels were similar to, or greater than,

pre-abatement levels (Farfel and Chisolm, 1990).

PAEs during heat gun use were reported for 380 samples, averaging 26 μg/m3 per hour

over 8 hours with individual sample exposures ranging from 0.4 μg/m3 to 916 μg/m3

(Labor, 1993).

B.4 TORCH METHODS

B.4.1 Description of Torch Methods

Similar to the heat gun method, a propane torch can be used to soften lead containing

paint, before removing it by hand-scraping. Alternatively, the torch can be used to burn the paint,

with residue removed by sanding. As with heat guns, high levels of lead and organic compounds

can be volatilized. Indeed, since there is less control over temperature, volatilized lead levels are

likely to be greater. 
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-7

B.4.2 Scientific Evidence on Torch Methods

In the Boston Retrospective study, an average increase of 35.7 μg/dL in PbB during

abatement, compared with pre-abatement PbB, was reported for 4 children whose homes were

abated using torches to soften lead containing paint prior to scraping (Amitai, et al, 1991).

 In 53 Baltimore homes, traditional methods of abatement (usually entailing open-flame

burning and sanding) resulted in 3 to 6 fold increases in lead-contaminated house dust over

pre-abatement levels, with 10 to 100 fold increases at abated sites. By 6 months post-abatement

dust-lead levels were similar to, or greater than, pre-abatement levels. The mean PbB of

27 children living in these homes increased by 6.8 μg/dL within one month of abatement (Farfel

and Chisolm, 1990). 

In the same study, a subset of 19 dwellings were monitored more frequently. Downward

trends in lead dust on floors and window sills were observed following abatement. These trends

were greatest during the first month. By 3 months post-abatement, dust-lead levels were similar

to the levels that would be observed in these homes at 6 months post-abatement. At 6 months

post-abatement, dust-lead levels in these homes were similar to the levels observed in all study

homes (Farfel and Chisolm, 1990).

A Baltimore study of 184 children who received inpatient chelation therapy found that

PbB increased during the first 3 months after discharge and remained stable for the remainder of

the 12 month study period. Discharge was keyed to abatement of the dwelling, or relocation of

the family to lead-free public housing. Study homes were usually abated by using a gas torch to

soften paint so that it could be scraped off, followed by sanding down to bare wood. Children

discharged to abated homes, or who routinely visited unabated lead containing homes or abated

homes, had significantly higher PbB than children residing exclusively in lead-free public housing

(38.5 vs. 28.8 μg/dL at 3 months). In addition, PbB increased by about 10 μg/dL within about

3 months in a small number of children who moved from lead-free public housing to abated

homes, and decreased similarly in those who moved from abated homes to lead-free public

housing (Chisolm, et al, 1985).
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-8

B.5 DISCUSSION

The studied abatements often combined methods which can produce large amounts of lead

contaminated dust or volatilized lead with poor cleanup. Though improved cleanup may 

mitigate the effects of increased dust-lead levels, it is not a complete solution. Children and

workers may be exposed during the deleading process, prior to cleanup. Also, improved cleanup

was not helpful in Baltimore (Farfel and Chisolm, 1990) or Massachusetts, where more stringent

abatement regulations were enacted in 1988 (Swindell, et al, 1994). Indeed, it may be impossible

to completely remove leaded dust from carpets, as demonstrated in Cincinnati (USEPA, 1993c).

The abatement methods under consideration have been reviewed by HUD and the

U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Although

their focus was on worker protection rather than reducing childhood lead exposure, the

recommendations of these agencies regarding the abatement methods under consideration may be

of interest. Table 1 summarizes the recommendations in "Guidelines for the Evaluation and

Control of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in Housing" (HUD, 1995) and "Lead Exposure in

Construction; Interim Final Rule" (Labor, 1993) regarding sanding, dry scraping, hand scraping

with heatgun, and torch methods. Also, the results of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Renovation and Remodelling Study will be available soon. The focus of this study is on worker

protection as well, however, the additional information on personal air exposure to airborne lead

during paint removal by sanding and dry scraping which will be provided may be of interest.

Although a lengthy discussion of alternative methods is beyond the scope of this

document, it should be noted that a variety of intervention strategies have been studied. In

addition to sanding and hand scraping with a heat gun, the HUD Demonstration tested abatement

strategies of chemical removal of lead-based paint, encapsulation, enclosure, and replacement of

building components coated with lead-based paint. Most of these alternative methods produced

less hazardous waste and were less likely to produce high levels of airborne lead. In addition,

abated residences were more likely to pass initial clearance tests (HUD, 1991). In Boston,

significant declines in PbB levels during abatement, compared with pre-abatement PbB, were

observed in 12 children whose homes were abated by replacing or permanently covering painted

surfaces (Amitai, et al. 1991). Alternative intervention strategies including in-place management,
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-9

dust control, and educational interventions have been used effectively, as well as these alternative

abatement strategies. Many of these methods have been summarized and their effectiveness

reviewed (Battelle, 1994a; Burgoon, et al, 1993; USEPA 1994a, 1994b).

Table B-1. Summary of HUD and OSHA Recommendations Regarding Sanding, Dry

Scraping, Hand Scraping with Heat Gun, and Torch Abatement Methods.

Abatement Method HUD Guidelines OSHA Rulea

Sanding

 -Manual

 -Powerb, with HEPA Dust Collection

 -Powerb, no HEPA Dust Collection

Not Mentioned

Recommended

Banned

Halfmask APR

Halfmask APR 

Poweredc APR

Dry Scraping Not Recommendedd Halfmask APR

Hand Scraping with Heat Gun

 - Below 1100"F

 - Above 1100"F

Recommended

Banned

Halfmask APR 

Halfmask APR

Torch Methods Banned Not Mentioned

a Respirators are required unless air sampling at the specific job site indicates lower lead levels

than usual. Halfmask air purifying respirators (APR) should have a protection factor of 10. 

Powered APRs should have a protection factor of at least 25, with higher protection factors

required for some tasks.

b This includes power grinders, brushes, needle guns, sanders, and abrasive blasting devices.

c Higher protection factor required for abrasive blasting devices than for other power tools.

d Dry scraping is not recommended by HUD, nor is it banned. Wet scraping is preferred over dry

scraping, however, when wet scraping is not safe or practical, e.g., near electrical outlets, dry

scraping is permissible.
This material was reproduced from Appendix B of EPA Report 747-R-95-006, July 1995 

D-10

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E-1 March 12, 1999

APPENDIX E:

REVIEW OF PUBLISHED INFORMATION ON POST-INTERVENTION WIPE

DUST-LEAD LOADINGS ON FLOORS AND WINDOW SILLS
E-2 March 12, 1999

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E-3 March 12, 1999

March 12, 1999

DRAFT FINAL REPORT

on

REVIEW OF PUBLISHED INFORMATION ON POST-INTERVENTION

WIPE DUST-LEAD LOADINGS ON FLOORS AND WINDOW SILLS

by

Robert A. Lordo, Brandon J. Wood,

Amy E. Thomas, and Nancy A. Niemuth

BATTELLE

505 King Avenue

Columbus, Ohio 43201-2693

for

Bradley Schultz, EPA Work Assignment Manager

Sineta Wooten, EPA Project Officer

Technical Branch

National Program Chemicals Division

Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Washington, D.C. 20460

Work Assignment 4-16

Contract No. 68-D5-0008
E-4 March 12, 1999

Battelle Disclaimer

Because of the uncertainties inherent in experimental or

research work, Battelle assumes no responsibility or liability for

any consequences of use, misuse, inability to use, or reliance

upon the information contained herein, beyond any express

obligations embodied in the governing written agreement

between Battelle and the United States Government.

EPA Disclaimer

The material in this document has not been subject to

Agency technical and policy review. Views expressed by the

authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect those of

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of trade

names, products, or services does not convey, and should not

be interpreted as conveying, official EPA approval,

endorsement, or recommendation.

This report is copied on recycled paper.
E-5 March 12, 1999

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report summarizes published information on lead loadings (amount of lead per unit

surface area) in dust samples collected by wipe techniques, as reported by earlier lead intervention

studies. This information is used to evaluate assumptions made on post-intervention dust-lead

loadings (40 μg/ft2 for floors, 100 μg/ft2 for window sills) within the §403 Risk Analysis.

This report has identified the following seven studies in which some type of paint or dust

intervention was performed, dust samples were collected using wipes or some other technique

(e.g., BRM vacuum) whose results could be converted to wipe-equivalent dust-lead loadings, and

post-intervention dust-lead loadings on floors and/or window sills were reported:

• Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement Studies

• Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement Study

• Baltimore Repair & Maintenance (R&M) Study

• Boston Interim Dust Intervention Study

• Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Grant Program (“HUD

Grantees”)

• Denver Comprehensive Abatement Performance (CAP) Study

• Jersey City Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction (CLEAR) Study

These studies employed a variety of intervention strategies, including single or repeated dust

cleanings and interim control or complete abatement of lead-based paint. Dust-lead loadings were

measured at varying intervals following intervention. Post-intervention dust-lead loadings were

summarized for 19 groups of housing units across these seven studies.

For both floors and window sills, geometric mean and median dust-lead loadings were

observed below the post-intervention assumptions established in the §403 Risk Analysis in a

majority of the study groups. However, this does not preclude results for individual housing units

from being above the assumed levels. Furthermore, the extent to which results for these studies

represent the nation’s housing stock has not been determined. Results are now presented

separately for floors and window sills.

•
E-6 March 12, 1999

POST-INTERVENTION FLOOR DUST-LEAD LOADINGS According to Table ES-1, all but two

of the 19 study groups reported geometric mean or median floor dust-lead loadings at or below

41 μg/ft 2, for periods ranging from 6 months to 6 years post-intervention. The other two study

groups were from the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement Study, where pre-intervention

geometric mean dust-lead loadings were much greater (556 μg/ft2 and 1261 μg/ft2) than any other

study group (at most 58.6 μg/ft 2). Eleven study groups reported geometric mean or median floor

dust-lead loadings at or below 21 μg/ft2 at follow-up periods ranging from 12 months to 2 years. 

Four of the HUD Grantees study groups reported median floor dust-lead loadings at or below 10

μg/ft 2 at 12 months post-intervention. Median pre-intervention floor dust-lead loadings in these

four groups ranged from 9 to 26 μg/ft 2.

In the HUD Grantees evaluation, seven of the eight largest grantees have median floor

dust-lead loadings at or below 21 μg/ft2 at 12 months post-intervention, compared to a median of

14 μg/ft 2 across all grantees. Although pre-intervention floor dust-lead loadings were lower in the

HUD Grantees evaluation compared to other studies, these preliminary results suggest that floor

dust-lead loadings can be maintained at levels below 40 μg/ft2 for at least 12 months

post-intervention.

Results from the Denver CAP study, the Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement study, the

Baltimore R&M study, the Boston Interim Dust Intervention study, and the Jersey City CLEARS

suggest that geometric mean floor dust-lead loadings of below 40 μg/ft2 can be observed for up to

six years post-intervention.

POST-INTERVENTION WINDOW SILL DUST-LEAD LOADINGS

Summaries of post-intervention window sill dust-lead loadings are presented in

Table ES-2 according to housing group. Post-intervention geometric means or medians range

from 24 μg/ft2 to 958 μg/ft 2, which are considerably higher than the summaries for floors. Eleven

study groups had geometric mean or median post-intervention window sill dust-lead loadings

below 100 μg/ft2, 6 groups were at or below 51 μg/ft 2, and 3 groups were at or below 41 μg/ft 2.
E-7 March 12, 1999

Table ES-1. Summaries of Pre- and Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead Loadings

Study Study Group

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings1

(μg/ft2)

Post-Intervention

Floor Dust-Lead Loadings1

Time Following

Intervention

(Months)

Summary Value

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore

Experimental Paint

Abatement Studies2

Study 1 1,261 6-9 99

Study 2 556 1.5 - 3.5 Years 69

Baltimore Follow-up

Paint Abatement

Study2

12-Month Follow-up NA 10-14 20

19-Month Follow-up NA 14-24 36

Baltimore R&M

Study3

Previously-Abated Units 46 4 - 6 Years 33

Units Slated for R&M

Intervention 59 24 35

Boston Interim Dust

Intervention Study2

Automatic Intervention 33 6 24

Randomized Intervention 37 6 31

HUD Grantees4

All Grantees 19 12 14

Baltimore 41 12 41

Boston 24 12 18

Massachusetts 24 12 9

Milwaukee 14 12 10

Minnesota 18 12 18

Rhode Island 26 12 6

Vermont 28 12 21

Wisconsin 9 12 5

Denver CAP Study5 Abated Units NA 2 Years 21

Jersey City

CLEARS6 Dust Intervention 22 12 15

1 Values are geometric means except for the HUD Grantees studies, where values are medians. “NA” indicates not available.

2 Results are adjusted to reflect total dust-lead loadings by exponentiating the “bioavailable” dust-lead loadings as reported in the study

to the 1.1416 power.

3 Results for the Baltimore R&M Study are converted from BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

4 Data collected through September, 1997

5 Results for the Denver CAP study are converted from CAP cyclone dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

6 An alternative (LWW) wipe sampling method was used in the CLEARS study. No adjustments were made to convert the LWW wipe

loadings reported in this study to standard wipe loadings.

Note: More details are provided in the main body of the report.
E-8 March 12, 1999

Table ES-2. Summaries of Pre- and Post-Intervention Window Sill Dust-Lead

Loadings

Study Study Group

Pre-Intervention Sill

Dust-Lead Loadings1

(μg/ft2)

Post-Intervention 

Sill Dust-Lead Loadings1

Time Following

Intervention

(Months)

Summary Value

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore

Experimental Paint

Abatement Studies2

Study 1 15,215 6-9 958 

Study 2 2,784 1.5 - 3.5 Years 199 

Baltimore Follow-up

Paint Abatement

Study2

12-Month Follow-up NA 10-14 41

19-Month Follow-up NA 14-24 147 

Baltimore R&M

Study3

Previously-Abated Units 164 4 - 6 Years 98

Units Slated for R&M

Intervention 778 24 205 

Boston Interim Dust

Intervention Study2

Automatic Intervention 787 6 210 

Randomized Intervention 205 6 110 

HUD Grantees4

All Grantees 258 12 90

Baltimore 1,191 12 68

Boston 174 12 49

Massachusetts 328 12 50

Milwaukee 264 12 217 

Minnesota 266 12 77

Rhode Island 314 12 85

Vermont 147 12 40

Wisconsin 150 12 51

Denver CAP Study5 Abated Units NA 2 Years 66

Jersey City

CLEARS6 Dust Intervention 75 12 24

1 Values are geometric means except for the HUD Grantees studies, where values are medians. “NA” indicates not available.

2 Results are adjusted to reflect total dust-lead loadings by exponentiating the “bioavailable” dust-lead loadings as reported in the

study to the 1.1416 power.

3 Results for the Baltimore R&M Study are converted from BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

4 Data collected through September, 1997

5 Results for the Denver CAP study are converted from CAP cyclone dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

6 An alternative (LWW) wipe sampling method was used in the CLEARS study. No adjustments were made to convert the LWW

wipe loadings reported in this study to standard wipe loadings.

Note: More details are provided in the main body of the report.
E-9 March 12, 1999

All but one of the HUD Grantees study groups (the Milwaukee grantee) had median

window sill dust-lead loadings below 100 μg/ft2 at 12 months post-intervention. In addition,

geometric mean window sill dust-lead loadings were below 100 μg/ft2 for up to two years

post-intervention in the Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement study, Denver CAP study, and

Jersey City CLEARS. However, in the Baltimore R&M study, Baltimore Experimental Paint

Abatement studies, and Boston Interim Dust Intervention study, geometric mean dust-lead

loadings remained above 100 μg/ft2 over time. In addition, the 19-month follow-up study group

within the Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement study and study group #2 of the Baltimore

Experimental Paint Abatement studies suggest that geometric mean dust-lead loadings can dip

below 100 μg/ft2 immediately after intervention, but then exceed this level after one year or so.
E-10 March 12, 1999

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E-11 March 12, 1999

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Section 403 of the Toxic Substances Control Act, as amended within the Residential

Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992 (Title X), requires the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) to establish criteria for identifying lead-based paint hazards, including

lead-contaminated household dust and residential soil. In June, 1998, EPA completed a risk

analysis to provide a scientific foundation for establishing regulatory standards for lead in paint,

dust, and soil, in response to §403. EPA used the methods and findings of this risk analysis to

issue a proposed rule (40 CFR Part 745, dated 3 June 1998) containing proposed standards for

lead-based paint hazards in target housing and child-occupied facilities. The proposed §403

standards were specified as follows:

Environmental Parameter Proposed §403 Standard for the Parameter 

Average floor dust-lead loading 50 μg/ft2

Average window sill dust-lead

loading

250 μg/ft2

Yard-wide average soil-lead

concentration

2,000 ppm

Amount of deteriorated leadbased paint on painted building

components

• 10 ft2 on exterior components with large surface areas

• 2 ft2 on interior components with large surface areas

• 10% of total surface area of components with small surface areas

Dust-lead loading standards assume a wipe dust collection technique.

One goal of the §403 risk analysis was to determine how the likelihood of children with

blood-lead concentrations exceeding certain thresholds (10 and 20 μg/dL) declines as a result of

reducing environmental-lead levels when interventions are performed in response to §403 rules. 

An empirical model was used in both a pre- and post-intervention setting to predict geometric

mean blood-lead concentration as a function of environmental-lead levels, including average dustlead loadings for floors and window sills. It was assumed that pre-intervention average dust-lead

loadings on floors and window sills were reduced when performing the following interventions:

• Dust cleaning (as triggered by exceeding either the floor or window sill dust-lead

standards)
E-12 March 12, 1999

• Interior paint abatement

• Soil removal

For each of these interventions, the assumed post-intervention wipe dust-lead loadings are

as follows:

• Floors: 40 μg/ft 2

 or the pre-intervention value, whichever is smaller

• Window sills: 100 μg/ft 2 or the pre-intervention value, whichever is smaller.

Note that both assumptions are below their respective §403 standards. Post-intervention

dust-lead loadings are assumed to hold for four years following a dust cleaning, 20 years

following interior paint abatement, and permanently following soil removal.

Since the §403 risk analysis was performed, additional information has been identified

which could be used to refine the assumptions on post-intervention wipe dust-lead loadings. This

report examines some of that information and summarizes existing data from intervention studies

to characterize pre- and post-intervention wipe dust-lead loadings.
E-13 March 12, 1999

2.0 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION

According to Section 6.1.1 of the §403 risk analysis report, the post-intervention dust-lead

loadings of 40 μg/ft2 for floors and 100 μg/ft2 for window sills were selected based on data from

EPA’s Comprehensive Abatement Performance (Denver CAP) study and the Baltimore

Experimental Paint Abatement study. Justification was as follows:

• Geometric mean vacuum dust-lead loadings from abated units in the Denver CAP

study were 29 μg/ft2 for floors (187 samples) and 92 μg/ft2 for window sills

(78 samples), where the samples were collected approximately two years after

paint intervention performed within the HUD Lead-Based Paint Abatement

Demonstration.

• Geometric mean wipe dust-lead loadings in the Baltimore Experimental Paint

Abatement study were 41 μg/ft2 for floors and 103 μg/ft2 for window sills, in

13 housing units approximately 18-42 months after complete paint intervention.

Intervention studies that contain information on pre- and post-intervention dust-lead

loadings (assuming either wipe dust collection methods or a method in which the reported

loadings can be converted to wipe-equivalent loadings) and that can be used to evaluate the §403

assumptions on post-intervention dust-lead loadings are identified in Table 1. These studies were

included in USEPA, 1995a, and USEPA, 1998, which contain summary information on studies

available in the scientific literature whose findings could be used to make conclusions on the

effectiveness of lead hazard intervention (defined as “any non-medical activity that seeks to

prevent a child from being exposed to the lead in his or her surrounding environment”). A

summary of key information on study design and conclusions for the studies in Table 1 is found in

Appendix A. When comparing dust-lead loading results across the studies in Table 1, the

following issues should be considered.

CONVERTING VACUUM DUST-LEAD LOADINGS TO WIPE-EQUIVALENT LOADINGS

Two of the studies in Table 1 used dust collection methods other than the wipe method. 

The Baltimore R&M study used the BRM vacuum method, while the Denver CAP study 
Table 1. Studies Containing Information on Pre-Intervention and Post-Intervention Dust-Lead Loadings on

Floors and Window Sills, Where Wipe Collection Methods or a Method Whose Loadings Can Be

Converted to Wipe-Equivalents Were Used

Study Study

Duration

Type of Interventions

Considered

Type of Wipe

Digestion Method

Reference(s)

Baltimore (MD) Dust Control

Study

1981 Paint interventions

Some units received periodic dust

control

Cold HCl Charney et al., 1983

Baltimore (MD) Experimental

Paint Abatement Studies

1986-87

(Study #1)

12/91 - 01/92

(Study #2)

Paint interventions using

experimental procedures, with

extensive cleanup

Cold HCl Farfel and Chisolm, 1991

USEPA, 1987

Farfel et al., 1994

Baltimore (MD) Follow-up Paint

Abatement Study

01/91 - 06/92 Paint interventions with extensive

clean-up

Cold HCl MDE, 1995

Baltimore (MD) Repair and

Maintenance (R&M) Study

1993-95 Various types of R&M paint

interventions (including cleanup,

prevention of recontamination, and

education)

BRM vacuum

method was used

USEPA, 1996c

USEPA, 1997b

USEPA, 1997c

Baltimore (MD)

Traditional/Modified Paint

Abatement Study

1984-85 “Traditional” and “modified” paint

abatements, with some cleanup.

Cold HCl Farfel and Chisolm, 1990

Boston (MA) Interim Dust

Intervention Study

05/93 - 04/95 Intervention groups received paint

and/or dust intervention (low-tech). 

Comparison group received an

outreach visit.

Cold HCl Aschengrau et al., 1998

Mackey et al., 1996

East St. Louis (IL) Educational

Intervention Study

1994-95 Educational materials provided,

potential lead hazards identified.

Cold HCl (likely) Copley, 1995

E-14 March 10 1999
Table 1. Studies Containing Information on Pre-Intervention and Post-Intervention Dust-Lead Loadings on

Floors and Window Sills, Where Wipe Collection Methods or a Method Whose Loadings Can Be

Converted to Wipe-Equivalents Were Used (Continued)

Study Study

Duration

Type of Interventions

Considered

Type of Wipe

Digestion Method

Reference(s)

Evaluation of the HUD LeadBased Paint Hazard Control

Grant Program (HUD Grantees)

(data collected through August,

1997)

1994 - present Wide range of interventions to

reduce/eliminate lead-based paint

hazards.

Heated HNO3/H2O2 NCLSH and UC, 1997

NCLSH and UC, 1998

HUD Abatement Demonstration

Program/EPA Comprehensive

Abatement Performance

(Denver CAP) Study

1989-90

(HUD Demo)

03/92 - 04/92

(Denver CAP

Study)

Encapsulation/enclosure

Various paint removal methods

Heated HNO3/H2O2

(CAP cyclone was

used in the Denver

CAP Study)

HUD, 1991

USEPA, 1996a

USEPA, 1996b

Jersey City (NJ) Children’s Lead

Exposure and Reduction

(CLEAR) Dust Intervention

Study1

1992-94 Biweekly dust control assistance

and educational sessions

Heated HNO3/H2O2 Adgate et al., 1995

Rhoads et al., 1996

Lioy et al., 1997

Paris Paint Abatement Study 01/90 - 02/92 Paint interventions with dust

cleaning

Unspecified Nedellec et al., 1995

Rochester (NY) Educational

Intervention Study

08/93 - 06/94 Intervention group received

direction on performing periodic

dust control. Control group

received educational materials

only.

Heated HNO3/H2O2 Lanphear et al., 1995

Lanphear et al., 1996

1 An alternative (LWW) wipe sampling method was used in the CLEARS study. No adjustments were made to convert the LWW wipe loadings reported in this study to standard wipe

loadings.

E-15 March 10, 1999
E-16 March 12, 1999

used a cyclone vacuum specifically developed for the study (CAP cyclone). While

post-intervention wipe dust-lead loadings are of interest in this report, these two studies are

included in Table 1 as previous efforts allow the vacuum dust-lead loadings to be converted to

wipe-equivalent loadings. These conversions were made prior to displaying results from these

two studies in this report.

The Baltimore R&M study collected composite dust samples using the BRM vacuum

method. The conversion of BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings for the

Baltimore R&M study was developed within the §403 risk analysis effort (USEPA, 1997a) and

takes the following form:

Floors: Wipe = (p×8.34×BRM0.371) + ((1-p)×3.01×BRM0.227)

Window sills: Wipe = 14.8×BRM0.453

where Wipe is the average wipe dust-lead loading, BRM is the average BRM dust-lead loading,

and p is the proportion of a composite floor-dust sample obtained from uncarpeted floors. These

conversion equations were determined based on side-by-side BRM/wipe dust-lead loading data

from four studies.

Dust-lead loadings for samples collected by the Denver CAP study’s cyclone vacuum were

converted to wipe-equivalent loadings based on the conclusion made within the Denver CAP

study that vacuum dust-lead loadings were, on average, 1.38 times larger than wipe dust-lead

loadings (page 147 of USEPA, 1996b), regardless of lead level or sampling component. This

conclusion was made by fitting a log-linear regression model, using an errors-in-variables

approach, on lead loading data for 33 pairs of side-by-side vacuum/wipe dust samples collected

within the Denver CAP study. The model predicted vacuum dust-lead loading as a function of

wipe dust-lead loading. Therefore, the conversion of vacuum dust-lead loading data from the

Denver CAP study (for both floors and window sills) involved dividing each vacuum dust-lead

loading by 1.38 to obtain a wipe-equivalent loading. The estimated geometric mean wipe

dust-lead loading equals the geometric mean vacuum dust-lead loading, divided by 1.38.
E-17 March 12, 1999

HANDLING DIFFERENCES IN WIPE DIGESTION METHODS

The studies in Table 1 are identified according to the type of wipe digestion method used

in the analytical process. Generally, one of two categories of digestion methods was used by each

study. The “heated HNO3/H2O2" method, which is the method recommended in EPA’s National

Lead Laboratory Accreditation Program (NLLAP), allows total lead amounts in the sample to be

determined. The “cold HCl” method, documented in Vostal et al., 1974, and used at the Kennedy

Krieger Institute in Baltimore, MD, generally allows only “bioavailable” lead amounts to be

measured in the sample. Therefore, in order to make wipe dust-lead loadings comparable across

all studies in Table 1, it is necessary to adjust the “bioavailable” lead loadings that are reported in

the studies that used the “cold HCl” digestion method to reflect total lead amounts. Appendix A

of USEPA, 1997a, provided a means by which this adjustment can be made:

T = B1.1416

where T is the total dust-lead loading, and B is the “bioavailable” dust-lead loading. This

adjustment was developed by fitting a log-linear regression model (with no intercept term) on

uncarpeted floor dust-lead loading data that were collected in a pilot study (NCLSH, 1993). This

pilot study investigated how dust-lead loadings changed across five different sampling and

analysis methods. 

Differences in measurements between the two wipe digestion methods depend on the

sample particle size. Differences related to particle size are probably small and likely even

negligible here, as dust is the medium being sampled. This conclusion, however, may not be valid

when sampling soil.

In this report, summary statistics for studies labeled in Table 1 as utilizing the “cold HCl”

wipe digestion method were calculated on dust-lead loadings that were adjusted by the method

described above. This implies taking geometric means calculated on the study data to the

1.1416 power.

CONSIDERING DIFFERENT INTERVENTION METHODS ACROSS STUDIES

As seen in the second column of Table 1, the studies utilized different intervention

approaches. The HUD Grantees evaluation program is the most widely-encompassing of the
E-18 March 12, 1999

studies, containing dust-lead loading data at up to 12 months post-intervention for floors and

window sills in over 500 housing units as measured by 14 Grantees across the country. 

Therefore, the impact of intervention activities on dust-lead loading will likely vary considerably

across these studies. Furthermore, caution should be used in considering the results of certain

studies, such as the educational intervention studies, when the aim is to evaluate the effect of

performing highly-intensive dust and paint abatements on dust-lead loading.
E-19 March 12, 1999

3.0 RESULTS

For eight studies in Table 1 that measured and documented post-intervention dust-lead

loadings and which considered paint and/or dust interventions (i.e., not just educational

interventions), Tables 2 and 3 provide summaries of the measured dust-lead loadings from these

studies, both prior to intervention (if available) and at specified time points following the

interventions, for floors and window sills, respectively. Summaries are presented according to

study group within each study. These tables contain geometric mean dust-lead loadings for all

studies but the HUD Grantees evaluation, whose references provided only median dust-lead

loadings. Note that not all studies in these tables provided information on pre-intervention

dust-lead loadings. Also, as discussed in the previous chapter, the measured dust-lead loadings in

the Baltimore R&M study and the Denver CAP study have been converted from vacuum to wipeequivalent loadings, and dust-lead loadings in studies using the "cold HCl" wipe digestion method

have been adjusted to reflect total lead loadings, prior to preparing the summaries in Tables 2 and

3.

More detailed dust-lead loading summaries are provided in the tables in Appendix B. 

These tables include the information in Tables 2 and 3, along with sample sizes associated with

the summaries, 95% confidence intervals for selected estimates, and reported differences in

dust-lead loadings from pre-intervention which were measured in the Paris Paint Abatement study

and the two educational intervention studies in Rochester and East St. Louis.

FLOOR DUST-LEAD LOADINGS

Table 2 contains post-intervention floor dust-lead loading summaries for 24 study groups,

including two control groups from the Baltimore R&M study and a total of nine groups from the

HUD Grantees evaluation. The Baltimore Traditional/Modified study was included in the table

for historical perspective. The abatement and clean-up methods employed in this study are not

representative of modern practices. Thus, this study was not considered in the discussion that

follows.

Figure 1 presents the post-intervention dust-lead loadings for 18 study groups relative to

the post-intervention dust-lead loading assumed in the §403 Risk Analysis. The 18 study groups
E-20 March 12, 1999

include 9 study groups from the HUD Grantees Evaluation, the 7 study groups from the

Baltimore Follow-Up Paint Abatement, Boston Interim Dust Intervention, Denver CAP, and

Jersey City CLEARS studies, and the Previously Abated and the R&M Intervention groups from

the Baltimore R&M study. The interventions conducted within these study groups were

considered representative of those that might be prompted in response to §403 standards. 

Because the length of the follow-up period was much longer for the Baltimore R&M Previously

Abated study group, the results for this group were plotted relative to the time since enrollment in

the R&M study. As seen in Figure 1, the HUD Grantee evaluation groups tended to have postintervention floor dust-lead loadings below 20 μg/ft2

 up to 12 months post intervention, while

other study groups tended to be between 20 and 40 μg/ft 2.

Sixteen study groups in Table 2 contain information on dust-lead loading measurements

immediately after intervention, excluding the Baltimore Traditional/Modified study. Of these

16 groups, 10 had geometric mean or median dust-lead loadings ranging from 7-24 μg/ft2

immediately after intervention. Eight of these 10 groups were from the HUD Grantees

evaluation, where pre-intervention median dust-lead loadings were no higher than 41 μg/ft2. 

Six of the 16 groups had geometric mean or median dust-lead loadings above 40 μg/ft2

immediately after intervention.

Among the nine study groups in the HUD Grantees evaluation, seven groups had median

dust-lead loadings that remained constant or steadily declined to below 20 μg/ft2 for up to

12 months post-intervention. The other two study groups had median loadings increase to

approximately pre-intervention levels over this 12-month period. In addition, the Denver CAP

study, the Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement study, the Baltimore R&M study, and Boston

Interim Dust Intervention study, and the CLEARS suggest that geometric mean dust-lead

loadings of below 40 μg/ft2 can be observed for up to two years post-intervention. Data from the

Previously Abated group in the Baltimore R&M study suggest that geometric mean dust-lead

loadings of below 40 μg/ft2 can be observed for 4 - 6 years post-intervention. Only in study #1 of

the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement studies did geometric mean dust-lead loadings

exceed 40 μg/ft2 at approximately six months post-intervention; however, pre-intervention levels

were higher than in the other studies.
E-21 March 12, 1999

Eleven study groups reported geometric mean or median floor dust-lead loadings at or

below 21 μg/ft2 at follow-up periods ranging from 12 months to 2 years. Four of the HUD

Grantees study groups reported median floor dust-lead loadings at or below 10 μg/ft2 at

12 months post-intervention. Median pre-intervention floor dust-lead loadings in these

four groups ranged from 9 to 26 μg/ft 2.

WINDOW SILL DUST-LEAD LOADINGS

The same 24 study groups represented in Table 2 also are included in Table 3, where postintervention window sill dust-lead loading summaries are presented. Results in Table 3 indicate

that post-intervention window sill dust-lead loadings are generally higher than those for floors. 

The post-intervention geometric means (or medians) range from 18 μg/ft2 to 958 μg/ft 2, excluding

the Baltimore Traditional/Modified study, as before.

Figure 2 presents the post-intervention dust-lead loadings for 18 study groups relative to

the post-intervention dust-lead loading assumed in the §403 Risk Analysis. The 18 study groups

were the same as those included in Figure 1. As seen in Figure 2, the HUD Grantee Evaluation

groups tended to have post-intervention window sill dust-lead loadings below 100 μg/ft2 up to

12 months post intervention, while more variability is present in the other study groups. The

intervention strategy in the HUD Grantee Evaluation groups frequently included partial or

complete window replacement, which was not the case for the other study groups.

As in Table 2, 16 study groups in Table 3 contain information on dust-lead loading

measurements immediately after intervention. In the nine study groups of the HUD Grantees

evaluation, the three groups of the Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement study, and study #2 of

the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement studies, geometric mean or median dust-lead

loadings immediately after intervention were below 100 μg/ft2 (range: 18-84 μg/ft 2). In particular,

study #2 of the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement studies saw a substantial decline in the

geometric mean from pre-intervention (2,784 μg/ft2) to immediately post-intervention (19 μg/ft2). 

The remaining three study groups (study #1 of the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement

studies and two study groups from the Baltimore R&M) had geometric mean dust-lead loadings
E-22 March 12, 1999

exceeding 180 μg/ft2 immediately post-intervention, but these groups had geometric mean preintervention dust-lead loadings above 300 μg/ft2

.

Except for the Milwaukee grantee, the study groups within the HUD Grantees evaluation

had median window sill dust-lead loadings below 100 μg/ft2 for up to 12 months

post-intervention. Only two grantees (Boston and Wisconsin) did not have a decline in median

window sill dust-lead loadings over the 12-month period.

In addition to the HUD Grantees evaluation, geometric mean window sill dust-lead

loadings remain below 100 μg/ft2 for up to 12 months post-intervention in the Baltimore

Follow-up Paint Abatement study, the Denver CAP study, and the CLEARS (Table 3). However,

in studies such as the Baltimore R&M study, the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement

studies, and the Boston Interim Dust Intervention study, geometric mean dust-lead loadings

remain above 100 μg/ft2 over time. In addition, the 19-month follow-up study group within the

Baltimore Follow-up Paint Abatement study and the Baltimore Experimental Paint Abatement

studies suggest that geometric mean dust-lead loadings can dip below 100 μg/ft2 immediately after

intervention, but then increase substantially after one year or so.

The summaries in Tables 2 and 3 are calculated across housing units in specified study

groups. With the lack of results for individual housing units and the absence of variability

estimates associated with these summaries, these summaries do not necessarily indicate what may

be occurring in specific units (such as those housing units that see little, if any, change from preto post-intervention). Additional information on results within housing units should also be

considered if such information is available.
E-23 March 12, 1999

Table 2. Summaries of Pre- and Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead Loadings

from Studies Evaluating Paint and/or Dust Interventions

Study Study Group

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings1

(μg/ft2)

Post-Intervention

Floor Dust-Lead Loadings1

Time Following

Intervention

Summary Value

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore

Experimental Paint

Abatement Studies2

Study 1

(6 homes) 1261

Immediately 259

6 - 9 Months 99

Study 2

(13 homes) 556

Immediately 20

1.5 - 3.5 Years 69

Baltimore Follow-up

Paint Abatement

Study2

6-Month Follow-up

Immediately 47

5 - 7 Months 22

12-Month Follow-up

Immediately 41

10 - 14 Months 20

19-Month Follow-up

Immediately 24

14 - 24 Months 36

Baltimore R&M

Study3

All Occupied Units 40.9

Immediately 52.5

2 Months 40.2

6 Months 26.5

12 Months 27.1

18 Months 24.8

24 Months 24.1

48 Months 8.4

Previously-Abated Units 45.6

2.5 - 4.5 Years 41.1

3 - 5 Years 39.8

3.5 - 5.5 Years 37.3

4 - 6 Years 33.0

Units Slated for R&M

Intervention 58.6

Immediately 52.5

2 Months 40.2

6 Months 36.3

12 Months 39.9

18 Months 33.3

24 Months 35.0

Modern Urban Units 10.0

6 Months 8.1

12 Months 7.3

18 Months 7.8

24 Months 7.1

48 Months 8.4

Baltimore

Traditional/

Modified Paint

Abatement Study2

Traditional 549

Immediately 4033

6 Months 714

Modified 642

Immediately 1626

6 Months 714

Boston Interim Dust

Intervention Study2

Automatic Intervention 33.2 6 Months 23.9

Randomized Intervention 37.3 6 Months 31.4
Table 2. (cont.)

Study Study Group

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings1

(μg/ft2)

Post-Intervention

Floor Dust-Lead Loadings1

Time Following

Intervention

Summary Value

(μg/ft2)

E-24 March 12, 1999

HUD Grantees4

All Grantees 19

Immediately 17

6 Months 14

12 Months 14

Baltimore 41

Immediately 18

6 Months 42

12 Months 41

Boston 24

Immediately 54

6 Months 16

12 Months 18

Massachusetts 24

Immediately 20

6 Months 11

12 Months 9

Milwaukee 14

Immediately 15

6 Months 10

12 Months 10

Minnesota 18

Immediately 18

6 Months 18

12 Months 18

Rhode Island 26

Immediately 7

6 Months 6

12 Months 6

Vermont 28

Immediately 17

6 Months 21

12 Months 21

Wisconsin 9

Immediately 8

6 Months 6

12 Months 5

Denver CAP Study5 Abated Units 2 Years 21.0

Jersey City

CLEARS6 Dust Intervention 22 12 Months 15

1 Values are geometric means except for the HUD Grantees studies, where values are medians.

2 Results are adjusted to reflect total dust-lead loadings by exponentiating the “bioavailable” dust-lead loadings as reported in the

study to the 1.1416 power.

3 Results for the Baltimore R&M Study are converted from BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

4 Data collected through September 1997.

5 Results for the Denver CAP study are converted from CAP cyclone dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

6 An alternative (LWW) wipe sampling method was used in the CLEARS study. No adjustments were made to convert the LWW

wipe loadings reported in this study to standard wipe loadings.
E-25 March 12, 1999

Table 3. Summaries of Pre- and Post-Intervention Window Sill Dust-Lead

Loadings from Studies Evaluating Paint and/or Dust Interventions

Study Study Group

Pre-Intervention Sill

Dust-Lead Loadings1

(μg/ft2)

Post-Intervention 

Sill Dust-Lead Loadings1

Time Following

Intervention

Summary Value

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore

Experimental Paint

Abatement Studies2

Study 1

(6 homes) 15215

Immediately 737

6 - 9 Months 958

Study 2

(13 homes) 2784

Immediately 19

1.5 - 3.5 Years 199

Baltimore Follow-up

Paint Abatement

Study2

6-Month Follow-up

Immediately 50

5 - 7 Months 71

12-Month Follow-up

Immediately 50

10 - 14 Months 41

19-Month Follow-up

Immediately 50

14 - 24 Months 147

Baltimore R&M

Study3

All Occupied Units 356.2

Immediately 185.4

2 Months 241.4

6 Months 138.2

12 Months 136.2

18 Months 135.1

24 Months 117.5

48 Months 37.1

Previously-Abated Units 163.5

2.5 - 4.5 Years 107.4

3 - 5 Years 116.0

3.5 - 5.5 Years 89.1

4 - 6 Years 97.6

Units Slated for R&M

Intervention 778.4

Immediately 185.4

2 Months 241.4

6 Months 247.0

12 Months 237.6

18 Months 246.8

24 Months 204.9

Modern Urban Units 45.6

6 Months 41.7

12 Months 40.0

18 Months 40.5

24 Months 34.8

48 Months 37.1

Baltimore

Traditional/

Modified Paint

Abatement Study2

Traditional 3708

Immediately 11460

6 Months 4360

Modified 5209

Immediately 1496

6 Months 4662
Table 3. (cont.)

Study Study Group

Pre-Intervention Sill

Dust-Lead Loadings1

(μg/ft2)

Post-Intervention 

Sill Dust-Lead Loadings1

Time Following

Intervention

Summary Value

(μg/ft2)

E-26 March 12, 1999

Boston Interim Dust

Intervention Study2

Automatic Intervention 787 6 Months 210

Randomized Intervention 205 6 Months 110

HUD Grantees4

All Grantees 258

Immediately 52

6 Months 97

12 Months 90

Baltimore 1191

Immediately 49

6 Months 87

12 Months 68

Boston 174

Immediately 53

6 Months 48

12 Months 49

Massachusetts 328

Immediately 32

6 Months 77

12 Months 50

Milwaukee 264

Immediately 84

6 Months 231

12 Months 217

Minnesota 266

Immediately 66

6 Months 86

12 Months 77

Rhode Island 314

Immediately 18

6 Months 87

12 Months 85

Vermont 147

Immediately 21

6 Months 60

12 Months 40

Wisconsin 150

Immediately 22

6 Months 37

12 Months 51

Denver CAP Study5 Abated Units 2 Years 66.4

Jersey City

CLEARS6 Dust Intervention 75 12 Months 24

1 Values are geometric means except for the HUD Grantees studies, where values are medians.

2 Results are adjusted to reflect total dust-lead loadings by exponentiating the “bioavailable” dust-lead loadings as reported in the

study to the 1.1416 power.

3 Results for the Baltimore R&M Study are converted from BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

4 Data collected through September 1997.

5 Results for the Denver CAP study are converted from CAP cyclone dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

6 An alternative (LWW) wipe sampling method was used in the CLEARS study. no adjustments were made t o convert the LWW

wipe loadings reported in this study to standard wipe loadings.
E-27 March 12, 1999

Figure 1. Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead Loadings for HUD Grantees Evaluation,

Intervention Groups from Other Studies, and Baltimore R&M Previously Abated Group

(sampling times relative to enrollment in R&M Study).

Figure 2. Post-Intervention Window Sill Dust-Lead Loadings for HUD Grantees Evaluation,

Intervention Groups from Other Studies, and Baltimore R&M Previously Abated Group

(sampling times relative to enrollment in R&M Study) .
E-28 March 12, 1999

REFERENCES

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Relationships between Exposure Metrics.” Environmental Research. 70:134-147.

Aschengrau, A, Hardy, S, Mackey, P, and Pultinas, D. (1998) “The Impact of Low Technology

Lead Hazard Reduction Activities among Children with Mildly Elevated Blood Lead

Levels.” Environmental Research. 79:41-50.

Charney, E, Kessler, B, Farfel, M, and Jackson, D. (1983) “Childhood Lead Poisoning: a

Controlled Trial of the Effect of Dust-Control Measures on Blood Lead Levels.” New

England Journal of Medicine. 309:1089-1093.

Copley, C. (1995) “East St. Louis Lead Dust Reduction in Homes of At-Risk Children: Pilot

Project.” Report on Grant NE995974-01 to Region V of the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency. 23 October 1995.

Farfel, MR, Chisolm, JJ, and Rohde, CA. (1994) “The Longer-Term Effectiveness of Residential

Lead Paint -Abatement.” Environmental Research. 66:199-212.

Farfel, MR, and Chisolm, JJ. (1991) “An Evaluation of Experimental Practices for Abatement of

Residential Lead-Based Paint: Report on a Pilot Project.” Environmental Research. 

55:199-212.

Farfel, MR, and Chisolm, JJ. (1990) “Health and Environmental Outcomes of Traditional and

Modified Practices for Abatement of Residential Lead-Based Paint.” American Journal of

Public Health. 80(10):1240-1245.

HUD (1991) “The HUD Lead-Based Paint Abatement Demonstration (FHA).” Office of Policy

Development and Research, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 

August 1991.

Lanphear, BP, Winter, NL, and Weitzman, M. (1996) “A Randomized Trial of the Effect of Dust

Control on Children’s Blood Lead Levels.” Pediatrics. 98(1):35.

Lanphear, BP, Winter, NL, Apetz, LJ, Eberly, S, and Weitzman, M. (1995) “A Randomized Trial

of the Effect of Dust Control on Children’s Blood Lead Levels.” Report on Grant

NYLPR002-94 Submitted to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

and the National Center for Lead-Safe Housing.

Lioy, PJ, Yiin, L, Adgate, J, Weisel, CP, and Rhoads, GG. (1997) “The Effectiveness of a Home

Cleaning Intervention Strategy in Reducing Potential Dust and Lead Exposures.” 

(Submitted to Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology).
E-29 March 12, 1999

Mackey, P, Aschengrau, A, Balasko, C, Pultinas, D, and Hardy, S. (1996) “Blood Lead Levels

Following Environmental Intervention Study,” Final Report on Grant H64/CCH108235-

03 to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers

for Disease Control and Prevention, Environmental Hazards & Health Effects, Childhood

Lead Poisoning Prevention.

MDE (1995) Final Report on Grant H64/CCH 30 7067-03 by the Maryland Department of the

Environment to U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Environmental Hazards & Health Effects,

Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. March 1995.

NCLSH and UC (1998) “Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Grant

Program,” Fifth Interim Report. Prepared by the National Center for Lead-Safe Housing

and The University of Cincinnati Department of Environment Health for the U.S.

Department of Housing and Urban Development. March 1998.

NCLSH and UC (1997) “Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Grant

Program,” Fourth Interim Report. Prepared by the National Center for Lead-Safe

Housing and The University of Cincinnati Department of Environment Health for the U.S.

Department of Housing and Urban Development. March 1997.

NCLSH (1993) “A Comparison of Five Sampling Methods for Settled Lead Dust: A Pilot

Study.” Preliminary draft report prepared by the National Center for Lead-Safe Housing. 

15 June 1993.

Nedellec, V, Fontaine, A, Luciolli, E, and Bourdillon, F. (1995) “Evaluation of Abatement

Interventions in 59 Homes of Lead Poisoned Children,” Rev. Epidem. Et Sante Publ. 

43:485-493.

Rhoads, GG, Ettinger, AS, Goldman, KD, Weisel, CP, Buckley, TJ, and Lioy, PJ. (1996) “The

Effect of a Dust Lead Control Program Combined with Health Education on Blood Lead

in Toddler: A Randomized Study,” (Abstract) Submitted for Presentation at the Annual

Conference of the American Public Health Association, November 1996.

USEPA (1998) “Review of Studies Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness: Updated

Edition.” Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency. EPA 747-B-98-001, December 1998.

USEPA (1997a) “Conversion Equations for Use in Section 403 Rulemaking.” Office of

Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 747-R-96-

012, December 1997.
E-30 March 12, 1999

USEPA (1997b) “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: 

Findings Based on the First Year of Follow-up.” Office of Pollution Prevention and

Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 747-R-97-001, August 1997.

USEPA (1997c) “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: 

Findings Based on the Two Years of Follow-up.” Office of Pollution Prevention and

Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 747-R-97-005, December 1997.

USEPA (1996a) “Comprehensive Abatement Performance Study. Volume I: Summary Report.” 

Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA

230-R-94-013a, April 1996.

USEPA (1996b) “Comprehensive Abatement Performance Study. Volume II: Detailed

Statistical Results.” Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency. EPA 230-R-94-013b, April 1996.

USEPA (1996c) “Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: 

Pre-Intervention Findings.” Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 747-R-95-012, August 1996.

USEPA (1995a) “Review of Studies Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness.” Office of

Pollution Prevention and Toxics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 747-R-95-

006, July 1995.

USEPA (1987) “Baltimore Integrated Environmental Management Project - Phase II Report: 

Reducing the Hazards from Abatement of Lead Paint.” Final Report to the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency.

Vostal, JJ, Taves, E, Sayre, JW, and Charney, E. (1974) “Lead Analysis of House Dust: A

Method for the Detection of Another Source of Lead Exposure in Inner City Children.” 

Environmental Health Perspectives. May 1974, 91-97.
E-31 March 12, 1999

APPENDIX A

INFORMATION ON THE INTERVENTION STUDIES INCLUDED IN TABLE 1
E-32 March 12, 1999

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E-33 March 12, 1999

Baltimore (MD) Dust Control Study

• Conducted in 1981 to assess whether lead-based paint abatement followed by periodic

dust control would be more effective in reducing blood-lead concentration than

performing only lead-based paint abatement.

• The study targeted housing units containing lead-based paint and children aged

15-72 months of age with at least two confirmed blood-lead concentration measurements

between 30-49 μg/dL.

• Two groups of housing units (a control group of 35 homes and an experimental group of

14 homes) underwent lead-based paint abatement which entailed removing all peeling

lead-containing interior and exterior paint from the residence. In addition, all child

accessible surfaces (below 1.2 m) which may be chewed on were covered or rendered

lead-free. No extensive clean-up procedures were required following the abatements.

• The experimental group received periodic dust-control (twice-monthly visits by a

dust-control team) involving wet-mopping all rooms in the residence where dust-lead

loadings in an initial survey exceeded 100 μg/ft2.

• In the experimental group, dust samples were collected from all areas within the residence

where the child spent time. The samples were collected with alcohol-treated wipes within

a 1 ft2 area of floor or from the entire window sill. The samples were collected at

recruitment and both before and after each dust-control measure was performed.

Baltimore (MD) Experimental Paint Abatement Studies

• Studies to demonstrate and evaluate experimental lead-based paint abatement practices

developed in response to the inadequacies uncovered in the Baltimore (MD)

Traditional/Modified Paint Abatement Study.

• The experimental practices called for floor-to-ceiling abatement of all interior and exterior

surfaces where lead content of the paint exceeded 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or 0.5% by weight

by wet chemical analysis. Several methods were tested, including encapsulation, off-site

and on-site stripping, and replacement. The abatements took place either in unoccupied

dwellings or the occupants were relocated during the abatement process. Leadcontaminated dust was contained and minimized during the abatement, and extensive

clean-up activities included HEPA vacuuming and off-site waste disposal. In addition,

extensive worker training and protection were provided.

• One study involving 6 housing units (poorly-maintained, had multiple lead-based paint

hazards, built in the 1920s) received abatements from 10/86-1/87 as part of a pilot study
E-34 March 12, 1999

examining the experimental procedures. Four units were vacant, and two contained leadpoisoned children. This study evaluated short-term abatement efficacy (up to 9 months).

• Dust samples from the 6 housing units were collected immediately before abatement,

during abatement, after the final clean-up, and at 1, 3, and 6-9 months following

abatement.

• Another study which evaluated longer-term abatement efficacy (1.5-3.5 years) involved 13

occupied housing units which received experimental abatements from 1988-1991 by local

pilot projects.

• Dust samples from the 13 housing units were collected from 12/91 - 01/92 at the same

locations, where possible, that had been sampled pre- and immediately post-abatement.

• Alcohol-treated wet wipes were used to collect dust samples.

Baltimore (MD) Follow-up Paint Abatement Study

• Paint interventions (encapsulation, off-site and on-site stripping, and replacement) were

performed (from floor to ceiling) on all interior and exterior surfaces where lead content

of paint exceeded 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or 0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis. 

Abatements took place in unoccupied dwellings or after occupants were relocated.

• Lead-contaminated dust was contained and minimized during the abatement.

• Extensive clean-up activities (including HEPA vacuuming and off-site waste disposal)

followed the abatement to ensure clearance. Clearance levels for floors, window sills, and

window wells were set at 200 μg/ft2, 500 μg/ft 2, and 800 μg/ft2, respectively.

• Wipe dust-lead loading samples were taken upon clearance and at approximately 6, 12,

and 19 months post-intervention from floors, window sills, and window wells in rooms

where the child spent time.

• By 19 months post-intervention, only 5% of the homes were above clearance for floors,

while 42% and 47% of the homes were above clearance levels for window sills and

window wells, respectively.
E-35 March 12, 1999

Baltimore (MD) Repair & Maintenance (R&M) Study

• Study begun in 1993 to measure the short-term (2 to 6 months) and long-term (12 to

24 months) changes in dust-lead loadings and concentrations and in children’s blood-lead

concentrations associated with conducting R&M interventions, and to make comparisons 

with houses that had undergone previous comprehensive abatement, as well as a group of

modern urban houses.

• Three types of dwellings were recruited in this study: 16 dwellings that were previously

abated (in 1988-1992), 75 dwellings slated to receive R&M interventions, and 16 modern

urban dwellings (assumed to be free of lead-based paint).

• The 75 R&M dwellings were older (mostly pre-1940), low-income dwellings which were

divided into three equal groups according to the intervention performed in this study; the

R&M-I group had low-level interventions (wet scraping, limited repainting, wet cleaning

with TSP, HEPA vacuuming, placing an entryway mat, exterior surface stabilization,

cleaning supplies and education to residents), the R&M-II group had intermediate-level

interventions (R&M-I interventions plus treatments to floors, windows, and doors to

reduce abrasion), and the R&M-III group had high-level interventions (R&M-II

interventions plus trim replacement and encapsulation). The remaining dwellings acted as

control dwellings.

• The BRM vacuum method was used to collect dust samples in this study (a modified

HVS3 cyclone collector). Floor and window sill dust samples were composites across

multiple rooms. The environmental sampling design was as follows:
E-36 March 12, 1999

Campaign

Type of Data 1

Blood Dust Soil Water

RM 2 Control 3 RM Control RM Control RM Control

Initial /

a / / / / / /a /

Immediate

Post-R&M

/ / / /

b

2 Months PostR&M/ /

6 Months PostR&M/ / / / / / / /

12 Months

Post-R&M

/ / / /

18 Months

Post-R&M

/ / / / / / / /

24 Months

Post-R&M

/ / / /

1. A ‘/’ indicates that the data were collected for all R&M groups or all control groups.

Symbol ‘/

a

’ indicates that data collected only for R&M I and II groups, and ‘/

b

 ‘ only for

R&M II and III.

2. RM denotes the component including three R&M groups: R&M I, R&M II, and R&M III.

3. Control denotes the component including two control groups: Previously Abated and

Modern Urban.
E-37 March 12, 1999

Baltimore (MD) Traditional/Modified Paint Abatement Study

• Conducted from 1984-1985 to evaluate the health and environmental impact of

“traditional” and “modified” Baltimore practices for abating lead-based paint.

• The study contained housing units with multiple interior surfaces coated with lead-based

paint and containing at least one child with a blood-lead concentration exceeding

30 μg/dL.

• “Traditional” abatements (conducted in 53 housing units) addressed deteriorated paint on

surfaces up to four feet from the floor, and all hazardous paint on accessible surfaces

which may be chewed on. Paint with a lead content greater than 0.7 mg/cm2 by XRF or

0.5% by weight by wet chemical analysis was denoted hazardous. Open-flame burning

and sanding techniques were commonly used, the abated surfaces were not repainted, and

clean-up typically entailed, at most, dry sweeping.

• “Modified” abatements (conducted in 18 housing units) included the use of heat guns for

paint removal and the repainting of abated surfaces. Furnishings were protected during

abatement. In addition, clean-up efforts were conducted that involved wet-mopping with

a high phosphate detergent, vacuuming with a standard shop vacuum, and off-site disposal

of debris. In addition, worker training, protection, and supervision were provided.

• Neither traditional nor modified abatements considered window wells.

• Dust samples were obtained using a alcohol-treated wipe within a defined area template (1

ft2).

• Increased dust-lead loadings were measured immediately following traditional abatements

(usually within two days) on or in close proximity to abated surfaces. Dust-lead levels

measured after modified abatements were also higher than pre-abatement levels, but not to

the extent seen for traditional practices. At six months post-abatement, PbD levels were

comparable to, or greater than, their respective pre-abatement loadings in both study

groups.

• Despite the implementation of improved practices, modified abatements, like traditional

abatements, did not result in any long-term reductions of levels of lead in house dust. In

addition, the activities further elevated blood-lead concentrations.
E-38 March 12, 1999

Boston (MA) Interim Dust Intervention Study

• Children under 4 years of age with modestly-elevated blood-lead concentration

(11-24 μg/dL) and living in homes containing lead-based paint on at least two window

sills or wells were targeted for participation. Lead hazard reduction activities were not

previously conducted in these homes.

• Units with severe household lead hazards (i.e., paint chips on floors, large amounts of

loose dust or paint chips in window wells, or holes larger than one inch wide in walls

containing lead-based paint) were placed into an “automatic intervention” group (n=22).

• Remaining units were randomly assigned to a “randomized intervention” group (n=22) or

a “randomized comparison” group (n=19).

• Units in the two intervention groups received a one-time paint and/or dust intervention. 

The intervention was considered “low-technology” and consisted of HEPA vacuuming all

window well, window sill, and floor surfaces; washing window well and window sill

surfaces with a tri-sodium phosphate (TSP) and water solution; repairing holes in walls;

and re-painting window well and window sill surfaces to seal chipping or peeling paint.

These units also received outreach and educational information including a demonstration

of effective housekeeping techniques and monthly reminders with instructions to wash

hard surface floors, window sills and wells with a TSP and water solution at least twice a

week.

• The “randomized comparison” group received only the outreach visit, in which the home

was visually assessed for lead hazards and the family was educated about the causes and

prevention of lead poisoning. They were also provided with cleaning instructions and a

free sample of TSP cleaning solution.

• 16 study units had permanent lead-based paint hazard remediation performed outside of

the study protocol during the 6-month follow-up period. It is uncertain whether data for

these units were treated differently in the study as a result.

• Dust samples were collected from floors, window sills, and window wells at baseline and 6

months post-intervention in all units, and at one month post-intervention for the two

intervention groups. However, results were not reported for the one-month

post-intervention campaign.

• Dust, soil, and water samples were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry

(AAS). The detection limit for dust-lead loading results was 30 μg/ft2.

• At 6 months post-intervention, geometric mean floor dust-lead loadings had decreased

slightly for both intervention groups and increased in the comparison group. Geometric

mean window sill dust-lead loadings decreased in all three groups, and geometric mean
E-39 March 12, 1999

window well dust-lead loadings decreased for both intervention groups, but remained the

same for the comparison group. None of the changes in dust-lead loadings was

statistically significant.

East St. Louis (IL) Educational Intervention Study

• Children were identified for the study through a screening program for children receiving

public assistance.

• During an initial visit to each home, an XRF paint survey was conducted, and areas with

high lead loadings were pointed out to the residents. Lead educators, hired from within

the community, provided instruction on cleaning and hygiene. Written materials and a

videotape on reducing lead exposure were also provided.

• At the initial visit and at three months following this visit (for homes where the residents

reported that they had cleaned at least once using the recommended procedures), at least

three dust-wipe samples were collected from smooth surfaces in the home. In addition,

two vacuum (HVS-3) samples were collected from carpets in the entry and bedroom, or

other play area.

• Participating families were contacted regularly throughout the course of the study to

reinforce the importance of regular, thorough cleaning.

Evaluation of the HUD Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control Grant Program (HUD Grantees)

• A formal evaluation of this ongoing study is being conducted to determine the

effectiveness of various abatement methods used by State and local governments (who are

HUD grantees) to reduce lead-based paint hazards in housing.

• Data collection began in 1994 and is expected to continue through 1999.

• Enrollment criteria varied among the different grantees and included targeting high-risk

neighborhoods, homes with a lead-poisoned child, and unsolicited applications.

• Grantees were given the flexibility to select the type and intensity of the lead treatments

for any particular unit. The intensity of an intervention is reported by location (interior,

exterior, or site) and consists of a number representing the type of intervention performed

in that location. The interventions range from taking no action, to a simple cleaning, to

window replacement or full lead-based paint abatement. Some interim controls on soil

(e.g., cover), as well as soil removal, were also performed.
E-40 March 12, 1999

• The grantees followed the same sampling protocols when collecting environmental

samples (including dust using wipe techniques) and used standard forms developed

specifically for the evaluation.

• Dust samples are collected from occupied housing units at four times during the study: at

pre-intervention, immediately after intervention, and at 6 and 12 months following

intervention. Nine of the 14 grantees participating in this evaluation are also collecting

data at 24 and 36 months following intervention (these data have not yet been collected).

HUD Abatement Demonstration Program/

EPA Comprehensive Abatement Performance (Denver CAP) Study

• The FHA portion of the HUD Abatement Demonstration Program (“HUD Demo”) was

conducted to estimated the comparative costs of alternative methods of lead-based paint

abatement, to assess the efficacy of these methods, and to confirm the adequacy of worker

protection safeguards during abatement.

• In the HUD Demo, lead-based paint abatements were performed in 172 HUD-owned,

single-family properties located in seven cities across the country.

• Wipe dust samples were collected immediately following intervention and cleaning in the

HUD Demo to evaluate whether lead levels were below 200 μg/ft2 for floors and

500 μg/ft 2 for window sills. Repeated iterations of cleaning and dust sampling were

performed if additional cleaning was deemed necessary.

• The Denver CAP study was a follow-up to the HUD Demo performed in Denver, CO. 

The objectives of the Denver CAP study were to assess the long-term efficacy of two

primary abatement methods (encapsulation/enclosure and removal methods), to

characterize lead levels in dust and soil in unabated homes and homes abated by different

methods, to investigate the relationship between household dust-lead and lead from other

sources (i.e., soil and air ducts), and to compare dust-lead loading results from cyclone

vacuum sampling and wipe sampling protocols.

• The Denver CAP study collected approximately 30 dust and soil samples at each of

52 occupied houses in Denver. Of these houses, 39 had lead-based paint abatements

performed approximately two years earlier as part of the HUD Demo. The remaining

17 houses were considered within the HUD Demo, but were found to be free of

lead-based paint and therefore had no abatements performed.

• The Denver CAP study used a cyclone vacuum for collecting dust samples, where this

vacuum was designed especially for this study. Dust samples were collected from the

floor perimeter, window sills, window wells, entryway floors, and air ducts in either two
E-41 March 12, 1999

or three rooms. Some wipe dust samples were also collected to make comparisons

between wipe and vacuum dust-lead loadings.

• For window sills within 10 houses, pre-abatement dust-lead loadings and loadings

measured during the Denver CAP study both averaged between 175-200 μg/ft2 (i.e., there

was no evidence of significant differences between pre- and post-intervention dust-lead

loadings). However, no adjustment was made between the wipe and vacuum methods

used in pre- and post-intervention, respectively. A similar comparison between pre- and

post-intervention dust-lead loadings for floors was not possible due to a lack of sufficient

pre-intervention data.

• Abatements were found to be effective in that no significant difference in dust-lead

loadings were observed between abated and unabated units in the Denver CAP study (with

the exception of dust from air ducts).

Jersey City (NJ) Children’s Lead Exposure and Reduction (CLEAR) Dust Intervention

Study

• Children under 3 years of age and at risk for elevated blood-lead concentration were

targeted for participation.

• Lead hazard intervention consisted of biweekly assistance with home dust control (which

included wet mopping of floors, damp-sponging of walls and horizontal surfaces, and

HEPA vacuuming) and a series of educational sessions about lead. The cleaning teams

provided the education during the course of their visits and mainly focused on teaching the

caretakers how to clean the home.

• Dust-wipe samples were collected from uncarpeted floors in the kitchen and the floor of

one other room frequented by the enrolled child.

• This analysis indicated that a thorough cleaning program reduced the geometric mean of

the dust and lead loading and found that 68%, 75%, and 81% of the Lead Group (Study)

homes had a reduction in lead loading on the kitchen floors, bedroom floors, and window

sills, respectively.

Paris Paint Abatement Study

• Children less than 6 years of age, identified as severely lead-poisoned, and living in homes

with lead-based paint were targeted for participation.

• A one-time paint intervention was performed, consisting of chemical stripping with caustic

products, encapsulation (consisting of covering the toxic paint with coating material which

prevents the dispersion of chips and particles into the home), replacement of antiquated
E-42 March 12, 1999

elements and paint coatings of lead-based paints, and a final dust cleaning. Chemical

stripping, using Peel AwayTM, was used on 52% of the items abated, a combination of

stripping and encapsulation was used on 36% of the items abated, and a combination of

encapsulation and replacement was used on 12% of the abated items. Families were

relocated during abatement.

• Dust samples were collected in 29 homes at baseline, during the intervention, and at 1 to 2

months, 3 to 6 months, and 7 to 12 months post-intervention. Dust sampling was done by

wiping the floor 1 meter from the wall, over an area of 30x30 cm2, with a paper towel

impregnated with alcohol.

• For 11 homes having an initial dust-lead loading greater than 92.9 μg/ft2, median

decreases were 144 μg/ft2 at 1 to 2 months follow up and 157 μg/ft2 at 3 to 6 months

post-intervention.

• By 6 to 28 months post-intervention, the maximum dust-lead loadings were less than

92.9 μg/ft 2 for 40 out of 45 households.

Rochester (NY) Educational Intervention Study

• Included 104 of the 205 children in the Rochester Lead-in-Dust study, aged 12-31 months

at enrollment, with low to moderate blood-lead concentration. Households were

randomly assigned to an intervention or control group.

• Aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of simple dust control by household

members as a means of reducing children’s blood-lead concentration.

• A trained interviewer visited families assigned to the intervention group. The interviewer

stressed the importance of dust control as a means of reducing lead exposure and provided

the household with cleaning supplies (paper towels, spray bottles and Ledisolv, a

detergent developed specifically for lead contaminated house dust). Families were

instructed to clean the entire house once every three months, interior window sills,

window wells and floors near windows once every month, and carpets once a week with a

vacuum cleaner, if available.

• For families assigned to the control group, only a brochure was provided containing

information about lead poisoning and its prevention.

• Dust samples (using a K-mart brand of baby wipes) were collected at the time of the home

visit (baseline) and at seven months following the visit. Locations of dust samples

included entryway floors and the kitchen, as well as from the floors, interior window sills

and window wells of the child’s principal play area.
E-43 March 12, 1999

APPENDIX B:

DETAILED SUMMARY TABLES
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E-45 March 12, 1999

Table B-1. Summary of Floor Dust-Lead Loadings, Under Wipe Dust Sampling Techniques, at Pre- and PostIntervention

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings

Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead

Loadings Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore

Experimental

Paint

Abatement

Studies2

Study 1

(6 homes) 70 GM

(95% CI)

1261

(908,

1761)

Immediately 70 GM

(95% CI)

259

(196,

366)

6-9 Months 63 GM

(95% CI)

99

(79, 136)

Study 2

(13 homes) 42 GM

(95% CI)

556

(289,

1074)

Immediately 47 GM

(95% CI)

20

(9.8, 40)

1.5 - 3.5

Years 71 GM

(95% CI)

69

(40, 125)

Baltimore

Follow-up

Paint

Abatement

Study2

6-Month

Follow-up

Immediately

Following

Clearance 29

GM

(95% CI)

29

(20,41)

5-7

Months

GM

(95% CI)

22

(15, 31)

12-Month

Follow-up

Immediately

Following

Clearance 27

GM

(95% CI)

41

(25, 63)

10-14

Months

GM

(95% CI)

20

(15, 29)

19-Month

Follow-up

Immediately

Following

Clearance 22

GM

(95% CI)

24

(14, 38)

14-24

Months

GM

(95% CI)

36

(20, 63)
E-46 March 12, 1999

Table B-1. Continued 

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings

Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead

Loadings Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore R&M

Study3

All Occupied

Units 90 GM 40.9

Immediately 37 GM 52.5

2 Months 37 GM 40.2

6 Months 66 GM 26.5

12 Months 66 GM 27.1

18 Months 64 GM 24.8

24 Months 62 GM 24.1

48 Months 7 GM 8.4

PreviouslyAbated Units 16 GM 45.6

2.5 - 4.5

Years 14 GM 41.1

3 - 5 Years 14 GM 39.8

3.5 - 5.5

Years 13 GM 37.3

4 - 6 Years 13 GM 33.0

Units Slated

for R&M

Intervention

58 GM 58.6

Immediately 37 GM 52.5

2 Months 37 GM 40.2

6 Months 37 GM 36.3

12 Months 37 GM 39.9

18 Months 37 GM 33.3

24 Months 35 GM 35.0
E-47 March 12, 1999

Table B-1. Continued 

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings

Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead

Loadings Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore R&M

Study3

Modern

Urban Units 16 GM 10.0

6 Months 15 GM 8.1

12 Months 15 GM 7.3

18 Months 14 GM 7.8

24 Months 14 GM 7.1

48 Months 7 GM 8.4

Baltimore

Traditional/

Modified Paint

Abatement

Study2

Traditional 280 GM

(95% CI)

549

(482,

645)

Immediately 271 GM

(95% CI)

4033

(3269,

4936)

6 Months 234 GM

(95% CI)

714

(594,

834)

Modified 82 GM

(95% CI)

642

(433,

908)

Immediately 50 GM

(95% CI)

1626

(1082,

2418)

6 Months 57 GM

(95% CI)

714

(526,

983)

Boston Interim

Dust

Intervention

Study2

Automatic

Intervention 10 GM 33 6 Months 10 GM 24

Randomized

Intervention 9 GM 37 6 Months 9 GM 31

East St. Louis

Educational

Intervention

Study2

Intervention

Group 30

AM 1095

3 Months 30

AM 486

3 Months 30 Percent

Change

-56%

GM 1080 GM 103 -87%
E-48 March 12, 1999

Table B-1. Continued 

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings

Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead

Loadings Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

HUD Grantees

All Grantees 557 Median 19

Immediately

Post

557

Median 17 Immediately

Post

557 Percent

Change

-11%

6 Months Median 14 6 Months -26%

12 Months Median 14 12 Months -26%

Baltimore 32 Median 41

Immediately

Post

32

Median 18

6 Months Median 42

12 Months Median 41

Boston 28 Median 24

Immediately

Post

28

Median 54

6 Months Median 16

12 Months Median 18

Mass. 42 Median 24

Immediately

Post

42

Median 20

6 Months Median 11

12 Months Median 9

Milwaukee 170 Median 14

Immediately

Post

170

Median 15

6 Months Median 10

12 Months Median 10
E-49 March 12, 1999

Table B-1. Continued 

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings

Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead

Loadings Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

HUD Grantees

Minnesota 105 Median 18

Immediately

Post

105

Median 18

6 Months Median 18

12 Months Median 18

Rhode Island 31 Median 26

Immediately

Post

31

Median 7

6 Months Median 6

12 Months Median 6

Vermont 43 Median 28

Immediately

Post

43

Median 17

6 Months Median 21

12 Months Median 21

Wisconsin 48 Median 9

Immediately

Post

48

Median 8

6 Months Median 6

12 Months Median 5

CAP study4

Unabated

homes 2 years 51

GM

(25th %ile)

(75th %ile)

15

(4.1)

(47)

Abated

homes 2 years 187

GM

25th %ile

75th %ile

21

(4.9)

(76)
E-50 March 12, 1999

Table B-1. Continued 

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Floor

Dust-Lead Loadings

Post-Intervention Floor Dust-Lead

Loadings Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Jersey City

(NJ) CLEARS

Dust

Intervention 42 GM 22 12 Months 40 GM 15

Paris Paint

Abatement

Study

Intervention

Group 24 Median 83.6

During

Intervention 24 Median +697

1-2 Months 24 Median -33.9

3-6 Months 24 Median -45.5

Rochester

Educational

Intervention

Study

Intervention

Group -

Uncarpeted

Floors

7 Months 80 Median

Absolute

Change

(IQ

Range)

-9.9

(-20,-2.3)

Intervention

Group -

Carpeted

Floors

7 Months 80 -6.9

(-10,-2.5)

1 GM = geometric mean. AM = arithmetic mean. CI = Confidence Interval.

2 Results (for geometric means and medians ONLY) are adjusted to reflect total dust-lead loadings by exponentiating the “bioavailable” dust-lead loadings as reported in the study to

the 1.1416 power.

3 Results for the Baltimore R&M Study are converted from BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

4 Results for the CAP study are converted from CAPS cyclone dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.
E-51 March 12, 1999

Table B-2. Summary of Window Sill Dust-Lead Loadings, Under Wipe Dust Sampling Techniques, at Pre- and

Post-Intervention

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Sill DustLead ResultsPost-Intervention Sill Dust-Lead

Results Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore

Experimental

Paint

Abatement

Studies2

Study 1

(6 homes) 34 GM

(95% CI)

15215

(9389,

24618)

Immediately

Post 35 GM

(95% CI)

737

(411,

1364)

6-9 Months 31 GM

(95% CI)

958

(526,

1681)

Study 2

(13 homes) 53 GM

(95% CI)

2784

(1322,

5891)

Immediately

Post 54 GM

(95% CI)

19

(9.8, 35)

1.5 - 3.5

Years 59 GM

(95% CI)

199

(119,

331)

Baltimore

Follow-up Paint

Abatement

Study2

6-Month

Follow-up

Immediately

Following

Clearance

27 GM

(95% CI)

50

(32, 81)

5-7

Months 27 GM

(95% CI)

71

(43, 119)

12-Month

Follow-up

Immediately

Following

Clearance

26 GM

(95% CI)

50

(31, 81)

10-14

Months 26 GM

(95% CI)

41

(49, 132)

19-Month

Follow-up

Immediately

Following

Clearance

19 GM

(95% CI)

50

(19, 52)

14-24

Months 19 GM(95% CI)

147

(66, 324)
E-52 March 12, 1999

Table B-2. Continued

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Sill DustLead ResultsPost-Intervention Sill Dust-Lead

Results Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore R&M

Study3

All Occupied

Units 90 GM 356.2

Immediately 37 GM 185.4

2 Months 37 GM 241.4

6 Months 66 GM 138.2

12 Months 66 GM 136.2

18 Months 64 GM 135.1

24 Months 62 GM 117.5

48 Months 7 GM 37.1

PreviouslyAbated Units 16 GM 163.5

2.5 - 4.5

Years 14 GM 107.4

3 - 5 Years 14 GM 116.0

3.5 - 5.5

Years 13 GM 89.1

4 - 6 Years 13 GM 97.6

Units Slated

for R&M

Intervention

58 GM 778.4

Immediately 37 GM 185.4

2 Months 37 GM 241.4

6 Months 37 GM 247.0

12 Months 37 GM 237.6

18 Months 37 GM 246.8

24 Months 35 GM 204.9
E-53 March 12, 1999

Table B-2. Continued

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Sill DustLead ResultsPost-Intervention Sill Dust-Lead

Results Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Baltimore R&M

Study3

Modern

Urban Units 16 GM 45.6

6 Months 15 GM 41.7

12 Months 15 GM 40.0

18 Months 14 GM 40.5

24 Months 14 GM 34.8

48 Months 7 GM 37.1

Baltimore

Traditional/

Modified Paint

Abatement

Study2

Traditional 249 GM

(95% CI)

3708

(2953,

4600)

Immediately

Post 246 GM

(95% CI)

11460

(8929,

14654)

6 Months 199 GM

(95% CI)

4360

(3356,

5674)

Modified 45 GM

(95% CI)

5209

(3765,

7246)

Immediately

Post 64 GM

(95% CI)

1496

(1058,

2114)

6 Months 66 GM

(95% CI)

4662

(3126,

6961)

Boston Interim

Dust

Intervention

Study2

Automatic

Intervention 10 GM 787 6 Months 10 GM 210

Randomized

Intervention 9 GM 205 6 Months 9 GM 110
E-54 March 12, 1999

Table B-2. Continued

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Sill DustLead ResultsPost-Intervention Sill Dust-Lead

Results Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

HUD Grantees

All Grantees 547 Median 258

Immediately

Post

547

Median 52 Immediately

Post

547

Median

Percent

Change

-80%

6 Months Median 97 6 Months -62%

12 Months Median 90 12 Months -65%

Baltimore 32 Median 1191

Immediately

Post

32

Median 49

6 Months Median 87

12 Months Median 68

Boston 29 Median 174

Immediately

Post

29

Median 53

6 Months Median 48

12 Months Median 49

Mass. 43 Median 328

Immediately

Post

43

Median 32

6 Months Median 77

12 Months Median 50

Milwaukee 166 Median 264

Immediately

Post

166

Median 84

6 Months Median 231

12 Months Median 217
E-55 March 12, 1999

Table B-2. Continued

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Sill DustLead ResultsPost-Intervention Sill Dust-Lead

Results Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

HUD Grantees

Minnesota 108 Median 266

Immediately

Post

108

Median 66

6 Months Median 86

12 Months Median 77

Rhode Island 31 Median 314

Immediately

Post

31

Median 18

6 Months Median 87

12 Months Median 85

Vermont 32 Median 147

Immediately

Post

32

Median 21

6 Months Median 60

12 Months Median 40

Wisconsin 45 Median 150

Immediately

Post

45

Median 22

6 Months Median 37

12 Months Median 51

CAP study4

Unabated

homes 2 years 38

GM

(25th %ile)

(75th %ile)

34

(7.1)

(163)

Abated

homes 2 years 78

GM

25th %ile

75th %ile

66

(11)

(339)
E-56 March 12, 1999

Table B-2. Continued

Name of Study

Group of

Housing

Units Within

the Study

Pre-Intervention Sill DustLead ResultsPost-Intervention Sill Dust-Lead

Results Difference from Pre-Intervention

N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Time

Following

Intervention N

Type of

Statistic1

Value of

Statistic

(μg/ft2)

Jersey City

(NJ) CLEARS

Dust

Intervention 39 GM 75 12 Months 36 GM 24

Rochester

Educational

Intervention

Study

Intervention

Group 7 Months 80

Median

Absolute

Change

(IQ

Range)

-58

(-154,-10)

1 GM = geometric mean. AM = arithmetic mean. CI = Confidence Interval.

2 Results (for geometric means and medians ONLY) are adjusted to reflect total dust-lead loadings by exponentiating the “bioavailable” dust-lead loadings as reported in the study to

the 1.1416 power.

3 Results for the Baltimore R&M Study are converted from BRM dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.

4 Results for the CAP study are converted from CAPS cyclone dust-lead loadings to wipe-equivalent loadings.
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1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE

 December 1998

3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

 Final Report

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

 Review of Studies Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness: Updated

Edition

5. FUNDING NUMBERS

 C: 68-D5-0008

6. AUTHOR(s)

 Nancy A. Niemuth, Brandon J. Wood, Jennifer R. Holdcraft, and

 David A. Burgoon

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(s) AND ADDRESS(ES)

 Battelle Memorial Institute

 505 King Avenue

 Columbus, Ohio 43201

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 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

 Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics

 401 M Street SW

 Washington, D.C. 20460

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 REPORT NUMBER

 EPA 747-B-98-001

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

 

 

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13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

 This report is a comprehensive review of the scientific literature regarding the effectiveness of lead hazard

intervention. This report updates the July 1995 report (EPA 747-R-95-006) of the same title and reproduces much of the

material in that report. There is a growing body of evidence that lead hazard interventions can reduce children’s bloodlead concentrations and dust-lead levels in homes. However, no single intervention strategy stands out as markedly

superior. Comparable reductions in blood-lead concentration were observed following lead hazard abatement, interim

control, and educational intervention strategies. In addition, seemingly similar approaches have been effective in some

populations, but not in others. Thus, it appears that other relevant factors should determine the strategy applied in a given

situation.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

 Lead Poisoning, Abatement, Effectiveness, Reviews

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